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The_Metamorphosis
The Metamorphosis () is a novella by Franz Kafka, first published in 1915. It is often cited as one of the seminal works of short fiction of the 20th century and is widely studied in colleges and universities across the western world. The story begins with a traveling salesman, Gregor Samsa, waking to find himself transformed into an insect (see Lost in translation, below). Gregor Samsa awakes one morning in his family's apartment to find himself inexplicably transformed overnight into a gigantic pest. Gregor does not immediately recoil from his insect form, but instead chooses to lament his job by saying, "How am I going to get to work?" and the general misery of the rainy weather outside. Indeed, the narrative establishes the poor conditions as the cause of his bed-ridden state. Gregor works as a traveling salesman, and, as it is usual for traveling salesmen to move constantly from place to place, he is accustomed to waking up in unfamiliar surroundings and various circumstances. The true reality of his metamorphosis is complete when he sees his many legs waving in the air. But from then on he resists any conscious recognition regarding his change or the fact that a change indeed happened—everything but the recognition of his separation from the others. The problem Gregor has at the beginning of the story is that his family and a messenger from his boss are knocking at the door, concerned for him, and he's unable to flip off his back onto the floor. The weight on Gregor’s life is that he is the financial head of the household; nobody else apparently works in his family (or is able to work); their whole present and comfortable existence relies upon Gregor’s employment at the "firm." Most of the weight is the debt which his father owes to the employer for whom Gregor now works. Gregor becomes progressively unable to communicate with his family, and even before his physical appearance is revealed to them, his voice becomes completely unintelligible. He retains his cognitive faculties, though his family remains unaware of this. Curiously, his condition does not arouse a sense of surprise or incredulity in the eyes of his family, who merely despise it as an indication of their impending burden. However, most of the story revolves around his interactions with his family, with whom he lives, and their shock, denial, and repulsion whenever they are confronted with his physical condition. Horrified by his appearance, they take to shutting Gregor into his room, but Grete, his sister, tries to care for him by providing him with food and water. In his new form, he rejects his erstwhile favourite food (milk and bread), preferring stale, rotten food, but later loses his appetite completely. He also develops the fears of an insect, being effectively shooed away by hissing voices and stamping feet. Because of the effect that his appearance has on the rest of the family, Gregor decides to hide underneath a sofa when somebody has to come into his room, later going to the extent of draping a sheet over it to hide more effectively. Because Gregor can't provide financially any more, the other family members get jobs: Gregor's father comes out of retirement to work at a bank, his mother sews fine underwear for a fashion house and his sister works in a shop and gets a position on a secretarial course. One day, when Gregor emerges from his room, his father chases him around the dining room table and pelts him with apples. One of the apples becomes embedded in his back, causing an infection. While he is confined to his room, Gregor's only activities are looking out of his window and crawling up the walls and on the ceiling. Financial hardship befalls the family, and Grete's caretaking deteriorates. Over the course of the story, Gregor’s vision grows dimmer, and his physical size shrinks: where he is initially about the size of a human, and can't get through a single door without trouble, he later becomes small enough to crawl up the wall and sit over a picture frame. Due to his infection and his hunger, he is soon barely able to move at all, though. Later, his parents take in lodgers to supplement their income, and his room gets used as a dumping area for unwanted objects, and is seldom cleaned. Gregor becomes dirty himself, covered in dust and old bits of rotten food. Although he imprisons himself within his room voluntarily at first, his family later become the jailers, locking Gregor in from the outside, partly to hide him from their new lodgers. Devoid of human contact, Gregor alternates between concern for his family and anger at them for neglecting him. One day the door is left open, and Gregor's sister plays the violin to entertain the lodgers. Gregor is attracted to the music, and slowly walks into the dining room despite himself, entertaining a fantasy of getting his much-loved sister to join him in his room and play her violin for him. He imagines telling Grete of his plans to send her to the conservatory to study the violin. The lodgers see him and give notice, refusing to pay the rent they owe, even threatening to sue the family for harbouring him while they stayed there. Even Grete's rejection of Gregor is total when she says to the family, "We must try to get rid of it. We've done everything humanly possible to take care of it and to put up with it, no one can reproach us in the slightest." The sister then determines with finality that the insect is no longer Gregor, since Gregor would have left them out of love and taken their burden away. Gregor returns to his room and collapses, finally succumbing to his wound and to his self-induced starvation. The point of view shifts as, upon discovery of his corpse, the family feels an enormous burden has been lifted from them, and start planning for the future again. The family discovers that they aren't doing financially badly at all, especially since, following Gregor's demise, they can take a smaller flat. The brief process of forgetting Gregor and shutting him from their lives is quickly completed. The final sentence echoes the first: while the opening lines document Gregor's physical metamorphosis, the novella ends with mention that Grete too has changed, having become a "good looking, shapely" girl who will soon be old enough to marry. Characters Gregor Samsa Gregor is the main character of the story. He works hard as a travelling salesman to provide for his sister and parents. He wakes up one morning as a giant insect. Grete Samsa Grete is Gregor's younger sister, who becomes his caretaker after the metamorphosis. At the beginning Grete and Gregor have a strong relationship but this relationship fades with time. While Grete originally volunteers to feed him and clean his room, throughout the story she grows more and more impatient with the task to the point of deliberately leaving messes in his room out of spite. She plays the violin and dreams of going to the conservatory, a dream that Gregor was going to make come true. He was going to announce this on Christmas Eve. To help provide an income for the family after Gregor's transformation she starts working as a salesgirl in a shop. She seems more sympathetic at the beginning but with the passage of time her feelings fade away. Herr Samsa Gregor's father owes a large debt to Gregor's boss, which is why Gregor can't quit his hated job. He is lazy and elderly while Gregor works, but when, after the metamorphosis, Gregor is unable to provide for the family, he is shown to be an able-bodied worker. Tenants Three tenants are invited to live with the Samsas to supplement their income. They are fussy and cannot stand dirtiness, eventually leading to the point when they discover Gregor and threaten the family with a lawsuit, apparently believing he's just an extraordinarily large insect. Lost in translation The opening sentence of the novella is famous in English: As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a gigantic vermin. Als Gregor Samsa eines Morgens aus unruhigen Träumen erwachte, fand er sich in seinem Bett zu einem ungeheueren Ungeziefer verwandelt. Kafka's sentences often deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—that being the finalizing meaning and focus. This is achieved due to the construction of certain sentences in German that require that the verb be positioned at the end of the sentence; in the above sentence, the equivalent of 'transformed' is the final word, 'verwandelt'. Such constructions are not replicable in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same effect found in the original text. Kafka, Franz (1996). The Metamorphosis and Other Stories, trans. Donna Freed. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 1-56619-969-7. (p. xi). English translators have often sought to render the word Ungeziefer as "insect", but this is not strictly accurate. In Middle German, Ungeziefer literally means "unclean animal not suitable for sacrifice" ungeziefer : Dictionary / Wörterbuch (BEOLINGUS, TU Chemnitz) and is sometimes used colloquially to mean "bug" – a very general term, unlike the scientific sounding "insect". Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor as any specific thing, but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation. Literally, the end of the line should be translated as "transformed in his bed into a monstrous vermin." This is the phrasing used in the David Wyllie translation Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka - Project Gutenberg and Joachim Neugroschel. ISBN 0684194260 However, "a monstrous vermin" sounds unwieldy in English and in Kafka's letter to his publisher of 25 October 1915, in which he discusses his concern about the cover illustration for the first edition, he uses the term "Insekt", saying "The insect itself is not to be drawn. It is not even to be seen from a distance." Briefe und Tagebücher 1915 (Franz Kafka) - ELibraryAustria While this shows his concern not to give precise information about the type of creature Gregor becomes, the use of the general term "insect" can therefore be defended on the part of translators wishing to improve the readability of the end text. Ungeziefer has sometimes been translated as "cockroach", "dung beetle", "beetle", and other highly specific terms. The term "dung beetle" or Mistkäfer is in fact used in the novella by the cleaning lady near the end of the story, but it is not used in the narration. Ungeziefer also denotes a sense of separation between him and his environment: he is unclean and must therefore be excluded. Vladimir Nabokov, who was a lepidopterist as well as writer and literary critic, insisted that Gregor was not a cockroach, but a beetle with wings under his shell, and capable of flight - if only he had known it. Nabokov left a sketch annotated "just over three feet long" on the opening page of his (heavily corrected) English teaching copy. Metamorphosis In his accompanying lecture notes, Nabokov discusses the type of vermin Gregor has been transformed into, concluding that Gregor "is not, technically, a dung beetle. He is merely a big beetle. (I must add that neither Gregor nor Kafka saw that beetle any too clearly.)" Adaptations to other media There are several film versions, including: The Metamorphosis of Franz Kafka (1993) by Carlos Atanes, at YouTube. Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis acoustical liberation from librivox. A Metamorfose (2007) at the Internet Movie Database Metamorphosis / Atvaltozas (2009) by Sandor Kardos. A stage adaptation was performed by Steven Berkoff in 1969. Another stage adaptation was performed in 2006 by the Icelandic company Vesturport, showing at the Lyric Hammersmith, London. That adaptation is set to be performed in the Icelandic theater fall of 2008. Þjóðleikhúsið - Hamskiptin Metamorphosis | | Guardian Unlimited Arts Another stage adaptation was performed in Dhaka, Bangladesh in 2005 by the Centre for Asian Theatre. Productions - The Metamorphosis - Centre for Asian Theatre That performance is still continuing in Bangladesh. The Lyric Theatre Company is toured the UK in 2006 with its stage adaptation of Metamorphosis, accompanied by a unique soundtrack performed by Nick Cave and Warren Ellis. American comic artist Peter Kuper illustrated a graphic-novel version, first published by the Crown Publishing Group in 2003. Franz Kafka's THE METAMORPHOSIS adapted by Peter Kuper Megan Rees is currently working on a new stage adaptation and should be published by 2010. Allusions/references from other works Stage Philip Glass composed incidental music for two separate theater productions of the story. These two themes, along with two themes from the Errol Morris film The Thin Blue Line, were incorporated into a five-part piece of music for solo piano entitled Metamorphosis. "Metamorphosis" the play written and directed by David Farr and Gisli Õrn Gardasson, was recently produced at the Lyric Hammersmith in London. It featured death defying acrobatics and aerial dance by the character of Gregor, who literally crawled across the ceiling. It also features a score composed by musicians Nick Cave and Warren Ellis. Film The 2009 film The Reader features Ralph Fiennes reading from Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" to a woman who is illiterate In 2007 filmmaker Ari Mark adapted the story into a 13 minute version in which main character Stanley Leiber (played by actor Hal Peller) awakens with a sharp pain in his skull and discovers that he has been profoundly transformed during the night In 2002 a Russian version was directed by Valeri Fokin: Prevrashchenie. In 1995, the actor Peter Capaldi won an Oscar for his short-film Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life. The plot of the film has the author (played by Richard E. Grant) trying to write the opening line of Metamorphosis and experimenting with various things that Gregor might turn into, such as a banana or a kangaroo. The film is also notable for a number of Kafkaesque moments. Mark Damon's Foresight Unlimited has boarded the $9m Franz Kafka adaptation Metamorphosis starring Daniel Brühl (playing Franz Kafka), Anna Paquin and Stephen Rea. Limor Diamant wrote and will direct Metamorphosis, which weaves together the celebrated tale of a man who transforms into a giant bug with a parallel account of Kafka's heartbreaking writing process. Ram Bergman is producing. In 1987 Jim Goddard filmed Metamorphosis, a version for TV starring Tim Roth as Gregor Samsa, based on Steve Berkoff's stage adaption. In 1968's "The Producers", Bialystock and Bloom are reviewing plays, looking for their 'sure fire flop.' Bialystock opens a folder and reads, " 'Gregor Samsa awoke one morning to find he had been turned into a giant cockaroach'(sic) Too good!" Animation The dialogue-driven cartoon Home Movies did a tribute to "The Metamorphosis" in "Director's Cut", an episode in the first season of the show. The characters performed a rock opera style retelling of the short story. In The Venture Bros. episode "Mid-Life Chrysalis", Dr. Venture's transformation into a caterpillar slightly mirrors that of Gregor Samsa's transformation. Quote: "Gentlemen, what you are about to see is a nightmare inexplicably torn from the pages of Kafka!" A reference appears in the 2006 Aardman Animation feature film Flushed Away when a refrigerator falls through the floor of the protagonist Rita's home and a giant cockroach appears reading a copy of The Metamorphosis. In the short-lived tv animated series Extreme Ghostbusters http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_Ghostbusters , season 1, episode 11 (The Crawler), the bug monster (that resembles a giant insect) calls himself Gregor Samsa when trying to seduce Janine to be his queen in his human form. Jack Feldstein created a tribute to Gregor Samsa and Metamorphosis in his stream-of-consciousness neon animation "Shmetamorphosis" about a bug who hysterically bursts into therapist Bertold Krasenstein's office, begging to be saved. Comics Notorious American cartoonist Robert Crumb drew an illustrated adaptation of the novella which appears in the book Introducing Kafka. In the comic book Johnny the Homicidal Maniac by Jhonen Vasquez, the eponymous Johnny is plagued by a roach that keeps appearing in his house no matter how many times he kills it (whether or not this roach is immortal or simply many different roaches is up to interpretation) and is affectionately named "Mr. Samsa". In The Simpsons book Treehouse of Horror Spook-tacular, Matt Groening did a spoof on the metamorphosis, entitling it Metamorphosimpsons. In addition, in one of the episodes, Lisa attends a place called "Cafe Kafka", which is shown to be a popular place for college students, and features several posters of cockroaches in Bohemian-like poses. Pete Kuper (illustrator of Spy vs. Spy, The System, Kafka's Give It Up!) also adapted Kafka's Metamorphosis, published by Three Rivers Press. Television In the TV series, My So-Called Life, an episode called "The Zit" uses The Metamorphosis. The characters are studying the story in English class and at the same time going through adolescent body/beauty angst. The story is referred to a few times during the episode and then finally explained by Brian to Jordan at the end (because Jordan hasn't done the reading and has to take a test). Music Gregor Samsa is the name of an American post-rock band. The Rolling Stones' 1975 album Metamorphosis features cover art of the band members with insect heads. The Houston rock band, Edge wrote a song based on the Franz Kafka's story "The Metamorphosis", eventually leading to the title of their 4th full length album entitled "Venus in Furs", the painting that hangs on Gregor's wall. Showbread (band) has a song named "Sampsa Meets Kafka". The misspelling of Samsa is on purpose. Josh Dies the lead singer also lists Kafka as one of his biggest influences. Video Games Bad Mojo is a 1996 computer game, the storyline of which is loosely based on Metamorphosis. References External links Full text of Die Verwandlung and other works of Franz Kafka at Zeno.org (German) E-text of original German at DigBib.org (text, pdf, HTML) English translation by Ian Johnston — David Wyllie's English translation E-text of a Spanish translation (translator not identified) Lecture on The Metamorphosis by Vladimir Nabokov Existential Primer Lesson on the difficulties of translating the story into English
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7,101
Chinese_checkers
Chinese Checkers is a board game that can be played by two to six people. It is a variant of Halma; the objective of the game is to place one's pieces in the corner opposite their starting position of a pitted hexagram by single moves or jumps over other pieces. Essentials The Chinese Checkers board has 121 indentations arranged to form a six-pointed star much like a regular hexagram, with ten such spots within each triangular star-point of the hexagram, and 61 within its hexagon. The game pieces are usually six sets of colored pieces (typically marbles), ten of each color. Each set of ten pieces begins placed in the spots of one of the star-points. Bernardo Johns, Stephanie; The Ethnic Almanac. Doubleday Publishing (1981). ISBN 0385141432 Play rotates amongst contestants in fixed order, each player making one move before the next player. A piece moves either to an adjacent spot or, by a “jump” over another piece, to a spot two places removed. The objective of the game is to place one's pieces in the opposite corner. History Despite being called “Chinese Checkers”, this game does not originate from China or any part of Asia. Chinese Checkers is also not a variation of checkers. The game itself was invented in Germany in 1893 under the name “Stern-Halma”, as a variation on the older American game of Halma. The “Stern” (German for star) refers to the star-shape of the board (in contrast with the square board of Halma). The name “Chinese checkers” originated in the United States, as a marketing scheme by Bill and Jack Pressman in 1928. The Pressman company's game was originally called "Hop Ching Checkers". (The game was mostly introduced to Chinese-speaking regions by the Japanese.) Hop across Standard jumps can have multiple hops, but each hop must be directly adjacent. The aim of the game is simply to enter all of one's ten marbles into the opposite "Home base" (star point) on the opposite side of the board before any other player in the game finishes entering his/her pieces likewise. In the "hop across", most popular variation, each player puts his or her own colored marbles on one of the six points or corners of the star and attempts to relocate them all to the opposite corner. Players take turns moving one marble, either by moving it one single adjacent step or moving a chain of one or any other number of available hops or 'jumps', as they are often called. A step consists of moving a marble to an adjacent unoccupied space in any of the six available directions. In the diagram at right, Green might move the topmost marble diagonally one space down and to the left. A hop consists of jumping directly over a single adjacent marble, either one's own or an opponent's, to the unoccupied space directly over and beyond the adjacent marble. In the diagram at right, Red might advance the indicated marble by a chain of three hops in one single move. It is not mandatory to advance the marble by as many hops as is possible in the chain. In some instances a player may choose to stop the move part way through the chain to impede the opponent's progress or to align their marbles for planned future moves. Essentially, the basic strategy is to find the longest hopping path that leads closest to, or immediately into, the "home" base (star point) on the opposite side of the board instead of moving step by step, as it obviously requires fewer moves to finish when using multiple jumps in one single move. However, since one or more players can make use of whatever hopping 'ladders' an opponent creates, more advanced strategy requires a player hindering opposing players in addition to helping himself or herself find jumps across the board. Of equal importance are the players' strategies for emptying and filling their origin and destination triangles. Games between experts are rarely decided by more than a couple of moves. In the fast-paced variant, which is played mainly in Hong Kong, game pieces may hop over non-adjacent pieces. A hop consists of jumping over a distant marble to a symmetrical position on the opposite side. For example, if there are two empty spaces between the moving marble and the marble over which it is hopping, it lands on the opposite side with a gap of two empty spaces. As before, a single move may be a chain of hops, as shown in the diagram at left. Usually, in the fast paced version, a marble is allowed to enter into an empty corner in the middle of a series of hops but must hop out again before the move is over. Jumping over two marbles in a single hop is not allowed. Therefore, in this variant even more than in the original version, it is sometimes strategically important to keep one's marbles bunched in order to prevent a long opposing hop. An alternate variant allows hops over any symmetrical arrangement, including pairs of pieces, pieces separated by spaces, etc. In a five player game, the situation mimics the six player game except that one player moves toward the unoccupied corner. Because this player is in an advantageous position, usually a weaker player (e.g. a younger child) would take that position. The four player game is same as the six player game except two opposite corners are unused. In a three player game, all players play either one or two sets of marbles each. If one set is used, the game pieces are moved across the field into an empty corner. If two sets are used, each player starts with two color sets at opposite corners. A typical game board. In a two player game, each player plays one, two or three sets of marbles. If one set is played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's corner. If two sets are played, the pieces can either go into the player's own opposite corners or into the opponent's corner. If three sets are played, the pieces usually go to the opponent's corners. Each layout takes different game strategy. For example, if a player's pieces go to that player's own corner, the player can arrange his or her own pieces to serve as bridges between the two opposite ends. On the contrary, if a player's opponent occupies that player's target corner, the player might have to play a waiting game until all of the pieces are moved out. Capture In the "capture" variation all sixty game pieces are put in the hexagonal field in the center of the game board. The one hole in the center of the board is left unoccupied so that the game board starts out with a symmetrical hexagonal pattern. The players take turns hopping any game pieces over other game pieces on the board; the hopped over pieces are captured (retired from the game, as in the traditional American incarnation of Checkers) and collected in the player's bin. At the end of the game, the player with the most captured pieces is the winner. The board is tightly packed at the start of the game; as more pieces are captured, the board frees up and multiple captures can often take place in one move. In this game, two or more players can participate. There is no upper limit to the number of players in this game, but if there are more than six players, not everyone will get a fair turn. The fast-paced version of this game allows the game pieces to catapult over multiple empty spots (just as described in hop-across above). The original version only allows small hops like in checkers. Notes External links Chinese Checkers Strategy at Wikibooks Chinese Checkers Guide at LearnPlayWin History of Halma and Chinese Checkers Chinese checkers is played at Thinks.com Chinese Checkers is played at Yahoo! Games Multiplayer Chinese Checkers is played at Vinigames
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7,102
Bradycardia
Bradycardia (Greek βραδυκαρδία, bradykardía, "heart slowness"), as applied to adult medicine, is defined as a resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute, though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min. Sinus Bradycardia eMedicine Bradycardia at Mount Sinai Hospital Trained athletes or young healthy individuals may also have a slow resting heart rate. Resting bradycardia is often considered normal if the individual has no other symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, dizziness, lightheadedness, fainting, chest discomfort, palpitations or shortness of breath associated with it. The term relative bradycardia is used to explain a heart rate that, while not technically below 60 beats per minute, is considered too slow for the individual's current medical condition. Infantile bradycardia For infants, bradycardia is defined as when the baby's heart rate slows down to less than 100 beats per minute (normal is around 120-160 beats per minute). Premature babies have apnea and bradycardia spells more often than full-term babies, It's not clearly understood what causes these spells. Some researchers think the spells are related to centers inside the brain that regulate breathing and that may not be fully developed. Touching the baby gently or rocking the incubator slightly will almost always get the baby to start breathing again, which increases the heart rate. Medications (theophylline or caffeine) can be used to treat these spells in babies if necessary. NICU standard practice is to electronically monitor the heart and lungs for this reason. Causes This cardiac arrhythmia can be underlain by several causes, which are best divided into cardiac and non-cardiac causes. Non-cardiac causes are usually secondary, and can involve drug use or abuse; metabolic or endocrine issues, especially in the thyroid; an electrolyte imbalance; neurologic factors; autonomic reflexes; situational factors such as prolonged bed rest; and autoimmunity. Cardiac causes include acute or chronic ischemic heart disease, vascular heart disease, valvular heart disease, or degenerative primary electrical disease. Ultimately, the causes act by three mechanisms: depressed automaticity of the heart, conduction block, or escape pacemakers and rhythms. There are generally two types of problems that result in bradycardias: disorders of the sinoatrial node (SA node), and disorders of the atrioventricular node (AV node). With sinus node dysfunction (sometimes called sick sinus syndrome), there may be disordered automaticity or impaired conduction of the impulse from the sinus node into the surrounding atrial tissue (an "exit block"). It is difficult and sometimes impossible to assign a mechanism to any particular bradycardia, but the underlying mechanism is not clinically relevant to treatment, which is the same in both cases of sick sinus syndrome: a permanent pacemaker. Atrioventricular conduction disturbances (aka: AV block; 1o AV block, 2o type I AV block, 2o type II AV block, 3o AV block) may result from impaired conduction in the AV node, or anywhere below it, such as in the bundle of HIS. Patients with bradycardia have likely acquired it, as opposed to having it congenitally. Bradycardia is more common in older patients. Management There are 2 main reasons for treating any cardiac arrhythmias. With bradycardia, the first is to address the associated symptoms, such as fatigue, limitations on how much a person can physically exert, fainting (syncope), dizziness or lightheadedness, or other vague and non-specific symptoms. The other reason to treat bradycardia is if the person's ultimate outcome (prognosis) will be changed or impacted by the bradycardia. Treatment depends on whether any symptoms are present, and what the underlying cause is. Treatment Drug treatment is not needed if the patient is asymptomatic. In symptomatic patients, draw a Chem 12 and arterial blood gas to assess electrolytes and blood gases. An atropine IV may provide temporary improvement in symptomatic patients. For symptomatic patients: Atropine 0.5–1 mg IV or ET q3-5min [maximum dose is 3 mg total] (0.04 mg/kg) Image:Lead II rhythm generated sinus bradycardia.JPG See also Reflex bradycardia Sinus bradycardia Tachycardia Hypotension References
Bradycardia |@lemmatized bradycardia:18 greek:1 βραδυκαρδία:1 bradykardía:1 heart:11 slowness:1 apply:1 adult:1 medicine:1 define:2 rest:4 rate:6 beat:5 per:4 minute:4 though:1 seldom:1 symptomatic:4 drop:1 min:1 sinus:7 emedicine:1 mount:1 sinai:1 hospital:1 train:1 athlete:1 young:1 healthy:1 individual:3 may:5 also:2 slow:3 often:2 consider:2 normal:2 symptom:4 fatigue:2 weakness:1 dizziness:2 lightheadedness:2 fainting:1 chest:1 discomfort:1 palpitation:1 shortness:1 breath:1 associate:1 term:2 relative:1 use:3 explain:1 technically:1 current:1 medical:1 condition:1 infantile:1 infant:1 baby:6 less:1 around:1 premature:1 apnea:1 spell:4 full:1 clearly:1 understood:1 cause:8 researcher:1 think:1 relate:1 center:1 inside:1 brain:1 regulate:1 breathing:1 fully:1 develop:1 touch:1 gently:1 rock:1 incubator:1 slightly:1 almost:1 always:1 get:1 start:1 breathe:1 increase:1 medication:1 theophylline:1 caffeine:1 treat:3 necessary:1 nicu:1 standard:1 practice:1 electronically:1 monitor:1 lung:1 reason:3 cardiac:6 arrhythmia:2 underlie:1 several:1 best:1 divide:1 non:3 usually:1 secondary:1 involve:1 drug:2 abuse:1 metabolic:1 endocrine:1 issue:1 especially:1 thyroid:1 electrolyte:2 imbalance:1 neurologic:1 factor:2 autonomic:1 reflex:2 situational:1 prolonged:1 bed:1 autoimmunity:1 include:1 acute:1 chronic:1 ischemic:1 disease:4 vascular:1 valvular:1 degenerative:1 primary:1 electrical:1 ultimately:1 act:1 three:1 mechanism:3 depressed:1 automaticity:2 conduction:4 block:7 escape:1 pacemaker:2 rhythm:2 generally:1 two:1 type:3 problem:1 result:2 disorder:3 sinoatrial:1 node:7 sa:1 atrioventricular:2 av:7 dysfunction:1 sometimes:2 call:1 sick:2 syndrome:2 impaired:2 impulse:1 surround:1 atrial:1 tissue:1 exit:1 difficult:1 impossible:1 assign:1 particular:1 underlying:2 clinically:1 relevant:1 treatment:4 case:1 permanent:1 disturbance:1 aka:1 ii:2 anywhere:1 bundle:1 patient:6 likely:1 acquire:1 oppose:1 congenitally:1 common:1 old:1 management:1 main:1 first:1 address:1 associated:1 limitation:1 much:1 person:2 physically:1 exert:1 faint:1 syncope:1 vague:1 specific:1 ultimate:1 outcome:1 prognosis:1 change:1 impact:1 depend:1 whether:1 present:1 need:1 asymptomatic:1 draw:1 chem:1 arterial:1 blood:2 gas:2 assess:1 atropine:2 iv:2 provide:1 temporary:1 improvement:1 mg:3 et:1 maximum:1 dose:1 total:1 kg:1 image:1 lead:1 generate:1 jpg:1 see:1 tachycardia:1 hypotension:1 reference:1 |@bigram mount_sinai:1 shortness_breath:1 premature_baby:1 cardiac_arrhythmia:2 acute_chronic:1 arterial_blood:1 dose_mg:1 mg_kg:1
7,103
Gary_Coleman
Gary Wayne Coleman (born February 8, 1968) is an American actor, best known for his role as Arnold Jackson in the American sitcom Diff'rent Strokes (1978–1986). He currently works as the Secretary Controller for Simmons Media Group in Salt Lake City, Utah. Personal life Coleman was born in Zion, Illinois. He was adopted by Edmonia Sue, a nurse practitioner, and W.G. Coleman, a fork-lift operator. http://www.filmreference.com/film/21/Gary-Coleman.html He suffers from a congenital kidney disease causing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (an autoimmune destruction and alteration of the kidney), which halted his growth at an early age, leading to a small stature (4 ft 8 in; 1.42 m). He has undergone two kidney transplants, one in 1973 and one in 1984, and requires daily dialysis. Coleman secretly wed his girlfriend of five months, Shannon Price, 22, on August 28, 2007. They met on the set of the 2006 comedy film Church Ball. On May 1 and May 2, 2008, Coleman and his wife appeared on the show Divorce Court to air their differences in front of Judge Lynn Toler. Uncharacteristically for Divorce Court participants, they appeared on the show with the intent to save their marriage rather than adjudicate a separation. Media appearances While best known for his role on Diff'rent Strokes, he had appeared earlier on The Jeffersons, and on Good Times as Penny's smart-lipped friend Gary. Coleman also plays baseball. On August 1 2008, Gary was featured on SportsCenter top ten plays. While playing for the Madison Mallards, Coleman was ejected from the game for unfair play. Diff'rent Strokes Coleman was cast in the role of Arnold Jackson on Diff'rent Strokes, portraying a child adopted by a wealthy widower. The show was broadcast from 1978 to 1986, and was a quick success. Coleman became the most popular fixture of the show (enhanced by his character's catchphrase "whatchoo talkin' 'bout, Willis?") and at the height of his fame on Diff'rent Strokes, he earned as much as $100,000 per episode. However it is estimated he only received a quarter of that after paying his parents, advisers, lawyers, and taxes. He later successfully sued his parents and his ex-advisers for misappropriation of his finances (see below). Later character appearances Coleman became a popular figure, starring in a number of feature films and made-for-TV movies including On the Right Track and The Kid with the Broken Halo. The latter eventually served as the basis for the Hanna-Barbera-produced animated series The Gary Coleman Show from 1982. In 1979, Coleman appeared in two episodes of Buck Rogers in the 25th Century playing Hieronymous Fox, a child genius. In 1990, Coleman appeared on an episode of 227 playing a vicious mob boss (Season 5, Episode 17, "Knock It Off") In 1994, Coleman appeared in an episode of Married... with Children, playing a building code inspector whom Al Bundy called to report an illegal driveway. (Season 8, Episode 16, "How Green Was My Apple") In 1995, Coleman was featured as the character "Mad Dog No Good" on the television show Martin, in which he played an ex-convict whom Martin helped to imprison. Once released, Mad Dog No Good comes looking for Martin. (Episode 74, "High Noon") In 1996, Coleman played Arnold Jackson on the final episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. He and Conrad Bain (as Mr. Drummond) were looking to buy the mansion from the Banks family. In 1997, Coleman did voice work for The Curse of Monkey Island, the third installment in the Monkey Island series of comedy adventure games developed by LucasArts, as Kenny Falmouth, the lemon juice boy. In 1999, Coleman played himself in an episode of The Simpsons titled "Grift of the Magi"; he also appeared in "Day of the Jackanapes" (Episode 235). Coleman also played himself in the 2001 Scooby-Doo parody, Night of the Living Doo, produced by the Cartoon Network. In 2001, Coleman was employed as a shopping mall security guard in the Los Angeles area. A surveillance video of Coleman trying to stop a vehicle from entering the mall while the driver ridiculed him was broadcast on numerous television shows. Coleman played a supporting role in the controversial 2003 computer game Postal² by Running With Scissors, Inc. Coleman, who played himself, appeared at a shopping mall, and one of the game's objectives was to secure his autograph. Coleman's role was almost certainly based on a 1998 incident in which Coleman punched a fan who sought his autograph while he was at a shopping mall. Upon the player securing his autograph, police storm the mall to arrest him for an unknown crime, which leads to a violent shootout. Coleman was also featured prominently in the 2005 expansion pack to Postal², Apocalypse Weekend. Coleman was featured in the 2004 season of The Surreal Life. He managed the restaurant at which the other cast members worked. Gary Coleman had a brief appearance on Family Guy in the episode Brian Goes Back to College. He had replaced Stewie since he owed him a favor. Coleman has also appeared in a clip of Robot Chicken. During 2006 and 2007, Coleman appeared in commercials for a cash-advance loan company called CashCall. He ends the commercial by saying, "Pay your bills on time and everyone will love you." He even remarks in one commercial that "no one would lend [him] money, not even [his] relatives." and "What'choo talkin' 'bout CashCall?" in another. Appearances as himself Coleman played himself in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) superstar John Cena's music video for "Bad Bad Man", this wasn't the first time he has appeared with a wrestler. At WCW Fall Brawl 2000 he took a guitar shot from Jeff Jarrett. Coleman was also featured in Kid Rock's video for "Cowboy", in which, appropriately garbed, he took on Rock's diminutive sidekick, Joe C.. Coleman also made an appearance in the Slum Village music video for "Climax". Coleman made an appearance on E!'s short-lived celebrity dating show Star Dates, in which former celebrities went on blind dates with regular people. Other former celebrities who appeared on the show included Jimmie Walker (Good Times), Butch Patrick (The Munsters), Kim Fields (The Facts of Life) and Susan Olsen (The Brady Bunch). Coleman also appeared in the Nickelodeon sitcom Drake & Josh. The two main characters were selling a product called the "Gary Coleman Grill" (a parody of the George Foreman Grill). At the end of the show, Coleman appears as himself. Coleman made a cameo appearance in one episode of Disney's sitcom The Suite Life of Zack and Cody. Coleman made an appearance as himself in the TV show "My Wife and Kids", which Damon Wayans starred in. He was one of Kady's boyfriends when Michael Kyle (Wayans) was dreaming about what boys she would bring home. He said sarcastically 'Gary Coleman' and in the dream Kady brings Gary Coleman home. Coleman appeared in two episodes of "The Wayans Bros." as the celebrity spokesperson for "Goop Hair It Is" and as a delivery man. In June 2005, VH-1 named Coleman No. 1 on its list of the Top 100 Child Stars Ever. He appeared on the game show Russian Roulette for the benefit of a railroad society. In An American Carol, he played himself in an alternate reality, where he worked as a slave on an Alabama plantation. In 2009, he also appeared in an episode of Nitro Circus. Avenue Q Gary Coleman is parodied in the hit 2003 Broadway musical, Avenue Q, which won the 2004 Tony Award for best musical. A character presented as Coleman works as the superintendent of the apartment complex where the musical takes place. In the song, "It Sucks to be Me", he laments his fate. In the Broadway musical, he states: <blockquote>I'm Gary Coleman from TV's Diff'rent Strokes I made a lot of money that got stolen by my folks Now I'm broke, and I'm the butt of everyone's jokes But I'm here - The superintendent! - On Avenue Q!</blockquote> In the London production, his lyrics are: <blockquote>I was the cutest little Black kid on TV I made a zillion dollars that my parents stole from me My life was over when I hit puberty But I'm here - Fixing the toilets! - On Avenue Q!</blockquote> In both versions, the character continues: <blockquote>Try having people stopping you to ask you "What'chu talkin' 'bout, Willis?" It... gets ... old!!</blockquote> On Broadway, the role was originally played by Natalie Venetia Belcon. In 2005 Coleman announced his intention to sue the producers of Avenue Q for their depiction of him, although the lawsuit has not materialized. At the 2007 New York Comic Con, Coleman said, "I wish there was a lawyer on Earth that would sue them for me." YouTube - Gary Coleman - New York Comic Con 2007 - TheActionRoom.com Legal struggles Financial matters In 1989, Coleman sued his parents and former manager over misappropriation of his $3.8 million trust fund. Former Child Star Central He won a $1,280,000 ruling on February 23, 1993. "Actor Gary Coleman wins $1.3 million in suit against his parents and ex-adviser", Jet, March 15, 1993. Coleman later filed for bankruptcy in 1999; he attributed his financial problems to mismanagement of his trust. "Former Child Star Gary Coleman Files For Bankruptcy", Jet, September 6, 1999. Assault Coleman was charged with assault in 1998 after he punched a woman. Coleman had been working as a security guard, and bus driver Tracy Fields requested his autograph while he was shopping for a bulletproof vest in a California mall. The two argued about the autograph, wherein Fields mocked Coleman's lackluster career as an adult actor. Coleman testified that "I was getting scared, and she was getting ugly"; he said that he thought Fields was going to hit him, so he punched her. Coleman pleaded no contest and received a suspended sentence. He was also ordered to pay Fields $1,665 for hospital bills resulting from the fight. "Coleman pleads no contest to disturbing the peace and receives 90-day suspended sentence", Court TV Online, February 4, 1999. The incident was later parodied on Chappelle's Show. Citation for disorderly conduct On July 26, 2007, Coleman was cited for misdemeanor disorderly conduct by a Provo, Utah, police officer after he was seen having a "heated discussion" with his wife, Shannon Price. "Diff'rent Strokes' star Coleman cited for disorderly conduct in Utah County", Fox News, July 31, 2007. "Gary Coleman reveals Secret Marriage", Inside Edition, February 12, 2008. Divorce Court Coleman and his wife, Shannon Price, appeared on TV's Divorce Court on May 1 and May 2, 2008, due to marital difficulties. Automobile accident Coleman was involved in an automobile accident in Payson, Utah on September 6, 2008. According to Payson police, Coleman was backing up his truck in a Payson bowling alley parking lot when he allegedly hit 24-year-old Colt Rushton. According to a witness, the tire of Coleman's truck hit Rushton's knee and pulled him under the truck. Coleman's vehicle then hit another car. Rushton was transported to a local hospital where he was treated and released with minor injuries. Police said Coleman's driving speed was not excessive. Witnesses told police the incident stemmed from an argument that started in the bowling alley, after Rushton photographed Coleman. Coleman objected to Rushton taking his picture and the two men started arguing, according to witnesses. There was no citation or arrest for either man. Police said neither man would make a statement at the scene. "Man run over by former child star in Payson", KSL-TV, September 6, 2008. "Payson police say no one's talking in Coleman incident ", Deseret News, September 8, 2008. On December 2, 2008, Coleman pleaded no contest to charges of disorderly conduct and reckless driving. The court ordered him to pay a $100 fine for disorderly conduct. The reckless driving charge will be waived in one year if Coleman does not commit any further violations. Coleman still faces a civil suit related to the incident. "Coleman Pleads No Contest to Disorderly Conduct", The New York Times, December 2, 2008. "Gary Coleman Pleads No Contest in Bowling Brawl ", E! Online, December 2, 2008. Candidate for Governor of California Coleman was a candidate for governor in the 2003 California recall election. This campaign was sponsored by the free newsweekly the East Bay Express as a satirical comment on the recall. After Arnold Schwarzenegger announced his candidacy, Coleman stated that he would be voting for Schwarzenegger. Coleman placed 8th in a field of 135 candidates, receiving 14,242 votes. Filmography Films YearFilmNotes1981On the Right Track1982Jimmy the Kid1983The Kid with the 200 I.Q.1985Playing with Fire1994PartyShort subject; Coleman was also associate producerS.F.W.Cameo1996Fox Hunt1997Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen'sDocumentary1998Dirty WorkCameo1998Like Father, Like SantaElf Supervisor2000The FlunkyShafted!2002Frank McKlusky, C.I.Cameo2003Dickie Roberts: Former Child StarCameo2004Chasing the EdgeCameo; short subjectSave VirgilShort subject2005A Christmas Too Many2006Church Ball2008An American Carol2009Midgets vs. MascotsAs himself Television work First appeared in a commercial for Harris Bank. His line, after the announcer says "You should have a Harris banker" was "You should have a Hubert doll". "Hubert" was a stuffed lion representing the Harris bank logo. The Jeffersons (1977, guest) Good Times (1977, guest) Diff'rent Strokes (1978-1986) The Kid from Left Field (1979) Scout's Honor (1980) The Facts of Life (1980) Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (episode "The Cosmic Wizz-Kid", also has a cameo in a later episode) The Kid with the Broken Halo (1982) The Gary Coleman Show (1982) (voice) The Kid with the 200 I.Q. (1983) The Fantastic World of D.C. Collins (1984) Playing with Fire (1985) 227 (1990) Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (guest) (as Arnold Jackson, with Conrad Bain as Phillip Drummond) (1992) The Ben Stiller Show (1993) as himself Like Father, Like Santa (1998) The Simpsons, "Grift of the Magi" (December 19, 1999) The Drew Carey Show, "What's Wrong with this Episode? IV" (March 28, 2001) Drake and Josh (guest) A Carol Christmas (2003) My Wife and Kids (guest) The Jamie Foxx Show (guest as Cupid) Married… with Children (guest) Drake and Josh as himself Unscrewed with Martin Sargent (20032004, guest) Simon & Simon, "Like Father, Like Son" The Parkers as himself The Simpsons as himself References External links CNN's take on Coleman's 2003 candidacy for the governorship of California Special Comic-Con Appearance
Gary_Coleman |@lemmatized gary:17 wayne:1 coleman:83 born:1 february:4 american:4 actor:3 best:3 know:2 role:6 arnold:5 jackson:4 sitcom:3 diff:8 rent:8 stroke:8 currently:1 work:7 secretary:1 controller:1 simmons:1 medium:2 group:1 salt:1 lake:1 city:1 utah:4 personal:1 life:6 bear:1 zion:1 illinois:1 adopt:2 edmonia:1 sue:5 nurse:1 practitioner:1 w:2 g:1 fork:1 lift:1 operator:1 http:1 www:1 filmreference:1 com:2 film:4 html:1 suffer:1 congenital:1 kidney:3 disease:1 cause:1 focal:1 segmental:1 glomerulosclerosis:1 autoimmune:1 destruction:1 alteration:1 halt:1 growth:1 early:1 age:1 lead:2 small:1 stature:1 ft:1 undergone:1 two:6 transplant:1 one:9 require:1 daily:1 dialysis:1 secretly:1 wed:1 girlfriend:1 five:1 month:1 shannon:3 price:3 august:2 meet:1 set:1 comedy:2 church:1 ball:1 may:4 wife:5 appear:19 show:17 divorce:4 court:6 air:3 difference:1 front:1 judge:1 lynn:1 toler:1 uncharacteristically:1 participant:1 intent:1 save:1 marriage:2 rather:1 adjudicate:1 separation:1 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robert:1 edgecameo:1 subjectsave:1 virgilshort:1 christmas:2 vs:1 mascotsas:1 harris:3 line:1 announcer:1 banker:1 hubert:2 doll:1 stuffed:1 lion:1 represent:1 logo:1 guest:8 left:1 scout:1 honor:1 cosmic:1 wizz:1 late:1 fantastic:1 collins:1 fire:1 phillip:1 ben:1 stiller:1 santa:1 drew:1 carey:1 wrong:1 iv:1 jamie:1 foxx:1 cupid:1 marry:1 unscrew:1 sargent:1 simon:2 son:1 parker:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cnn:1 governorship:1 special:1 |@bigram diff_rent:8 rent_stroke:8 http_www:1 filmreference_com:1 gary_coleman:15 kidney_disease:1 hanna_barbera:1 mob_bos:1 lemon_juice:1 scooby_doo:1 shopping_mall:3 los_angeles:1 supporting_role:1 robot_chicken:1 wrestling_entertainment:1 short_lived:1 brady_bunch:1 drake_josh:3 cameo_appearance:1 russian_roulette:1 coleman_plead:5 plead_contest:5 disorderly_conduct:6 provo_utah:1 automobile_accident:2 bowling_alley:2 parking_lot:1 deseret_news:1 arnold_schwarzenegger:1 ben_stiller:1 drew_carey:1 external_link:1
7,104
Transport_in_Macau
Transport in Macau includes road, sea and air transport. Road transport is the primary mode of transport within Macau itself, as there are no railways at present. The main forms of public transport are buses and taxis. A light rail system is currently being planned. Modes of transport out of Macau include ferries to Hong Kong and mainland China from two ferry terminals, as well as helicopter service to Hong Kong. International flights are available from Macau International Airport. Internal Road |Bus in Macau. |Trishaw in Macau. Buses and taxis are the major modes of public transport in Macau. Bus services are frequent and inexpensive, linking the Macau peninsula, Taipa, Cotai and Coloane. Transmac and TCM are the sole operators of Macau's bus services. Most hotels(four-starred or above) and gaming venues operate their own fleet of shuttle bus service between the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal or Portas do Cerco (Macau's border to mainland China) and their premises. Taxis are plentiful near the airport, the Hong Kong-Macau ferry terminal, and major gaming venues/hotels in the city though it is rather hard to get one during rush hours on the streets. There are two types of livery on Macau's taxis - one is a black body with cream color top (the black cab) and the other is yellow on the whole (the yellow cab). Radio taxis are available, and there are two hotlines for the black and yellow cabs respectively Taxi information, City Guide of Macau . In order to enhance the quality of taxi services, such as eliminate the language barrier between taxi drivers and passengers, the Tourist Office has provided most taxis with a destination guide which includes the names of the most requested destinations in Chinese, Portuguese and English. The trishaw, a hybrid of the tricycle and the rickshaw, is a unique mode of transport in Macau, though it is mainly for sightseeing purposes. They can easily be found next to Hotel Lisboa and the Macau ferry terminal waiting for passengers. Railways |Macau Light Transit System network plan. There are currently no railways in Macau, but a proposal has been put forward to link Macau by extending the Guangzhou Railway (or, possibly, Guangzhou-Zhuhai Intercity Mass Rapid Transit) to Cotai through Hengqin Island Macau - Meeting Point: a Legacy for the Future (1999), published by the Comissão Territorial de Macau para es Comemorações does Descobrimentos Portugueses, p.6. . However, no decisions have yet been made so far. In a few years time, the city of Macau will have a new mode of public transport, the Macau Light Transit System, in service. The proposal is currently under public consultation and a decision will be made on the design route and its operation after the consultation ends. The Macau Light Transit System is a planned mass transit system, similar to the Singapore Light Rapid Transit. The tracks will be a mix of elevated guideways and underground tunnels, ensuring a dedicated right-of-way separated from road traffic. When completed it will serve passengers from the Macau Peninsula, Taipa island, the Cotai reclamation and Macau International Airport. The Government of Macau introduced the proposal to the public in October 2006 , with a revised version announced in July 2007 after further adjustments and improvements had been made with reference to comments by the public. Others The Macau Maritime Museum Homepage used to have two sailing vessels (which were based on the ancient "junk" form but were remodeled) serving for touring trips between the inner and outer harbours. Along the trip, the crew would introduce the general lifestyle and customs of the local boat dwellers. However, due to the land reclamation works in the harbour and the maintenance of the boats, all trips have been suspended. External Sea |Hong Kong-Macau ferry terminal. Currently, over 150 sea-crossing services are scheduled daily between Macau and Hong Kong , and the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal, Macau serves as the major terminal for Macau's passenger traffic by sea. The route is served by high speed catamarans (with passenger capacity of 400 max) and jetfoils (with passenger capacity of 260 max) and the journey takes approximately one hour. There are also daily scheduled ferry services between Macau and Shenzhen. At present the services are operated by TurboJET (from Sheung Wan) and New World First Ferry Macau {from Tsim Sha Tsui). Cotai Jet also operates services between Taipa Temporary Ferry Terminal and the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal, Hong Kong. Apart from the sea routes there are also regular scheduled helicopter services between Hong Kong and Macau, which are operated by Heli Express. The trip takes approximately 20 minutes. A few years ago a new sea-crossing service was launched by TurboJET which travels between the Hong Kong International Airport and Macau. This differs from the above Macau-Hong Kong route since travelers who arrive in Hong Kong by air do not have to go through Hong Kong immigration's passport control and can board a direct ferry to Macau through a special transfer terminal within the airport. On the return trip, travelers can directly reach the Hong Kong International Airport by ferry (a dedicated check-in desk for the service is available at the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal) and arrive at the airport without going through Hong Kong immigration's passport control, though airline check-in has to be done within the airport prior to boarding a plane. A new ferry terminal, which is adjacent to the Macau International Airport, is under construction and upon completion (probably in early 2009) some of the passenger traffic by sea will be diverted to the new facility. It is expected to act as a major hub for passenger transfer between the Hong Kong International Airport and the Macau International Airport. Air The Macau International Airport, located at Taipa, serves as the terminal for Macau's international air traffic. It was inaugurated on December 1995 and has since established a number of regulars flights between Macau and major cities in Northeast and Southeast Asia, for example Bangkok, Beijing, Kaohsiung, Kuala Lumpur, Osaka, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, Taipei, etc. Passengers who would like to enter mainland China by land can use the "Two Customs, One Checkpoint" service (or the AIR-TO-LAND Flow Express Bus - Two Customs, One Checkpoint) provided by the Macau International Airport. Passengers can request the "Express Link" service at the check-in counter of their respective airlines. When arriving at the Macau International Airport, they can simply follow the "Express Link" signs and board the Air-to-Land transfer. Passengers do not have to go through Macau's immigration and customs checkpoint until they reach the border of mainland China. Owing to its relatively low landing fees and the business opportunities brought by the booming gaming industry in Macau, the airport has attracted several Asia's low-cost carriers such as AirAsia, Viva Macau, Tiger Airways, etc. to establish regular flights between Macau and several major cities in Southeast Asia, and recently Sydney as well. As a result it has been gradually developing into a major hub for low-cost air travel within the region. Other traditional carriers, such as the local flag carrier Air Macau, the Taiwanese carriers EVA Air and TransAsia Airways, and even carriers which operate similar routes from Hong Kong, are facing potential challenges from these newcomers. Roads and bridges |Macau Sai Van Bridge. Macau has 321 kilometres of public roads, three bridges (viaducts) linking the Macau Peninsula and Taipa, and a tunnel through the Guia Hill linking the Horta e Costa area and the New Port Area (NAPE). The three bridges are (from east to west) the Friendship Bridge (Ponte de Amizade); the Macau-Taipa Bridge (Ponte Governador Nobre de Carvalho); and the Sai Van Bridge (Ponte de Sai Van). Unlike mainland China, where traffic drives on the right, traffic in Macau and Hong Kong drives on the left. Roads are generally narrow at the heart of the city and parked cars are always found on both sides of the road. Traffic congestion has been a major problem throughout the day owing to the lack of efficient mass transit system and a relatively high car to population ratio. Ports Macau Container Port, located at the Inner Harbour area on the west side of the Macau peninsula. Kai Ho Port, located on the Ilha de Coloane (Coloane Island). References External links City Guide of Macau Macau SAR Government Official Website Macau International Airport Official Website
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7,105
Demographics_of_Nigeria
This article is about the demographic features of the population of Nigeria, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Population density Total population The most populous country in Africa, Nigeria accounts for approximately one-sixth of Africa's people. Although fewer than 25% of Nigerians are urban dwellers, at least 24 cities have populations of more than 100,000. The variety of customs, languages, and traditions among Nigeria's 389 ethnic groups gives the country a rich diversity. It is impossible to state demographic figures on Nigeria authoritatively, as national census results have been contested. All data in this article should therefore be viewed with caution. Census figures are used to determine regional funding and representation of ethnic and religious groups in government service. This provides an incentive for inflating local populations. On the other hand, some academics believe the figures given below by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) are a serious under-estimate. Professor JG Ottong, a social scientist at the University of Calabar, explained that population has been a sensitive and controversial issue "because of its implications for shaping regional, state and ethnic relations and balance of power". In the past, census figures were believed to have been manipulated for political advantage. Overview The most numerous ethnic group in the northern two-thirds of the country is the Hausa-Fulani,the overwhelming majority of whom are Muslim. Other major ethnic groups of the north are the Nupe, Tiv, and Kanuri. The Yoruba people are the most numerous in the southwest. Over half of the Yorubas are Christian and about a quarter are Muslim, with the remainder following mostly traditional beliefs. The predominantly Christian Igbo are the largest ethnic group in the southeast. Roman Catholics are the largest denomination, but Pentecostal and other Evangelical denominations are also strong. The Efik, Ibibio, Annang, and Ijaw (the country's fourth-largest ethnic group) communities also comprise a substantial segment of the population in that area. Persons of different language backgrounds most commonly communicate in English, although knowledge of two or more Nigerian languages is widespread. Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo are the most widely used Nigerian languages. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Demographics of Nigeria, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Population and Population Projections The United Nations estimates that the population in 2005 was at 141 million, and predicted that it would reach 289 million by 2050. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database Nigeria has just recently undergone the start of a population explosion due to higher fertility rates. The United States Census Bureau projects that population of Nigeria will reach 264 million by 2050. Nigeria will then be the 8th most populous country in the world. International Data Base (IDB) - Country Rankings 2006 Census (prelim.) Nigeria has a population of 140,003,542 (2006 prelim Census ) with males outnumbering females. The three geo-political zones of the North North-West - 35,786,944 North Central - 20,266,257 North East - 18,971,965 Total population 75,025,166 The three geo-political zones of the South South-West - 27,581,992 South South - 21,014,655 South East - 16,381,729 Total population 64,978,376 For the North West zone states Kano 17,000,682 Kaduna 6,066,562 Katsina 5,792,578 Jigawa 4,348,649 Sokoto 3,696,999 Zamfara 3,259,846 Kebbi 3,238,628 Total population 35,786,944 For the South-West zone states Lagos 9,013,534 Oyo 5,591,589 Ondo 3,441,024 Osun 3,423,535 Ogun 3,728,098 Ekiti 2,384,212 Total population 27,581,992 For the North East zone states Bauchi 4,676,465 Borno 4,151,193 Adamawa 3,168,101 Gombe 2,353,879 Yobe 2,321,591 Taraba 2,300,736 Total population 18,971,965 For the South East zone states Anambra 4,182,032 Imo 3,934,899 Enugu 3,257,298 Abia 2,833,999 Ebonyi 2,173,501 Total population 16,381,729 For the North Central zone states Benue 4,219,244 Niger 3,950,249 Kogi 3,278,487 Plateau 3,178,712 Kwara 2,371,089 Nasarawa 1,863,275 Federal Capital Territory 1,405,201 Total population 20,266,257 In the South-South geo-political zone states Rivers 5,185,400 Delta 4,098,391 Akwa Ibom 3,920,208 Edo 3,218,332 Cross River 2,888, 966 Bayelsa 1,703,358 Total population 21,014,655 Age structure 0-14 years: 44% (male 27,181,020; female 26,872,317) 15-64 years: 53% (male 33,495,794; female 32,337,193) 65 years and over: 3% (male 1,729,149; female 1,722,349) (2000 est.) Vital statistics Population growth rate 2.5% (2008 est.) Birth rate 43 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 18 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate 0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 74.18 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 51.56 years male: 51.58 years female: 51.55 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 5.9 children born/woman (2008 est.) Ethnic groups Nigeria, which is Africa's most populous country, is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups; the following are the most populous and politically influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 20%, Igbo 20%, (Calabar people: 10%: Ibibio 4.5%, Annang 3.5%, Efik 2%), Ijaw 6.5%, Kanuri 4%, Tiv 2.5%. These percentages are estimates, based on the number of settlements, including the number of towns, villages, hamlets and cities, with information supplied by the Nigeria postal service. Although, these estimates have come under opposition by those who believe the ethnic group population counts have been tampered with for ethnic numerical superiority. In the absence of an up to date census, other population figures do not follow scientific procedures. Only these are scientifically backed by settlement figures provided by the government. Emigration Today millions of ethnic Nigerians live abroad, the largest communities can be found in the United Kingdom (800,000 - 3 million Nigerians) and the United States (165,000 Nigerians). There are also large groups in Canada and many other countries. Nigerian British Nigerian American Nigerian Canadians Religions (2000 estimate) The U.S. State Department estimates that Muslims outnumber Christians, comprising approximately half of the country's population, while Christians make up 40 percent, with the remainder following traditional indigenous religions or no religion. Many people combine elements of Christianity or Islam with elements of indigenous faiths. The predominant form of Islam in the country is Sunni. The Christian population includes Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and a growing number of Evangelical and Pentecostal Christians. A large majority of Nigerian Christians are Protestant, but Roman Catholicism is the largest single denomination. It should also be noted that an estimated 8 million Nigerians belong to more than one Christian denomination, and unrecorded transferral of membership between diverse Protestant and "African Christian" bodies is widespread. Accordingly, the denominational membership totals add up to considerably more than the total number of Christians in Nigeria. The Operation World estimates are stated below. Their inclusion is because of their detail. Their overall accuracy is unprovable. Christian: 40% (Mostly in the Country's Designated 'Middle Belt' and Southern States ) Protestant: 26% Pentecostal: 10.9% Evangelical Church of West Africa: 4.1% (outgrowth of the Sudan Interior Mission) TEKAN: 2.8% (outgrowth of the Sudan United Mission) Baptist: 1.6% Methodist: 1.5% Other Protestant: 2.7% African Christian: 18.25% (Denominations with no Western ties) Christ Apostolic Church: 1.8% Church of God Mission International: 1.25% The Church of the Lord (Aladura): 1.1% Cherubim and Seraphim: 0.7% Deeper Life Bible Church: 0.7% Other African Christian: 12.7% (more than 4200 denominations) Roman Catholic: 13.45% Anglican: 10.1% Marginal Christian/Unaffiliated Christian 2.1% Jehovah's Witnesses: 0.5% Other Marginal Christian: 1.6% Muslim: 50%. Almost all Sunni (Predominantly in the North; about 25 percent of the population in the South West) Indigenous beliefs: 10% Other: 0.4% Islam: 61,437,208 (47.16%) Christianity: 54,665,801 (41.97%) Ethnoreligionists: 13,642,132 (10.47%) Non Religious: 378,006 (0.29%) Atheism: 47,350 (0.04%) Baha'i Faith: 33,366 (0.03%) Neoreligionists: 19,646 (0.02%) Buddhism: 6,953 (0.01%) Chinese Universists: 3,843 (0.00%) Judaism: 938 (0.00%) Although the last source gives an estimate for Judaism, none of the sources recognizes the Igbo Jews as adherents of Judaism. Even so, with estimates of adherence in the range of 40,000, this community comprises a relatively inconsequential 0.17% of the population of Nigeria. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html Religious Affiliation Among Major Ethnic Groups Source: http://www.worldchristiandatabase.org Hausa: 25,900,527 (Muslims 99.90%, Christians 0.10%) Yoruba: 22,921,473 (Christians 60.00%, Muslims 36.38%, Animists 3.00%, Non Religious 0.50%, Baha'is 0.07%, Atheists 0.05%) Igbo: 22,926,340 (Christians 97.00%, Animists 2.00%, Non Religious 0.80%, Atheists 0.10%, Baha'is 0.10%) Fulani, Toroobe: 6,381,546 (Muslims 99.70%, Christians 0.30%) Yerwa Kanuri: 4,037,305 (Muslims 99.99%, Christians 0.01%) Ibibio: 3,907,096 (Christians 99.00%, Animists 1.00%) Annang: 2,500,557 (Christians 99.00%, Animists 1.00%) Efik: 2,107,190 (Christians 99.00%, Animists 1.00%) Egba: 3,800,276 (Christians 86.00%, Muslims 11.00%, Animists 3.00%) Tiv: 3,349,830 (Christians 94.60%, Animists 4.40%, Non Religious 1.00%) Fulani, Haabe: 2,214,006 (Muslims 99.60%, Christians (0.40%) Fulani, Sokoto: 2,214,006 (Muslims 99.90%, Christians 0.10%) Fulani, Bororo: 1,953,535 (Muslims 99.95%, Christians 0.05%) Ijaw, Central-Western: 1,536,781 (Christians 95.00%, Animists 5.00%) Ebira: 1,395,332 (Muslims 50.00%, Animists 26.00%, Christians 24.00%) Ibibio, Western: 1,354,451 (Christians 96.00%, Animists 4.00%) Edo: 1,277,989 (Christians 80.00%, Animists 20.00%) Nupe: 1,197,139 (Muslims 92.00%, Animists 5.20%, Christians 2.80%) Igala: 1,022,389 (Christians 57.50%, Animists 32.00%, Muslims 10.50%) Fulani, Adamawa: 1,003,322 (Muslims 97.00%, Christians 3.00%) Languages English (official), Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo (Ibo), Fulani, Ibibio (Annang/Ibibio/Efik), Ijaw, and others. Literacy Definition: Age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 57.1% Male: 67.3% Female: 49.6% (1995 estimate) Nationality Noun: Nigerian (singular), Nigerians (plural) Adjective: Nigerian References
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EPR_paradox
In quantum mechanics, the EPR paradox (or Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox) is a thought experiment which challenged long-held ideas about the relation between the observed values of physical quantities and the values that can be accounted for by a physical theory. "EPR" stands for Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, who introduced the thought experiment in a 1935 paper to argue that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory. The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question - pages 187 to 189, and 21 by Leon Lederman with Dick Teresi (copyright 1993) Houghton Mifflin Company The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory; 1.2 The argument in the text; http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/#1.2 According to its authors the EPR experiment yields a dichotomy. Either The result of a measurement performed on one part A of a quantum system has a non-local effect on the physical reality of another distant part B, in the sense that quantum mechanics can predict outcomes of some measurements carried out at B; or... Quantum mechanics is incomplete in the sense that some element of physical reality corresponding to B cannot be accounted for by quantum mechanics (that is, some extra variable is needed to account for it.) As it was shown later by Bell one cannot introduce the notion of "elements of reality" without affecting the predictions of the theory. That is, one cannot complete quantum mechanics with these "elements", because this automatically leads to some logical contradictions. Einstein never accepted quantum mechanics as a "real" and complete theory, struggling to the end of his life for an interpretation that could comply with relativity without complying with the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. As he once said: "God does not play dice", skeptically referring to the Copenhagen Interpretation of quantum mechanics which says there exists no objective physical reality other than that which is revealed through measurement and observation. The EPR paradox is a paradox in the following sense: if one adds to quantum mechanics some seemingly reasonable (but actually wrong, or questionable as a whole) conditions (referred to as locality) — realism (not to be confused with philosophical realism), counterfactual definiteness, and completeness (see Bell inequality and Bell test experiments) — then one obtains a contradiction. However, quantum mechanics by itself does not appear to be internally inconsistent, nor — as it turns out — does it contradict relativity. As a result of further theoretical and experimental developments since the original EPR paper, most physicists today regard the EPR paradox as an illustration of how quantum mechanics violates classical intuitions. Quantum mechanics and its interpretation During the twentieth century, quantum theory proved to be a successful theory, which describes the physical reality of the mesoscopic and microscopic world. Quantum mechanics was developed with the aim of describing atoms and to explain the observed spectral lines in a measurement apparatus. The fact that quantum theory allows for an accurate description of reality is clear from many physical experiments and has probably never been seriously disputed. Interpretations of quantum phenomena are another story. The question of how to interpret the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics has given rise to a variety of different answers from people of different philosophical backgrounds. Quantum theory and quantum mechanics do not account for single measurement outcomes in a deterministic way. According to an accepted interpretation of quantum mechanics known as the Copenhagen interpretation, a measurement causes an instantaneous collapse of the wave function describing the quantum system into an eigenstate of the observable that was measured. The most prominent opponent of the Copenhagen interpretation was Albert Einstein. Einstein did not believe in the idea of genuine randomness in nature, the main argument in the Copenhagen interpretation. In his view, quantum mechanics is incomplete and suggests that there had to be 'hidden' variables responsible for random measurement results. The famous paper "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", authored by Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen in 1935, condensed the philosophical discussion into a physical argument. They claim that given a specific experiment, in which the outcome of a measurement could be known before the measurement takes place, there must exist something in the real world, an "element of reality", which determines the measurement outcome. They postulate that these elements of reality are local, in the sense that they belong to a certain point in spacetime. This element may only be influenced by events which are located in the backward light cone of this point in spacetime. Even though these claims sound reasonable and convincing, they are founded on assumptions about nature which constitute what is now known as local realism. Though the EPR paper has often been taken as an exact expression of Einstein's views, it was primarily authored by Podolsky, based on discussions at the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein and Rosen. Einstein later expressed to Erwin Schrödinger that "It did not come out as well as I had originally wanted; rather, the essential thing was, so to speak, smothered by the formalism." Quoted in Kaiser, David. "Bringing the human actors back on stage: the personal context of the Einstein-Bohr debate," British Journal for the History of Science 27 (1994): 129-152, on page 147. Description of the paradox The EPR paradox draws on a phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics, known as quantum entanglement, to show that measurements performed on spatially separated parts of a quantum system can apparently have an instantaneous influence on one another. This effect is now known as "nonlocal behavior" (or colloquially as "quantum weirdness" or "spooky action at a distance"). Simple version Before delving into the complicated logic that leads to the 'paradox', it is perhaps worth mentioning the simple version of the argument, as described by Greene and others, which Einstein used to show that 'hidden variables' must exist. Two electrons are emitted from a source, by pion decay, so that their spins are opposite; one electron’s spin about any axis is the negative of the other's. Also, due to uncertainty, making a measurement of a particle’s spin about one axis disturbs the particle so you now can’t measure its spin about any other axis. Now say you measure one electron’s spin about the x-axis. This automatically tells you the other electron’s spin about the x-axis. Since you’ve done the measurement without disturbing the other electron in any way, it can’t be that the other electron "only came to have that state when you measured it", because you didn’t measure it! It must have had that spin all along. Also (although you can’t actually do it now that you’ve disturbed the electron), you could have taken the measurement about any other axis. So it follows that the other electron also had a definite spin about any other axis – much more information than the particle is capable of holding, and a "hidden variable" according to EPR. Measurements on an entangled state We have a source that emits pairs of electrons, with one electron sent to destination A, where there is an observer named Alice, and another sent to destination B, where there is an observer named Bob. According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted electron pair occupies a quantum state called a spin singlet. This can be viewed as a quantum superposition of two states, which we call state I and state II. In state I, electron A has spin pointing upward along the z-axis (+z) and electron B has spin pointing downward along the z-axis (-z). In state II, electron A has spin -z and electron B has spin +z. Therefore, it is impossible to associate either electron in the spin singlet with a state of definite spin. The electrons are thus said to be entangled. The EPR thought experiment, performed with electrons. A source (center) sends electrons toward two observers, Alice (left) and Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements. Alice now measures the spin along the z-axis. She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: +z or -z. Suppose she gets +z. According to quantum mechanics, the quantum state of the system collapses into state I. (Different interpretations of quantum mechanics have different ways of saying this, but the basic result is the same.) The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system. In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the z-axis, he will obtain -z with 100% probability. Similarly, if Alice gets -z, Bob will get +z. There is, of course, nothing special about our choice of the z-axis. For instance, suppose that Alice and Bob now decide to measure spin along the x-axis, according to quantum mechanics, the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the x direction. We'll call these states Ia and IIa. In state Ia, Alice's electron has spin +x and Bob's electron has spin -x. In state IIa, Alice's electron has spin -x and Bob's electron has spin +x. Therefore, if Alice measures +x, the system collapses into Ia, and Bob will get -x. If Alice measures -x, the system collapses into IIa, and Bob will get +x. In quantum mechanics, the x-spin and z-spin are "incompatible observables", which means that there is a Heisenberg uncertainty principle operating between them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both variables. Suppose Alice measures the z-spin and obtains +z, so that the quantum state collapses into state I. Now, instead of measuring the z-spin as well, Bob measures the x-spin. According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's x-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing +x and a 50% probability of -x. Furthermore, it is fundamentally impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually performs the measurement. Here is the crux of the matter. You might imagine that, when Bob measures the x-spin of his particle, he would get an answer with absolute certainty, since prior to this he hasn't disturbed his electron at all. But, as described above, Bob's electron has a 50% probability of producing +x and a 50% probability of -x - random behaviour, not certain. Bob's electron knows that Alice's electron has been measured, and its z-spin detected, and hence B's z-spin calculated, so its x-spin is 'out of bounds'. Put another way, how does Bob's electron know, at the same time, which way to point if Alice decides (based on information unavailable to Bob) to measure x (i.e. be the opposite of Alice's electron's spin about the x-axis) and also how to point if Alice measures z (i.e. behave randomly), since it is only supposed to know one thing at a time? Using the usual Copenhagen interpretation rules that say the wave function "collapses" at the time of measurement, there must be action at a distance (entanglement) or the electron must know more than it is supposed to (hidden variables). In case the explanation above is confusing, here is the paradox summed up; Two electrons are emitted, shoot off and are measured later. Whatever axis their spins are measured along, they are always found to be opposite. This can only be explained if the electrons are linked in some way. Either they were created with a definite (opposite) spin about every axis - a "hidden variable" argument - or they are linked so that one electron knows what axis the other is having its spin measured along, and becomes its opposite about that one axis - an "entanglement" argument. Moreover, if the two electrons have their spins measured about different axes, once A's spin has been measured about the x-axis (and B's spin about the x-axis deduced), B's spin about the y-axis will no longer be certain, as if it knows that the measurement has taken place. Either that, or it has a definite spin already, which gives it a spin about a second axis - a hidden variable. Incidentally, although we have used spin as an example, many types of physical quantities — what quantum mechanics refers to as "observables" — can be used to produce quantum entanglement. The original EPR paper used momentum for the observable. Experimental realizations of the EPR scenario often use photon polarization, because polarized photons are easy to prepare and measure. Reality and completeness We will now introduce two concepts used by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR), which are crucial to their attack on quantum mechanics: (i) the elements of physical reality and (ii) the completeness of a physical theory. The authors (EPR) did not directly address the philosophical meaning of an "element of physical reality". Instead, they made the assumption that if the value of any physical quantity of a system can be predicted with absolute certainty prior to performing a measurement or otherwise disturbing it, then that quantity corresponds to an element of physical reality. Note that the converse is not assumed to be true; even if there are some "elements of physical reality" whose value cannot be predicted, this will not affect the argument. Next, EPR defined a "complete physical theory" as one in which every element of physical reality is accounted for. The aim of their paper was to show, using these two definitions, that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory. Let us see how these concepts apply to the above thought experiment. Suppose Alice decides to measure the value of spin along the z-axis (we'll call this the z-spin.) After Alice performs her measurement, the z-spin of Bob's electron is definitely known, so it is an element of physical reality. Similarly, if Bob decides to measure spin of his electron along the x-axis, the x-spin of Alice's electron becomes an element of physical reality after the measurement. After such measurements, the conclusion that Alice's and Bob's electrons now have definite values of spin along both the X and Z axis simultaneously is inevitable. We have seen that a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both x-spin and z-spin. If quantum mechanics is a complete physical theory in the sense given above, x-spin and z-spin cannot be elements of reality at the same time. This means that Alice's decision — whether to perform her measurement along the x- or z-axis — has an instantaneous effect on the elements of physical reality at Bob's location. However, this violates another principle, that of locality. Locality in the EPR experiment The principle of locality states that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location. At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of special relativity, which states that information can never be transmitted faster than the speed of light without violating causality. It is generally believed that any theory which violates causality would also be internally inconsistent, and thus deeply unsatisfactory. It turns out that the usual rules for combining quantum mechanical and classical descriptions violate the principle of locality without violating causality. Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e. information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis. Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining "+" and 50% probability of obtaining "-", completely at random; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets. Furthermore, Bob is only able to perform his measurement once: there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, known as the "no cloning theorem", which makes it impossible for him to make a million copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results. Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting "+" and 50% of getting "-", regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's. However, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it. Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as "spooky action at a distance". The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory. In recent years, however, doubt has been cast on EPR's conclusion due to developments in understanding locality and especially quantum decoherence. The word locality has several different meanings in physics. For example, in quantum field theory "locality" means that quantum fields at different points of space do not interact with one another. However, quantum field theories that are "local" in this sense appear to violate the principle of locality as defined by EPR, but they nevertheless do not violate locality in a more general sense. Wavefunction collapse can be viewed as an epiphenomenon of quantum decoherence, which in turn is nothing more than an effect of the underlying local time evolution of the wavefunction of a system and all of its environment. Since the underlying behaviour doesn't violate local causality, it follows that neither does the additional effect of wavefunction collapse, whether real or apparent. Therefore, as outlined in the example above, neither the EPR experiment nor any quantum experiment demonstrates that faster-than-light signaling is possible. Resolving the paradox Hidden variables There are several ways to resolve the EPR paradox. The one suggested by EPR is that quantum mechanics, despite its success in a wide variety of experimental scenarios, is actually an incomplete theory. In other words, there is some yet undiscovered theory of nature to which quantum mechanics acts as a kind of statistical approximation (albeit an exceedingly successful one). Unlike quantum mechanics, the more complete theory contains variables corresponding to all the "elements of reality". There must be some unknown mechanism acting on these variables to give rise to the observed effects of "non-commuting quantum observables", i.e. the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Such a theory is called a hidden variable theory. To illustrate this idea, we can formulate a very simple hidden variable theory for the above thought experiment. One supposes that the quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for "true" physical states possessing definite values for the z-spin and x-spin. In these "true" states, the electron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random. For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be "(+z, -x) to Alice and (-z, +x) to Bob", the next pair "(-z, -x) to Alice and (+z, +x) to Bob", and so forth. Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get "+" and "-" with equal probability. Assuming we restrict our measurements to the z and x axes, such a hidden variable theory is experimentally indistinguishable from quantum mechanics. In reality, of course, there is an (uncountably) infinite number of axes along which Alice and Bob can perform their measurements, so there has to be an infinite number of independent hidden variables. However, this is not a serious problem; we have formulated a very simplistic hidden variable theory, and a more sophisticated theory might be able to patch it up. It turns out that there is a much more serious challenge to the idea of hidden variables. Bell's inequality In 1964, John Bell showed that the predictions of quantum mechanics in the EPR thought experiment are significantly different from the predictions of a very broad class of hidden variable theories (the local hidden variable theories). Roughly speaking, quantum mechanics predicts much stronger statistical correlations between the measurement results performed on different axes than the hidden variable theories. These differences, expressed using inequality relations known as "Bell's inequalities", are in principle experimentally detectable. Later work by Eberhard showed that the key properties of local hidden variable theories that lead to Bell's inequalities are locality and counter-factual definiteness. Any theory in which these principles hold produces the inequalities. A. Fine subsequently showed that any theory satisfying the inequalities can be modeled by a local hidden variable theory. After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments were devised to test Bell's inequalities. (As mentioned above, these experiments generally rely on photon polarization measurements.) All the experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of standard quantum mechanics. However, Bell's theorem does not apply to all possible philosophically realist theories, although a common misconception touted by new agers is that quantum mechanics is inconsistent with all notions of philosophical realism. Realist interpretations of quantum mechanics are possible, although as discussed above, such interpretations must reject either locality or counter-factual definiteness. Mainstream physics prefers to keep locality while still maintaining a notion of realism that nevertheless rejects counter-factual definiteness. Examples of such mainstream realist interpretations are the consistent histories interpretation and the transactional interpretation. Fine's work showed that taking locality as a given there exist scenarios in which two statistical variables are correlated in a manner inconsistent with counter-factual definiteness and that such scenarios are no more mysterious than any other despite the inconsistency with counter-factual definiteness seeming 'counter-intuitive'. Violation of locality however is difficult to reconcile with special relativity and is thought to be incompatible with the principle of causality. On the other hand the Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics instead keeps counter-factual definiteness while introducing a conjectured non-local mechanism called the 'quantum potential'. Some workers in the field have also attempted to formulate hidden variable theories that exploit loopholes in actual experiments, such as the assumptions made in interpreting experimental data although no such theory has been produced that can reproduce all the results of quantum mechanics. There are also individual EPR-like experiments that have no local hidden variables explanation. Examples have been suggested by David Bohm and by Lucien Hardy. "Acceptable theories", and the experiment According to the present view of the situation, quantum mechanics simply contradicts Einstein's philosophical postulate that any acceptable physical theory should fulfill "local realism". In the EPR paper (1935) the authors realized that quantum mechanics was non-acceptable in the sense of their above-mentioned assumptions, and Einstein thought erroneously that it could simply be augmented by 'hidden variables', without any further change, to get an acceptable theory. He pursued these ideas until the end of his life (1955), i.e. over twenty years. In contrast, John Bell, in his 1964 paper, showed "once and for all" that quantum mechanics and Einstein's assumptions lead to different results, different by a factor of , for certain correlations. So the issue of "acceptability", up to this time mainly concerning theory (even philosophy), finally became experimentally decidable. There are many Bell test experiments hitherto, e.g. those of Alain Aspect and others. They all show that pure quantum mechanics, and not Einstein's "local realism", is acceptable. Thus, according to Karl Popper these experiments falsify Einstein's philosophical assumptions, especially the ideas on "hidden variables", whereas quantum mechanics itself remains a good candidate for a theory, which is acceptable in a wider context. But apparently an experiment, which would also classify Bohm's non-local quasi-classical theory as non-acceptable, is still lacking. Implications for quantum mechanics Most physicists today believe that quantum mechanics is correct, and that the EPR paradox is a "paradox" only because classical intuitions do not correspond to physical reality. How EPR is interpreted regarding locality depends on the interpretation of quantum mechanics one uses. In the Copenhagen interpretation, it is usually understood that instantaneous wavefunction collapse does occur. However, the view that there is no causal instantaneous effect has also been proposed within the Copenhagen interpretation: in this alternate view, measurement affects our ability to define (and measure) quantities in the physical system, not the system itself. In the many-worlds interpretation, a kind of locality is preserved, since the effects of irreversible operations such as measurement arise from the relativization of a global state to a subsystem such as that of an observer. The EPR paradox has deepened our understanding of quantum mechanics by exposing the fundamentally non-classical characteristics of the measurement process. Prior to the publication of the EPR paper, a measurement was often visualized as a physical disturbance inflicted directly upon the measured system. For instance, when measuring the position of an electron, one imagines shining a light on it, thus disturbing the electron and producing the quantum mechanical uncertainties in its position. Such explanations, which are still encountered in popular expositions of quantum mechanics, are debunked by the EPR paradox, which shows that a "measurement" can be performed on a particle without disturbing it directly, by performing a measurement on a distant entangled particle. Technologies relying on quantum entanglement are now being developed. In quantum cryptography, entangled particles are used to transmit signals that cannot be eavesdropped upon without leaving a trace. In quantum computation, entangled quantum states are used to perform computations in parallel, which may allow certain calculations to be performed much more quickly than they ever could be with classical computers. Mathematical formulation The above discussion can be expressed mathematically using the quantum mechanical formulation of spin. The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional Hilbert space H, with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space. The operators corresponding to the spin along the x, y, and z direction, denoted Sx, Sy, and Sz respectively, can be represented using the Pauli matrices: where stands for Planck's constant divided by 2π. The eigenstates of Sz are represented as With qubits it looks: and the eigenstates of Sx are represented as With qubits it looks: The Hilbert space of the electron pair is , the tensor product of the two electrons' Hilbert spaces. The spin singlet state is With qubits it looks: where the two terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state I and state II above. This is also commonly written as With qubits it looks: From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written as With qubits it looks: where the terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state Ia and state IIa. To illustrate how this leads to the violation of local realism, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of Sz (or Sx), Bob's value of Sz (or Sx) is uniquely determined, and therefore corresponds to an "element of physical reality". This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics. When Sz is measured, the system state ψ collapses into an eigenvector of Sz. If the measurement result is +z, this means that immediately after measurement the system state undergoes an orthogonal projection of ψ onto the space of states of the form With qubits it looks: For the spin singlet, the new state is With qubits it looks: Similarly, if Alice's measurement result is -z, a system undergoes an orthogonal projection onto With qubits it looks: which means that the new state is With qubits it looks: This implies that the measurement for Sz for Bob's electron is now determined. It will be -z in the first case or +z in the second case. It remains only to show that Sx and Sz cannot simultaneously possess definite values in quantum mechanics. One may show in a straightforward manner that no possible vector can be an eigenvector of both matrices. More generally, one may use the fact that the operators do not commute, along with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation See also Bell test experiments Bell state Bell's theorem CHSH Bell test Coherence (physics) Counter-factual definiteness Ghirardi-Rimini-Weber theory GHZ experiment Interpretation of quantum mechanics Local hidden variable theory Many-worlds interpretation Measurement in quantum mechanics Measurement problem Penrose interpretation Philosophy of information Philosophy of physics Pondicherry interpretation Popper's experiment Quantum decoherence Quantum entanglement Quantum gravity Quantum information Quantum pseudo-telepathy Quantum teleportation Quantum Zeno effect Sakurai's Bell inequality Synchronicity Wave function collapse Zero-point field References Selected papers A. Aspect, Bell's inequality test: more ideal than ever, Nature 398 189 (1999). J.S. Bell, On the Einstein-Poldolsky-Rosen paradox, Physics 1 195bbcv://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v48/i8/p696_1] P.H. Eberhard, Bell's theorem without hidden variables. Nuovo Cimento 38B1 75 (1977). P.H. Eberhard, Bell's theorem and the different concepts of locality. Nuovo Cimento 46B 392 (1978). A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? Phys. Rev. 47 777 (1935). A. Fine, Hidden Variables, Joint Probability, and the Bell Inequalities. Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 291 (1982). A. Fine, Do Correlations need to be explained?, in Philosophical Consequences of Quantum Theory: Reflections on Bell's Theorem, edited by Cushing & McMullin (University of Notre Dame Press, 1986). L. Hardy, Nonlocality for two particles without inequalities for almost all entangled states. Phys. Rev. Lett. 71 1665 (1993). M. Mizuki, A classical interpretation of Bell's inequality. Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie 26 683 (2001). P. Pluch, "Theory for Quantum Probability", PhD Thesis University of Klagenfurt (2006) M. A. Rowe, D. Kielpinski, V. Meyer, C. A. Sackett, W. M. Itano, C. Monroe and D. J. Wineland, Experimental violation of a Bell's inequality with efficient detection, Nature 409, 791-794 (15 February 2001). M. Smerlak, C. Rovelli, Relational EPR Notes Books J.S. Bell, Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Cambridge University Press, 1987). ISBN 0-521-36869-3 J.J. Sakurai, Modern Quantum Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, 1994), pp. 174–187, 223-232. ISBN 0-201-53929-2 F. Selleri, Quantum Mechanics Versus Local Realism: The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox (Plenum Press, New York, 1988). ISBN 0-306-42739-7 Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality (Alfred A. Knopf, 2005; Vintage Books, 2006). ISBN 0-679-45443-8 External links The original EPR paper A. Fine, The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory Abner Shimony, Bell’s Theorem (2004) EPR, Bell & Aspect: The Original References Does Bell's Inequality Principle rule out local theories of quantum mechanics? From the Usenet Physics FAQ. Theoretical use of EPR in teleportation Effective use of EPR in cryptography
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7,107
Colorado_Springs,_Colorado
Colorado Springs is a Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and most populous city of El Paso County, Colorado, United States. With an estimated population of 376,427 in 2007, it is the second most populous city in the state of Colorado and the 47th most populous city in the United States. This count differs significantly from the Colorado Department of Local Affairs' 2007 estimate of 402,417. http://www.springsgov.com/units/planning/COMPPLANREVIEW/Annual_Report2007/PopulationEmployment.pdf In 2007 the Colorado Springs Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated population of 609,096. Estimates of Population Change for Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Rankings: July 1, 2007 to July 1, 2007 Colorado Springs is located just east of the geographic center of the state and south of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver. At 6,035 feet (1839 meters) Colorado Springs sits over one mile above sea level, though some areas of the city are significantly higher. The city is situated near the base of one of the most famous American mountains, Pikes Peak, at the eastern edge of the southern Rocky Mountains. Colorado Springs was selected as the No. 1 Best Big City in "Best Places to Live" by Money magazine in 2006. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/bplive/2006/top100/bigcities.html Overview The United States Census Bureau estimates that in 2007 the population of the City of Colorado Springs was 376,427 (47th most populous U.S. city), the population of the Colorado Springs Metropolitan Statistical Area was 609,096 (84th most populous MSA), and the population of the Front Range Urban Corridor was 4,166,855. Pikes Peak towers over the city. Today, Colorado Springs has many features of a modern urban area, such as parks, bike trails, urban open-area spaces, business and commerce, theatres and other entertainment. It was first established as a posh resort community, though the older mining supply center of Colorado City (now Old Colorado City) was merged later, and the tourist industry has remained strong and offers many activities and attractions. In July 2006, Money magazine ranked Colorado Springs the best place to live in the big city category, which includes cities with 300,000 or more people. MONEY Magazine: Best places to live 2006: 10 Best Big Cities Colorado Springs is not exempt from the problems that typically plague cities that experience tremendous growth: overcrowded roads and highways, crime, sprawl, and government budget issues. Many of the problems are indirectly or directly caused by the city's difficulty in coping with the large population growth experienced in the last 20 years and the annexing of the Banning Lewis Ranch area for 175,000 future residents. In 2004, the voters of Colorado Springs and El Paso County established the Pikes Peak Rural Transportation Authority PPRTA Homepage and adopted a 1% sales tax dedicated to improving the region's transportation infrastructure. Together with state funding for the Colorado Springs Metro Interstate Expansion (COSMIX)(2007 completion) and the I-25 interchange with Highway 16 (2008 completion), significant progress has been made since 2003 in addressing the transportation needs of the area. Currently the City is trying to overcome a $23.3 million budget gap created by falling sales taxes and rising expenses. Cut, don't raise taxes or fees August 25, 2008 A large number of religious organizations such as Focus on the Family and churches make their headquarters here, particularly Evangelical Christians. For decades, several high-tech businesses have or once resided in the city, including a number of computer chip manufacturers from Intel, to the chip foundry INMOS in the 1980s, to Hewlett-Packard since the 1960s. The Mountain West Conference has its administrative headquarters in Colorado Springs. Colorado Springs is also home to a large number of military installations (see below) and important national defense agencies. It is also home to the United States Air Force Academy. History General Palmer, City Founder Statue of General William Palmer in front of Palmer High School. Colorado Springs was founded in August 1871 by General William Palmer, with the intention of creating a high quality resort community, and was soon nicknamed "Little London" because of the many English tourists who came. Nearby Pikes Peak and the Garden of the Gods made the city's location a natural choice. Within two years his flagship resort the Antlers Hotel opened, welcoming U.S. and international travelers as well as health-savvy individuals seeking the high altitude and dry climate, and Palmer's visions of a thriving, quality resort town were coming true. Soon after, he founded the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, a critical regional railroad. He maintained his presence in the city's early days by making many grants or sales of land to civic institutions. Palmer and his wife saw Colorado Springs develop into one of the most popular travel destinations in the late 1800s United States. The town of Palmer Lake and a geographic feature called the Palmer Divide (and other more minor features) are named after him, and a bronze sculpture of Palmer on a horse without its front legs raised (denoting a natural death and not one caused during battle or afterwards from being fatally wounded in battle), is prominently displayed downtown in front of Palmer High School, the center of a busy intersection. Old Colorado City and the Pikes Peak Gold Rush The Pioneers Museum (old court house) contains displays of the city's founding and history. Colorado Springs' present downtown location, where General Palmer first founded the city, was partly due to Palmer's dislike of nearby rough-and-ready Colorado City (now called Old Colorado City, and not to be confused with present-day Colorado City) and its many saloons. Palmer ensured his new planned city stayed alcohol free by buying a huge tract of land to the east of Colorado City. Legally, Colorado Springs stayed dry until the end of Prohibition in 1933, but practically, alcohol was readily available. Conveniently located druggists advertised whiskey, ale, stout and beer for "medicinal purposes." In its earliest days of 1859–1860, Colorado City was a major hub for sending mining supplies to South Park, where a major strike in the Pike's Peak Gold Rush was found. After the Cripple Creek gold discovery in 1891, ore mills in Colorado City processed much of the gold ore at the Golden Cycle Mill using Palmer's railroads. The affluent, who made money from the gold rush and industry, did not stay in Colorado City but built their large houses in the undeveloped downtown area of Colorado Springs (i.e Wood Ave.). Early pictures show several large stone buildings like Colorado College, St. Mary's, the library, and the county courthouse sitting in large empty plains. This is unique during this period, to pre-build a city's civic infrastructure in stone with wide streets laid out before there was a population to justify the expense. Colorado City remained the county seat of El Paso County until 1873, when the courthouse moved to Colorado Springs. Colorado City was the location of a 1903 labor strike that spread to Cripple Creek and eventually led to the Colorado Labor Wars. Colorado's War on Militant Unionism, James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners, George G. Suggs, Jr., 1972, page 47. W. S. Stratton, early benefactor In 1891, Winfield Scott Stratton discovered and developed one of the richest gold mines on earth in the nearby Cripple Creek and Victor area, and was perhaps the most generous early contributor to those communities and to Colorado Springs. After he made his fortune he declined to build a mansion as the other gold rush millionaires were doing; instead, in later years, he lived in a house in Colorado Springs he had built when he was a carpenter in pre-gold days. In Colorado Springs, he funded the Myron Stratton Home for housing itinerant children and the elderly, donated land for City Hall, the Post Office, the Courthouse (which now houses the Pioneer Museum), and a park; he also greatly expanded the city's trolley car system and built the Mining Exchange building, and gave to all three communities in many other ways, great and small. As Stratton's generosity became known, he was also approached by many people looking for money, and he became reclusive and eccentric in his later years. Spencer Penrose, early benefactor Spencer Penrose also made his mark on Colorado Springs in its early years—though not until two decades after its founding. Penrose started as a ladies-man and an adventurer. After making a fortune in the gold fields of nearby Cripple Creek in the 1890s, he married Julie Villiers Lewis McMillan, and settled down. Penrose used his wealth to invest in other national mineral concerns and financed construction of the Broadmoor Hotel, the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, the Will Rogers Shrine of the Sun, the Pikes Peak Highway, what is now known as Penrose-St Francis Health Services, and established the El Pomar Foundation, which still oversees many of his contributions in Colorado Springs today. End of the Colorado Gold Rush and the start of health tourism The flow of gold and silver ebbed as the decades passed, and Colorado City's economic fortunes faded with it; the miners and those who processed the ore left or retired. Because of the healthy natural scenic beauty, mineral waters, and extremely dry climate, Colorado Springs became a tourist attraction and popular recuperation destination for tuberculosis patients. The healthy waters in Colorado Springs contained so much natural fluoride that some peoples’ teeth developed Colorado Stain. In 1909, Dr. Frederick McKay of Colorado Springs discovered the Colorado Stain connection and that a little fluoride added to water would prevent cavities, according to the permanent health exhibit at the Pioneers Museum. In June, 14th, 1950 Colorado Springs annexed Roswell which was founded in 1888 by coal miners and became a neighborhood. Other locations such as Austin Bluffs, Broadmoor, Woodman Valley, Pikeview, Papeton, Knob Hill, Ivywild, Stratton Meadows, Stratmoor, Elsmare, Cimarron Hills, Kelker, Stratmoor Hills, La Foret, Gleneagle, Skinners, and Colorado City (now called Old Colorado City) became the part of Colorado Springs. Old Colorado City however is located on the west side of Colorado Springs is a historic district and on the National Register of Historic Places. Its old Victorian brick buildings and main street currently offers several tourist, boutique, and antique shops. Latter 20th Century military boom Colorado Springs saw its first military base in 1942 shortly after Pearl Harbor was attacked. During this time the U.S. Army established Camp Carson near the southern borders of the city in order to train and house troops in preparation for World War II. It was also during this time that the Army began using Colorado Springs Municipal Airport. It was renamed Peterson Field and used as a training base for heavy bombers (the airport and base still share parts of the flightline). Hi-res Kodachrome of downtown Colorado Springs, 1951. The Army expanded Camp Carson, a venture that increased growth in Colorado Springs and provided a significant area of industry for the city. Camp Carson was named for the Army scout General Christopher "Kit" Carson, who explored the vast western frontier during the 1800s. http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hm/ftcarson.htm After World War II the military stepped away from the Springs, Camp Carson was declining and the military was activating and deactivating Peterson Field irregularly. That all changed when the Korean War erupted. Camp Carson, which had declined to only 600 soldiers, was revitalized along with many other parts of the Springs. In 1951, the United States Air Defense Command moved to Colorado Springs and opened Ent Air Force Base (named for Major General Uzal Girard Ent, commander of the Ninth Air Force during World War II). After the Korean War, Peterson Field was renamed Peterson Air Force Base and was permanently activated. In 1954 Camp Carson became Fort Carson, Colorado Springs' first Army post. Later that same year, President Dwight D. Eisenhower selected Colorado Springs, out of 300 other sites around the nation, to be the site of the Air Force's military academy. A new and growing Army post, an Air Force Base, and the Air Force's military academy together jump-started Colorado Springs' growth. The military boom continued and in 1963, NORAD's main facility was built in Cheyenne Mountain. This placed NORAD directly next to Colorado Springs and permanently secured the city's military presence. During the Cold War the city greatly expanded due to increased revenue from various industries and the prevailing military presence in the city. In the mid 1970s, Ent Air Force Base was shut down and later converted into the United States Olympic Training Center. Military presence was further increased in 1983 with the founding of Falcon Air Force Base (later changed to Schriever Air Force Base), a base primarily tasked with missile defense and satellite control. Fort Carson and Peterson are still growing and continue to contribute to the city's growth. Air Force Space Command is located on Peterson AFB. Geography and climate Geography The sign greeting travelers into Colorado Springs on Interstate 25 southbound from Denver. Colorado Springs is located at (38.863443, -104.791914). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 186.1 square miles (482.1 km²), of which, 185.7 square miles (481.1 km²) of it is land and 0.4 square miles (1.0 km²) of it (0.21%) is water. Climate Colorado Springs receives 17.4 inches of annual precipitation. Average snowfall for the area (included in the previous annual precipitation calculation) is 44.6" total: 3.7" in October, 6.2" in November, 6.7" in December, 5.4" in January, 5.1" in February, 9.4" in March, 6.3" in April, and 1.3" in May. Due to unusually low precipitation for the past few years before 2006, Colorado Springs has had to enact lawn water restrictions. Average January low and high temperatures are 14°F/ 42°F (-10°C/ 5.5°C) and average July low and high temperatures are 55°F/ 85°F (12.7°C/ 29.4°C). Colorado Springs has relatively mild winters, with large snow accumulations in the downtown area relatively rare, a strong warming sun due to the altitude, and only occasional episodic periods of sub-zero cold snaps and blizzards from October 31 to March/April. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Colorado Springs was 101°F (38.3°C) on June 7, 1874 and the coldest temperature ever recorded was -32°F (-35.5°C) on January 20, 1883. Colorado Springs is also one of the most active lightning strike areas in the United States. This natural phenomenon led Nikola Tesla to select Colorado Springs as the preferred location to build his lab and study electricity. Demographics Military impact on diversity: The diversity of the military populations has had a lasting impact on the rich ethnic and racial makeup of the Colorado Springs area: Military retirees and former military dependents who have settled in the area, an extremely diverse population with wide-ranging international experience and connections, have made the city one of the most culturally and racially diverse parts of Colorado and the Mountain West. Impact of Non-military Hispanic and European Immigration: Earlier influxes of European and European-American settlers of largely German, Irish and Italian heritage as well as an ongoing influx of Hispanic immigrants primarily of Mexican and Central American heritage have also helped to fill out the diversity of the region. Native American population: Although comprising less than 1% of the current population, the local Native American population has links to the area going back thousands of years. Originally one of the homes of the Ute Indian Nation, descendants of Ute heritage continue to reside in greater Colorado Springs. As of the census of 2000 (limited only to the city limits and not including the very diverse Fort Carson area which many view as being a part of the Colorado Springs metropolitan area), there were 360,890 people, 141,516 households, and 93,117 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,942.9 people per square mile (750.2/km²). There were 148,690 housing units at an average density of 800.5/sq mi (309.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 80.66% White, 6.56% African American, 0.88% Native American, 2.82% Asian, 0.21% Pacific Islander, 5.01% from other races, and 3.85% from two or more races. 12.01% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 141,516 households out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06. In the city the population was spread out with 26.5% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.2 males.(Note: City statistics do not include the demographic influence of five local military bases). The median income for a household in the city was $45,081, and the median income for a family was $53,478. Males had a median income of $36,786 versus $26,427 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,496. About 6.1% of families and 8.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.8% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over. Tourism Colorado Springs Skyline, August 2007. Much of the tourism in the Springs is attracted to the surrounding natural features such as Pikes Peak. The city has numerous trails and parks due to its location next to the Rocky Mountains, making the city a popular destination for its scenery. With the mountains nearby, the Springs has also gained fame for its rock formations and other geological features. Other attractions include Garden Of The Gods park, the United States Air Force Academy, Seven Falls, Cave Of The Winds, Pikes Peak and the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo. Transportation Colorado Springs is served by a bus system called Metro (short for Mountain Metropolitan Transit). Metro also operates the Front Range Express (FREX) service, which connects Colorado Springs to Denver and several other metropolitan areas only during weekdays. Although the Metro system serves much of the city and its nearest suburbs, it lacks service to many important areas and has only limited hours of operation. Taxicabs are available by phone or can usually be chartered at the airport or downtown. In order to combat congestion the Colorado Department of Transportation is in the process of widening the Interstate 25 corridor throughout the city from four lanes (two in each direction) to six lanes. This project has officially been named COSMIX (Colorado Springs Metro Interstate Expansion) Ultimately, the plan is to make the interstate eight lanes through the city when funding becomes available. COSMIX Project Home Page This plan is similar in nature to Denver's T-Rex expansion plan. A Metro bus navigates past a parking garage in downtown. Several suggestions have been made to create a loop around the city though none have been implemented. The original plan to convert Powers Boulevard, a major eastside expressway, into a bypass for I-25 was abandoned, but is now being reconsidered by the city council amidst stringent opposition from a large developer responsible for the construction of a large commercial complex along the road. Powers freeway debate restarts | Gazette, The (Colorado Springs) | Find Articles at BNET.com Easier access to the airport has also been suggested. Overall the new thoroughfares would include one (or two) loop freeways, a spur into the city connecting the main freeway and the loop, east-west expressway upgrades, and easier access to the Colorado Springs Airport. Two additional grade separated interchanges were built in order to alleviate congestion at some of the city's worst intersections. Both the intersection at Powers and Woodmen and the intersection at Austin Bluffs and Union were converted into grade separated interchanges. The former is a partial cloverleaf, which was finished mid 2008, and the latter is an urban diamond, finished September 2008. A third interchange is being considered at the intersection of Woodmen Road and Academy Boulevard (Colorado Route 83). Major Highways Colorado Springs is primarily served by the interstate highways I-25 and U.S. Route 24. Interstate 25 runs north-south from New Mexico through Colorado Springs to Denver on its way northward towards Wyoming US 24 traverses through eastern Colorado from Limon through several towns such as Matheson, Simla, Ramah, Calhan, Peyton and Falcon until it reaches the city and leaves the city through the mountains on its way to Minturn, CO. SH 83 runs north-south from Denver to Colorado Springs. SH 115 begins from the US 50 interchange in Cañon City to US 85 (Nevada Avenue) in the city. US 85 US 85 enters the city at Fountain and is signed as Nevada Avenue until it leaves the city at exit 148. US 87 US 87 remains concurrent with 1-25 throughout Colorado. In addition, there are plans to develop a "Front Range Toll Road", a privately-owned turnpike, which would begin south of Pueblo and end around Fort Collins. This toll road would allow rail and truck traffic to avoid the more highly traveled parts of I-25 along the Front Range. Initially, the project had support but has since been highly contested because of the need to condemn the land of many private citizens, through the use of eminent domain, to make room for the corridor http://www.nosuperslab.org/crap/how_to.html . Colorado Springs is served by the Colorado Springs Municipal Airport. In the state of Colorado, only Denver International has more passenger traffic. The airport has experienced a higher recovery rate in the post-9/11 era than the rest of the country Colorado Springs Airport - News Releases and is in the process of expanding its maintenance facilities, taxiways, and runways to accommodate future growth. In 2005 it served approximately two million passengers. Sports Olympic Sports The United States Olympic Committee headquarters and training facility. Colorado Springs is home to the United States Olympic Training Center and the headquarters of the United States Olympic Committee. In addition, a number of United States national federations for individual Olympic sports have their headquarters in Colorado Springs, including: United States Bobsled and Skeleton Federation United States Fencing Association United States Figure Skating Association USA Basketball USA Boxing USA Cycling USA Judo USA Hockey USA Swimming USA Shooting USA Triathlon USA Volleyball USA Wrestling The city has a particularly long association with the sport of figure skating, having hosted the U.S. Figure Skating Championships 6 times and the World Figure Skating Championships 5 times. It is home to the World Figure Skating Museum and Hall of Fame and the Broadmoor Skating Club, a notable training center for the sport. In recent years, the World Arena has hosted skating events such as Skate America and the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships. Local Teams Name Sport Founded League Venue <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Colorado Springs Sky Sox Baseball 1988 Minor league; Pacific Coast League Security Service Field <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Colorado Springs Blizzard Soccer 2004-Folded in 2006 United Soccer Leagues; USL Premier Development League Security Service Field <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Colorado Rush Men's Premier Soccer 2007 Premier Arena Soccer League; National Premier Soccer League (National Division III) Security Service Field <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Colorado Springs Rugby Football Club Rugby 1969 Eastern Rockies Rugby Football Union; USA Rugby; (National Division II) Bear Creek Park <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Colorado Springs Cricket Club Cricket 1999 Colorado Cricket League Rose Bowl, Memorial Park </table> The local colleges feature many sports teams. Notable among them are the following nationally-competitive NCAA Division I teams: United States Air Force Academy (Fighting Falcons) Football, Basketball and Hockey, Colorado College (Tigers) Hockey, and Women's Soccer. Colorado Springs hosted the 1962 International Ice Hockey Federation World Championships (together with Denver). This nullifies a popular Canadian claim that the 2008 IIHF World Championships in Quebec City and Halifax marked the first time this event was organized on the American continent. However, the 2008 event was the first World Championship on the American continent in which NHL players were eligible to compete. Economy Municipal Court. Colorado Springs' economy is driven primarily by the military, the high-tech industry, and tourism, in that order. While the main force behind the city's economy is the military, the city is not completely dependent on it. The city is currently experiencing some growth mainly in the service sectors and has been identified as one of the nation's top ten fastest growing economies. Magazine calls Sacramento a fast city - Sacramento Business Journal: Colorado Springs is also one of the nation's leaders in lender available housing, nearing its top record set in the late 1980s. Foreclosures on the rise in El Paso County, 2002-2006 : Gazette.com On January 17, 2007, Steve Fehl, an Analyst at the Pikes Peak Workforce Center Pikes Peak Workforce Center announced that many of the better jobs being created in Colorado Springs are for service positions in upscale call centers for the insurance, support, and financial industries. These large businesses find the quality and quantity of available college educated workers an incentive to locate to the city. Mr. Fehl also believes Colorado Springs still remains a difficult market for job seekers outside the defense sector. With future growth in the defense sector expected when the approved funding is released to defense contractors, creating employment for those with active security clearances. This growth should offset some of the recent softening in information technology and complex electronic equipment manufacturing sectors. Defense industry The defense industry is a significant portion of Colorado Springs' economy with several of the largest employers coming from this sector. Colorado Springs Gazette A large segment of this industry is dedicated to the development and operation of various projects of the missile defense agency. The aerospace industry also has had an influence on the Colorado Springs economy. The defense sector has planned several changes, moving in and out personnel, building and shutting down, over the next few years. Still, they are among the largest employers in the city and the overall trend is some growth. Significant defense corporations in the city include: Northrop Grumman Lockheed Martin ITT L-3 Communications Harris Corporation Boeing General Dynamics High-tech industry A large percentage of Colorado Springs' economy is still based on high tech and manufacturing complex electronic equipment. The high tech sector of Colorado Springs area has decreased its overall presence in the Springs' economy over the past six years (from around 21,000 down to around 8,000), notably in information technology and complex electronic equipment. (2006-2007 Southern Colorado Economic Forum Publication pg 18) Due to the slowdown in tourism, the high tech sector still remains second to the military in terms of total revenue generated and employment. SCEF - Southern Colorado Economic Forum It is projected by this trend that the high tech employment ratio will continue to decrease in the near future. EETimes.com - A barren Garden of the Gods http://www.gazette.com/articles/percent_38360___article.html/rate_colorado.html http://www.gazette.com/articles/manufacturing_40004___article.html/springs_technology.html Because of Colorado Springs’ central U.S. location, available reserve of highly educated workers, and business friendly climate; several companies have plans to either expand their current operations in Colorado Springs or have considered Colorado Springs as a competitive area for relocating or opening a business. High tech corporations with connections to the city include: Verizon Business – Software development - Formerly WorldCom and MCI, has a fairly large engineering presence. At its peak during the mid to late 1990s, with over 5,000 employees and currently has nearly 1300 employees in 2008. Wayne Heilman gazette.com 09/19/08 email Hewlett-Packard – Computing – large sales, support, and SAN storage engineering center. The location was built by Digital Equipment Corporation, renamed Compaq in the 1998 acquisition of Digital, and finally renamed Hewlett-Packard after the 2002 merger. Nearly 1000 positions will be transferred out of the Springs http://www.gazette.com/articles/springs_37486___article.html/colorado_new.html http://www.gazette.com/articles/center_37622___article.html/springs_employees.html http://www.gazette.com/articles/move_37716___article.html/workers_employees.html SNIA – Computing - home of the SNIA Technology Center Agilent – Test and Measurement Manufacturing - In 1999, Agilent was spun off from HP as an independent, publicly-traded company. Intel– Currently idled with 250 employees, down from 1000 employees in 2007 http://www.gazette.com/articles/intel_38707___article.html/help_workers.html Atmel – Chip fabrication. Formerly Honeywell. Recently laid off 245 workers and will shut down in 2009. http://www.gazette.com/articles/atmel_44889___article.html/employees_company.html Cypress Semiconductor Colorado Design Center – Chip fabrication R&D site Sanmina-SCI Closing facility around December 2007 to January 2008 (800 jobs). Sept 2007, Tammy Fields, Colorado Springs Economic Development Corporation Military AFSPC Headquarters, Peterson AFB, Colorado Springs. The United States Military plays a very important role in the city. Colorado Springs is home to both Army and Air Force bases and their numerous support bases around the county. Excluding Schriever Air Force Base, all these military installations are on the border of the city, to the north, south and east. Fort Carson Fort Carson is the city's largest military base, and until mid-2006 was home to the 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment, which relocated to Fort Hood, Texas. By 2009, Fort Carson will be the home station of the 4th Infantry Division, which will nearly double the base's population. Fort Carson is host to various training grounds for infantry, armor, and aviation units (specifically the OH-58 Kiowa Warrior). Fort Carson is also the headquarters of the second and third battalions of the 10th Special Forces Group. Peterson Air Force Base The Air Force has critical aspects of their service based at Colorado Springs which carry on missile defense operations and development. The Air Force bases a large section of the national missile defense operations here, with Peterson Air Force Base set to operate large sections of the program. Peterson AFB is currently the headquarters of the majority of Air Force Space Command and the operations half of Army Space and Missile Defense Command/Army Strategic Command (SMDC/ARSTRAT). Peterson is also headquarters for the United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM), one of the Unified Combatant Commands. USNORTHCOM directs all branches of the U.S. military operations in their area of responsibility which includes the continental United States, Alaska, Canada, and Mexico. In the event of national emergencies the President or Secretary of Defense can call upon USNORTHCOM for any required military assistance. Service members from every branch of US Military are stationed at the command. Schriever Air Force Base (formerly Falcon AFB) Schriever AFB is home to the 50th Space Wing that controls warning, navigational, communications and spy satellites. It is also the home of the Space Warfare Center and the home for the 576th Flight Test Squadron http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/1282451.html?page=3 . It is the location of the global positioning system (GPS) master control station and GPS Operations Center and the US Naval Observatory Alternate Master Clock used to synchronize GPS satellite time. Schriever is also developing parts of national missile defense and runs parts of the annual wargames used by the nations military. NORAD and Cheyenne Mountain Air Station North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), a component of America's missile defense system, is located in Cheyenne Mountain Air Station. When it was built at the height of the Cold War it caused much anxiety for the residents of Colorado Springs. Although NORAD still operates, today it is primarily tasked with the tracking of ICBMs, but the military has recently decided to place Cheyenne Mountain's NORAD/NORTHCOM operations on standby and move operations to nearby Peterson Air Force Base. Military to put Cheyenne Mountain on standby - The Denver Post United States Air Force Academy The north end of the city is home to the vast United States Air Force Academy grounds, where cadets train to become officers in the Air Force. The campus is famous for its unique chapel and draws visitors year round. The Air Force sports programs belong to the Mountain West Conference. Religious institutions Focus on the Family is one of many major religious organizations based in Colorado Springs. In recent years, Colorado Springs has attracted a large influx of Evangelical Christians and Christian Organizations. At one time Colorado Springs was counted to be the national headquarters for 81 different religious organizations, earning the city the tongue-in-cheek nickname "the Evangelical Vatican". According to the 2006 DEX phone book, there are 84 separate categories under "churches" with hundreds of individual churches listed. The city and surrounding areas also host hundreds of churches and synagogues of many faiths and denominations, including a mosque. Religious groups with headquarters at Colorado Springs include: Roman Catholic Diocese of Colorado Springs Compassion International Focus on the Family International Bible Society Association of Christian Schools International The Navigators Young Life Christian and Missionary Alliance WAY-FM Network HCJB Education Doolittle Hall on the campus of the United States Air Force Academy. Universities, colleges and special schools include: Colorado College, founded in 1874 The Colorado School for the Deaf and Blind, also founded in 1874 The United States Air Force Academy, established on its present site in 1958 The University of Colorado at Colorado Springs (UCCS), established on its present Cragmor grounds in 1965 Pikes Peak Community College Nazarene Bible College Remington College, vocational training. Colorado Technical University, established in 1965 Colorado State University - Pueblo, Citadel Campus DeVry University Regis University, Jesuit University Troy University The city's public schools are divided into several districts: Widefield School District 3 On the south end Academy School District 20 On the north end Colorado Springs School District 11 In the center of the city Falcon School District 49 On the east side Fountain-Fort Carson School District 8 On the far south end Harrison School District 2 In the south central area James Irwin Charter Schools In the east central area Cheyenne Mountain School District 12 In the southwest corner Colorado School for the Deaf and Blind Private schools: Colorado Springs Christian Schools Evangelical Christian Academy Fountain Valley School of Colorado Hilltop Baptist School Saint Mary's High School Colorado Springs School Divine Redeemer Catholic School Pikes Peak Christian School Colorado Springs city government City Hall. The city is a Council-Manager government, with a City Council and Mayor that meet regularly to approve budgets and projects, while the city manager deals with the day-to-day aspects of running the city. The mayor and vice mayor are elected at large. The city council consists of seven members four of whom are elected from districts while the other three are elected at large. Area Medical Facilities There are two main hospital systems in the City of Colorado Springs. They are Memorial Health System and Penrose-St. Francis Health Services. Memorial is owned by the City of Colorado Springs and has two locations: Memorial Hospital Central which is located downtown and Memorial Hospital North which is located off Briargate Parkway. Penrose-St. Francis Health Services has two Main Hospitals, Penrose Hospital off I-25, and St. Francis Medical Center on Powers and Woodmen Road on the city's northeast side. This facility opened in August 2008 and is the only full-service acute care facility in the northern part of the city. Notable residents Basketball player Lynn Barry Actor Michael Boatman Artist Charles Ragland Bunnell (1897-1968) Silent film star Lon Chaney was born in Colorado Springs on April 1, 1883. The Lon Chaney Theatre is named for him. Football star Earl "Dutch" Clark graduated from Colorado College Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher Goose Gossage was born in Colorado Springs on July 5, 1951, and graduated from Wasson High School. Retired from baseball, he currently lives in Colorado Springs. Baseball pitcher Dave Dravecky Aerosmith bassist Tom Hamilton was born in Colorado Springs. Focus on the Family founder James Dobson New Life Church founder Ted Haggard Preacher-turned-pariah tells of his two years in the wilderness Chris Elrod, Christian comedian and writer lived in Colorado Springs during his high school years. Chriselrod.Com TNA wrestler Bobby Lashley is billed from Colorado Springs. Keith Lockhart, former conductor of the Pikes Peak Symphony, current conductor of the Boston Pops Actress Chase Masterson Leonard Peikoff, heir to the Ayn Rand estate and philosopher. Cassandra Peterson (also known as Elvira, Mistress of the Night) graduated in 1969 from General William J. Palmer High School in Colorado Springs Professional kickboxer, wrestler and actor Bob "The Beast" Sapp was born in Colorado Springs and attended Mitchell High School. Serbian-born American physicist Nikola Tesla built a laboratory in Colorado Springs in 1899 for his experiments in the wireless transmission of electrical power. The site of the lab, the present intersection of Foote and Kiowa streets, is now a residential area. Model Leeann Tweeden worked briefly as a waitress at a local Hooters in the 1991-1992 timeframe. Automobile racer Bobby Unser was born in Colorado Springs on February 20, 1934. Former British ice dancer Christopher Dean Former American figure skater Jill Trenary, who is married to Dean. NFL wide receiver Vincent Jackson of the San Diego Chargers and graduated from Widefield High School NFL defensive end Aaron Smith (American football) of the Pittsburgh Steelers NFL cornerback Roc Alexander NFL punter Barry Helton of the San Francisco 49ers Miss Colorado 2002, Miss Colorado Teen USA 1999, and former Denver Broncos cheerleader, Morgan O'Murray NBA Hall of Famer Rick Barry ESPN College GameDay (football) host Chris Fowler Pioneering nerdcore artist and former computer hacker YTCracker MLB starting pitcher Brandon McCarthy of the Texas Rangers (baseball) Duane Chapman from Dog the Bounty Hunter Former BBC's "Tomorrow's World" presenter, currently resides in Colorado Springs. Howard Stableford Comedian Lewis Black lived briefly in Colorado Springs with college friends as part-owner of a small theater there. Popcorn Magnate Orville Redenbacher Colorado College Class of 1919 Thomas Eugene Foulks lived in Colorado Springs from the early 1960s through 2003. He was local news anchor and politician. Actress Juli Ashton OneRepublic lead singer Ryan Tedder, who also co-wrote Bleeding Love for Leona Lewis, which hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in 2008. OneRepublic lead guitarist Zach Filkins Academy Award winning director Sydney Pollack worked downtown during a stint at Fort Carson Notable jazz guitarist Johnny Smith Professional Hockey Player David Hale Conservative author, commentator and blogger Michelle Malkin moved to Colorado Springs in 2008. Sister cities Sister cities of Colorado Springs include: Fujiyoshida, Japan (1962) Kaohsiung, Taiwan (1983) Smolensk, Russia (1993) Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (1994) Nuevo Casas Grandes, Mexico (1996) Bankstown, Australia (1999) Colorado Springs' sister city organization began when Colorado Springs became partners with Fujiyoshida. The torii gate erected to commemorate the relationship stands at the corner of Bijou Street and Nevada Avenue, and is one of the city's most recognizable landmarks. The torii gate, crisscrossed bridge and shrine, located in the median between Platte and Bijou Streets in downtown Colorado Springs, were a gift to Colorado Springs, erected in 1966 by the Rotary Club of Colorado Springs to celebrate the friendship between the two communities. A plaque near the torii gate states that "the purpose of the sister city relationship is to promote understanding between the people of our two countries and cities". The Fujiyoshida Student exchange program has become an annual event. To strengthen relations between the two cities, the Colorado Springs Youth Symphony regularly invites the Taiko drummers from the city to participate in a joint concert in the Pikes Peak Center. The orchestra played in Bankstown, Australia, in 2002 and again in June 2006 as part of their tours to Australia and New Zealand. Also, in 2006, the Bankstown TAP (Talent Advancement Program), performed with the Youth Symphony, and the Colorado Springs Children's Chorale, as a part of the annual In Harmony program. A notable similarity between Colorado Springs and its sister cities are their geographic positions, three of the six cities being located near the base of a major mountain or range. City of Colorado Springs - Topic Pages In popular culture In the 1983 suspense film WarGames, was set partly in a fictional creation of NORAD facility at Cheyenne Mountain. Clive Cussler sets a chapter of his thriller "Cyclops" in Colorado Springs, featuring an action scene between the President's personal investigator and a man supposedly involved in a top secret colony on the moon. Robert A. Heinlein, noted sci-fi writer during the genre's Golden Age, lived in Colorado Springs during part of his career. His novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress featured at one point the rebel moon government raining rock-filled grain canisters down on NORAD's headquarters inside Cheyenne Mountain, incidentally destroying Colorado Springs because of the great amount of kinetic energy released on impact. Peanuts creator Charles M. Schulz lived briefly in Colorado Springs in 1951, on North Franklin Street. Linus and Lucy Van Pelt were neighbors of his, for whom he named characters. He painted a wall of his home with some Peanuts characters. The wall was removed from the home in 2001 and donated to the Charles M. Schulz Museum in Santa Rosa, California. Several scenes of Perry Mason: The Case of the Sinister Spirit (1987) were filmed at the Broadmoor Hotel. Several courtroom scenes in the Perry Mason movie series were filmed in the courtroom exhibit at the Pioneer's Museum (formerly the El Paso County Courthouse). The Incident (1990) was filmed in the courtroom exhibit at the Pioneer's Museum (formerly the El Paso County Courthouse). http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0099842/locations Strangeland (1998) was filmed in Colorado Springs. www.imdb.com/title/tt0124102/locations Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, an Emmy Award-winning dramatic television series starring Jane Seymour, was set in this town. Though there was some historical accuracy, the character was based on a woman from nearby Cripple Creek and the majority of the events and settings were fictional, and actual filming was done at the Paramount Ranch near Agoura Hills, California. "Stargate" Fountain Close up "Stargate" Fountain The TV series Stargate SG-1 has several episodes which at least partially take place in Colorado Springs; additionally SGC is based out of nearby Cheyenne Mountain, and most of the team members are shown to reside in Colorado Springs. The new Julie Penrose Fountain and two Egyptian style obelisks (in background) located in the America the Beautiful park in Colorado Springs bears a remarkable resemblance to a Stargate. The movie Miracle shows Herb Brooks interviewing for the head coaching job for USA Hockey in Colorado Springs. In the movie The Sum Of All Fears the Russian president asks a military adviser how many people live in Colorado Springs, as he weighs the ramifications of the use of nuclear weapons against the city. This highlights the strategic importance of the military-centered city. By including Colorado Springs as the home of inventor Nikola Tesla, played by David Bowie, the film The Prestige dates itself to the years 1899 or 1900, when Tesla used the city for a series of electricity experiments. The Cliff House at Pikes Peak in nearby Manitou Springs is the basis for the hotel used in the film. Under the fictional name of Cody, Colorado, the 2006 movie "Fast Food Nation" features a fictional meat packing plant set to a number of panoramic shots of Colorado Springs, including Pikes Peak, Cheyenne Mountain, the Front Range, as well as the McDonald's located on Academy Boulevard and San Miguel Street. In the second Allied mission of Command and Conquer: Red Alert 2, the player is required to recapture the United States Air Force Academy from Soviet forces. It is within Colorado Springs' range. The titular characters' home in the Adult Swim cartoon The Venture Bros. is located in Colorado Springs. The former restaurant chain Mr. Steak was started here. In a recent Verizon Wireless commercial, a couple walks into a car rental shop in which they are informed that their 3G internet will not work. The map behind the characters that comes into focus is that of Colorado with Colorado Springs at its focal point. Most of the towns are renamed, including US Army Fort Carson. In the 1997 Film, Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (Starring Mike Meyers), NORAD was mentioned and reproduced on set to look like the entrance to the "Cheyenne Mountain Complex". It featured a scene where they used sonar imagery in the location of a flying "Big Boy" which Dr. Evil used to cryogenically freeze himself and his cat "Mr. Bigglesworth". See also Colorado municipalities Pikes Peak Library District South Central Colorado Urban Area References External links City of Colorado Springs website Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center Official Site of the Colorado Springs Convention & Visitors Bureau Early Capitol and Legislative Assembly Locations Colorado City Historical Society
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7,108
Geoff_Hurst
Sir Geoffrey Charles Hurst MBE (born 8 December 1941 in Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire) is a retired England footballer best remembered for his years with West Ham. He made his mark in World Cup history as the only player to have scored a hat-trick in a World Cup final. His three goals came in the 1966 final for England in their 4–2 win over West Germany at the old Wembley. Such an achievement was made all the more remarkable by the fact that he was only five months and eight games into his international career, and was not considered his country's premier centre forward. Early career Hurst was born in the Lake Hospital Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, but moved with his family to Chelmsford, Essex, at the age of eight. He attended Kings Road Primary School, where a house is now named after him. The son of a lower-division footballer, Hurst's own footballing career began when he was apprenticed to West Ham United. When he was scouted for West Ham United, he played for a Sunday team in the Tandridge League (Surrey area), Chipstead. Hurst was initially a strong-running midfielder but was converted to a centre forward by manager Ron Greenwood. West Ham won the FA Cup in 1964 with Hurst scoring the second equaliser in a tight and exciting 3–2 victory at Wembley. A year later, Hurst was back at Wembley for the final of the European Cup Winners Cup against 1860 Munich, and West Ham won 2–0. The following season he was in the West Ham side which lost the League Cup final on aggregate to West Bromwich Albion, and in February 1966 he was given his debut for England by manager Alf Ramsey. Hurst played one first-class cricket match for Essex, Retrieved on 12 September 2008. against Lancashire at Aigburth in 1962, although it was not a successful outing: he made 0 not out in the first innings, and was bowled by Colin Hilton, again for 0, in the second. Retrieved on 12 September 2008. However, he appeared 23 times in the Essex Second XI between 1962 and 1964, before concentrating entirely on football. Retrieved on 12 September 2008. 1966 World Cup campaign Hurst settled into international football quickly but as the World Cup approached, it seemed clear that his inclusion in Ramsey's squad of 22 would merely be as a different option to the first choice partnership of Jimmy Greaves and Roger Hunt. Greaves and Hunt were indeed picked for the three group games against Uruguay, Mexico and France, but in the latter game, Greaves suffered a deep gash to his leg which required stitches, and Hurst was called up to take his place in the quarter final against Argentina. With captain Bobby Moore and young midfielder Martin Peters already in the side, it completed a trio of West Ham players selected by Ramsey at this most crucial stage of the competition. Argentina were talented but preferred a violent approach to the game, which saw them reduced to ten men. The game was still tightly contested as it entered its final 15 minutes, but then Peters swung over a curling cross from the left flank and Hurst, anticipating his clubmate's thinking, got in front of his marker to glance a near post header past the Argentine keeper. England won 1–0 and were in the semi finals. Greaves was not fit for the game against Portugal so Hurst and Hunt continued up front, and England won 2–1 thanks to a brace from Bobby Charlton, the second of which was set up by Hurst. As the final against the Germans approached, the media learnt of Greaves' return to fitness and, while appreciating Hurst's contribution, started to call for the return of England's most prolific centre forward. Ramsey, however, would not be swayed. Hurst had played well enough to keep his place and, with substitutes still disallowed in competitive football, Greaves' hopes of taking part in the final were dashed. Ramsey informed Greaves and Hurst of his decision the day before the game, and would be conclusively vindicated. The World Cup Final West Germany took the lead through Helmut Haller early on, but six minutes later Moore was fouled just inside the German half of the field. He quickly picked himself up and delivered the free kick to Hurst, totally unmarked in his run, as the Germans regrouped. The goalkeeper seemed frozen as the header thundered past him, levelling the match. In the second half, chances went begging for both sides before England won a corner on the right with a quarter of an hour left on the clock. Alan Ball took it, outswinging the ball to Hurst on the edge of the area. Hurst turned to shoot and the ball deflected high into the air, looping down on to the right boot of Peters, who smashed it home. The Germans equalised with virtually the last kick of the game, forcing extra time. The subsequent 30 minutes would shape the rest of Hurst's life. In the first period, Ball flicked a pass inside to Hurst in the penalty box who struck a strong shot towards goal with his right foot, falling backwards as he did so. The ball beat the goalkeeper, hit the crossbar and bounced down before Wolfgang Weber, scorer of the Germans' second goal, headed it out for a corner. England's players claimed a goal; the Germans were just as adamant that the ball had not fully crossed the line. The referee Gottfried Dienst, unsure, decided to consult his linesman, Tofik Bakhramov, on the right flank, who had waved his flag to get the official's attention. The Soviet linesman signalled that the ball had crossed the line, and the goal was given. The Germans were furious and protested with the linesman vociferously, but because the linesman spoke only Russian, Turkish and Azeri, that was a pointless exercise. Ever since, football reporters and commentators on England games have called in jest for a "Russian linesman" (although actually Bakhramov was from Azerbaijan) whenever there has been a contentious decision to make, especially when that decision has not gone England's way. Advances in technology have never conclusively proved that the ball crossed the line and generally support the opposite view, but Bakhramov was insistent at the time and continued to justify his decision in the decades to come until his death. For his part, Hurst never saw the ball bounce down because his momentum on shooting had taken him backwards on to the Wembley turf. However, he always believed the ball was in the net because of Hunt's reaction – the Liverpool striker was following in as the ball hit the bar and turned to celebrate a goal instead of trying to knock the rebound into the net. Hurst's argument was that a natural goalscorer such as Hunt would have put the ball into the net himself had he been in any doubt. It looked like a 3–2 win for England with Hurst as the hero with the winning goal but in the last seconds, as the Germans were pushing everyone forward to seek the equalizer, Moore cleared his lines with a long ball over the German defence. While spectators ran on the field, Hurst ran on towards the goal, stating later that he intended just to blast it as far away as he could to eat away valuable seconds. He did rather better than that – the left-foot shot flew into the net at the near post, completing a stunning victory and a hat-trick which remains unique to this day. The referee allowed the goal despite the spectators on the field, and there was no time for the Germans to restart the match. Hurst still emerged the hero of the win but, as a result of the third goal, became an icon of world Geoff Hurst: Encyclopedia II - Geoff Hurst - The World Cup final football too. It is stated often that Hurst's hat-trick is technically a "perfect hat-trick", as he scored with his head, right foot and left foot. Others feel this is contentious, as he scored a disputed goal. It is not a "flawless hat-trick" as this has to be scored in one half of the game. Last minute The referee had put his whistle to his lips as Moore shaped to play the final pass to Hurst. He didn't blow it, however, yet some supporters misheard, assumed the game was complete and started invading the pitch. As Hurst collected the pass, BBC commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme immortalised his own contribution to the day with the most famous piece of football commentary ever: Hurst was immediately jumped on by Alan Ball, the only other player upfield at the time Moore played the pass. Meanwhile, cameras quickly snapped a bemused-looking Greaves in his suit and tie on the England bench, amazed at the achievements of the man who had replaced him. Greaves would later say it was an emotional reaction but he was just as thrilled for Hurst and England as the other squad players who had not been picked for the final. After the match It wasn't until the celebratory banquet that evening that Hurst realised he had scored a hat-trick, assuming that the final whistle had been blown before he'd struck the ball into the net for his third goal. This meant he had not attempted to get the match ball as a souvenir, which hat-trick scorers traditionally do. Haller, scorer of the Germans' first goal, acquired the ball and was seen holding it as he collected his runner's up medal. He returned it to England more than 30 years later. The media were desperate to speak one-on-one with Hurst and they found him the day after the final, back home in London. As if to prove that life had to go on, Hurst was carrying out the mundane task of mowing his lawn when the journalists turned up. Continuing international career Hurst continued to play and score for England, and although he won no further honours with West Ham or England in the 1960s he still maintained his England place for much of the period; for the 2-3 seasons immediately after 1966 he was an internationally renowned striker and goalscorer. Hurst was named in the Ramsey squad which played in Mexico to defend the World Cup in 1970. He scored the only goal of England's opening game against Romania as England progressed to the quarter finals, where once again they faced West Germany. Hurst played a part in a goal for Peters which put England 2–0 up, but the Germans forced their way back and won 3–2 after extra time. In 1972, West Ham reached the semi final of the League Cup when they played Stoke City over two legs. In the home leg for West Ham, they were awarded a penalty which Hurst took. He powerful shot into the top corner was saved by Stoke goalkeeper and Hurst's international team-mate Gordon Banks, who succeeded in deflecting the ball over the bar. Stoke won the tie and ultimately the competition. Hurst left West Ham to join them later the same year for £75,000. He had played one game short of 500 for West Ham, during which time he had scored 252 goals. His England career ended the same year with yet another game against West Germany, in the qualification stages for the 1972 European Championships, which England lost. He had won 49 caps and scored 24 goals, currently putting him 11th in the all-time England scorers' list. His final years as a player Manchester United had a bid of £200,000 rejected for Hurst on 18 June 1968. Hurst wound down his career with Stoke City and also West Bromwich Albion. He then signed for the Seattle Sounders of the NASL in 1976. Unlike many players who came over to the NASL from Europe to end their careers, Hurst rapidly proved his worth, and became a valuable member of the Sounders team. He was the team’s second-leading scorer, helping the Sounders make it to the playoffs for the first time in their brief history, with 8 goals and 4 assists in 23 regular season games, and 1 goal in the playoffs. More important than Hurst’s numbers was his sense of timing: not only did he score the first (in the home opener against Portland) and the last (in the playoffs against Vancouver) goals of the season, 5 of his 8 goals were game-winners. After Seattle, Hurst played in Kuwait and signed for Cork Celtic in January 1976. Sir Geoffrey Charles Hurst MBE Post-playing career Upon his retirement from playing, Hurst moved into management and coaching. He was assistant to his ex-West Ham boss Ron Greenwood after the latter took over the England job in 1977, player-manager of Telford United and manager of Chelsea from 1979-81. He joined Chelsea, then in the Second Division, before the 1979-80 season, initially as assistant manager to Danny Blanchflower. When Blanchflower was sacked, Hurst was appointed manager. Things initially went well, and for much of the season Chelsea were on course for promotion, but two wins from their final seven league games ensured the club finished 4th. The following season again began well, with the Blues among the early promotion pace-setters before a dismal run set in, with Chelsea scoring in just three of their final 22 league matches, culminating in Hurst being sacked in April 1981. In 1975 Hurst was decorated with the MBE. In later years, Hurst became a successful businessman, working in the insurance industry. He also became much in demand as a pundit and a motivational speaker. In 1998 he was knighted. He is currently Director of Football for McDonald's fast food chain. Legacy England fans claim that the name and achievement of Geoff Hurst remains unique in global football, while others point out that he scored only one undisputed goal at full time, plus two controversial ones in extra time. Since 1966, only three players have come close to emulating Hurst's hat-trick in a World Cup final. Mario Kempes of Argentina in 1978, Zinedine Zidane for France in 1998 and Ronaldo for Brazil in 2002 all scored two goals in World Cup finals but did not manage a third. Hurst's contribution to the English game was recognised in 2004 when he was inducted in the English Football Hall of Fame. Hurst is also one of the few footballers who have been knighted, and this recognises his contribution to the game. In popular culture, a shot bouncing off the crossbar and hitting the line is referred to as a "Geoff Hurst style shot" if no goal is given, or a "Geoff Hurst style goal". An example of that is David Trezeguet (of Juventus's) penalty against Italy in the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final when it went to penalties. As he shot, the ball smacked the bar, and in similar circumstances it was not clear if it crossed the line. Managerial stats TeamNatFromToRecordGWLDWin %Chelsea13 September 197930 April 19817935261844.30 Honours World Cup: 1966 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1964-65 FA Cup: 1964 International Soccer League: 1963 Statistics |- |1959-60||rowspan="13"|West Ham United||rowspan="16"|First Division||3||0|||||||| |- |1960-61||6||0|||||||| |- |1961-62||24||1|||||||| |- |1962-63||27||13|||||||| |- |1963-64||37||14|||||||| |- |1964-65||42||17|||||||| |- |1965-66||39||23|||||||| |- |1966-67||41||29|||||||| |- |1967-68||38||19|||||||| |- |1968-69||42||25|||||||| |- |1969-70||39||16|||||||| |- |1970-71||39||15|||||||| |- |1971-72||34||8|||||||| |- |1972-73||rowspan="3"|Stoke City||38||10|||||||| |- |1973-74||35||12|||||||| |- |1974-75||35||8|||||||| |- |1975-76||West Bromwich Albion||Second Division||10||2|||||||| |- |1976||Seattle Sounders||NASL||24||9|||||||| 529||212|||||||| 24||9|||||||| 553||221|||||||| |} References External links Sir Geoff Hurst's Hat-Trick - for England against West Germany in the FIFA World Cup on 30 July 1966 England-Expects.org - Comprehensive website detailing current and historical information about the England team English Football Hall of Fame Profile Geoff Hurst's cricket record from CricketArchive
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7,109
Data_compression
In computer science and information theory, data compression or source coding is the process of encoding information using fewer bits (or other information-bearing units) than an unencoded representation would use through use of specific encoding schemes. As with any communication, compressed data communication only works when both the sender and receiver of the information understand the encoding scheme. For example, this text makes sense only if the receiver understands that it is intended to be interpreted as characters representing the English language. Similarly, compressed data can only be understood if the decoding method is known by the receiver. Compression is useful because it helps reduce the consumption of expensive resources, such as hard disk space or transmission bandwidth. On the downside, compressed data must be decompressed to be used, and this extra processing may be detrimental to some applications. For instance, a compression scheme for video may require expensive hardware for the video to be decompressed fast enough to be viewed as it's being decompressed (the option of decompressing the video in full before watching it may be inconvenient, and requires storage space for the decompressed video). The design of data compression schemes therefore involves trade-offs among various factors, including the degree of compression, the amount of distortion introduced (if using a lossy compression scheme), and the computational resources required to compress and uncompress the data. Lossless versus lossy compression Lossless compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy in such a way as to represent the sender's data more concisely without error. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data has statistical redundancy. For example, in English text, the letter 'e' is much more common than the letter 'z', and the probability that the letter 'q' will be followed by the letter 'z' is very small. Another kind of compression, called lossy data compression or perceptual coding, is possible if some loss of fidelity is acceptable. Generally, a lossy data compression will be guided by research on how people perceive the data in question. For example, the human eye is more sensitive to subtle variations in luminance than it is to variations in color. JPEG image compression works in part by "rounding off" some of this less-important information. Lossy data compression provides a way to obtain the best fidelity for a given amount of compression. In some cases, transparent (unnoticeable) compression is desired; in other cases, fidelity is sacrificed to reduce the amount of data as much as possible. Lossless compression schemes are reversible so that the original data can be reconstructed, while lossy schemes accept some loss of data in order to achieve higher compression. However, lossless data compression algorithms will always fail to compress some files; indeed, any compression algorithm will necessarily fail to compress any data containing no discernible patterns. Attempts to compress data that has been compressed already will therefore usually result in an expansion, as will attempts to compress all but the most trivially encrypted data. In practice, lossy data compression will also come to a point where compressing again does not work, although an extremely lossy algorithm, like for example always removing the last byte of a file, will always compress a file up to the point where it is empty. An example of lossless vs. lossy compression is the following string: 25.888888888 This string can be compressed as: 25.[9]8 Interpreted as, "twenty five point 9 eights", the original string is perfectly recreated, just written in a smaller form. In a lossy system, using 26 instead, the original data is lost, at the benefit of a smaller file size. Applications The above is a very simple example of run-length encoding, wherein large runs of consecutive identical data values are replaced by a simple code with the data value and length of the run. This is an example of lossless data compression. It is often used to optimize disk space on office computers, or better use the connection bandwidth in a computer network. For symbolic data such as spreadsheets, text, executable programs, etc., losslessness is essential because changing even a single bit cannot be tolerated (except in some limited cases). For visual and audio data, some loss of quality can be tolerated without losing the essential nature of the data. By taking advantage of the limitations of the human sensory system, a great deal of space can be saved while producing an output which is nearly indistinguishable from the original. These lossy data compression methods typically offer a three-way tradeoff between compression speed, compressed data size and quality loss. Lossy image compression is used in digital cameras, to increase storage capacities with minimal degradation of picture quality. Similarly, DVDs use the lossy MPEG-2 codec for video compression. In lossy audio compression, methods of psychoacoustics are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the signal. Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques, so that "speech compression" or "voice coding" is sometimes distinguished as a separate discipline from "audio compression". Different audio and speech compression standards are listed under audio codecs. Voice compression is used in Internet telephony for example, while audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by audio players. Theory The theoretical background of compression is provided by information theory (which is closely related to algorithmic information theory) and by rate-distortion theory. These fields of study were essentially created by Claude Shannon, who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Cryptography and coding theory are also closely related. The idea of data compression is deeply connected with statistical inference. Many lossless data compression systems can be viewed in terms of a four-stage model. Lossy data compression systems typically include even more stages, including, for example, prediction, frequency transformation, and quantization. The Lempel-Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage. DEFLATE is a variation on LZ which is optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, therefore compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, gzip and PNG. LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) is used in GIF images. Also noteworthy are the LZR (LZ-Renau) methods, which serve as the basis of the Zip method. LZ methods utilize a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded (e.g. SHRI, LZX). A current LZ-based coding scheme that performs well is LZX, used in Microsoft's CAB format. The very best compressors use probabilistic models which predictions are coupled to an algorithm called arithmetic coding. Arithmetic coding, invented by Jorma Rissanen, and turned into a practical method by Witten, Neal, and Cleary, achieves superior compression to the better-known Huffman algorithm, and lends itself especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the predictions are strongly context-dependent. Arithmetic coding is used in the bilevel image-compression standard JBIG, and the document-compression standard DjVu. The text entry system, Dasher, is an inverse-arithmetic-coder. There is a close connection between machine learning and compression: a system that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution), while an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has been used as justification for data compression as a benchmark for "general intelligence" Rationale for a Large Text Compression Benchmark . See also Data compression topics Algorithmic complexity theory Information entropy Self-extracting archive Image compression Speech coding Video compression Multimedia compression Minimum description length Minimum message length (two-part lossless compression designed for inference) List of archive formats List of file archivers Comparison of file archivers List of Unix programs Free file format HTTP compression Reverse Delta Magic compression algorithm Data compression symmetry Compression algorithms Lossless data compression run-length encoding dictionary coders LZ77 & LZ78 LZW Burrows-Wheeler transform prediction by partial matching (also known as PPM) context mixing Dynamic Markov Compression (DMC) entropy encoding Huffman coding (simple entropy coding; commonly used as the final stage of compression) Adaptive Huffman coding Shannon-Fano coding arithmetic coding (more advanced) range encoding (same as arithmetic coding, but looked at in a slightly different way) Golomb coding (simple entropy coding for infinite input data with a geometric distribution) universal codes (entropy coding for infinite input data with an arbitrary distribution) Elias gamma coding Fibonacci coding Lossy data compression discrete cosine transform fractal compression fractal transform wavelet compression vector quantization linear predictive coding Modulo-N code for correlated data A-law Compander Mu-law Compander Example implementations DEFLATE (a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding) – used by ZIP, gzip and PNG files LZMA used by 7-Zip LZO (very fast LZ variation, speed oriented) LZX (an LZ77 family compression algorithm) Unix compress utility (the .Z file format), and GIF use LZW Unix pack utility (the .z file format) used Huffman coding bzip2 (a combination of the Burrows-Wheeler transform and Huffman coding) PAQ (very high compression based on context mixing, but extremely slow; competing in the top of the highest compression competitions) JPEG (image compression using a discrete cosine transform, then quantization, then Huffman coding) MPEG (audio and video compression standards family in wide use, using DCT and motion-compensated prediction for video) MP3 (a part of the MPEG-1 standard for sound and music compression, using subbanding and MDCT, perceptual modeling, quantization, and Huffman coding) AAC (part of the MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 audio coding specifications, using MDCT, perceptual modeling, quantization, and Huffman coding) Vorbis (DCT based AAC-alike audio codec, designed with a focus on avoiding patent encumbrance) JPEG 2000 (image compression using wavelets, then quantization, then entropy coding) TTA (codec) (uses linear predictive coding for lossless audio compression) FLAC (linear predictive coding for lossless audio compression) Corpora Data collections, commonly used for comparing compression algorithms. Canterbury Corpus Calgary Corpus References External links Data Compression - Systematisation by T.Strutz Introduction to Data Compression by Guy E Blelloch from CMU Practical Compressor Test (Compares speed and efficiency for commonly used compression programs) Data Compression Benchmark - Squeeze Chart Ranking be-x-old:Сьцісканьне зьвестак
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7,110
Microscope
A microscope (from the , mikrós, "small" and , skopeîn, "to look" or "see") is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. The term microscopic means minute or very small, not visible with the eye unless aided by a microscope. History Microscopes trace their history back almost 1200 years with Abbas Ibn Firnas's corrective lenses, and it was Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics — written between 1011 and 1021 — that laid the foundation for optical research on the magnifying glass. Also, a device called the reading stone by an unknown inventor (thought to be Ibn Firnas) magnified text when laid on top of reading materials. Timeline - History of Microscopes The first true microscope was made around 1595 in Middelburg, The Netherlands. Microscopes: Time Line Three different eyeglass makers have been given credit for the invention: Hans Lippershey (who also developed the first real telescope); Sacharias Jansen; and his son, Zacharias. The coining of the name "microscope" has been credited to Giovanni Faber, who gave that name to Galileo Galilei's compound microscope in 1625. Stephen Jay Gould(2000). The Lying Stones of Marrakech, ch.2 "The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature". London: Jonathon Cape. ISBN 0224050443 (Galileo had called it the "occhiolino" or "little eye".) The most common type of microscope—and the first to be invented—is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses that produce an enlarged image of an object placed in the focal plane of the lens(es). There are, however, many other microscope designs. Types Several types of microscopes "Microscopes" can largely be separated into three classes: optical theory microscopes (Light microscope), electron microscopes (e.g.,TEM), and scanning probe microscopes (SPM). Optical microscopes are microscopes which function through the optical theory of lenses in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are either electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). The types are the Compound Light, Stereo, and the electron microscope. Optical microscopes Optical microscopes, through their use of visible wavelengths of light, are the simplest and hence most widely used type of microscope. Optical microscopes typically use refractive glass and occasionally of plastic or quartz, to focus light into the eye or another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1500x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.2 micrometres or 200 nanometers. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited. Using shorter wavelengths of light, such as the ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the microscope as are techniques such as Near-field scanning optical microscope. A stereo microscope is often used for lower-power magnification on large subjects. Various wavelengths of light, including those beyond the visible range, are sometimes used for special purposes. Ultraviolet light is used to enable the resolution of smaller features as well as to image samples that are transparent to the eye. Near infrared light is used to image circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices as silicon is transparent in this region. Many wavelengths of light, ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible are used to excite fluorescence emission from objects for viewing by eye or with sensitive cameras. Phase contrast microscopy is an optical microscopy illumination technique in which small phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into amplitude or contrast changes in the image. A phase contrast microscope does not require staining to view the slide. This microscope made it possible to study the cell cycle. The Digital microscope appeared a few years ago, using optics and a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to output a digital image to a monitor. Electron microscopes Three major variants of electron microscopes exist: Scanning electron microscope (SEM): looks at the surface of bulk objects by scanning the surface with a fine electron beam and measuring reflection. May also be used for spectroscopy. Transmission electron microscope (TEM): passes electrons completely through the sample, analogous to basic optical microscopy. This requires careful sample preparation, since electrons are scattered so strongly by most materials.This is a scientific device that allows people to see objects that could normally not be seen by the naked or unaided eye. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM): is a powerful technique for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. The SEM and STM can also be considered examples of scanning probe microscopy. Established types of scanning probe microscopy AFM, atomic force microscopy Contact AFM Non-contact AFM Dynamic contact AFM Tapping AFM BEEM, ballistic electron emission microscopy EFM, electrostatic force microscope ESTM electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope FMM, force modulation microscopy KPFM, kelvin probe force microscopy MFM, magnetic force microscopy MRFM, magnetic resonance force microscopy NSOM, near-field scanning optical microscopy (or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy) PFM, Piezo Force Microscopy PSTM, photon scanning tunneling microscopy PTMS, photothermal microspectroscopy/microscopy SAP, scanning atom probe Morita, Seizo. Roadmap of Scanning Probe Microscopy. 3 January 2007 SECM, scanning electrochemical microscopy SCM, scanning capacitance microscopy SGM, scanning gate microscopy SICM, scanning ion-conductance microscopy SPSM spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy SThM, scanning thermal microscopy STM, scanning tunneling microscopy SVM, scanning voltage microscopy SHPM, scanning Hall probe microscopy SSM, Scanning SQUID microscope Of these techniques AFM and STM are the most commonly used followed by MFM and SNOM/NSOM. Other microscopes Scanning acoustic microscopes use sound waves to measure variations in acoustic impedance. Similar to Sonar in principle, they are used for such jobs as detecting defects in the subsurfaces of materials including those found in integrated circuits. See also Different microscopes Bright field microscopy Condensed Matter Physics Confocal microscopy Dark field microscopy Digital microscope Electron Microscope Fluorescence interference contrast microscopy Fluorescence microscope Microscope image processing Microscopy Optical Microscope Intel Play Phase contrast microscopy Microscope slide Telescope Timeline of microscope technology X-ray microscope Microscopy laboratory in: A Study Guide to the Science of Botany at Wikibooks Laser capture microdissection References External links FAQ on Optical Microscopes Nikon MicroscopyU, tutorials from Nikon Molecular Expressions : Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy, Florida State University. Microscopes made from bamboo at Nature.com Microscope videos
Microscope |@lemmatized microscope:56 mikrós:1 small:6 skopeîn:1 look:2 see:5 instrument:3 view:4 object:6 naked:2 unaided:2 eye:7 science:2 investigate:1 use:16 call:3 microscopy:36 term:1 microscopic:1 mean:1 minute:1 visible:5 unless:1 aid:1 history:3 trace:1 back:1 almost:1 year:2 abbas:1 ibn:3 firnas:2 corrective:1 lens:4 al:1 haytham:1 book:1 optic:3 write:1 lay:2 foundation:1 optical:18 research:1 magnifying:1 glass:2 also:5 device:4 reading:1 stone:2 unknown:1 inventor:1 think:1 magnify:2 text:1 top:1 read:1 material:3 timeline:2 first:3 true:1 make:3 around:2 middelburg:1 netherlands:1 time:1 line:1 three:3 different:2 eyeglass:1 maker:1 give:2 credit:2 invention:1 han:1 lippershey:1 develop:1 real:1 telescope:2 sacharias:1 jansen:1 son:1 zacharias:1 coining:1 name:2 giovanni:1 faber:1 galileo:2 galilei:1 compound:2 stephen:1 jay:1 gould:1 lying:1 marrakech:1 ch:1 sharp:1 eyed:1 lynx:1 outfox:1 nature:2 london:1 jonathon:1 cape:1 isbn:1 occhiolino:1 little:1 common:1 type:6 invent:1 contain:1 one:2 produce:1 enlarged:1 image:7 place:1 focal:1 plane:1 es:1 however:1 many:2 design:1 several:1 largely:1 separate:1 class:1 theory:2 light:13 electron:13 e:2 g:2 tem:2 scan:24 probe:7 spm:1 function:1 order:1 generate:1 passage:1 wave:3 sample:5 reflect:1 either:1 electromagnetic:1 beam:2 stereo:2 wavelength:4 simplest:1 hence:1 widely:1 typically:1 refractive:1 occasionally:1 plastic:1 quartz:1 focus:1 another:1 detector:1 mirror:1 base:1 operate:1 manner:1 typical:1 magnification:3 assume:1 range:3 theoretical:1 resolution:4 limit:1 micrometres:1 nanometer:1 specialize:1 technique:5 confocal:2 vertico:1 smi:1 may:2 exceed:1 diffraction:1 limited:1 short:1 ultraviolet:3 way:1 improve:1 spatial:1 near:4 field:5 often:1 low:1 power:1 large:1 subject:1 various:1 include:2 beyond:1 sometimes:1 special:1 purpose:1 enable:1 feature:1 well:1 transparent:3 infrared:1 circuitry:1 embed:1 bonded:1 silicon:2 region:1 excite:1 fluorescence:3 emission:2 sensitive:1 camera:2 phase:4 contrast:5 illumination:1 shift:1 passing:1 specimen:1 convert:1 amplitude:1 change:1 require:2 stain:1 slide:2 possible:1 study:2 cell:1 cycle:1 digital:3 appear:1 ago:1 charge:1 couple:1 ccd:1 output:1 monitor:1 major:1 variant:1 exist:1 scanning:1 sem:2 surface:3 bulk:1 fine:1 measure:2 reflection:1 spectroscopy:1 transmission:1 pass:1 completely:1 analogous:1 basic:1 careful:1 preparation:1 since:1 scatter:1 strongly:1 scientific:1 allow:1 people:1 could:1 normally:1 tunnel:5 stm:4 powerful:1 atomic:2 level:1 consider:1 example:1 establish:1 afm:6 force:7 contact:3 non:1 dynamic:1 tap:1 beem:1 ballistic:1 efm:1 electrostatic:1 estm:1 electrochemical:2 fmm:1 modulation:1 kpfm:1 kelvin:1 mfm:2 magnetic:2 mrfm:1 resonance:1 nsom:2 snom:2 pfm:1 piezo:1 pstm:1 photon:1 ptms:1 photothermal:1 microspectroscopy:1 sap:1 atom:1 morita:1 seizo:1 roadmap:1 january:1 secm:1 scm:1 capacitance:1 sgm:1 gate:1 sicm:1 ion:1 conductance:1 spsm:1 spin:1 polarize:1 sthm:1 thermal:1 svm:1 voltage:1 shpm:1 hall:1 ssm:1 squid:1 commonly:1 follow:1 acoustic:2 sound:1 variation:1 impedance:1 similar:1 sonar:1 principle:1 job:1 detect:1 defect:1 subsurfaces:1 find:1 integrated:1 circuit:1 bright:1 condense:1 matter:1 physic:1 dark:1 interference:1 processing:1 intel:1 play:1 technology:1 x:1 ray:1 laboratory:1 guide:1 botany:1 wikibooks:1 laser:1 capture:1 microdissection:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 faq:1 nikon:2 microscopyu:1 tutorial:1 molecular:1 expression:1 explore:1 world:1 florida:1 state:1 university:1 bamboo:1 com:1 video:1 |@bigram unaided_eye:2 abbas_ibn:1 ibn_firnas:2 corrective_lens:1 al_haytham:1 magnifying_glass:1 galileo_galilei:1 stephen_jay:1 jay_gould:1 optical_microscope:10 electron_microscope:8 scan_probe:4 confocal_microscopy:2 probe_microscopy:4 magnetic_resonance:1 microscope_scan:1 integrated_circuit:1 fluorescence_microscope:1 microscope_slide:1 capture_microdissection:1 external_link:1
7,111
Gustav_Kirchhoff
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887) was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in 1862, and two sets of independent concepts in both circuit theory and thermal emission are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him. The Bunsen-Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen. Life and work Gustav Kirchhoff was born in Königsberg, East Prussia, the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke. He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg in 1847 where he attended the mathematico-physical seminar directed by Franz Ernst Neumann and Friedrich Julius Richelot. He married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot. In the same year, they moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau. Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845, while still a student. He completed this study as a seminar exercise; it later became his doctoral dissertation. He proposed his law of thermal radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861. He was called to the University of Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work with Robert Bunsen. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861. At Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modelled on Neumann's, with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger. Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya. In 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair specifically dedicated to theoretical physics at Berlin. In 1862 he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light. He contributed greatly to the field of spectroscopy by formalizing three laws that describe the spectral composition of light emitted by incandescent objects, building substantially on the discoveries of David Alter and Anders Jonas Angstrom (see also: spectrum analysis) Kirchhoff died in 1887, and was buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, Berlin. Kirchhoff is buried only a few meters from the graves of the Brothers Grimm. Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy A hot solid object produces light with a continuous spectrum. A hot tenuous gas produces light with spectral lines at discrete wavelengths (i.e. specific colors) which depend on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas. (See also: emission spectrum) A hot solid object surrounded by a cool tenuous gas (i.e. cooler than the hot object) produces light with an almost continuous spectrum which has gaps at discrete wavelengths depending on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas. (See also: absorption spectrum) Kirchhoff did not know about the existence of energy levels in atoms. The existence of discrete spectral lines was later explained by the Bohr model of the atom, which helped lead to quantum mechanics. See also Spectroscope of Kirchhoff and Bunsen Kirchhoff's circuit laws Kirchhoff equations Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation Kirchoff's three laws of spectroscopy Kirchhoff Institute of Physics Spectroscope Kirchhoff's theorem References and notes Further reading Grave of Gustav Kirchhoff Kirchhoff's 1857 paper on the speed of electrical signals in a wire
Gustav_Kirchhoff |@lemmatized gustav:3 robert:3 kirchhoff:21 march:1 october:1 german:1 physicist:1 contribute:2 fundamental:1 understanding:1 electrical:3 circuit:4 spectroscopy:5 emission:3 black:2 body:2 radiation:4 heated:1 object:5 coin:1 term:1 two:1 set:1 independent:1 concept:1 theory:1 thermal:3 name:2 law:8 bunsen:5 award:2 colleague:1 life:1 work:2 bear:1 königsberg:2 east:1 prussia:1 son:1 friedrich:2 lawyer:1 johanna:1 henriette:1 wittke:1 graduate:1 albertus:1 university:2 attend:2 mathematico:2 physical:2 seminar:4 direct:1 franz:1 ernst:1 neumann:2 julius:1 richelot:3 marry:1 clara:1 daughter:1 mathematics:1 professor:1 year:1 move:1 berlin:3 stay:1 receive:1 professorship:1 breslau:1 formulate:1 ubiquitous:1 engineering:1 still:1 student:1 complete:1 study:1 exercise:1 later:2 become:1 doctoral:1 dissertation:1 propose:1 give:1 proof:1 call:1 heidelberg:2 collaborate:1 spectroscopic:1 together:1 discover:1 caesium:1 rubidium:1 run:1 model:2 mathematician:1 leo:1 koenigsberger:1 among:1 arthur:1 schuster:1 sofia:1 kovalevskaya:1 accept:1 first:1 chair:1 specifically:1 dedicate:1 theoretical:1 physic:2 rumford:1 medal:1 research:1 fixed:1 line:4 solar:1 spectrum:7 inversion:1 bright:1 artificial:1 light:5 greatly:1 field:1 formalize:1 three:3 describe:1 spectral:3 composition:1 emit:1 incandescent:1 build:1 substantially:1 discovery:1 david:1 alter:1 anders:1 jonas:1 angstrom:1 see:4 also:4 analysis:1 die:1 bury:2 st:1 matthäus:1 kirchhof:1 cemetery:1 schöneberg:1 meter:1 graf:1 brother:1 grimm:1 hot:4 solid:2 produce:3 continuous:2 tenuous:2 gas:4 discrete:3 wavelength:2 e:2 specific:1 color:1 depend:2 energy:3 level:3 atom:4 surround:1 cool:1 cooler:1 almost:1 gap:1 absorption:1 know:1 existence:2 explain:1 bohr:1 help:1 lead:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 spectroscope:2 equation:1 piola:1 stress:1 tensor:1 kirchoff:1 institute:1 theorem:1 reference:1 note:1 far:1 read:1 grave:1 paper:1 speed:1 signal:1 wire:1 |@bigram robert_bunsen:2 gustav_kirchhoff:2 doctoral_dissertation:1 rumford_medal:1 absorption_spectrum:1 quantum_mechanic:1 stress_tensor:1
7,112
List_of_equations_in_classical_mechanics
Nomenclature a = acceleration (m/s²) g = gravitational field strength/acceleration in free-fall (m/s²) F = force (N = kg m/s²) Ek = kinetic energy (J = kg m²/s²) Ep = potential energy (J = kg m²/s²) m = mass (kg) p = momentum (kg m/s) s = displacement (m) R = radius (m) t = time (s) v = velocity (m/s) v0 = velocity at time t=0 W = work (J = kg m²/s²) τ = torque (m N, not J) (torque is the rotational form of force) s(t) = position at time t s0 = position at time t=0 runit = unit vector pointing from the origin in polar coordinates θunit = unit vector pointing in the direction of increasing values of theta in polar coordinates Note: All quantities in bold represent vectors. Classical mechanics is the branch of physics used to describe the motion of macroscopic objects. It is the most familiar of the theories of physics. The concepts it covers, such as mass, acceleration, and force, are commonly used and known. The subject is based upon a three-dimensional Euclidean space with fixed axes, called a frame of reference. The point of concurrency of the three axes is known as the origin of the particular space. Classical mechanics utilises many equation—as well as other mathematical concepts—which relate various physical quantities to one another. These include differential equationss, manifolds, Lie groups, and ergodic theory. This page gives a summary of the most important of these. Equations Name of equationEquation Year derived Note that this is the year the the person(s) who derived it published their work, not the year that they originally discovered it. Derived by Notes Center of mass Discrete case: where n is the number of mass particles. Continuous case: where ρ(s) is the scalar mass density as a function of the position vector 1687 Isaac Newton Velocity Acceleration Centripetal Acceleration (R = radius of the circle, ω = v/R angular velocity) Momentum Force (Constant Mass) Impulse if F is constant Moment of inertia For a single axis of rotation: The moment of inertia for an object is the sum of the products of the mass element and the square of their distances from the axis of rotation: Angular momentum if v is perpendicular to r Vector form: (Note: I can be treated like a vector if it is diagonalized first, but it is actually a 3×3 matrix - a tensor of rank-2) r is the radius vector. Torque if |r| and the sine of the angle between r and p remains constant. This one is very limited, more added later. α = dω/dt Precession Omega is called the precession angular speed, and is defined: (Note: w is the weight of the spinning flywheel) Energy for m as a constant: in field of gravity Central force motion Equations of motion (constant acceleration) These equations can be used only when acceleration is constant. If acceleration is not constant then calculus must be used. These equations can be adapted for angular motion, where angular acceleration is constant: See also Acoustics Classical mechanics Electromagnetism Mechanics Optics Thermodynamics Notes References External links Lectures on classical mechanics Biography of Isaac Newton, a key contributor to classical mechanics
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7,113
Demographics_of_Indonesia
Indonesia's 238 million people make it the world's fourth-most populous nation (after China, India and the United States). The island of Java is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, with more than 130 million people living in an area the size of Greece. Indonesia includes numerous related but distinct cultural and linguistic groups. Since independence, Indonesian (a form of Malay and official national language) is the language of most written communication, education, government, and business. Many local ethnic languages are the first language of most Indonesians and still important. List of Indonesian provinces' population Province Population In Cities (%) Aceh 3,930,905 23.6 North Sumatra 11,649,656 42.4 West Sumatra 4,248,931 29.0 Riau 4,947,971 43.7 Jambi 2,413,846 28.3 South Sumatra 6,899,675 34.4 Bengkulu 1,567,432 29.4 Lampung 6,741,439 21.0 Bangka Belitung 900,197 43.0 Banten 8,098,780 52.2 Jakarta 8,389,443 100.0 West Java 35,729,537 50.3 Central Java 31,228,940 40.4 Yogyakarta 3,122,268 57.7 East Java 34,783,640 40.9 Bali 3,151,162 49.8 West Nusa Tenggara 4,009,261 34.8 East Nusa Tenggara 3,952,279 15.9 West Kalimantan 4,034,198 25.1 Central Kalimantan 1,857,000 27.5 South Kalimantan 2,985,240 36.3 East Kalimantan 2,455,120 57.6 North Sulawesi 2,012,098 37.0 Gorontalo 835,044 25.5 Central Sulawesi 2,218,435 19.7 South Sulawesi 8,059,627 29.4 Southeast Sulawesi 1,821,284 20.8 Maluku 1,205,539 25.9 North Maluku 785,059 29.5 Papua 2,220,934 22.2 Ethnic groups There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. Religions Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86.1% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census. 8.7% of the population is Christian, of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant 3% are Hindu, and 1.8% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese, and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese. Languages Indonesian is the official national language, but there are many different languages native to Indonesia. According to Ethnologue, there are currently 737 living languages ethnologue.com the most widely spoken of which is Javanese. A number of Chinese dialects, most prominently Min Nan, are also spoken. The public use of Chinese, especially Chinese characters, was officially discouraged between 1966 and 1998. Literacy definition: age 15 and over and can read and write total population: 87.9% male: 92.5% female: 83.4% (2005 est.) Education is not free; however, it is compulsory for children through to grade 9. Although about 92% of eligible children are enrolled in primary school, a much smaller percentage attend full time. About 44% of secondary school-age children attend junior high school, and some others of this age group attend vocational schools. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 237,512,355 (July 2008 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 28.4% (male 34,343,198/female 33,175,135) 15-64 years: 65.7% (male 78,330,830/female 77,812,339) 65 years and over: 5.8% (male 6,151,305/female 7,699,548) (2008 est.) Population growth rate 1.175% (2008 est.) Birth rate 19.24 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 6.24 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate -1.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Gender ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 31.04 deaths/1,000 live births male: 36.14 deaths/1,000 live births female: 25.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 70.97 years male: 67.98 years female: 73.07 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 2.34 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality noun: Indonesian(s) adjective: Indonesian See also Culture of Indonesia Overseas Indonesian Transmigration program References External links CIA World Factbook article on Indonesia On Indonesians of Arab descent
Demographics_of_Indonesia |@lemmatized indonesia:8 million:2 people:2 make:1 world:6 fourth:1 populous:2 nation:2 china:1 india:1 united:1 state:2 island:1 java:4 one:1 densely:1 populated:1 area:2 live:4 size:1 greece:1 include:1 numerous:1 relate:1 distinct:1 cultural:1 linguistic:1 group:4 since:1 independence:1 indonesian:10 form:1 malay:1 official:2 national:2 language:8 write:2 communication:1 education:2 government:1 business:1 many:2 local:1 ethnic:4 first:1 still:1 important:1 list:1 province:2 population:11 city:1 aceh:1 north:3 sumatra:3 west:4 riau:1 jambi:1 south:3 bengkulu:1 lampung:1 bangka:1 belitung:1 banten:1 jakarta:1 central:3 yogyakarta:1 east:3 bali:1 nusa:2 tenggara:2 kalimantan:4 sulawesi:4 gorontalo:1 southeast:1 maluku:2 papua:1 religion:1 although:2 islamic:1 muslim:2 majority:1 almost:1 declare:1 accord:2 census:1 christian:1 roughly:1 two:1 third:1 protestant:1 hindu:2 buddhist:2 balinese:1 modern:1 day:1 chinese:4 different:1 native:1 ethnologue:2 currently:1 living:1 com:1 widely:1 speak:2 javanese:1 number:1 dialect:1 prominently:1 min:1 nan:1 also:2 public:1 use:1 especially:1 character:1 officially:1 discourage:1 literacy:1 definition:1 age:4 read:1 total:5 male:11 female:11 est:11 free:1 however:1 compulsory:1 child:4 grade:1 eligible:1 enrol:1 primary:1 school:4 much:1 small:1 percentage:1 attend:3 full:1 time:1 secondary:1 junior:1 high:1 others:1 vocational:1 cia:3 factbook:3 demographic:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 structure:1 year:9 growth:1 rate:6 birth:7 death:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 gender:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 see:1 culture:1 overseas:1 transmigration:1 program:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 arab:1 descent:1 |@bigram densely_populated:1 java_bali:1 nusa_tenggara:2 min_nan:1 literacy_definition:1 male_female:9 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 external_link:1
7,114
Medieval_fortification
Medieval fortification is the military aspect of Medieval technology that covers the development of fortification construction and use in Europe roughly from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance. During this millennium, fortifications changed warfare, and in turn were modified to suit new tactics, weapons and siege techniques. Fortification Types Towers Chindia Tower, Târgovişte, Romania Towers of medieval castles were usually made of stone or sometimes (but rarely) wood. Often toward the later part of the era they included battlements and arrow loops. Arrow loops were vertical slits in the wall where archers from the inside shot arrows through at the attackers, but they made it extremely difficult for attackers to get many arrows through back at the defenders. City Walls The exact nature of the walls of a medieval town or city would depend on the resources available for building them, the nature of the terrain and the perceived threat. In northern Europe, early in the period they are likely to have been constructed of wood and proofed against small forces. Especially where stone was readily available for building, the wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security. This would have been the pattern of events in the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw in England. In any case, the wall will have had an internal and an external pomoerium. This was a strip of clear ground immediately inside or outside the wall. The word is a medieval and later one, derived from the classical Latin post murum, behind the wall. An external pomoerium, stripped of bushes and building, gave defenders a clear view of what was happening outside and an unobstructed field of shot. An internal pomoeriun gave ready access to the rear of the curtain wall to facilitate movement of the garrison to a point of need. By the end of the sixteenth century, the word had developed further in common use, into pomery. By that time too, the medieval walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army as they were not designed for resisting cannon shot. They might have been rebuilt as at Berwick on Tweed or retained for use against thieves and other threats of a lower order. Very elaborate and complex schemes for town defences were developed in the Netherlands and France but these belong mainly to the post-medieval periods. By 1600, the medieval wall is likely to have been seen more as a platform for displaying hangings and the pomery as a gathering ground for the spectators or as a source of building stone and a site for its use. However, a few such as those of Carcassonne, survived fairly well and have been restored to an impressively complete state. Harbours Fortifications of Oradea, Romania in a 1617 print Harbours or some sort of water access was often essential to the construction of medieval fortification. It was a direct route for trading and fortification. Having direct access to a body of water provided a route for resupply in times of war, an additional method of transportation in times of peace, and potential drinking water for a besieged castle or fortification. The concept of rivers or harbours coming directly up to the walls of fortifications was especially used by the English as they constructed castles throughout Wales. Churches and Monasteries Religion was a central part of the lives of medieval soldiers, and churches, chapels, monasteries, and other buildings of religious function were often included within the walls of any fortification, be it temporary or permanent. A place to conduct religious services was usually essential to the morale of the soldiers. Mottes, Baileys Motte-and-bailey was the prevalent form of castle during 11th and 12th centuries. A courtyard (called bailey) was protected by a ditch and a palisade (strong timber fence). Often there was an entrance, protected by a lifting bridge, a drawbridge or a timber gate tower. Inside the bailey were stables, workshops,and a chapel. Motte was the final refuge in this type of castle. It was a raised earth mound. Its height varied between 5m (15 ft) to 10m (30 ft). There was a tower on top of the motte. In most cases, the tower was made of timber, though some were also made of stones. Stone towers were found in natural mounds, as artificial ones were not strong enough to support stone towers. Larger mottes had towers with many rooms, including the great hall. Smaller ones had only a watch tower. Construction Construction could sometimes take decades. The string of Welsh castles Edward I of England had built were an exception in that he focused much of the resources of his kingdom on their speedy construction. In addition to paid workers, forced levies of labourers put thousands of men on each site and shortened construction to a few years. Materials Materials that were used in the building of castles varied through history. Wood was used for most castles until 1066. They were cheap and were quick to construct. The reason wood fell into disuse as a material is that it is quite flammable. Soon stone became more popular. Stone castles took years to construct depending on the overall size of the castle. Stone was stronger and of course much more expensive than wood. Most stone had to be quarried miles away, and then brought to the building site. But with the invention of the cannon and gunpowder, castles soon lost their power. Costs Costs for the walls depended on the material used. Wood would cost very little and was quick but was weak. Stone was strong but very expensive and time consuming. Manpower Manpower in the Medieval era in traditional governments in Europe consisted mainly of slave labor and low-class laborers. Slaves came from conquered nations or were traded from other nations. They worked eight to twelve hours everyday, except (if they were forced to convert) on religious holidays. Slaves were paid only in old or soiled food and bad shelter. Laborers were only a step above slaves, paid with at least some currency and generally decent food and shelter (though they are considered in debt to the employer for such materials and not be paid because of this). Walls Height: Varied from castle to castle Width: usually 2.5-6 m (8-20 ft) thick Defensive walls were usually topped with crenellation or parapets that offered protection to those defending from the top of the wall. Machicolation: Machicolations (from the French word machicoulis, implying a meaning of something like "neck-crusher") consisted of openings between a wall and a parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, so that the defenders might throw down stones, boiling water, and so forth, upon assailants below. Inner walls and gates: the inner walls acted as a fall-back fortification should the attackers breach the outer walls. Gates Gate of Tomar Castle, Portugal An entranceway creates problems in warfare, as it is the weakest point on any wall. Entranceways must be able to be open enough to allow supplies to be brought in, yet be able to provide a solid wall to an enemy. Ditches and moats must be passable in peace, yet able to be uncovered during a siege, and walls must be broken enough to allow easy passage, yet not compromise the security of the compound. Multiple wall and ditch systems compounds the problem, leading to the necessity of a controlled entranceway. Gates came in many forms, from the simple stone buttress and timber blocks described by Avery in his work "'Stoning and Fire' at hill fort entrances of southern Britain” (Avery, Michael, World Archeology, Vol. 18, No. 2, Oct., 1986, pp. 216-230.) , to the massive and imposing stone archways and thick wooden doors most associated with medieval citadels. Another type of gateway fortification was a barbican, a heavily fortified entranceway. Killing fields A Killing field was an area between the main wall and a secondary wall, so when the first wall was breached the attackers would run into the killing field to be confronted by another wall from which soldiers bombarded them. Soldiers would be positioned atop the second wall and armed with any variety of weapons, ranging from bows to crossbows to simple rocks. Moats A moat was a common addition to medieval fortifications, and the principal purpose (just as in antiquity) to make the walls harder to assail and increasing their effective height. In many instances, natural water paths were used as moats, and often extended through ditches to surround as much of the fortification as possible. Provided this was not so unnaturally contrived as to allow an attacker to drain the system, it served two defensive purposes. It made approaching the curtain wall of the castle more difficult and the undermining of the wall virtually impossible. To position a castle on a small island was very favourable from a defensive point of view, although it made deliveries of supplies and building materials more cumbersome and expensive. Keeps A keep is a strong central tower which normally forms the heart of a castle. Often the keep is the most defended area of a castle, and as such may form the main habitation area for a noble or lord, or contain important stores such as the armoury or the main well. Stairs At this time, internal stairways in fortified buildings were generally constructed so as to wind up a cylindrical well, and designed to give an advantage to a defender. The principle usually adopted was that the defender was likely to be positioned higher than an assailant who was presumed to have entered on the ground floor. As most people are right-handed, and the defender higher up, the stair was constructed as a left-handed helix, forcing the assailant to fight with his sword hand close to the central pillar, the newel of the stair, thereby limiting his capacity for sword play, while the defender could more comfortably reach around with his sword arm nearer the outer wall of the well. Conversely, spiral stairs in churches are usually, but not invariably, in the form of a right-hand helix. Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps. These were steps that had different rise height or thread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress. Doors Reinforced wood door Doors were made out of two layers of oak planks. The grain of the wood would run vertically on the front layer and horizontally on the back, like a simplistic form of plywood. The two layers would be held together by iron studs. The studs themselves were pointed on the front so that attackers would damage their weapons (swords, axes, etc.) while trying to break through. Dismantling fortifications As the power of cannons grew during the 16th and 17th century, medieval walls became obsolete as they were too thin to offer any realistic protection against prolonged bombardment. As a consequence of this, many walls from medieval times were torn down and the stone (still valuable as construction material) reused in more modern bulwarks and bastions. The resulting space is often seen in old city centers of Europe even to this day, as broader streets often outline where the old wall once stood (evident for example in Prague and Florence, Italy). Defensive obstacles Just as modern military engineers enhance field fortifications with obstacles such as barbed wire, Medieval engineers had a number of obstacle types at their disposal. The siege of Constantinople. Siegecraft The Trebuchet The Cannon The Mangonel The Ballista The Catapult See also Medieval warfare Siege engine Guédelon Castle From 1996 to 2020 they will build a 13th-century castle exclusively using methods of that time. A lot of information regarding castrametation and castellology had already surfaced thanks to this project. Bastion fortress replaced medieval fortifications Encastellation
Medieval_fortification |@lemmatized medieval:18 fortification:17 military:2 aspect:1 technology:1 cover:1 development:1 construction:7 use:10 europe:4 roughly:1 fall:3 western:1 roman:1 empire:1 renaissance:1 millennium:1 change:1 warfare:3 turn:1 modify:1 suit:1 new:1 tactic:1 weapon:3 siege:4 technique:1 type:4 tower:11 chindia:1 târgovişte:1 romania:2 castle:20 usually:6 make:8 stone:17 sometimes:2 rarely:1 wood:9 often:8 toward:1 late:1 part:2 era:2 include:3 battlement:1 arrow:3 loop:2 vertical:1 slit:1 wall:35 archer:1 inside:3 shot:3 arrows:1 attacker:7 extremely:1 difficult:2 get:1 many:5 back:3 defender:7 city:3 exact:1 nature:2 town:2 would:9 depend:3 resource:2 available:2 build:4 terrain:1 perceived:1 threat:3 northern:1 early:1 period:2 likely:3 construct:7 proofed:1 small:3 force:4 especially:2 readily:1 building:7 replace:2 high:3 low:3 standard:1 security:2 pattern:1 event:1 five:1 borough:1 danelaw:1 england:2 case:2 internal:3 external:2 pomoerium:2 strip:2 clear:2 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class:1 laborer:2 conquer:1 nation:2 trade:1 work:2 eight:1 twelve:1 hour:1 everyday:1 except:1 convert:1 holiday:1 old:3 soil:1 food:2 bad:1 shelter:2 step:3 least:1 currency:1 generally:2 decent:1 consider:1 debt:1 employer:1 width:1 thick:2 defensive:4 crenellation:1 parapet:2 offer:2 protection:2 defend:1 machicolation:2 french:1 machicoulis:1 imply:1 meaning:1 something:1 like:2 neck:1 crusher:1 opening:1 corbelling:1 latter:1 throw:1 boil:1 forth:1 upon:1 assailant:3 inner:2 act:1 breach:2 outer:2 tomar:1 portugal:1 entranceway:4 create:1 problem:2 must:3 able:3 open:1 allow:3 supply:2 yet:3 solid:1 enemy:1 moat:3 passable:1 uncover:1 break:2 easy:1 passage:1 compromise:1 compound:2 multiple:1 system:2 lead:1 necessity:1 controlled:1 simple:2 buttress:1 block:1 describe:1 avery:2 fire:1 hill:1 fort:1 southern:1 britain:1 michael:1 world:1 archeology:1 vol:1 oct:1 pp:1 massive:1 impose:1 archway:1 wooden:1 door:4 associate:1 citadel:1 another:2 gateway:1 barbican:1 heavily:1 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7,115
Docklands_Light_Railway
The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) is a light rail system serving the redeveloped Docklands area of East London, England. General description It opened on 31 August 1987 and, after extensions, reaches north to Stratford, south to Lewisham, west to Tower Gateway and Bank in the City of London financial district, and east to Beckton, London City Airport and Woolwich. DLR track and trains are not compatible with those of London Underground (although the track gauge is the same), but the two systems share a ticketing system, have several interchange stations, and the DLR is shown on the London Underground Tube map. The trains are computer-controlled and normally have no driver: a Passenger Service Agent (PSA) (known when the system first opened as "Train Captain") on each train is responsible for patrolling the train, checking tickets, making announcements and controlling the doors. PSAs can also take control of the train in certain circumstances including equipment failure and emergencies. Stations are generally unstaffed except those below ground, which are required to be staffed in case evacuation is needed. The DLR has been operated and maintained by a franchisee since 1997. Serco Docklands Ltd, a company formed jointly by Serco Group and the former DLR management team now holds the franchise, due to expire in April 2013. The DLR system has 40 stations and is expanding. In 2006 it carried over 60 million passengers. History The docks immediately east of London began to decline in the early 1960s as cargo became containerised. The opening of the Tilbury container docks, further east in Essex, rendered them redundant and in 1980 the British government gained control. Tower Gateway station was the DLR's original link to central London. The Jubilee line of the London Underground opened in 1979 from Stanmore to Charing Cross, as the first stage of an intended cross-town tube line beyond Charing Cross to south-east London. Although land, as at Ludgate Circus and Lewisham, had been reserved for the second stage, the rising cost led in the early 1980s to the project's indefinite postponement. The London Docklands Development Corporation, needing to provide public transport cheaply for the former docks area to stimulate regeneration, chose a light-rail scheme using surviving dock railway infrastructure to link the West India Docks to Tower Hill and to run alongside the Great Eastern lines out of London to northern terminus at Stratford station where a disused bay platform at the west of the station was available for interchanges with the Central and main lines. Stratford was preferred to Mile End, where street-running like trams was at variance with the concept of a fully automated railway. The growth brought to Docklands enabled the Jubilee Line to be extended in 1999 to East London by a more southerly route than originally proposed, through Surrey Quays/Docks, Canary Wharf and the Greenwich peninsula (which was the next regeneration area) to Stratford. Queen Elizabeth II opened the initial system from Tower Gateway and from Stratford to Island Gardens which cost £77 million. Initial system The initial system was constructed by Mowlem - GEC Westinghouse - Grant Lyon Eagre - between 1985 and 1987. Originally it was to be entirely above ground with three branches terminating at Tower Gateway, Stratford and Island Gardens. Most of the track was elevated, either on disused railway viaducts or on new concrete viaducts, with some use of disused surface-level railway right of way. The system was lightweight, with stations and trains only a single articulated vehicle long. The three branches totalled of route, had 13 stations, and were connected by a flat triangular junction near Poplar. Services ran Tower Gateway-Island Gardens and Stratford-Island Gardens, so the north side of the junction was not used in regular passenger service. The first stations were mostly of a common design and constructed from standard components. A distinguishing feature of them was a relatively short half-cylindrical glazed blue canopy to provide shelter from the rain. First extensions The view from Tower Gateway looking east prior to rebuilding shows Fenchurch Street approach tracks to the left, the original DLR line in the centre, and just visible in the distance is a DLR train emerging from the tunnel to Bank to the right. The initial system had too little capacity as the Docklands area developed into a major financial centre and employment zone. Tower Gateway, at the edge of the City of London, attracted criticism for its poor connections. As a result all stations and trains were extended to two-unit length, and the system was taken into the heart of the City of London to Bank underground station through a tunnel which opened in 1991. This extension diverged from the initial western branch, leaving Tower Gateway station on a stub. The original trains, not suitable for use underground, became obsolete. (see the Rolling Stock section below, and the main article Docklands Light Railway rolling stock). The areas in the east of Docklands needed better transport connections to encourage development and so a fourth branch was laid, from Poplar to Beckton via Canning Town transport interchange, it ran along the north side of the Royal Docks complex. Several proposals were made for the Blackwall Area. As part of this extension, one side of the original flat triangular junction was replaced with a grade-separated junction west of Poplar, and a new grade-separated junction was built at the divergence of the Stratford and Beckton lines east of Poplar. Poplar station was rebuilt to give cross-platform interchange between the Stratford and Beckton lines. As the Canary Wharf office complex grew, Canary Wharf DLR station was redeveloped from a small wayside station to a large one with six platforms serving three tracks, with a large overall roof and fully integrated into the malls below the office towers. The original DLR station was never completed and was dismantled before the line officially opened, although the automatically-operated trains continued to stop at its location. Second stage extensions A first generation DLR EMU crosses West India Dock, September 1987. Early in DLR operation London Borough of Lewisham council commissioned a feasibility study into extending the DLR under the Thames to Lewisham which led the council to advocate an extension to Greenwich, Deptford and Lewisham. On 3 December 1999 the Lewisham extension opened as proposed. It left the original Island Gardens route south of the Crossharbour turn-back sidings, dropped gently to Mudchute where a street-level station replaced the high-level one on the former London & Blackwall Railway viaduct and then entered a tunnel following the line of the viaduct and reached a new shallow subsurface station at Island Gardens, accessed by stairs. The line crossed under the Thames to a station in the centre of Greenwich and then surfaced at the main-line Greenwich station with cross-platform interchange between the southbound DLR track and the city-bound main line. Then the line snaked on a concrete viaduct to Deptford, Elverson Road station at street level, close to Lewisham town centre and terminated in two platforms between and below the main-line platforms at Lewisham railway station, which is near the town shopping centre, with bus services stopping directly outside the station. On 2 December 2005, a new eastward branch, along the southern side of the Royal Docks complex, opened from Canning Town to King George V via London City Airport. A further extension to Woolwich opened in January 2009, built at or close to the future stop on the Crossrail line to Abbey Wood via West India and Royal Docks. Current system A Docklands Light Railway train enters Canary Wharf from the south. The DLR is now long. There are five branches: to Lewisham in the south, Stratford in the north, Beckton and Woolwich Arsenal in the east, and to Central London, splitting to serve Bank and Tower Gateway. Although the system allows many different combinations of routes, at present the following four are operated in normal service: Stratford to Lewisham Bank to Lewisham Bank to Woolwich Arsenal Tower Gateway to Beckton Canning Town to Prince Regent, an extra shuttle service operated when exhibitions are in progress at the Excel exhibition centre, to double the normal service. These trains reverse direction in the eastbound platform at Canning Town and on a crossover at the high point where the line crosses the Connaught Crossing road bridge between Prince Regent and Royal Albert stations. At other stations trains reverse direction in the terminal platforms, except at Bank where there is a reversing headshunt beyond the station. Trains during the peak on the Stratford line turn back at Crossharbour rather than continuing to Lewisham. There are also occasional trains from Tower Gateway to Crossharbour and Lewisham. Every train serves every station on its route. During the substantial long-term enhancement works being conducted for various DLR extension projects a range of other routes may be operated at weekends, such as Beckton to Lewisham if the Bank branch is closed. The northern, southern and south-eastern branches terminate at the National Rail (main line) stations at Stratford, Lewisham and Woolwich. Other direct interchanges between the DLR and National Rail are at Limehouse and Greenwich. Depots There are two operating depots, at Poplar and Beckton, both with maintenance workshops and extensive open-air stabling sidings. The Poplar depot is alongside the north side of the Stratford line east of the station, while the Beckton depot is to the east of the line on a long spur north-east of Gallions Reach station, and is only visible in the distance from the line. Trains leaving service into the depots form short workings to Poplar or Gallions Reach. The small diesel locomotives used for track maintenance tasks are normally visible at Poplar depot. Map A geographically-accurate map of the Docklands Light Railway Stations An eastbound train leaving Westferry Station. Many DLR stations are elevated, with others at street level, in a cutting, or underground. Access to the platforms is normally by staircase and lift, very few stations have escalators. From the outset the network has been fully accessible to wheelchairs. The stations have high platforms, matching the floor height of the cars, allowing easy access for passengers with wheelchairs or pushchairs. Most of the stations are of a modular design dating back to the initial system, albeit extended and improved over the years. This design has two side platforms, each with separate access from the street, and platform canopies with a distinctive rounded roof design. Stations are unstaffed, except the underground stations at Bank, Island Gardens and Cutty Sark (for safety reasons), and a few of the busier interchange stations. Canning Town, interchange with the Jubilee underground line, along with the exhibition centre stations at Custom House and Prince Regent, are normally staffed on the platform whenever there is any significant exhibition at the Excel exhibition centre. DLR art On 3 July 2007, DLR officially launched an art programme similar to that in place on the London Underground, Platform for Art. Alan Williams was appointed to produce the first temporary commission. Called "sidetrack", it portrays the ordinary and extraordinary sights, often unfamiliar to passengers, on the system and was displayed throughout the network. Fares and ticketing Ticketing is part of the London fare zone system, and Travelcards that cover the correct zones are valid. There are one-day and season DLR-only "Rover" tickets available, plus a one-day DLR "Rail and River Rover" ticket for use on the DLR and on City Cruises river boats. Oyster Pre-Pay is also available — passengers need to both touch in and touch out on the platform readers or pass through the automatic gates. Tickets must be purchased from ticket machines at the entrance to the platforms, and are required before the passenger enters the platform. There are no ticket barriers in DLR-only stations, and correct ticketing is enforced by on-train checks by the PSA. There are barriers at Bank, Canning Town, Woolwich Arsenal and Stratford, where the DLR platforms are within the barrier lines of a London Underground or National Rail station. Although Oyster cards are TfL's preferred method of ticketing on the DLR, there are some differences in the implementation compared to the Underground. Stations are simplistic and most do not have ticket gates. There have been criticisms that the Oyster touch in/out units are not readily apparent, particularly to casual users, as they have been sited where there is an electrical supply, which may not be the most obvious point for users. London City Airport station, which is used by many travellers from overseas, is a particular location in this respect. Passengers who do not both touch in and out on each journey are automatically surcharged £4 for any incomplete entries on their Oyster card. The ticket machines provided at each DLR station also do not either sell new Oyster cards or allow top-up of existing cards, which means passengers can have no means to put any value on their cards before starting their journey. The Oyster validators at the entrance to the platforms have also been criticised as their display is unshielded and some face into direct sunight which makes their display of remaining fare value unreadable on bright days. The DLR is used by up to a hundred thousand people daily, with around 60 million journeys yearly. Accidents and incidents Overrun of station buffers On 10 March 1987, before the railway opened, a train crashed through station buffer stops at the original high-level terminus Island Gardens station and was left hanging from the end of the elevated track. The accident was caused by unauthorised tests being run before accident-preventing modifications had been installed. The train was being driven manually at the time. London Docklands Light Railway; Northern Line's Dot-Matrix Indicators RISKS Digest Volume 5 Issue 29 Article 3, 13 August 1987 Report on the Docklands Light Railway Accident Which Occurred at Island Gardens Station on 10 March 1987, Modern Railways, May 1987 "'Unauthorised Tests' Caused DLR Crash", Modern Railways, June 1987 Service difficulties with the Royal train In July 1987, a series of minor incidents marred the operation of the royal train (number E2R) carrying Queen Elizabeth II as part of the ceremonies marking the opening of the line. The train had been manually dispatched from its starting point at Island Gardens station five minutes early because of the early arrival of the royal party. The train was on automatic control and so, being ahead of schedule, was held at the next station (Mudchute) for a few minutes before the driver reverted to manual control "to speed the Royal passage" and continued on to Poplar station, where the royal party were to disembark. A member of the royal security detail used the emergency exit to leave the train before it had stopped, causing the train to make an emergency stop short of its normal position and out of range of the docking beacon that marked its arrival point. The train doors would not open, impeding the Queen's exit for several minutes. Railway automation, Stephen Colwill, RISKS Digest Volume 5 Issue 23 Article 4, 31 July 1987 Computer's Normal Operation Delays Royal Visit, Mark Brader, RISKS Digest Volume 5 Issue 52 Article 2, 29 October 1987 "Opening of the Docklands Light Railway," Roger Ford, Modern Railways, September 1987 Collision at West India Quay bridge On 22 April 1991, two trains collided at a junction on the West India Quay bridge during morning rush hour, requiring a shutdown of the entire system and evacuation of the involved passengers by ladder. Another commuter train wreck in London, Jonathan I. Kamens, RISKS Digest Volume 11 Issue 52 Article 1, 23 April 1991 Computer-controlled commuter trains collide in east London, UPI report relayed by ClariNet news service, 22 April 1991 One of the two trains was travelling automatically, operating without a driver, while the other was under manual control. Re: Trains collide in east London, Ian G Batten, RISKS Digest Volume 11 Issue 54 Article 10, 25 April 1991 South Quay bombing On 9 February 1996, the Provisional Irish Republican Army blew up a lorry under a bridge near South Quay, killing two people and injuring many others. This number would have been higher if not for advance warning. The blast did £85 million damage and marked an end to the IRA ceasefire. Significant disruption was caused to DLR services, and a train was left stranded at Island Gardens station, unable to move until the track was rebuilt. Rolling stock A DLR train is headed by B2K stock car 96 at Tower Gateway station The DLR is operated by high-floor, bi-directional, single-articulated cars with four doors on each side, each train consisting of two cars. The cars have a small driver’s console concealed behind a locked panel at each car end from which the PSA can drive the car, and no driver’s cab. Consoles at each door opening allow the PSA to control door closure and make announcements whilst patrolling the train. Because of the absence of a driver’s position, the fully-glazed car ends provide an unusual forward (or rear) view for passengers. The current stock has a top speed of . Despite having high floors and being highly automated, the cars are derived from a German light-rail design intended for use in systems with street running. All the cars that have operated on the system to date look similar, but there have been several different types, some still in service and others sold to other operators. Signalling technology Originally the DLR used signalling based on a fixed-block technology developed by GEC-General Signal and General Railway Signal. This was replaced in 1994 with a moving-block system developed by Alcatel, called SelTrac. The SelTrac system was bought by Thales in 2007 and current updates are being provided by Thales Signalling Solutions. The same technology is used for some other rapid transit systems, including Vancouver's SkyTrain,Toronto's SRT, San Francisco's Municipal Railway (MUNI) and Hong Kong's MTR. Transmissions occur between each train's onboard computer and the control centre at Poplar. If this link is broken, the train stops until it is authorised to move again. If the whole system fails the train can run at only 20 km/h for safety until the system is restored. Emergency brakes can be applied if the train breaks the speed limit during manual control, or if the train leaves the station when the route has not been set. Recent developments Woolwich Arsenal extension Status - Opened 10 January 2009 Route of Woolwich Arsenal extension: OpenStreetMap Train awaits departure from Woolwich Arsenal This extended the London City Airport branch from King George V to Woolwich Arsenal and opened on 10 January 2009. The projected cost of £150 million, due to a required second DLR tunnel crossing of the River Thames, was met by Private Finance Initiative funding. Construction began in June 2005, and the tunnels were completed on 23 July 2007, with official opening by Boris Johnson, Mayor of London on 12 January 2009. Tower Gateway rebuilding The original Tower Gateway station was closed in mid-2008 for complete reconstruction. The two terminal tracks either side of a somewhat narrow island platform were replaced by a single track between two platforms, organised one for arriving passengers and the other side for those departing. The station reopened on 2 March 2009. Future developments With the development of the eastern Docklands as part of the ‘Thames Gateway’ initiative and London’s successful bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics, several extensions and enhancements are under construction, being planned or being discussed. Upgrading Entire System to 3-car trains Status - Under construction The capacity of the entire system is being increased by upgrading to take 3-car trains. The alternative of more frequent trains was rejected as the signalling changes needed would have cost no less than upgrading to longer trains and with fewer benefits. The original railway was built for single-car operation so the upgrading requires both strengthening viaducts to take the heavier longer trains and lengthening many platforms, although recent extensions are built to take three-car trains. At the few stations unable to take three-car trains Selective Door Operation will be used, with emergency walkways in case a door fails to remain shut. The most notable such example will be Cutty Sark station which is underground and both cost and the risk to nearby historic buildings prevent platform extension. The tunnel involved was built with an emergency walkway throughout its length. Other work at some station, beyond that needed to take the three-car trains includes replacing canopies by more substantial ones along the full platform length. South Quay station is being relocated 200m to the east, as nearby curves preclude lengthening. Mudchute now has a third platform (not yet in use) and all its platforms have full-length canopies. Tower Gateway was closed until March 2009 and re-opened as a single track 3-car terminus with two platforms - one side for boarding and the other for alighting. The works were originally planned as three separate phases: Bank-Lewisham; Poplar-Stratford and finally the Beckton branch. The original £200m works contract was awarded on 3 May 2007. Work started in 2007 and the Bank-Lewisham phase was originally due to be completed in 2009. However, the work programme for the first two phases was merged and both are now due to be complete in early 2010. Funding to upgrade the Beckton branch was not secured until December 2008, and the work will not be completed until 2011. Stratford International extension/North London Line conversion Status - Under Construction - opening July 2010 An extension being built from Canning Town to the new Stratford International station takes over part of the North London Line infrastructure and will link the Docklands area with domestic and international high-speed services on High Speed 1. It should open early in 2010 and is an important part of the transport improvements for the 2012 Olympic Games much of which will be held on a site adjoining Stratford International. North London Line passengers towards North Woolwich will to the DLR extension and the Woolwich Arsenal branch. Existing NLL stations transferring to DLR are: Stratford low level West Ham Canning Town New stations for DLR are: Star Lane Abbey Road Stratford High Street (on the site of the former Stratford Market station) Stratford International At Stratford new platforms for the North London Line free its original platforms (1 and 2) for the DLR. Interchange between the two DLR routes will be possible although their platforms are widely separated and at different levels. There will be no track connection between the two routes. As part of the Transport & Works Act (TWA) application, Royal Victoria station on the Beckton branch will be extended to accommodate 3-car trains, with a third platform to enable trains to reverse there, using land released by the closure of this section of the parallel North London line. A partly grade-separated junction built south of Canning Town will prevent conflicting movements on the existing Bank branch and the new Stratford branch going to and from the Beckton route and the Woolwich Arsenal route. An inconvenience of the new arrangements will be that passengers, many of whom arrive at Canning Town by Jubilee Line, who wish to continue by DLR to either the Beckton line or the Woolwich line will be uncertain at which platform their next DLR train arrives as trains for both branches will leave alternately from different platforms at different levels. The first contract for construction work was awarded on 10 January 2007 and construction work started in mid 2007. The extension is due to open in mid 2010. Upgrading Delta Junction Status - Under Construction As part of upgrading the system for three-car trains some strengthening work would have been necessary in any case to the Delta Junction north of West India Quay. It was decided to include this into a plan for further grade-separation at this critical junction to eliminate the conflict between services to Stratford and from Bank, which will increase the number of trains able to traverse the junction. The new grade-separated route from Bank to Canary Wharf will only be used at peak times, as it bypasses West India Quay station. Work has been proceeding with this project concurrently with the three-car upgrade work and should be open by summer of 2009. Limehouse station interchangeStatus - Under constructionLimehouse station, which is on a viaduct, is a useful interchange for Essex commuters who work in the Canary Wharf area. Currently it has an awkward interchange between the DLR platforms and the National Rail platforms served by c2c as passengers have to pass down and then up flights of stairs. To remedy this, at least in part, a bridge is being built to connect the westbound c2c platform with the adjacent eastbound DLR platform. It was originally due for completion by the end of 2008 but work is ongoing. Works contingent on CrossrailStatus - ApprovedWhen Crossrail is built, one of its tunnel portals will be on the current site of Pudding Mill Lane station. The DLR will be diverted between City Mill River and the River Lea onto a new viaduct to be built further south, including a replacement station. The opportunity may be taken to eliminate the only significant section of single track on the system, between Bow Church and Stratford,<ref name="mrmarch">Ian Allan Publishing. Modern Railways. March 2006.</ref> although there is no provision for works beyond the realigned section in the Crossrail Act. Crossrail will interchange with the DLR at Custom House, at Stratford and at West India Quay with Crossrail's Isle of Dogs station. Custom House station will be completely rebuilt. If a Crossrail station is built in the City Airport area, a new DLR station could be built alongside (see Connaught Road/Silvertown Interchange station section below). Long term proposals Dagenham Dock extension Status - Postponed indefinitely (as of November 2008) This proposed extension from Gallions Reach to Dagenham Dock via the riverside at Barking would connect the Barking Reach area, a formerly industrial area now due to be a major redevelopment as part of the London Riverside, with the Docklands. It would cover major developments at Creekmouth, Barking Riverside, Dagenham Dock Opportunity Area, and five stations are planned, at Beckton Riverside station, Creekmouth, Barking Riverside, Goresbrook (formerly Dagenham Vale) and Dagenham Dock. The extension is key if English Partnerships' plan is to work. As shown in DLR's first consultation leaflet, there are proposals for the DLR to extend further than Dagenham Dock, possibly to Dagenham Heathway or Rainham. Construction was not expected to start until 2013 and the earliest expected completion date was 2017. However the Financial crisis of 2007–2009 meant that TfL requested a delay to the public enquiry whilst funding was clarified. Given that the purpose of the extension was to serve as-yet unbuilt homes it became very difficult to predict timescales for this project. Thames Wharf station Status - Proposed This station had been included as potential future development on the London City Airport extension since it was first planned. It would be between Canning Town and West Silvertown, due west of the western end of Royal Victoria Dock. Since the station's intended purpose is to serve the surrounding area (currently a mix of brownfield and run-down industrial sites) when it is regenerated, the development is indefinitely on hold due to the area being safeguarded for the Silvertown Link, a new Thames river crossing that has been proposed but currently has no timetable for implementation. Connaught Road/Silvertown Interchange station Status - Proposed A site near to London City Airport has been identified as a possible additional station on the London City Airport extension. It would be a possible interchange with Crossrail between London City Airport and Pontoon Dock. However, no plans have emerged as to when this station is to be planned and built. The original extension was designed to allow a station to be built here. It may be located south of the Connaught Crossing Victoria/Charing Cross extension Status - Proposed - 2026 In February 2006 a proposal to extend the DLR to Charing Cross station from Bank DLR branch was revealed. The idea, originating from a DLR "Horizon Study", is at a very early stage at the moment, but would involve extending the line from Bank in bored tunnels under Central London to the Charing Cross Jubilee line platforms, which would be brought back to public use. These platforms are now on a spur off the current Jubilee line and are not used by passenger trains. It has since been revealed that a proposed route as far as Victoria station will be investigated. While not confirmed it is probable that the scheme would also use the existing overrun tunnels between the Charing Cross Jubilee platforms and a location slightly to the west of Aldwych. These tunnels were intended to be incorporated into the abandoned Phase 2 of the Fleet Line (Phase 1 became the original Jubilee Line, prior to the Jubilee Line Extension). However they would need some enlargement because DLR gauge is larger than tube gauge and current safety regulations would require an emergency walkway to be provided in the tunnel. The two reasons driving the proposal are capacity problems at Bank, having basically one interchange between the DLR and the central portion of Underground, and the difficult journeys faced by passengers from Kent and South Coast between their rail termini and the DLR. Intermediate stations would be at Ludgate Circus and Aldwych, for future connection with the Cross River Tram. Euston/King's Cross extension Status - Proposed During the last Horizon study, a possible extension was considered from Bank towards Euston or King's Cross. Chapter 5: Major Transport and Regeneration Projects, item 5.6.3 The main benefit of this extension will be tapping into an area that doesn't have a direct link to the Canary Wharf site, either existing or proposed. This would create a new artery in central London and help relieve the Northern and Circle lines. There are no official plans for possible stations except towards Farringdon, possibly using some of the soon-to-be-disused Thameslink infrastructure. Lewisham to Catford extension Status - Proposed - 2026 This extension was looked at during the latest Horizon Study. The route would follow the Southeastern line and terminate between Catford station and Catford Bridge station. However early plans showed problems due to Lewisham DLR station being only marginally higher than the busy A20 road which impedes any proposed extension. The plan is however being revised. When the Lewisham extension was first completed there were proposals to continue further to Beckenham to link it up with the Tramlink system. However, the way in which Lewisham DLR was built impedes this possible extension and it would prove costly to redevelop. See also List of Docklands Light Railway stations List of rapid transit systems Rail transport in the United Kingdom Transport in London (overview) References External links Docklands Light Railway - Press Room Latest news and information about Docklands Light Railway. Docklands Light Railway - Development Projects Details of all major redevelopment and extension projects Docklands Light Railway - Our Community Information on current campaigns, community news and events in the DLR neighbourhood Collection of Google Earth locations of Docklands Light Railway stations (Requires Google Earth software) from the Google Earth Community forum. West: Crossings of the River Thames East: Greenwich foot tunnel Lewisham branch,between Island Gardensand Cutty Sark Jubilee linebetween Canary Wharfand North Greenwich Woolwich foot tunnel Woolwich branch,between King George Vand Woolwich Arsenal Thames Gateway Bridge(planned)
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Garfield
Garfield is a comic strip created by Jim Davis. Published since June 19, 1978, it chronicles the life of the title character, the cat Garfield (named for Davis' grandfather); his owner, Jon Arbuckle; and the dog, Odie. As of 2007, it is syndicated in roughly 2,580 newspapers and journals and currently holds the Guinness World Record for being the world's most widely syndicated comic strip. Though never mentioned in print, Garfield is set in Muncie, Indiana, the home of Jim Davis, according to the television special Garfield Goes Hollywood. Common themes in the strip include Garfield's laziness, obsessive eating, and hate of Mondays and diets. The strip's focus is mostly on the interactions among Garfield, Jon, and Odie; recurring minor characters appear as well. Originally created with the intentions to "come up with a good, marketable character", Garfield has become commercially successful, with merchandise earning $750 million to $1 billion annually. In addition to the various merchandise and commercial tie-ins, the strip has spawned several animated television specials, two animated television series, two theatrical feature-length live-action films and three CGI animated direct-to-video movies. Part of the strip's broad appeal is due to its lack of social or political commentary; though this was Davis's original intention, he also admitted that his "grasp of politics isn't strong". History In the 1970s, Davis authored a strip, Gnorm Gnat; it met with mostly negative reviews. One editor said that "his art was good, his gags were great", but "nobody can identify with bugs". Davis took his advice and created a new strip with a cat as its main character. Davis. 20 Years & Still Kicking!: Garfield's Twentieth Anniversary Collection. p. 14. The strip originally consisted of four main characters. Garfield, the titular character, was based on the cats Davis was around growing up; he took his name and personality from Davis's grandfather James A. Garfield Davis, who was, in Davis's words, "a large cantankerous man". Jon Arbuckle came from a coffee commercial from the 1950s, and Odie came from a radio advertisement Davis had written for Oldsmobile-Cadillac. The fourth character, Lyman, was Odie's original owner; he was written in to give Jon someone to talk with. Davis later realized that Garfield and Jon could "communicate nonverbally", and Lyman was written out. The strip was originally rejected by King Features Syndicate and Chicago Tribune-New York News; United Feature Syndicate, however, accepted it in 1978. It debuted in forty-one newspapers on June 19 of that year. In 1994, Davis' company, Paws, Inc., purchased all rights to the strips from 1978-1993 from United Feature. The strip is currently distributed by Universal Press Syndicate, however, rights for the strip remain with Paws. The appearance of the characters gradually changed over time". The left panel is taken from a 1980 strip; the right is from a 1990 strip. Garfield quickly became a commercial success. In 1978, less than three years after its release, the strip appeared in 850 newspapers and accumulated over $15 million in merchandise. To manage the merchandise, Davis founded Paws, Inc. By 2002, Garfield became the world's most syndicated strip, appearing in 2570 newspapers with 263 million readers worldwide; by 2004, Garfield appeared in nearly 2600 newspapers and sold from $750 million to $1 billion worth of merchandise in 111 countries. As it progressed, the strip underwent stylistic changes. The appearance of Garfield was probably the most notable; he underwent a "Darwinian evolution" in which he began walking on his hind legs, "slimmed down", and "stopped looking [...] through squinty little eyes". His evolution, according to Davis, was to make it easier to "push Odie off the table" or "reach for a piece of pie". Davis is no longer the sole artist of Garfield. Though he still writes the stories and rough sketches, other artists handle the inking, coloring, and lettering. Davis otherwise spends most of his time managing the business and merchandising of Garfield. Marketing and media Garfield was originally created by Davis with the intention to come up with a "good, marketable character". Now the world's most syndicated comic strip, Garfield has spawned a "profusion" of merchandise including clothing, toys, games, Caribbean cruises, credit cards, and related media. Feature films Garfield: The Movie was the strip's first feature film. Released on June 11, 2004, the movie followed Garfield's quest to save the newly-adopted Odie from a TV pet-show host. While some critics lauded the casting of Bill Murray as the title character, Garfield: The Movie met with mostly negative reviews: Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times called it "soulless excuse for entertainment", while Desson Thomson of the Washington Post said of the film "There's nothing to recommend about this film except its sheer innocuousness". The film garnered a 13% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, while Yahoo! Movies gave the film a C- grade. The film's sequel, Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties (2006), did not perform any better in terms of critical reception, gathering an 11% rating from RottenTomatoes and a C- grade from Yahoo! Movies. Internet Garfield.com is the strip's official website, containing archives of past strips along with games and an online store. Jim Davis has also collaborated with Ball State University and Pearson Digital Learning to create Professor Garfield, a site with educational games focusing on math and reading skills and with Children's Technology Group to create MindWalker, a web browser that allows parents to limit the websites their children can view to a pre-set list. A variety of edited Garfield strips have been made available on the Internet, some hosted on their own unofficial, dedicated sites. Dating from 2005, a site called the "Garfield Randomizer" created a three-panel strip using panels from previous Garfield strips. It was eventually shut down. The application is still available online; do a web search for "Garfield" + "randomizer". Another approach, known as "Silent Garfield", involves removing Garfield's thought balloons from the strips. Review of Garfield Minus Garfield (Ballantine Books, 2008) Some examples date from 2006. A webcomic called Arbuckle does the above but also redraws the originals in a different art style. The Arbuckle website creator writes: "'Garfield' changes from being a comic about a sassy, corpulent feline, and becomes a compelling picture of a lonely, pathetic, delusional man who talks to his pets. Consider that Jon, according to Garfield canon, cannot hear his cat's thoughts. This is the world as he sees it. This is his story". Another variation along the same lines, called "Realfield" or "Realistic Garfield", is to redraw Garfield as a real cat as well as removing his thought balloons. (hotlink) Still another approach to editing the strips involves removing Garfield and other main characters from the originals completely, leaving Jon talking to himself. While strips in this vein can be found online as early as 2006, the 2008 site Garfield Minus Garfield by Dan Walsh received enough online attention to be covered by news media. Reception was largely positive: at its peak, the site received as many as 300,000 hits per day. Fans connected with Jon's "loneliness and desperation" and found his "crazy antics" humorous; Jim Davis himself called Walsh's strips an "inspired thing to do" and said that "some of [the strips] work better [than the originals]". Ballantine Books, which publishes the Garfield books, released a volume of Garfield Minus Garfield strips on October 28, 2008. The volume retains Davis as author and features a foreword by Walsh. Television From 1982 to 1991, twelve primetime Garfield cartoon specials and one hour-long primetime documentary celebrating the character's 10th anniversary were aired; Lorenzo Music voiced Garfield in all of them. A television cartoon show, Garfield and Friends aired for seven seasons from 1988 to 1994; this adaption also starred Music as the voice of Garfield. The Garfield Show, a CGI series, started production in 2008 to coincide with the strip's 30th anniversary. It premiered in France in December 2008 and will make its US, as well as wordwide debut on Cartoon Network in 2009. Main characters Garfield First appearance: June 19, 1978 Garfield was born in the kitchen of an Italian restaurant (later revealed in the television special Garfield: His Nine Lives to be Mama Leoni's Italian Restaurant) and immediately ate all the pasta and lasagna in sight, thus developing a taste for lasagna. Gags in the strips commonly deal with Garfield's obesity (in one strip, Jon jokes, "I wouldn't say Garfield is fat, but the last time he got on a Ferris wheel, the two guys on top starved to death"), and his hatred of exercise (or any form of work, yet he is known for saying breathing is exercise.) In addition to being portrayed as lazy and fat, Garfield is also pessimistic, cynical, sarcastic and sardonic. He enjoys destroying things, mauling the mailman, and tormenting Odie; he also makes snide comments, usually about Jon's inability to get a date (in one strip, when Jon bemoans the fact that no one will go out with him on New Year's, Garfield replies, "Don't feel bad Jon. They wouldn't go out with you even if it weren't New Year's.") Though Garfield can be very cynical he does have a soft side for his teddy bear, food and sleep, but one Christmas he says "they say I have to get up early, be nice to people, skip breakfast...I wish it would never end" Jon Arbuckle Jon First appearance: June 19, 1978 Jon (Jonathan Q. Arbuckle) is Garfield's owner, usually depicted as an awkward geek who has trouble finding a date. Jon loves (or occasionally hates) Garfield and all cats. Many gags focus on this; his inability to get a date is usually attributed to his lack of social skills, his poor taste in clothes (Garfield remarked in one strip after seeing his closet that "two hundred moths committed suicide"; in another, the "geek police" ordered Jon to "throw out his tie"), and his eccentric interests which range from stamp collecting to measuring the growth of his toenails to watching movies with "polka ninjas". Other strips portray him as having a lack of intelligence (he is seen reading a pop-up book in one strip). Jon was born on a farm that apparently contained few amenities; in one strip, his father, upon seeing indoor plumbing, remarks, "Woo-ha! Ain't science something?" Jon occasionally visits his family (consisting of his mother, father, and brother) at their farm. Odie Odie First appearance: August 8, 1978 Odie, a yellow, long-eared beagle who drools and walks on all four legs, was originally owned by Jon’s friend Lyman, though Jon adopted him after Lyman was written out of the strip. Odie is mostly portrayed as naive and unintelligent, although in one strip when Garfield and Jon are out of the house, Odie is seen reading War and Peace and watching a television program, An Evening With Mozart. Odie is often subjected to physical abuse by Garfield (a running gag in the strip is Garfield kicking, pushing, or tricking Odie off the coffee table).Odie can show signs of being smart (such as holding a heavy rock while standing at the end of the table, which prevents Garfield from kicking him off, in fact Garfield hurts his foot). Recurring subjects and themes Many of the gags focus on Garfield's obsessive eating and obesity; his hate of Mondays, diets, and any form of exertion; and his abuse of Odie and Jon. Though he will eat nearly anything, Garfield is particularly fond of lasagna; he also enjoys eating Jon's houseplants and other pets (mainly birds and fish). He also has odd relationships with household pests; Garfield generally spares mice, and even cooperates with them to cause mischief (much to Jon's chagrin), but doesn't mind swatting spiders. Other gags focused on Jon's poor social skills and inability to get a date; before he started dating Liz, he often tried to get dates, usually without success. (In one strip, after failing to get a date with "Nancy", he tried getting a date with her mother and grandmother; he ended up getting "shot down by three generations".) When he does get a date, it usually goes awry; Jon's dates have slashed his tires, been tranquilized, and called the police when he stuck carrots in his ears. The table is the most used location. Jon sits behind the table, while Garfield sits on the table when they're talking. Sometimes however (mostly when Garfield kills a spider or is drinking coffee), Garfield sits behind the table instead of on top of it. The TV chair is one of Garfield’s favorite places, where he entertains himself with shows. Many of the shows mentioned are absurd and stupid, and give Jim Davis an opportunity to comment on pop culture. In earlier strips Garfield doesn’t use the chair at all; he is perched on top of the TV and bends his head down, planting his face right in front of the screen. The fence in the alley is an area where Garfield often performs after dark. His acts generally consist of poor dancing and bad jokes. Odie joins the act from time to time. Garfield is frequently the target of disgusted fans (which are unseen), who throw shoes, pie, vegetables, and houseplants, among other things, at him. He rarely gets applause from his audience. Odie occasionally performs on his own, and he almost always receives applause for his acts. Garfield in the tree is where Garfield frequently ends up stuck in a tree, often for a week. Garfield knows how to climb, but ironically can never overcome the urge. His methods of getting down have included falling, jumping on Jon, or being rescued by firefighters. Mondays are Garfield's least favorite day. Though he doesn't have to go to work or school, Garfield dreads Mondays because he is always getting harmed, usually with flying mystery pies called "Spluts". Vet’s office, a place he loathes. In this setting, Jon tries to get a date with the vet and usually fails. Garfield voices how he hates waiting rooms because of the "stupid pamphlets they put in there". Liz sometimes does go out with Jon. Irma’s Diner is another occasional setting. Irma is a chirpy but slow-witted and unattractive waitress/manager, and one of Jon’s few friends. The terrible food is the center of most of the jokes, along with the poor management. The farm, Jon periodically visits his parents and brother on the farm. This results in week-long comical displays of stupidity by Jon and his family, and their interactions. There is a comic strip where Jon's brother Doc Boy is watching two socks in the dryer spinning and Doc Boy calls it entertainment. On the farm, Jon's mother will cook huge dinners, Garfield hugs her for this. Jon has a grandmother who in a strip kicked Odie and Garfield hugged her. Jon's parents did once visit Jon, Garfield, and Odie in the city. Jon's father drove into town on his tractor (which he double-parked) and brought a rooster to wake him up. Restaurants, since Garfield has a love for food, they will often eat out. Most trips end up embarrassing because Garfield will pig out, or Jon will do something stupid, including wearing an ugly shirt, which happened one night when he took Liz on a date. When Jon does take Liz on a date, Garfield always tags along, and he once filled up on bread. Fourth wall, frequently, the characters break the fourth wall, mostly to explain something to the readers, talk about a subject that often sets up the strip's punchline (like Jon claiming that pets are good for exercise right before he finds Garfield in the kitchen and chases him out ), or give a mere glare when a character is belittled or not impressed. Sometimes, this theme revolves around the conventions of the strip; for example, in one strip, Garfield catches a cold and complains about it, nothing, "Eben my thoughts are stuffed ub." Short storylines Garfield often engages in one- to two-week-long interactions with a minor character, event, or thing, such as Nermal, Arlene, the mailman, alarm clocks, a talking scale, the TV, Pooky, spiders, mice, balls of yarn, dieting, shedding, pie throwing, fishing, vacations, etc. Other unique themes are things like “Garfield’s Believe It or Don’t,” “Garfield’s Law,” “Garfield’s History of Dogs,” and “Garfield’s History of Cats,” which show science, history and the world from Garfield’s point of view. Another particular theme is the “National Fat Week,” where Garfield spends the week making fun of skinny people. Also, there was a time when Garfield caught Odie eating Garfield’s food, so Garfield “kicked Odie into next week.” Soon, Garfield realizes that “Lunch isn’t the same without Odie. He always slips up behind me, barks loudly and makes me fall into my food,” with the result of Garfield falling into his food by himself. Soon after, Garfield is lying in his bed with a “nagging feeling I'm forgetting something,” with Odie landing on Garfield in the next panel. Ever since Jon and Liz began to go out more frequently, Jon has started hiring pet sitters to look after Garfield and Odie, though they don't always work out. Two particular examples are Lillian, an eccentric old lady with odd quirks, and Greta, a muscle bound woman who was hired to look after the pets during New Years. Most of December is spent preparing for Christmas, with a predictable focus on presents. Every week before June 19, the strip focuses on Garfield's birthday, which he dreads because of his fear of getting older. This started happening after his sixth birthday. But, before his 29th birthday, Liz put Garfield on a diet. And on June 19, 2007, Garfield was given the greatest birthday present: “I’M OFF MY DIET!” Occasionally the strip celebrates Halloween as well with scary-themed jokes, such as mask gags. There are also seasonal jokes, with snow-related gags common in January or February and beach or heat themed jokes in the summer. Right panel of 27 Oct 1989 strip. One storyline, which ran the week before Halloween in 1989 (Oct 23 to Oct 28), is unique among Garfield strips in that it is not meant to be humorous. It depicts Garfield awakening in a future in which the house is abandoned and he no longer exists. In tone and imagery the storyline for this series of strips is very similar to the animation segment for Valse Triste from Allegro non troppo, which depicts a ghostly cat roaming around the ruins of the home it once inhabited. There was some speculation on the internet about what these strips meant , including the possibility that Garfield was either dead or starving to death in an abandoned house, imagining future strips in a state of denial. Jim Davis is reported to have actually “laughed loudly” when informed of these rumors circulating on the Internet. In Garfield’s Twentieth Anniversary Collection, in which the strips are reprinted, Jim Davis discusses the genesis for this series of strips. His caption, in its entirety states: “During a writing session that week, I got the idea for this decidedly different series of strips. I wanted to scare people. And what do people fear? Why, being alone of course. We carried out the concept to its logical conclusion and got a lot of responses from readers. Reaction ranged from 'Right on!' to 'This isn't a trend is it?'”" Another recurring storyline involves Garfield getting lost or running away. One of these storylines lasted for over a month (in 1986 August 25 to September 28); it begins when Jon tells Garfield to go get the newspaper. Garfield walks outside to get it, but speculates about what will happen if he wanders off. Jon notices Garfield has been gone too long, so he sends Odie out to find him. He quickly realizes his mistake (Odie, being not too bright, also gets lost). Jon starts to get lonely, so he offers a reward for the return of Garfield and Odie. He is not descriptive, so animals including an elephant, monkeys, a seal, a snake, a kangaroo & joey, and turtles are brought to Jon’s house for the reward. After a series of events, including Odie being adopted by a small girl, both pets meeting up at a circus that they briefly joined, and both going to a pet shop, Garfield and Odie make it back home. Another involved Jon going away on a business trip, leaving Garfield a week's worth of food which he devoured instantly, so Garfield leaves his house and gets locked out. He then reunites with his parents, and eventually makes it back home in the snow on Christmas. Part of this storyline was taken from the 1983 Emmy-winning special Garfield on the Town. Notable criticism Internet satirist Maddox in his "Garfield Sucks" article criticizes the strip for too often relying on Garfield's unscrupulous eating of food. http://www.thebestpageintheuniverse.net/c.cgi?u=garfield_sucks In his xkcd webcomic, Randall Monroe entreats creator Jim Davis to "throw off" his "commercial shackles" and challenge his readers. http://xkcd.com/78/ Smoking Tree has criticized the comics for repeatedly using the same joke. http://www.smokingtree.net/UnfunnyPages-Garfield.htm Notes Bibliography Primary sources Secondary sources External links Official website
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7,117
Gonzo_journalism
The famous "Gonzo fist", originally used by Hunter S. Thompson in his 1970 campaign for sheriff of Aspen, Colorado. The fist has become a symbol of Thompson and Gonzo journalism as a whole. Gonzo journalism is a style of journalism which is written subjectively, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first person narrative. The style tends to blend factual and fictional elements to emphasize an underlying message and engage the reader. The word Gonzo was first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popularized the style. The term has since been applied to other subjective artistic endeavors. Gonzo journalism tends to favor style over accuracy and often uses personal experiences and emotions to provide context for the topic or event being covered. It disregards the 'polished' edited product favored by newspaper media and strives for the gritty factor. Use of quotations, sarcasm, humor, exaggeration, and even profanity is common. The use of Gonzo journalism suggests that journalism can be truthful without striving for objectivity and is loosely equivalent to an editorial. Origin of the term The term "Gonzo" in connection with Hunter S. Thompson was first used by Boston Globe magazine editor Bill Cardoso in 1970. He described Hunter S. Thompson's "The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved", which was written for the June 1970 Scanlan's Monthly, as "pure Gonzo journalism" Hirst, 2004, p.5. . Cardoso claimed that "gonzo" was South Boston Irish slang describing the last man standing after an all night drinking marathon Thompson, 1997 . Cardoso also claimed that it was a corruption of the French Canadian word "gonzeaux", which means "shining path", although this is disputed Hirst, 2004, p.5. . In Italian, Gonzo is a common word for a gullible person, a "sucker" . Another speculation is that the word may have been inspired by the 1960 hit song Gonzo by New Orleans R&B keyboardist James Booker. This last possibility seems to be supported by the 2007 oral biography of Hunter S. Thompson where it is stated that the term "Gonzo" is taken from a hit song by James Booker though it does not explain why Hunter Thompson or Bill Cardoso would have chosen the term to describe Thompson's journalism. According to a Greg Johnson biographical note on James Booker , the song title "Gonzo" comes from a 1960's character in a movie called The Pusher (IMDB page), which in turn may have been inspired by a 1956 Evan Hunter (real name: Salvatore Albert Lombino, Italoamerican) novel by the same title. It remains a mystery who first used this word in American slang, and why. It is also unclear whether there is any relationship with the Muppet character Gonzo the Great, who first appeared in 1970, the same year Bill Cardoso coined the term "Gonzo journalism." Hunter S. Thompson Thompson based his style on William Faulkner's idea that "fiction is often the best fact." While the things that Thompson writes about are basically true, he uses satirical devices to drive his points home. Thompson often wrote about recreational drugs and alcohol use which added additional subjective flair to his reporting. The term "gonzo" has also come into (sometimes pejorative) use to describe journalism (or generally any writing) that is broadly in the vein of Thompson's writing, characterized by a drug-fueled stream-of-consciousness technique. Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream followed the Mint 400 piece in 1971 and included a main character by the name of Raoul Duke, accompanied by his attorney, Dr. Gonzo. Although this book is considered to be a prime example of gonzo journalism, Thompson said that it was a failed experiment. Thompson, Hunter S. Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and Other American Stories. Jacket Copy for Fear & Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream. p. 210. New York: Random House, 1996 Copyright 1971 by Hunter S. Thompson. ISBN 0-679-60298-4 He had intended it to be an unedited record of everything he did as it happened, but he edited the book five times before it was eventually published. Thompson would instigate events himself, often in a prankish or belligerent manner, and then document both his actions and those of others. Notoriously neglectful of deadlines, Thompson often greatly annoyed his editors because he often faxed articles late, too late to be edited but just in time to make the printers. It is speculated that Thompson's work going to print unedited due to a late delivery was completely intentional. Thompson wanted his work to be read as he wrote it, in its "true gonzo" form. "I don't get any satisfaction out of the old traditional journalist's view: 'I just covered the story. I just gave it a balanced view,'" Thompson said in an interview for the online edition of The Atlantic. "Objective journalism is one of the main reasons American politics has been allowed to be so corrupt for so long. You can't be objective about Nixon." Historian Douglas Brinkley said gonzo journalism requires virtually no rewriting and frequently uses transcribed interviews and verbatim telephone conversations. Gonzo journalism by other authors Gonzo journalism can be seen as an offshoot of the New Journalism movement in the sixties, led primarily by Tom Wolfe, and also championed by Lester Bangs and George Plimpton. It has largely been subsumed into Creative nonfiction. Gonzo also occurs when an author cannot remove himself from the subject he investigates. In some cases -- such as tornado chasing, wherein most documenting is done by the person driving the car and holding the camera -- the gonzo element is inherent. In most other cases, however, it is a deliberate and voluntary choice of the journalist, or the media firm for which he or she works. Thompson felt that objectivity in journalism was a myth. The term has now become a bona-fide style of writing that concerns itself with 'telling it like it is', not far from the New Journalism practiced by Tom Wolfe, Terry Southern and John Birmingham. Contemporary styles of gonzo journalism have sprung up in the blog-o-sphere. Gonzo has also worked its way into cartoons targeting the 18-36 year old male demographic manifested in a character based on the late Hunter S Thompson. In fact, Hunter Thompson's famous quote "too weird to live and too rare to die" could have been directed toward Gonzo Journalism as a writing style. Robin Esrock, a travel writer and host of the TV show Word Travels calls his brand of adventure writing Robin Esrock Defines Modern Gonzo on Brave New Traveler . Modern Gonzo, in tribute to Hunter S.Thompson. Modern Gonzo Hunter S Thompson Tribute . Symbol The Gonzo Fist, a two-thumbed symbol attributed to Thompson originally used as the slogan for his 1970 campaign for sheriff of Aspen, contains within the image a peyote button, the bud of a cactus plant that has hallucinogenic properties when ingested. The fist is combined with the word "Gonzo" styled to form the hilt of a sword. Other uses In other contexts, gonzo has come to mean "with reckless abandon," or, more broadly, "extreme". Gonzo porn refers to pornographic films which are filmed by a participant, and as such have eliminated fictional plot and scripted dialogue and focus on the sex act. For parallel uses of gonzo, see What Is Gonzo? Hirst, 2004 . One of Jim Henson's muppets was named Gonzo the Great, created by Dave Goelz. Gonzo marketing also sprung from his work. Christopher Locke http://www.amazon.com/Gonzo-Marketing-Winning-Through-Practices/dp/0738204080/ref=cm_lmf_tit_1/180-2523137-8541927 wrote a book on the subject, and a London-based youth insight agency, The Youth Conspiracy pioneered the use of this in their research methodology. http://www.clearchannel.co.uk/content.aspx?ID=33&ParentID=1&MicrositeID=0&NewsID=9374&Page=1 See also Embedded journalism La Jerga: Periodismo Gonzo Independiente The Daily Raider ScribbleSheet Spider Jerusalem Transmetropolitan Citations References External links Past Jergas The beginnings and concept of Gonzo journalism Official store for merchandise with Dr. Thompson's Gonzo logo Gonzo|Press ... Memorandum on Thompson and his gonzoesque method - in German with a translation service''
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7,118
Axon
An axon or nerve fiber is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body or soma. Anatomy Axons are in effect the primary transmission lines of the nervous system, and as bundles they help make up nerves. Individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about 1μm across), but may be up to several feet in length. The longest axons in the human body, for example, are those of the sciatic nerve, which run from the base of the spine to the big toe of each foot. These single-cell fibers of the sciatic nerve may extend a meter or even longer. DNA From The Beginning, section 6: Genes are real things., "Amination" section, final slide In vertebrates, the axons of many neurons are sheathed in myelin, which is formed by either of two types of glial cells: Schwann cells ensheathing peripheral neurons and oligodendrocytes insulating those of the central nervous system. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly-spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltation. The demyelination of axons is what causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease Multiple Sclerosis. The axons of some neurons branch to form axon collaterals, that can be divided into a number of smaller branches called telodendria. Along these the bifurcated impulse travels simultaneously to signal more than one other cell. Physiology The physiology can be described by the Hodgkin-Huxley Model, extended to vertebrates in Frankenhaeuser-Huxley equations. Types Peripheral nerve fibers can be classified based on axonal conduction velocity, mylenation, fiber size etc. For example, there are slow-conducting unmyelinated C fibers and faster-conducting myelinated Aδ fibers. More complex mathematical modeling continues to be done today. There are several types of sensory- as well as motorfibers. Other fibers not mentioned in table are e.g. fibers of the autonomic nervous system Motor Lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers: +Motor fiber types Type Diameter Conduction velocity Associated muscle fibers α Extrafusal muscle fibers γ 5-8 µm 4-24 m/s Andrew BL, Part NJ (1972) Properties of fast and slow motor units in hind limb and tail muscles of the rat. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci 57:213-225. Russell NJ (1980) Axonal conduction velocity changes following muscle tenotomy or deafferentation during development in the rat. J Physiol 298:347-360. Intrafusal muscle fibers Sensory Different sensory receptors are innervated by different types of nerve fibers. Muscles and associated sensory receptors are innvervated by type Ia and Ib sensory fibers, while cutaneous receptors activate Aβ, Aδ and C fibers. +Sensory fiber types Type Diameter Conduction velocity Associated sensory receptors Ia 13-20 µm 80-120 m/s Receptors of muscle spindle Ib 13-20 µm 80-120 m/s Golgi tendon organ Aβ(II) 6-12 µm 33-75 m/s All cutaneous mechanoreceptors Aδ 1-5 µm 3-30 m/s Free nerve endings of touch and pressure Cold thermoreceptors Nociceptors of neospinothalamic tract C 0.2-1.5 µm 0.5-2.0 m/s Nociceptors of paleospinothalamic tract warmth receptors Growth and development Axon of 9 day old mouse with growth cone visible. Growing axons move through their environment via the growth cone, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet like extension called lamellipodia which contain protrusions called filopodia. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of cell adhesion molecules or CAM's create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAM's specific to neural systems include N-CAM, neuroglial CAM or NgCAM, TAG-1, MAG, and DCC, all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Another set of molecules called extracellular matrix adhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include laminin, fibronectin, tenascin, and perlecan. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. Cells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells are typically other, sometimes immature, neurons. History Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by K. Cole and H. Curtis. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading the formulation of the Hodgkin-Huxley Model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser-Huxley equations. Erlanger and Gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral Sansom B, "Reflex Isolation" http://www.sansomnia.com nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity, myelination, fiber size etc. Even recently our understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced, and now includes many details about individual ion channels. Concussion Concussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury eMedicine - Traumatic Brain Injury: Definition, Epidemiology, Pathophysiology : Article by Segun T Dawodu, MD, FAAPMR, FAANEM, CIME, DipMI(RCSed) . See also Nerve Neuron Dendrite Synapse Axon guidance Pioneer axon Electrophysiology References External links - "Slide 3 Spinal cord"
Axon |@lemmatized axon:17 nerve:11 fiber:20 long:4 slender:1 projection:1 cell:11 neuron:8 conduct:1 electrical:2 impulse:3 away:1 body:2 soma:1 anatomy:1 effect:2 primary:1 transmission:1 line:1 nervous:4 system:7 bundle:1 help:1 make:2 individual:2 microscopic:1 diameter:3 typically:2 across:1 may:2 several:2 foot:2 length:1 human:1 example:4 sciatic:2 run:1 base:3 spine:1 big:1 toe:1 single:1 extend:3 meter:1 even:2 dna:1 beginning:1 section:2 gene:1 real:1 thing:1 amination:1 final:1 slide:2 vertebrate:3 many:2 sheathe:1 myelin:1 form:3 either:1 two:2 type:9 glial:1 schwann:1 ensheathing:1 peripheral:3 oligodendrocyte:1 insulate:1 central:1 along:4 myelinated:2 gap:1 sheath:1 know:1 node:1 ranvier:1 occur:1 evenly:1 spaced:1 interval:1 myelination:2 enable:1 especially:1 rapid:1 mode:1 propagation:2 call:6 saltation:1 demyelination:1 cause:1 multitude:1 neurological:1 symptom:1 find:1 disease:1 multiple:1 sclerosis:1 branch:2 collateral:1 divide:1 number:1 small:1 telodendria:1 bifurcated:1 travel:1 simultaneously:1 signal:1 one:1 physiology:2 describe:1 hodgkin:4 huxley:6 model:2 frankenhaeuser:2 equation:2 classify:1 axonal:6 conduction:5 velocity:5 mylenation:1 size:2 etc:2 slow:2 conducting:2 unmyelinated:1 c:3 fast:2 aδ:3 complex:1 mathematical:1 modeling:1 continue:1 today:1 sensory:7 well:1 motorfibers:1 mention:1 table:1 e:1 g:1 autonomic:1 motor:4 lower:1 kind:1 associate:2 muscle:7 α:1 extrafusal:1 γ:1 µm:6 andrew:2 bl:1 part:2 nj:2 property:1 unit:1 hind:1 limb:1 tail:1 rat:2 q:1 j:2 exp:1 physiol:2 cogn:1 med:1 sci:1 russell:1 change:1 follow:1 tenotomy:1 deafferentation:1 development:2 intrafusal:1 different:2 receptor:6 innervate:1 associated:1 innvervated:1 ia:2 ib:2 cutaneous:2 activate:1 aβ:2 spindle:1 golgi:1 tendon:1 organ:1 ii:1 mechanoreceptors:1 free:1 ending:1 touch:1 pressure:1 cold:1 thermoreceptor:1 nociceptors:2 neospinothalamic:1 tract:2 paleospinothalamic:1 warmth:1 growth:6 day:1 old:1 mouse:1 cone:3 visible:1 grow:3 move:1 environment:4 via:1 tip:1 broad:1 sheet:1 like:1 extension:1 lamellipodia:1 contain:1 protrusion:1 filopodia:2 mechanism:1 entire:1 process:1 adheres:1 surface:3 explore:1 surround:1 actin:1 play:1 major:1 role:1 mobility:1 high:1 level:1 adhesion:2 molecule:4 cam:4 create:1 ideal:1 seem:1 provide:2 sticky:2 specific:1 neural:1 include:3 n:1 neuroglial:1 ngcam:1 tag:1 mag:1 dcc:1 immunoglobulin:1 superfamily:1 another:1 set:1 extracellular:1 matrix:1 also:3 substrate:1 laminin:1 fibronectin:1 tenascin:1 perlecan:1 bound:1 thus:2 act:1 short:1 range:2 attractants:1 repellent:1 others:1 difusible:1 ligand:1 guidepost:1 assist:1 guidance:2 neuronal:1 sometimes:1 immature:1 history:1 first:1 intracellular:1 recording:1 late:1 k:1 cole:1 h:1 curtis:1 alan:1 employ:1 squid:1 giant:1 obtain:1 full:1 quantitative:1 description:1 ionic:1 basis:2 action:2 potential:2 lead:1 formulation:1 award:1 jointly:1 nobel:1 prize:1 work:1 formula:1 detail:2 conductance:1 erlanger:1 gasser:1 earlier:1 develop:1 classification:1 sansom:1 b:1 reflex:1 isolation:1 http:1 www:1 sansomnia:1 com:1 recently:1 understanding:1 biochemical:1 advance:1 ion:1 channel:1 concussion:2 consider:1 mild:1 diffuse:1 injury:2 emedicine:1 traumatic:1 brain:1 definition:1 epidemiology:1 pathophysiology:1 article:1 segun:1 dawodu:1 md:1 faapmr:1 faanem:1 cime:1 dipmi:1 rcsed:1 see:1 dendrite:1 synapse:1 pioneer:1 electrophysiology:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 spinal:1 cord:1 |@bigram nerve_fiber:5 glial_cell:1 schwann_cell:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 axon_neuron:1 peripheral_nerve:1 conduction_velocity:5 autonomic_nervous:1 motor_neuron:1 muscle_fiber:3 hind_limb:1 nerve_ending:1 cell_adhesion:1 adhesion_molecule:2 extracellular_matrix:1 nobel_prize:1 http_www:1 traumatic_brain:1 neuron_dendrite:1 external_link:1 spinal_cord:1
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Lucid_dream
Hypnos and Thanatos, Sleep and His Half-Brother Death by John William Waterhouse A lucid dream, also known as conscious dream, is a dream in which the sleeper is aware that he/she is dreaming. When the dreamer is lucid, they can actively participate in and often manipulate the imaginary experiences in the dream environment. Lucid dreams can be extremely real and vivid depending on a person's level of self-awareness during the lucid dream. Lucid Dreaming FAQ LaBerge, S. & Lly paralizedevitan, L. (2004). Version 2.3 A lucid dream can begin in one of three ways. A dream-initiated lucid dream (DILD) starts as a normal dream, and the dreamer eventually concludes that they are dreaming, while a wake-initiated lucid dream (WILD) occurs when the dreamer goes from a normal waking state directly into a dream state with no apparent lapse in consciousness. A mnemonic initiated lucid dream (MILD) can happen when the dreamer intentionally affirms him/herself that they will become lucid that night. This can sometimes happen due to dream-signs or spontaneously upon remembrance. Lucid dreaming has been researched scientifically, and its existence is well established. Scientists such as Allan Hobson, with his neurophysiological approach to dream research, have helped to push the understanding of lucid dreaming into a less speculative realm. Scientific history The first book on lucid dreams to recognize their scientific potential was Celia Green's 1968 study Lucid Dreams. Green, C., Lucid Dreams, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1968. Reviewing the past literature, as well as new data from subjects of her own, Green analyzed the main characteristics of such dreams and concluded that they were a category of experience quite distinct from ordinary dreams. She predicted that they would turn out to be associated with rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep). Green was also the first to link lucid dreams to the phenomenon of false awakenings. Philosopher Norman Malcolm's 1959 text Dreaming Malcolm, N., Dreaming, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959. had argued against the possibility of checking the accuracy of dream reports. However, the realization that eye movements performed in dreams affected the dreamer's physical eyes provided a way to prove that actions agreed upon during waking life could be recalled and performed once lucid in a dream. The first evidence of this type was produced in the late 1970s by British parapsychologist Keith Hearne. A volunteer named Alan Worsley used eye movement to signal the onset of lucidity, which were recorded by a polysomnograph machine. Hearne's results were not widely distributed. The first peer-reviewed article was published some years later by Stephen LaBerge at Stanford University, who had independently developed a similar technique as part of his doctoral dissertation. Laberge, S. (1980). Lucid dreaming: An exploratory study of consciousness during sleep. (Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 1980), (University Microfilms No. 80-24, 691) During the 1980s, further scientific evidence to confirm the existence of lucid dreaming was produced as lucid dreamers were able to demonstrate to researchers that they were consciously aware of being in a dream state (again, primarily using eye movement signals). LaBerge, Stephen (1990). in Bootzen, R. R., Kihlstrom, J.F. & Schacter, D.L., (Eds.): Lucid Dreaming: Psychophysiological Studies of Consciousness during REM Sleep Sleep and Cognition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 109 – 126. Additionally, techniques were developed which have been experimentally proven to enhance the likelihood of achieving this state. LaBerge, Stephen; Levitan, Lynne (1995). "Validity Established of DreamLight Cues for Eliciting Lucid Dreaming". Dreaming 5 (3). International Association for the Study of Dreams. Research on techniques and effects of lucid dreaming continues at a number of universities and other centers, including LaBerge's Lucidity Institute. Research and clinical applications Neurobiological model Neuroscientist J. Allan Hobson has hypothesized what might be occurring in the brain while lucid. The first step to lucid dreaming is recognizing that one is dreaming. This recognition might occur in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is one of the few areas deactivated during REM sleep and where working memory occurs. Once this area is activated and the recognition of dreaming occurs, the dreamer must be cautious to let the dream delusions continue but be conscious enough to recognize them. This process might be seen as the balance between reason and emotion. While maintaining this balance, the amygdala and parahippocampal cortex might be less intensely activated. To continue the intensity of the dream hallucinations, it is expected the pons and the parieto-occipital junction stay active. Treatment for nightmares It has been suggested that people who suffer from nightmares could benefit from the ability to be aware they are dreaming. A pilot study was performed in 2006 that showed that lucid dreaming treatment was successful in reducing nightmare frequency. This treatment consisted of exposure to the idea, mastery of the technique, and lucidity exercises. It was not clear what aspects of the treatment were responsible for the success of overcoming nightmares, though the treatment as a whole was successful. Australian psychologist Milan Colic has explored the application of principles from narrative therapy with clients' lucid dreams, to reduce the impact not only of nightmares during sleep, but also depression, self-mutilation, and other problems in waking life. Colic found that clients' preferred direction for their lives, as identified during therapeutic conversations, could lessen the distressing content of dreams, while understandings about life—and even characters—from lucid dreams could be invoked in "real" life with marked therapeutic benefits. Colic, M. (2007). 'Kanna's lucid dreams and the use of narrative practices to explore their meaning.' The International Journal of Narrative Therapy and Community Work (4): 19-26. Perception of time The rate that time passes while lucid dreaming has been shown to be about the same as while waking. However, a 1995 study in Germany indicated lucid dreaming can also have varied time spans, in which the dreamer can control the length. The study took place during sleep and upon awakening, and required the participants to record their dreams in a log and how long the dreams lasted. In 1985, LaBerge performed a pilot study where lucid dreamers counted out ten seconds while dreaming, signaling the end of counting with a pre-arranged eye signal measured with electrooculogram recording. LaBerge's results were confirmed by German researchers in 2004. The German study, by D. Erlacher and M. Schredl, also studied motor activity and found that deep knee bends took 44% longer to perform while lucid dreaming. Near-death and out-of-body experiences In a study of fourteen lucid dreamers performed in 1991, people who perform wake-initiated lucid dreams (WILD) reported experiences consistent with aspects of out-of-body experiences such as floating above their beds and the feeling of leaving their bodies. Due to the phenomenological overlap between lucid dreams, near death experiences, and out-of-body experiences, researchers say they believe a protocol could be developed to induce a lucid dream similar to a near-death experience in the laboratory. Cultural history Even though it has only come to the attention of the general public in the last few decades, lucid dreaming is not a modern discovery. A letter written by St. Augustine of Hippo in 415 AD refers to lucid dreaming. Letter from St. Augustine of Hippo In the eighth century, Tibetan Buddhists and Bonpo were practicing a form of Dream Yoga held to maintain full waking consciousness while in the dream state. (March 2005). The Best Sleep Posture for Lucid Dreaming: A Revised Experiment Testing a Method of Tibetan Dream Yoga. The Lucidity Institute. This system is extensively discussed and explained in the book Dream Yoga and the Practice of Natural Light. Dream Yoga and the Practice of Natural Light, 2nd edition, Snowlion Publications; authored by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu, an eminent Tibetan Lama, and his student Michael Katz, a Psychologist and lucid dream trainer. One of the important messages of the book is the distinction between the Dzogchen meditation of Awareness and Dream Yoga. The Dzogchen Awareness meditation has also been referred to by the terms Rigpa Awareness, Contemplation, and Presence. Awareness during the sleep and dream states is associated with the Dzogchen practice of natural light. This practice only achieves lucid dreams as a secondary effect—in contrast to Dream yoga which is aimed primarily at lucid dreaming. According to Buddhist teachers, the experience of lucidity helps us to understand the unreality of phenomena, which would otherwise be overwhelming during dream or the death experience. An early recorded lucid dreamer was the philosopher and physician Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682). Browne was fascinated by the world of dreams and stated of his own ability to lucid dream in his Religio Medici: "... yet in one dream I can compose a whole Comedy, behold the action, apprehend the jests and laugh my self awake at the conceits thereof;" Religio Medici, part 2:11. Text available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/relmed/relmed.html . Similarly, Samuel Pepys in his diary entry for 15 August 1665 records a dream "that I had my Lady Castlemayne in my arms and was admitted to use all the dalliance I desired with her, and then dreamt that this could not be awake, but that it was only a dream". Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys was probably the first person to argue that it is possible for anyone to learn to dream consciously. In 1867, he published his book Les Reves et les Moyens de Les Diriger; Observations Pratiques (Dreams and How to Guide them; Practical Observations), in which he documented more than twenty years of his own research into dreams. The term lucid dreaming was coined by Dutch author and psychiatrist Frederik van Eeden in his 1913 article "A Study of Dreams". This paper was highly anecdotal and not embraced by the scientific community. Some consider this a misnomer because it means much more than just "clear or vivid" dreaming. The alternative term conscious dreaming avoids this confusion. However, the term lucid was used by van Eeden in its sense of "having insight", as in the phrase a lucid interval applied to someone in temporary remission from a psychosis, rather than as a reference to the perceptual quality of the experience which may or may not be clear and vivid. In the 1950s, the Senoi hunter-gatherers of Malaysia were reported to make extensive use of lucid dreaming to ensure mental health, although later studies refuted these claims. G. William Domhoff (2003). Senoi Dream Theory: Myth, Scientific Method, and the Dreamwork Movement. Retrieved July 10, 2006. The anthropologic studies in 1968 by Carlos Castaneda, for what later became the new age novel, The Teachings of Don Juan, reveals that ancient Mexican natives knew about and encouraged lucid dreaming. Induction methods Many people report having experienced a lucid dream during their lives, often in childhood. Children seem to have lucid dreams more easily than adults. Over time, several techniques have been developed to achieve a lucid dreaming state intentionally. The following are common factors that influence lucid dreaming and techniques that people use to help achieve a lucid dream: Dream recall Dream recall is simply the ability to remember dreams. Good dream recall is often described as the first step towards lucid dreaming. Better recall increases awareness of dreams in general; with limited dream recall, any lucid dreams one has can be forgotten entirely. To improve dream recall, some people keep a dream journal, writing down any dreams remembered the moment one awakes. An audio recorder can also be very helpful. It is important to record the dreams as quickly as possible as there is a strong tendency to forget what one has dreamt. It is suggested that for best recall, the waking dreamer should keep eyes closed while trying to remember the dream, and that one's dream journal be recorded in the present tense. Describing an experience as if still in it can help the writer to recall more accurately the events of their dream. Dream recall can also be improved by staying still after waking up. This may have something to do with REM atonia (the condition of REM sleep in which the motor neurons are not stimulated and thus the body's muscles do not move). If one purposely prevents motor neurons from firing immediately after waking from a dream, recalling the dream becomes easier. Similarly, if the dreamer changes positions in the night, they may be able to recall certain events of their dream by testing different sleeping positions. Another easy technique to help improve dream recall is to simply repeat (in thoughts or out loud) "I will remember my dreams," before falling asleep. Stephen LaBerge recommends that you remember at least one dream per night before attempting any induction methods. Mnemonic induction of lucid dreams (MILD) The MILD technique is a common technique developed by Stephen LaBerge used to induce a lucid dream at will by setting an intention, while falling asleep, to remember to recognize that one is dreaming or to remember to look for dream signs when one is in a dream. One easy-to-apply method is to count yours or other people's fingers during the day, making sure it is done diligently and reaches the expected number. If this is done frequently when awake, similar behavior continues into the dream, where by some discrepancy from reality, the dreamer will realize he or she is dreaming and the dream will become lucid. Another method is to look at text (such as a digital clock, or a road sign), turn away, and then look back. If the person is dreaming, the text will change to something else. The dreamer will realize he or she is dreaming and the dream will become lucid. A key element in MILD is reviewing in memory the dream from which one has just awoken. When a point is reached in the dream at which an obvious dream sign occurred (e.g., a man with two heads walks past) individuals performing this technique depart from actual memory and instead imagine they became aware they were dreaming. Upon returning to sleep, these individuals will often find themselves back in the same or similar dreams, sometimes even encountering similar dream signs—a situation that can improve the odds they will remember their intention to question whether or not they are dreaming, and thereby achieve lucidity. Wake-back-to-bed (WBTB) The wake-back-to-bed technique is often the easiest way to encourage a lucid dream. The method involves going to sleep tired and waking up five to six hours later. Then, focusing all thoughts on lucid dreaming, staying awake for an hour and going back to sleep while practicing the MILD method. A 60% success rate has been shown in research using this technique. This is because the REM cycles get longer as the night goes on, and this technique takes advantage of the best REM cycle of the night. Because this REM cycle is longer and deeper, gaining lucidity during this time may result in a lengthier lucid dream. Wake-initiation of lucid dreams (WILD) The wake-initiated lucid dream "occurs when the sleeper enters REM sleep with unbroken self-awareness directly from the waking state". There are many techniques aimed at entering a WILD. The key to these techniques is recognizing the hypnagogic stage, which is within the border of being awake and being asleep. If a person is successful in staying aware while this stage occurs, they will eventually enter the dream state while being fully aware that it is a dream. There are key times at which this state is best entered; while success at normal bedtime after having been awake all day is very difficult, it is relatively easy after sleeping for 3–7 hours or in the afternoon during a nap. Techniques for inducing WILDs abound. Dreamers may count, envision themselves climbing or descending stairs, chant to themselves, control their breathing, count their breaths to keep their thoughts from drifting, concentrate on relaxing their body from their toes to their head, or allow images to flow through their "mind's eye" and envision themselves jumping into the image to maintain concentration and keep their mind awake, while still being calm enough to let their body sleep. During the actual transition into the dream state, one is likely to experience sleep paralysis, including rapid vibrations, a sequence of loud sounds and a feeling of twirling into another state of body awareness, "to drift off into another dimension", or the feeling like passing the interface between water into air face-front body first, or images or sceneries they are thinking of and trying to visualize gradually sharpen and become "real", which they can actually "see", instead of the fuzzy indefinable sensations one feels when trying to imagine something when wide awake. Cycle adjustment technique (CAT) The cycle adjustment technique, developed by Daniel Love, is an effective way to induce lucid dreaming. It involves adjusting one's sleep cycle to encourage awareness during the latter part of the sleep. First, the person spends one week waking up 90 minutes before normal wake time until their sleep cycle begins to adjust. After this cycle adjustment phase, the normal wake times and early wake times alternate daily. On the days with the normal wake times, the body is ready to wake up, and this increases alertness, making lucidity more likely. A variation on this method is WILD-CAT. Identical in virtually all respects to the original Cycle Adjustment Technique, differing only in such that on the days in which one is allowed to sleep-in (normal wake times), the subject wakes briefly at the earlier wake time then returns immediately to sleep until the normal wake time. This allows the subject to return to sleep in the hope of inducing a Wake Initiated Lucid Dream. One advantage to WILD-CAT is that it can be combined with other WILD induction methods. The WILD-CAT variation was also developed by Daniel Love. Lucid Dream Supplements (LDS) The Lucid Dream Supplement (LDS) technique was developed primarily by LaBerge with others following his lead. LaBerge filed for a patent application in December 2004 that outlined the basic technique of boosting Acetylcholine levels to promote lucid dreaming. The application included misleading details however; such as repeated references of ingesting the supplements at bedtime. It is now known that taking the right balance of supplements after several hours of sleep is far more effective. LaBerge did not name the method nor has he publicly discussed his research. The term LDS was coined by researcher/practitioner Scot Stride who worked with a small group of pioneers, including Thomas Yuschak, to optimize the LDS approach. The LDS method uses primarily non-prescription supplements that are ingested to produce favorable conditions for the brain's neurotransmitters and receptor sites during REM sleep. By increasing or balancing the levels of Acetylcholine, Serotonin, Dopamine and Norepinephrine the person can significantly influence dream vividness, memory, clarity, awareness and mood. Enhancing these mental states during REM sleep significantly increases the odds of becoming lucid. The LDS technique can be combined with other techniques (like WBTB or WILD) to complement or amplify them to produce even better results. Thomas Yuschak describes the details of the technique in his book and is widely credited with popularizing the method. Based on anecdotal accounts from various website forums, many people who have experienced difficulties with the other techniques, for whatever reason, are using LDS as an aid in overcoming their obstacles. Some people use LDS to jump start their LD practice and then move on to one of the other traditional methods. Other people use it recreationally to experience more memorable and vivid dreams than they normally would. As well as the Lucid Dream Supplement some have reported increase in dream vividness using other vitamin supplements such as B6/B12. Lucid dream induction devices (LDID) Lucid dream induction is possible by the use of a physical device. A well-known and the original widely-distributed dream-induction device is the NovaDreamer, designed in 1993 by experienced lucid dreamer Craig Webb, Executive Director of The DREAMS Foundation . The general principle works by taking advantage of the natural phenomenon of incorporating external stimuli into one's dreams. Usually a device is worn while sleeping that can detect when the sleeper enters a REM phase and triggers a tone and/or flashing lights with the goal of these stimuli being incorporated into the dreamer's dream. For example, flashing lights might be translated to a car's headlights in a dream. The NovaDreamer concept and design has been imitated years later by such devices as The Dream Mask by Bruce Gelerter. Another induction stimulus is vibration. A small vibrator placed on the hand, arm or ankle and triggered by REM activity, or a timer, can also serve as a cue to trigger a lucid dream. The Problem of Induction: A Panel Discussion Additional techniques include reality tests (as below) practiced in waking life can lead to a test taking place within a dream, leading to the realization that one is dreaming or meditating. Hypnotic suggestion may help a person to achieve lucidity. Michael Katz referenced using simple hypnotic induction for the purpose of initiating lucid dreams in his introduction to the first edition of the book Dream Yoga and the Practice of Natural Light. From the early 1980s, he went on to use this "guided nap" technique during dream yoga and lucid dream training. He conducts training internationally and maintains an archive of examples. Dzogchen Community Of New York: Lucid Dreams of Community Members KUNDROLLING, Lucid dream mask models The Lucidity Institute produced the original Dreamlight and NovaDreamer models which where originally on sale for $120 and only produced in semi-limited quantities. Funds raised from these devices where used to help fund further research by the Lucidity Institute. A similar device called the NovaDreamer II has been "coming soon" since at least 2004, and should be made available to the general public in late 2009. A similar device known as the Dream Mask has also been produced. Some individuals have created their own devices using foam and simple electronics. Reality testing Reality testing (or reality checking) is a common method used by people to determine whether or not they are dreaming. It involves performing an action with results that will be different if the tester is dreaming. By practicing these tests during waking life, one may eventually decide to perform such a test while dreaming, which may fail and let the dreamer realize that they are dreaming. (The more foolproof the reality test, the better, as assuming one is dreaming can be dangerous) The pinch reality check: Pinch any part of your body and if you feel no pain (or if it feels "different" or "obstructed" compared to waking life) then it is a dream. The nose reality check: Pinch your nose and if you are able to breathe without using your mouth, it is a dream. Reality Check Try to stick your finger through the palm of your hand. Looking at one's digital watch (remembering the time), looking away, and looking back. As with text, the time will probably have changed randomly and radically at the second glance or contain strange letters and characters. (Analog watches do not usually change in dreams, while digital watches and clocks have great tendency to do so.) Reality testing, Lucid Dreaming FAQ at The Lucidity Institute. (October 2006) Flipping a light switch. Light levels rarely change as a result of the switch flipping in dreams. Lynne Levitan, Stephen LaBerge (Summer 1993). Looking into a mirror; in dreams, reflections from a mirror often appear to be blurred, distorted, incorrect, or frightening. Looking at the ground beneath one's feet or at one's hands. If one does this within a dream the difference in appearance of the ground or one's hands from the normal waking state is often enough to alert the conscious to the dream state. H. von Moers-Messmer, "Traume mit der gleichzeitigen Erkenntnis des Traumzustandes," Archiv Fuer Psychologie 102 (1938): 291-318. Pick up a book and look inside. Often, the pages will be blank, or change after the second look. Look at your surroundings. If the placement of the buildings is different from what it ought to be, you are in a dream. Look at your clothing. If you are dreaming, there's a good chance that your clothing is out of the ordinary, too small or too large, or not even there. A more precise form of reality testing involves examining the properties of dream objects to judge their apparent reality. Some lucid dreamers report that dream objects when examined closely have all the sensory properties, stability, and detail of objects in the physical world. Such detailed observation relates to whether mental objects and environments could effectively act as substitutes for the physical environments with the dreamer unable to see significant differences between the two. This has implications for those who claim there is a spiritual or supernatural world that might be accessible through out of body experience or after death. If lucid dream environments when examined carefully can effectively mimic physical world environments, the argument that there is an afterlife in some non-material world following death may gain increased credibility. Dream signs Another form of reality testing involves identifying one's dream signs, or clues that one is dreaming. An individual may record their dreams in a dream journal and analyze the common themes to determine one's own dream signs. There are many kinds of dream signs, but they usually reflect the waking life of the person who has the dream. For example, someone who is a doctor will often dream about performing duties in their field of specialization. The most common, and telling dreaming sign is that something illogical occurs in a completely natural and self-accepted manner (although the dreamer may not immediately realize this). Dream signs can also reflect wants, fears, things the subject hates, and even finds embarrassing. They can manifest themselves in many different ways, depending on the dreamer. Recognizing one's dream signs is an important technique for achieving lucid dreaming, and allowing one to become consciously aware of the dream state. The most common of the dream signs are as follows: Action — The dreamer, another dream character, or a thing does something unusual or impossible in waking life, such as flying, jumping or running great distances, walking through walls, teleporting/changing the dream setting, or noticing photographs in a magazine or newspaper becoming three-dimensional with full movement. Powerlessness — There is a sensational loss of bodily strength. This can mean being unable to move entirely, simply that you are unable to run away from something you otherwise would. This can also include a loss of senses, such as severely limited vision or hearing. Context — The place or situation in the dream is strange and includes fictional characters or places. Form — The dreamer, another character, or an object changes shape, is oddly formed, or transforms. This may include the presence of unusual clothing or hair, or a third person view of the dreamer. Awareness — There is a peculiar thought, a strong emotion, an unusual sensation, a loss of normal logic, or an altered perception. In some cases when moving one's head from side to side, one may notice a strange stuttering or 'strobing' of the image. Clocks — The dreamer looks at a clock or watch, looks away, then looks back, and the time could have changed, unintelligible symbols appear on the watch face or even the watch can be gone all together. Fingers — The dreamer seems to have an abnormal number of fingers (e.g. more than 5 on a hand). One can build up a habit of periodically asking oneself throughout the day if you are dreaming, and performing some of the tasks above. This habit will eventually cause checks to be performed during a dream, leading to lucidity when dream signs are remembered and recognized. Prolongation One problem faced by people wishing to experience lucid dreams is awakening prematurely. This premature awakening can be frustrating after investing considerable time into achieving lucidity in the first place. Stephen LaBerge proposed two ways to prolong a lucid dream. The first technique involves spinning one's dream body. He proposed that when spinning, the dreamer is engaging parts of the brain that may also be involved in REM activity, helping to prolong REM sleep. The second technique is rubbing one's hands. This technique is intended to engage the dreamer's brain in producing the sensation of rubbing hands, preventing the sensation of lying in bed from creeping into awareness. LaBerge tested his hypothesis by asking 34 volunteers to either spin, rub their hands, or do nothing. Results showed 90% of dreams were prolonged by hand rubbing and 96% prolonged by spinning. Only 33% of lucid dreams were prolonged with taking no action. Once the initial barrier of lucidity is broken, the dreamer’s next obstacle is the excitement of being conscious within a dream. It is key that the dreamer immediately relaxes upon becoming lucid. There are many methods that work, but in general saturating any of the senses with stimuli from the dream is important. Vision is usually the first sense to fade away, with touch commonly being the last. If the dream starts to fade, grabbing hold of anything close by, making sure to feel the tactile sensation, can prevent the dream from fading. Other techniques include shouting in a loud and clear voice, “INCREASE LUCIDITY!” inside the dream. People are often reluctant to do this, but it significantly stabilizes the dream and increases its vividness. The well-known author, Carlos Castaneda, suggests that the dreamer touch their tongue to the roof of their mouth, an action that greatly increases the realness of the dream. Carlos Castaneda, "The Art of Dreaming" The experience of losing lucidity and waking up has been described as similar to using a camera to unfocus on a distant object while refocusing on a much closer one. The distant object (the dream body) blurs out at first and eventually disappears completely as the closer object (the physical body) comes into focus. Using a different analogy to describe the transition, the mental or dream body image slowly evaporates like water on hot pavement, as the normal physical body image coalesces and takes its place. Other associated phenomena Rapid eye movement (REM) When a person is dreaming, the eyes move rapidly and vibrate. Scientific research has found that these eye movements correspond to the direction in which the dreamer is "looking" in his/her dreamscape; this has enabled trained lucid dreamers to communicate whilst dreaming to researchers by using eye movement signals. REM Sleep. EEG highlighted by red box. Eye movements highlighted by red line. False awakening In a false awakening, one suddenly dreams of having been awakened. Commonly in a false awakening, the room is similar to the room in which the person fell asleep. If the person was lucid, they often believe that they are no longer dreaming and may start exiting the room and so forth. This can be a nemesis in the art of lucid dreaming, because it usually causes people to give up their awareness of being in a dream, but it can also cause someone to become lucid if the person does a reality check whenever he/she awakens. People who keep a dream journal and write down their dreams upon awakening sometimes report having to write down the same dream multiple times because of this phenomenon. It has also been known to cause bed wetting as one may dream that they have awoken to go to the lavatory, but in reality are still dreaming. The makers of induction devices such as the NovaDreamer and the REM Dreamer recommend doing a reality check every time you awake so that when a false awakening occurs you will become lucid. People using these devices have most of their lucid dreams triggered through reality checks upon a false awakening. NovaDreamer Operation Manual Sleep paralysis During REM sleep the body is paralyzed by a mechanism in the brain in order to prevent the movements which occur in the dream from causing the physical body to move, and wake itself up. However, it is possible for this mechanism to be triggered before, during, or after normal sleep while the brain awakens. This can lead to a state where a person is lying in his or her bed and they feel paralyzed. Hypnagogic hallucination may occur in this state, especially auditory ones. Effects of sleep paralysis include heaviness or inability to move the muscles, rushing or pulsating noises, and brief hypnogogic imagery. Experiencing sleep paralysis is a necessary part of WILD, in which the dreamer essentially detaches his "dream" body from the paralyzed one. In the nightmare, sleep paralysis may be attributed to an external occult entity such as the hag. The hag visits the dreamer in her nonphysical form and sits on the dreamer's chest causing feelings of terror, suffocation, and paralysis. In the sea island traditions of Georgia and South Carolina, this experience of sleep paralysis is called being "hag-ridden". Out-of-body experience An out-of-body experience (OBE or sometimes OOBE) is an experience that typically involves a sensation of floating outside of one's body and, in some cases, perceiving one's physical body from a place outside one's body (autoscopy). About one in ten people have had an out-of-body experience at some time in their lives. First Out-of-body Experience Induced In Laboratory Setting. ScienceDaily (August 24, 2007) Scientists are starting to learn about the phenomenon. Out-of-body or all in the mind? BBC news (2005). Wake-induced OBEs and WILDs of an OBE induction cover such similar ground that common misinterpretation of one as the other (or even equivalence) can be hypothesized. Realistic-seeming yet physically impossible impressions of flying, time-traveling or walking through the walls of an environment matching one's bedroom are equally hallmarks of either. (As those who have experienced them will attest, neither "feels" like ordinary dreams at all.) Their induction techniques are similar, and both are easier to perform at times typical for afternoon naps and late morning REM cycles. Experiences such as walking through walls are likely to induce an altered state of consciousness in either lucid dreams or OBEs. Both lucid dreams and OBEs can provide access to a wider variety of experience (i.e., psychic, spiritual experience) than is normally available in waking life. Such experience is sought in lucid dreams through the practice of dream yoga. Rarity Given the frequent bizarreness, illogic and dislocation of dreams, some researchers have questioned why dreamers are not lucid all of the time. How can our dreaming selves accept as real so many settings, images and events that in waking life, we assume, would immediately jolt us into disbelief? The answer to this has been approached in three categories of investigation. Depth psychology suggests that the unconscious “dream-work” is repressing or inhibiting critical evaluation of the dream in order to perform its salutary function. “Belief” in the dream symbols and experience is required for healing, personality integration or catharsis to take place. Lucidity can only arise if a person is relatively free of un-reconciled conflicts which form barriers. Physiology suggests that “seeing is believing” to the brain during any mental state. This being said, if the brain actually believes something so much, it will actually believe that it is real. Even waking consciousness is liable to accept discontinuous or illogical experience as real if presented as such to the brain. Dream consciousness is similar to that of a hallucinating awake subject. Dream or hallucinatory images triggered by the brain stem are considered to be real, even if fantastic. The impulse to accept the evident is so strong the dreamer will often invent a memory or story to cover up an incongruous or unrealistic event in the dream. “That man has two heads!” is usually followed not with “I must be dreaming!” but with “Yes, I read in the paper about these famous Siamese twins.” Developmental psychology suggests that the dream world is not bizarre at all when viewed developmentally, since we were dreaming as children before we learned all of the physical and social laws that train the mind to a “reality.” Fluid imaginative constructions may have preceded the more rigid, logical waking rules and continue on as a normative lifeworld alongside the acquired, waking life world. Dreaming and waking consciousness differ only in their respective level of expectations, the waking “I” expecting a stricter set of “reality rules” as the child matures. The experience of “waking up” normally establishes the boundary between the two lifeworlds and cues the consciousness to adapt to waking “I” expectations. At times, however, this cue is false—a false awakening. Here the waking “I” (with its level of expectations) is activated even though the experience is still hallucinatory. Incongruous images or illogical events during this type of dream can result in lucidity as the dream is being judged by waking “standards.” Another theory presented by transpersonal psychology and some Eastern religions is that it is the individual's state of consciousness (or awareness) that determines their ability to discriminate and differentiate between what is real, and what is false or illusory. In the dream state, many experiences are accepted as real by the dreamer that would not be accepted as real in the waking state. Some religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism describe states of consciousness (i.e., Nirvana or Moksha) where individuals "wake up", and discover a new or altered state of consciousness that reveals their normal waking experience to be unreal, dream-like, or maya (illusion). The assumption is that there are degrees of wakefulness or awareness, and that both lucid dreaming and normal waking experience lie somewhere towards the middle of this continuum (or hierarchy) of awareness. In this context, there must therefore be states of wakefulness that are superior to normal waking awareness. Just as when the dreamer awakens to realize that a nightmare was illusory, the individual can, like the Buddha, undergo a spiritual awakening and realize that what is called normal waking awareness is, in fact, a dream. See also Astral projection Dream argument Dream question Hemi-Sync List of dream diaries Pre-lucid dream The Art of Dreaming Sleep Paralysis Notes Further reading Castaneda, Carlos. The Art of Dreaming. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. External links
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Piter_De_Vries
Piter De Vries is a fictional character from the Dune universe created by Frank Herbert. He is featured in 1965's Dune, the original novel in the science fiction series, as well as the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy (1999-2001) by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. In David Lynch's 1984 adaptation of the first novel, De Vries was played by Brad Dourif. He was portrayed by Jan Unger in the 2000 Sci Fi Channel Dune miniseries. Character In the service of Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, De Vries is a Mentat — a human specially trained to perform mental functions rivaling computers (which are forbidden universe-wide). De Vries is particularly useful to the Baron because he has been "twisted," or made into an amoral sadist by his Tleilaxu creators. This makes him an ideal candidate for the Baron's torturer. De Vries' loyalty to his master is unusual in that he continues to serve the Baron with great enthusiasm even though his Mentat abilities and great intelligence confirm his suspicions that his master plans to eventually kill him. As he says in Dune: Dune <center>Piter De Vries from The Dune Encyclopedia In Dune, it is established that De Vries had pioneered a type of toxin called "residual poison" which remains in the body for years and requires an antidote to be administered regularly. One such fatal poison is secretly administered by the Harkonnens to Thufir Hawat, the Mentat of House Atreides, in order to keep Hawat's allegiance as the only provider of the antidote (in the 1984 movie version, it is shown that Hawat has to milk a gruesome captive cat for the antidote every day). De Vries is generally regarded as architect of the plan to destroy House Atreides, long-time enemy of the Harkonnens, while restoring the Baron's stewardship over the planet Arrakis. Wellington Yueh, the Atreides Suk doctor who betrays Duke Leto Atreides, gives the captured Leto a false tooth containing a poisonous gas. When the tooth is crushed, intended victim Baron Harkonnen escapes, but Leto and De Vries die. Prelude to Dune In 2001's Dune: House Corrino (the third novel in the Prelude to Dune prequel series by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson), the Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam kills Piter De Vries after the Mentat discovers the Harkonnen heritage of Lady Jessica and her newborn son Paul, and he attempts to kidnap and ransom the infant. Mohiam effectively preserves this secret by murdering De Vries and arranging for his corpse to be shipped home to Giedi Prime. An enraged Baron is left with no choice but to order a duplicate from the Bene Tleilax, who would become the Mentat De Vries featured in Herbert's original novel Dune. References External links
Piter_De_Vries |@lemmatized piter:3 de:12 vries:12 fictional:1 character:2 dune:12 universe:2 create:1 frank:1 herbert:4 feature:2 original:2 novel:4 science:1 fiction:1 series:2 well:1 prelude:3 prequel:2 trilogy:1 brian:2 kevin:2 j:2 anderson:2 david:1 lynch:1 adaptation:1 first:1 play:1 brad:1 dourif:1 portray:1 jan:1 unger:1 sci:1 fi:1 channel:1 miniseries:1 service:1 baron:7 vladimir:1 harkonnen:3 mentat:5 human:1 specially:1 train:1 perform:1 mental:1 function:1 rival:1 computer:1 forbidden:1 wide:1 particularly:1 useful:1 twisted:1 make:2 amoral:1 sadist:1 tleilaxu:1 creator:1 ideal:1 candidate:1 torturer:1 loyalty:1 master:2 unusual:1 continue:1 serve:1 great:2 enthusiasm:1 even:1 though:1 ability:1 intelligence:1 confirm:1 suspicion:1 plan:2 eventually:1 kill:2 say:1 center:1 encyclopedia:1 establish:1 pioneer:1 type:1 toxin:1 call:1 residual:1 poison:2 remain:1 body:1 year:1 require:1 antidote:3 administer:2 regularly:1 one:1 fatal:1 secretly:1 harkonnens:2 thufir:1 hawat:3 house:3 atreides:4 order:2 keep:1 allegiance:1 provider:1 movie:1 version:1 show:1 milk:1 gruesome:1 captive:1 cat:1 every:1 day:1 generally:1 regard:1 architect:1 destroy:1 long:1 time:1 enemy:1 restore:1 stewardship:1 planet:1 arrakis:1 wellington:1 yueh:1 suk:1 doctor:1 betray:1 duke:1 leto:3 give:1 captured:1 false:1 tooth:2 contain:1 poisonous:1 gas:1 crush:1 intend:1 victim:1 escape:1 die:1 corrino:1 third:1 reverend:1 mother:1 gaius:1 helen:1 mohiam:2 discover:1 heritage:1 lady:1 jessica:1 newborn:1 son:1 paul:1 attempt:1 kidnap:1 ransom:1 infant:1 effectively:1 preserve:1 secret:1 murder:1 arrange:1 corpse:1 ship:1 home:1 giedi:1 prime:1 enraged:1 leave:1 choice:1 duplicate:1 bene:1 tleilax:1 would:1 become:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram piter_de:3 de_vries:12 frank_herbert:1 science_fiction:1 prelude_dune:3 sci_fi:1 vladimir_harkonnen:1 dune_dune:2 leto_atreides:1 baron_harkonnen:1 bene_tleilax:1 external_link:1
7,121
Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic ordering of microscopic magnets (the magnetic moments of individual particles). Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets and/or exhibit strong interactions with magnets; it is responsible for most phenomena of magnetism encountered in everyday life (for example, refrigerator magnets). The attraction between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is "the quality of magnetism first apparent to the ancient world, and to us today," according to a classic text on ferromagnetism. Richard M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, first published 1951, reprinted 1993 by IEEE Press, New York as a "Classic Reissue." ISBN 0-7803-1032-2. All permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and which remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the metals that are noticeably attracted to them. Historically, the term ferromagnet was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field. This general definition is still in common use. More recently, however, different classes of spontaneous magnetization have been identified when there is more than one magnetic ion per primitive cell of the material, leading to a stricter definition of "ferromagnetism" that is often used to distinguish it from ferrimagnetism. In particular, a material is "ferromagnetic" in this narrower sense only if all of its magnetic ions add a positive contribution to the net magnetization. If some of the magnetic ions subtract from the net magnetization (if they are partially anti-aligned), then the material is "ferrimagnetic". If the ions anti-align completely so as to have zero net magnetization, despite the magnetic ordering, then it is an antiferromagnet. All of these alignment effects only occur at temperatures below a certain critical temperature, called the Curie temperature (for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets) or the Néel temperature (for antiferromagnets). Among the first investigations of ferromagnetism are the pioneering works of Aleksandr Stoletov on measurement of the magnetic permeability of ferromagnetics, known as the Stoletov curve. Ferromagnetic materials A selection of crystalline ferromagnetic (* = ferrimagnetic) materials, along with their Curie temperatures in kelvins (K). (Kittel, p. 449.) Material Curie temp. (K) Co 1388 Fe 1043 FeOFe2O3* 858 NiOFe2O3* 858 CuOFe2O3* 728 MgOFe2O3* 713 MnBi 630 Ni 627 MnSb 587 MnOFe2O3* 573 Y3Fe5O12* 560 CrO2 386 MnAs 318 Gd 292 Dy 88 EuO 69 There are a number of crystalline materials that exhibit ferromagnetism (or ferrimagnetism). The table on the right lists a representative selection of them, along with their Curie temperatures, the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see below). Ferromagnetism is a property not just of the chemical makeup of a material, but of its crystalline structure and microscopic organization. There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic, called Heusler alloys, named after Fritz Heusler. One can also make amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low coercivity, low hysteresis loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. A typical such material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component (B, C, Si, P, or Al) that lowers the melting point. A relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the rare-earth magnets. They contain lanthanide elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals. Physical origin The property of ferromagnetism is due to the direct influence of two effects from quantum mechanics: spin and the Pauli exclusion principle. Origin of magnetization The spin of an electron, combined with its orbital angular momentum, results in a magnetic dipole moment and creates a magnetic field. (The classical analogue of quantum-mechanical spin is a spinning ball of charge, but the quantum version has distinct differences, such as the fact that it has discrete up/down states that are not described by a vector; similarly for "orbital" motion, whose classical analogue is a current loop.) In many materials (specifically, those with a filled electron shell), however, the total dipole moment of all the electrons is zero (i.e., the spins are in up/down pairs). Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can experience a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external field. Ferromagnetic materials contain many atoms with unpaired spins. When these tiny magnetic dipoles are aligned in the same direction, they create a measurable macroscopic field. These permanent dipoles (often called simply "spins" even though they also generally include orbital angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called paramagnetism. (A related but much weaker effect is diamagnetism, due to the orbital motion induced by an external field, resulting in a dipole moment opposite to the applied field.) Ferromagnetism involves an additional phenomenon, however: the dipoles tend to align spontaneously, without any applied field. This is a purely quantum-mechanical effect. According to classical electromagnetism, two nearby magnetic dipoles will tend to align in opposite directions (which would create an antiferromagnetic material). In a ferromagnet, however, they tend to align in the same direction because of the Pauli principle: two electrons with the same spin cannot also have the same "position", which effectively reduces the energy of their electrostatic interaction compared to electrons with opposite spin. (Mathematically, this is expressed more precisely in terms of the spin-statistics theorem: because electrons are fermions with half-integer spin, their wave functions are antisymmetric under interchange of particle positions. This can be seen in, for example, the Hartree-Fock approximation to lead to a reduction in the electrostatic potential energy.) This difference in energy is called the exchange energy. The exchange interaction is primarily responsible for the ordering of atomic moments occurring in magnetic solids (i.e., for ferromagnetism and for the two other major magnetic ordering types, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism. The aforementioned interaction described by classical electromagnetism usually plays only a marginal role. For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange interaction between two atoms is about 1000 times stronger than that classical interaction. There is a small number "exotic" ferromagnets in which the exchange interactions are exceptionally weak, and then the classical dipole-dipole interactions may become the dominant ones. However, such system become ferromagnetic only at very low temperatures, usually below 1 K. But if the Curie temperature in a given material is higher than a few Kelvins, then its ferromagnetism is surely produced by exchange interactions. In such systems the classical dipole-dipole interactions may only give rise to secondary effects, e.g., to weak magnetic anisotropy. Magnetic domains At long distances (after many thousands of ions), the exchange energy advantage is overtaken by the classical tendency of dipoles to anti-align. This is why, in an equilibriated (non-magnetized) ferromagnetic material, the dipoles in the whole material are not aligned. Rather, they organize into magnetic domains (also known as Weiss domains) that are aligned (magnetized) at short range, but at long range adjacent domains are anti-aligned. Feynman 1963, p.37-6 to 37-9 The boundary between two domains, where the magnetization flips, is called a domain wall (i.e., a Bloch/Néel wall, depending upon whether the magnetization rotates parallel/perpendicular to the domain interface) and is a gradual transition on the atomic scale (covering a distance of about 300 ions for iron). Thus, an ordinary piece of iron generally has little or no net magnetic moment. However, if it is placed in a strong enough external magnetic field, the domains will re-orient in parallel with that field, and will remain re-oriented when the field is turned off, thus creating a "permanent" magnet. The domains don't go back to their original minimum energy configuration when the field is turned off because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice, preserving their parallel orientation. This is shown by the Barkhausen effect: as the magnetizing field is changed, the magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as the domain walls suddenly "snap" past defects. This magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a hysteresis curve. Although this state of aligned domains is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is extremely stable and has been observed to persist for millions of years in seafloor magnetite aligned by the Earth's magnetic field (whose poles can thereby be seen to flip at long intervals). Alloys used for the strongest permanent magnets are "hard" alloys made with many defects in their crystal structure where the domain walls "catch" and stabilize. The net magnetization can be destroyed by heating and then cooling (annealing) the material without an external field, however. The thermal motion allows the domain boundaries to move, releasing them from any defects, to return to their low-energy unaligned state. Curie temperature As the temperature increases, thermal motion, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the Curie temperature, there is a second-order phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and random domains form (in the absence of an external field). The Curie temperature itself is a critical point, where the magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales. The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified Ising spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that mean field theory approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a universality class that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by renormalization group theory. See also Stoletov curve ferromagnetic material properties Sources Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics (Wiley: New York, 1996). Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin, Solid State Physics (Harcourt: Orlando, 1976). John David Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics (Wiley: New York, 1999). E. P. Wohlfarth, ed., Ferromagnetic Materials (North-Holland, 1980). "Heusler alloy," Encyclopedia Britannica Online, retrieved Jan. 23, 2005. F. Heusler, W. Stark, and E. Haupt, Verh. der Phys. Ges. 5, 219 (1903). S. Vonsovsky Magnetism of elementary particles (Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1975). Tyablikov S. V. (1995): Methods in the Quantum Theory of Magnetism. (Translated to English) Springer; 1st edition. ISBN 0306302632. ISBN 9780306302633. External links Electromagnetism - a chapter from an online textbook Detailed nonmathematical description of ferromagnetic materials with animated illustrations References
Ferromagnetism |@lemmatized ferromagnetic:18 ordering:3 microscopic:2 magnet:9 magnetic:25 moment:9 individual:1 particle:3 ferromagnetism:11 basic:1 mechanism:1 certain:3 material:24 iron:4 form:2 permanent:5 exhibit:4 strong:5 interaction:10 responsible:2 phenomenon:2 magnetism:4 encounter:1 everyday:1 life:1 example:2 refrigerator:1 attraction:1 quality:1 first:4 apparent:1 ancient:1 world:1 u:1 today:1 accord:2 classic:2 text:1 richard:1 bozorth:1 publish:1 reprint:1 ieee:1 press:1 new:4 york:3 reissue:1 isbn:3 magnetize:3 external:12 field:21 remain:2 magnetized:1 remove:1 either:1 ferrimagnetic:3 metal:4 noticeably:1 attract:1 historically:1 term:2 ferromagnet:2 use:4 could:1 spontaneous:5 magnetization:14 net:8 absence:3 general:1 definition:2 still:2 common:1 recently:1 however:7 different:1 class:3 identify:1 one:3 ion:6 per:1 primitive:1 cell:1 lead:2 strict:1 often:2 distinguish:1 ferrimagnetism:3 particular:1 narrower:1 sense:1 add:1 positive:1 contribution:1 subtract:1 partially:2 anti:4 align:14 completely:1 zero:2 despite:1 antiferromagnet:1 alignment:1 effect:7 occur:2 temperature:15 critical:3 call:7 curie:8 ferromagnets:2 ferrimagnets:1 néel:2 antiferromagnets:1 among:1 investigation:1 pioneering:1 work:1 aleksandr:1 stoletov:3 measurement:1 permeability:2 ferromagnetics:1 know:3 curve:3 selection:2 crystalline:4 along:3 kelvin:2 k:3 kittel:2 p:4 temp:1 co:2 fe:3 mnbi:1 ni:2 mnsb:1 mnas:1 gd:1 dy:1 euo:1 number:2 table:1 right:1 list:1 representative:1 cease:1 see:4 property:4 chemical:1 makeup:1 structure:2 organization:1 alloy:8 whose:3 constituent:1 heusler:4 name:1 fritz:1 also:5 make:3 amorphous:1 non:2 metallic:1 rapid:1 quenching:1 cool:2 liquid:2 advantage:2 nearly:1 isotropic:1 crystal:3 axis:1 result:3 low:4 coercivity:1 hysteresis:2 loss:1 high:3 electrical:1 resistivity:1 typical:1 transition:6 metalloid:2 usually:3 component:1 b:1 c:1 si:1 al:1 lower:1 melting:1 point:4 relatively:1 exceptionally:2 rare:1 earth:2 contain:2 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integer:1 wave:1 function:2 antisymmetric:1 interchange:1 hartree:1 fock:1 approximation:1 reduction:1 potential:1 exchange:6 primarily:1 atomic:2 solid:3 major:1 order:2 type:1 antiferromagnetism:1 aforementioned:1 play:1 marginal:1 role:1 instance:1 time:1 small:1 exotic:1 may:2 become:3 dominant:1 system:4 give:2 surely:1 produce:1 rise:2 secondary:1 g:1 anisotropy:1 domain:16 long:3 distance:2 thousand:2 overtake:1 tendency:2 equilibriated:1 whole:1 rather:1 organize:1 weiss:1 short:1 range:2 adjacent:1 feynman:1 boundary:2 flip:2 wall:5 bloch:1 depend:1 upon:1 whether:1 rotate:1 perpendicular:1 interface:1 gradual:1 scale:2 cover:1 thus:2 ordinary:1 piece:1 little:1 place:1 enough:1 orient:2 turn:2 go:1 back:1 original:1 minimum:1 configuration:2 pinned:1 snag:1 defect:4 lattice:1 preserve:1 orientation:1 show:2 barkhausen:1 magnetizing:1 change:2 discontinuous:1 jump:1 suddenly:1 snap:1 past:1 although:3 aligned:1 minimal:1 extremely:1 stable:1 observe:1 persist:1 million:1 year:1 seafloor:1 magnetite:1 pole:1 thereby:1 interval:1 hard:1 catch:1 stabilize:1 destroy:1 heat:1 anneal:1 thermal:2 allow:1 move:1 release:1 return:1 unaligned:1 increase:1 entropy:1 compete:1 beyond:1 second:1 phase:2 longer:1 maintain:1 respond:1 paramagnetically:1 symmetry:1 breaking:1 random:1 susceptibility:1 theoretically:1 infinite:1 like:1 correlation:1 fluctuate:1 length:1 study:1 especially:1 via:1 simplified:1 ising:1 model:1 important:1 impact:1 development:1 statistical:1 physic:3 clearly:1 mean:1 theory:3 approach:1 fail:1 predict:1 correct:1 behavior:1 find:1 fall:1 universality:1 gas:1 replace:1 renormalization:1 group:1 source:1 charles:1 introduction:1 wiley:2 neil:1 w:2 ashcroft:1 n:1 david:2 mermin:1 harcourt:1 orlando:1 john:1 jackson:1 electrodynamics:1 wohlfarth:1 ed:1 north:1 holland:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 online:2 retrieve:1 jan:1 stark:1 haupt:1 verh:1 der:1 phys:1 ge:1 vonsovsky:1 elementary:1 mir:1 publisher:1 moscow:1 tyablikov:1 v:1 method:1 translate:1 english:1 springer:1 edition:1 link:1 chapter:1 textbook:1 detailed:1 nonmathematical:1 description:1 animated:1 illustration:1 reference:1 |@bigram permanent_magnet:4 ferromagnetic_material:8 magnetic_field:6 spontaneous_magnetization:4 net_magnetization:5 magnetic_permeability:1 electrical_resistivity:1 quantum_mechanic:1 pauli_exclusion:1 exclusion_principle:1 orbital_angular:2 angular_momentum:2 magnetic_dipole:3 dipole_moment:3 quantum_mechanical:2 electrostatic_interaction:1 hartree_fock:1 dipole_dipole:2 crystal_lattice:1 spontaneous_symmetry:1 symmetry_breaking:1 magnetic_susceptibility:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 elementary_particle:1 external_link:1
7,122
Artistic_License
The Artistic License refers most commonly to the original Artistic License (version 1.0), a software license used for certain free software packages, most notably the standard Perl implementation and most CPAN modules, which are dual-licensed under the Artistic License and the GNU General Public License (GPL). The original Artistic License was written by Larry Wall. The name of the license is a reference to the concept of artistic license. The terms of the Artistic License 1.0 were at issue in a 2007 federal district court decision in the US which was criticized by some for suggesting that FOSS-like licenses could only be enforced through contract law rather than through copyright law, in contexts where contract damages would be difficult to establish. New Open Source Legal Decision: Jacobsen & Katzer and How Model Train Software Will Have an Important Effect on Open Source Licensing, Radcliffe, Mark (Law & Life: Silicon Valley) (2007-08-22) On appeal, however, a federal appellate court "determined that the terms of the Artistic License are enforceable copyright conditions". Opinion, Jacobsen v. Katzer, United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (2008-08-13) Artistic License 1.0 Whether or not the original Artistic License is a free software license is largely unsettled. It was criticized by the Free Software Foundation as being "too vague; some passages are too clever for their own good, and their meaning is not clear." The FSF recommended that the license not be used on its own, but approved the common AL/GPL dual-licensing approach for Perl projects. In response to this, Bradley Kuhn, who later worked for the Free Software Foundation, made a minimal redraft to clarify the ambiguous passages. This was released as the Clarified Artistic License, and was approved by the FSF. It is used by the SNEeSe and FakeNES emulators, the Paros Proxy and NcFTP. Artistic License 2.0 In response to the Request for comments process for improving the licensing position for Perl 6, Kuhn's draft was extensively rewritten by Roberta Cairney and Allison Randal for readability and legal clarity, with input from the Perl community. This resulted in the Artistic License 2.0 which has been approved as both a Free and Open Source license. It is scheduled for adoption by the standard Perl implementation when version 6 is released, and has been used by the Parrot virtual machine since version 0.4.13. The OSI recommends that all developers and projects licensing their products with the Artistic License adopt Artistic License 2.0. References External links The Artistic License (the original Artistic License 1.0, the one which is still used by Perl and CPAN) The Artistic License 2.0 (used by Parrot) 2.0 revision RFC process Poetic License (license rendered as limerick) The Clarified Artistic License Dusk first online Novel and Blog written under Artistic License 2.0 "R.E.M releases videos under Artistic License 2.0 - about R.E.M.'s choice of the Artistic License 2.0 for videos from one of their albums.
Artistic_License |@lemmatized artistic:21 license:32 refers:1 commonly:1 original:4 version:3 software:6 use:6 certain:1 free:5 package:1 notably:1 standard:2 perl:6 implementation:2 cpan:2 module:1 dual:2 gnu:1 general:1 public:1 gpl:2 write:2 larry:1 wall:1 name:1 reference:2 concept:1 term:2 issue:1 federal:3 district:1 court:3 decision:2 u:1 criticize:2 suggest:1 fo:1 like:1 could:1 enforce:1 contract:2 law:3 rather:1 copyright:2 context:1 damage:1 would:1 difficult:1 establish:1 new:1 open:3 source:3 legal:2 jacobsen:2 katzer:2 model:1 train:1 important:1 effect:1 licensing:3 radcliffe:1 mark:1 life:1 silicon:1 valley:1 appeal:2 however:1 appellate:1 determine:1 enforceable:1 condition:1 opinion:1 v:1 united:1 state:1 circuit:1 whether:1 largely:1 unsettled:1 foundation:2 vague:1 passage:2 clever:1 good:1 meaning:1 clear:1 fsf:2 recommend:2 approve:3 common:1 al:1 approach:1 project:2 response:2 bradley:1 kuhn:2 later:1 work:1 make:1 minimal:1 redraft:1 clarify:2 ambiguous:1 release:3 clarified:1 sneese:1 fakenes:1 emulator:1 paros:1 proxy:1 ncftp:1 request:1 comment:1 process:2 improve:1 position:1 draft:1 extensively:1 rewrite:1 roberta:1 cairney:1 allison:1 randal:1 readability:1 clarity:1 input:1 community:1 result:1 schedule:1 adoption:1 parrot:2 virtual:1 machine:1 since:1 osi:1 developer:1 product:1 adopt:1 external:1 link:1 one:2 still:1 revision:1 rfc:1 poetic:1 render:1 limerick:1 dusk:1 first:1 online:1 novel:1 blog:1 r:2 e:2 video:2 choice:1 album:1 |@bigram license_gpl:1 silicon_valley:1 appellate_court:1 external_link:1
7,123
Niccolò_Machiavelli
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (May 3, 1469 – June 21, 1527) was an Italian philosopher, writer, and politician and is considered one of the main founders of modern political science. As a Renaissance Man, he was a diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet and playwright, but, foremost, he was a Civil Servant of the Florentine Republic. He is known as "The French Chanakya" in the eastern world. In June of 1498, after the ouster and execution of Girolamo Savonarola, the Great Council elected Machiavelli as Secretary to the second Chancery of the Republic of Florence. Like Leonardo da Vinci, Machiavelli is considered a typical example of the Renaissance Man. He is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince, a work of realist political theory, however, both it and the more substantive republican Discourses on Livy went unpublished until 1532 — after Machiavelli's death. Although he privately circulated The Prince among friends, the only work he published in his life was The Art of War, about high-military science. Since the sixteenth century, generations of politicians remain attracted and repelled by the cynical (realist) approach to power exposited in The Prince, the Discourses, and the History S. Anglo, Machiavelli: the first century (Oxford, 2005) . Whatever his personal intentions (still debated today), his surname yielded the modern political words "Machiavelli" (a person of acute and scheming intelligence) and Machiavellianism (the use of cunning and deceit in politics or generally). Life Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the third son of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli, and his wife, Bartolommea di Stefano Nelli. The Machiavelli family are believed descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany, and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice. Machiavelli was born to a tumultuous era — Popes waged war, and the wealthy Italian city-states might anytime fall, piecemeal, to foreign powers — France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire — and politico-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri who changed sides without warning, and weeks-long governments rising and falling. Rigorously trained to manhood by his father, Machiavelli was educated to learn grammar, rhetoric and to speak Latin. He did not learn Greek, even though Florence was at the time one of the centers of Greek Scholarship in Europe. In 1494, he entered Florentine government service as a clerk and as an ambassador; later that year, Florence restored the republic — expelling the Medici family, who had ruled Florence for some sixty years. He was in a diplomatic council responsible for negotiation and military affairs, undertaking, between 1499 and 1512, diplomatic missions to the courts of Louis XII in France, Ferdinand II of Aragón, in Spain, and the Papacy in Rome, in Italy proper. Moreover, from 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the effective state-building methods of Soldier-Churchman Cesare Borgia who was then enlarging his central Italian territories. Between 1503 and 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia, including the City’s defence. He distrusted mercenaries (cf. Discourses, The Prince), preferring a politically-invested citizen-militia, a philosophy that bore fruit — his command of Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509; yet, in August of 1512, the Medici, helped by Pope Julius II, used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at Prato; Piero Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state, and left in exile; then, the Florentine city-state and the Republic were dissolved. For his significant role in the republic's anti-Medici government, Niccolò Machiavelli was deposed from office, and, in 1513, was accused of conspiracy, and arrested. Despite torture "with the rope" (the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists, from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight, thus dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released; then, retiring to his estate, at Santa Andrea in Percussina, near Florence, he wrote the political treatises that earned his intellectual place in the development of political philosophy and political conduct. Donna, Daniel, in the introduction to the Bantam Classic edition of The Prince, Bantam, 1966 In a letter to Francesco Vettori, he described his exile: As a writer, Machiavelli identified the unifying theme in The Prince and the Discorsi: Machiavelli died in 1527. His grave site is unknown, but a cenotaph honouring him was erected at the Church of Santa Croce, in Florence. The Latin legend reads: TANTO NOMINI NULLUM PAR ELOGIUM (For so great a name, no praise is adequate and No elegy is equal to such a name). Works Il Principe The Princes contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism. Niccolò Machiavelli’s best-known book exposits and describes the arts with which a ruling Prince can maintain control of his realm. It concentrates on the New Prince, under the presumption that an Hereditary Prince has an easier task in ruling, since the people are accustomed to him. To retain power, the Hereditary Prince must carefully maintain the socio-political institutions to which the people are accustomed; whereas a New Prince has the more difficult task in ruling, since he must first stabilize his new-found power in order to build an enduring political structure. That requires the Prince being a public figure above reproach, whilst privately acting amorally to achieve State goals. The examples are those princes who most successfully obtain and maintain power, drawn from his observations as a Florentine diplomat, and his ancient history readings; thus, the Latin phrases and Classic examples. The Prince does not dismiss morality, instead, it politically defines “Morality” — as in the criteria for acceptable cruel action — it must be decisive: swift, effective, and short-lived. Machiavelli is aware of the irony of good results coming from evil actions; notwithstanding some mitigating themes, the Catholic Church proscribed The Prince, registering it to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, moreover, the Humanists also viewed the book negatively, among them, Erasmus of Rotterdam. As a treatise, its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism — thus, The Prince is a manual to acquiring and keeping political power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle, a Classical ideal society is not the aim of the Prince’s will to power. As a political scientist, Machiavelli emphasises necessary, methodical exercise of brute force punishment-and-reward (patronage, clientelism, et cetera) to preserve the status quo. Etymologically, his sixteenth-century contemporaries adopted and used the adjective Machiavellian (elaborately cunning), often in the introductions of political tracts offering more than government by “Reasons of State”, most notably those of Jean Bodin and Giovanni Botero; while contemporary, pejorative usage of Machiavellian (anti-Machiavellism in the 16th C.) is a misnomer describing someone who deceives and manipulates others for gain; (personal or not, the gain is immaterial, only action matters, insofar as it effects results). The Prince hasn’t the moderating themes of his other works; politically, “Machiavelli” denotes someone of politically-extreme perspective; In one scholar's assessment, mistakenly so. Writes Anthony Parel: "The authentic Machiavelli is one who subordinates personal interests for the common good . . . If one is to speak of a Machiavellian personality one should mention Moses and Romulus (to use [M's] own examples)." For more on the three sources of historical anti-Machiavellism, see Further Reading, Parel, pp. 14-24, and (in far greater detail): Sydney Anglo, Machiavelli - the First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm, Hostility, and Irrelevance, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199267766, 9780199267767. however Machiavellianism remains a popular speech and journalism usage; while in psychology, it denotes a personality type. Discorsi The Discourse on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy comprises the early history of Rome, it is a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured, including the concept of checks and balances, the strength of a tri-partite political structure, and the superiority of a republic over a principality. From The Discourses: “In fact, when there is combined under the same constitution a prince, a nobility, and the power of the people, then these three powers will watch and keep each other reciprocally in check”. Book I, Chapter II “Doubtless these means [of attaining power] are cruel and destructive of all civilized life, and neither Christian, nor even human, and should be avoided by every one. In fact, the life of a private citizen would be preferable to that of a king at the expense of the ruin of so many human beings”. Book I, Chapter XXVI “Now, in a well-ordered republic, it should never be necessary to resort to extra-constitutional measures. . . . ” Book I, Chapter XXXIV “. . . the governments of the people are better than those of princes”. Book I, Chapter LVIII “. . . if we compare the faults of a people with those of princes, as well as their respective good qualities, we shall find the people vastly superior in all that is good and glorious”. Book I, Chapter LVIII “For government consists mainly in so keeping your subjects that they shall be neither able, nor disposed to injure you. . . . ” Book II, Chapter XXIII “. . . no prince is ever benefited by making himself hated”. Book III, Chapter XIX “Let not princes complain of the faults committed by the people subjected to their authority, for they result entirely from their own negligence or bad example”. Book III, Chapter XXIX The Modern Library, New York, 1950, translated by Christian E. Detmold. Other works Besides being a statesman (political scientist), Machiavelli also translated classical works, and was a dramaturge (Clizia, Mandragola), a poet (Sonetti, Canzoni, Ottave, Canti carnascialeschi), and a novelist''' (Belfagor arcidiavolo). Some of other works:Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499)Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati (1502)Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell’ ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc. (1502) — A Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina OrsiniDiscorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502) — A discourse about the provision of money.Decennale primo (1506), a poem in terza rima.Ritratti delle cose dell’ Alemagna (1508–1512)Decennale secondo (1509), a poem.Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510) — Portrait of the affairs of France.Andria (1517), a Classical comedy, translated from Terence.Mandragola (1518) — The Mandrake, a five-act prose comedy, with a verse prologue.Della lingua (1514), a dialogue about the language.Clizia (1525), a prose comedy.Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515), a novel.Asino d’oro (1517) — The Golden Ass is a terza rima poem, a new version of the Classic work by Apuleius.Dell’arte della guerra (1519–1520) — The Art of War, high military science.Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520) — A discourse about the reforming of Florence.Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520) — A summary of the affairs of the city of Lucca.Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca (1520) — The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca, a biography.Istorie fiorentine (1520–1525) — Florentine Histories, an eight-volume history book of the city-state, Florence, commissioned by Giulio di Giuliano de’ Medici, later Pope Clement VII.Frammenti storici (1525) — Fragments of stories. References in popular culture Niccolo is teamed up with Dr.John Dee in Michael Scott's The Magician. Revival of interest in the 19th and 20th centuries Despite remaining a politically-influential writer in the 17th and 18th centuries, it was the 19th and 20th centuries that rediscovered his political science for its intellectual and practical applications. The most reliable guide to this renewed interest is the Introduction to the 1953 (Mentor Books) edition of Il Principe, wherein, Christian Gauss, the Dean of Princeton University, discusses, with pertinent historical context, the commentaries on The Prince made by the German historians Ranke (19th c.) and Meineke (20th c.), the Briton Lord Acton, and others. Citing the consensus that Machiavelli was the first political theorist with a practical, scientific approach to statecraft, considering him “the first Modern Man”. The commentators view the political scientist Machiavelli positively — because he viewed the world realistically, thus, such statecraft leads to (generally) constructive results. Notes References Machiavelli, Niccolò (1531). The Discourses. Translated by Leslie J. Walker, S.J, revisions by Brian Richardson (2003). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-140-44428-9 Further reading Anglo, Sydney, Machiavelli - the First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm, Hostility, and Irrelevance, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199267766, 9780199267767 Hoeges, Dirk. Niccolò Machiavelli. Dichter-Poeta. Mit sämtlichen Gedichten, deutsch/italienisch. Con tutte le poesie, tedesco/italiano, Reihe: Dialoghi/Dialogues: Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, Band 10, Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt/M. u.a. 2006, ISBN 3-631-54669-6. ISBN 978-0-934941-003 Seung, T. K. (1993). Intuition and Construction: The Foundation of Normative Theory, New Haven: Yale University Press. See pp. 133-43. Stefano Zen, Veritas ecclesiastica e Machiavelli, in Monarchia della verità. Modelli culturali e pedagogia della Controriforma, Napoli, Vivarium, 2002 (La Ricerca Umanistica, 4), pp. 73-111. von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory," Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007. Mascia Ferri, L'opinione pubblica e il sovrano in Machiavelli'', in «The Lab's Quarterly»,n.2 aprile-giugno,Università di Pisa,2008, pp. 420-433. External links Machiavelli: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy eMachiavelli.com, works and summaries of Machiavelli Machiavelli at the Marxists Internet Archive, including some of his works Works by Niccolò Machiavelli: text, concordances and frequency list Machiavelli on the Net, a Machiavelli webliography with a short introduction. Works of Machiavelli: Italian and English text Machiavelli and Power Politics Seven Essential Principals for Managing Power and Politics Machiavelli on the Online Library Of Liberty
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Irenaeus
Saint Irenaeus (Greek: Εἰρηναῖος), (2nd century AD - c. 202) was a Christian Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire (now Lyons, France). He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology. He was a disciple of Polycarp, who was said to be a disciple of John the Evangelist. Irenaeus's best-known book, Adversus Haereses or Against Heresies (c. 180) is a detailed attack on Gnosticism, which was then a serious threat to the Church, and especially on the system of the Gnostic Valentinus. As one of the first great Christian theologians, he emphasized the traditional elements in the Church, especially the episcopate, Scripture, and tradition. Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority--episcopal councils. Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972 Against the Gnostics, who said that they possessed a secret oral tradition from Jesus himself, Irenaeus maintained that the bishops in different cities are known as far back as the Apostles — and none of them were Gnostics — and that the bishops provided the only safe guide to the interpretation of Scripture. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Saint Irenaeus His writings, with those of Clement and Ignatius, are taken to hint at papal primacy. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Irenaeus is the earliest witness to recognition of the canonical character of all four gospels. Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 14. Anchor Bible; 1st edition (October 13, 1997). ISBN 978-0385247672. Irenaeus is recognized as a saint by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church. His feast day is celebrated on June 28. In the 1962 calendar, his feast day is on July 3. This is only the case in this calendar. In earlier calendars, his feast day was the same as today (June 28). The 1962 movement of the day was to accommodate a Vigil Mass of the Solemnity of Sts. Peter and Paul. Biography St. Irenaeus was born during the first half of the 2nd century (the exact date is disputed: between the years 115 and 125 according to some, or 130 and 142 according to others), Irenaeus is thought to have been a Greek from Polycarp's hometown of Smyrna in Asia Minor, now İzmir, Turkey. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he was raised in a Christian family rather than converting as an adult. During the persecution of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Emperor from 161-180, Irenaeus was a priest of the Church of Lyon. The clergy of that city, many of whom were suffering imprisonment for the faith, sent him (in 177 or 178) to Rome with a letter to Pope Eleuterus concerning the heresy Montanism, and that occasion bore emphatic testimony to his merits. Returning to Gaul, Irenaeus succeeded the martyr Saint Pothinus and became the second Bishop of Lyon. During the religious peace which followed the persecution of Marcus Aurelius, the new bishop divided his activities between the duties of a pastor and of a missionary (as to which we have but brief data, late and not very certain). Almost all his writings were directed against Gnosticism. The most famous of these writings is Adversus haereses (Against Heresies). In 190 or 191, he interceded with Pope St. Victor I to lift the sentence of excommunication laid by that pontiff upon the Christian communities of Asia Minor which persevered in the practice of the Quartodeciman celebration of Easter. Nothing is known of the date of his death, which must have occurred at the end of the second or the beginning of the third century. In spite of some isolated and later testimony to that effect, it is not very probable that he ended his career with martyrdom. He was buried under the Church of Saint John in Lyons, which was later renamed St Irenaeus in his honour. The tomb and his remains were utterly destroyed in 1562 by the Huguenots. His feast is celebrated on June 28 in the Roman Catholic Church, and on August 23 in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Writings Irenaeus wrote a number of books, but the most important that survives is the five-volume On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis, normally referred to by its Latin title "Adversus Haereses" ("Against Heresies"). In Book I, Irenaeus talks about the Valentinian Gnostics and their predecessors, who go as far back as the magician Simon Magus. In Book II he attempts to provide proof that Valentinianism contains no merit in terms of its doctrines. In Book III Irenaeus purports to show that these doctrines are false, by providing counter-evidence gleaned from the Gospels. Book IV consists of Jesus' sayings, and here Irenaeus also stresses the unity of the Old Testament and the Gospel. In the final volume, Book V, Irenaeus focuses on more sayings of Jesus plus the letters of Paul the Apostle. Grant, Robert M, "Irenaeus of Lyons," p.6. Routledge 1997. The purpose of "Against Heresies" was to refute the teachings of various Gnostic groups; apparently, several Greek merchants had begun an oratorial campaign praising the pursuit of "gnosis" in Irenaeus' bishopric. Until the discovery of the Library of Nag Hammadi in 1945, Against Heresies was the best-surviving description of Gnosticism. According to some biblical scholars, the findings at Nag Hammadi have shown Irenaeus' description of Gnosticism to be largely inaccurate and polemic in nature. Pagels, Elaine. Beyond Belief, Pan Books, 2005. p. 54 Robinson, James M., The Nag Hammadi Library, HarperSanFrancisco, 1990. p. 104. Though correct in some details about the belief systems of various groups, Irenaeus' main purpose was to warn Christians against Gnosticism, rather than accurately describe those beliefs. He described Gnostic groups as sexual libertines, for example, when some of their own writings advocated chastity more strongly than did orthodox texts. Pagels, Elaine. "The Gnostic Gospels," Vintage Books, 1979. p. 90. Ehrman, Bart D., "Lost Christianities," Oxford University Press, 2005. p.121. However, at least one scholar, Rodney Stark, claims that it is the same Nag Hammadi library that proves Ireneaus right. Stark, Rodney. Discovering God, HarperCollins, 2007. p. 325-327 It seemed that Irenaeus's critique against the gnostics were exaggerated, which led to his scholarly dismissal for a long time. For example, he wrote: "They declare that Judas the traitor was thoroughly acquainted with these things, and that he alone, knowing the truth as no other did, accomplished the mystery of betrayal; by him all things were thus thrown into confusion. They produce a fictitious history of this kind, which they style the Gospel of Judas." Ireneaus. Against Heresies, I:31.1. These claims turned out to be truly mentioned in the Gospel of Judas where Jesus asked Judas to betray him. Regarding Ireneaus' inaccuracies about the sexual liberties amongst the gnostics, the gnostics were not a single group, but a wide array of sects. Some groups were indeed libertine. Some other of them praised chastity more strongly than standard Christianity, to the point of banning marriage and all sexual activity. Stark, Rodney. Cities of God, HarperCollins, 2007. chapt. 6 Irenaeus also wrote "The Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching," an Armenian copy of which was discovered in 1907. This work seems to have been an instruction for recent Christian converts. Glenn Davis, The Development of the Canon of the New Testament: Irenaeus of Lyons Various fragments of other works by Irenaeus have been found, and many lost works by him are attested by other ancient writers. These include "On the Subject of Knowledge," "On the Monarchy," or "How God is not the Cause of Evil," "On the Ogdoad," an untitled letter to Blastus regarding schism, and others. All these works are attested by Eusebius. Poncelet, Albert. The Catholic Encyclopedia vol. VII, St. Irenaeus, 1910. Rev. J. Tixeront, D.D. A Handbook of Patrology. Section IV: The Opponents of Heresy in the Second Century, St. Louis, MO, by B. Herder Book Co. 1920. Irenaeus' works were first published in English in 1885 in the Ante-Nicene Fathers collection. Scripture Irenaeus pointed to Scripture as a proof of orthodox Christianity against heresies, classifying as Scripture not only the Old Testament but most of the books now known as the New Testament, while excluding many works, included a large number by Gnostics, that flourished in the second century and claimed scriptural authority. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Saint Irenaeus Before Irenaeus, Christians differed as to which gospel they preferred. The Christians of Asia Minor preferred the Gospel of John. The Gospel of Matthew was the most popular overall. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Irenaeus asserted that all four Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, were canonical scripture. "But it is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church has been scattered throughout the world, and since the 'pillar and ground' of the Church is the Gospel and the spirit of life, it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing incorruption on every side, and vivifying human afresh. From this fact, it is evident that the Logos, the fashioner demiourgos of all, he that sits on the cherubim and holds all things together, when he was manifested to humanity, gave us the gospel under four forms but bound together by one spirit." Against Heresies 3.11.8 Thus Irenaeus provides our earliest witness to the assertion of the four canonical Gospels, possibly in reaction to Marcion's edited version of the Gospel of Luke, which Marcion asserted was the one and only true gospel. Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 14. Anchor Bible; 1st edition (October 13, 1997). ISBN 978-0385247672. Based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus' time. McDonald & Sanders, The Canon Debate, 2002, page 277 "Against Heresies" 3.11.7 acknowledges that many heterodox Christians use only one gospel while 3.11.9 acknowledges that some use more than four. McDonald & Sanders, page 280. Also page 310, summarizing 3.11.7: the Ebionites use Matthew's Gospel, Marcion mutilates Luke's, the Docetists use Mark's, the Valentinians use John's The success of Tatian's Diatessaron in about the same time period is "...a powerful indication that the fourfold Gospel contemporaneously sponsored by Irenaeus was not broadly, let alone universally, recognized." ibid Irenaeus is also our earliest attestation that the Gospel of John was written by John the apostle, ibid, p. 368 and that the Gospel of Luke was written by Luke, the companion of Paul. ibid, p. 267 All four gospels themselves are anonymous. The apologist and ascetic Tatian had previously harmonized the four gospels into a single narrative, the Diatesseron (c 150-160). Scholars contend that Irenaeus quotes from 21 of the 27 New Testament Texts: Matthew (Book 3, Chapter 16) Mark (Book 3, Chapter 10) Luke (Book 3, Chapter 14) John (Book 3, Chapter 11) Acts of the Apostles (Book 3, Chapter 14) Romans (Book 3, Chapter 16) 1 Corinthians (Book 1, Chapter 3) 2 Corinthians (Book 3, Chapter 7) Galatians (Book 3, Chapter 22) Ephesians (Book 5, Chapter 2) Philippians (Book 4, Chapter 18) Colossians (Book 1, Chapter 3) 1 Thessalonians (Book 5, Chapter 6) 2 Thessalonians (Book 5, Chapter 25) 1 Timothy (Book 1, Preface) 2 Timothy (Book 3, Chapter 14) Titus (Book 3, Chapter 3) 1 Peter (Book 4, Chapter 9) 1 John(Book 3, Chapter 16) 2 John (Book 1, Chapter 16) Revelation to John (Book 4, Chapter 20) He may refer to Hebrews (Book 2, Chapter 30) and James (Book 4, Chapter 16) and maybe even 2 Peter (Book 5, Chapter 28) but does not cite Philemon, 3 John or Jude. Apostolic authority In his writing against the Gnostics, who claimed to possess a secret oral tradition from Jesus himself, Irenaeus maintained that the bishops in different cities are known as far back as the Apostles — and none of them was a Gnostic — and that the bishops provided the only safe guide to the interpretation of Scripture. "Wherefore we must obey the priests of the Church who have succession from the Apostles, as we have shown, who, together with succession in the episcopate, have received the certain mark of truth according to the will of the Father; all others, however, are to be suspected, who separated themselves from the principal succession." Adversus Haereses (Book IV, Chapter 26). read online. He emphasized the unique position of authority of the bishop of Rome. Encyclopaedia Britannica "Since, however, it would be very tedious, in such a volume as this, to reckon up the successions of all the Churches, we do put to confusion all those who, in whatever manner, whether by an evil self-pleasing, by vainglory, or by blindness and perverse opinion, assemble in unauthorized meetings; [we do this, I say,] by indicating that tradition derived from the apostles, of the very great, the very ancient, and universally known Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. For it is a matter of necessity that every Church should agree with this Church, on account of its pre- eminent authority, that is, the faithful everywhere, inasmuch as the apostolical tradition has been preserved continuously by those [faithful men] who exist everywhere."read online Adversus Haereses (Book III, Chapter 3) With the lists of bishops to which Irenaeus referred, the later doctrine of the apostolic succession of the bishops could be linked. This succession was important to establish a chain of custody for orthodoxy. Irenaeus' point when refuting the Gnostics was that all of the Apostolic churches had preserved the same traditions and teachings in many independent streams. It was the unanimous agreement between these many independent streams of transmission that proved the orthodox Faith, current in those churches, to be true. Adversus Haereses (Book V, Chapter 33:8) Had any error crept in, the agreement would be immediately destroyed. Tim Warner, Irenaeus & the Pristine Faith Rule The Gnostics had no such succession, and no agreement amongst themselves. Irenaeus' theology and contrast with Gnosticism The central point of Irenaeus' theology is the unity of God, in opposition to the Gnostics' division of God into a number of divine "Aeons", and their distinction between the utterly transcendent "High God" and the inferior "Demiurge" who created the world. Irenaeus uses the Logos theology he inherited from Justin Martyr. Irenaeus was a student of Polycarp, who was said to have been tutored by John the Apostle. (John had used Logos terminology in the Gospel of John and the letter of 1 John). Irenaeus prefers to speak of the Son and the Spirit as the "hands of God". His emphasis on the unity of God is reflected in his corresponding emphasis on the unity of salvation history. Irenaeus repeatedly insists that God began the world and has been overseeing it ever since this creative act; everything that has happened is part of his plan for humanity. The essence of this plan is a process of maturation: Irenaeus believes that humanity was created immature, and God intended his creatures to take a long time to grow into or assume the divine likeness. Thus, Adam and Eve were created as children. Their Fall was thus not a full-blown rebellion but rather a childish spat, a desire to grow up before their time and have everything with immediacy. Everything that has happened since has therefore been planned by God to help humanity overcome this initial mishap and achieve spiritual maturity. The world has been intentionally designed by God as a difficult place, where human beings are forced to make moral decisions, as only in this way can they mature as moral agents. Irenaeus likens death to the big fish that swallowed Jonah: it was only in the depths of the whale's belly that Jonah could turn to God and act according to the divine will. Similarly, death and suffering appear as evils, but without them we could never come to know God. According to Irenaeus, the high point in salvation history is the advent of Jesus. Irenaeus believed that Christ would always have been sent, even if humanity had never sinned; but the fact that they did sin determines his role as a savior. He sees Christ as the new Adam, who systematically undoes what Adam did: thus, where Adam was disobedient concerning God's edict concerning the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, Christ was obedient even to death on the wood of a tree. Irenaeus is the first to draw comparisons between Eve and Mary, contrasting the faithlessness of the former with the faithfulness of the latter. In addition to reversing the wrongs done by Adam, Irenaeus thinks of Christ as "recapitulating" or "summing up" human life. AH 3.18.7; 3.21.9-10; 3.22.3; 5.21.1; see also, Klager, Andrew P. "Retaining and Reclaiming the Divine: Identification and the Recapitulation of Peace in St. Irenaeus of Lyons' Atonement Narrative." Stricken by God? Nonviolent Identification and the Victory of Christ, eds. Brad Jersak and Michael Hardin. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007., esp. p. 462 n. 158. This means that Christ goes through every stage of human life, from infancy to old age, and simply by living it, sanctifies it with his divinity. Irenaeus argues that Christ did not die until he was older than conventionally portrayed (see Adversus Haereses, book II, chapter 22). Irenaeus conceives of our salvation as essentially coming about through the incarnation of God as a man. He characterises the penalty for sin as death and corruption. God, however, is immortal and incorruptible, and simply by becoming united to human nature in Christ he conveys those qualities to us: they spread, as it were, like a benign infection. Irenaeus therefore understands the atonement of Christ as happening through his incarnation rather than his crucifixion, although the latter event is an integral part of the former. By comparison, according to the Gnostic view of Salvation, creation was perfect to begin with; it did not need time to grow and mature. For the Valentinians, the material world is the result of the loss of perfection which resulted from Sophia's desire to understand the Forefather. Therefore, one is ultimately redeemed, through secret knowledge, to enter the pleroma of which the Achamoth originally fell. According to the Valentinian Gnostics, there are three classes of human beings. They are the material, who cannot attain salvation; the psychic, who are strengthened by works and faith (they are part of the church); and the spiritual, who cannot decay or be harmed by material actions. Grant, Robert M., "Irenaeus fo Lyons," p,23. Routledge, 1997. Essentially, ordinary humans--those who have faith but do not possess the special knowledge--will not attain salvation. Spirituals, on the other hand--those who obtain this great gift--are the only class that will eventually attain salvation. In his article entitled "The Demiurge," J.P. Arendzen sums up the Valentinian view of the salvation of man. He writes, "The first, or carnal men, will return to the grossness of matter and finally be consumed by fire; the second, or psychic men, together with the Demiurge as their master, will enter a middle state, neither heaven (pleroma) nor hell (whyle); the purely spiritual men will be completely freed from the influence of the Demiurge and together with the Saviour and Achamoth, his spouse, will enter the pleroma divested of body (húle) and soul (psuché)." Arendzen, J.P., "The Demiurge" [cited 2007]. Available from the World Wide Web @ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04707b.htm. Irenaeus is also known as one of the first theologians to use the principle of apostolic succession to refute his opponents. In his criticism of Gnosticism, Irenaeus made reference to a Gnostic gospel which portrayed Judas in a positive light, as having acted in accordance with Jesus's instructions. The recently discovered Gospel of Judas dates close to the period when Irenaeus lived (late 2nd century), and scholars typically regard this work as one of many Gnostic texts, showing one of many varieties of Gnostic beliefs of the period. A Spectators Guide to the Gospel of Judas (PDF) by Dr. John Dickson, Sydney Anglicans Irenaeus mariology Irenaeus of Lyons is perhaps the earliest of the Church Fathers to develop a thorough mariology. In his youth he had met Polycarp and other Christians who had been in direct contact with the Apostles . Irenaeus sets out a forthright account of Mary's role in the economy of salvation. Even though Eve had Adam for a husband, she was still a virgin... By disobeying, Eve became the cause of death for herself and for the whole human race. In the same way Mary, though she had a husband, was still a virgin, and by obeying, she became the cause of salvation for herself and for the whole human race. Irenaeus of Lyons, Adversus haereses 3:22 According to Irenaeus, Christ, being born out of the Virgin Mary, created a totally new historical situation. Irenaeus, Book V, 19,3 This view influences later Ambrose of Milan and Tertullian, who wrote about the virgin birth of the Mother of God. The donor of a new birth had to be born in a totally new way. The new birth being that what was lost through a woman, is now saved by a woman. Tertullian, De Carne Christi 17 Prophetic Exegesis The first four books of Against Heresies constitute a minute analysis and refutation of the Gnostic doctrines. The fifth is a statement of positive belief contrasting the constantly shifting and contradictory Gnostic opinions with the steadfast faith of the church. He appeals to the prophecies to demonstrate the truthfulness of Christianity. Rome and Ten Horns Irenaeus shows the close relationship between the predicted events of Daniel 2 and 7. Rome, the fourth prophetic kingdom, would end in a tenfold partition. The ten divisions of the empire are the "ten horns" of Daniel 7 and the "ten horns" in Revelation 17. A "little horn," which is to supplant three of Rome's ten divisions, is also the still future "eighth" in Revelation. Irenaeus climaxes with the destruction of all kingdoms at the Second Advent, when Christ, the prophesied "stone," cut out of the mountain without hands, smites the image after Rome’s division. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 25 Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 26 Antichrist Irenaeus identified the Antichrist, another name of the apostate Man of Sin, with Daniel's Little Horn and John's Beast of Revelation 13. He sought to apply other expressions to Antichrist, such as "the abomination of desolation," mentioned by Christ (Matt. 24:15) and the "king of a most fierce countenance," in Gabriel's explanation of the Little Horn of Daniel 8. But he is not very clear how "the sacrifice and the libation shall be taken away" during the "half-week," or three and one-half years of Antichrist's reign. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 28 Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 25, sec. 2-4 Under the notion that the Antichrist, as a single individual, might be of Jewish origin, he fancies that the mention of "Dan," in Jeremiah 8:16, and the omission of that name from those tribes listed in Revelation 7, might indicate Antichrist's tribe. This surmise became the foundation of a series of subsequent interpretations by others. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 25, sec. 3 Time, Times and Half a Time Like the other early church fathers, Irenaeus interpreted the three and one-half "times" of the Little Horn of Daniel 7 as three and one-half literal years. Antichrist's three and a half years of sitting in the temple are placed immediately before the Second Coming of Christ. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 25, sec. 3-4 Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 30, sec. 4 They are identified as the second half of the "one week" of Daniel 9. Irenaeus says nothing of the seventy weeks; we do not know whether he placed the “one week” at the end of the seventy or whether he had a gap 666 Irenaeus is the first of the church fathers to consider the mystic number 666. While Irenaeus did propose some solutions of this numerical riddle, his interpretation was quite reserved. Thus, he cautiously states: "But knowing the sure number declared by Scripture, that is six hundred sixty and six, let them await, in the first place, the division of the kingdom into ten; then, in the next place, when these kings are reigning, and beginning to set their affairs in order, and advance their kingdom, [let them learn] to acknowledge that he who shall come claiming the kingdom for himself, and shall terrify those men of whom we have been speaking, have a name containing the aforesaid number, is truly the abomination of desolation." Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 30, sec. 2 Although Irenaeus did speculate upon three names to symbolize this mystical number, namely Euanthas, Teitan and Lateinos, nevertheless he was content to believe that the Antichrist would arise some time in the future after the fall of Rome and then the meaning of the number would be revealed Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 30, sec. 3 Millennium Irenaeus declares that the Antichrist's future three-and-a-half-year reign, when he sits in the temple at Jerusalem, will be terminated by the second advent, with the resurrection of the just, the destruction for the wicked, and the millennial reign of the righteous. The general resurrection and the judgment follow the descent of the New Jerusalem at the end of the millennial kingdom. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 35, sec. 1-2 Irenaeus calls those "heretics" who maintain that the saved are immediately glorified in the kingdom to come after death, before their resurrection. He avers that the millennial kingdom and the resurrection are actualities, not allegories, the first resurrection introducing this promised kingdom in which the risen saints are described as ruling over the renewed earth during the millennium, between the two resurrections. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 31 Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 35 Irenaeus held to the old Jewish tradition that the first six days of creation week were typical of the first six thousand years of human history, with Antichrist manifesting himself in the sixth period. And he expected the millennial kingdom to begin with the second coming of Christ to destroy the wicked and inaugurate, for the righteous, the reign of the kingdom of God during the seventh thousand years, the millennial Sabbath, as signified by the Sabbath of creation week. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 28, sec. 3 Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 33, sec. 2 In common with many of the fathers, Irenaeus did not distinguish between the new earth re-created in its eternal state--the thousand years of Revelation 20--when the saints are with Christ after His second advent, and the Jewish traditions of the Messianic kingdom. Hence, he applies Biblical and traditional ideas to his descriptions of this earth during the millennium, throughout the closing chapters of Book 5. This conception of the reign of resurrected and translated saints with Christ on this earth during the millennium-popularly known as chiliasm--was the increasingly prevailing belief of this time. Incipient distortions due to the admixture of current traditions, which figure in the extreme forms of chiliasm, caused a reaction against the earlier interpretations of Bible prophecies. Froom, LeRoy, 1950, ‘’’The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers’’’, Review and Herald Publishing Association, p. 250-252 Irenaeus was not looking for a Jewish kingdom. He interpreted Israel as the Christian church, the spiritual seed of Abraham. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 32, sec. 2 At times his expressions are highly fanciful. He tells, for instance, of a prodigious fertility of this earth during the millennium, after the resurrection of the righteous, "when also the creation, having been renovated and set free, shall fructify with an abundance of all kinds of food." In this connection, he attributes to Christ the saying about the vine with ten thousand branches, and the ear of wheat with ten thousand grains, and so forth, which he quotes from Papias. Against Heresies Book 5 Chapter 33, sec. 3 Exegesis Irenaeus’ exegesis does not give complete coverage. On the seals, for example, he merely alludes to Christ as the rider on the white horse. He stresses five factors with greater clarity and emphasis than Justin: 1) the literal resurrection of the righteous at the second advent, 2) the millennium bounded by the two resurrections, 3) the Antichrist to come upon the heels of Rome's breakup, 4) the symbolic prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse in their relation to the last times, and 5) the kingdom of God to be established by the second advent. See also POxy 405 — 3rd century papyrus portion of Against Heresies References External links Early Christian Writings Irenaeus (inaccessible, presumably since September 9, 2008)(is again available as of 23MAR09) Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Irenaeus Against Heresies Fragments from his lost works A nineteenth-century translation of Irenaeus' work Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching Book II, ch. 22, where Irenaeus argues his unconventional views about the age of Jesus and the length of his ministry. Excerpts from Irenaeus EarlyChurch.org.uk Extensive bibliography. Gregory S. Neal: "The Nature of Evil and the Irenaean Theodicy" Grace Incarnate (1988) Irenaeus: Against heresies Critique of Irenaeus, Gnosticism scholar Elaine H. Pagels Critique of Pagel's article by Father Paul Mankowski Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
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Jefferson_Davis
<center>Second wife, Varina Howell Jefferson Finis Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history, 1861 to 1865, during the American Civil War. A West Point graduate, Davis fought in the Mexican-American War as a colonel of a volunteer regiment, and was the United States Secretary of War under Franklin Pierce. Both before and after his time in the Pierce Administration, he served as a U.S. Senator from Mississippi. As a senator he argued against secession but believed each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union. Davis resigned from the Senate in January 1861, after receiving word that Mississippi had seceded from the Union. The following month, he was provisionally appointed President of the Confederate States of America. He was elected to a six-year term that November. During his presidency, Davis was not able to find a strategy to defeat the larger, more industrially developed Union. Davis' insistence on independence, even in the face of crushing defeat, prolonged the war. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was charged with treason, though not tried, and stripped of his eligibility to run for public office. This limitation was removed in 1978, 89 years after his death. While not disgraced, he was displaced in Southern affection after the war by its leading general, Robert E. Lee. Early life and military career Davis was the youngest of the ten children of Samuel Emory Davis (Philadelphia, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, 1756 – July 4, 1824) and wife (married 1783) Jane Cook (Christian County, (later Todd County), Kentucky, 1759 – October 3, 1845), daughter of William Cook and wife Sarah Simpson, daughter of Samuel Simpson (1706 – 1791) and wife Hannah (b. 1710). The younger Davis' grandfather Evan Davis (Cardiff, County Glamorgan, 1729 – 1758) emigrated from Wales and had once lived in Virginia and Maryland, marrying Lydia Emory. His father, along with his uncles, had served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War; he fought with the Georgia cavalry and fought in the Siege of Savannah as an infantry officer. Also, three of his older brothers served during the War of 1812. Two of them served under Andrew Jackson and received commendation for bravery in the Battle of New Orleans. During Davis' youth, the family moved twice; in 1811 to St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, and in 1812 to Wilkinson County, Mississippi near the town of Woodville. In 1813, Davis began his education together with his sister Mary, attending a log cabin school a mile from their home in the small town of Woodville, known as the Wilkinson Academy. Two years later, Davis entered the Catholic school of Saint Thomas at St. Rose Priory, a school operated by the Dominican Order in Washington County, Kentucky. At the time, he was the only Protestant student. Davis went on to Jefferson College at Washington, Mississippi, in 1818, and to Transylvania University at Lexington, Kentucky, in 1821. In 1824, Davis entered the United States Military Academy (West Point). He completed his four-year term as a West Point cadet, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in June 1828 following graduation. Davis was assigned to the 1st Infantry Regiment and was stationed at Fort Crawford, Wisconsin. His first assignment, in 1829, was to supervise the cutting of timber on the banks of the Red Cedar River for the repair and enlargement of the fort. Later the same year, he was reassigned to Fort Winnebago. While supervising the construction and management of a sawmill in the Yellow River in 1831, he contracted pneumonia, causing him to return to Fort Crawford. Davis, Jefferson (in Wisconsin) The year after, Davis was dispatched to Galena, Illinois, at the head of a detachment assigned to remove miners from lands claimed by the Native Americans. Lieutenant Davis was home in Mississippi for the entire Black Hawk War, returning after the Battle of Bad Axe. Following the conflict, he was assigned by his colonel, Zachary Taylor, to escort Black Hawk himself to prison—it is said that the chief liked Davis because of the kind treatment he had shown. Another of Davis' duties during this time was to keep miners from illegally entering what would eventually become the state of Iowa. Marriage, plantation life, and early political career Davis fell in love with Zachary Taylor's daughter, Sarah Knox Taylor. Her father did not approve of the match, so Davis resigned his commission and married Miss Taylor on June 17, 1835, at the house of her aunt near Louisville, Kentucky. The marriage, however, proved to be short. While visiting Davis' oldest sister near Saint Francisville, Louisiana, both newlyweds contracted malaria, and Davis' wife died three months after the wedding on September 15, 1835. In 1836, he moved to Brierfield Plantation in Warren County, Mississippi. For the next eight years, Davis was a recluse, studying government and history, and engaging in private political discussions with his brother Joseph. The year 1844 saw Davis' first political success, as he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, taking office on March 4 of the following year. In 1845, Davis married Varina Howell, the granddaughter of late New Jersey Governor Richard Howell whom he met the year before, at her home in Natchez, Mississippi. There is a portrait of Mrs. Jefferson Davis in old age at the Jefferson Davis Presidential Library in Biloxi, Mississippi, painted by Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862-1947) in 1895 and dubbed 'Widow of the Confederacy'. It was exhibited at the Durand-Ruel Galleries in New York in 1897. The Museum of the Confederacy at Richmond, Virginia, possesses Müller-Ury's 1897-98 profile portrait of their daughter Winnie Davis which the artist presented to the Museum in 1918. <center>First wife, Sarah Knox Taylor Second military career The year 1846 saw the beginning of the Mexican-American War. He resigned his House seat in June, and raised a volunteer regiment, the Mississippi Rifles, becoming its colonel. On July 21, 1846 they sailed from New Orleans for the Texas coast. Davis armed the regiment with percussion rifles and trained the regiment in their use, making it particularly effective in combat. In September of the same year, he participated in the successful siege of Monterrey. He fought bravely at the Battle of Buena Vista on February 22, 1847, and was shot in the foot, being carried to safety by Robert H. Chilton. In recognition of Davis's bravery and initiative, commanding general Zachary Taylor is reputed to have said, "My daughter, sir, was a better judge of men than I was." President James K. Polk offered him a Federal commission as a brigadier general and command of a brigade of militia. He declined the appointment, arguing that the United States Constitution gives the power of appointing militia officers to the states, and not to the Federal government of the United States. Return to politics Senator Because of his war service, the governor of Mississippi appointed Davis to fill out the Senate term of the late Jesse Speight. He took his seat December 5, 1847, and was elected to serve the remainder of his term in January 1848. In addition, the Smithsonian Institution appointed him a regent at the end of December 1847. The Senate made Davis chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs. When his term expired, he was elected to the same seat (by the Mississippi legislature, as the Constitution mandated at the time). He had not served a year when he resigned (in September 1851) to run for the Governorship of Mississippi on the issue of the Compromise of 1850, which Davis opposed. This election bid was unsuccessful, as he was defeated by fellow senator Henry Stuart Foote by 999 votes. Left without political office, Davis continued his political activity. He took part in a convention on states' rights, held at Jackson, Mississippi in January 1852. In the weeks leading up to the presidential election of 1852, he campaigned in numerous Southern states for Democratic candidates Franklin Pierce and William R. King. <center>Portrait of Jefferson Davis by Daniel Huntington Secretary of War Pierce won the election and, in 1853, made Davis his Secretary of War. In this capacity, Davis gave to Congress four annual reports (in December of each year), as well as an elaborate one (submitted on February 22, 1855) on various routes for the proposed Transcontinental Railroad. The Pierce Administration ended in 1857. The President lost the Democratic nomination, which went instead to James Buchanan. Davis' term was to end with Pierce's, so he ran successfully for the Senate, and re-entered it on March 4, 1857. Return to Senate His renewed service in the Senate was interrupted by an illness that threatened him with the loss of his left eye. Still nominally serving in the Senate, Davis spent the summer of 1858 in Portland, Maine. On the Fourth of July, he delivered an anti-secessionist speech on board a ship near Boston. He again urged the preservation of the Union on October 11 in Faneuil Hall, Boston, and returned to the Senate soon after. As Davis explained in his memoir The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, he believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union. He counseled delay among his fellow Southerners, however, because he did not think that the North would permit the peaceable exercise of the right to secession. Having served as Secretary of War under President Franklin Pierce, he also knew that the South lacked the military and naval resources necessary to defend itself if war were to break out. Following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, however, events accelerated. South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession on December 20, 1860, and Mississippi did so on January 9, 1861. As soon as Davis received official notification of that fact, he delivered a farewell address to the United States Senate, resigned, and returned to Mississippi. President of the Confederate States 1861-1865 <center>Jefferson Davis being sworn in as President of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, on the steps of the Alabama State Capitol. Four days after his resignation, Davis was commissioned a Major General of Mississippi troops. On February 9, 1861, a Constitutional convention at Montgomery, Alabama named him provisional President of the Confederate States of America and he was inaugurated on February 18, 1861. In meetings of his own Mississippi legislature, Davis had argued against secession; but when a majority of the delegates opposed him, he gave in. In conformity with a resolution of the Confederate Congress, Davis immediately appointed a Peace Commission to resolve the Confederacy's differences with the Union. In March 1861, before the bombardment of Fort Sumter, the Commission was to travel to Washington, D.C., to offer to pay for any Federal property on Southern soil, as well as the Southern portion of the national debt, but it was not authorized to discuss terms for reunion. He appointed General P.G.T. Beauregard to command Confederate troops in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina. He approved the Cabinet decision to bombard Fort Sumter, which started the Civil War. When Virginia switched from neutrality and joined the Confederacy, he moved his government to Richmond, Virginia, in May 1861. Davis and his family took up his residence there at the White House of the Confederacy in late May. Davis was elected to a six-year term as President of the Confederacy on November 6, 1861. He had never served a full term in any elective office, and that would turn out to be the case on this occasion as well. He was inaugurated on February 18, 1861. In June 1862 he assigned General Robert E. Lee to replace the wounded Joseph E. Johnston in command of the Army of Northern Virginia, the main Confederate army in the Eastern Theater. That December, he made a tour of Confederate armies in the west of the country. Davis largely made the main strategic decisions on his own, or approved those suggested by Lee. He had a very small circle of military advisers. Jefferson Davis openly pushed for the acquisition of Cuba upon completion of the Civil War. <center>Third Confederate National Flag In August 1863, Davis declined General Lee's offer of resignation after his defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg. As Confederate military fortunes turned for the worse in 1864, he visited Georgia with the intent of raising morale. On April 3, 1865, with Union troops under Ulysses S. Grant poised to capture Richmond, Davis escaped for Danville, Virginia, together with the Confederate Cabinet, leaving on the Richmond and Danville Railroad. He issued his last official proclamation as President of the Confederacy, and then went south to Greensboro, North Carolina. Circa April 12, he received Robert E. Lee's letter announcing surrender. President Jefferson Davis met with his Confederate Cabinet for the last time on May 5, 1865 in Washington, Georgia, and the Confederate Government was officially dissolved. The meeting took place at the Heard house, the Georgia Branch Bank Building, with fourteen officials present. He was captured on May 10, 1865 at Irwinville in Irwin County, Georgia. After being captured, he was held as a prisoner for two years in Fort Monroe, Virginia. Administration and Cabinet <center>The original Confederate Cabinet. L-R: Judah P. Benjamin, Stephen Mallory, Christopher Memminger, Alexander Stephens, LeRoy Pope Walker, Jefferson Davis, John H. Reagan and Robert Toombs. <center>Confederate postage stamp featuring President Jefferson Davis. Imprisonment and retirement On May 19, 1865, Davis was imprisoned in a casemate at Fortress Monroe, on the coast of Virginia. He was placed in irons for three days. Davis was indicted for treason a year later. While in prison, Davis arranged to sell his Mississippi estate to one of his former slaves, Ben Montgomery. Montgomery was a talented business manager, mechanic, and even an inventor who had become wealthy in part from running his own general store. However, floods ruined Montgomery's early years at the reins, and he was unable to turn an early profit. The Davis family was unwilling to forgive the debt of their former slave, and he lost the land. Montgomery never recovered, and died soon after. <center>Jefferson Davis at his home c.1885 After two years of imprisonment, he was released on bail which was posted by prominent citizens of both northern and southern states, including Horace Greeley, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and Gerrit Smith (Smith, a former member of the Secret Six, had supported John Brown). Davis visited Canada, Cuba and Europe. In December 1868, the court rejected a motion to nullify the indictment, but the prosecution dropped the case in February 1869. In 1869 Davis became president of the Carolina Life Insurance Company in Memphis, Tennessee, where he resided at the Peabody Hotel. United States Census, 1870, Tennessee, Shelby Co., 4-WD Memphis, Peabody Hotel, Series: M593 Roll: 1562 Page: 147. Upon Robert E. Lee's death in 1870, Davis presided over the memorial meeting in Richmond, Virginia. Elected to the U.S. Senate again, he was refused the office in 1875, having been barred from Federal office by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. He turned down the opportunity to become the first president of the Agriculture and Mechanical College of Texas (now Texas A&M University). In 1876, he promoted a society for the stimulation of U.S. trade with South America. Davis visited England the next year, returning in 1878 to Beauvoir (Biloxi, Mississippi). Over the next three years there, Davis wrote The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. Having completed that book, he visited Europe again, and traveled to Alabama and Georgia the following year. He completed A Short History of the Confederate States of America in October 1889. Two months later on December 6, Davis died in New Orleans of unestablished cause at the age of eighty-one. His funeral was one of the largest ever staged in the South, and included a continuous cortège, day and night, from New Orleans to Richmond, Virginia. He is buried at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond. Memorials <center>Statue of Jefferson Davis, given to the National Statuary Hall, Mississippi, in 1931 The Jefferson Davis Presidential Library, on the grounds of Davis's last home, Beauvoir, at Biloxi, Mississippi, was dedicated in 1998 by the state of Mississippi and includes a bronze statue of Davis by Mississippi artist Bill Beckwith. Jefferson Davis is included on a bas relief sculpture on Stone Mountain, which is just east of Atlanta, Georgia. A monument to Jefferson Davis was unveiled on June 3, 1907, on Monument Avenue in Richmond, Virginia and a life-sized statue by George Julian Zolnay marks his grave at Hollywood Cemetery in that city. A statue of Jefferson Davis stands in Confederate Park in Memphis, Tennessee. A statue of Jefferson Davis stands on the South Mall of the University of Texas at Austin. A tall concrete obelisk at the Jefferson Davis State Historic Site in Fairview, Todd County, Kentucky marks the site of his birth place in what was then Christian County, Kentucky. A bust statue of Jefferson Davis is located at the Jefferson Davis Memorial Historic Site on the spot he was captured, outside of Irwinville, Georgia near Fitzgerald, Georgia. Another bust of Jefferson Davis is located outside of the Jeff Davis County Court House building in Hazlehurst, Georgia. The state of Alabama celebrates Jefferson Davis's birthday on the first Monday in June. The state of Mississippi observes Davis's birthday in conjunction with the Memorial Day Federal holiday. In the State of Florida, Jefferson Davis's birthday, June 3, is a legal holiday and public holiday. In Pensacola Florida an obelisk was dedicated in 1891 in memory of Jefferson Davis, Stephen R. Mallory, Edward Aylesworth Perry, and the Uncrowned Heroes of the Southern Confederacy. Jefferson Davis was honorarily inducted into the Kappa Sigma Fraternity (University of Arkansas - Xi chapter) following his son's death. He is currently the only honorary member of the fraternity. Jefferson Davis County, Mississippi; Jefferson Davis Parish, Louisiana; Jeff Davis County, Texas; and Jeff Davis County, Georgia: all created after the civil war, were named after Jefferson Davis. <center>Jefferson Davis grave at the Hollywood Cemetery Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution barred from office anyone who had violated their oath to protect the Constitution by serving in the Confederacy. That prohibition included Davis. In 1978, pursuant to authority granted to Congress under the same section of the Amendment, Congress posthumously removed the ban on Davis with a two-thirds vote of each house and President Jimmy Carter signed it. . These actions were spearheaded by Congressman Trent Lott of Mississippi. Congress had previously taken similar action on behalf of Robert E. Lee. The desk of Jefferson Davis on the floor of the U.S. Senate, repaired after Union soldiers damaged it during the Civil War, is reserved by Senate Rules to the senior Senator from Mississippi. The former transnational Jefferson Davis Highway was named in his honor. A statue of Jefferson Davis is depicted in the National Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol Building, for the state of Mississippi. There is a carved stone memorial to Jefferson Davis at First and Camp Streets, next to the home where he died, in New Orleans, La, as well as a life-sized statue at the corner of Jefferson Davis Parkway and Canal Street. A statue commemorating the bicentennial of Davis's birth was recently completed by noted Civil War artist Gary Casteel, on behalf of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. There are statues of Davis in the Alabama, Virginia and Kentucky State Capitols—in Montgomery, on the grounds in front of the main entrance where he was sworn in as President of the Confederacy; in Richmond, in the old house of delegates chamber; and inside the rotunda at Frankfort. Vicksburg National Military Park located in Warren County, Mississippi (where the Davis family plantations, Brierfield and Hurricane, were located) contains two statues of Davis, the first a stand-alone, larger-than-life figure known simply as the Davis Monument and the second, a life-sized figure, which appears beside a statue of Lincoln as part of the Kentucky monument. A bust of Davis and his second wife, Varina, is located in the rose garden outside the Old Courthouse Museum in Vicksburg. While not precisely a memorial, Davis appears as a character in Robert Penn Warren's novel All the King's Men as an acquaintance of Cass Mastern, the subject of narrator Jack Burden's (unfinished) Ph.D. dissertation in American history. Notes See also References Primary sources Jefferson Davis, Jefferson Davis: The Essential Writings ed. by William J. Cooper (2003) Dunbar Rowland, ed., Jefferson Davis: Constitutionalist; His Letters, Papers, and Speeches (10 vols., 1923). The Papers of Jefferson Davis (1971- ), edited by Haskell M. Monroe, Jr., James T. McIntosh, and Lynda L. Crist; latest is vol. 12 (2008) to December 1870 published by Louisiana State University Press Jefferson Davis. The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881; numerous reprints) Secondary sources Allen, Felicity. Jefferson Davis: Unconquerable Heart (1999) online edition Ballard, Michael. Long Shadow: Jefferson Davis and the Final Days of the Confederacy (1986) online edition William J. Cooper. Jefferson Davis, American (2000) William C. Davis, Jefferson Davis: The Man and His Hour (1991). William E Dodd. Jefferson Davis (1907) Clement Eaton, Jefferson Davis (1977). Paul Escott, After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism (1978). Herman Hattaway and Richard E. Beringer. Jefferson Davis, Confederate President. (2001) Rable; George C. The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics. (1994). online edition Neely Jr.' Mark E. Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties (1993) online edition Hudson Strode, Jefferson Davis (3 vols., 1955-1964) Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861-1865 (1979) External links The Papers of Jefferson Davis at Rice University Capture of Jefferson Davis Jefferson Davis' final resting place
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7,126
Jehu
Yehu redirects here, for the instrument, see Yehu (instrument). possibly Jehu son of Omri, or Jehu's ambassador, kneeling at the feet of Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk. Jehu () was king of Israel, the son of Jehoshaphat Jehu’s father was not the roughly contemporaneous King Jehoshaphat of Judah, whose own father was King Asa of Judah. “Generally Jehu is described as the son only of Nimshi, possibly because Nimshi was more prominent or to avoid confusing him with the King of Judah (R’Wolf)”. Scherman, Nosson, ed., “I-II Kings”, The Prophets, 297, 2006. See (2 Kings 9:2) , and grandson of Nimshi. William F. Albright has dated his reign to 842 BC-815 BC, while E. R. Thiele offers the dates 841 BC-814 BC. The principal source for the events of his reign comes from 2 Kings 9-10. Proclamation as king The reign of Jehu's predecessor, Jehoram, was marked by the Battle of Ramoth-Gilead against the army of the Arameans, where Jehoram was wounded and afterwards returned to Jezreel to recover, and where Ahaziah, the king of Judah and his nephew, had also gone to attend on Jehoram (2 Kings 8:28f). The author of Kings describes that, while the commanders of the Israelite army were assembled away from the eyes of the king, the prophet Elisha sent one of his students to this meeting. This student led Jehu away from his peers and anointed him king in an inner chamber, then immediately departed (2 Kings 9:5,6). 2 Kings is silent about the exact identity of this student. Jehu's companions, inquiring after the object of this mysterious visit, were told and, immediately, with enthusiasm, blew their trumpets and proclaimed him king (2 Kings 9:11-14). Jezreel and the deaths of Jehoram and Jezebel With a chosen band, Jehu set forth with all speed to Jezreel, where he slew Jehoram with his own hand, shooting him through the heart with an arrow (9:24). Before this encounter, a watchman had warned Jehorem of Jehu's approach on a chariot, saying "he driveth furiously" (9:20). This is the origin of the term jehu to describe a coachman who drives fast or recklessly. The king of Judah, when trying to escape, was fatally wounded by one of Jehu's soldiers at Beth-gan. The author of Kings describes how Jehu entered the city without any resistance, and saw Jezebel, the mother of king Jehoram, presenting herself from a window in the palace, who received him with insolence; Jehu commanded the eunuchs of the royal palace to cast her down into the street; the fall was fatal, and her mangled body was devoured by the dogs (9:35-7). Now master of Jezreel, Jehu wrote to the chief men in the capital Samaria, and commanded them to send to him by the morning the heads of all the royal princes of the kingdom. Accordingly, seventy heads were brought to him, which he had piled up in two heaps at his gate. Shortly afterwards, Jehu encountered the "brethren of Ahaziah" at "the shearing-house" (10:12-14), and slaughtered another forty-two people connected with the Omrides (10:14). Jehu's revolt Jehu's revolt was rooted in more than his quest for power and the favor of the God of Israel. This account frequently invokes the slogan of "avenging the blood of Naboth" (9:21,25,26), whose vineyard Jehoram's father Ahab had taken by force (1 Kings 21:4); this fact suggests that perhaps the burden of making the northern kingdom a regional power had grown too heavy for its citizens, and Jehoram's defeat at Ramoth-Gilead gave them an opportunity to throw this burden off. Following Jehu's slaughter of the Omrides, he met Jehonadab the Rechabite, whom he took into his chariot, and they entered the capital together. This adds support to the inference that, at least at the beginning of his reign, Jehu was supported by the pro-God of Israel faction. Once in control of Samaria, he summoned all of the worshippers of Baal to the capital, slew them (2 Kings 10:19-25), and destroyed the temple of that deity (10:27). Beyond his bloody coup d'etat, and his tolerance for the golden calves at Dan and Bethel (which drew the disdain of the author of Kings), little is known of the events of Jehu's reign. He was hard pressed by the predations of Hazael, king of the Arameans, who is said to have defeated his army "throughout all of the territories of Israel" beyond the Jordan river, in the lands of Gilead, Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh (10:32f). This could explain why Jehu is offering tribute to Shalmaneser III on his Black Obelisk (where his name appears as mIa-ú-a mar mHu-um-ri-i or "Jehu son of Omri (Bit-Khumri"); Jehu was encouraging the enemy of the Arameans into being his friend. Strong international alliance would also have helped validate his military coup that year over the Omride king, Joram. It should be noted that Bit-Khumri was used by Tiglath-pileser 3 for non-Omride kings Pekah (733) & Hoshea (732), Kitchen, K A (2003) The Reliability of the Old Testament, Cambridge, Eerdmans, p24 hence House/Land/Kingdom of Omri could apply to later Israelite kings not descended from Omri. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III Aside from the Hebrew Bible, Jehu appears in Assyrian documents, notably in the Black Obelisk where he is depicted as kissing the ground in front of Shalmaneser III. In the Assyrian documents he is simply referred to as "Jehu son of Omri," that is, Jehu of the House of Omri, an Assyrian name for the Kingdom of Israel. This tribute is dated 841 BC. Millard, Alan (1997) Discoveries from Bible Times, Oxford, Lion, p121 Miscellany "The speed of Jehu" was once a common idiom in America. Notes The name Jehu has also been adopted by natives of Ghana, who previously went by the name 'Appiah'. In order to separate themselves from other Appiahs in Ghana, they chose to extend their surname to the double barrelled name Jehu-Appiah. The founding Minister of one of the biggest and most renowned churches in Ghana, the Musama Disco Christo Church, (MDCC), translated to mean the Army of the Cross of Christ, was also a Jehu-Appiah, who went by the name of Jemisimiham Jehu-Appiah, Akaboah I. References Great Men of The Old Testament: Jehufrom Bethel Church of God
Jehu |@lemmatized yehu:2 redirects:1 instrument:2 see:2 possibly:2 jehu:32 son:5 omri:6 ambassador:1 kneel:1 foot:1 shalmaneser:4 iii:4 black:4 obelisk:4 king:27 israel:5 jehoshaphat:2 father:3 roughly:1 contemporaneous:1 judah:5 whose:2 asa:1 generally:1 describe:3 nimshi:3 prominent:1 avoid:1 confuse:1 r:2 wolf:1 scherman:1 nosson:1 ed:1 ii:1 prophet:2 grandson:1 william:1 f:1 albright:1 date:3 reign:5 bc:5 e:1 thiele:1 offer:2 principal:1 source:1 event:2 come:1 proclamation:1 predecessor:1 jehoram:8 mark:1 battle:1 ramoth:2 gilead:3 army:4 aramean:3 wound:2 afterwards:2 return:1 jezreel:4 recover:1 ahaziah:2 nephew:1 also:4 go:3 attend:1 author:3 describes:1 commander:1 israelite:2 assemble:1 away:2 eye:1 elisha:1 send:2 one:3 student:3 meeting:1 lead:1 peer:1 anoint:1 inner:1 chamber:1 immediately:2 depart:1 silent:1 exact:1 identity:1 companion:1 inquire:1 object:1 mysterious:1 visit:1 tell:1 enthusiasm:1 blow:1 trumpet:1 proclaim:1 death:1 jezebel:2 chosen:1 band:1 set:1 forth:1 speed:2 slew:2 hand:1 shoot:1 heart:1 arrow:1 encounter:2 watchman:1 warn:1 jehorem:1 approach:1 chariot:2 say:2 driveth:1 furiously:1 origin:1 term:1 coachman:1 drive:1 fast:1 recklessly:1 try:1 escape:1 fatally:1 soldier:1 beth:1 gan:1 enter:2 city:1 without:1 resistance:1 saw:1 mother:1 present:1 window:1 palace:2 receive:1 insolence:1 command:2 eunuch:1 royal:2 cast:1 street:1 fall:1 fatal:1 mangled:1 body:1 devour:1 dog:1 master:1 write:1 chief:1 men:2 capital:3 samaria:2 morning:1 head:2 prince:1 kingdom:4 accordingly:1 seventy:1 bring:1 pile:1 two:2 heap:1 gate:1 shortly:1 brother:1 shear:1 house:3 slaughter:2 another:1 forty:1 people:1 connect:1 omrides:2 revolt:2 root:1 quest:1 power:2 favor:1 god:3 account:1 frequently:1 invoke:1 slogan:1 avenge:1 blood:1 naboth:1 vineyard:1 ahab:1 take:2 force:1 fact:1 suggest:1 perhaps:1 burden:2 make:1 northern:1 regional:1 grow:1 heavy:1 citizen:1 defeat:2 give:1 opportunity:1 throw:1 follow:1 meet:1 jehonadab:1 rechabite:1 together:1 add:1 support:2 inference:1 least:1 beginning:1 pro:1 faction:1 control:1 summon:1 worshipper:1 baal:1 destroy:1 temple:1 deity:1 beyond:2 bloody:1 coup:2 etat:1 tolerance:1 golden:1 calf:1 dan:1 bethel:2 draw:1 disdain:1 little:1 know:1 hard:1 press:1 predation:1 hazael:1 throughout:1 territory:1 jordan:1 river:1 land:2 gad:1 reuben:1 manasseh:1 could:2 explain:1 tribute:2 name:6 appear:2 mia:1 ú:1 mar:1 mhu:1 um:1 ri:1 bit:2 khumri:2 encourage:1 enemy:1 friend:1 strong:1 international:1 alliance:1 would:1 help:1 validate:1 military:1 year:1 omride:2 joram:1 note:2 use:1 tiglath:1 pileser:1 non:1 pekah:1 hoshea:1 kitchen:1 k:1 reliability:1 old:2 testament:2 cambridge:1 eerdmans:1 hence:1 apply:1 later:1 descend:1 aside:1 hebrew:1 bible:2 assyrian:3 document:2 notably:1 depict:1 kiss:1 ground:1 front:1 simply:1 referred:1 millard:1 alan:1 discovery:1 time:1 oxford:1 lion:1 miscellany:1 common:1 idiom:1 america:1 adopt:1 native:1 ghana:3 previously:1 appiah:4 order:1 separate:1 appiahs:1 choose:1 extend:1 surname:1 double:1 barrel:1 founding:1 minister:1 big:1 renowned:1 church:3 musama:1 disco:1 christo:1 mdcc:1 translate:1 mean:1 cross:1 christ:1 jemisimiham:1 akaboah:1 reference:1 great:1 jehufrom:1 |@bigram shalmaneser_iii:4 roughly_contemporaneous:1 f_albright:1 r_thiele:1 ramoth_gilead:2 fatally_wound:1 shortly_afterwards:1 coup_etat:1 golden_calf:1 tiglath_pileser:1 obelisk_shalmaneser:1 hebrew_bible:1 simply_referred:1
7,127
Geography_of_Eritrea
Map of Eritrea Topography of Eritrea Eritrea's cities, towns and highest peaks Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the west and northwest by Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti. The country has a high central plateau that varies from 1,800 to 3,000 meters (6,000 to 10,000 feet) above sea level. A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 300 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea's land mass. Eritrea has no year-round rivers. The climate is temperate in the mountains and hot in the lowlands. Asmara, the capital, is about 3,000 meters (10,000 ft) above sea level. Maximum temperature is 26 °C (80 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, with the short or belg rains occurring February-April and the big or meher rains beginning in late June and ending in mid-September. Location: Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan, also bordering on Ethiopia. Geographic coordinates: ) Map references: Africa Area: total: 124 320 km² land: 121 320 km² water: 3 000 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than Pennsylvania Land boundaries: total: 1 630 km border countries: Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km Note that the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia is disputed. Coastline: 2 234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1 151 km, islands in Red Sea 1 083 km Maritime claims: NA Climate: hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 610 mm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except in coastal desert Terrain: dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains Elevation extremes: lowest point: near Lake Kulul within the Afar Depression −75 m highest point: Soira 3 018 m Natural resources: gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, possibly petroleum and natural gas, fish Land use: arable land: 12% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 49% forests and woodland: 6% other: 32% (1998 est.) Irrigated land: 280 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: frequent droughts and locust storms Environment - current issues: deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Geography - note: strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon de jure independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993 See also Eritrea
Geography_of_Eritrea |@lemmatized map:2 eritrea:9 topography:1 city:1 town:1 high:3 peak:1 locate:1 horn:1 africa:3 border:5 northeast:1 east:2 red:6 sea:8 west:1 northwest:2 sudan:3 south:2 ethiopia:6 southeast:1 djibouti:3 country:2 central:2 plateau:1 vary:1 meter:2 foot:1 level:2 coastal:3 plain:3 western:2 lowland:3 island:2 comprise:1 remainder:1 land:6 mass:1 year:1 round:1 river:1 climate:3 temperate:1 mountain:1 hot:2 asmara:1 capital:1 ft:1 maximum:1 temperature:1 c:1 f:1 weather:1 usually:1 sunny:1 dry:2 short:1 belg:1 rain:2 occur:1 february:1 april:1 big:1 meher:1 begin:1 late:1 june:2 end:1 mid:1 september:2 location:1 eastern:1 also:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:2 total:3 water:1 comparative:1 slightly:1 large:1 pennsylvania:1 boundary:1 km:7 note:2 dispute:1 coastline:2 mainland:1 maritime:1 claim:1 na:1 desert:3 strip:1 along:3 coast:1 cooler:1 wetter:1 highland:2 mm:1 rainfall:2 annually:1 semiarid:1 hill:1 heavy:1 except:1 terrain:2 dominate:1 extension:1 ethiopian:1 north:1 trend:1 descend:1 hilly:1 southwest:1 flat:1 rolling:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 low:1 point:2 near:1 lake:1 kulul:1 within:1 afar:1 depression:1 soira:1 natural:3 resource:1 gold:1 potash:1 zinc:1 copper:1 salt:1 possibly:1 petroleum:1 gas:1 fish:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 frequent:1 drought:1 locust:1 storm:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 deforestation:1 desertification:2 soil:1 erosion:1 overgrazing:1 loss:1 infrastructure:1 civil:1 warfare:1 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 select:1 geography:1 strategic:1 geopolitical:1 position:1 world:1 busy:1 shipping:1 lane:1 retain:1 entire:1 upon:1 de:1 jure:1 independence:1 may:1 see:1 |@bigram eritrea_eritrea:1 coastal_plain:1 meter_ft:1 geographic_coordinate:1 eritrea_ethiopia:1 coastline_km:1 hilly_terrain:1 zinc_copper:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 drought_locust:1 deforestation_desertification:1 soil_erosion:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 shipping_lane:1 de_jure:1
7,128
Body_mass_index
A graph of body mass index is shown above. The dashed lines represent subdivisions within a major class. For instance the "Underweight" classification is further divided into "severe," "moderate," and "mild" subclasses.Based on World Health Organization data here. The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a statistical measurement which compares a person's weight and height. Though it does not actually measure the percentage of body fat, it is a useful tool to estimate a healthy body weight based on how tall a person is. Due to its ease of measurement and calculation, it is the most widely used diagnostic tool to identify weight problem within a population including: underweight, overweight and obesity. It was invented between 1830 and 1850 by the Belgian polymath Adolphe Quetelet during the course of developing "social physics". Body mass index is defined as the individual's body weight divided by the square of his or her height. The formulas universally used in medicine produce a unit of measure of kg/m2. BMI can also be determined using a BMI chart, which displays BMI as a function of weight (horizontal axis) and height (vertical axis) using contour lines for different values of BMI or colours for different BMI categories. SI units Imperial units </center> Usage As a measure, BMI became popular during the early 1950s and 60s as obesity started to become a discernible issue in prosperous Western societies. BMI provided a simple numeric measure of a person's "fatness" or "thinness", allowing health professionals to discuss over- and under-weight problems more objectively with their patients. However, BMI has become controversial because many people, including physicians, have come to rely on its apparent numerical authority for medical diagnosis, but that was never the BMI's purpose. It is meant to be used as a simple means of classifying sedentary (physically inactive) individuals with an average body composition. WHO Technical Report Series, #854, Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry, Pg. 9 () For these individuals, the current value settings are as follows: a BMI of 18.5 to 25 may indicate optimal weight; a BMI lower than 18.5 suggests the person is underweight while a number above 25 may indicate the person is overweight; a BMI below 17.5 may indicate the person has anorexia nervosa or a related disorder; a number above 30 suggests the person is obese (over 40, morbidly obese). For a given height, BMI is proportional to weight. However, for a given weight, BMI is inversely proportional to the square of the height. So, if all body dimensions double, and weight scales naturally with the cube of the height (as is the case with a spherical cow), then BMI doubles instead of remaining the same. This results in taller people having a reported BMI that is uncharacteristically high compared to their actual body fat levels. This anomaly is partially offset by the fact that many taller people are not just "scaled up" short people, but tend to have narrower frames in proportion to their height. It has been suggested that instead of squaring the body height (as the BMI does) or cubing the body height (as seems natural and as the Ponderal index does), it would be more appropriate to use an exponent of between 2.3 to 2.7. BMI Prime BMI Prime, a simple modification of the BMI system, is the ratio of actual BMI to upper limit BMI (currently defined at BMI 25). As defined, BMI Prime is also the ratio of body weight to upper body weight limit, calculated at BMI 25. Since it is the ratio of two separate BMI values, BMI Prime is a dimensionless number, without associated units. Individuals with BMI Prime < 0.74 are underweight; those between 0.74 and 0.99 have optimal weight; and those at 1.00 or greater are overweight. BMI Prime is useful clinically because individuals can tell, at a glance, by what percentage they deviate from their upper weight limits. For instance, a person with BMI 34 has a BMI Prime of 34/25 = 1.36, and is 36% over his or her upper mass limit. In Asian populations (see International Variation section below) BMI Prime should be calculated using an upper limit BMI of 23 in the denominator instead of 25. Nonetheless, BMI Prime allows easy comparison between populations whose upper limit BMI values differ. Gadzik J: "How Much Should I Weigh?" - Quetelet's Equation, Upper Weight Limits and BMI Prime Connecticut Medicine February 2006; 70: 81–88. Categories A frequent use of the BMI is to assess how much an individual's body weight departs from what is normal or desirable for a person of his or her height. The weight excess or deficiency may, in part, be accounted for by body fat (adipose tissue) although other factors such as muscularity also affect BMI significantly (see discussion below and overweight). The WHO regard a BMI of less than 18.5 as underweight and may indicate malnutrition, an eating disorder, or other health problems, while a BMI greater than 25 is considered overweight and above 30 is considered obese. These ranges of BMI values are valid only as statistical categories when applied to adults, and do not predict health. Category BMI range – kg/m2 BMI Prime Mass (weight) of a person with this BMI Severely underweight less than 16.5 less than 0.66 under Underweight from 16.5 to 18.5 from 0.66 to 0.74 between Normal from 18.5 to 25 from 0.74 to 1.0 between Overweight from 25 to 30 from 1.0 to 1.2 between Obese Class I from 30 to 35 from 1.2 to 1.4 between Obese Class II from 35 to 40 from 1.4 to 1.6 between Obese Class III over 40 over 1.6 over The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1994 indicates that 59% of American men and 49% of women have BMIs over 25. Morbid obesity — a BMI of 40 or more — was found in 2% of the men and 4% of the women. The newest survey in 2007 indicates a continuation of the increase in BMI, 63% of Americans are overweight, with 26% now in the obese category (a BMI of 30 or more). There are differing opinions on the threshold for being underweight in females, doctors quote anything from 18.5 to 20 as being the lowest weight, the most frequently stated being 19. A BMI nearing 15 is usually used as an indicator for starvation and the health risks involved, with a BMI <17.5 being an informal criterion for the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. BMI-for-age BMI for age percentiles for boys 2 to 20 years of age.BMI for age percentiles for girls 2 to 20 years of age. BMI is used differently for children. It is calculated the same way as for adults, but then compared to typical values for other children of the same age. Instead of set thresholds for underweight and overweight, then, the BMI percentile allows comparison with children of the same sex and age. A BMI that is less than the 5th percentile is considered underweight and above the 95th percentile is considered obese. Children with a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile are considered to be overweight. Recent studies in England have indicated that females between the ages 12 and 16 have a higher BMI than males of the same age by 1.0 kg/m2 on average. A recent study in America showed that overweight people actually had a lower death rate than normal weight people as defined by BMI. International variations These recommended distinctions along the linear scale may vary from time to time and country to country, making global, longitudinal surveys problematic. In 1998, the U.S. National Institutes of Health brought U.S. definitions into line with World Health Organization guidelines, lowering the normal/overweight cut-off from BMI 27.8 to BMI 25. This had the effect of redefining approximately 30 million Americans, previously "healthy" to "overweight". It also recommends lowering the normal/overweight threshold for South East Asian body types to around BMI 23, and expects further revisions to emerge from clinical studies of different body types. In Singapore, the BMI cut-off figures were revised in 2005 with an emphasis on health risks instead of weight. Adults whose BMI is between 18.5 and 22.9 have a low risk of developing heart disease and other health problems such as diabetes. Those with a BMI between 23 and 27.4 are at moderate risk while those with a BMI of 27.5 and above are at high risk of heart disease and other health problems. Category BMI range – kg/m2 Starvation less than 14.9 Underweight from 15 to 18.4 Normal from 18.5 to 22.9 Overweight from 23 to 27.5 Obese from 27.6 to 40 Morbidly Obese greater than 40 Applications Statistical device The Body Mass Index is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a vague means of estimating adiposity. The duality of the Body Mass Index is that, whilst easy-to-use as a general calculation, it is limited in how accurate and pertinent the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the Index is suitable for recognising trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin for errors. Jeukendrup, A & Gleeson, M. (2005) Sports Nutrition Human Kinetics This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the RDA for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, due to the majority of their exercise habits. Barasi, M. E (2004) Human Nutrition - a health perspective The growth of children is usually documented against a BMI-measured growth chart. Obesity trends can be calculated from the difference between the child's BMI and the BMI on the chart. However, this method again falls prey to the obstacle of body composition: many children who primarily grow as endomorphs would be classed as obese despite body composition. Clinical professionals should take into account the child's body composition and defer to an appropriate technique such as densitometry e.g. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, also known as DEXA or DXA. Clinical practice BMI has been used by the WHO as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early 1980s. In the United States, BMI is also used as a measure of underweight, owing to advocacy on behalf of those suffering with eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. BMI can be calculated quickly and without expensive equipment. However, BMI categories do not take into account many factors such as frame size and muscularity. The categories also fail to account for varying proportions of fat, bone, cartilage, water weight, and more. Despite this, BMI categories are regularly regarded as a satisfactory tool for measuring whether sedentary individuals are "underweight," "overweight" or "obese" with various qualifications, such as: Individuals who are not sedentary being exempt – athletes, children, the elderly, the infirm, and individuals who are naturally endomorphic or ectomorphic (i.e., people who don't have a medium frame). One basic problem, especially in athletes, is that muscle is denser than fat. Some professional athletes are "overweight" or "obese" according to their BMI – unless the number at which they are considered "overweight" or "obese" is adjusted upward in some modified version of the calculation. In children and the elderly, differences in bone density and, thus, in the proportion of bone to total weight can mean the number at which these people are considered underweight should be adjusted downward. Medical underwriting In the United States, where medical underwriting of private health insurance plans is widespread, most private health insurance providers will use a particular high BMI as a cut-off point in order to raise insurance rates for or deny insurance to higher-risk patients, thereby ostensibly reducing the cost of insurance coverage to all other subscribers in a 'normal' BMI range. The cutoff point is determined differently for every health insurance provider and different providers will have vastly different ranges of acceptability. Many will implement phased surcharges, in which the subscriber will pay an additional penalty, usually as a percentage of the monthly premium, for each arbitrary range of BMI points above a certain acceptable limit, up to a maximum BMI past which the individual will simply be denied admissibility regardless of price. This can be contrasted with group insurance policies which do not require medical underwriting and where insurance admissibility is guaranteed by virtue of being a member of the insured group, regardless of BMI or other risk factors that would likely render the individual inadmissible to an individual health plan. Limitations and shortcomings Some argue that the error in the BMI is significant and so pervasive that it is not generally useful in evaluation of health. University of Chicago political science professor Eric Oliver says BMI is an inaccurate measure of weight and that academics and doctors have taken the easy way out and that at a minimum the standards of who is over weight and who is not need to be changed and that the US population has been forced to fit into these standards. http://thedartmouth.com/2005/04/26/news/oliver/ The medical establishment has generally acknowledged some shortcomings of BMI. Because the BMI is dependent only upon weight and height, it makes simplistic assumptions about distribution of muscle and bone mass, and thus may overestimate adiposity on those with more lean body mass (e.g. athletes) while underestimating adiposity on those with less lean body mass (e.g. the elderly). In an analysis of 40 studies involving 250,000 people, heart patients with normal BMIs were at higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease than people whose BMIs put them in the "overweight" range (BMI 25–29.9). In the intermediate range of BMI (25–29.9), BMI failed to discriminate between bodyfat percentage and lean mass. The study concluded that "the accuracy of BMI in diagnosing obesity is limited, particularly for individuals in the intermediate BMI ranges, in men and in the elderly... These results may help to explain the unexpected better survival in overweight/mild obese patients." Patients who were underweight (BMI <20) or severely obese (BMI ≥35) did, however, show an increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease. Body composition for athletes is often better calculated using measures of body fat, as determined by such techniques as skinfold measurements or underwater weighing and the limitations of manual measurement have also led to new, alternative methods to measure obesity, such as the body volume index. However, recent studies of American football linemen who undergo intensive weight training to increase their muscle mass show that they frequently suffer many of the same problems as people ordinarily considered obese, notably sleep apnea. Brown, David; "Linemen More Likely To Have Sleep Condition", in The Washington Post, January 23, 2003 A further limitation relates to loss of height through aging. In this situation, BMI will increase without any corresponding increase in weight. A study by Romero-Corral et al. found that BMI-defined obesity was present in 19.1% of men and 24.7% of women, but that obesity as measured by bodyfat percentage was present in 43.9% of men and 52.3% of women. The exponent of 2 in the denominator of the formula for BMI is arbitrary. It is meant to reduce variability in the BMI associated only with a difference in size, rather than with differences in weight relative to one's ideal weight. If taller people were simply scaled-up versions of shorter people, the appropriate exponent would be 3, as weight would increase with the cube of height. However, on average, taller people have a slimmer build relative to their height than do shorter people, and the exponent which matches the variation best is between 2 and 3. An analysis based on data gathered in the USA suggested an exponent of 2.6 would yield the best fit for children aged 2 to 19 years old. The exponent 2 is used instead by convention and for simplicity. As a possible alternative to BMI, the concepts fat-free mass index (FFMI) and fat mass index (FMI) were introduced in the early 1990s. VanItallie TB, Yang MU, Heymsfield SB, Funk RC, Boileau RA. Height-normalized indices of the body's fat-free mass and fat mass: potentially useful indicators of nutritional status. Am J Clin Nutr. December 1990;52(6):953–959 See also Body volume index Waist-hip ratio Sagittal Abdominal Diameter (SAD) Body fat percentage Body water Muscle Skeletal muscle Allometric law Ponderal index Further reading References External links U.S. National Center for Health Statistics BMI Growth Charts for children and young adults, BMI calculators for ages 2–19 and ages 20 and older. Collection of articles about the Body Mass Index Information on BMI and Children via Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh Analysis of National Center for Health Statistics study on increased or decreased death rates for various BMIs The Body Mass Index in pictures Calculate your BMI Body Mass Index Visualizer (Requires Microsoft Silverlight plug-in) Body Mass Index & Targeted BMI Calculator Free BMI Calculator
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Hadith
Hadith ( , pl. aḥadīth; lit. "narrative") are oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hadith collections are regarded by all traditional schools of jurisprudence as important tools for determining the Muslim way of life, the sunnah. Definition and usage Linguistically the word ‘hadith’ means: that which is new from amongst things or a piece of information conveyed either in a small quantity or large. The Arabic plural is . In English academic usage, hadith is often both singular and plural. And hadith is what is spoken by the speaker. Tahdith is the infinitive, or verbal noun, of the original verb form. Therefore, hadith is not the infinitive, Lisan al-Arab, by Ibn Manthour, vol. 2, pg. 350; Dar al-Hadith edition. rather it is a noun. al-Kuliyat by Abu al-Baqa’ al-Kafawi, pg. 370; Al-Resalah Publishers. This last phrase is quoted by al-Qasimi in Qawaid al-Tahdith, pg. 61; Dar al-Nafais. In Islamic terminology, the term hadith refers to reports about the statements or actions of Muhammad, or about his tacit approval of something said or done in his presence. "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam. Classical hadith specialist Ibn Hajar says that the intended meaning of "hadith" in religious tradition is something attributed to Muhammad, as opposed to the Qur'an. Fath al-Bari, vol. 1, pg. 193 (page number of the original Maktabah al-Salafiyah edition as appears in the Dar Taibah printing). Al-Suyuti quotes this in his Tadrib al-Rawi, vol. 1, pg. 42 (Dar al-Asimah edition). Other associated words possess similar meanings: "khabar" (news, information) often refers to reports about Muhammad, but sometimes refers to traditions about his companions (sahāba) and their successors from the following generation (tābi'īn); conversely, "athar" (trace, vestige) usually refers to traditions about the companions and successors, though sometimes connotes traditions about Muhammad. The word sunnah (custom) is also used in reference to a normative custom of Muhammad or the early Muslim community. Format A hadith consists of two aspects: the text of the report (matn) containing the actual narrative; and the chain of narrators (isnad, or sanad), which documents the route by which the report has been transmitted. The "sanad" is so named due to the reliance of the hadith specialists upon it in determining the authenticity or weakness of a hadith. Tadrib al-Rawi, vol. 1, pgs. 39-41 with abridgement; I left out the majority if not the entirety of the etymology of each term. Suyuti refers this discussion to either both Tibi and Ibn Jama’ah or one to the exception of the other; for details refer to the text. The sanad consists of a ‘chain’ of the narrators each mentioning the one from whom they heard the hadith until mentioning the originator of the matn along with the matn itself. The first people who received hadith were the companions; so they preserved and understood it, knowing both its generality and particulars, and then conveyed it to those after them as they were commanded. Then the generation following them, the Followers received it thus conveying it to those after them and so on. So the companion would say, “I heard the Prophet say such and such.” The Follower would then say, “I heard a companion say, ‘I heard the Prophet.’” The one after him (after the Follower) would then say, “I heard someone say, ‘I heard a Companion say, ‘I heard the Prophet …’’” and so on. Ilm al-Rijal wa Ahimiyatih, by Mualami, pg. 16, Dar al-Rayah. I substituted the word ‘sunnah’ with the word ‘hadith’ as they are synonymous in this context. Overview Hadith were originally oral traditions of Muhammad's actions and customs. From the first Fitna of the 7th century people questioned the sources of hadiths. http://people.uncw.edu/bergh/par246/L21RHadithCriticism.htm This resulted in a list of transmitters, for example "A told me that B told him that Muhammad said." Hadith were eventually written down, evaluated and gathered into large collections mostly during the reign of Umar II (bin Abdul Aziz, grandson of Umar bin Khattab(RAA)2nd Caliph) during the 8th century, and also in the 9th century. These works are referred to in matters of Islamic law and history to this day. History Traditions of the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam were passed down orally for more than a hundred years after Muhammad's death in AD 632. Muslim historians say that Caliph Uthman (the third khalifa, or successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary), was the first to urge Muslims to write the Qur'an in a fixed form, and to record the hadith. Uthman's labours were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656. The Muslim community (ummah) then fell into a prolonged civil war, which Muslim historians call the Fitna. After the fourth caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib was assassinated in 661, the Umayyad dynasty seized control of the Islamic empire. Ummayad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the Second Fitna), re-established, and ended in 758 when the Abbasid dynasty seized the caliphate, and held it, at least in name, until 1258. Muslim historians say that hadith collection and evaluation continued during the first Fitna and the Umayyad period. However, much of this activity was presumably oral transmission from early Muslims to later collectors, or from teachers to students. If any of these early scholars committed any of these collections to writing, they have not survived. The histories and hadith collections we have today were written down at the start of the Abbasid period, more than a hundred years after Muhammad's death. Scholars of the Abbasid period were faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions, some of them flatly contradicting each other. Many of these traditions supported differing views on a variety of controversial matters. Scholars had to decide which hadith were to be trusted as authentic and which had been invented for political or theological purposes. To do this, they used a number of techniques which Muslims now call the science of hadith. At the beginning of the 7th century, those receiving the hadith started to question the sources of the saying. The hadith were eventually recorded in written form, had their Isnad evaluated, and were gathered into large collections during the 8th century. Use The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider hadith to be essential supplements to and clarifications of the Qur'an, Islam's holy book. In Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims but there are no specific Qur'anic rules on many religious and practical matters. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or sunnah, of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid. Muslim scholars also find it useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or on what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure. Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography. For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration. Non-Muslim scholars note that there is a great overlap between the records of early Islamic traditions. Accounts of early Islam are also to be found in: sira (biographies of Prophet Muhammad) tafsir (exegesis on the Qur'an) fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) Science of hadith The science of hadith (Arabic: `Ulum al-hadith) is a method of textual criticism developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad. This is achieved by analyzing the text of the report, the scale of the report's transmission, the routes through which the report was transmitted, and the individual narrators involved in its transmission. On the basis of these criteria, various classifications were devised for hadith. The earliest comprehensive work on the science of hadith was Abu Muhammad al-Ramahurmuzi's "al-Muhaddith", while another significant work was al-Hakim al-Naysaburi's "al-Ma`rifat `ulum al-hadith". Ibn al-Salah's "`Ulum al-hadith" is considered the standard classical reference on the science of hadith. Hadith are generally categorized as sahīh (sound, authentic), da`īf (weak), or mawdū` (fabricated). Other classifications used also include: hasan (good), which refers to an otherwise sahīh report suffering from minor deficiency, or a weak report strengthened due to numerous other corroborating reports; and munkar (ignored) which is a report that is rejected due to the presence of a solitary and generally unreliable transmitter. See: "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam Online; "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world. Both sahīh and hasan reports are considered acceptable for usage in Islamic legal discourse. Classifications of hadith may also be based upon the scale of transmission. Reports that pass through many reliable transmitters at each point in the isnad up until their collection and transcription are known as mutawātir. These reports are considered the most authoritative as they pass through so many different routes that collusion between all of the transmitters becomes an impossibility. Reports not meeting this standard are known as ahad, and are of several different types. Another area of focus in the study of hadith is biographical analysis (`ilm al-rijāl, lit. "science of people"), in which details about the transmitter are scrutinized. This includes analyzing their date and place of birth; familial connections; teachers and students; religiosity; moral behaviour; literary output; their travels; as well as their date of death. Based upon these criteria, the reliability (thiqāt) of the transmitter is assessed. Also determined is whether the individual was actually able to transmit the report, which is deduced from their contemporaneity and geographical proximity with the other transmitters in the chain. Berg (2000) p. 8 Examples of biographical dictionaries include Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's "Tahdhīb al-Tahdhīb" or al-Dhahabi's "Tadhkirat al-huffāz." See: Robinson (2003) pp. 69-70; Lucas (2004) p. 15 Views Currently there is little communication between the world of Muslim hadith scholarship and Western academia. Muslim scholars and friends reject the Westerners as Orientalists who are hostile to religion in general and Islam in particular. Western academics tend to dismiss Muslim scholars as irrelevant, bound as they are to a millennia-old technique of hadith evaluations which modern scholarship regards as out-dated. However, some Muslim scholars have undergone Western academic training and attempted to mediate between the traditional Muslim and the secular Western view. Notable among these was Fazlur Rahman Malik (1919-1988) who argued that while the chain of transmission of the hadith may often be spurious, the matn can still be used to understand how Islam can be lived in the modern world. Liberal movements within Islam tend to agree with Rahman's views to varying degrees. Muslim view Muslims who accept hadith believe that trusted hadith are in most cases the words of Muhammad and not the word of God. Hadith Qudsi forms a partial exception; these (few) hadith are said to recount divine revelations given to Muhammad but not included in the Qur'an. However, the words (as opposed to the substance) are believed to be Muhammad's own, and not divine. While both hadith and Qur'an have been translated, most Muslims believe that translations of the Qur'an are inherently deficient, amounting to little more than a commentary upon the text. There is no such belief regarding hadith. Practicing Muslims cleanse themselves (wudu) before reading or reciting the Qur'an; there is no such requirement for reading or reciting the hadith. Even for Muslims who accept the hadith, they are lower in rank when compared to the Qur'an. Muslims also use the Ahadith to interpret parts of the Qur'an when verses are not clear or even when verses are clear to achieve an in-depth understanding. This process is called Tafsir. Sunni view The Sunni canon of hadith took its final form more than 230 years after the death of Muhammad (632 AD). Later scholars may have debated the authenticity of particular hadith but the authority of the canon as a whole was not questioned. This canon, called the Six major Hadith collections, includes: NameCollectorSizeSahih BukhariImam Bukhari (d. 870)7275 hadithsSahih MuslimMuslim Ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875)included 9200Sunan Abi Da'udAbu Da'ud (d. 888)Sunan al-Tirmidhial-Tirmidhi (d. 892)Sunan al-Sughraal-Nasa'i (d. 915)Sunan Ibn MajaIbn Maja (d. 886) Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim are usually considered the most reliable of these collections. There is some debate over whether the sixth member of this canon should be Ibn Maja or the Muwatta of Imam Malik, which is the earliest hadith canon but predates much of the methodology developed by the classic hadith scholars. While there are still many traditional Muslims who rely on the ulema and its long tradition of hadith collection and criticism, other contemporary Sunni Muslims are willing to reconsider tradition. Liberal Muslims are most apt to trust the individual conscience, but there are also Salafis who demand the same freedom. The Salafis claim that the ordinary believer can trust his or her own judgment (even if he or she is not trained in Islamic scholarship) if he or she relies on Bukhari and Muslim, the commentators deemed to be sahih, and ignores the weak hadith. Shi'a view Shi'a Muslims do not use the Six major Hadith collections followed by the Sunni because the majority of the companions who passed down these hadith (in the Six major Hadith collections) are considered to have erred by accepting the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman in preference to Ali, and consequently, Shia believe, cannot be regarded as reliable transmitters of hadith. Shia trust traditions transmitted by the Imams, Muhammad's descendants through Fatima Zahra. Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.174 Although Twelver Shi'ism is by far the largest branch of Shi'i Islam, there are various branches within Shi'ism and within each branch, various traditions of scholarship. Each branch and scholar may differ as to the hadith to be accepted as reliable and those to be rejected. Four prominent Twelver Shi'a hadith collections are written by three authors who are known as the `Three Muhammads`. They are: NameCollectorSizeUsul al-KafiMuhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni al-Razi(329 AH)15,176 hadithMan la yahduruhu al-FaqihMuhammad ibn Babuya9,044Al-TahdhibShaykh Muhammad Tusi13,590Al-IstibsarShaykh Muhammad Tusi5,511 Unlike Akhbari Twelver Shi'a, Usuli Twelver Shi'a scholars do not believe that everything in the four major books are sahih. Every hadith must be individually examined through the process of ilm-ul-hadith. Any hadith that conflicts with the Quran or logic is excluded. Page 1 Nizari Ismaili have a book of speeches of Ali called Qalam-e-Mowla. For Mustaali Ismaili, a book of hadith called Daim al-Islam narrates events of the Imams of the Fatimid Empire. Ibadi view Ibadi Islam (found mainly in the Arabian kingdom of Oman) accepts many Sunni hadith, while rejecting others, and accepts some hadith not accepted by Sunnis. Ibadi jurisprudence is based only on the hadith accepted by Ibadis, which are far less numerous than those accepted by Sunnis. Several of Ibadism's founding figures - in particular Jabir ibn Zayd - were noted for their hadith research, and Jabir ibn Zayd is accepted as a reliable narrator by Sunni scholars as well as Ibadi ones. The principal hadith collection accepted by Ibadis is al-Jami'i al-Sahih, also called Musnad al-Rabi ibn Habib, as rearranged by Abu Ya'qub Yusuf b. Ibrahim al-Warijlani. A large proportion of its narrations are via Jabir ibn Zaid or Abu Yaqub; most are reported by Sunnis, while several are not. The total number of hadith it contains is 1005, and an Ibadi tradition recounted by al-Rabi has it that there are only 4000 authentic prophetic hadith. The rules used for determining the reliability of a hadith are given by Abu Ya'qub al-Warijlani, and are largely similar to those used by Sunnis; they criticize some of the companions, believing that some were corrupted after the reign of the first two caliphs. The Ibadi jurists accept hadith narrating the words of Muhammad's companions as a third basis for legal rulings, alongside the Qur'an and hadith relating Muhammad's words. Non-Muslim views Early Western exploration of Islam consisted primarily of translation of the Qur'an and a few histories, often supplemented with disparaging commentary. In the nineteenth century, scholars made greater attempts at impartiality, and translated and commented upon a greater variety of texts. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Western scholars of Islam started to critically engage with the Islamic texts, subjecting them to the same agnostic, searching scrutiny that had previously been applied to Christian texts (see higher criticism). Ignaz Goldziher is the best known of these turn-of-the-century critics, who also included D. S. Margoliuth, Henri Lammens, and Leone Caetani. Goldziher writes, in his Muslim Studies: The next generations of Western scholars were also sceptics, on the whole: Joseph Schacht, in his Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (1959), argued that isnads going back to Muhammad were in fact more likely to be spurious than isnads going back to the companions. The focus of his thesis was to prove the legal hadith were all spurious until proven otherwise. John Wansbrough, in the 1970s, and his students Patricia Crone and Michael Cook were even more sweeping in their dismissal of Muslim tradition, arguing that even the Qur'an was likely to have been collected later than claimed. Contemporary Western scholars of hadith include: Herbert Berg, The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam (2000) Fred M. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins (1998) Wilferd Madelung, Succession to Muhammad (1997) Madelung has immersed himself in the hadith literature and has made his own selection and evaluation of tradition. Having done this, he is much more willing to trust hadith than many of his contemporaries. Some quotes: Wilferd Madelung The Succession to Muhammad, page xi Harald Motzki: Gregor Schoeler: Gregor Schoeler, Berg (2003), p. 21 Ignaz Goldziher see his Muhammedanische Studien, second volume (Halle, 1888) was of the opinion that most hadiths had been invented by the transmitters to justify certain opinions of their own. According to him hadiths should not be seen as authentic historical accounts. Goldzihers suggestion has been refuted to a certain level by Fuat Sezgin see his Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, first volume (Leiden, 1967) . According to Fuat Sezgin most Hadiths are authentic. See also Science of hadith Ibn al-Nafis Hadith collection Notes References Further reading Brown, J. (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Juynboll, G. H. A. (2007). Encyclopedia of Canonical Hadith. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008 External links Hadith, article on Enyclopaedia Britannica Online Understanding Islam through Hadith by Ram Swarup Hadith collections Read and Search Hadith on Website and Mobile Phone Hadiths (reported Sayings by The Prophet) A collection of reported sayings by the prophet, and an essay on the sources of Hadiths and their validity The Seven Canonical Hadith Collections Searchable hadith Database Hadeeth Encyclopedia Hadeeth Search Renowned Hadith Collection Search Hadith in Arabic at Ekabakti for Bukhari, Muslim, Tarmizi, Ibnu Majah, Nasaie and Abu Daud
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7,130
Frame_problem
In artificial intelligence, the frame problem was initially formulated as the problem of expressing a dynamical domain in logic without explicitly specifying which conditions are not affected by an action. John McCarthy and Patrick J. Hayes defined this problem in their 1969 article, Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence. Later, the term acquired a broader meaning in philosophy, where it is formulated as the problem of limiting the beliefs that have to be updated in response to actions. The name "frame problem" derives from a common technique used by animated cartoon makers called framing where the currently moving parts of the cartoon are superimposed on the "frame," which depicts the background of the scene, which does not change. In the logical context, actions are typically specified by what they change, with the implicit assumption that everything else (the frame) remains unchanged. The frame problem in artificial intelligence The frame problem occurs even in very simple domains. A scenario with a door, which can be open or closed, and a light, which can be on or off, is statically represented by two propositions open and on. If these conditions can change, they are better represented by two predicates open(t) and on(t) that depend on time; such predicates are called fluents. A domain in which the door is closed, the light is off, and the door is opened at time 1 can be directly represented in logic by the following formulae: The first two formulae represent the initial situation; the third formula represents the effect of executing the action of opening the door at time 1. If such an action had preconditions, such as the door must not be locked, it would have been represented by ; this is not needed for this exposition. This is a simplified formalization in which the effects of actions are specified directly in the time points in which the actions are executed. In practice, one would have a predicate for specifying when an action is executed and a rule for specifying the effects of actions; this is also not needed for this exposition (the article on the situation calculus gives more details.) While the three formulae above are a direct expression in logic of what is known, they do not suffice to correctly draw consequences. While the following conditions (representing the expected situation) are consistent with the three formulae above, they are not the only ones. {| | || |- | || |} Indeed, another set of conditions that is consistent with the three formulae above is: {| | || |- | || |} The frame problem is that specifying only which conditions are changed by the actions do not allow, in logic, to conclude that all other conditions are not changed. This problem can be solved by adding the so-called “frame axioms”, which explicitly specify that all conditions not affected by actions are not changed while executing that action. For example, since the action executed at time 0 is that of opening the door, a frame axiom would state that the status of the light does not change from time 0 to time 1: The frame problem is that one such frame axiom is necessary for every pair of action and condition such that the action does not affect the condition. In other words, the problem is that of formalizing a dynamical domain without explicitly specifying the frame axioms. The solution proposed by McCarthy to solve this problem involves assuming that a minimal amount of condition changes have occurred; this solution is formalized using the framework of circumscription. The Yale shooting problem, however, shows that this solution is not always correct. Alternative solutions were then proposed, involving predicate completion, fluent occlusion, successor state axioms, etc. By the end of the 1980s, the frame problem as defined by McCarthy and Hayes was solved. Even after that, however, the term “frame problem” was still used, in part to refer to the same problem but under different settings (e.g., concurrent actions), and in part to refer to the general problem of representing and reasoning with dynamical domains. Solutions to the frame problem In the following, how the frame problem is solved in various formalisms is shown. The formalisms themselves are not presented in full: what is presented are simplified versions that are however sufficient to show how the frame problem is solved. The fluent occlusion solution This solution was proposed by Erik Sandewall, who also defined a formal language for the specification of dynamical domains; therefore, such a domain can be first expressed in this language and then automatically translated into logic. In this article, only the expression in logic is shown, and only in the simplified language with no action names. The rationale of this solution is to represent not only the value of conditions over time, but also whether they can be affected by the last executed action. The latter is represented by another condition, called occlusion. A condition is said to be occluded in a given time point if an action has been just executed that makes the condition true or false as an effect. Occlusion can be viewed as “permission to change”: if a condition is occluded, it is relieved from obeying the constraint of inertia. In the simplified example of the door and the light, occlusion can be formalized by two predicates and . The rationale is that a condition can change value only if the corresponding occlusion predicate is true at the next time point. In turn, the occlusion predidate is true only when an action affecting the condition is executed. In general, every action making a condition true or false also makes the corresponding occlusion predicate true. In this case, is true, making the antecedent of the fourth formula above false for ; therefore, the constraint that does not hold for . Therefore, can change value, which is also what is enforced by the third formula. In order for this condition to work, occlusion predicates have to be true only when they are made true as an effect of an action. This can be achieved either by circumscription or by predicate completion. It is worth noticing that occlusion does not necessarily imply a change: for example, executing the action of opening the door when it was already open (in the formalization above) makes the predicate true and makes true; however, has not changed value, as it was true already. The predicate completion solution This encoding is similar to the fluent occlusion solution, but the additional predicates denote change, not permission to change. For example, represents the fact that the predicate will change from time to . As a result, a predicate changes if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true. An action results in a change if and only if it makes true a condition that was previously false or vice versa. The third formula is a different way of saying that opening the door causes the door to be opened. Precisely, it states that opening the door changes the state of the door if it had been previously closed. The last two conditions state that a condition changes value at time if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true at time . To complete the solution, the time points in which the change predicates are true have to be as few as possible, and this can be done by applying predicate completion to the rules specifying the effects of actions. The successor state axioms solution The value of a condition after the execution of an action can be determined by the fact that the condition is true if and only if: the action makes the condition true; the condition was previously true and the action does not make it false. A successor state axiom is a formalization in logic of these two facts. For example, if and are two conditions used to denote that the action executed at time was to open or close the door, respectively, the running example is encoded as follows. This solution is centered around the value of conditions, rather than the effects of actions. In other words, there is an axiom for every condition, rather than a formula for every action. Preconditions to actions (which are not present in this example) are formalized by other formulae. The successor state axioms are used in the variant to the situation calculus proposed by Ray Reiter. The fluent calculus solution The fluent calculus is a variant of the situation calculus. It solves the frame problem by using first-order logic terms, rather than predicates, to represent the states. Converting predicates into terms in first order logic is called reification; the fluent calculus can be seen as a logic in which predicates representing the state of conditions are reified. The difference between a predicate and a term in first order logic is that a term is a representation of an object (possibly a complex object composed of other objects), while a predicate represent a condition that can be true or false when evaluated over a given set of terms. In the fluent calculus, each possible state is represented by a term obtained by composition of other terms, each one representing the conditions that are true in state. For example, the state in which the door is open and the light is on is represented by the term . It is important to notice that a term is not true or false by itself, as it is an object and not a condition. In other words, the term represent a possible state, and does not by itself mean that this is the current state. A separate condition can be stated to specify that this is actually the state at a given time, e.g., means that this is the state at time . The solution to the frame problem given in the fluent calculus is to specify the effects of actions by stating how a term representing the state changes when the action is executed. For example, the action of opening the door at time 0 is represented by the formula: The action of closing the door, which makes a condition false instead of true, is represented in a slightly different way: This formula works provided that suitable axioms are given about and , e.g., a term containing two times the same condition is not a valid state (for example, is always false for every and ). The event calculus solution The event calculus uses terms for representing fluents, like the fluent calculus, but also has axioms constraining the value of fluents, like the successor state axioms. In the event calculus, inertia is enforced by formulae stating that a fluent is true if it has been true at a given previous time point and no action changing it to false has been performed in the meantime. Predicate completion is still needed in the event calculus for obtaining that a fluent is made true only if an action making it true has been performed, but also for obtaining that an action had been performed only if that is explicitly stated. The default logic solution The frame problem can be thought of as the problem of formalizing the principle that, by default, "everything is presumed to remain in the state in which it is" (Leibniz, "An Introduction to a Secret Encyclopædia", c. 1679). This default, sometimes called the commonsense law of inertia, was expressed by Raymond Reiter in default logic: (if is true in situation , and it can be assumed that remains true after executing action , then we can conclude that remains true). Steve Hanks and Drew McDermott argued, on the basis of their Yale shooting example, that this solution to the frame problem is unsatisfactory. Hudson Turner showed, however, that it works correctly in the presence of appropriate additional postulates. The answer set programming solution The counterpart of the default logic solution in the language of answer set programming is a rule with strong negation: (if is true at time , and it can be assumed that remains true at time , then we can conclude that remains true). Action description languages Action description languages elude the frame problem rather than solving it. An action description language is a formal language with a syntax that is specific for describing situations and actions. For example, that the action makes the door open if not locked is expressed by: causes if The semantics of an action description language depends on what the language can express (concurrent actions, delayed effects, etc.) and is usually based on transition systems. Since domains are expressed in these languages rather than directly in logic, the frame problem only arises when a specification given in an action description logic is to be translated into logic. Typically, however, a translation is given from these languages to answer set programming rather than first-order logic. Related problems According to J. van Brakel, some other problems that are related to, or more specific versions of, the frame problem include the following: extended prediction problem holism problem inertia problem installation problem planning problem persistence problem qualification problem ramification problem relevance problem temporal projection problem The frame problem in philosophy In philosophy, the frame problem is about rationality in general, rather than formal logic in particular. The frame problem in philosophy is therefore the problem of how a rational agent bounds the set of beliefs to change when an action is performed. See also Common sense Defeasible reasoning Non-monotonic logic References J. McCarthy and P. J. Hayes (1969). Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence. Machine Intelligence, 4:463-502. E. Sandewall (1972), An approach to the Frame Problem and its Implementation, Machine Intelligence, 7:195–204. J. McCarthy (1986). Applications of circumscription to formalizing common-sense knowledge. Artificial Intelligence, 28:89-116. S. Hanks and D. McDermott (1987). Nonmonotonic logic and temporal projection. Artificial Intelligence, 33(3):379-412. R. Reiter (1991). The frame problem in the situation calculus: a simple solution (sometimes) and a completeness result for goal regression. In Vladimir Lifschitz, editor, Artificial Intelligence and Mathematical Theory of Computation: Papers in Honor of John McCarthy, pages 359-380. Academic Press, New York. M. Gelfond and V. Lifschitz (1993). Representing action and change by logic programs. Journal of Logic Programming, 17:301-322. E. Sandewall (1994), Features and Fluents, Oxford University Press. E. Sandewall and Y. Shoham (1995), Non-monotonic Temporal Reasoning, in D. M. Gabbay, C. J. Hogger and J. A. Robinson eds., Handbook of Logic in Artificial Intelligence and Logic Programming, vol. 4, ch. 7, p. 439–498, Oxford University Press. J.A. Toth (1995). Book review. Kenneth M. and Patrick J. Hayes, eds., Reasoning agents in a dynamic world: The frame problem. Artificial Intelligence, 73:323-369. P. Liberatore (1997). The complexity of the language A. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 1(1-3):13-37. E. Sandewall (1998). Cognitive robotics logic and its metatheory: Features and fluents revisited. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 2(3-4):307-329. M. Gelfond and V. Lifschitz (1998). Action languages. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 2(3-4):193-210. H. Levesque, F. Pirri, and R. Reiter (1998). Foundations for the situation calculus. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 2(3-4):159-178. P. Doherty, J. Gustafsson, L. Karlsson, and J. Kvarnström (1998). TAL: Temporal action logics language specification and tutorial. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 2(3-4):273-306. M. Thielscher (1998). Introduction to the fluent calculus. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 2(3-4):179-192. R. Miller and M. Shanahan (1999). The event-calculus in classical logic - alternative axiomatizations. Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence, 3(1):77-105. R. Reiter (1980). A logic for default reasoning. Artificial Intelligence, 13:81-132. H. Turner (1997) Representing actions in logic programs and default theories: a situation calculus approach. Journal of Logic Programming, 31:245-298. External links The Frame Problem at the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence; the original article of McCarthy and Hayes that proposed the problem. Robotics and the common sense informatic situation presents solution to the frame problem The History of the Frame Problem covers the history of the frame problem up to 2001.
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Geography_of_Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia comprising a large stratovolcanic archipelago extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. Measured from the geographic coordinate system, Japan is 36° north of the equator and 138° east of the Prime Meridian. The country is north-northeast of China and Taiwan (separated by the East China Sea) and slightly east of Korea (separated by the Sea of Japan). The country is south of the Russian Far East. The main islands, sometimes called the "Home Islands", are (from north to south) Hokkaidō, Honshū (the "mainland"), Shikoku and Kyūshū. There are also about 3,000 smaller islands, including Okinawa, and islets, some inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, as of 2006, Japan's territory is 377,923.1 km², of which 374,834 km² is land and 3,091 km² water. This makes Japan's total area slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Montana. Japan is bigger than Germany, Malaysia, New Zealand and the U.K., and is 1.7 times the size of Korea. Statistics Location: Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the Korean Peninsula. Map references: Asia Area: total: 377,835 km² land: 374,744 km² water: 3,091 km² notes: Includes the Bonin Islands, Daitō-shotō, Marcus Island, Okino-tori-shima, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Volcano Islands. Ownership of the Liancourt Rocks (Japanese:Takeshima, Korean:Dokdo) is in dispute. Area comparative: slightly smaller than California, USA Land boundaries: none Coastline: 29,751 km (18,486 mi) Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) (230 mi) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km)(14 mi); between 3 and 12 nautical miles (6 and 22 km)(4 and 14 mi) in the international straits—La Perouse or Sōya Strait, Tsugaru Strait, Osumi, and Eastern and Western Channels of the Korea or Tsushima Strait. Climate: varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north Terrain: mostly rugged and mountainous Natural resources: negligible coal, oil, iron resources, fish, and mineral resources Land use: arable land: 11% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 2% forests and woodland: 67% other: 19% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 27,820 km² (1993 est.) 73% of Japan is mountains. Composition, topography, and drainage Topographic map Map of Japan About 73% of Japan is mountainous, with a mountain range running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is Mt. Fuji, with an elevation of 3,776 m (12,388 ft). Since so very little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the top. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific deeps, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been exploited as an economic capital by the leisure industry. The mountainous islands of the Japanese Archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the Sea of Japan, which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four principal islands: Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū; more than 3,000 adjacent islands and islets, including Izu Ōshima in the Nanpō Islands; and more than 200 other smaller islands, including those of the Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima chains of the Ryukyu Islands. The national territory also includes the small Bonin or Ogasawara Islands, which include Iwo Jima and the Volcano Islands (Kazan Retto), stretching some 1,100 kilometers from the main islands. A territorial dispute with Russia, dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the Kuril Islands, Etorofu (Iturup) and Kunashiri, and the smaller Shikotan and Habomai Islands northeast of Hokkaidō remains a sensitive spot in Japanese-Russian relations as of 2005. Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea. The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyūshū. The distance between Japan and the Korean Peninsula, the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the Korea Strait. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward Siberia, in the west through the Tsushima Islands to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast. The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the continental shelf. About 73 percent of Japan's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 25 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the "face," fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the "back," toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges. Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains—the Hida, Kiso, and Akaishi mountains—that form the Japanese Alps (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is Mount Kita at 3,193 meters. The highest point in the country is Mount Fuji (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since 1707 that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in Shizuoka Prefecture. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters. None of the populated plains or mountain basins are extensive in area. The largest, the Kanto Plain, where Tokyo is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the Nōbi Plain surrounding Nagoya, the Kinki Plain in the Osaka-Kyoto area, the Sendai Plain around the city of Sendai in northeastern Honshū, and the Ishikari Plain on Hokkaidō. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history. The small amount of habitable land has prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building dikes and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new Kansai International Airport in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing. Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Most rivers are fewer than 300 kilometers in length, but their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: hydroelectric power generation. Japan's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the Shinano River, which winds through Nagano Prefecture to Niigata Prefecture and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is Lake Biwa, northeast of Kyoto. Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the Inland Sea (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaidō, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors. Climate Satellite image of Hokkaidō in January Mount Fuji with a Shinkansen and Sakura blossoms in Shizuoka prefecture, in May Mount Yari, Nagano Prefecture in August Beach in Minnajima, Okinawa in September Japan belongs to the temperate zone with four distinct seasons, but its climate varies from cool temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds that blow from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in summers. Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, Japan has a variety of climates, with a range often compared to that of the east coast of North America, from Nova Scotia to Georgia. Tokyo is at about 35 north latitude, comparable to that of Tehran, Athens, or Las Vegas. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation celebrated in art and literature, as well as regional variations ranging from cool in Hokkaidō to subtropical in Kyūshū. Climate also varies with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan. Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan has hot, humid summers and short winters, and southwestern Japan has long, hot, humid summers and mild winters. Two primary factors influence Japan's climate: a location near the Asian continent and the existence of major oceanic currents. The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six typhoons pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early September, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual precipitation, which averages between 100 and 200 centimeters (39–78 inches), is concentrated in the period between June and September. In fact, 70 to 80 percent of the annual precipitation falls during this period. In winter, a high-pressure area develops over Siberia, and a low-pressure area develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air eastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific. Two major ocean currents affect this climatic pattern: the warm Kuroshio Current (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold Oyashio Current (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as far north as Tokyo; a small branch, the Tsushima Current, flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in plankton beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The meeting point of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground. Late June and early July are a rainy season—except in Hokkaidō—as a seasonal rain front or stays above Japan. In summer and early autumn, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, attack Japan with furious rainstorms. Its varied geographical features divide Japan into six principal climatic zones. : Belonging to the cool temperate zone, Hokkaidō has long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not great. : The northwest seasonal wind in winter gives heavy snowfalls. In summer it is less hot than in the Pacific area but sometimes experiences extreme high temperatures due to the foehn wind phenomenon. : A typical inland climate gives large temperature differences between summers and winters and between days and nights. Precipitation is not large throughout the year. : The mountains in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds and bring mild climate and many fine days throughout the year. : Winters are cold, with little snowfall, and summers are hot and humid due to the southeast seasonal wind. : This zone has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very high, and is especially affected by the rainy season and typhoons. The warmest winter temperatures are found in the Nampo and Bonin Islands, which enjoy a tropical climate due to the combination of latitude, distance from the Asian mainland, and warming effect of winds from the Kuroshio, as well as the Volcano Islands (at the latitude of the southernmost Ryūkyūs, 24° N.). As an island nation, Japan has a long coastline. A few prefectures are landlocked: Gunma, Tochigi, Saitama, Nagano, Yamanashi, Gifu, Shiga, and Nara. As Mt. Fuji provides rain shadow effects in Yamanashi it has the least rainfall in Japan, which still excesses 1000 mm annually. The others all have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures—Hokkaidō and Okinawa—are composed entirely of islands. The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan—40.9 degrees Celsius—occurred in Tajimi, Gifu on August 16, 2007. Gifu Prefecture sees highest temperature ever recorded in Japan - 40.9 - Japan News Review Environmental protection Environment - current issues: In the 2006 environment annual report, Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 2006, Ministry of the Environment the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are global warming and preservation of the ozone layer, conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, waste management and recycling, measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation. Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes (Basel Convention), Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection (Montreal Protocol), Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands (Ramsar Convention), Whaling signed and ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Natural hazards Ten percent of the world's active volcanoes — forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant) — are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of four to six on the Richter scale are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from and tidal waves. Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of skyscrapers even in earthquake-prone areas. Extensive civil defense efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger. Another common hazard are typhoons that reach Japan from the Pacific. Regions Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several prefectures, except the Hokkaidō region, which covers only Hokkaidō Prefecture. The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name (Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, Tohoku University, etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.. Extreme points This is a list of the extreme points of Japan, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. Japan Northernmost point Cape Sōya, Wakkanai, Hokkaidō – 45°31'N, 141°56'E Including land currently disputed with Russia: ), Iturup – 45°33'N, 148°45'E Southernmost point: Okino Torishima – 20°25'N, 136°04'E Westernmost point: Yonaguni – 24°27′N, 122°59′E Easternmost point: Minami Torishima – 24°18′N, 153°58′E Japan (main islands) Northernmost point: Cape Sōya, Wakkanai, Hokkaidō – 45°31'N, 141°56'E Southernmost point: Cape Sata on Osumi Peninsula, Minamiosumi, Kagoshima – 30°59'N, 130°39'E Westernmost point: , Sasebo (formerly Kosaza), Nagasaki – 33°13'N, 129°33'E Easternmost point: ), Nemuro, Hokkaidō – 43°22'N, 145°49′E Elevation extremes Lowest point: Hachirō-gata – -4 m Highest point: Mount Fuji – 3,776 m See also Japanese addressing system List of islands of Japan List of lakes in Japan List of national parks of Japan List of peninsulas of Japan List of rivers of Japan List of mountains and hills of Japan by height References — http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Japan. All Geography of Japan information taken from: The World Fact Book External links Weather in Japan Japan Weather Association
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zone:7 nautical:3 mile:3 territorial:2 international:4 strait:6 la:1 perouse:1 sōya:3 tsugaru:1 osumi:2 western:1 channel:1 tsushima:3 climate:15 varies:2 tropical:6 cool:6 temperate:5 terrain:2 mostly:1 rugged:1 mountainous:4 natural:6 resource:4 negligible:1 coal:1 oil:1 iron:1 fish:2 mineral:1 use:3 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 mountain:15 composition:1 topography:1 drainage:2 topographic:1 range:5 run:2 high:12 mt:2 fuji:5 elevation:2 ft:1 since:2 little:2 flat:2 exists:1 many:7 hill:3 mountainside:2 cultivate:1 way:1 top:1 situate:2 volcanic:2 deep:2 frequent:1 low:5 intensity:1 earth:1 tremor:2 occasional:1 activity:1 felt:1 throughout:4 destructive:1 earthquake:8 occur:4 several:3 century:3 hot:9 spring:1 numerous:1 exploit:2 capital:1 leisure:1 industry:1 form:3 crescent:1 historically:1 serve:1 protective:1 barrier:1 consist:1 four:4 principal:2 adjacent:2 izu:1 ōshima:1 nanpō:1 amami:1 sakishima:1 islands:2 national:2 ogasawara:1 iwo:1 jima:1 kazan:1 retto:1 stretch:2 kilometer:8 russia:2 date:1 end:1 world:4 war:1 ii:1 two:5 southernmost:4 kuril:1 etorofu:1 iturup:2 kunashiri:1 shikotan:1 habomai:1 remain:1 sensitive:1 spot:1 relation:1 exclude:1 disputed:1 cover:4 square:2 point:18 major:5 narrow:2 entity:1 curve:1 southward:2 distance:2 near:5 asian:3 continent:4 always:1 link:2 trade:1 route:1 toward:2 siberia:2 west:2 port:3 summit:1 ridge:1 uplift:1 outer:1 edge:1 continental:1 shelf:1 percent:4 scatter:1 plain:9 intermontane:1 basin:2 population:1 concentrate:2 long:8 middle:1 divide:4 half:1 face:2 fronting:1 back:1 side:4 steep:2 meter:5 valley:1 gorge:1 central:3 mark:3 convergence:1 three:1 hida:1 kiso:1 akaishi:1 alp:2 nihon:1 arupusu:1 whose:1 peak:1 mount:5 kita:1 fujisan:1 erroneously:1 fujiyama:1 dormant:2 rise:1 level:1 shizuoka:2 prefecture:10 plateaus:1 district:1 altitude:2 populated:1 extensive:4 kanto:1 tokyo:5 important:1 nōbi:1 surround:1 nagoya:1 kinki:2 osaka:2 kyoto:3 sendai:2 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minnajima:1 september:4 belong:1 distinct:1 season:4 subtropical:3 affect:3 blow:1 winter:11 vice:1 versa:1 summer:10 rainy:4 humidity:1 wide:1 latitude:5 variety:1 often:1 compare:1 america:1 nova:1 scotia:1 georgia:1 comparable:1 tehran:1 athens:1 las:1 vega:1 humid:4 exhibit:1 celebrate:1 art:1 literature:1 well:2 regional:2 vary:1 northern:3 warm:5 cold:5 heavy:3 snow:1 southwestern:1 mild:2 primary:1 factor:1 influence:1 existence:1 oceanic:1 current:14 june:4 wet:1 weather:6 bring:3 airflow:2 southeast:2 full:1 moisture:1 deposit:1 substantial:1 rain:3 marked:1 begin:1 early:6 month:1 follow:1 sticky:1 five:1 six:3 typhoon:4 pass:1 every:1 year:3 result:2 damage:1 annual:4 precipitation:5 average:1 centimeter:1 inch:1 fact:2 fall:1 pressure:2 develop:2 air:1 eastward:1 across:1 freeze:1 temperature:6 snowfall:3 clear:1 sky:1 front:2 climatic:2 pattern:1 kuroshio:3 black:1 know:2 oyashio:2 parent:1 okhotsk:1 northward:1 warms:1 branch:1 abound:1 plankton:1 beneficial:1 coldwater:1 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currently:1 torishima:2 westernmost:2 yonaguni:1 easternmost:2 minami:1 sata:1 minamiosumi:1 kagoshima:1 sasebo:1 formerly:1 kosaza:1 nagasaki:1 nemuro:1 extremes:1 hachirō:1 gata:1 address:1 park:1 height:1 http:1 loc:1 gov:1 frd:1 c:1 information:1 take:1 book:1 external:1 association:1 |@bigram geographic_coordinate:1 shikoku_kyūshū:2 pacific_ocean:6 ryukyu_island:1 liancourt_rock:1 coastline_km:1 zone_nautical:1 nautical_mile:3 mile_km:3 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 topographic_map:1 mt_fuji:2 destructive_earthquake:1 iwo_jima:1 kuril_island:1 square_kilometer:2 continental_shelf:1 mount_fuji:3 osaka_kyoto:1 rice_paddy:1 seasonal_variation:2 freshwater_lake:1 temperate_zone:2 vice_versa:1 nova_scotia:1 las_vega:1 humid_temperate:1 temperate_climate:1 hot_humid:3 southeast_asia:1 rainy_season:3 annual_precipitation:2 centimeter_inch:1 climatic_zone:1 subtropical_climate:1 degree_celsius:1 global_warming:1 ozone_layer:2 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 modification_hazardous:1 hazardous_waste:1 marine_dumping:1 dumping_nuclear:1 pollution_marpol:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 timber_wetland:1 ramsar_convention:1 kyoto_protocol:1 active_volcano:1 richter_scale:1 twentieth_century:1 great_kantō:1 kantō_earthquake:1 elevation_extremes:1 extremes_low:1 loc_gov:1 gov_frd:1 external_link:1
7,132
Far_East
The Far East is a term current in English (with equivalents in various other languages of Europe) to refer to the countries of East Asia. AskOxford: Far East The term is often expanded to also include Southeast Asia, South Asia and sometimes even East-Russia, for economic and cultural reasons, for example because Buddhism is common to East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. The 'Far Eastern Economic Review' for example covers news from India and Sri Lanka. "Far East" came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 19th century, denoting Eastern Asia as the "farthest" of the three "easts", beyond the Near East and the Middle East. For the same reason, ancient Chinese people called western countries "Tàixī ()" - i.e. anything further west than India. Popularisation The term Far East was popularized in the English language during the period of the British Empire as a blanket term for lands to the east of British India. Prior to World War I, the Near East referred to relatively nearby lands of the Ottoman Empire, Middle East to northwestern South Asia and Central Asia, and Far East for countries along the western Pacific Ocean and countries along the eastern Indian Ocean. Many European languages have analogous terms, such as the French Extrême-Orient, Spanish Extremo Oriente, Portuguese Extremo Oriente, German Ferner Osten, Italian Estremo Oriente, Polish Daleki Wschód, and Dutch Verre Oosten. Cultural as well as geographic meaning A common cultural feature of the Far East, is the dominance of Eastern religions such as BuddhismSignificantly, the term evokes cultural as well as geographic separation; the Far East is not just geographically distant, but also culturally exotic. It never refers, for instance, to the culturally Western nations of Australia and New Zealand, which lie even farther to the east of Europe than East Asia itself. This combination of cultural and geographic subjectivism was well illustrated in 1939 by the Prime Minister of Australia, R. G Menzies. Reflecting upon his country's geopolitical concerns with the onset of war, Menzies commented that: "The problems of the Pacific are different. What Great Britain calls the Far East is to us the near north." Broadcast Speech by Mr R.G. Menzies, Prime Minister Far East in its usual sense is comparable to terms such as the Orient, which means East; the Eastern world; or simply the East. South East Asia and the Russian Far East might now be included in the Far East to some extent due to recent Chinese migration to Russia, and the Korean diaspora in Russia. Eurocentrism Use of the term in the Western world has become somewhat circumscribed due to its Eurocentrism and association with European imperialism in Asia. The more precise East Asia and Southeast Asia, or larger umbrella terms, such as Pacific Rim, are preferred in cultural and economic studies. The region's growth has also given new meaning to the term as meaning the Far East of the world (i.e. the easternmost continental land in the Eastern Hemisphere) rather than to the Far East of Europe. Despite its shortcomings, the term persists in the names of many Asian-based commercial enterprises and institutions. Examples include: Far Eastern National University in Vladivostok, Far Eastern University in the City of Manila, South Korean's Far East University, and the Hong Kong-based Far Eastern Economic Review. Furthemore, the United Kingdom and United States of America have historically used Far East for several military units and commands in the region: British Far East Command RAF Far East Air Force U.S. Far East Air Force The U.S. Far East Network Territories and regions conventionally included under the term Far East Name of region   Continental regions as per UN categorisations (map), except 12. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 6, 11-13, 15, 17-19, 21-23) may be in one or both of Asia and Europe, Africa, or Oceania. andterritory, with flag Area(km²) Population(2008 est.) Population density(per km²) Capital Government Currency Official languages Coat of ArmsEast Asia People's Republic of China (PRC)   The state is commonly known as simply "China", which is subsumed by the eponymous entity and civilisation (China). Figures given are for mainland China only, and do not include Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. (Tibet and Xinjiang are excluded) 6,752,420 Includes PRC-administered area (Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract, both territories claimed by India), Taiwan is not included Tibet and Xinjiang excluded). 1,299,381,888 Information listed is for mainland China only. The Special Administrative Regions of the PRC: Hong Kong and Macau are excluded. In addition, the island territories under the control of the Republic of China, which includes the islands of Taiwan, Kinmen, and Matsu are also excluded (Tibet and Xinjiang excluded). 161.0 Beijing Single-party state,Socialist republic Yuan (Renminbi) Chinese (Mandarin)(see Languages of China) Hong Kong (China)   Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the PRC. 1,104 6,985,200 6,352.0 — One country, two systems Hong Kong dollar Chinese (Cantonese), English Japan 377,873 127,433,494 337.0 Tokyo Parliamentary democracy,Constitutional monarchy Yen NoneJapanese as de facto Macau (China)   Macau is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the PRC. 28.6 520,400 17,310.0 — One country, two systems Macanese pataca Chinese (Cantonese), Portuguese Mongolia 1,564,116 2,951,786 1.7 Ulaanbaatar Parliamentary republic Tögrög Mongolian North Korea 120,540 23,301,725 190.0 Pyongyang Juche,Socialist Republic North Korean won Korean South Korea 100,032 49,044,790 493.0 Seoul Presidential republic Won Korean Republic of China (Taiwan)   Figures are for the area under the de facto control of the Republic of China (ROC) government, commonly referred to as Taiwan. Claimed in whole by the PRC; see political status of Taiwan. 36,188 22,911,292 633.12 Taipei Semi-presidential system New Taiwan dollar Chinese (Mandarin) Southeast Asia Brunei 5,765 381,371 66.0 Bandar Seri Begawan Absolute Islamic Sultanate Brunei dollar Malay, Bruneian Cambodia 181,035 14,241,640 78.0 Phnom Penh Constitutional monarchy Riel Khmer East Timor (Timor-Leste)   East Timor is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and Oceania. 15,410 1,115,000 64.0 Dili Parliamentary republic U.S. Dollar / Centavo coins Tetum and Portuguese Indonesia   Indonesia is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and Oceania; figures do not include Irian Jaya and Maluku Islands, frequently reckoned in Oceania (Melanesia/Australasia). 1,419,588 237,512,355 159.9 Jakarta Presidential republic Rupiah Indonesian Laos 236,800 6,521,998 25.0 Vientiane Socialist Republic Kip Lao Malaysia 329,847 27,730,000 83.0 Kuala Lumpur Federal constitutional monarchy, Parliamentary democracy Ringgit Malay Myanmar (Burma) 676,578 55,390,000 75.0 Naypyidaw   The administrative capital of Myanmar was officially moved from Yangon (Rangoon) to a militarised greenfield just west of Pyinmana on 6 November 2005. Military junta Kyat Burmese Philippines 300,000 90,500,000 295.0 Manila Unitary presidentialconstitutional republic Peso (Piso) Filipino and English Singapore 707.1 4,588,600 6,489.0 Singapore Parliamentary republic Singapore dollar Malay, English, Mandarin, and Tamil Thailand 513,115 63,038,247 122.0 Bangkok Parliamentary democracy, Constitutional monarchy Baht Thai Vietnam 331,690 86,116,559 253.0 Hanoi Socialist Republic đồng Vietnamese North Asia Russian Far East (Russia)   Russia is generally considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe (UN region) and Northern Asia; population and area figures are for Asian portion only. 6,215,900 Only includes the area of Far Eastern Federal District. 6,692,865 Only includes the area of Far Eastern Federal District. 3.0 Moscow Federal semi-presidential republic Ruble Russian and 27 other co-official languages Gallery of the major cities in the Far East See also Sinosphere Indosphere Four Asian Tigers East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Russian Far East Spanish East Indies Far Eastern Economic Review Bibliography Guy Ankerl: Coexsiting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS, Geneva, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5 References Whitaker, Brian. "From Turkey to Tibet," The Guardian, February 23, 2004. be-x-old:Далёкі Ўсход
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7,133
Association_for_Computing_Machinery
The Association for Computing Machinery, or ACM, was founded in 1947 as the world's first scientific and educational computing society. Its membership was approximately 83,000 as of 2007. Its headquarters are in New York City. Activities Two Penn Plaza site of the ACM headquarters in New York City ACM is organized into over 170 local chapters and 34 Special Interest Groups (SIGs), through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 500 college and university chapters. The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Many of the SIGs, like SIGGRAPH, SIGPLAN and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting new innovations in certain fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters. ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer. Services ACM Press publishes a prestigious academic journal, Journal of the ACM, and general magazines for computer professionals, Communications of the ACM (also known as Communications or CACM) and Queue. Other publications of the ACM include: ACM Crossroads, the most popular student computing journal in USA A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions. Some of the more prominent transactions include: ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS) ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS) ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS) Although Communications no longer publishes primary research, and is not considered a prestigious venue, many of the great debates and results in computing history have been published in its pages, see the article on Communications of the ACM. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. It also offers insurance and other services to its members. Digital Library The ACM Digital Library contains a comprehensive archive of the organization's journals, magazines, and conference proceedings. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest. ACM requires the copyright of all submissions to be assigned to the organization as a condition of publishing the work. ACM Copyright Policy Authors may post the documents on their own websites, but they are required to link back to the digital library's reference page for the paper. Though authors are not allowed to charge for access to copies of their work, downloading a copy from the ACM site requires a paid subscription. Competition ACM's primary historical competitor has been the IEEE Computer Society, which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science, but there is considerable overlap with the ACM's agenda. They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computer science curricula. Executive Summary There is also a mounting challenge to the ACM's publication practices coming from the open access movement. Some authors see a centralized peer-review process as less relevant and publish on their home pages or on unreviewed sites like arXiv. Other organizations have sprung up which do their peer review entirely free and online, such as Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research (JAIR), Journal of Machine Learning Research (JMLR) and the Journal of Research and Practice in Information Technology. Fellows The ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993 "to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM." There are presently about 500 Fellows out of about 60,000 professional members. A full list can be found on ACM's Website. Special Interest Groups SIGACCESS: Accessibility and Computing SIGACT: Algorithms and Computation Theory SIGAda: Ada Programming Language SIGAPL: APL Programming Language SIGAPP: Applied Computing SIGARCH: Computer Architecture SIGART: Artificial Intelligence SIGBED: Embedded Systems SIGCAS: Computers and Society SIGCHI: Computer-Human Interaction SIGCOMM: Data Communication SIGCSE: Computer Science Education SIGDA: Design Automation SIGDOC: Design of Communication SIGecom: Electronic Commerce SIGEVO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation SIGGRAPH: Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques SIGIQ: Information Quality SIGIR: Information Retrieval SIGITE: Information Technology Education SIGKDD: Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining SIGMETRICS: Measurement and Evaluation SIGMICRO: Microarchitecture SIGMIS: Management Information Systems SIGMM: Multimedia SIGMM Site - SIGMM Award - Call for Nominations SIGMOBILE: Mobility of Systems, Users, Data and Computing SIGMOD: Management of Data SIGOPS: Operating Systems SIGPLAN: Programming Languages SIGSAC: Security, Audit, and Control SIGSAM: Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation SIGSIM: Simulation and Modeling SIGSOFT: Software Engineering SIGUCCS: University and College Computing Services SIGWEB: Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Web Conferences The ACM sponsors numerous conferences listed below. Most of the special interest groups also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are often very popular publishing venues and are therefore very competitive. For example, the 2007 SIGGRAPH conference attracted about 30000 visitors, and CIKM only accepted 15% of the long papers that were submitted in 2005. CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems CIKM: Conference on Information and Knowledge Management DAC: Design Automation Conference FCRC: Federated Computing Research Conference GECCO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference SIGGRAPH: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques Hypertext: Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia JCDL: Joint Conference on Digital Libraries OOPSLA: Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications WWW: World Wide Web Conference Leadership The President of the ACM for 2008–2010 is Wendy Hall of the University of Southampton. ACM is led by a Council consisting of the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Past President, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large. This institution is often referred to simply as "Council" in Communications of the ACM. Infrastructure ACM has five “Boards” that make up various committees and subgroups, to help Headquarters staff maintain quality services and products. These boards are as follows: Publications Board SIG Governing Board Education Board Membership Services Board Professions Board ACM's Committee on Women in Computing ACM's committee on women in computing is set up to support, inform, celebrate, and work with women in computing. Dr. Anita Borg was a great supporter of ACM-W. ACM-W provides various resources for women in computing as well as high school girls interested in the field. ACM-W also reaches out internationally to those women who are involved and interested in computing. Chapters ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Group, Professional, and Student chapters. Index of all Chapters Professional Chapters include Baltimore ACM Chapter (BACM): official website District of Columbia ACM Chapter (DCACM): official website Student Chapters include Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering,India [(ycce)acm]: official website Birla Institute of Technology & Science, India (BITS-ACM) Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPIACM): official website Johns Hopkins University (JHUACM): official website University of the Philippines (UPACM): official website References See also Timeline of computing (750 BC – 1949) Edmund Berkeley, co-founder ACM Classification Scheme Grace Murray Hopper Award, awarded by the ACM Turing Award Artificial Intelligence Dr. Franz Alt, former president. Bernard Galler, former president. ACM Crossroads, one of its magazines ACM Transactions on Graphics, one of the journals it publishes. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, one of the journals it publishes. ACM Guide to Computing Literature, a database of computer science literature UP ACM, the only ACM chapter in the Philippines and three-time Chapter Excellence winner. External links ACM official website ACM Szabist Chapter website ACM portal for publications ACM Special Interest Groups List of ACM Fellows Making the case for an ACM Fellow ACM Digital Library Collected Algorithms
Association_for_Computing_Machinery |@lemmatized association:2 compute:17 machinery:2 acm:59 found:2 world:2 first:2 scientific:1 educational:1 computing:2 society:3 membership:2 approximately:1 headquarters:3 new:3 york:2 city:2 activity:2 two:1 penn:1 plaza:1 site:4 organize:1 local:1 chapter:14 special:5 interest:5 group:6 sigs:2 conduct:1 additionally:1 college:3 university:6 student:4 louisiana:1 lafayette:1 many:2 like:3 siggraph:4 sigplan:2 sigcomm:2 sponsor:4 regular:1 conference:17 become:1 famous:1 dominant:1 venue:3 present:1 innovation:1 certain:1 field:2 also:9 publish:8 large:3 number:2 specialized:1 journal:11 magazine:4 newsletter:1 computer:16 science:8 related:1 event:2 worldwide:1 international:2 collegiate:1 programming:4 contest:1 icpc:1 chess:1 match:1 garry:1 kasparov:1 ibm:1 deep:1 blue:1 service:6 press:1 prestigious:2 academic:1 general:1 professional:4 communication:7 know:1 cacm:1 queue:1 publication:6 include:5 crossroad:2 popular:2 usa:1 specific:1 subfields:1 title:1 transaction:8 prominent:1 system:9 tocs:1 database:2 tod:1 graphic:4 tog:1 language:5 toplas:1 although:1 longer:1 primary:2 research:5 consider:1 great:2 debate:1 result:1 history:1 page:3 see:3 article:1 make:3 almost:1 available:1 pay:1 subscriber:1 online:3 digital:6 library:6 guide:2 literature:3 offer:1 insurance:1 member:4 contain:1 comprehensive:1 archive:1 organization:3 proceeding:1 forum:1 call:2 ubiquity:1 tech:1 news:1 digest:1 require:3 copyright:2 submission:1 assign:1 condition:1 work:3 policy:1 author:3 may:1 post:1 document:1 website:10 link:2 back:1 reference:2 paper:2 though:1 allow:1 charge:1 access:2 copy:2 download:1 paid:1 subscription:1 competition:1 historical:1 competitor:1 ieee:2 subgroup:2 institute:3 electrical:1 electronics:1 engineer:1 focus:1 hardware:1 standardization:1 issue:1 theoretical:1 considerable:1 overlap:1 agenda:1 occasionally:1 cooperate:1 project:1 develop:1 curriculum:1 executive:1 summary:1 mounting:1 challenge:1 practice:2 come:1 open:1 movement:1 centralized:1 peer:2 review:2 process:1 less:1 relevant:1 home:1 unreviewed:1 arxiv:1 spring:1 entirely:1 free:1 artificial:3 intelligence:3 jair:1 machine:1 learn:1 jmlr:1 information:7 technology:4 fellows:2 program:3 establish:1 council:3 recognize:1 honor:1 outstanding:1 achievement:1 significant:1 contribution:1 mission:1 presently:1 fellow:3 full:1 list:3 find:1 sigaccess:1 accessibility:1 sigact:1 algorithm:2 computation:3 theory:1 sigada:1 ada:1 sigapl:1 apl:1 sigapp:1 apply:1 sigarch:1 architecture:1 sigart:1 sigbed:1 embed:1 sigcas:1 sigchi:1 human:2 interaction:1 data:4 sigcse:1 education:3 sigda:1 design:3 automation:2 sigdoc:1 sigecom:1 electronic:1 commerce:1 sigevo:1 genetic:2 evolutionary:2 interactive:2 technique:2 sigiq:1 quality:2 sigir:1 retrieval:1 sigite:1 sigkdd:1 knowledge:2 discovery:1 mining:1 sigmetrics:1 measurement:1 evaluation:1 sigmicro:1 microarchitecture:1 sigmis:1 management:3 sigmm:3 multimedia:1 award:4 nomination:1 sigmobile:1 mobility:1 user:1 sigmod:1 sigops:1 operate:1 sigsac:1 security:1 audit:1 control:1 sigsam:1 symbolic:1 algebraic:1 manipulation:1 sigsim:1 simulation:1 model:1 sigsoft:1 software:2 engineering:2 siguccs:1 sigweb:1 hypertext:3 hypermedia:2 web:2 numerous:1 annual:1 often:2 publishing:1 therefore:1 competitive:1 example:1 attract:1 visitor:1 cikm:2 accept:1 long:1 submit:1 chi:1 factor:1 dac:1 fcrc:1 federated:1 gecco:1 jcdl:1 joint:1 oopsla:1 object:1 orient:1 application:1 www:1 wide:1 leadership:1 president:6 wendy:1 hall:1 southampton:1 lead:1 consisting:1 vice:1 treasurer:1 past:1 sig:3 govern:3 board:10 chair:2 three:3 representative:1 seven:1 institution:1 refer:1 simply:1 infrastructure:1 five:1 various:2 committee:3 help:1 staff:1 maintain:1 product:1 follow:1 profession:1 woman:5 set:1 support:1 inform:1 celebrate:1 dr:2 anita:1 borg:1 supporter:1 w:3 provide:1 resource:1 well:1 high:1 school:1 girl:1 interested:2 reach:1 internationally:1 involve:1 kind:1 index:1 baltimore:1 bacm:1 official:7 district:1 columbia:1 dcacm:1 yeshwantrao:1 chavan:1 india:2 ycce:1 birla:1 bits:1 worcester:1 polytechnic:1 wpiacm:1 john:1 hopkins:1 jhuacm:1 philippine:2 upacm:1 timeline:1 bc:1 edmund:1 berkeley:1 co:1 founder:1 classification:1 scheme:1 grace:1 murray:1 hopper:1 turing:1 franz:1 alt:1 former:2 bernard:1 galler:1 one:3 mathematical:1 time:1 excellence:1 winner:1 external:1 szabist:1 portal:1 case:1 collect:1 |@bigram compute_machinery:2 garry_kasparov:1 communication_acm:3 acm_transaction:7 peer_review:2 artificial_intelligence:3 fellows_program:1 information_retrieval:1 hypertext_hypermedia:2 orient_programming:1 vice_president:1 worcester_polytechnic:1 polytechnic_institute:1 murray_hopper:1 acm_turing:1 external_link:1
7,134
Transport_in_Egypt
Transportation in Egypt Today Transport facilities in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800 kilometer (2,800 mile) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The badly maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases. In addition to overseas routes, Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transportation. The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The ministry of transportation, along with other governmental bodies are responsible for transportation in Egypt. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safaga on the Red Sea. Road system Two routes in the Trans-African Highway network originate in Cairo. Egypt also has highway links with a neighbouring continent. Egypt has one of the highest incidence of road fatalities per miles driven in the world. "Egypt". Travel.state.gov (March 19, 2008). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. There are few, if any road markings. Most traffic lights in Cairo appear not to function, but rather intersections are staffed by policemen who use subtle finger movements to indicate which cars may move. Traffic rules are routinely ignored by impatient drivers: vehicles travel at high rates of speed, or the wrong way on one-way streets. Pedestrians constantly dodge in and out of traffic, and a variety of animals are commonly on the roads. Rare winter rains can cause extremely slippery road surfaces or localized flooding. Intercity roads are generally in good condition, but unmarked surfaces, stray animals, and disabled vehicles without lights or reflectors are among the many hazards that can be encountered on highways, especially after dark. Some roads, especially in the Sinai and southeastern part of the country, are off-limits to foreigners. So go to a road you can travel on, if you are a foreigner. A big popular form of transportation is by boat! Even though Egypt has expanded, and developed, doesn't mean that they don't still travel on the Nile to get from place to place. Railways The Egyptian railway system is by far the oldest railway network in Africa and the Middle East. The first line between Alexandria and Kafer Eassa was opened in 1854. Today, the system is about 5,is oper Egyptian National Railways. ENR carries about 500 million passengers and 12 million tonnes of freight annually. A major investment programme is planned to begin in 2007 with the aim of modernising the rail network and improving safety standards. Egyptian investment will raise safety standards. Railway Gazette International August 2007. Trains are usually a safe means of transportation in Egypt. The city of Cairo is served by the Cairo Metro, which is run by the National Authority for Tunnels. Railway links to adjacent countries Libya - railways under construction - Same gauge - Sudan - no - Break-of-gauge / Israel - defunct Palestine - defunct Maps UNMap Waterways 3,500 km (including the Nile, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in the delta). Suez Canal, 193.5 km (including approaches), used by oceangoing vessels, drawing up to about 7295.2 m of water. Pipelines Crude oil 666 km; petroleum products 596 km; natural gas 460 km Ports and harbors Mediterranean Sea Alexandria Port - Port Authority Port Said Port - Port Authority Damietta Port - Port Authority Marsa Matruh Red Sea Red Sea Ports Authority Suez Port Petroleum Dock Port Adabieh Port Sokhna Port Hurghada Port - Al Ghardaqah Safaga Port - Bur Safajah Noueibah Port Al-Tour Port Sharm El-Sheikh Port tisi Nile River Aswan Asyut Merchant marine total: 180 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / Ships by type bulk carrier: 25 cargo ship: 63 container ship: 1 Liquified Gas Carrier: 1 passenger ship: 57 petroleum tanker: 14 roll-on/roll-off ship: 16 short-sea passenger: 3 (1999 est.) Airports 90 (1999 est.) Airports with paved runways total: 71 over 3,047 m: 12 2,438 to 3,047 m: 36 1,524 to 2,437 m: 16 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 4 (1999 est.) Airports with unpaved runways total: 19 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 6 under 914 m: 9 (1999 est.) Heliports 3 (2007 est.) Information from Cia.gov See also Egypt Superjet Lines List of bus companies in Egypt External links Map References For more informations go to http://www.google.com
Transport_in_Egypt |@lemmatized transportation:6 egypt:11 today:2 transport:1 facility:1 center:1 cairo:7 largely:1 follow:1 pattern:1 settlement:1 along:2 nile:7 main:1 line:3 nation:1 kilometer:1 mile:3 railway:8 network:5 run:2 alexandria:5 aswan:2 operate:1 egyptian:4 national:3 badly:1 maintain:1 road:9 expand:2 rapidly:1 cover:1 valley:1 delta:2 mediterranean:4 red:5 sea:7 coast:1 sinai:2 western:1 oasis:1 addition:1 overseas:1 route:2 air:2 provide:1 reliable:1 domestic:1 service:1 major:4 tourist:1 destination:1 hub:1 river:2 system:4 km:7 mi:1 principal:1 canal:4 important:1 locally:1 suez:4 waterway:3 international:2 commerce:1 navigation:1 link:4 ministry:1 governmental:1 body:1 responsible:1 port:20 say:2 damietta:2 safaga:2 two:1 trans:1 african:1 highway:3 originate:1 also:2 neighbouring:1 continent:1 one:2 high:2 incidence:1 fatality:1 per:1 driven:1 world:1 travel:4 state:1 gov:2 march:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 public:1 domain:1 marking:1 traffic:3 light:2 appear:1 function:1 rather:1 intersection:1 staff:1 policeman:1 use:2 subtle:1 finger:1 movement:1 indicate:1 car:1 may:1 move:1 rule:1 routinely:1 ignore:1 impatient:1 driver:1 vehicle:2 rate:1 speed:1 wrong:1 way:2 street:1 pedestrian:1 constantly:1 dodge:1 variety:1 animal:2 commonly:1 rare:1 winter:1 rain:1 cause:1 extremely:1 slippery:1 surface:2 localize:1 flooding:1 intercity:1 generally:1 good:1 condition:1 unmarked:1 stray:1 disabled:1 without:1 reflector:1 among:1 many:1 hazard:1 encounter:1 especially:2 dark:1 southeastern:1 part:1 country:2 limit:1 foreigner:2 go:2 big:1 popular:1 form:1 boat:1 even:1 though:1 develop:1 mean:2 still:1 get:1 place:2 railways:1 far:1 old:1 africa:1 middle:1 east:1 first:1 kafer:1 eassa:1 open:1 oper:1 enr:1 carry:1 million:2 passenger:3 tonne:1 freight:1 annually:1 investment:2 programme:1 plan:1 begin:1 aim:1 modernise:1 rail:1 improve:1 safety:2 standard:2 raise:1 gazette:1 august:1 train:1 usually:1 safe:1 city:1 serve:1 metro:1 authority:5 tunnel:1 adjacent:1 libya:1 construction:1 gauge:2 sudan:1 break:1 israel:1 defunct:2 palestine:1 map:2 unmap:1 include:2 lake:1 nasser:1 numerous:1 small:1 approach:1 oceangoing:1 vessel:1 draw:1 water:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 petroleum:3 product:1 natural:1 gas:2 harbor:1 marsa:1 matruh:1 dock:1 adabieh:1 sokhna:1 hurghada:1 al:2 ghardaqah:1 bur:1 safajah:1 noueibah:1 tour:1 sharm:1 el:1 sheikh:1 tisi:1 asyut:1 merchant:1 marine:1 total:4 ship:6 volume:1 type:1 bulk:1 carrier:2 cargo:1 container:1 liquify:1 tanker:1 roll:2 short:1 est:5 airport:3 paved:1 runway:2 unpaved:1 heliport:1 information:2 cia:1 see:1 superjet:1 list:1 bus:1 company:1 external:1 reference:1 http:1 www:1 google:1 com:1 |@bigram nile_delta:1 tourist_destination:1 suez_canal:2 oceangoing_vessel:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 sharm_el:1 merchant_marine:1 liquify_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 est_heliport:1 cia_gov:1 external_link:1 http_www:1
7,135
Gerard_David
The Virgin among angels (1509) with in the top left corner a self portrait of Gerard David, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rouen Gerard David (c. 1460 – August 13, 1523) was an Early Netherlandish painter and manuscript illuminator known for his brilliant use of color. Life He was born in Oudewater, now located in Utrecht. He spent his mature career in Bruges, where he was a member of the painters' guild. Upon the death of Hans Memling in 1494, David became Bruges' leading painter. David had been completely forgotten when in the early 1860s he was rescued from oblivion by William Henry James Weale, whose researches in the archives of Bruges brought to light the main facts of the painter's life and led to the reconstruction of David's artistic personality, beginning with the recognition of David's only documented work, the Virgin Among Virgins at Rouen. Weale, Gerard David, Painter and Illuminator 1895; the Virgo inter Virgines appears in a 1527 inventory of the Carmelite convent of Sion at Bruges. There is now documentary evidence for the following: that David came to Bruges in 1483, presumably from Haarlem, where he had formed his early style under Albert van Oudewater; he joined the guild of St Luke at Bruges in 1484 and became dean of the guild in 1501; in 1496 he married Cornelia Cnoop, daughter of the dean of the goldsmiths' guild; he became one of the town's leading citizens; he died on August 13, 1523 and was buried in the Church of Our Lady at Bruges. Additional documents were presented by Hans J. van Miegroet, "New Documents Concerning Gerard David" The Art Bulletin 69.1 (March 1987:33-44). Work (Note: Many work locations are as of 1911 and may be out of date) In his early work, David had followed Haarlem artists such as Dirck Bouts, Albert van Oudewater and Geertgen tot Sint Jans, though he had already given evidence of superior power as a colourist. To this early period belong the St John of the Kaufmann collection in Berlin and the Saltings St Jerome. In Bruges he studied and copied masterpieces by the Van Eycks, Rogier van der Weyden, and Hugo van der Goes. Here he came directly under the influence of Memling, the master whom he followed most closely. It was from him that David acquired a solemnity of treatment, greater realism in the rendering of human form, and an orderly arrangement of figures. Another master was to influence him later in life, when in 1515 he visited Antwerp and was impressed with the work of Quentin Matsys, who had introduced a greater vitality and intimacy in the conception of sacred themes. David's Pietà in the National Gallery, London, and the Descent from the Cross in the Cavallo collection Paris (Guildhall, 1906), were painted under this influence and are remarkable for their sense of dramatic movement. But the works on which David's fame has rested most securely are the great altarpieces he painted before his visit to Antwerp: the Marriage of St Catherine, at the National Gallery, London; the triptych of the Madonna Enthroned and Saints of the Brignole-Sale collection in Genoa; the Annunciation of the Sigmaringen collection; and above all, the Madonna with Angels and Saints, which he painted without asking a fee from the Carmelite Nuns of Sion at Bruges, and which is now in the Rouen museum. Only a few of his works have remained in Bruges: The Judgment of Cambyses, The Flaying of Sisamnes and the Baptism of Christ in the town museum, and the Transfiguration in the Church of Our Lady. The rest were scattered around the world, and to this may be due the oblivion into which his very name had fallen; this, and the fact that, for all the beauty and the soulfulness of his work, he had nothing innovative to add to the history of art. Even in his best work he had only given newer variations of the art of his predecessors and contemporaries. His rank among the masters was renewed, however, when a considerable number of his paintings were assembled at Bruges for a 1902 exhibition of the early Flemish painters. He also worked closely with the leading manuscript illuminators of the day, and seems to have been brought in to paint specific important miniatures himself, among them a Virgin among virgins in the Morgan Library, and a portrait of the Emperor Maximilian in Vienna. Several of his drawings also survive, and elements from these appear in the works of other painters and illuminators for several decades after his death. T Kren & S McKendrick (eds), Illuminating the Renaissance - The Triumph of Flemish Manuscript Painting in Europe, Getty Museum/Royal Academy of Arts, pp. 344-365, 2003, ISBN 19033973287 Legacy At the time of David's death, the glory of Bruges and its painters was on the wane: Antwerp had become the leader in art as well as in political and commercial importance. Of David's pupils in Bruges, only Isenbrant, A. Cornelis and Ambrosius Benson achieved importance. Among other Flemish painters, Joachim Patinir and Jan Mabuse were to some degree influenced by him. Eberhard Freiherr von Bodenhausen published in 1905 a very comprehensive monograph on Gerard David and his School (Munich, F. Bruckmann), together with a catalogue raisonné of his works, which, after careful analysis, are reduced to a total of forty-three paintings. References External links Gerard David at Artcyclopedia Web Gallery of Art: Gerard David GerardDavid.com smARThistory: Gerard David's Madonna and Child with Angels
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7,136
Fearless_(1993_film)
Fearless is a 1993 film directed by Peter Weir and written by Rafael Yglesias from his novel of the same name. It was shot entirely in California. Rosie Perez was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Carla Rodrigo. She lost to Anna Paquin for The Piano. Jeff Bridges' role as Max Klein is widely regarded as one of the best performances of his career. The film's soundtrack features part of the first movement of Henryk Górecki's Symphony No. 3, subtitled Symphony of Sorrowful Songs. Plot summary Max Klein is a survivor of a plane crash. Many die, including his business partner. The trauma transforms his entire life. He enters an altered state of consciousness; soon after the crash he even thinks he is dead, and begins rethinking life, death, God, and the afterlife. Existential questions start to preoccupy his life. He moves away from his wife, son, and friends but, encouraged by an aircraft company psychiatrist, he tries to break the depression and apathy of another survivor, Carla Rodrigo, who lost her baby son during the flight. Eventually Max's increasingly dramatic attempts at pushing the boundaries between life and death succeed in jolting Carla from her uncertain state. However, after parting company with Carla, Max remains preoccupied, which endangers his relationship with his wife and son. Max has another, more serious near-death experience after eating strawberries, to which he has a severe allergic reaction. He survives and (it is implied) he recovers his emotional connection to his family and the world. Historical connections The doomed flight in the movie bears many resemblances with the real-life crash landing of United Airlines Flight 232 in 1989: The plane suffered a failure in the hydraulics system, following an engine explosion. The crew attempted an emergency landing, and many of the passengers and crew survived. A man receives media coverage for saving the life of a small child who is supposed to be a real-life survivor. This child, in real life was Spencer Bailey. In real life, the man was Lt. Colonel Dennis Nielsen. The plane skids into a cornfield. External links Fearless Clip plane crash scene
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Japanese_language
IPA: [nʲihoŋɡo] is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is related to the Japonic-Ryukyuan languages. Its relationships with other languages remain undemonstrated. It is an agglutinative language and is distinguished by a complex system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener, and a person mentioned in conversation (regardless of their presence). The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and it has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. It is a mora-timed language. The Japanese language is written with a combination of three different types of scripts: modified Chinese characters called kanji (漢字), and two syllabic scripts made up of modified Chinese characters, hiragana (平仮名) and katakana (片仮名). The Latin alphabet, rōmaji (ローマ字), is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when entering Japanese text into a computer. Western style Indian numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also commonplace. Japanese vocabulary has been heavily influenced by loanwords from other languages. A vast number of words were borrowed from Chinese, or created from Chinese models, over a period of at least 1,500 years. Since the late 19th century, Japanese has borrowed a considerable number of words from Indo-European languages, primarily English. Because of the special trade relationship between Japan and first Portugal in the 16th century, and then mainly the Netherlands in the 17th century, Portuguese and Dutch have also been influential. Geographic distribution Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and sometimes still is spoken elsewhere. When Japan occupied Korea, Taiwan, parts of the Chinese mainland, the Philippines, and various Pacific islands before and during World War II, Japanese is listed as one of the official languages of Angaur state, Palau (Ethnologe, CIA World Factbook). This official status is disputed; there were very few Japanese speakers on Angaur as of the 2005 census. locals in those countries were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programs. As a result, there are many people in these countries who can speak Japanese in addition to the local languages. Japanese emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in Brazil) sometimes employ Japanese as their primary language. Approximately 5% of Hawaii residents speak Japanese, with Japanese ancestry the largest single ancestry in the state (over 24% of the population). Japanese emigrants can also be found in Peru, Argentina, Australia (especially Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne and Cairns), the United States (notably California, where 1.2% of the population has Japanese ancestry, and Hawaii), and the Philippines (particularly in Davao and Laguna). Their descendants, who are known as (, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently after the second generation. Official status Japanese is the official language of Japan and in Palau, in the island of Angaur. There is a form of the language considered standard: Standard Japanese, or the common language. The meanings of the two terms are almost the same. or is a conception that forms the counterpart of dialect. This normative language was born after the from the language spoken in the higher-class areas of Tokyo for communicating necessity. is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article. Formerly, standard was different from . The two systems have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. was the main method of writing Japanese until about 1900; since then gradually extended its influence and the two methods were both used in writing until the 1940s. still has some relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in , although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). is the predominant method of both speaking and writing Japanese today, although grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect. Dialects Provincial differences of copula da Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to many factors, including the length of time the archipelago has been inhabited, its mountainous island terrain, and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional morphology, vocabulary, and particle usage. Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is uncommon. The main distinction in Japanese accents is between and , though Kyūshū-type dialects form a third, smaller group. Within each type are several subdivisions. Kyoto-Osaka-type dialects are in the central region, with borders roughly formed by Toyama, Kyōto, Hyōgo, and Mie Prefectures; most Shikoku dialects are also that type. The final category of dialects are those that are descended from the Eastern dialect of Old Japanese; these dialects are spoken in Hachijō-jima island and a few others. Dialects from peripheral regions, such as Tōhoku or Tsushima, may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The several dialects of Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū are famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well. This is probably due in part to the Kagoshima dialects' peculiarities of pronunciation, which include the existence of closed syllables (i.e., syllables that end in a consonant, such as or for Standard Japanese "spider"). A dialects group of Kansai is spoken and known by many Japanese, and Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy (See Kansai dialect). Dialects of Tōhoku and North Kantō are associated with typical farmers. The Ryūkyūan languages, spoken in Okinawa and Amami Islands that are politically part of Kagoshima, are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the Japonic family. But many Japanese common people tend to consider the Ryūkyūan languages as dialects of Japanese. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages. Recently, Standard Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including the Ryūkyū islands) due to education, mass media, and increase of mobility networks within Japan, as well as economic integration. Sounds All Japanese vowels are pure—that is, there are no diphthongs, only monophthongs. The only unusual vowel is the high back vowel , which is like , but compressed instead of rounded. Japanese has five vowels, and vowel length is phonemic, so each one has both a short and a long version. Some Japanese consonants have several allophones, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds. However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic. For example, in the Japanese language up to and including the first half of the twentieth century, the phonemic sequence was palatalized and realized phonetically as , approximately chi ; however, now and are distinct, as evidenced by words like tī "Western style tea" and chii "social status". The "r" of the Japanese language (technically a lateral apical postalveolar flap), is of particular interest, sounding to most English speakers to be something between an "l" and a retroflex "r" depending on its position in a word. The "g" is also notable; unless it starts a sentence, many speakers pronounce it , like the ng in "sing". The syllabic structure and the phonotactics are very simple: the only consonant clusters allowed within a syllable consist of one of a subset of the consonants plus . These type of clusters only occur in onsets. However, consonant clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are a nasal followed by a homorganic consonant. Consonant length (gemination) is also phonemic. Grammar Sentence structure Japanese word order is classified as Subject Object Verb. However, unlike many Indo-European languages, Japanese sentences only require that verbs come last for intelligibility. This is because the Japanese sentence elements are marked with particles that identify their grammatical functions. The basic sentence structure is topic-comment. For example, (). ("this") is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle -wa. The verb is , a copula, commonly translated as "to be" or "it is" (though there are other verbs that can be translated as "to be"), though technically it holds no meaning and is used to give a sentence 'politeness'. As a phrase, is the comment. This sentence loosely translates to "As for this person, (it) is Mr./Mrs./Miss Tanaka." Thus Japanese, like Chinese, Korean, and many other Asian languages, is often called a topic-prominent language, which means it has a strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and the two do not always coincide. The sentence 　() literally means, "As for elephants, (their) noses are long". The topic is "elephant", and the subject is "nose". Japanese could be considered a pro-drop language, meaning that the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated if it is obvious from context. (Note however that Chomsky's original formulation of this category explicitly excluded languages such as Japanese.) In addition, it is commonly felt, particularly in spoken Japanese, that the shorter a sentence is, the better. As a result of this grammatical permissiveness and tendency towards brevity, Japanese speakers tend naturally to omit words from sentences, rather than refer to them with pronouns. In the context of the above example, would mean "[their] noses are long," while by itself would mean "[they] are long." A single verb can be a complete sentence: "[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!". In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: "[I'm] jealous [of it]!". While the language has some words that are typically translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some Indo-European languages, and function differently. Instead, Japanese typically relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the direction of benefit of an action: "down" to indicate the out-group gives a benefit to the in-group; and "up" to indicate the in-group gives a benefit to the out-group. Here, the in-group includes the speaker and the out-group doesn't, and their boundary depends on context. For example, (literally, "explained" with a benefit from the out-group to the in-group) means "[he/she/they] explained it to [me/us]". Similarly, (literally, "explained" with a benefit from the in-group to the out-group) means "[I/we] explained [it] to [him/her/them]". Such beneficiary auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action. Japanese "pronouns" also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may. For instance, one cannot say in English: *The amazed he ran down the street. (grammatically incorrect) But one can grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese: (grammatically correct) This is partly due to the fact that these words evolved from regular nouns, such as "you" ( "lord"), "you" ( "that side, yonder"), and "I" ( "servant"). This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese "pronouns" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns, much like Spanish usted or Portuguese o senhor. Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom. The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as ( "private") or (also ), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word ( "oneself", "myself") or . Similarly, different words such as , , and (, more formally "the one before me") may be used to refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener. When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations. Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English. For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use (, teacher), but inappropriate to use . This is because is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has allegedly higher status. Inflection and conjugation Japanese nouns have no grammatical number, gender or article aspect. The noun () may refer to a single book or several books; () can mean "person" or "people"; and () can be "tree" or "trees". Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a counter word) or (rarely) by adding a suffix. Words for people are usually understood as singular. Thus usually means Mr./Ms. Tanaka. Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as , but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase "and company". A group described as may include people not named Tanaka. Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as "people" and "we/us", while the word "friend" is considered singular, although plural in form. Verbs are conjugated to show tenses, of which there are two: past and present, or non-past, which is used for the present and the future. For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the -te iru form indicates a continuous (or progressive) tense. For others that represent a change of state, the form indicates a perfect tense. For example, means "He has come (and is still here)", but means "He is eating". Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end. In the formal register, the question particle is added. For example, () "It is OK" becomes () "Is it OK?". In a more informal tone sometimes the particle () is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: "Why aren't (you) coming?". Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: "(What about) this?"; () "(What's your) name?". Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb. For example, () "I will eat bread" or "I eat bread" becomes () "I will not eat bread" or "I do not eat bread". The so-called verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence ( "I'll eat breakfast and leave at once"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions ( "May I go out?"), etc. The word (plain), (polite) is the copula verb. It corresponds approximately to the English be, but often takes on other roles, including a marker for tense, when the verb is conjugated into its past form (plain), (polite). This comes into use because only adjectives and verbs can carry tense in Japanese. Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence ("there is") or, in some contexts, property: (negative ) and (negative ), for inanimate and animate things, respectively. For example, "There's a cat", "[I] haven't got a good idea". Note that the negative forms of the verbs and are actually i-adjectives and inflect as such, e.g. "There was no cat". The verb "to do" (, polite form ) is often used to make verbs from nouns ( "to cook", "to study", etc.) and has been productive in creating modern slang words. Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and a preposition (e.g. "to fly out, to flee," from "to fly, to jump" + "to put out, to emit"). There are three types of adjective (see also Japanese adjectives): , or adjectives, which have a conjugating ending () (such as "to be hot") which can become past ( "it was hot"), or negative ( "it is not hot"). Note that is also an adjective, which can become past ( "it was not hot"). "a hot day". , or adjectives, which are followed by a form of the copula, usually . For example (strange) "a strange person". , also called true adjectives, such as "that" "that mountain". Both and may predicate sentences. For example, "The rice is hot." "He's strange." Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs. The in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns. They never predicate sentences. Examples include "big", "this", "so-called" and "amazing". Both and form adverbs, by following with in the case of : "become strange", and by changing to in the case of : "become hot". The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by postpositions, also called particles. These include for example: for the nominative case. Not necessarily a subject. "He did it." for the dative case. "Please give it to Mr. Tanaka." It is also used for the lative case, indicating a motion to a location. "I want to go to Japan." for the genitive case, or nominalizing phrases. "my camera" "(I) like going skiing." for the accusative case. Not necessarily an object. "What will (you) eat?" for the topic. It can co-exist with case markers above except , and it overrides and . "As for me, Thai food is good." The nominative marker after is hidden under . (Note that English generally makes no distinction between sentence topic and subject.) Note: The difference between and goes beyond the English distinction between sentence topic and subject. While indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by is not unique, or may be part of a larger group. "As for Mr. Ikeda, he is forty-two years old." Others in the group may also be of that age. Absence of often means the subject is the focus of the sentence. "It is Mr. Ikeda who is forty-two years old." This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question who in this group is forty-two years old. Politeness Unlike most western languages, Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to express politeness and formality. Most relationships are not equal in Japanese society. The differences in social position are determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely). The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other might use a more plain form. Strangers will also speak to each other politely. Japanese children rarely use polite speech until they are teens, at which point they are expected to begin speaking in a more adult manner. See uchi-soto. Whereas () (polite language) is commonly an inflectional system, () (respectful language) and () (humble language) often employ many special honorific and humble alternate verbs: "go" becomes in polite form, but is replaced by in honorific speech and or in humble speech. The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language. Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and their group. For example, the suffix ("Mr" "Mrs." or "Miss") is an example of honorific language. It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's "group". When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and their speech and actions. When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of their own in-group superiors. In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents. For this reason, the Japanese system for explicit indication of social register is known as a system of "relative honorifics." This stands in stark contrast to the Korean system of "absolute honorifics," in which the same register is used to refer to a particular individual (e.g. one's father, one's company president, etc.) in any context regardless of the relationship between the speaker and interlocutor. Thus, polite Korean speech can sound very presumptuous when translated verbatim into Japanese, as in Korean it is acceptable and normal to say things like "Our Mr. Company-President..." when communicating with a member of an out-group, which would be very inappropriate in a Japanese social context. Most nouns in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of or as a prefix. is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas is affixed to words of Chinese derivation. In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as 'cooked rice; meal.' Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself. For example, the word 'friend,' would become when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends). On the other hand, a polite speaker may sometimes refer to 'water' as in order to show politeness. Most Japanese people employ politeness to indicate a lack of familiarity. That is, they use polite forms for new acquaintances, but if a relationship becomes more intimate, they no longer use them. This occurs regardless of age, social class, or gender. Vocabulary The original language of Japan, or at least the original language of a certain population that was ancestral to a significant portion of the historical and present Japanese nation, was the so-called ( or infrequently , i.e. "Yamato words"), which in scholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as ( or rarely , i.e. the words"). In addition to words from this original language, present-day Japanese includes a great number of words that were either borrowed from Chinese or constructed from Chinese roots following Chinese patterns. These words, known as (), entered the language from the fifth century onwards via contact with Chinese culture. According to a Japanese dictionary Shinsen-kokugojiten (新選国語辞典), Chinese-based words comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, Wago is 33.8% and other foreign words are 8.8%. 新選国語辞典, 金田一京助, 小学館, 2001, ISBN 4095014075 Like Latin-derived words in English, words typically are perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words. Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas a simpler Anglo-Saxon word would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent. A much smaller number of words has been borrowed from Korean and Ainu. Japan has also borrowed a number of words from other languages, particularly ones of European extraction, which are called . This began with borrowings from Portuguese in the 16th century, followed by borrowing from Dutch during Japan's long isolation of the Edo period. With the Meiji Restoration and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing occurred from German, French and English. Currently, words of English origin are the most commonly borrowed. In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate Western concepts. The Chinese and Koreans imported many of these pseudo-Chinese words into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese via their kanji in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, ("politics"), and ("chemistry") are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages. As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way a large number of Greek- and Latin-derived words are shared among modern European languages, although many academic words formed from such roots were certainly coined by native speakers of other languages, such as English. In the past few decades, (made-in-Japan English) has become a prominent phenomenon. Words such as (< one + pattern, "to be in a rut", "to have a one-track mind") and 　 (< skin + -ship, "physical contact"), although coined by compounding English roots, are nonsensical in most non-Japanese contexts; exceptions exist in nearby languages such as Korean however, which often use words such as skinship and rimokon (remote control) in the same way as in Japanese. Additionally, many native Japanese words have become commonplace in English, due to the popularity of many Japanese cultural exports. Words such as futon, haiku, judo, kamikaze, karaoke, karate, ninja, origami, rickshaw (from ), samurai, sayonara, sudoku, sumo, sushi, tsunami, tycoon and many others have become part of the English language. See list of English words of Japanese origin for more. Writing system Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of the Chinese writing system, by way of Baekje before the 5th century. Using this language, the Japanese king Yūryaku presented a petition to a Chinese emperor Liu Song in 478 CE. Book of Song 順帝昇明二年，倭王武遣使上表曰：封國偏遠，作藩于外，自昔祖禰，躬擐甲冑，跋渉山川，不遑寧處。東征毛人五十國，西服衆夷六十六國，渡平海北九十五國，王道融泰，廓土遐畿，累葉朝宗，不愆于歳。臣雖下愚，忝胤先緒，驅率所統，歸崇天極，道逕百濟，裝治船舫，而句驪無道，圖欲見吞，掠抄邊隸，虔劉不已，毎致稽滯，以失良風。雖曰進路，或通或不。臣亡考濟實忿寇讎，壅塞天路，控弦百萬，義聲感激，方欲大舉，奄喪父兄，使垂成之功，不獲一簣。居在諒闇，不動兵甲，是以偃息未捷。至今欲練甲治兵，申父兄之志，義士虎賁，文武效功，白刃交前，亦所不顧。若以帝德覆載，摧此強敵，克靖方難，無替前功。竊自假開府儀同三司，其餘咸各假授，以勸忠節。詔除武使持節督倭、新羅、任那、加羅、秦韓六國諸軍事、安東大將軍、倭國王。至齊建元中，及梁武帝時，并來朝貢。 After the ruin of Baekje, Japan invited scholars from China to learn more of the Chinese writing system. Japanese kings gave an official rank to Chinese scholars (続守言/薩弘格/ Nihon shoki Chapter 30:持統五年 九月己巳朔壬申。賜音博士大唐続守言。薩弘恪。書博士百済末士善信、銀人二十両。 Nihon shoki Chapter 30:持統六年 十二月辛酉朔甲戌。賜音博士続守言。薩弘恪水田人四町 袁晋卿 Shoku Nihongi 宝亀九年 十二月庚寅。玄蕃頭従五位上袁晋卿賜姓清村宿禰。晋卿唐人也。天平七年随我朝使帰朝。時年十八九。学得文選爾雅音。為大学音博士。於後。歴大学頭安房守。 ) and spread the use of Chinese characters from the 7th century to the 8th century. The table of Kana. (Hiragana top, Katakana in the center and Romaji on the bottom.) At first, the Japanese wrote in Classical Chinese, with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds. Later, during the seventh century CE, the Chinese-sounding phoneme principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose (comparable to Akkadian's retention of Sumerian cuneiform), but some Japanese words were still written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound. This is when the history of Japanese as a written language begins in its own right. By this time, the Japanese language was already distinct from the Ryukyuan languages. What leaves a mark should no longer stain: Progressive erasure and reversing language shift activities in the Ryukyu Islands, 2005, citing Hattori, Shiro (1954) 'Gengo nendaigaku sunawachi goi tokeigaku no hoho ni tsuite' [‘Concerning the Method of Glottochronology and Lexicostatistics’], Gengo kenkyu [Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan] v26/27 The Korean settlers and their descendants used Kudara-on or Baekje pronunciation (百済音), which was also called Tsushima-pronunciation (対馬音) or Go-on (呉音). An example of this mixed style is the Kojiki, which was written in 712 AD. They then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as , a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech syllable by syllable. Over time, a writing system evolved. Chinese characters (kanji) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings. Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements, were simplified, and eventually became two syllabic scripts: hiragana and katakana. Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a number of native Japanese morphemes; and two syllabaries: hiragana and katakana. The Latin alphabet is also sometimes used. Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as ("unification"). Hiragana are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings. Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are conjugated, kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing its meaning. For this reason, hiragana are suffixed to the ends of kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations. Hiragana used in this way are called okurigana. Hiragana are also written in a superscript called furigana above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading. This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings. Katakana, like hiragana, are a syllabary; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis. For example "Australia" has been adapted as (), and "supermarket" has been adapted and shortened into (). The Latin alphabet (in Japanese referred to as Rōmaji (), literally "Roman letters") is used for some loan words like "CD" and "DVD", and also for some Japanese creations like "Sony". Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but did not become a matter of government intervention until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War. During the period of post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered. The ("common use kanji", originally called [kanji for general use]) scheme arose as a compromise solution. Japanese students begin to learn kanji from their first year at elementary school. A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of ("education kanji", a subset of ), specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade. Children continue to study another 939 characters in junior high school, covering in total 1,945 . The official list of was revised several times, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters remained largely unchanged. As for kanji for personal names, the circumstances are somewhat complicated. and (an appendix of additional characters for names) are approved for registering personal names. Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration. However, as with the list of , criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use. Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of was substantially extended from 92 in 1951 (the year it was first decreed) to 983 in 2004. Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms. Many writers rely on newspaper circulation to publish their work with officially sanctioned characters. This distribution method is more efficient than traditional pen and paper publications. Study by non-native speakers Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 1800s but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese pop culture (such as anime and video games) since the 1990s. About 2.3 million people studied the language worldwide in 2003: 900,000 South Koreans, 389,000 Chinese, 381,000 Australians, and 140,000 Americans study Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions. In Japan, more than 90,000 foreign students study at Japanese universities and Japanese language schools, including 77,000 Chinese and 15,000 South Koreans in 2003. In addition, local governments and some NPO groups provide free Japanese language classes for foreign residents, including Japanese Brazilians and foreigners married to Japanese nationals. In the United Kingdom, studies are supported by the British Association for Japanese Studies. In Ireland, Japanese is offered as a language in the Leaving Certificate in some schools. The Japanese government provides standardised tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT), which features 4 levels of exams, ranging from elementary (4) to advanced (1). The Japanese External Trade Organization JETRO organizes the Business Japanese Proficiency Test which tests the learner's ability to understand Japanese in a business setting. When learning Japanese in a college setting, students are usually first taught how to pronounce romaji. From that point, they are taught the two main syllabaries, with kanji usually being introduced in the second semester. Focus is usually first on polite (distal) speech, as students who might interact with native speakers would be expected to use. Casual speech and formal speech usually follow polite speech, as well as the usage of honorific. See also Classification of Japanese Culture of Japan Eurasiatic languages Henohenomoheji Japanese counter word Japanese dialects Japanese dictionaries Japanese language and computers Japonic languages Japanese literature Japanese name Japanese numerals Japanese orthography issues Japanese words and words derived from Japanese in other languages at Wiktionary, Wikipedia's sibling project Late Old Japanese Old Japanese Rendaku Romanization of Japanese Hepburn romanization Ryūkyūan languages Sino-Japanese vocabulary Yojijukugo References Bibliography Bloch, Bernard. (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese I: Inflection. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 66, pp. 97–130. Bloch, Bernard. (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese II: Syntax. Language, 22, pp. 200–248. Chafe, William L. (1976). Giveness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics, and point of view. In C. Li (Ed.), Subject and topic (pp. 25–56). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-447350-4. Kuno, Susumu. (1973). The structure of the Japanese language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-11049-0. Kuno, Susumu. (1976). Subject, theme, and the speaker's empathy: A re-examination of relativization phenomena. In Charles N. Li (Ed.), Subject and topic (pp. 417–444). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-447350-4. Martin, Samuel E. (1975). A reference grammar of Japanese. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01813-4. McClain, Yoko Matsuoka. (1981). Handbook of modern Japanese grammar: []. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press. ISBN 4-590-00570-0; ISBN 0-89346-149-0. Miller, Roy. (1967). The Japanese language. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Miller, Roy. (1980). Origins of the Japanese language: Lectures in Japan during the academic year, 1977–78. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-95766-2. Mizutani, Osamu; & Mizutani, Nobuko. (1987). How to be polite in Japanese: []. Tokyo: Japan Times. ISBN 4789003388 ; Shibatani, Masayoshi. (1990). Japanese. In B. Comrie (Ed.), The major languages of east and south-east Asia. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04739-0. Shibatani, Masayoshi. (1990). The languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36070-6 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-36918-5 (pbk). Shibamoto, Janet S. (1985). Japanese women's language. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-640030-X. Graduate Level Tsujimura, Natsuko. (1996). An introduction to Japanese linguistics. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-19855-5 (hbk); ISBN 0-631-19856-3 (pbk). Upper Level Textbooks Tsujimura, Natsuko. (Ed.) (1999). The handbook of Japanese linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20504-7. Readings/Anthologies External links Dictionaries Kanji-A-Day.com Dictionary, find kanji by elements (radical). Includes example sentences. Jim Breen's dictionary and translation server Nihongoresources Various dictionaries and worked out textbook grammar. Denshi Jisho Find words, example sentences and kanji (through words or radicals). Kanji also contain references to various dictionaries and textbooks. Tangorin.com Japanese Dictionary, standard dictionary and Kanji search with example sentences. Tatoeba Project, collaborative project that aims to collect example sentences. Has mostly Japanese and English sentences. The sentences can be downloaded. JapanOD.com, Japanese-English, English-Japanese dictionary with support for browsers without Japanese fonts OmegaJi: Free, opensource (GNU GPL) Japanese-English dictionary program with 190'000 expressions, based on the JMdict project. Eijiro Very complete Japanese-English and English-Japanese dictionary, with many example sentences. Sanseido Web Dictionary Basic verb conjugation search Learning A free Japanese lesson finder Japanese phrasebook on WikiTravel Tae Kim's guide to Japanese grammar Video lectures from York University Others Japanese - a Category III language Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers a keyboard for typing japanese characters for firefox be-x-old:Японская мова
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Kaliningrad_Oblast
Kaliningrad Oblast (, Kaliningradskaya oblast; informally called Yantarny kray (, meaning amber region) is a federal subject (an oblast) of Russia on the Baltic coast. Kaliningrad Oblast forms the westernmost part of the Russian Federation, but it has no land connection to the rest of Russia. Since the fall of the Soviet Union it has been an exclave of the Russian Federation surrounded by Lithuania, Poland and the Baltic Sea. Borderless travel to the main part of Russia is only possible by sea or air. This political isolation became more pronounced when Lithuania and Poland both became members of the European Union and NATO, and entered the Schengen Zone, which means that the oblast is surrounded by the territories of these organizations as well. Its largest city and the administrative center is Kaliningrad (formerly known as Königsberg), which has historical significance as both a major city of the historical state of Prussia and the capital of the former German province of East Prussia, partitioned after World War II between the USSR and Poland, and renamed after Mikhail Kalinin. Population: 968,200 (2004 est.); ; . The territory of the Kaliningrad Oblast equals the northern part of historical East Prussia (a part of Germany until 1945) which was attributed to the Russian SFSR by the Potsdam Conference, excluding the Memelland which was attached to the Lithuanian SSR inside the Soviet Union. Geography Kaliningrad Oblast is an exclave of Russia surrounded by Lithuania, Poland and the Baltic Sea. Geographical features include: Curonian Lagoon - shared with Lithuania Vistula Lagoon - shared with Poland The Kaliningrad Oblast covers the northern part of the area of former East Prussia, which was an exclave of the Weimar Republic, see territorial changes of Germany in the Interbellum. Politics Kaliningrad Oblast The current governor (since 2005) of Kaliningrad Oblast is Georgy Boos, who succeeded Vladimir Yegorov. The EU and Russia have had serious political debate over Kaliningrad. The enlargement of the EU in 2004 which saw Poland and Lithuania become member states meant that Kaliningrad now has land borders only with the EU. Issues of security have been at the forefront of debate, with high relevance to the Schengen Agreement. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, some intellectuals and government officials in Kaliningrad openly discussed the region separating from Russia. In the mid-1990s, Yuri Matochkin, the oblast’s first post-Soviet governor, demanded a special relationship with the EU and threatened with a referendum on secession, abetting fears in Moscow about the centrifugal forces of separatism. Richard J. Krickus (2002), The Kaliningrad question, pp. 68-69. Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0742517055 Maximilian Spinner (2007), Kaliningrad - An Russian Enclave in Central Europe in Search for an Identity, pp. 14-15. GRIN Verlag, ISBN 3638757900 His attempts at elevating the oblast’s status to that of a sovereign republic associated with the Russian Federation yielded no results. Around the same time, the secessionist Baltic Republican Party, banned in 2005, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Russia: The Baltic Republican Party in Kaliningrad; mandate, structure, membership and treatment of its members by the authorities; whether the party has ceased its operations and been renamed the Kaliningrad Public Movement-Respublika (2001-May 2005), 10 June 2005. RUS100121.E. Online. UNHCR Refworld, available at: . Retrieved on 10 March 2009 aimed at establishing Kaliningrad as the “fourth Baltic state”. However, an organized secessionist movement has never emerged there and surveys indicate strong support for remaining part of Russia. History East Prussia The region of Kaliningrad Oblast was inhabited during the Middle Ages by tribes of Old Prussians in the western part and Lithuanians in the eastern part by the Pregolya and Alna rivers. The Teutonic Knights conquered the region and established a monastic state. On the foundations of a destroyed Prussian settlement known as Tvanksta, the Order founded the major city Königsberg, the current Kaliningrad. Germans and Poles resettled the territory and assimilated the indigenous Old Prussians. The Lithuanian-inhabited areas became known as Lithuania Minor. In 1525, Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg secularised the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order and established himself as the sovereign of the Duchy of Prussia, the Polish fief, later inherited by the Margravate of Brandenburg. The region was reorganized into the Province of East Prussia within the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773. Königsberg Cathedral The former East Prussian town of Cranz as it looked in 1920. It is now the resort town of Zelenogradsk. Before 1945, it was a famous destination for German artists and intelligentsia. East Prussia was an important centre of German culture. Many important figures, such as Immanuel Kant and E. T. A. Hoffmann, originated from this region. The cities of Kaliningrad Oblast, despite being heavily damaged during World War II and after, still bear typical German architecture, such as Jugendstil, showing the rich German history and cultural importance of the area. The Lithuanian-speaking community in East Prussia diminished due to organical Germanization and assimilation; in the early 20th century Lithuanians made up a majority only in rural parts of the far northeast of East Prussia (Memelland and Minor Lithuania), the rest of the area being overwhelmingly German-speaking. The Memel Territory (Klaipėda region), formerly part of northeastern East Prussia, was annexed by Lithuania in 1923 after the First World War. After coming to power in 1933, the Nazi regime in Germany radically altered about a third of the place names (the ones not of German origin) of this area by artificially replacing most names of Old Prussian or Lithuanian origin into newly invented German names in 1938. Kaliningrad Oblast During World War II the Soviet Red Army entered the eastern-most tip of East Prussia on August 29, 1944 near Goldap and Nemmersdorf. Evidence of massacres committed by the Soviet troops in the East Prussian village of Nemmersdorf spread panic in the province and urged a mass flight westward. However, in spite of this, the Nazis kept East Prussia's civil population firmly at home by threat of a death-penalty for 'cowardly deserting'. As evacuation was only allowed at the very last moment, many were unable to escape - overrun by Soviet units or caught at home. They were killed by the Soviet army, as well as by the severe frost. More than two million people were evacuated, many of them via the Baltic Sea. The remaining population was deported after the war ended and the area was repopulated primarily by Russians and, to a lesser extent, by Ukrainians and Belarusians (see "Demographics", below). The Potsdam Agreement of world powers assigned northern East Prussia to the Soviet Union pending the final determination of territorial questions at the peace settlement: VI. CITY OF KOENIGSBERG AND THE ADJACENT AREA The Conference examined a proposal by the Soviet Government that pending the final determination of territorial questions at the peace settlement the section of the western frontier of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which is adjacent to the Baltic Sea should pass from a point on the eastern shore of the Bay of Gdansk to the east, north of Braunsberg and Goldap, to the meeting point of the frontiers of Lithuania, the Polish Republic and East Prussia. The Conference has agreed in principle to the proposal of the Soviet Government concerning the ultimate transfer to the Soviet Union of the city of Koenigsberg and the area adjacent to it as described above, subject to expert examination of the actual frontier. The President of the United States and the British Prime Minister have declared that they will support the proposal of the Conference at the forthcoming peace settlement. In 1957, an agreement was signed and later came into force which delimited the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union. (Full text: , for other issues of the frontier delimitation see ) According to some accounts from the times of Nikita Khrushchev (1953-1964), the Soviet government had planned to make the rest of the area a part of the Lithuanian SSR immediately after World War II. The area was administered by the planning committee of the LSSR, although the area had its own Party committee. However, the leadership of the Lithuanian SSR (especially Antanas Sniečkus) refused to take the territory mainly because of its devastation during the war. Some modern nationalistic Lithuanian authors say that the reason for the refusal was the Lithuanians' concern to find themselves on equal demographic terms with the Russian population within the Lithuanian SSR. Instead the region was added as an exclave to the Russian SFSR and since 1946 it has been known as Kaliningrad Oblast. According to some historians, Joseph Stalin created it as an oblast separate from the LSSR because it further enclosed the Baltic republics from the West. Names of the towns, cities, rivers and other geographical objects were changed into newly-created Russian ones. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the independence of the Baltic states caused Kaliningrad Oblast to be separated from the rest of Russia by other countries instead of other Soviet republics. Some ethnic Germans began to migrate to the area, especially Volga Germans from other parts of Russia and Kazakhstan, especially after Germany stopped granting free right of return to ethnic Germans from the former Soviet Union. The economic situation has been badly affected by the geographic isolation (and the large reduction in the size of the Russian military garrison which was previously one of the major employers), especially when neighbouring nations imposed strict border controls when they joined the European Union. Russian proposals for visa-free travel between the EU and Kaliningrad have so far been rejected by the EU. Travel arrangements based on the Facilitated Transit Document (FTD) and Facilitated Rail Transit Document (FRTD) have been made. Transit from/to Kaliningrad Region, www.euro.lt Council Regulation (EC) No 693/2003, eur-lex.europa.eu In recent times, the situation started to change, but very slowly. Germany and Lithuania have renewed contact with Kaliningrad Oblast through town twinning and other projects. This has helped to promote interest in the history and the culture of the East Prussian and Lietuvininkai communities. Military Kaliningrad Oblast is the most militarized area of the Russian Federation and the density of military installations is the highest in Europe. Kaliningrad is a headquarters of Russian Baltic Fleet circled by Chernyakhovsk (air base), Donskoye (air base), Kaliningrad Chkalovsk (naval air base). The Washington Times claimed on January 3, 2001, citing anonymous intelligence reports, that Russia had transferred tactical nuclear weapons into a military base in Kaliningrad for the first time since the Cold War ended. Russian top-level military leaders denied those claims Bill Gertz, "Russia Transfers Nuclear Arms to Baltics," Washington Times, 3 January 2001, p. 1. . A Pentagon spokesperson stated that deployment would violate Russian pledge that Russia was removing nuclear weapons from the Baltics. Russia and the United States announced in 1991 and 1992 a non-binding agreement to reduce arsenals of tactical nuclear weapons. On the eve of the reunification of Germany, Helmut Kohl promised Mikhail Gorbachev that NATO's military infrastructures would not move eastward into the territory of East Germany, a fact since confirmed by the former U.S. Ambassador to Moscow Jack Matlock. Later Russia was privately assured that Eastern European states would not seek membership in NATO Don't isolate us: a Russian view of NATO expansion . Today, while NATO has not established any military infrastructure in Eastern Germany yet, both Central European and Baltic countries are NATO members. On Nov. 5, 2008, Russian President Dimitry Medvedev said Russia would deploy Iskander missiles in the Kaliningrad region as a response to U.S. plans for basing Missile defense missiles in Poland. Equipment to electronically hamper the operation of future U.S. missile facilities in Poland and the Czech Republic also would be deployed, he said. However, on January 28th, 2009, a Russian defense official stated that the deployment of short-range missiles into Kaliningrad Oblast would cease due to perceived changes in the attitude of the United States government towards the Russian Federation following the election of United States President Barack Obama. Time zone Kaliningrad Oblast is located in the Eastern European Time Zone (known locally as the Kaliningrad Time Zone or the Russia Zone 1). UTC offset is +0200 (USZ1)/+0300 (USZ1S). Administrative divisions Demographics Population According to the 2002 Census the population of the region was 955,281 (78% urban; 22% rural). Kaliningrad Oblast is the fourth most densely populated in the Russian Federation, with 62.5 persons per sq.km. Almost none of the pre-World War II Lithuanian population (Lietuvininks) or German population remain in Kaliningrad Oblast. Ethnic groups According to the 2002 Census the 'national composition' included: 786,885 Russians (82.37%) 50,748 Belarusians (5.31%) 47,229 Ukrainians (4.94%) 13,937 Lithuanians (1.46%) 8,415 Armenians (0.88%) 8,340 Germans (0.87%) 4,729 Tatars (0.50%) 3,918 Poles (0.41%) 2,959 Azeris (0.30%) 2,320 Mordvins (0.24%) 2,027 Chuvash (0.21%) 1,599 Jews (0.17%) 1,447 Roma (0.15%) 1,116 Moldovans (0.12%) 738 Chechens (0.08%) 709 Latvians (0.07%) 681 Georgians (0.07%) 631 Kazakhs (0.07%) 631 Uzbeks (0.07%) 562 Bashkirs (0.06%) 504 Yezidi (0.05%) 448 Mari (0.05%) 433 Ossetians (0.05%) 382 Udmurts (0.04%) 359 Lezgins (0.04%) 346 Bulgarians (0.04%) 309 Tajiks (0.03%) and 305 Americans (0.02%) as well as other groups of less than three hundred persons each. An additional 0.93% of residents declined to state their nationality or ethnocultural identity on the census questionnaire. Economy According to official statistics, the Gross Regional Product of the Kaliningrad Oblast was 115 billion roubles Regional administration's website (Russian) Industry The region has transport (railcars) and heavy equipment (crane) plants. Car and truck assembly (GM, BMW, Kia, Yuejin) and production of auto parts are growing industries. There are shipbuilding facilities in Kaliningrad and Sovetsk. Food processing is a mature industry in the region. Natural Resources Kaliningrad Oblast possesses more than 90% of the world's amber deposits How Products Are Made: Amber . Most of the mined amber is processed outside of the region, both in Russia and in other countries. There are small oil reservoirs beneath the Baltic Sea not far from Kaliningrad's shore. Small-scale offshore exploration started in 2004 and some Baltic countries (Poland and Lithuania), as well as local NGOs voiced concerns regarding possible environmental impact. Fishing Fishing is one of the important regional industries, with big fishing ports in Kaliningrad and Pionerskoe (formerly Neukuhren) and lesser ones in Svetly and Rybachy. Power generation Average yearly power consumption in the Kaliningrad Oblast was 3.5 bln kWh in 2004 with local power generation providing just 235 mln. kWh. The balance of energy needs required was imported from neighbouring countries. A new Kaliningrad power station was built in 2005, covering 50% of the Oblast's energy needs. A second power station is scheduled to enter service in 2010, making the Oblast independent from electricity imports. There are plans to build two nuclear power reactors in the eastern part of Kaliningrad. References History section: Simon Grunau, Preußische Chronik. Hrsg. von M. Perlbach etc., Leipzig, 1875. A. Bezzenberger, Geographie von Preußen, Gotha, 1959 External links Online guide to Kaliningrad — Kaliningradcity.ru Official site, english version A. Liucija Arbusauskaité "The Soviet Policy Towards the "Kaliningrad Germans" 1945-1951" chapter in "Themenheft: Eingliederung und Ausgrenzung. Beiträge aus der Historischen Migrationsforschung. Hrsg.: Jochen Oltmer Osnabrück: IMIS, 1999. ISSN 0949-4723 Kaliningrad Oblast on Google Maps Photos of Kaliningrad Recent photos taken by Dutch Joost Lemmens in Kaliningrad Oblast. This site gives the Prussian German town names and the corresponding Russian names after 1945/49. It starts out with the gate of the horse breeding stables in Trakehnen, and signs of new beginnings. Master's thesis by Sergey Naumkin on the possibility of Kaliningrad integrating with the EU as a special economic zone Life in Kaliningrad Oblast Spuren der Vergangenheit / Следы Пρошлого (Traces of the past) This site by W.A. Milowskij, a Kaliningrad resident, contains hundreds of interesting photos, often with text explanations, of architectural and infrastructural artifacts of the territory's long German past. Euroregion Baltic City and Reagen News be-x-old:Калінінградзкая вобласьць
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7,139
Cyril_of_Alexandria
Saint Cyril of Alexandria (c. 378 - 444) was the Pope of Alexandria when the city was at its height of influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the later 4th, and 5th centuries. He was a central figure in the First Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Archbishop of Constantinople. Cyril is counted among the Church Fathers and the Doctors of the Church, and his reputation within the Christian world has resulted in his titles Pillar of Faith and Seal of all the Fathers, but Theodosius II, the Roman Emperor, condemned him for behaving like a proud pharaoh, and the Nestorian bishops at the Council of Ephesus declared him a heretic, labelling him as a monster, born and educated for the destruction of the church Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 47 . The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates his feast day on June 9 and also, together with Pope Athanasius I of Alexandria, on January 18. The Roman Catholic Church did not commemorate him in the Tridentine Calendar; it added his feast only in 1882, assigning to it the date of February 9, the date on which it is still observed by those who use calendars prior to that of the 1969 revision, which assigned to it the date of June 27, considered to be the day of the saint's death. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice, 1969), p. 116 The same date has been chosen for the Lutheran calendar. Early life Cyril was born about 378 in the small town of Theodosios, Egypt, near modern day El-Mahalla El-Kubra. A few years after his birth, his mother's brother (or uncle) Theophilus rose to the powerful position of Patriarch of Alexandria. His mother remained close to her brother and under his guidance, St. Cyril was well educated. His education showed through his knowledge, in his writings, of Christian writers of his day, including Eusebius, Origen, Didymus, and writers of the Alexandrian church. He received the formal education standard for his day: he studied grammar from age twelve to fourteen (390-392), rhetoric and humanities from fifteen to twenty (393-397) and finally theology and biblical studies (398-402). Pope of Alexandria Theophilus died on October 15, 412, and Cyril was made Pope on 18 October 412, against the party favouring Archdeacon Timothy. Persecution of the Novatians and Jews Thus, Cyril followed his uncle in a position that had become powerful and influential, rivaling that of the city prefect in a time of turmoil and (frequently violent) conflict between the cosmopolitan city's pagan, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants. Preston Chesser, , eHistory.com He began to exert his authority by causing the churches of the Novatians to be closed and their sacred vessels to be seized. Next he moved against the Jews and demanded that they be removed from the city. As Edward Gibbon puts it: James Everett Seaver, , University of Kansas Publications, 1952. Socrates, Hist. Eccl., VII, 13; PC, LXXXII, 759 ff., tr. in Bohn Library (London, 1888), pp. 345 ff.; dated by Socrates 412; but Juster, II, p. 176, has plausibly argued that it could not have happened before 414. . Orestes, prefect of the city, saw no sense in the attacks and the commotion they caused, so he complained to Theodosius, but was overruled by Pulcheria, the rabidly Christian regent. According to some historians, all Jews were expelled from Alexandria, while others consider this an exaggeration and that only a portion of the local Jewish population was expelled McGuckin, p. 12 Some of the tensions between Jews and Christians was prompted by a slaughter of Christians at the hands of Alexandrian Jews who, after instigating the death of monk Hierax, lured Christians in the streets at night claiming that the church was on fire. Murder of Hypatia During his conflict with Orestes, Cyril was also involved in the murder of the female Platonist philosopher and head of the library of Alexandria, Hypatia, who was a frequent guest of Orestes and whose fields of study were considered heresy by Cyril. Socrates Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History, VII.15. Gibbon: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, XLVII. Newer studies show Hypatia's death as the result of a struggle between two Christian factions, the moderate Orestes, supported by Hypatia, and the more rigid Cyril. Maria Dzielska, Hypatia of Alexandria, Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 1995. (Revealing Antiquity, 8), p. xi, 157. ISBN 0-674-43775-6 According to lexicographer William Smith, "She was accused of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, and the charge spread among the clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, Cyril." Others contend that neither the riots nor the murder of Hypatia can rightly be attributed to Cyril. In the case of the riots, he had intended only to lead a delegation to the Jews, but he lost control of the situation; and in the murder of Hypatia, a group of his followers acted on their own initiative without consulting him. Orthodox Christian scholar John Anthony McGuckin states: "At this time Cyril is revealed as at the head of dangerously volatile forces: at their head, but not always in command of them." John Anthony McGuckin, Introduction to his translation of Cyril's On the Unity of Christ, Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1995, p. 13-14. Conflict with Nestorius Another major conflict was that between the Alexandrian and Antiochian schools of ecclesiastical reflection, piety, and discourse. The conflict came to a head in 428 after Nestorius, who originated in Antioch, was made Archbishop of Constantinople. Nestorius intervened in an argument about the proper rendition of Mary’s position in relation to Christ by renouncing both the terms "mother of man" and "mother of God" as improper, suggesting "mother of Christ" instead. This however only stoked the fires. Finally, Emperor Theodosius II convoked a council in Ephesus to solve the dispute. Ephesus was friendly to Cyril, Cyril and his supporters started and concluded the Council of Ephesus (in 431) before Nestorius and his supporters had even got there; predictably, the Council ordered the deposition and exile of Nestorius. However, when John of Antioch and the other pro-Nestorius bishops finally reached Ephesus, they assembled their own Council, condemned Cyril for heresy, deposed him from his see, and labelled him as a monster, born and educated for the destruction of the church Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 47 . Theodosius, by now old enough to hold power by himself, annulled the verdict of the Council and arrested Cyril, but Cyril eventually escaped. Having fled to Egypt, Cyril bribed Theodosius' courtiers, and sent a mob lead by Dalmatius, a hermit, to besiege Theodosius' palace, and shout abuse; the Emperor eventually gave in, sending Nestorius into minor exile (Upper Egypt) Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 47 . The events created a major schism, forming the Assyrian Church of the East. Cyril died about 444, but the controversies were to continue for decades, from the "Robber Synod" of Ephesus (449) to the Council of Chalcedon (451) and beyond. Theology Cyril regarded the embodiment of God in the person of Jesus Christ to be so mystically powerful that it spread out from the body of the God-man into the rest of the race, to reconstitute human nature into a graced and deified condition of the saints, one that promised immortality and transfiguration to believers. Nestorius, on the other hand, saw the incarnation as primarily a moral and ethical example to the faithful, to follow in the footsteps of Jesus. Cyril's constant stress was on the simple idea that it was God who walked the streets of Nazareth (hence Mary was Theotokos (Mother of God)), and God who had appeared in a transfigured humanity. Nestorius spoke of the distinct 'Jesus the man' and 'the divine Logos' in ways that Cyril thought were too dichotomous, widening the ontological gap between man and God in a way that would annihilate the person of Christ. The main issue that prompted this dispute between Cyril and Nestorius was the question which arose at the Council of Constantinople: What exactly was the being to which Mary gave birth? Cyril posited that the composition of the Trinity consisted of one divine essence (ousia) in three distinct realities (hypostases.) These distinct realities were the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Before the Son became flesh in Mary's womb, Cyril asserted that there existed two natures of the Son—one divine nature and one human nature. Then, when the Son became flesh and entered into the world, these two divine and human natures both remained but became united in the person of Jesus. This resulted in the slogan "One Nature united out of two" being used to encapsulate the theological position of this Alexandrian bishop. According to Cyril's theology, there were two states for the Son: the state that existed prior to the Son (or Word/Logos) becoming enfleshed in the pereson of Jesus and the state that actually became enfleshed. Thus, only the Logos incarnate suffered and died on the Cross and therefore the Son was able to suffer without suffering. Cyril's concern was that there needed to be continuity of the divine subject between the Logos and the incarnate Word—and so in Jesus Christ the divine Logos was really present in the flesh and in the world. Mariology Cyril of Alexandria became noted in Church history, because of his spirited fight for the title “Theotokos” during the Council of Ephesus (431). His writings include the homily given in Ephesus and several other sermons. PG 76,992 , Adv. Nolentes confiteri Sanctam Virginem esse Deiparem PG 76, 259 . Some of his alleged homilies are in dispute as to his authorship. In several writings, Cyril focuses on the love of Jesus to his mother. On the Cross, he overcomes his pain and thinks of his mother. At the wedding in Cana, he bows to her wishes. The overwhelming merit of Cyril of Alexandria is the cementation of the centre of dogmatic mariology for all times. Cyril is credited with creating a basis for all other mariological developments through his teaching of the blessed Virgin Mary, as the Mother of God. Legacy Cyril was a scholarly archbishop and a prolific writer. In the early years of his active life in the Church he wrote several exegeses. Among these were: Commentaries on the Old Testament Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on Luke (1859) Preface. pp.i-xx , Thesaurus, Discourse Against Arians, Commentary on St. John's Gospel Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on John, LFC 43, 48 (1874/1885). Preface to the online edition , and Dialogues on the Trinity. In 429 as the Christological controversies increased, his output of writings was that which his opponents could not match. His writings and his theology have remained central to tradition of the Fathers and to all Orthodox to this day. In modern literature Cyril plays a controversial role in the Arabic novel Azazeel (also transliterated as Azazil) by the Egyptian scholar Youssef Ziedan. The novel, which won the 2009 International Prize for Arabic Fiction and will be published in English under the title Beelzebub, is set in 5th-century Egypt and Syria and deals with the early history of Christianity. The book has generated controversy for depicting religious fanaticism and mob violence among early Christians in Roman Egypt. The narrator, Hypa, witnesses the lynching of Hypatia and finds himself involved in the schism of 431, when Cyril deposed Nestorius. Cyril is portrayed as a fanatic who kills Jews and others who have not converted to Christianity from the traditional religions of antiquity. Maya Jaggi, "Meeting the winner of the 'Arabic Booker'," The Guardian 26 March 2009 online, archived by WebCite. See also Roman Catholic calendar of saints References Sources McGuckin, John A. St. Cyril of Alexandria and the Christological Controversy. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2004. ISBN 0-88141-259-7 Wessel, Susan. Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy:The Making of a Saint and a Heretic. Oxford 2004. ISBN 0-19926-846-0 External links "The Life and Writings of Cyril of Alexandria" as it relates to the Christological Controversy Early Church Fathers Includes text written by Cyril of Alexandria Multilanguage Opera Omnia (Greek Edition by Migne Patrologia Graeca) St Cyril the Archbishop of Alexandria Eastern Orthodox icon and synaxarion Works Becoming Temples of God (in Greek original and English Second Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius Third Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius (containing the twelve anathemas) Formula of Reunion: In Brief (A summation of the reunion between Cyril and John of Antioch) The 'Formula of Reunion' between Cyril and John of Antioch Five tomes against Nestorius (Adversus Nestorii blasphemias) That Christ is One (Quod unus sit Christus) Scholia on the incarnation of the Only-Begotten (Scholia de incarnatione Unigeniti) Against Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (fragments) Against the synousiasts (fragments) Commentary on the Gospel of Luke Commentary on the Gospel of John Against Julian the Apostate
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Dada
Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by Tristan Tzara; Zürich, 1917. Dada or Dadaism is a cultural movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1922. de Micheli, Mario(2006). Las vanguardias artísticas del siglo XX. Alianza Forma. p.135-137 The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature—poetry, art manifestoes, art theory—theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. Dada activities included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art/literary journals; passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, and groups including surrealism, Nouveau réalisme, pop art, Fluxus and punk rock. Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that lay the foundation for Surrealism. —Marc Lowenthal, translator's introduction to Francis Picabia's I Am a Beautiful Monster: Poetry, Prose, And Provocation Overview Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I. For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war, and against the cultural and intellectual conformity — in art and more broadly in society — that corresponded to the war. Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90x144 cm, Staatliche Museum, Berlin. Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason' and 'logic' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality. For example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest "against this world of mutual destruction". According to its proponents, Dada was not art, it was "anti-art." For everything that art stood for, Dada was to represent the opposite. Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend. Through their rejection of traditional culture and aesthetics the Dadaists hoped to destroy traditional culture and aesthetics. As dadaist Hugo Ball expressed it, "For us, art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in." A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that "The Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man." Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, "in reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide." Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path. [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization...In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege." History Origin of the word Dada The origin of the name "Dada" is unclear. One explanation maintains that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara and Marcel Janco's frequent use of the words da, da, which is transliterates as English equivalent of yeah, yeah, as in a sarcastic or facetious yeah, right. (Da in Romanian strictly translates as yes.) Some believe that it is simply a nonsensical word. Another theory is a group of artists assembled in Zürich in 1916, wanting a name for their new movement, chose it at random by stabbing a French-German dictionary with a paper knife, and picking the name that the point landed upon. Dada in French is a child's word for hobby-horse. In French the colloquialism, c'est mon dada, means it's my hobby. Marc Dachy, Dada & les dadaïsmes, Paris, Gallimard, "Folio Essais", n° 257, 1994. According to the Dada ideal, the movement would not be called "Dadaism", much less designated an art-movement. Aurélie Verdier, L'ABCdaire de Dada, Paris, Flammarion, 2005. Zürich In 1916, Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, Tristan Tzara, Jean Arp, Marcel Janco, Richard Huelsenbeck, Sophie Täuber, along with others, discussed art and put on performances in the Cabaret Voltaire expressing their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. By some accounts Dada coalesced on October 6 at the cabaret. By other accounts Dada did not spring full-grown from a Zürich literary salon but grew out of an already vibrant artistic tradition in Eastern Europe, particularly Romania, that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Romanian modernist artists Tzara, Marcel & Iuliu Iancu, Arthur Segal, etc, settled in Zürich. Because Bucharest and other cities had already been the scene of Dada-like poetry, prose and spectacle in the years before WW1., this suggests Dada came from the East. Tom Sandqvist, DADA EAST: The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire, London MIT Press, 2006. The artists were in "neutral" Zürich, Switzerland, having left Germany and Romania during the happenings of WWI. It was here that they decided to use abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time that they believed had caused the war. Abstraction was viewed as the result of a lack of planning and logical thought processes. "[A]bstract art signified absolute honesty for us." - Richard Huelsenbeck At the first public soiree at the cabaret on July 14, 1916, Ball recited the first manifesto (see text). Tzara, in 1918, wrote a Dada manifesto considered one of the most important of the Dada writings. Other manifestos followed. Marcel Janco recalled, We had lost confidence in our culture. Everything had to be demolished. We would begin again after the "tabula rasa". At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense, public opinion, education, institutions, museums, good taste, in short, the whole prevailing order. A single issue of Cabaret Voltaire was the first publication to come out of the movement. After the cabaret closed down, activities moved to a new gallery, and Ball left Europe. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The Cabaret Voltaire has by now re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf. Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris. When World War I ended in 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. Berlin Cover of Anna Blume, Dichtungen, 1919 The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups. Their activity and art was more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities. It has been suggested that this is at least partially due to Berlin's proximity to the front, and that for an opposite effect, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically-driven, less political nature. In February 1918, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express post-World War I communist sympathies. Grosz, together with John Heartfield, developed the technique of photomontage during this period. The artists published a series of short-lived political journals, and held the First International Dada Fair, 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920. Dada, Dickermann, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 2006 p443 As well as the main members of Berlin Dada, Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Höch, Johannes Baader, Huelsenbeck and Heartfield, the exhibition also included work by Otto Dix, Francis Picabia, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Rudolf Schlichter, Johannes Baargeld and others. In all, over 200 works were exhibited, surrounded by incendiary slogans, some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi's Entartete Kunst exhibition in 1937. Despite high ticket prices, the exhibition made a loss, with only one recorded sale. Dada, Dickermann, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 2006 p99 The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada, Der Dada, Everyman His Own Football , and Dada Almanach. Cologne In Cologne, Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments. Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress. The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped. New York Rrose Sélavy, the alter ego of famed Dadaist Marcel Duchamp. Fountain (1917) by Marcel Duchamp; photograph by Alfred Stieglitz. Like Zürich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from World War I. Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American Beatrice Wood, who had been studying in France, soon joined them. Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz's gallery, 291, and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg. The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities Dada, but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man, Rongwrong, and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on "The Importance of Being 'Dada'". During this time Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (found objects) such as a bottle rack, and got involved with the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain, a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists show only to have the piece rejected. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some. The committee presiding over 's prestigious Turner Prize in 2004, for example, called it "the most influential work of modern art." "Duchamp's urinal tops art survey", BBC News December 1, 2004. In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993. Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924. By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada experienced its last major incarnation (see Neo-Dada for later activity). Paris The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, and other French writers, critics and artists. Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called Parade. First performed by the Ballet Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps had done almost 5 years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with. Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of Dada, Le Cannibale, and Littérature featured Dada in several editions.) Marc Dachy, Dada, la révolte de l'art, Paris, Gallimard / Centre Pompidou, "Découvertes" n° 476 , 2005. The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, Explicatif bearing the word Tabu. In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism. Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his "ironic tragedy" Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924. Netherlands In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, most well known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters. Van Doesburg became a friend of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923, where Van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled What is Dada?), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszàr demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly Van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano. Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl, although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano. Georgia Although Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917-1921 a group of poets called themselves "41st Degree" (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the temperature of a high fever) organized along Dadaist lines. The most important figure in this group was Iliazd, whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists. After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events. Tokyo In Japan there were some Dada movement. One group is MAVO,founded by Tomoyoshi Murayama and Yanase Masamu. Others are Jun Tsuji,Eisuke Yoshiyuki,Shinkichi Takahashi,andKatsue Kitasono. Poetry; music and sound Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts; its influence reached into sound and music. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems and composers such as Erwin Schulhoff, Hans Heusser and Albert Savinio wrote Dada music, while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings. The above mentioned Erik Satie dabbled with Dadaist ideas throughout his career although he is primarily associated with musical Impressionism. In the very first Dada publication, Hugo Ball describes a "balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs." African music and jazz was common at Dada gatherings, signaling a return to nature and naive primitivism. Legacy The Janco Dada Museum, named after Marcel Janco, in Ein Hod, Israel While broad, the movement was unstable. By 1924 in Paris, Dada was melding into surrealism, and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements, including surrealism, social realism and other forms of modernism. Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art. By the dawn of World War II, many of the European Dadaists had fled or emigrated to the United States. Some died in death camps under Hitler, who persecuted the kind of "Degenerate art" that Dada represented. The movement became less active as post-World War II optimism led to new movements in art and literature. Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements including the Situationists and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society. At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists made noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire, Vladimir Lenin wrote his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment. Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and James Joyce as characters. French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek Lénine Dada (1989). The Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March, 2002, by a group proclaiming themselves neo-Dadaists, led by Mark Divo. 2002 occupation by neo-Dadaists Prague Post The group included Jan Thieler, Ingo Giezendanner, Aiana Calugar, Lennie Lee and Dan Jones. After their eviction the space became a museum dedicated to the history of Dada. The work of Lennie Lee and Dan Jones remained on the walls of the museum. Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society. In 1967, a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris, France. In 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City held a Dada exhibition in conjunction with the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. Art techniques developed Collage The dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items, but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers, etc. to portray aspects of life, rather than representing objects viewed as still life. Photomontage The Berlin Dadaists - the "monteurs" (mechanics) - would use scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media. A variation on the collage technique, photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press. Assemblage The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage - the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless (relative to the war) pieces of work. Readymades Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art, which he called "readymades". He would add signatures and titles to some, converting them into artwork that he called "readymade aided" or "rectified readymades". One such example of Duchamp's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back, signed "R. Mutt", titled "Fountain", and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year. Early practitioners For a more complete list of Dadaists, see List of Dadaists. Guillaume Apollinaire — France Hans Arp — Switzerland, France and Germany Hugo Ball — Switzerland Johannes Baader — Germany John Heartfield — Germany Arthur Cravan — United States Jean Crotti — France Theo van Doesburg — The Netherlands Marcel Duchamp — France and United States Max Ernst — Germany Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven — United States, Germany George Grosz — Germany Marsden Hartley — United States Raoul Hausmann — Germany Emmy Hennings — Switzerland Hannah Höch — Germany Richard Huelsenbeck — Switzerland and Germany Marcel Janco — Switzerland (born in Romania) Clément Pansaers — Belgium Francis Picabia — Switzerland, United States and France Man Ray — United States and France Meg Gröss — United States and Germany Hans Richter — Germany, Switzerland and United States Kurt Schwitters — Germany Sophie Taeuber-Arp — Switzerland Tristan Tzara — Switzerland and France (born in Romania) Beatrice Wood — United States and France Ilia Zdanevich (Iliazd) — Georgia and France See also Anti-art and Anti-anti-art Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band The Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution Épater la bourgeoisie Expressionism in film Futurism Modernism Surrealism Hungry generation Notes References The Dada Almanac, ed Richard Huelsenbeck [1920], re-edited and translated by Malcolm Green et al., Atlas Press, with texts by Hans Arp, Johannes Baader, Hugo Ball, Paul Citröen, Paul Dermée, Daimonides, Max Goth, John Heartfield, Raoul Hausmann, Richard Huelsenbeck, Vincente Huidobro, Mario D’Arezzo, Adon Lacroix, Walter Mehring, Francis Picabia, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes, Alexander Sesqui, Philippe Soupault, Tristan Tzara. ISBN 0 947757 62 7 Blago Bung, Blago Bung, Hugo Ball's Tenderenda, Richard Huelsenbeck's Fantastic Prayers, & Walter Serner's Last Loosening - three key texts of Zurich ur-Dada. Translated and introduced by Malcolm Green. Atlas Press, ISBN 0 947757 86 4 National Gallery of Art, Dada Michel Sanouillet, Dada à Paris, Paris, Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1965 /Flammarion, 1993 / CNRS, 2005 Marc Dachy, Journal du mouvement Dada 1915-1923, Genève, Albert Skira, 1989 (Grand Prix du Livre d'Art, 1990) Marc Dachy, Dada & les dadaïsmes, Paris, Gallimard, "Folio Essais", n° 257, 1994. Marc Dachy, Dada, la révolte de l'art, Paris, Gallimard / Centre Pompidou, "Découvertes" n° 476 , 2005. Marc Dachy, Archives Dada / Chronique, Paris, Hazan, 2005. Gérard Durozoi, Dada et les arts rebelles, Paris, Hazan, "Guide des Arts", 2005 Dada, catalogue d'exposition, Centre Pompidou, 2005. Serge Lemoine, Dada, Paris, Hazan, coll. L'Essentiel. Aurélie Verdier, L'ABCdaire de Dada, Paris, Flammarion, 2005. Giovanni Lista, Dada libertin & libertaire, Paris, L'insolite, 2005. Richard Huelsenbeck, Memoirs of a Dada Drummer, (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991) (paperback) Irene Hoffman, Documents of Dada and Surrealism: Dada and Surrealist Journals in the Mary Reynolds Collection, Ryerson and Burnham Libraries, The Art Institute of Chicago. Richard Ball, Flight Out Of Time (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1996) Hans Richter, Dada: Art and Anti-Art (London: Thames and Hudson, 1965) Uwe M. Schneede, George Grosz, His life and work (New York: Universe Books, 1979) Melzer, Annabelle. 1976. Dada and Surrealist Performance. PAJ Books ser. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1994. ISBN 0801848458. External links Dada art (Dada Online) includes images showing the characteristics of Dada. The International Dada Archive includes scans of many Dada publications. The Essential DADA Manifestos Over 30 Dada and Futurist manifestos from 1912 to present day Text of Hugo Ball's 1916 Dada Manifesto Text of Tristan Tzara's 1918 Dada Manifesto Excerpts of Tristan Tzara's Dada Manifesto (1918) and Lecture on Dada (1922) Dada Manifesto (1921)
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giovanni:1 lista:1 libertin:1 libertaire:1 insolite:1 memoir:1 drummer:1 university:2 california:2 berkeley:2 los:2 angeles:2 paperback:1 irene:1 hoffman:1 document:1 surrealist:2 mary:1 reynolds:1 ryerson:1 burnham:1 library:1 institute:1 chicago:1 thames:1 hudson:1 uwe:1 schneede:1 universe:1 melzer:1 annabelle:1 paj:1 ser:1 baltimore:1 hopkins:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 characteristic:1 scan:1 essential:1 futurist:1 day:1 excerpt:1 lecture:1 |@bigram tristan_tzara:8 zürich_switzerland:2 del_siglo:1 siglo_xx:1 avant_garde:3 punk_rock:1 francis_picabia:5 hannah_höch:3 george_grosz:4 marcel_janco:5 marc_dachy:6 paris_gallimard:4 jean_arp:2 richard_huelsenbeck:7 cabaret_voltaire:7 dada_manifesto:7 tabula_rasa:1 anna_blume:1 john_heartfield:3 short_lived:1 raoul_hausmann:3 otto_dix:1 entartete_kunst:1 alter_ego:1 marcel_duchamp:5 alfred_stieglitz:2 marsden_hartley:2 bbc_news:1 pay_homage:1 neo_dada:1 keep_abreast:1 guillaume_apollinaire:2 andré_breton:2 erik_satie:2 ballet_russes:1 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7,141
Emperor_Sushun
was the 32nd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 587 through 592. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 38-39; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 263; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 126. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Hatsusebe-shinnō, also known as Hatsusebe no Waka-sazaki. Aston, William. (2005). Nihongi, p. 112. His name at birth was Hatsusebe no Miko (長谷部皇子). He was the twelfth son of Emperor Kimmei. His mother was , a daughter of Soga no Iname Varley, p. 126. , who was the chief, or Ō-omi, of the Soga clan. Sushun had one Empress and two Imperial children. Brown, p. 263. Empress：Koteko （A woman of the Otomo family) Imperial Prince Hachiko no Miko Imperial Princess Nishikite no Himemiko Consort：Kahakami no Iratsume (A daughter of Soga no Umako) Wife：Futsuhime (Mononobe no Moriya's younger sister) Mother Unknown Sadayo no Shinno Events of Sushun's life He succeeded his half brother, Emperor Yōmei in 587, and lived in the Kurahashi Palace (Kurahashi no Miya) in Yamato. Brown, p. 263; Varley, p. 126. 587: In the 2nd year of Yōmei-tennō'''s reign (用明天皇2年), the emperor died, and despite a dispute over who should follow him as sovereign, the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by another son of Emperor Kimmei, one of Yōmei's younger brothers. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Sushun is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 38; Brown, 263; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] He came to the throne with the support of the Soga clan and Empress Suiko, his half sister and the widow of Emperor Bidatsu. Initially, the Mononobe clan, a rival clan of the Sogas, allied with Prince Anahobe, another son of Kimmei, and attempted to have him installed as emperor. Soga no Umako, who succeeded his father as Ōomi of the Soga clan, eventually killed Mononobe no Moriya, the head of the Mononobe clan, which led to its decline. Umako then installed Emperor Sushun on the throne. As time went on, Sushun eventually became resentful of Umako's power, and wanted him deposed. It is said that one day, he saw a wild boar and proclaimed, "I want to kill Soga Umako like this wild boar." This angered Soga no Umako and, perhaps out of fear of being struck first, Umako had Sushun assassinated by in 592. Emperor Sushun's reign lasted for five years before his death at the age of 72. [see above] Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult
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7,142
Annals_of_Mathematics
The Annals of Mathematics (ISSN 0003-486X), abbreviated as Ann. of Math. and often just called Annals, is a bimonthly mathematics research journal published by Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study. It ranks amongst the most prestigious mathematics journals in the world by criteria such as citation intensity. The journal began as The Analyst in 1874, founded and edited by Joel E. Hendricks. It was "intended to afford a medium for the presentation and analysis of any and all questions of interest or importance in pure and applied Mathematics, embracing especially all new and interesting discoveries in theoretical and practical astronomy, mechanical philosophy, and engineering". It was published in Des Moines, Iowa, and was the earliest American mathematics journal to be published continuously for more than a year or two. Reprinted in Bulletin (New Series) of the American Mathematical Society 37 (1), 3–8, 1999. This incarnation of the journal ceased publication after its tenth year, 1883, giving as an explanation Hendricks's declining health, but Hendricks made arrangements to have it taken over by new management, and it was continued from March 1884 as the Annals of Mathematics. The new incarnation of the journal was edited by Ormond Stone of the University of Virginia. It moved to Harvard in 1899 before reaching its current home in Princeton in 1911. An important period for the journal was 1928-1958 with Solomon Lefschetz as editor. During this time, Annals became an increasingly well-known and respected journal. The rise of Annals, in turn, stimulated American mathematics. Princeton University continued to publish the Annals on its own until 1933, when the Institute for Advanced Study took joint editorial control. Since 1998 it has been available in an electronic edition, alongside its regular print edition. The electronic edition was available without charge, as an open access journal, but it is no longer the case since 2008. Editions before 2003 were transferred to the non-free JSTOR archive, and articles are not freely available until 5 years after publication. The current editors of the Annals of Mathematics are http://annals.princeton.edu/EditorialBoard.html : Jean Bourgain, Institute for Advanced Study David Gabai, Princeton University Nick Katz, Princeton University Peter Sarnak, Princeton University Yakov Sinai, Princeton University Gang Tian, Princeton University The associate editors are Mladen Bestvina, Tobias Colding, Gregory Margulis, Gopal Prasad, Bernd Sturmfels, and Kari Vilonen. The Annals should not be confused with the Mathematische Annalen, an unrelated German mathematical journal. References External links The official website of Annals of Mathematics
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7,143
Asgard
In Norse mythology, Asgard (Old Norse: Ásgarðr; meaning "Enclosure of the Æsir" Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs (2001) Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0. ) is the country or capital city of the Æsir surrounded by an incomplete wall attributed to a Hrimthurs riding the stallion Svadilfari, according to Gylfaginning. Valhalla is located within Asgard. Attestations In the Prose Edda, Gylfi, King of Sweden before the arrival of the Æsir under Odin, travels to Asgard, questions the three officials shown in the illumination concerning the Æsir, and is beguiled. Note that the officials have one eye, a sign of Odin. One of his attributes is that he can make the false seem true. 18th century Icelandic manuscript. The primary sources regarding Asgard come from the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by icelandic Snorri Sturluson, and the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from a basis of much older Skaldic poetry. Poetic Edda Völuspá, the first poem of the work, mentions many of the features and characters of Asgard portrayed by Snorri, such as Yggdrasil and Iðavöllr. Prose Edda The Prose Edda presents two views regarding Asgard. Prologue In the Prologue Snorri offers an euhemerized and Christian-influenced interpretation of the myths and tales of his forefathers. As-gard, he conjectures, is the home of the Æsir (singular Ás) in As-ia, making a folk etymological connection between the three "As-"; that is, the Æsir were "men of Asia", not gods, who moved from Asia to the north and some of which intermarried with the peoples already there. Snorri's interpretation of the 13th century foreshadows 20th century views of Indo-European migration from the east. Snorri further writes that Asgard is a land more fertile than any other, blessed also with a great abundance of gold and jewels. Correspondingly, the Æsir excelled beyond all other people in strength, beauty and talent. Snorri proposes the location of Asgard as Troy, the center of the earth. About it were 12 kingdoms and 12 chiefs. One of them, Múnón, married Priam's daughter, Tróán, and had by her a son, Trór, to be pronounced Thor in Old Norse. The latter was raised in Thrace. At age 12 he was whiter than ivory, had hair lighter than gold, and could lift 10 bear skins at once. He explored far and wide. His son, Odin, led a migration to the northern lands, where they took wives and had many children, populating the entire north with Aesir. One of the sons of Odin was Yngvi, founder of the Ynglingar, an early royal family of Sweden. Gylfaginning A depiction of the creation of the world by Odin, Vili and Vé. Illustration by Lorenz Frølich. In Gylfaginning, Snorri presents the mythological version taken no doubt from his sources. Icelanders were still being converted at that time. He could not present the myths as part of any current belief. Instead he resorts to a debunking device: Gylfi, king of Sweden before the Æsir, travels to Asgard and finds there a large hall (Valhalla) in Section 2. Within are three officials, whom Gylfi in the guise of Gangleri is allowed to question about the Asgard and the Æsir. A revelation of the ancient myths follows, but at the end the palace and the people disappear in a clap of thunder and Gylfi finds himself alone on the plain, having been deluded (Section 59). In Gylfi's delusion, ancient Asgard was ruled by the senior god, the all-father, who had twelve names. He was the ruler of everything and the creator of heaven and earth (Section 3). During a complex creation myth in which the cosmic cow licked Buri free from the ice, the sons of Buri's son, Bor, who were Odin, Vili and Vé, constructed the universe and put Midgard in it as a residence for the first human couple, Ask and Embla, whom they created from driftwood trees in Section 9. Consistency is not to be expected from the myth. The sons of Bor then constructed Asgard (to be identified with Troy, Snorri insists in section 9) as a home for the Æsir, who were divinities. Odin is identified as the all-father. Asgard is conceived as being on the earth. A rainbow bridge, Bifröst, connects it to heaven (Section 13). In Asgard also is a temple for the 12 gods, Gladsheim, and another for the 12 goddesses, Vingólf. The plain of Idavoll is the centre of Asgard (Section 14). The gods hold court there every day at the Well of Urd, beneath an ash tree, Yggdrasil, debating the fates of men and gods. The more immediate destinies of men are assigned by the Norns (Section 15). Long descriptions of the gods follow. Among the more memorable details are the Valkyries, the battle maidens whom Odin sends to allot death or victory to soldiers. Section 37 names 13 Valkyries and states that the source as the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál. Odin's residence is Valhalla, to which he takes those slain in battle, the Einherjar (Section 20). Snorri quips: "There is a huge crowd there, and there will be many more still ...." (Section 39). They amuse themselves every day by fighting each other and then going to drink in the big hall. Toward the end of the chapter Snorri becomes prophetic, describing Ragnarök, the twilight of the gods. Much of it sounds like the Apocalypse, by which Snorri, a Christian, can hardly fail to have been influenced. It will begin with three winters of snow, with no summers in between. Wars will follow, then earthquakes and tidal waves. The sky will split open and out will ride the sons of Muspell intent on universal destruction. They will try to enter heaven but Bifröst will break (Section 55). Heimdall will blow his mighty horn Gjöll and the Æsir and Einherjar will ride out to battle. Most of the Æsir will die and Asgard be destroyed. Snorri quotes his own source saying: "The sun will go black, earth sink in the sea, heaven be stripped of its bright stars;...." (Section 56). Afterwards, the earth rises again from the sea, is fairer than before, and where Asgard used to be a remnant of the Æsir gather, some coming up from Hel, and talk and play chess all day with the golden chessmen of the ancient Æsir, which they find in the grass (Section 58). Skáldskaparmál The 10th century Skald Þorbjörn dísarskáld is quoted in Skáldskaparmál as stating: "Thor has defended Asgard and Ygg's [Odin's] people [the gods] with strength." Heimskringla Ynglinga Saga By the time of the Ynglinga Saga, Snorri had developed his concept of Asgard further, although the differences might be accounted for by his sources. In the initial stanzas of the poem Asagarth is the capital of Asaland, a section of Asia to the east of the Tana-kvísl or Vana-Kvísl river (kvísl is "fork"), which Snorri explains is the Tanais, or Don River, flowing into the Black Sea. The river divides "Sweden the Great", a concession to the Viking point of view. It is never called that prior to the Vikings (Section 1). The river lands are occupied by the Vanir and are called Vanaland or Vanaheim. It is unclear what people Snorri thinks the Vanes are, whether the proto-Slavic Venedi or the east Germanic Vandals, who had been in that region at that time for well over 1000 years. He does not say; however, the Germanic names of the characters, such as Njord, Frey and Vanlandi, indicate he had the Vandals in mind. Odin is the chief of Asagarth. From there he conducts and dispatches military expeditions to all parts of the world. He has the virtue of never losing a battle (Section 2). When he is away, his two brothers, Vili and Vé, rule Asaland from Asagarth. On the border of Sweden is a mountain range running from northeast to southwest. South of it are the lands of the Turks, where Odin had possessions; thus, the mountains must be the Caucasus Mountains. On the north are the unihabitable fells, which must be the tundra/taiga country. Apparently the Vikings did not encounter the Urals or the Uralics of the region. Snorri evidences no knowledge of them. There also is no mention of Troy, which was not far from Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine empire and militarily beyond the reach of the Vikings. Troy cannot have been Asagarth, Snorri realizes, the reason being that the Æsir in Asaland were unsettled by the military activities of the Romans; that is, of the Byzantine Empire. As a result, Odin led a section of the Æsir to the north looking for new lands in which to settle. They used the Viking route up the Don and the Volga through Garðaríki, Viking Russia. From there they went to Saxland (Germany) and to the lands of Gylfi in Scandinavia (Section 5). The historical view, of course, is mainly fantastical. The Germanics were in Germany and Scandinavia during earliest mention of them in Roman literature, long before the Romans had even conquered Italy. To what extent Snorri's presentation is poetic creation only remains unclear. Demoted from his position as all-father, or king of the gods, Odin becomes a great sorcerer in the Ynglinga Saga. He can shape-shift, speaks only in verse, and lies so well that everything he says seems true. He strikes enemies blind and deaf but when his own men fight they go berserk and cannot be harmed. He has a ship that can be rolled up like a tablecloth when not used, he relies on two talking ravens to gather intelligence, and he consults the talking head of a dwarf for prophecy (he carries it around long since detached from its body) (Section 7). As a man, however, Odin is faced with the necessity to die. He is cremated and his possessions are burned with him so that he can ascend to - where? If Asgard is an earthly place, not there. Snorri says at first it is Valhalla and then adds: "The Swedes now believed that he had gone to the old Asagarth and would live there forever" (Section 9). Finally Snorri resorts to Heaven, even though nothing in Christianity advocates cremation and certainly the burning of possessions avails the Christian nothing. Other spellings Alternatives Anglicisations: Ásgard, Ásegard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarthr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Esageard, Ásgardhr Common Swedish and Danish form: Asgård Norwegian: Åsgard (also Åsgård, Asgaard, Aasgaard) Icelandic, Faroese: Ásgarður References Bibliography be-x-old:Асгард
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7,144
Micronation
The micronation of Sealand. Micronations — sometimes also referred to as model countries and new country projects — are entities that resemble independent nations or states but which are unrecognized by world governments or major international organisations. These nations usually exist only on paper, on the Internet, or in the minds of their creators. Micronations differ from secession and self-determination movements in that they are largely viewed as being eccentric and ephemeral in nature, and are often created and maintained by a single person or family group. Some micronations have managed to extend some of their operations into the physical world by issuing coins, flags, postage stamps, passports, medals, and other items. Such trappings of "real" sovereign states are created as a way of seeking to legitimize the micronations that produce them. The term "micronation" dates at least to the 1970s The People's Almanac #2, page 330. to describe the many thousands of small, unrecognized, state-like entities that have mostly arisen since that time. The term has since also come to be used retroactively to refer to earlier ephemeral unrecognized entities, some of which date as far back as the early 19th century. Definition Micronations generally have a number of common features: They often assert that they wish to be widely recognized as sovereign states, but are not so recognized. They are small; those that claim to control physical territories are mostly of very limited extent. While several micronations claim hundreds or even thousands of members, the vast majority have no more than one or two active participants. Some issue government instruments such as passports, stamps, and currency, and confer titles and awards; these are rarely recognized outside of their own communities of interest. These criteria distinguish micronations from imaginary countries, eco-villages, campuses, tribes, clans, sects, and residential community associations, which do not usually seek to be recognized as sovereign. Micronations are also distinguishable from entities that have diplomatic relations with other recognized nation-states of the world without being formally recognized themselves by many nation-states or accepted by major international bodies (such as the UN), for example the Republic of China (Taiwan). By contrast, micronations do not have diplomatic relations with recognized nation-states of the world or major international bodies (such as the UN). The term "micropatrology" is sometimes used to describe the study of both micronations and microstates by micronational hobbyists, some of whom refer to sovereign nation-states as "macronations". History Early history and evolution The micronation phenomenon is tied closely to the development of the nation-state concept in the 19th century, and the earliest recognizable micronations can be dated to that period. Most were founded by eccentric adventurers or business speculators, and several were remarkably successful. One early example of a micronation is the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, ruled by the Clunies-Ross family. Less successful micronations are the Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia (1860–62) in southern Chile and Argentina; and the Kingdom of Sedang (1888–90) in French Indochina. The oldest extant micronation to arise in modern times is the Kingdom of Redonda, founded in 1865 in the Caribbean. It failed to establish itself as a real country, but has nonetheless managed to survive into the present day as a unique literary foundation with its own king and aristocracy — although it is not without its controversies: there are presently at least four competing claimants to the Redondan throne. Martin Coles Harman, owner of the U.K. island of Lundy in the early decades of the 20th century, declared himself King and issued private coinage and postage stamps for local use. Although the island was ruled as a virtual fiefdom, its owner never claimed to be independent of the United Kingdom, so Lundy can at best be described as a precursor to later territorial micronations. Another example is the Principality of Outer Baldonia, a rocky island off the coast of Nova Scotia, founded by Russell Arundel, chairman of the Pepsi Cola Company (later: PepsiCo), in 1945 and consisting of a population of 69 fishermen. History during 1960 to 1980 The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the foundation of a number of territorial micronations. The first of these, Sealand, was established in 1967 on an abandoned World War II gun platform in the North Sea just off the East Anglian coast of England, and has survived into the present day. Others were founded on libertarian principles and involved schemes to construct artificial islands, but only three are known to have had even limited success in realizing that goal. The Republic of Rose Island was a 400 m² platform built in 1968 in Italian national waters in the Adriatic Sea, off the Italian town of Rimini. It is known to have issued stamps, and to have declared Esperanto to be its official language. Shortly after completion, however, it was seized and destroyed by the Italian Navy for failing to pay state taxes. In the late 1960s, Leicester Hemingway, brother of author Ernest, was involved in another such project — a small timber platform in international waters off the west coast of Jamaica. This territory, consisting of an by barge, he called "New Atlantis". Hemingway was an honorary citizen and President; however, the structure was damaged by storms and finally pillaged by Mexican fishermen. In 1973, Hemingway was reported to have moved on from New Atlantis to promoting a 1,000-square-yard platform near the Bahamas. The new country was called "Tierra del Mar" (Land of the Sea). (Ernest Hemingway's adopted hometown of Key West would itself be part of another micronation; see Conch Republic.) The Republic of Minerva was set up in 1972 as a libertarian new-country project by Nevada businessman Michael Oliver. Oliver's group conducted dredging operations at the Minerva Reefs, a shoal located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji. They succeeded in creating a small artificial island, but their efforts at securing international recognition met with little success, and near-neighbour Tonga sent a military force to the area and annexed it. On April 1, 1977, bibliophile Richard George William Pitt Booth declared the Welsh town of Hay-on-Wye an independent kingdom with himself as its monarch. The town has subsequently developed a healthy tourism industry based on literary interests, and "King Richard" (whose sceptre consists of a recycled toilet plunger) continues to award Hay-on-Wye peerages and honours to anyone prepared to pay for them. BBC - Mid Wales Arts - Richard Booth Australian developments Micronational activities were disproportionately common throughout Australia in the final three decades of the 20th century. The Hutt River Province Principality was founded in 1970, when Leonard Casley declared his property independent after a dispute over wheat quotas. 1976 witnessed the creation of the Province of Bumbunga on a rural property near Snowtown, South Australia, by an eccentric British monarchist. The Sovereign State of Aeterna Lucina was created in a hamlet on the New South Wales north coast in 1978. An anti-taxation campaigner founded the Grand Duchy of Avram in western Tasmania in the late 1970s; "His Grace the Duke of Avram" was later elected to the Tasmanian Parliament. In Victoria, a long-running dispute over flood damage to farm properties led to the creation of the Independent State of Rainbow Creek in 1979. The Empire of Atlantium was established in Sydney, in 1981 as a non-territorial global government. A mortgage foreclosure dispute led George and Stephanie Muirhead of Rockhampton, Queensland, to briefly and abortively secede as the Principality of Marlborough in 1993. Another Australian farm tried to establish itself as a secessionist micronation on 1 May 2003 as the Principality of United Oceania. The Principality of Snake Hill was established in 2003 as a result of a mortgage dispute and is located near Mudgee in NSW. The Head of State is Prince Paul and the constitution is based on the Ten Commandments. Lawyers are barred from entering. The Principality of Snake Hill The Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands was established in 2004 as a symbolic political protest by a group of gay rights activists based in southeast Queensland. The United Federation of Koronis, based in Australia, claims the Koronis family of asteroids as its territory. The Principality of Ponderosa, based on a small farm in Northern Victoria, achieved notoriety in 2005 when its founders — Vergilio and "Little Joe" Rigoli — were convicted of tax fraud. Effects of the Internet Micronationalism shed much of its traditionally eccentric anti-establishment mantle and took on a distinctly hobbyist perspective in the mid-1990s, when the emerging popularity of the Internet made it possible to create and promote statelike entities in an entirely electronic medium with relative ease. As a result the number of exclusively online, fantasy or simulation-based micronations expanded dramatically. The activities of these types of micronations are almost exclusively limited to simulations of diplomatic activity (including the signing of "treaties" and participation in "supra-micronational" forums such as the League of Micronations and the Micronational News Network), the conduct and operation of simulated elections and parliaments, and participation in simulated wars — all of which are carried out through online bulletin boards, mailing lists and blogs. A number of older-style territorial micronations, including the Hutt River Province, Seborga, and Sealand, maintain websites that serve largely to promote their claims and sell merchandise. Categories In the present day, eight main types of micronations are prevalent: Social, economic, or political simulations. Exercises in personal entertainment or self-aggrandisement. Exercises in fantasy or creative fiction. Vehicles for the promotion of an agenda. Entities created for fraudulent purposes. Historical anomalies and aspirant states. New-country projects. Exercises in historical revisionism. Social, economic, or political simulations These micronations tend to have a reasonably serious intent, and often involve significant numbers of people interested in recreating the past or simulating political or social processes. Examples include: Freetown Christiania, a semi-legal district in Copenhagen, Denmark where there are lax laws on drugs and squatting. Talossa (Kingdom of Talossa and the Republic of Talossa), a political simulation founded in 1979, with more than 130 members ("citizens") and an invented culture and language. Holy Empire of Reunion (Sacro Império de Reunião) — a Brazilian micronation founded in 1997 as an online constitutional monarchy simulation. It claims several dozen members around the world. Nova Roma, a group claiming a worldwide membership of several thousand that has minted its own coins, maintains its own wiki, and which engages in real-life Roman-themed re-enactments. Exercises in personal entertainment or self-aggrandisement President Kevin Baugh of Molossia. With literally thousands in existence, micronations of the second type are by far the most common. They generally exist "for fun," have few participants, are ephemeral, Internet-based, and rarely survive more than a few months — although there are notable exceptions. They are usually concerned solely with arrogating to their founders the outward symbols of statehood. The use of grand-sounding titles, awards, honours, and heraldic symbols derived from European feudal traditions, the conduct of "wars" and "diplomacy" with other micronations, and claims of being located on fantasy continents or planets are common manifestations of their activities. Examples include: The Aerican Empire, a Monty Pythonesque micronation founded in 1987 and known for its tongue-in-cheek interplanetary land claims, smiley-faced flag and a range of national holidays that includes "Topin Wagglegammon" amongst others. Republic of Molossia, a desert-based micronation of 2.5ha located near Reno, Nevada ruled by President Kevin Baugh. There is a nationwide ban on smoking. http://www.escapeartist.com/unique_lifestyles/for_a_new_nation.htm The Kingdom of Lovely is an attempt by King Danny I (Danny Wallace) to create an internet nation based in his flat in London. Exercises in fantasy or creative fiction Micronations of the third type include stand-alone artistic projects, deliberate exercises in creative online fiction, and artistamp creations. Examples include: The Republic of Kugelmugel, founded by an Austrian artist and based in a ball-shaped house in Vienna, which quickly became a tourist attraction. The Copeman Empire, run from a caravan park in Norfolk, England, by its founder Nick Copeman, who changed his name by deed poll to HM King Nicholas I. He and his empire are the subject of a book (ISBN 0-09-189920-6) and a website where King Nicholas sells Knighthoods. San Serriffe, an April Fool's Day hoax created by the British newspaper The Guardian, in its April 1, 1977 edition. The fictional island nation was described in an elaborate seven-page supplement and has been revisited by the newspaper several times. Republic of Saugeais (République du Saugeais), a fifty-year-old "republic" in the French département of Doubs, bordering Switzerland. The republic is made of the 11 municipalities of Les Allies, Arcon, Bugny, La Chaux-de-Gilley, Gilley, Hauterive-la-Fresne, La Longeville, Montflovin, Maisons-du-Bois-Lievremont, Ville-du-Pont, and its capital Montbenoit. It had a "president" — Georgette Bertin-Pourchet, elected in 2006 — a "prime minister" and numerous "citizens". It was born from a joke between a Sauget resident and the local Préfet. Vehicles for agenda promotion "Welcome to the Conch Republic" - a sign at Key West International Airport. These types of micronation are typically associated with a political or social reform agenda. Some are maintained as media and public relations exercises, and examples of this type include: Akhzivland is a self-declared and officially tolerated "independent republic" established by Israeli hippy and former sailor Eli Avivi on the Mediterranean beach at Akhziv in Israel. The Conch Republic, which began in 1982 as a protest by residents and business owners in the Florida Keys against a United States Border Patrol roadblock. It has since been maintained as a tourism booster, though the group has engaged in other protests. The Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands, founded in June 2004 on the uninhabited Coral Sea Islands off the coast of Queensland, in response to the Australian government's refusal to recognize same-sex marriage. The Republic of New Afrika, a controversial separatist group seeking the creation of an independent black nationalist state across much of the southern USA. The Maritime Republic of Eastport, a part of the City of Annapolis, Maryland, that "seceded" from the rest of the city. It still exists as a charitable and publicity vehicle, and runs a unique fund-raiser in the form of a cross-water Tug of War. Entities created for allegedly fraudulent purposes A number of micronations have been established for fraudulent purposes, by seeking to link questionable or illegal financial actions with seemingly legitimate nations. The Territory of Poyais was invented by Scottish adventurer and South American independence hero Gregor MacGregor in the early 19th century. On the basis of a land grant made to him by the Anglophile native King of the Mosquito people in what is present-day Honduras, MacGregor wove one of history's most elaborate hoaxes, managing to charm the highest levels of London's political and financial establishment with tales of the bucolic, resource-rich country he claimed to rule as a benevolent sovereign prince, or "Cazique", when he arrived in the UK in 1822. The Dominion of Melchizedek has been widely condemned for promoting fraudulent banking activities and other financial scams, and for the involvement by one of its founders in the attempted secession of the Fijian island of Rotuma. http://www.occ.treas.gov/ftp/Alert/98-38.txt New Utopia, operated by Oklahoma City longevity promoter Howard Turney as a libertarian new country project was stopped by a United States federal court temporary restraining order from selling bonds and bank licenses. New Utopia has claimed for a number of years to be on the verge of commencing construction of an artificial island territory located approximately midway between Honduras and Cuba, on the Misteriosa Bank but no such project has yet been undertaken. The Kingdom of EnenKio, which claims Wake Atoll in the Marshall Islands belonging to the US minor outlying islands, has been condemned for selling passports and diplomatic papers by the governments of the Marshall Islands and of the United States. Richard’s Ramblings... History of Wake Island On April 23, 1998, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Marshall Islands issued an official Circular Note, denouncing representatives of both "EnenKio" and "Melchizedek" for making fraudulent representations. Official Marshall Islands Notices Historical anomalies and aspirant states The Principality of Sealand has been described as the world's best-known micronation. A small number of micronations are founded on historical anomalies or eccentric interpretations of law. These types of micronations are usually located on small (usually disputed) territorial enclaves, generate limited economic activity founded on tourism and philatelic and numismatic sales, and are tolerated or ignored by the nations from which they claim to have seceded. This category includes: Seborga, a town in the region of Liguria, Italy, near the southern end of the border with France, which traces its history back to the Middle Ages. The Principality of Hutt River (formerly "Hutt River Province"), a farm in Western Australia which claims to have seceded from Australia to become an independent principality with a worldwide population numbered in the tens of thousands. The Principality of Sealand, a World War II-era anti-aircraft platform built in the North Sea beyond Britain's then territorial limit, seized by a pirate radio group in 1967 as a base for their operations, and currently used as the site of a secure web-hosting facility. Sealand has continued to promote its independence by issuing stamps, money, and appointing an official national athlete. The Crown Dependency of Forvik is an island in the Shetland Islands, currently recognized as part of UK. Ruled by Stuart Hill, he claims that the independence comes from an arrangement struck in 1468 between King Christian I of Denmark/Norway and Scotland's James III, whereby Christian pawned the Shetland Islands to James in order to raise money for his daughter's dowry. Hill claims that the dowry was never paid and therefore it is not part of UK and should be a crown dependency like the Isle of Man. Hill has also encouraged the rest of the Shetlands to delcare independence. New-country projects New-country projects are attempts to found completely new nation-states. They typically involve plans to construct artificial islands (few of which are ever realised), and a large percentage have embraced or purported to embrace libertarian or democratic principles. Examples include: Operation Atlantis, an early 1970s New York-based libertarian group that built a concrete-hulled ship called Freedom, which they sailed to the Caribbean, intending to anchor it permanently there as their "territory". The ship sank in a hurricane and the project foundered with it. Republic of Minerva, another libertarian project that succeeded in building a small man-made island on the Minerva Reefs south of Fiji in 1972 before being ejected by troops from Tonga, who later formally annexed it. Principality of Freedonia, a libertarian project that tried to lease territory from the Sultan of Awdal in Somaliland in 2001. Resulting public dissatisfaction led to rioting, and the reported death of a Somali. Oceania (also known as "The Atlantis Project", but unrelated to the 1970s project listed above), another libertarian artificial island project that raised US $400,000 before going bankrupt in 1994. The Oceania Project, accessed November 9, 2006 Seasteading, a project aiming at building competitive governments at sea. Exercises in historical revisionism In Germany, numerous individuals and groups – collectively labeled Kommissarische Reichsregierungen (KRR) – assert that the German Empire continues to exist in its pre-World War II borders and that they are its government. Legitimacy In international law, the Montevideo Convention on the Right and Duties of States sets down the criteria for statehood in article 1: The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states. The first sentence of article 3 of the Montevideo Convention explicitly states that "The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states." Under these guidelines, any entity which meets all of the criteria set forth in article 1 can be regarded as sovereign under international law, whether or not other states have recognized it. Most micronations have failed to meet one or more of these criteria. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta, as an independent subject of international law does not meet all the criteria for recognition as a State (however it does not claim itself a State either), but is and has been recognized as a sovereign nation for centuries. The doctrine of territorial integrity does not effectively prohibit unilateral secession from established states in international law, per the relevant section from the text of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, also known as the Helsinki Final Act, Helsinki Accords or Helsinki Declaration: http://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1975/08/4044_en.pdf IV. Territorial integrity of States The participating States will respect the territorial integrity of each of the participating States. Accordingly, they will refrain from any action inconsistent with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations against the territorial integrity, political independence or the unity of any participating State, and in particular from any such action constituting a threat or use of force. The participating States will likewise refrain from making each other's territory the object of military occupation or other direct or indirect measures of force in contravention of international law, or the object of acquisition by means of such measures or the threat of them. No such occupation or acquisition will be recognized as legal. In effect, this states that other states (i.e., third parties), may not encourage secession in a state. This does not make any statement as regards persons within a state electing to secede of their own accord. Academic, literary and media attention Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-made Nations There has been a small but growing amount of attention paid to the micronation phenomenon in recent years. Most interest in academic circles has been concerned with studying the apparently anomalous legal situations affecting such entities as Sealand and the Hutt River Province, in exploring how some micronations represent grassroots political ideas, and in the creation of role-playing entities for instructional purposes. In 2000, Professor Fabrice O'Driscoll, of the Aix-Marseille University, published a book about micronations: "Ils ne siègent pas à l'ONU" ("They are not in the United Nations"), with more than 300 pages dedicated to the subject. In May 2000, an article in the New York Times entitled "Utopian Rulers, and Spoofs, Stake Out Territory Online" brought the phenomenon to a wider audience for the first time. Similar articles were published by newspapers such as the French "Liberation", Italian La Repubblica, Greek "Ta Nea", O Estado de São Paulo in Brazil and Portugal's Visão at around the same time. Several recent publications have dealt with the subject of particular historic micronations, including Republic of Indian Stream (University Press), by Dartmouth College geographer Daniel Doan, and The Land that Never Was, about Gregor MacGregor and the Principality of Poyais, by David Sinclair (Review, 2003, ISBN 0-7553-1080-2). In August 2003, a summit of micronations took place in Helsinki at Finlandia Hall, the site of the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). The summit was attended by delegations of the Principality of Sealand, the Kingdoms of Elgaland-Vargaland, NSK-State in Time, Ladonia, the Transnational Republic, the State of Sabotage and by scholars from various academic institutions. From 7 November through 17 December 2004, the Reg Vardy Gallery at the University of Sunderland (UK) hosted an exhibition on the subject of micronational group identity and symbolism. The exhibition focused on numismatic, philatelic and vexillological artifacts, as well as other symbols and instruments created and used by a number of micronations from the 1950s through to the present day. A summit of micronations conducted as part of this exhibition was attended by representatives of Sealand, Elgaland-Vargaland, New Utopia, Atlantium, Frestonia and Fusa. The exhibition was reprised at the Andrew Kreps Gallery in New York City from 24 June–29 July of the following year. Another exhibition about micronations opened at Paris' Palais de Tokyo in early 2007. The Sunderland summit was later featured in a 5-part BBC light entertainment television series called How to Start Your Own Country presented by Danny Wallace. The series told the story of Wallace's experience of founding a micronation, Lovely, located in his London flat. It screened in the UK in August 2005. Similar programs have also aired on television networks in other parts of Europe. In France, several Canal+ programs have centered around the satirical Presipality of Groland, while in Belgium a series by Rob Vanoudenhoven and broadcast on the Flemish commercial network VTM in April 2006 was reminiscent of Wallace's series, and centred around the producer's creation of Robland. Among other things Vanoudenhoven minted his own coins denominated in "Robbies". On September 9, 2006, The Guardian newspaper reported that the travel guide company Lonely Planet had published the world's first travel guide devoted to micronations, the Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations. The Democratic Empire of Sunda, which claims to be the Government of the Kingdom of Sunda (an ancient kingdom, in present-day Indonesia) in exile in Switzerland, made media headlines when two so-called princesses, Lamia Roro Wiranatadikusumah Siliwangi Al Misri, 21, and Fathia Reza Wiranatadikusumah Siliwangi Al Misiri, 23, were detained by Malaysian authorities at the border with Brunei, on 13 July 2007, and are charged for entering the country without a valid pass. Hearing continues. The Borneo Post Online » Print » DPP: Sunda princesses ‘Prohibited Immigrants’ Coins of micronations See also List of micronations Flags of micronations List of micronation currencies List of leaders of micronations Seasteading References and notes References Ref United Oceania: Australian Daily Telegraph, Thursday, 24 July 2003, page 20, "Prince finds if all else fails, secede". Erwin S. Strauss: How to start your own country, ISBN 0-915179-01-6 , ISBN 1-893626-15-6. Samuel Pyeatt Menefee, "Republics of the Reefs": Nation-Building on the Continental Shelf and in the World's Oceans, California Western International Law Journal, vol. 25, no. 1, Fall, 1994, pp. 81–111. It's Good to Be King Wired 8.3 March 2000. Kochta/Kalleinen (Ed.): Amorph!03 Summit of Micronations – Documents/Asiakirjoja, 2003, ISBN 3-936919-45-3. The Sydney Morning Herald — Good Weekend, "If at first you don't secede..." by Mark Dapin, , 12 February 2005, pp 47–50. The Daily Telegraph (UK), "Mini-states Down Under are sure they can secede" by Nick Squires, 24 February 2005. iberkshires.com "Bite-sized sovereignties offer worlds of fun", by Kathy Ceceri, 2 February 2005. * Ref Republic of Saugeais: Office du Tourisme du canton de Montbenoît, 25 November 2004. Autopia, Saya de Malha Bank. Nations Come Together at Sunderland — Sunderland, UK exhibition. Andrew Kreps Gallery — New York City exhibition. — Building Blog article on the Lonely Planet book The Lonely Planet Guide to Micronations'' External links be-x-old:Віртуальная дзяржава
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Abiathar
Abiathar (אביתר, Ebyathar, Evyatar, the [divine] father is pre-eminent), in the Bible, son of Achimelech or Ahijah, priest at Nob, the fourth in descent from Eli. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre, he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (1 Sam. xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especially at the time of the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 35, xx. 25). In 1 Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests under Solomon. In 1 Kings i. 7, 19, 25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 Abiathar, the son of Achimelech should be read, with the Syriac, for Achimelech, the son of Abiathar. For a similar confusion see Gospel of Mark ii. 26. Encyclopedia Brittanica 1911 In reporting Jesus words the evangelist has confused Abiathar with Ahimelech, a mistake into which he was led by the constant association of David‘s name with Abiathar. Suggestions made to evade the difficulty - e.g. that father and son each bore the same double name, or that Abiathar officiated during his father’s lifetime and in his father’s stead - have been supported by great names, but are baseless. "Abiathar", Encyclopedia Biblica When his father was slain with the priests of Nob, he escaped, and bearing with him the ephod, he joined David, who was then in the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. 22:20-23; 23:6). He remained with David, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader (1 Sam. 30:7). When David ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar was appointed high priest (1 Chr. 15:11; 1 Kings 2:26) and the "king's counselor" (1 Chr. 27:33-34). Meanwhile Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, had been made high priest. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia Abiathar was deposed from office when he was deserted by the Holy Spirit without which the Urim and Thummin could not be consulted [.p.56] These appointments continued in force till the end of David's reign (1 Kings 4:4). Abiathar was deposed (the sole historical instance of the deposition of a high priest) and banished to his home at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne. The priesthood thus passed from the house of Ithamar (1 Sam. 2:30-36; 1 Kings 1:19; 2:26, 27). Zadok now became sole high priest. In Mark 2:26, reference is made to an occurrence in "the days of Abiathar the high priest." But from 1 Sam. 22, we learn explicitly that this event took place when Achimelech, the father of Abiathar, was high priest. References
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Jacques_Cousteau
Jacques-Yves Cousteau (; 11 June 1910 – 25 June 1997) Cousteau Society was a French naval officer, explorer, ecologist, filmmaker, innovator, scientist, photographer, author and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water. He co-developed the aqua-lung, pioneered marine conservation and was a member of the Académie française. He was commonly known as "le Commandant Cousteau" or "Captain Cousteau". Background Cousteau was born on 11 June 1910, in Saint-André-de-Cubzac, Gironde, to Daniel and Élisabeth Cousteau. He discovered the sea in the creeks close to Marseille where his family settled. He completed his preparatory studies at the prestigious Collège Stanislas in Paris. In 1930 he entered the École Navale and, after graduating, became a gunnery officer. After an automobile accident cut short his career in naval aviation, Cousteau indulged his interest in the sea. In Toulon, where he was serving on the Condorcet, Cousteau carried out his first underwater experiments, thanks to his friend Philippe Tailliez who in 1936 lent him some Fernez underwater goggles, predecessors of modern diving masks. The Cousteau Foundation page about "The Captain" confirms Cousteau biography as written here. He later worked his way up the ranks as he became more famous and more useful to the navy. Cousteau also belonged to the information service of the French Navy, and was sent on missions to Shanghai and Japan (1935–1938) and in the USSR (1939). On 12 July 1937 he married Simone Melchior, with whom he had two sons, Jean-Michel (1938) and Philippe (1940). His sons took part in the adventure of the Calypso. In 1991, one year after his wife Simone's death from cancer, he married Francine Triplet. They already had a daughter Diane Cousteau (1980) and a son Pierre-Yves Cousteau (1982), born before their marriage. Jacques Cousteau was the brother of right-wing fascist journalist and World War II Germany collaborator Pierre-Antoine Cousteau (1906–1958). Cousteau died at the age of 87 of a heart attack while recovering from a respiratory illness. He is buried in the Cousteau family plot at Saint-André-de-Cubzac Cemetery, Saint-André-de-Cubzac, France. Career highlights Early 1940s: Innovation of modern underwater diving The years of the Second World War were decisive for the history of diving. After the armistice of 1940, the family of Simone and Jacques-Yves Cousteau took refuge in Megève, where he became a friend of the Ichac family who also lived there. Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Marcel Ichac shared the same will to reveal to general public unknown and inaccessible places: for Cousteau the underwater world and for Ichac the high mountains. The two neighbors took the first ex-aequo prize of the Congress of Documentary Film in 1943, for the first French underwater film: Par dix-huit mètres de fond (18 meters deep), made without breathing apparatus the previous year in Embiez (Var) with Philippe Tailliez and Frédéric Dumas, without forgetting the paramount part played, as originator of the depth-pressure-proof camera case, by the mechanical engineer Léon Vèche (engineer of Arts and Métiers and the Naval College). In 1943, they made the film Épaves (Shipwrecks): for this occasion, they used the aqua-lung, which continued the line of some inventions of the 19th century (Rouquayrol's and Denayrouze's Aerophore) and of the early 20th century (Le Prieur). When making Épaves, Cousteau could not find the necessary blank reels of movie film, but had to buy hundreds of small still camera film reels the same width, intended for a make of child's camera, and cemented them together to make long reels. The Silent World Having kept bonds with the English speakers (he spent part of his childhood in the United States and usually spoke English) and with French soldiers in North Africa (under Admiral Lemonnier), Jacques-Yves Cousteau (whose villa "Baobab" at Sanary (Var) was opposite Admiral Darlan's villa "Reine"), helped the French Navy to join again with the Allies; he assembled a commando operation against the Italian espionage services in France, and received several military decorations for his deeds. At that time, he kept his distance from his brother Pierre-Antoine, a "pen anti-semite", who wrote the collaborationist newspaper Je suis partout (= I am everywhere), and was condemned to die in 1946. However this was later commuted to a life sentence, and Pierre-Antoine was released in 1954. During the 1940s Cousteau is credited with improving the aqua-lung design which gave birth to the open-circuit scuba technology used today. According to his first book, The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure (1953), Cousteau started snorkel diving with a mask, snorkel, and fins with Frédéric Dumas and Philippe Tailliez. In 1943, he tried out the first prototype aqua-lung — designed by Cousteau and Émile Gagnan — which made lengthy underwater exploration possible for the first time. Late 1940s: GERS and Élie Monnier In 1946, Cousteau and Tailliez showed the film "Épaves" to Admiral Lemonnier, and the admiral gave them the responsibility of setting up the Groupement de Recherches Sous-marines (GRS) (Underwater Research Group) of the French Navy in Toulon. A little later it became the GERS (Groupe d'Études et de Recherches Sous-Marines, = Underwater Studies and Research Group), then the COMISMER ("COMmandement des Interventions Sous la MER", = "Undersea Interventions Command"), and finally more recently the CEPHISMER. In 1948, between missions of mine clearance, underwater exploration and technological and physiological tests, Cousteau undertook a first campaign in the Mediterranean on board the sloop Élie Monnier of Group of Study and Underwater Research (GERS) of the National Navy, with Philippe Tailliez, Frédéric Dumas, Jean Alinat and the scenario writer Marcel Ichac. The small team also undertook the exploration of the Roman wreck of Mahdia (Tunisia). It was the first underwater archaeology operation using autonomous diving, opening the way for scientific underwater archaeology. Cousteau and Marcel Ichac brought back from there the Carnets diving film (presented and preceded with the Cannes Film Festival 1951). Cousteau and Élie Monnier then took part in the rescue of Professor Jacques Piccard's bathyscaphe, the FNRS-2, during the 1949 expedition to Dakar. Thanks to this rescue, the French Navy was able to reuse the sphere of the bathyscaphe to construct the FNRS-3. The adventures of this period are told in the 2 books The Silent World (1953) by Cousteau and Plongées Sans Câble by Philippe Tailliez. 1950–1970s In 1949, Cousteau left the French Navy. In 1950: he founded the French Oceanographic Campaigns (FOC), and he leased a ship called Calypso from Thomas Loel Guinness for a symbolic one franc a year and equipped her as a mobile laboratory for field research and as a support base for diving and filming. In it Cousteau traversed the most interesting seas of the planet as well as big and small rivers. He also carried out underwater archaeological excavations in the Mediterranean, in particular at Grand-Congloué (1952). With the publication of his first book in 1953, The Silent World, he correctly predicted the existence of the echolocation abilities of porpoises (pp. 206–207), before they were discovered. He reported that his research vessel, the Élie Monier, was heading to the Straits of Gibraltar and noticed a group of porpoises following them. Cousteau changed course a few degrees off the optimal course to the center of the strait, and the porpoises followed for a few minutes, then diverged toward mid-channel again. It was evident that they knew where the optimal course lay, even if the humans did not. Cousteau concluded that the cetaceans had something like sonar, which was a relatively new feature on submarines. He was correct. During his voyages, he produced many films (he won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1956 for The Silent World co-produced with Louis Malle, and books which contributed to diffuse, with unprecedented popularity, the knowledge of underwater biology. With the assistance of Jean Mollard, he made a "diving saucer" SP-350, an extraordinary underwater vehicle which could reach a depth of 350 meters. The successful experiment was quickly repeated in 1965 with two vehicles which reached 500 meters. In 1957, he was elected as director of the Oceanographical Museum of Monaco. He directed Précontinent, about the experiments of diving in saturation (long-duration immersion, houses under the sea), and was one of the rare few from abroad admitted to the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. The popularity of Jacques-Yves Cousteau grew. In October 1960, a large amount of radioactive waste was going to be discarded in the Mediterranean Sea by the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique (CEA). The CEA argued that the dumps were experimental in nature, and that French oceanographers such as Vsevelod Romanovsky had recommended it. Romanovsky and other French scientists, including Louis Fage and Jacques Cousteau, repudiated the claim, saying that Romanovsky had in mind a much smaller amount. The CEA claimed that there was little circulation (and hence little need for concern) at the dump site between Nice and Corsica, but French public opinion sided with the oceanographers rather than with the CEA atomic energy scientists. The CEA chief, Francis Perrin, decided to postpone the dump. Jacob Darwin Hamblin, Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear Age (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008). Cousteau organized a publicity campaign which in less than two weeks gained wide popular support. The train carrying the waste was stopped by women and children sitting on the railway tracks, and it was sent back to its origin. The alleged risk was avoided. During this, a French government official had falsely told a newspaper that Cousteau had approved the dump; Cousteau managed to get the newspaper to issue a correction. In Monaco in November 1960, the official visit of French president Charles de Gaulle became famous because of their exchange in connection with the incidents of October and more largely in connection with the nuclear experiments. The ambassador of France had suggested to Prince Rainier that any meeting be avoided; but Prince Rainier did nothing to prevent the presence of Cousteau at the time of de Gaulle's visit to the Oceanographic Museum. The President asked the Commander in a friendly way to be nice with his atomic scientists; Cousteau answered "No sir, it is your researchers that ought to be kind toward us." In the discussion which followed, Jacques-Yves Cousteau deplored the American decision not to share nuclear secrets with France (for fear that certain French scientists, linked with Communism, might communicate them to the USSR), which led France to undertake its own research and nuclear experiments. The meeting with American television (ABC, Métromédia, NBC) created the series '"The Underwater Odyssey of Commander Cousteau"', with the character of the commander in the red bonnet inherited from standard diving dress) intended to give the films more of a "personalized adventure" documentary style than a "didactic" one. On their subject, Cousteau explained: "people protect and respect what they like, and to make them like the sea, they should be filled with wonder as much as informing them." In 1973, along with his two sons and Frederick Hyman, he created the Cousteau Society for the Protection of Ocean Life, Frederick Hyman being its first President; it now has more than 300,000 members. Three years after the volcano's last eruption, on December 19, 1973, the Cousteau team landed at Deception Island, Antartica for the first time. The cameramen got to work and found many subjects to film: seals on the beaches, penguin rookeries and the strange lunar mineral universe of the island partly covered by a glacier. The caldera, an immense volcanic hole that the sea has invaded, is one of the hot-water areas that are steaming along the black beaches. Five wonderful descents in the submersible SP350 explore the caldera: a first in the Antarctic. The self-contained divers of the Cousteau team, wearing completely watertight suits, realize with satisfaction that they can stay 30 to 40 minutes in the icy water without suffering too much. On December 28 1973, at 11:30 AM, Michel Laval, Calypso's second in command, is tragically struck by a propeller of the helicopter that is ferrying between Calypso and the island. He is killed immediately. Captain Cousteau decides to escort the body of his crewman personally, first to Ushuaia, then on to France. In 1976 Cousteau uncovered the wreck of HMHS Britannic. In 1977, together with Peter Scott, he received the UN International Environment prize. In 1985, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from Ronald Reagan, then president of the United States. On 28 June 1979, while the Calypso was on an expedition to Portugal, his second son, Philippe, his preferred and designated successor and with whom he had co-produced all his films since 1969, died in a PBY Catalina flying boat crash in the Tagus river near Lisbon. Cousteau was deeply affected. He called his then eldest son, the architect Jean-Michel Cousteau, to his side. This collaboration lasted 14 years. 1980-1990s On 24 November 1988 he was elected to the French Academy, chair 17, succeeding Jean Delay. His official reception under the Cupola took place on 22 June 1989, the response to his speech of reception being given by Bertrand Poirot-Delpech. After his death, he was replaced under the Cupola by Érik Orsenna on 28 May 1998. In June 1990, the composer Jean Michel Jarre paid homage to the commander by entitling his new album Waiting for Cousteau. On 2 December 1990, his wife Simone Cousteau died of cancer. This woman of great character who had spent more time than her husband on board Calypso was the égérie ("muse") of the Cousteau team. In June 1991, in Paris, Jacques-Yves Cousteau remarried, to Francine Triplet, with whom he had (before this marriage) two children, Diane and Pierre-Yves. Francine Cousteau currently continues her husband's work as the head of the Cousteau Foundation and Cousteau Society. From that point, the relations between Jacques-Yves and his elder son worsened. Jacques-Yves put an end to their collaboration. In November 1991, Cousteau gave an interview to the UNESCO courier, in which he stated that he was in favour of human population control and population decrease. The full article text can be found online Widely quoted on the internet are these two paragraphs from the interview: "What should we do to eliminate suffering and disease? It's a wonderful idea but perhaps not altogether a beneficial one in the long run. If we try to implement it we may jeopardize the future of our species...It's terrible to have to say this. World population must be stabilized and to do that we must eliminate 350,000 people per day. This is so horrible to contemplate that we shouldn't even say it. But the general situation in which we are involved is lamentable". Full interview with UNESCO Courier digital copy . In 1996, he sued his son who wished to open a holiday center named "Cousteau" in the Fiji Islands. On 11 January 1996 Calypso was rammed and sunk in Singapore harbor by a barge. The Calypso was refloated and towed home to France. In 1992, he was invited to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the United Nations' International Conference on Environment and Development, and then he became a regular consultant for the UN and the World Bank. Jacques-Yves Cousteau died on 25 June 1997 in Paris, aged 87. His death was strongly felt in the United States, where he was one of the most popular Frenchmen. He was buried in the family vault at Saint-André-de-Cubzac in France. An homage was paid to him by the city by the inauguration of a "rue du Commandant Cousteau", a street which runs out to his native house, where a commemorative plaque was affixed. He also loved cats. During his lifetime, Jacques-Yves Cousteau received these distinctions: Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur Grand-Croix de l'Ordre national du Mérite Croix de guerre 1939–1945 Officier de l'Ordre du Mérite Maritime Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia. Defense of the environment Jacques-Yves Cousteau superimposed the geonimic vision of the sea and Earth elaborated in the 1930s by Jacques Grob and Philippe Tailliez with a conqueror's mentality. A cultivated explorer in the spirit of Jules Vernes, he fed the public's taste for wonder. "One protects what one likes.", Cousteau repeated, "and one likes what enchanted us." As Cousteau's oceanographic and cinematographic campaigns took place over more than 50 years (1945–1997), he was able to measure the degradation of the in-situ mediums: the conqueror-explorer, sure of his technical prowess and finding it natural to drive out marine animals gradually morphed into an ardent conservationist who leveraged his worldwide notoriety to promote the idea of the Earth as a limited and fragile spaceship that needed to be preserved. He was the only non-politician to take part in the 1992 Rio Summit. After 1975, he briefly considered founding worldwide 'Cousteau Clubs' for young people, but eventually abandoned this idea in its original form (which would have involved significant work with few direct rewards) and instead published a few fanzines (Calypso Log, Le Dauphin) and made a documentary film about a trip to the Antarctic with children. Towards the end of his life, he became pessimistic and even misanthropic: An ideal planet, he confided to Yves Paccalet, would be one in which humanity is limited to 100,000 people who are both educated and respectful of nature. Jacques-Yves Cousteau's star power rested not only on his personal image, but on the image of a united team striving towards a common goal. Late in his life, however, highly-publicized intra-family conflicts, internal divisions, and consequent lawsuits chipped away at this image, and that of his successors: son Jean-Michel and grandson Fabien on one side, and the Cousteau Team with his third wife Francine and their children of the other, do not have the public standing of the 20th century Cousteau Team. On the other hand, the kind of underwater and adventure film that Jacques-Yves Cousteau launched has never been more popular: each year, hundreds of increasingly beautiful documentaries are produced, thanks to improvement of photographic techniques. The idea of a fragile planet and sea has not only made its way into the public consciousness, but also affects the political class who were slower to come to environmental awareness. Islam Despite persistent rumors, encouraged by some Islamic publications and websites, Cousteau did not convert to Islam, and when he died he was buried in a Roman Catholic Christian funeral. Témoignage: La "conversion" du commandant Cousteau à l'Islam Legacy Cousteau's legacy includes more than 120 television documentaries, more than 50 books, and an environmental protection foundation with 300,000 members. Cousteau liked to call himself an "oceanographic technician." He was, in reality, a sophisticated showman, teacher, and lover of nature. His work permitted many people to explore the resources of the oceans. His work also created a new kind of scientific communication, criticised at the time by some academics. The so-called "divulgationism", a simple way of sharing scientific concepts, was soon employed in other disciplines and became one of the most important characteristics of modern television broadcasting. Cousteau died on 25 June 1997. The Cousteau Society and its French counterpart, l'Équipe Cousteau, both of which Jacques-Yves Cousteau founded, are still active today. The Society is currently attempting to turn the original Calypso into a museum and it is raising funds to build a successor vessel, the Calypso II. In his last years, after marrying again, Cousteau became involved in a legal battle with his son Jean-Michel over Jean-Michel licensing the Cousteau name for a South Pacific resort, resulting in Jean-Michel Cousteau being ordered by the court not to encourage confusion between his for-profit business and his father's non-profit endeavours. In 2007 International Watch Co introduced the IWC Aquatimer Chronograph 'Cousteau Divers' Special Edition. The timepiece incorporated a sliver of wood from the interior of Cousteau's Calypso research vessel. Having developed the diver's watch, IWC offered support to The Cousteau Society. The proceeds from the timepieces' sales were partially donated to the non-profit organization involved into conservation of marine life and preservation of tropical coral reefs. IWC in homage to Cousteau Pop culture tributes and references Wu-Tang Clan member Old Dirty Bastard pays homage to Jacques Cousteau in the song Da Mystery of Chessboxin from Wu-Tang Clan's Enter the 36 Chambers. "Here I go, deep type flow. Jacques Cousteau could never get this low." Belgian singer Plastic Bertrand made a song about Jacques Cousteau in 1981, under the title Jacques Cousteau. John Denver wrote a song called Calypso as a tribute to Cousteau, the ship, and her crew. The song reached the number-one position on the Billboard 100 charts. Director Wes Anderson has referenced Cousteau a number of times. In his 1998 film Rushmore, the main character Max Fischer finds a Jacques Cousteau quote handwritten in a library book and begins a search for the last person who checked out the book. The quote was "When one man, for whatever reason, has an opportunity to lead an extraordinary life, he has no right to keep it to himself." The 2004 film The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou ,also directed by Wes Anderson, is regarded as both a homage to and a send-up of Cousteau's career. It includes an end credit that reads "In memory of Jacques-Yves Cousteau and with gratitude to the Cousteau Society, which was not involved in the making of this film." Two New Age composers, Vangelis (who was heavily involved with Cousteau in the 1990s) and Jean Michel Jarre, released albums including original numbers honoring Jacques-Yves Cousteau: Cousteau's Dreams (2000) and Waiting for Cousteau (1990). The Swedish band Bob Hund performed a tribute to Jacques Cousteau on their album Ingenting, released in 2002, with songs recorded in 1992–93. They refer to him as being "a brave aquanaut". The band The Flight of the Conchords references Jacques Cousteau in their song Foux du Fa Fa. Andrew Bird's song Lull, on his album Weather Systems, begins, "Being alone, it can be quite romantic/Like Jacques Cousteau underneath the Atlanic." In Star Trek, the captain's yacht of the USS Enterprise-E is named Cousteau. An internet rumour and disinformation which has been running since 1989 says wrongly that Cousteau became a Muslim upon seeing the Koran. the source for this claim and its official refutation Around 1980 a scale model of the Calypso research ship, complete with the marine helicopter was sold to children worldwide, along with leaflets calling for donations to the Cousteau foundation. These models are still being sold as toys. Calypso model ship sold on the Internet. The futuristic novel The Deep Range written by Arthur C. Clarke mentions a research submarine named Cousteau. Gwar's first album, Hell-O, included a song named "Je M'Appelle J. Cöusteaü". The Actionslacks released a song entitled "Jacques Cousteau" on their EP "Kids With Guitars." See also Scuba diving Aqua-lung HMHS Britannic William Beebe Jacques-Yves Cousteau's ships Calypso (ship) SP-350 Denise ("the Diving saucer") Alcyone (ship) Calypso II (planned) BibliographyBooks by CousteauThe Silent World (1953, with Frederic Dumas) Captain Cousteaus Underwater Treasury (1959, with James Dugan) The Living Sea (1963, with James Dugan) World Without Sun (1965) The Undersea Discoveries of Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1970–1975, 8-volumes, with Philippe Diole) The Shark: Splendid Savage of the Sea (1970) Diving for Sunken Treasure (1971) Life and Death in a Coral Sea (1971) The Whale: Mighty Monarch of the Sea (1972) Octopus and Squid: The Soft Intelligence (1973) Three Adventures: Galápagos, Titicaca, the Blue Holes (1973) Diving Companions: Sea Lion, Elephant Seal, Walrus (1974) Dolphins (1975) The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau (1973–78, 21 volumes) Oasis in Space (vol 1) The Act of Life (vol 2) Quest for Food (vol 3) Window in the Sea (vol 4) The Art of Motion (vol 5) Attack and Defense (vol 6) Invisible Messages (vol 7)Instinct and Intelligence (vol 8) Pharaohs of the Sea (vol 9) Mammals in the Sea (vol 10) Provinces of the Sea (vol 11) Man Re-Enters Sea (vol 12) A Sea of Legends (vol 13) Adventure of Life (vol 14) Outer and Inner Space (vol 15) The Whitecaps (vol 16) Riches of the Sea (vol 17) Challenges of the Sea (vol 18) The Sea in Danger (vol 19) Guide to the Sea and Index (vol 20) Calypso (1978, vol 21) A Bill of Rights for Future Generations (1979) Life at the Bottom of the World (1980) The Cousteau United States Almanac of the Environment (1981, aka The Cousteau Almanac of the Environment: An Inventory of Life on a Water Planet) Jacques Cousteau's Calypso (1983) Marine Life of the Caribbean (1984, with James Cribb and Thomas H. Suchanek) Jacques Cousteau's Amazon Journey (1984, with Mose Richards) Jacques Cousteau: The Ocean World (1985) The Whale (1987, with Philippe Diole) Jacques Cousteau: Whales (1988, with Yves Paccalet) The Human, The Orchid and The Octopus (and Susan Schiefelbein, coauthor; Bloomsbury 2007]Books about CousteauUndersea Explorer: The Story of Captain Cousteau (1957) by James Dugan Jacques Cousteau and the Undersea World (2000) by Roger King Jacques-Yves Cousteau: His Story Under the Sea (2002) by John Bankston Jacques Cousteau: A Life Under the Sea (2008) by Kathleen OlmsteadFilmsThe Silent World (1956) World Without Sun (1964) Journey to the End of the World (1976)Television Series''' 1966–68 The World of Jacques-Yves Cousteau1968–76 The Undersea World of Jacques-Yves Cousteau1977–77 Oasis in Space1977–81 Cousteau's Odyssey Series1982–84 Cousteau's Amazon Series1985–91 Cousteau's Rediscovery of the World I1992–94 Cousteau's Rediscovery of the World II'' References External links The Cousteau Society About the Cousteau Society (A page by Robert Simms of Clemson University Mathematics Department) NOAA summary of Cousteau Society contributions Cousteau speaking to young people (.mov QuickTime movie, 1.6Mb) Short biography Obituary (CNN) Find-A-Grave profile for Jacques-Yves Cousteau Jacques-Yves Cousteau (A brief biography by British amateur scuba diver Dave "Hooch" Hasney) Fact file by NNDB Review of latest book, The Human, The Orchid and The Octopus Pictures of Jacques-Yves Cousteau and other members of his marine exploration team.
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7,147
Ammianus_Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus (325/330-after 391) was a fourth-century Roman historian. His is the second-to-last major historical account written during Antiquity (the last was written by Procopius). His work chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from 96 to 378, although only the sections covering the period 353 - 378 are extant. Encyclopædia Britannica Online - Ammianus Marcellinus Biography Ammianus was born between 325 and 330 in the Greek-speaking East, Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Classical World, Israel Shatzman, Michael Avi-Yonah, 1975 Harper and Row, p.37, ISBN 0060101784 East and West Through Fifteen Centuries: Being a General History from B.C. 44 to A.D. 1453, George Frederick Young, 1916 Longmans, Green and Co, p.336 University of California Publications in Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, 1943 University of California Press, p.3 Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes, Cambridge University Press, p. lxvii , possibly at Antioch. The possibility hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a contemporary, Libanius - Matthews 1989: 8. The surviving books of his history, the 'Res Gestae,' cover the years 353 to 378. Ammianus served as a soldier in the army of Constantius II in Gaul and Persia. He was "a former soldier and a Greek" (miles quondam et graecus), Amm. 31.16.9 he tells us, and his enrolment among the elite protectores domestici (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and magister militum. He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the expedition against Silvanus the Frank, who had been forced by the allegedly unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in Gaul. With Ursicinus he went twice to the East, and barely escaped with his life from Amida (modern Diyarbakır), when it was taken by the Sassanid king Shapur II. When Ursicinus lost his office and the favour of Constantius, Ammianus seems to have shared his downfall; but under Julian, Constantius's successor, he regained his position. He accompanied this emperor, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids; after the death of Julian, he took part in the retreat of Jovian as far as Antioch, where he was residing when the conspiracy of Theodorus (371) was discovered and cruelly put down. Work At Rome, he wrote in Latin a history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378), in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. He presumably completed the work before 391, since at 22.16.12 he praises the Serapeum in Egypt as the glory of the empire, and the temple was destroyed by Christians at the end of that year. Res Gestae Libri XXXI was originally in thirty-one books, but the first thirteen are lost (Barnes argues that the original was actually thirty-six books, which would mean that nineteen books had been lost). The surviving eighteen books cover the period from 353 to 378. As a whole it has been considered extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and in general impartial account of events by a contemporary. Like many ancient historians, Ammianus had a strong political and religious agenda to pursue, however, and he contrasted Constantius II with Julian to the former's constant disadvantage; like all ancient writers he was skilled in rhetoric, and this shows in his work. Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary." Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 26.5 But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: "The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy." Gibbon, Chapter 25. Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as, "the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante". E. Stein, Geschichte des spätrömischen Reiches, Vienna 1928 Scholars have often believed that Ammianus' work was intended for public recitation for two reasons: the overwhelming presence of accentual clausulae, which implies that it was intended to be read aloud; and epistle 1063 of Libanius to a Marcellinus of Rome which refers to public recitations. However, virtually all major works of Greek and Latin prose possessed such a pattern, so its presence implies nothing as to the intended audience of Ammianus' work. Recently some scholars have rejected the identification of Libanius' Marcellinus with Ammianus, since Marcellinus was a very common name and the tone suggests Libanius was addressing a man much younger than himself (not a man such as Ammianus, who would have been his contemporary). It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a professional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like Livy and Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited are particularly interesting. Ammianus' work contains a detailed description of the 365 A.D. Alexandria tsunami which devastated the metropolis and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean on 21 July of that year. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea and sudden giant wave. Kelly, Gavin (2004): “Ammianus and the Great Tsunami”, in: The Journal of Roman Studies, 94, 141-167 (141) His work has suffered terribly from the manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, V, produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in M, another ninth-century Frankish codex which was, unfortunately, unbound and placed in other codices during the fifteenth century. Only six leaves of M survive; however, the printed edition of Gelenius (G) is considered to be based on M, making it an important witness to the textual tradition of the Res Gestae. Clark, Text Tradition. Notes References and further reading Scholars of Ammianus use Wolfgang Seyfarth's critical edition, Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt (in 2 vols). Leipzig: Teubner, 1978. Students often use the poor English translation of J.C. Rolfe in the Loeb Classical Library, 1935‑1940 with many reprintings. Walter Hamilton (trans.) The Later Roman Empire (AD 354-378). Penguin Classics, 1986. An abridged, but superior, translation. Barnes, Timothy D. Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-3526-9). Clark, Charles Upson. The Text Tradition of Ammianus Marcellinus. Ph.D. Diss. Yale: 1904. Crump, Gary A. Ammianus Marcellinus as a military historian. Steiner, 1975, ISBN 3515019847. Drijvers, Jan and David Hunt. Late Roman World and its Historian. Routledge, 1999, ISBN 041520271X. Kelly, Gavin. Ammianus Marcellinus: The Allusive Historian. Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 9780521842990. Matthews, J. The Roman Empire of Ammianus. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. Rowell, Henry Thompson. Ammianus Marcellinus, soldier-historian of the late Roman Empire. University of Cincinnati, 1964. Sabbah, Guy. La Méthode d'Ammien Marcellin. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1978. Seager, Robin. Ammianus Marcellinus: Seven Studies in His Language and Thought. Univ of Missouri Pr, 1986, ISBN 0826204953. Thompson, E.A. The Historical Work of Ammianus Marcellinus. London: Cambridge University Press, 1947. External links Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project Ammianus Marcellinus' works in Latin at the Latin Library Ammianus Marcellinus' works in English at the Tertullian Project with introduction on the manuscripts Ammianus Marcellinus’s Use of Exempla
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7,148
Latin_conjugation
Conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms or principal parts. It may be affected by person, number, gender, tense, mood, voice or other language-specific factors. When, for example, we use a verb to function as the action done by a subject, most languages require conjugating the verb to reflect that meaning. (For more information on conjugation in general, see the article on grammatical conjugation.) In Latin, there are four main patterns of conjugation composed of groups of verbs that are conjugated following similar patterns. As in other languages, Latin verbs have an active voice and a passive voice. Furthermore, there exist deponent and semi-deponent Latin verbs (verbs with a passive form but active meaning), as well as defective verbs (verbs with a perfect form but present meaning). Sometimes the verbs of the third conjugation with a present stem on -ǐ are regarded as a separate pattern of conjugation, and are called the fifth conjugation. In a dictionary, Latin verbs are always listed with four principal parts which allow the reader to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs. These are: the first person singular of the present indicative active the present active infinitive the first person singular of the perfect indicative active the supine or, in some texts, the perfect passive participle, which is nearly always identical. Texts that commonly list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs. Some verbs lack this principal part altogether. For simple verb paradigms, see the appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation. Properties of Latin verbs Latin verbs have the following properties: two aspects: perfective (finished) and imperfective (unfinished) two voices: active voice and passive voice three finite moods: indicative mood, subjunctive mood, imperative mood four non-finite forms: infinitive, gerund, participle, supine six tenses: imperfect tense, present tense, future tense, pluperfect tense, perfect tense, and future perfect tense two numbers: singular, plural three persons: first person, second person, third person Latin conjugations There are four conjugations in Latin which define patterns of verb inflection. However the grouping in conjugations is based solely on the behaviour of the verb in the present system, and the stems for other forms cannot be inferred from the present stem, so several forms of the verb are necessary to be able to produce the full range of Latin verbal forms. Most Latin verbs belong to one of the four verb conjugations, though some, like esse (to be), do not. First conjugation The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns: perfect tense has the suffix –vī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum (to carry, to bring) amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum (to love, to be fond of) perfect tense has the suffix –uī. Examples: secō, secāre, secuī, sectum (to cut, to divide) fricō, fricāre, fricuī, frictum (to rub) vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitum (to forbid, to prohibit) perfect tense has the suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples: lavō, lavāre, lāvī, lautum (to wash, to bathe) iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtum (to help, to assist) perfect tense is reduplicated. Examples: stō, stāre, stetī, statum (to stand) dō, dare, dedī, datum (to give, to bestow; this verb is irregular) Second conjugation The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns: perfect tense has the suffix –uī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus (to frighten, to deter) doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus (to teach, to instruct) teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus (to hold, to keep) perfect tense has the suffix –vī. Examples: dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus (to destroy, to efface) cieō, ciēre, cīvī, citum (to arouse, to stir) perfect tense has the suffix –sī or –xī. Examples: augeō, augēre, auxī, auctus (to increase, to enlarge) iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus (to order, to bid) perfect tense is reduplicated with –ī. Examples: mordeō, mordēre, momordī, morsum (to bite, to nip) spondeō, spondēre, spopondī, spōnsum (to vow, to promise) perfect tense has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples: videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus (to see, to notice) foveō, fovēre, fōvī, fōtus (to caress, to cherish) perfect tense has suffix –ī and no perfect passive participle. Examples: strīdeō, strīdere, strīdī (to hiss, to creak) ferveō, fervēre, fervī (sometimes fervuī) (to boil, to seethe) Third conjugation The third conjugation is characterized by a short thematic vowel, which alternates between e, i, and u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in an –ere in the present active infinitive. There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used: perfect tense has suffix –sī or –xī. Examples: carpō, carpere, carpsī, carptum (to pluck, to select) trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctum (to drag, to draw) gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum (to wear, to bear) flectō, flectere, flexī, flexum (to bend, to twist) perfect tense is reduplicated with suffix –ī. Examples: currō, currere, cucurrī, cursum (to run, to race) caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesum (to kill, to slay) tangō, tangere, tetigī, tāctum (to touch, to hit) pellō, pellere, pepulī, pulsum (to beat, to drive away) perfect tense has suffix -vī. Examples: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum (to seek, to attack) linō, linere, līvī, lītum (to smear, to befoul) serō, serere, sēvī, satum (to sow, to plant) terō, terere, trīvī, trītum (to rub, to wear out) sternō, sternere, strāvī, strātum (to spread, to stretch out) perfect tense has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples: agō, agere, ēgī, āctum (to do, to drive) legō, legere, lēgī, lēctum (to collect, to read) emō, emere, ēmī, ēmptum (to buy, to purchase) vincō, vincere, vīcī, victum (to conquer, to master) fundō, fundere, fūdī, fūsum (to pour, to utter) perfect tense has suffix –ī only. Examples: īcō, īcere, īcī, īctum (to strike, to smite) vertō, vertere, vertī, versum (to turn, to alter) vīsō, visere, vīsī, vīsum (to visit) perfect tense has suffix –uī. Examples: metō, metere, messuī, messum (to reap, to harvest) vomō, vomere, vomuī, vomitum (to vomit) colō, colere, coluī, cultum (to cultivate, to till) texō, texere, texuī, textum (to weave, to plait) gignō, gignere, genuī, genitum (to beget, to cause) present tense stem has suffix –u. Examples: minuō, minuere, minuī, minūtum (to lessen, to diminish) ruō, ruere, ruī, rutum (to collapse, to hurl down) struō, struere, strūxī, strūctum (to build, to erect) Present tense indicative first person singular form has suffix with –scō. Examples: nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum (to investigate, to learn) adolēscō, adolēscere, adolēvī (to grow up, to mature) flōrēscō, flōrēscere, flōruī (to begin to flourish, to blossom) haerēscō, haerēscere, haesī, haesum (to adhere, to stick) pāscō, pāscere, pāvī, pāstum (to feed, to nourish) Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. Fourth conjugation The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the –īre ending of the present active infinitive. Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns: perfect tense has suffix –vī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus, a, um (to hear, listen (to)) muniō, munīre, munīvī, munītus, a, um (to fortify, to build) perfect tense has suffix –uī. Examples: aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum (to open, to uncover) perfect tense has suffix –sī or –xī. Examples: saepiō, saepīre, saepsī, saeptum (to surround, to enclose) sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum (to confirm, to ratify) sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsum (to feel, to perceive) perfect tense has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples: veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum (to come, to arrive) Personal endings Personal endings are used in all tenses. The present, imperfect, future, pluperfect and future perfect tenses use the same personal endings in the active voice. However, the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect do not have personal endings in the passive voice as these are formed by a participle and part of esse. The perfect tense uses its own personal endings in the active voice. Active voice Passive voice Singular Plural Singular Plural Present tense, etc. First person –ō, –m –mus –or, –r –mur Second person –s –tis –ris (–re) –minī Third person –t –nt –tur –ntur Active voice Singular Plural Perfect tense First person –ī –imus Second person –istī –istis Third person –it –ērunt (–ēre) Tenses of the imperfective aspect The tenses of the imperfective aspect are present tense, imperfect tense, and future tense. Verbs in one of these forms express an action that has (or had) not been completed. Consider for concreteness the following verbs: the first conjugation verb portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum (to carry, to bring) the second conjugation verb terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum (to frighten, to deter) the third conjugation verb petō, petere, petīvī, petītum (to seek, to attack) the fourth conjugation verb audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum (to hear, to listen (to)) In all the conjugations except for the third conjugation, the –re is removed from the second principal part (for example, portāre without the suffix –re becomes portā–) to form the present stem, which is used for all of the tenses in the imperfective aspect. In the third conjugation, the –ō ending of the present indicative is dropped in order to form the present stem (for example, the present indicative form of regere is regō, and without the -ō it is the present stem, reg–). Occasionally, the terminating vowel of the stem is lengthened and/or shortened, and sometimes completely changed. This is often true both in the third conjugation and in the subjunctive mood of all conjugations. Present tense The present tense (Latin tempus praesēns) is used to show an uncompleted action that happens in the current time. The present tense does not have a tense sign. Instead, the personal endings are added to the bare present stem. However, in this tense the thematical vowel, most notably the ě in the third conjugation, changes the most frequently. Indicative mood The indicative present expresses general truths, facts, demands and desires. Most commonly, a verb like portō can be translated as "I carry," "I do carry," or "I am carrying". In all but the third conjugation, only the thematical vowel of the stem is used. In the third conjugation, the e is only used in the second person singular in the passive for a less difficult pronunciation. Otherwise, it becomes either an i or u. The first person singular of the indicative active present is the first principal part. All end in –ō. Indicative mood, active voice, present tense portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portō portāmus terreō terrēmus petō petimus audiō audīmus Second Person portās portātis terrēs terrētis petis petitis audīs audītis Third Person portat portant terret terrent petit petunt audit audiunt Add the passive endings to form the passive voice. The passive portor can be translated as "I am carried," or "I am being carried". Indicative Passive Present portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portor portāmur terreor terrēmur petor petimur audior audīmur Second person portāris portāminī terrēris terrēminī peteris petiminī audīris audīminī Third person portātur portantur terrētur terrentur petitur petuntur audītur audiuntur Notice that in the second person singular of petere, the thematic vowel is e (peteris, not petiris). Subjunctive present The subjunctive present may be used to assert many things. In general, in independent sentences, it is translated hortatorily (only in the third person plural), jussively and optatively. Portem can be translated as "Let me carry." or "May I carry." Portēmus can be "Let us carry". Some alterations have occurred in the vowels from the indicative and subjunctive. The first conjugation now uses an e and an ē. The second conjugation uses ea and eā. In the third conjugation, all thematicals have become either a or ā. The fourth conjugation now has either ia or iā. "We eat caviar" is a helpful mnemonic for remembering this. First conjugation verbs have an "e" in their stem (we), second conjugation verbs have an "-ea" (eat), third conjugation verbs have an "a" (caviar), and fourths have an "ia" (caviar). Other acceptable mnemonics include she reads a diary, he beats a liar, everybody eats apple iambics, or let’s steal a fiat. Subjunctive Active Present portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portem portēmus terream terreāmus petam petāmus audiam audiāmus Second person portēs portētis terreās terreātis petās petātis audiās audiātis Third person portet portent terreat terreant petat petant audiat audiant Like the indicative, active personal endings may be replaced by passive personal endings. Porter can be translated as "Let me be carried" or "May I be carried." Hortatorily, Portēmur can be "Let us be carried". Subjunctive Passive Present portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person porter portēmur terrear terreāmur petar petāmur audiar audiāmur Second person portēris portēminī terreāris terreāminī petāris petāminī audiāris audiāminī Third person portētur portentur terreātur terreantur petātur petantur audiātur audiantur Imperative present The imperative in the present conveys commands, pleas and recommendations. Portā can be translated as "(You) Carry" or simply, "Carry". The imperative present occurs only in the second person. The second person singular in the active voice uses only the bare stem, and does not add an imperative ending. Imperative Active Present portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Second person portā portāte terrē terrēte pete petite audī audīte The imperative present of the passive voice is rarely used. Portāminī can be translated as "(You) Be carried" or "Be carried". The singular uses the present active infinitive and the plural uses the present passive indicative form of the second person plural. Imperative Passive Present portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Second person portāre portāminī terrēre terrēminī petere petiminī audīre audīminī Imperfect tense The imperfect tense (Latin tempus imperfectum) indicates a perpetual, but incomplete action in the past. It is recognized by the tense signs bǎ and bā in the indicative, and re and rē in the subjunctive. Indicative imperfect In the indicative mood, the imperfect simply express an action in the past that was not completed. Portābam can be translated to mean, "I was carrying," "I kept carrying," or "I used to carry". In the indicative, the imperfect employs its tense signs ba and bā before personal endings are added. Indicative Active Imperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portābam portābāmus terrēbam terrēbāmus petēbam petēbāmus audiēbam audiēbāmus Second person portābās portābātis terrēbās terrēbātis petēbās petēbātis audiēbās audiēbātis Third person portābat portābant terrēbat terrēbant petēbat petēbant audiēbat audiēbant As with the present tense, active personal endings are taken off, and passive personal endings are put in their place. Portābar can be translated as "I was being carried," "I kept being carried," or "I used to be carried". Indicative Passive Imperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portābar portābāmur terrēbar terrēbāmur petēbar petēbāmur audiēbar audiēbāmur Second person portābāris portābāminī terrēbāris terrēbāminī petēbāris petēbāminī audiēbāris audiēbāminī Third person portābātur portābantur terrēbātur terrēbantur petēbātur petēbantur audiēbātur audiēbantur Subjunctive imperfect In the subjunctive, the imperfect tense is quite important, especially in subordinate clauses. Independently, it is largely translated conditionally. Portārem can mean, "I should carry," or "I would carry". Unlike the indicative, the subjunctive does not modify the thematic vowel. The third conjugation's thematical remains short as an e, and the fourth conjugation does not use an iē before the imperfect signs. It keeps its ī. In the subjunctive, the imperfect employs its tense signs re and rē before personal endings. The verb esse (to be) has two subjunctive imperfects: one using the present infinitive (essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis, essent) and one using the future infinitive (forem, fores, foret, foremus, foretis, forent). Subjunctive Active Imperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portārem portārēmus terrērem terrērēmus peterem peterēmus audīrem audīrēmus Second person portārēs portārētis terrērēs terrērētis peterēs peterētis audīrēs audīrētis Third person portāret portārent terrēret terrērent peteret peterent audīret audīrent As with the indicative subjunctive, active endings are removed, and passive endings are added. Portārer may be translated as "I should be carried," or "I would be carried." Subjunctive Passive Imperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portārer portārēmur terrērer terrērēmur peterer peterēmur audīrer audīrēmur Second person portārēris portārēminī terrērēris terrērēminī peterēris peterēminī audīrēris audīrēminī Third person portārētur portārentur terrērētur terrērentur peterētur peterentur audīrētur audīrentur Future tense The future tense (Latin tempus futūrum simplex) expresses an uncompleted action in the future. It is recognized by its tense signs bō, bi, bu, e and ē in the indicative and the vowel ō in the imperative mood. Indicative future The future tense always refers to an incomplete action. In addition, the future tense is stricter in usage temporally in Latin than it is in English. Standing alone, portābō can mean, "I shall carry," or "I will carry." The first and second conjugations use bō, bi and bu as signs for the future indicative. The third and fourth conjugations replace their thematicals with a, ě and ē. The fourth conjugation inserts an ǐ before the a, e and ē. Indicative Active Future portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portābō portābimus terrēbō terrēbimus petam petēmus audiam audiēmus Second person portābis portābitis terrēbis terrēbitis petēs petētis audiēs audiētis Third person portābit portābunt terrēbit terrēbunt petet petent audiet audient As with all imperfective system tenses, active personal endings are removed, and passive personal endings are put on. Portābor translates as, "I shall be carried." Indicative Passive Future portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First person portābor portābimur terrēbor terrēbimur petar petēmur audiar audiēmur Second person portāberis portābiminī terrēberis terrēbiminī petēris petēminī audiēris audiēminī Third person portābitur portābuntur terrēbitur terrēbuntur petētur petentur audiētur audientur Notice that the penultimate vowel in the second person singular of portāre and terrēre is e, not i (portāberis and terrēberis, instead of the expected portābiris and terrēbiris). Imperative future The so-called future imperative was an archaic and formal form of the imperative; by the classical period, it was chiefly used in legal documents and the like. A few irregular or defective verbs (esse 'be', meminisse 'remember') used this form as their only imperative. Portātō can be translated as "You shall carry". As mentioned previously, the vowel ō is used as a sign of the future imperative. Imperative Active Future portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Second person portātō portātōte terrētō terrētōte petitō petitōte audītō audītōte Third person portātō portantō terrētō terrentō petitō petuntō audītō audiuntō The letter R is used to designate the passive voice in the future imperative. The second person plural is absent here. Portātor translates as "You shall be carried." Imperative Passive Future portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Second person portātor —— terrētor —— petitor —— audītor —— Third person portātor portantor terrētor terrentor petitor petuntor audītor audiuntor Perfective aspect tenses The tenses of the perfective aspect, which are the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses, are used to express actions that have been completed. The verbs used for explanation are: 1st Conjugation: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum — to carry, bring 2nd Conjugation: terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum — to frighten, deter 3rd Conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum — to seek, attack 4th Conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to) For all conjugations, the –ī is removed from the third principal part. For example, from portāvī, portāv is formed. This is the perfect stem, and it is used for all of the tenses in the perfective aspect. The perfective aspect verbs also use the perfect passive participle in the passive voice. See below to see how it is formed. Along with these participles, the verb esse, which means, "to be", is used. Unlike the imperfective aspect, inflection does not deviate from conjugation to conjugation. Perfect tense The perfect tense (Latin tempus perfectum) refers to an action completed in the past. Tense signs are only used in this tense with the indicative. The tense signs of the subjunctive are eri and erī. Indicative perfect The indicative perfect expresses a finished action in the past. If the action were not finished, but still lies in the past, one would use the imperfect tense. Portāvī is translated as "I carried," "I did carry," or "I have carried." As aforementioned, the indicative perfect in the active voice has its special personal endings. Indicative Active Perfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portāvī portāvimus terruī terruimus petīvī petīvimus audīvī audīvimus Second Person portāvistī portāvistis terruistī terruistis petīvistī petīvistis audīvistī audīvistis Third Person portāvit portāvērunt terruit terruērunt petīvit petīvērunt audīvit audīvērunt In the passive voice, the perfect passive participle is used with the auxiliary verb esse. It uses the indicative present form of esse. Portātus sum translates as "I was carried," or "I have been carried." Indicative Passive Perfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portātus sum portātī sumus territus sum territī sumus petītus sum petītī sumus audītus sum audītī sumus Second Person portātus es portātī estis territus es territī estis petītus es petītī estis audītus es audītī estis Third Person portātus est portātī sunt territus est territī sunt petītus est petītī sunt audītus est audītī sunt Subjunctive perfect Like the subjunctive imperfect, the subjunctive perfect is largely used in subordinate clauses. Independently, it is usually translated as the potential subjunctive. By itself, portāverim translates as "I may have carried." The tense signs eri and erī are used before the personal endings are added. Subjunctive Active Perfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portāverim portāverīmus terruerim terruerīmus petīverim petīverīmus audīverim audīverīmus Second Person portāverīs portāverītis terruerīs terruerītis petīverīs petīverītis audīverīs audīverītis Third Person portāverit portāverint terruerit terruerint petīverit petīverint audīverit audīverint The passive voice uses the perfect passive participle with the subjunctive present forms of esse. Portātus sim means, "I may have been carried." Subjunctive Passive Perfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portātus sim portātī sīmus territus sim territī sīmus petītus sim petītī sīmus audītus sim audītī sīmus Second Person portātus sīs portātī sītis territus sīs territī sītis petītus sīs petītī sītis audītus sīs audītī sītis Third Person portātus sit portātī sint territus sit territī sint petītus sit petītī sint audītus sit audītī sint Pluperfect tense The pluperfect tense (Latin tempus plūs quam perfectum) expresses an action which was completed before another completed action. It is recognized by the tense signs era and erā in the indicative and isse and issē in the subjunctive. Indicative pluperfect As with English, in Latin, the indicative pluperfect is used to assert an action that was completed before another (perfect tense). Portāveram translates as "I had carried." The tense sign erā is employed before adding the personal endings, with the long ā following the usual rules for shortening before final -m, -t, and -nt. Indicative Active Pluperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portāveram portāverāmus terrueram terruerāmus petīveram petīverāmus audīveram audīverāmus Second Person portāverās portāverātis terruerās terrurerātis petīverās petīverātis audīverās audīverātis Third Person portāverat portāverant terruerat terruerant petīverat petīverant audīverat audīverant In the passive voice, the present passive participle is utilized with esse in the indicative imperfect. Portātus eram is translated as "I had been carried." Indicative Passive Pluperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portātus eram portātī erāmus territus eram territī erāmus petītus eram petītī erāmus audītus eram audītī erāmus Second Person portātus erās portātī erātis territus erās territī erātis petītus erās petītī erātis audītus erās audītī erātis Third Person portātus erat portātī erant territus erat territī erant petītus erat petītī erant audītus erat audītī erant Subjunctive pluperfect The subjunctive pluperfect is to the subjunctive perfect as the subjunctive imperfect is to the subjunctive present. Simply put, it is used with the subjunctive perfect in subordinate clauses. Like the subjunctive imperfect, it is translated conditionally independently. Portāvissem is translated as "I should have carried," or "I would have carried." The tense signs isse and issē are used before the personal endings. Subjunctive Active Pluperfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portāvissem portāvissēmus terruissem terruissēmus petīvissem petīvissēmus audīvissem audīvissēmus Second Person portāvissēs portāvissētis terruissēs terruissētis petīvissēs petīvissētis audīvissēs audīvissētis Third Person portāvisset portāvissent terruisset terruissent petīvisset petīvissent audīvisset audīvissent As always, the passive voice uses the perfect passive participle. The subjunctive imperfect of esse is used here. Portātus essem may mean "I should have been carried," or "I could have been carried," in the conditional sense. Subjunctive Passive Pluperfect portāre terrēre Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portātus essem portātī essēmus territus essem territī essēmus Second Person portātus essēs portātī essētis territus essēs territī essētis Third Person portātus esset portātī essent territus esset territī essent petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person petītus essem petītī essēmus audītus essem audītī essēmus Second Person petītus essēs petītī essētis audītus essēs audītī essētis Third Personpetītus esset petītī essent audītus esset audītī essent Future perfect tense The least used of all the tenses, the future perfect tense (Latin tempus futūrum exāctum) conveys an action that will have been completed before another action. It is signified by the tense signs erō and eri. The future perfect tense is the only tense that occurs in a single mood. Indicative future perfect As said, the future perfect is used to mention an action that will have been completed in futurity before another action. It is often used with the future tense. In simple translation, portāverō means, "I will have carried," or "I shall have carried." The tense signs erō and eri are used before the personal endings. Indicative Active Future Perfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portāverō portāverimus terruerō terruerimus petīverō petīverimus audīverō audīverimus Second Person portāveris portāveritis terrueris terrueritis petīveris petīveritis audīveris audīveritis Third Person portāverit portāverint terruerit terruerint petīverit petīverint audīverit audīverint As with all perfective aspect tenses, the perfect passive participle is used in the passive voice. However, the future perfect uses the indicative future of esse as the auxiliary verb. Portātus erō is "I will have been carried," or "I shall have been carried." Indicative Passive Future Perfect portāre terrēre petere audīre Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person portātus erō portātī erimus territus erō territī erimus petītus erō petītī erimus audītus erō audītī erimus Second Person portātus eris portātī eritis territus eris territī eritis petītus eris petītī eritis audītus eris audītī eritis Third Person portātus erit portātī erunt territus erit territī erunt petītus erit petītī erunt audītus erit audītī erunt Non-finite forms The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives. The verbs used are: 1st Conjugation: portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum — to carry, bring 2nd Conjugation: terreō, terrēre. terruī, territum — to frighten, deter 3rd Conjugation: petō, petere, petīvī, petītum — to seek, attack 4th Conjugation: audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – to hear, listen (to) The participles There are three participles: present active, perfect passive and future active. The present active participle is declined like a third declension adjective with one ending. In the first and second conjugations, the present active infinitive is formed by taking the present stem and adding an –ns. The genitive singular form adds an –ntis, and the thematicals ā and ē are shortened. In the third conjugation, the e of the present stem is lengthened. In the genitive, the ē is short again. In the fourth conjugation, the ī is shortened, and an ē is placed. Of course, this ē is short in the genitive. Puer portāns translates into "carrying boy." The perfect passive participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective. In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by taking the –um from the supine, and adding a –us (masculine nominative singular). Puer portātus translates into "carried boy." The future active participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective. In all conjugations the –um is removed from the supine, and an –ūrus (masculine nominative singular) is added. Puer portātūrus translates into "boy about to carry," or "boy who is about to carry." Participles portāre terrēre petere audīre Present Active portāns, –antis terrēns, –entis petēns, –entis audiēns, –entis Perfect Passive portātus, –a, –um territus, –a, –um petītus, –a, –um audītus, –a, –um Future Active portātūrus, –a, –um territūrus, –a, –um petītūrus, –a, –um audītūrus, –a, –um The infinitives There are six infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active and future passive. The present active infinitive is the second principal part (in regular verbs). It plays an important role in the syntactic construction of Accusativus cum infinitivo, for instance. Portāre means, "to carry." The present passive infinitive is formed by adding a –rī to the present stem. This is only so for the first, second and fourth conjugations. In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, e, is taken from the present stem, and an –ī is added. Portārī translates into "to be carried." The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding an –isse onto the perfect stem. Portāvisse translates into "to have carried." The perfect passive infinitive uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb esse. The perfect passive infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender. Portātus esse means, "to have been carried." The future active infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb esse. Portātūrus esse means, "to be going to carry." The future active infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender. Esse has two future infinitives: futurus esse and fore. The future passive infinitive uses the supine with the auxiliary verb īrī. Portātum īrī is translated as "to be going to be carried." This is normally used in indirect speech. For example: Omnēs senātōres dīxērunt templum conditum īrī. "All of the senators said that a temple would be built." Infinitives portāre terrēre petere audīre Present Active portāre terrēre petere audīre Present Passive portārī terrērī petī audīrī Perfect Active portāvisse terruisse petīvisse audīvisse Perfect Passive portātus esse territus esse petītus esse audītus esse Future Active portātūrus esse territūrus esse petītūrus esse audītūrus esse Future Passive portātum īrī territum īrī petītum īrī audītum īrī+Here, masculine endings are used. The supine The supine is the fourth principal part. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases. The accusative form ends in a –um, and is used with a verb of motion in order to show the purpose. Thus, it is only used with verbs like cedere, venīre, etc. The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if needed. Pater vēnit portātum līberōs suōs. — The father came to carry his children. The ablative, which ends in a –ū, is used with the Ablative of Specification. Arma haec facillima portātū erant. — These arms were the easiest to carry. Supine portāre terrēre petere audīre Accusative portātum territum petītum audītum Ablative portātū territū petītū audītū The gerund The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the –ns becomes an –ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form portandī can mean "of carrying", the dative form portandō can mean "to carrying", the accusative form portandum can mean "carrying", and the ablative form portandō can mean "by carrying", "in respect to carrying", etc. Gerund portāre terrēre petere audīre Genitive portandī terrendī petendī audiendī Dative portandō terrendō petendō audiendō Accusative portandum terrendum petendum audiendum Ablative portandō terrendō petendō audiendō Locative portandō terrendō petendō audiendō One common use of the gerund is with the preposition ad to indicate purpose. For example paratus ad oppugnandum could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction paratus ad hostes oppugnandos is preferred over paratus ad hostes oppugnandum. The gerundive The gerundive is the passive equivalent of the gerund, and much more common in Latin. It is a first and second declension adjective, and means, “(the verb) being done”. Often, the gerundive is used with an implicit esse, to show obligation. Puer portandus “(the) Boy who should be carried.” Oratio laudenda est means, “The speech has to be praised.” In such constructions a substantive in dative may be used to name the agens of the obligation (dativus auctoris), like in Oratio nobis laudenda est meaning “The speech has to be praised by us” or “We have to praise the speech”. Gerundive portāre terrēre petere audīre portandus, –a, –um terrendus, –a, –um petendus, –a, –um audiendus, –a, –um Periphrastic conjugations There are two periphrastic conjugations. One is active, and the other is passive. Active The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated as "I am going to carry," "I was going to carry", etc. Conjugation Translation Pres. Ind. portātūrus sum I am going to carry Imp. Ind. portātūrus eram I was going to carry Fut. Ind. portātūrus erō I will be going to carry Perf. Ind. portātūrus fuī I have been going to carry Plup. Ind. portātūrus fueram I had been going to carry Fut. Perf. Ind. portātūrus fuerō I will have been going to carry Pres. Subj. portātūrus sim I may be going to carry Imp. Subj. portātūrus essem I should be going to carry Perf. Subj. portātūrus fuerim I may have been going to carry Plup. Subj. portātūrus fuissem I should have been going to carry Passive The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am to be carried," "I was to be carried", etc., or as "I have to (must) be carried," "I had to be carried," etc. Conjugation Translation Pres. Ind. portandus sum I am to be carried Imp. Ind. portandus eram I was to be carried Fut. Ind. portandus erō I will deserve to be carried Perf. Ind. portandus fuī I was to be carried Plup. Ind. portandus fueram I had deserved to be carried Fut. Perf. Ind. portandus fuerō I will have deserved to be carried Pres. Subj. portandus sim I may deserve to be carried Imp. Subj. portandus essem I should deserve to be carried Perf. Subj. portandus fuerim I may have deserved to be carried Plup. Subj. portandus fuissem I should have deserved to be carried Pres. Inf. portandus esse To deserve to be carried Perf. Inf. portandus fuisse To have deserved to be carried Peculiarities within conjugation and non-finite forms Irregular verbs There are a few irregular verbs in Latin that are not grouped into a particular conjugation (such as esse and posse), or deviate slightly from a conjugation (such as ferre, īre, and dare). It consists of the following list and their compounds (such as conferre). Many irregular verbs lack a fourth principal part. sum, esse, fuī, futūrum — to be, exist possum, posse, potuī — to be able, can eō, īre, īvī / īī, ītum — to go volō, velle, voluī — to wish, want nōlō, nōlle, nōluī — to be unwilling, refuse mālō, mālle, māluī — to prefer ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum — to bear, endure fiō, fīerī, factus sum — to become, happen edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsum – to eat, waste dō, dare, dedī, datum — to give, bestow Deponent and semi-deponent verbs Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect tenses of ordinary passives are formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some example coming from all conjugations are: 1st Conjugation: mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum — to admire, wonder 2nd Conjugation: polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum — to promise, offer 3rd Conjugation: loquor, loquī, locūtus sum — to speak, say 4th Conjugation: orior, orīrī, ortus sum – to rise, spring up Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves, and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of loquī, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc. Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus semideponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example: audeō, audēre, ausus sum — to dare, venture Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, mīrārī changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and audeō changed to osar(e) by taking the participle ausus and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o). Third conjugation –iō verbs There is a rather prolific subset of important verbs within the third conjugation. They have an –iō present in the first principal part (–ior for deponents), and resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms. Otherwise, they are still conjugated as normal, third conjugation verbs. Thus, these verbs are called third conjugation –iō verbs or third conjugation i-stems. Some examples are: capiō, capere, cēpī, captum — to take, seize cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītum — to desire, long for faciō, facere, fēcī, factum - to do, make morior, morī, mortuus sum (dep.) — to die, decay patior, patī, passus sum (dep.) — to suffer, undergo rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptum - to plunder, take up They resemble the fourth conjugation in the following instances. Indicative present (first person singular, third person plural) — capiō, capiunt, etc. Indicative imperfect — capiēbam, capiēbāmus, etc. Indicative future — capiam, capiēmus, etc. Subjunctive present — capiam, capiāmus, etc. Imperative future (third person plural) — capiuntō, etc. Present Active Participle — capiēns, –entis Gerund — capiendī, capiendum, etc. Gerundive — capiendus, –a, –um Defective verbs Defective verbs are verbs that are only conjugated in only some instances. Some verbs are only conjugated in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's tenses' meanings. As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and the future perfect becomes the future. Therefore, the defective verb ōdī means, "I hate." These defective verbs' principal parts are given in vocabulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect active infinitive. Some examples are: ōdī, ōdisse — to hate meminī, meminisse — to remember coepī, coepisse — to have begun A few verbs, the meanings of which usually have to do with speech, only appear in certain occurrences. Cedo (plur. cette), which means "Hand it over" or "Out with it" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person. The following are conjugated irregularly: āiō — I affirm, state {| class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="3"| !colspan="8"| Conjugation of āiō |- !colspan="2"| IndicativePresent !colspan="2"| IndicativeImperfect !colspan="2"| SubjunctivePresent |- |- ! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural |- ! First Person | āiō || —— || āiēbam || āiēbāmus || —— || —— |- ! Second Person | aīs || —— || āiēbās || āiēbātis || āias* || —— |- ! Third Person | aīt || āiunt || āiēbat || āiēbant || āiat || āiant* |} Present Active Participle: — āiēns, –entis Some sources do not list these parts. inquam — I say {| class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="3"| !colspan="6"| Conjugation of inquam |- !colspan="2"| Indicative Present !colspan="2"| IndicativeFuture !colspan="2"| IndicativePerfect !colspan="2"| IndicativeImperfect |- |- ! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural |- ! First person | inquam || inquimus || —— || —— || inquii || —— || —— || —— |- ! Second person | inquis || —— || inquiēs || inquisti || —— || —— || —— || —— |- ! Third person | inquit || inquiunt || inquiet || —— || inquit || —— || inquiebat || —— |} fārī — to speak {| class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="3"| !colspan="10"| Conjugation of fārī |- !colspan="2"| IndicativePresent !colspan="2"| IndicativeFuture !colspan="2"| IndicativePerfect !colspan="2"| IndicativePluperfect !colspan="2"| ImperativePresent |- |- ! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural |- ! First Person | for || —— || fābor || —— || fātus sum || —— || fātus eram || —— || —— || —— |- ! Second Person | —— || —— || —— || —— || —— || —— || —— || —— || fāre || —— |- ! Third Person | fātur || fantur || fābitur || —— || —— || —— || —— || —— || —— || —— |} Imperative - farePresent Active Participle — fāns, fantisPresent Active Infinitive — fārīPresent Passive Infinitive - farierSupine — (acc.) fātum, (abl.) fātūGerund — (gen.) fandī, (dat. and abl.) fandō, no accusativeGerundive' — fandus, –a, –umThe Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ōdī and the imperative cedo) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, odiare, cedere). Impersonal verbs Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "It storms"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:pluit, pluere, pluvit — to rain (it rains)ningit, ningere, ninxit — to snow (it snows)oportet, oportēre, oportuit — to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to) The third person forms of esse may also be seen as impersonal when seen from the perspective of English:Nox aestīva calida fuit. — It was a hot, summer night.Est eī quī terram colunt. — It is they who till the land. Irregular future active participles As stated, the future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur. presentactiveinfinitive supine futureactiveparticiple iuvāre iūtum iuvātūrus lavāre lautum lavātūrus parere partum paritūrus ruere rutum ruitūrus secāre sectum secātūrus fruī fructum fruitūrus morī mortuum moritūrus orīrī ortum oritūrus Alternative verb forms Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones): The ending –ris in the passive voice may be –re as in:portābāris → portābāreThe ending –ērunt in the perfect tense may be –ēre as in:portāvērunt → portāvēreSyncopated verb forms Like most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances: Perfect stems that end in a –v may be contracted when inflected.portāvisse → portāsseportāvistī → portāstīportāverant → portārantportāvisset → portāssetThe compounds of noscere (to learn) and movēre (to move, dislodge) can also be contracted.novistī → nostīnovistis → nostiscommoveram → commoramcommoverās → commorāsSummary of forms The four conjugations in the indicative mood The Four Conjugations, Indicative Mood 1st 2nd 3rd 3rd (i-stem) 4th laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātum terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum agō, agere, ēgī, actum capiō, capere, cēpī, captum audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive Present 1st Singular laudō laudor terrēo terreor agō agor capiō capior audiō audior 2nd Person laudās laudāris terrēs terrēris agis ageris capis caperis audīs audīris (audīre) 3rd Person laudat laudātur terret terrētur agit agitur capit capitur audit audītur 1st Plural laudāmus laudāmur terrēmus terrēmur agimus agimur capimus capimur audīmus audīmur 2nd Person laudātis laudāminī terrētis terrēminī agitis agiminī capitis capiminī audītis audīminī 3rd Person laudant laudantur terrent terrentur agunt aguntur capiunt capiuntur audiunt audiuntur Notes The archaic uncontracted form potesse occurs frequently in Lucretius. Form moriri, Ovid, Metamorphoses (poem) 14.215 Used by Cicero frequently. Used personally by Lucretius (2.627): ningunt'' References See also Grammatical conjugation Latin declension List of English words from Latin verb forms Romance copula William Whitaker's Words Latin mnemonics External links Verbix automatically conjugates verbs in Latin. Latin Verb Synopsis Drill tests a user on his ability to conjugate verbs correctly.
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fuit:1 hot:1 summer:1 night:1 eī:1 quī:1 terram:1 colunt:1 land:1 deviation:1 presentactiveinfinitive:1 futureactiveparticiple:1 iuvātūrus:1 lavātūrus:1 parere:1 partum:1 paritūrus:1 ruitūrus:1 secātūrus:1 fruī:1 fructum:1 fruitūrus:1 mortuum:1 moritūrus:1 ortum:1 oritūrus:1 alternative:2 author:1 fairly:1 canonical:1 portābārethe:1 portāvēresyncopated:1 syncopate:1 contraction:1 v:1 contract:2 inflect:1 portāsseportāvistī:1 portāstīportāverant:1 portārantportāvisset:1 portāssetthe:1 noscere:1 movēre:1 move:1 dislodge:1 novistī:1 nostīnovistis:1 nostiscommoveram:1 commoramcommoverās:1 commorāssummary:1 laudō:2 laudāre:1 laudāvī:1 laudātum:1 actum:1 laudor:1 terrēo:1 agor:1 capior:1 laudās:1 laudāris:1 agis:1 ageris:1 capis:1 caperis:1 laudat:1 laudātur:1 agit:1 agitur:1 capit:1 capitur:1 laudāmus:1 laudāmur:1 agimus:1 agimur:1 capimus:1 capimur:1 laudātis:1 laudāminī:1 agitis:1 agiminī:1 capitis:1 capiminī:1 laudant:1 laudantur:1 agunt:1 aguntur:1 capiuntur:1 uncontracted:1 potesse:1 lucretius:2 moriri:1 ovid:1 metamorphosis:1 poem:1 cicero:1 personally:1 ningunt:1 reference:1 copula:1 william:1 whitaker:1 external:1 link:1 verbix:1 automatically:1 synopsis:1 drill:1 test:1 user:1 ability:1 correctly:1 |@bigram grammatical_conjugation:2 verb_conjugate:3 defective_verb:6 active_infinitive:13 passive_participle:12 intransitive_verb:1 mood_indicative:4 indicative_mood:6 subjunctive_mood:2 imperative_mood:3 imperfect_tense:6 perfect_tense:35 singular_plural:112 verb_conjugation:2 vowel_ā:1 tense_suffix:17 suffix_ī:7 terreō_terrēre:5 terrēre_terruī:5 conjugation_verb:10 tense_indicative:2 audiō_audīre:5 audīre_audīvī:5 perfect_pluperfect:2 plural_singular:81 imperfective_aspect:6 portāre_terrēre:31 terrēre_petere:29 petere_audīre:30 audīre_singular:24 indicative_passive:6 indicative_subjunctive:3 subjunctive_imperfect:8 subordinate_clause:3 verb_esse:6 perfective_aspect:6 past_tense:1 perfect_portāre:6 auxiliary_verb:5 person_portātus:15 declension_adjective:4 genitive_singular:1 ā_ē:2 nominative_singular:2 passive_infinitive:5 neuter_noun:1 ind_portātūrus:6 ind_portandus:6 deponent_verb:5 class_wikitable:3 wikitable_rowspan:3 rowspan_colspan:3 ovid_metamorphosis:1 external_link:1
7,149
Meconium_aspiration_syndrome
Meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS, alternatively "Neonatal aspiration of meconium") occurs when infants take meconium into their lungs during or before delivery. Meconium is the first stool of an infant, composed of materials ingested during the time the infant spends in the uterus: intestinal epithelial cells, lanugo, mucus, amniotic fluid, bile, and water. Meconium is sterile, unlike later feces, and has no odor. Meconium is normally stored in the infant's intestines until after birth, but sometimes (often in response to fetal distress) it is expelled into the amniotic fluid prior to birth, or during labor. If the baby then inhales the contaminated fluid, respiratory problems may occur. Causes and risk factors Meconium passage into the amniotic fluid occurs in about 5-20 percent of all births. This is more common in postdate births. Of the cases where meconium is found in the amniotic fluid Meconium Aspiration Syndrome develops less than 5 percent of the time IM Usta, BM Mercer, and BM Sibai - "Risk factors for meconium aspiration syndrome" . Frequently, fetal distress during labor causes intestinal contractions, as well as a relaxation of the anal sphincter, which allows meconium to contaminate the amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid is normally clear, but becomes greenish if it is tinted with meconium. If the infant inhales this mixture before, during, or after birth, it may be sucked deep into the lungs. Three main problems occur if this happens: the material may block the airways efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs is lowered the meconium-tainted fluid is irritating, inflaming airways (pneumonitis) and possibly leading to chemical pneumonia. About a third of those infants who experience MAS require breathing assistance. Symptoms and signs The most obvious sign that meconium has been passed during or before labor is the greenish or yellowish appearance of the amniotic fluid. The infant's skin, umbilical cord, or nailbeds may be stained green if the meconium was passed a considerable amount of time before birth. These symptoms alone do not necessarily indicate that the baby has inhaled in the fluid by gasping in utero or after birth. After birth, rapid or labored breathing, cyanosis, slow heartbeat, a barrel-shaped chest or low Apgar score are all signs of the syndrome. Inhalation can be confirmed by one or more tests such as using a stethoscope to listen for abnormal lung sounds (diffuse crackles and rhonchi), performing blood gas tests to confirm a severe loss of lung function, and using chest X-rays to look for patchy or streaked areas on the lungs. Infants who have inhaled meconium may develop respiratory distress syndrome often requiring ventilatory support. Complications of MAS include pneumothorax and persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Prevention and Treatment MAS is difficult to prevent. Ensuring that the infant is born before 42 weeks of gestation may lessen the risk. Amnioinfusion is a method of thinning thick meconium that has passed into the amniotic fluid. In this procedure, a tube is inserted into the uterus through the vagina, and sterile fluid is pumped in to dilute thick meconium. Recent studies have not shown a benefit from amnioinfusion. Until recently it had been recommended that the throat and nose of the baby be suctioned by the delivery attendant as soon as the head is delivered. However, new studies have shown that this is not useful and the revised Neonatal Resuscitation Guidelines published by the American Academy of Pediatrics no longer recommend it. When meconium staining of the amniotic fluid is present and the baby is born depressed, it is recommended by the guidelines that an individual trained in neonatal intubation use a laryngoscope and endotracheal tube to suction meconium from below the vocal cords. If the condition worsens to a point where treatments are not affecting the newborn as they should, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) can be necessary to keep the infant alive. This is essentially a heart-lung machine that can be used for days, rather than only hours or minutes. See also Aspiration pneumonia Footnotes and references External links eMedicine's article about meconium aspiration syndrome
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7,150
Cultural_production_and_nationalism
Literature, visual arts, music, and scholarship have complex relationships with ideological forces. The 19th Century In the 19th century nationalism was an especially potent influence on all of these fields. To summarize, every established national group used cultural productions to assert and strengthen a sense of national unity and destiny; less politically consolidated groups, especially those pursuing the goal of nationhood, used them in the same ways, though often with a note of determination that makes them easier to see from our contemporary point of reference. Natural admiration for excellence and justifiable pride in a predecessor's achievements is sometimes difficult to sort out from other intentions. Dante was a great poet, the Societa Dantesca Italiana did great work in editing and publishing a usable and affordable text, but the Divine Comedy was certainly used by the newly unified Italian government (see History of Italy) to encourage a more homogeneous, Tuscan-influenced dialect for the whole peninsula (see Italian language). Literature the Kalevala Ossian Dante folklore collections the Brothers Grimm Visual Arts the Nazarene movement Gothic revival art history and nationalism Music Richard Wagner The Academy This relationship between ideology and serious work is particularly ambiguous in the academic fields of historical importance. Much as 19th century science is often treated as the inventor of conceptions of evolution and race which had serious negative political and social consequences, many 19th century historians pursued what they intended as reasonably objective research projects in the history of their own and other regions either to end by themselves using the results to support nationalistic goals or to see their work used that way by others. More politically consolidated nations sponsored historical research projects which produced results of permanent value - such as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica ("Monuments of German History") project. The MGH is a vast series (it runs to hundreds of volumes and is still publishing) of edited primary source material essential for scholarly work on late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. However, the term "German" in the title was interpreted in the broadest possible sense, and its initial royal patronage made the connection clear between a perceived unity of Germanness in history and 19th century Germanness. See also Romantic nationalism
Cultural_production_and_nationalism |@lemmatized literature:2 visual:2 art:3 music:2 scholarship:1 complex:1 relationship:2 ideological:1 force:1 century:5 nationalism:3 especially:2 potent:1 influence:1 field:2 summarize:1 every:1 establish:1 national:2 group:2 use:5 cultural:1 production:1 assert:1 strengthen:1 sense:2 unity:2 destiny:1 le:1 politically:2 consolidated:2 pursue:2 goal:2 nationhood:1 way:2 though:1 often:2 note:1 determination:1 make:2 easy:1 see:5 contemporary:1 point:1 reference:1 natural:1 admiration:1 excellence:1 justifiable:1 pride:1 predecessor:1 achievement:1 sometimes:1 difficult:1 sort:1 intention:1 dante:2 great:2 poet:1 societa:1 dantesca:1 italiana:1 work:4 edit:2 publish:2 usable:1 affordable:1 text:1 divine:1 comedy:1 certainly:1 newly:1 unify:1 italian:2 government:1 history:5 italy:1 encourage:1 homogeneous:1 tuscan:1 influenced:1 dialect:1 whole:1 peninsula:1 language:1 kalevala:1 ossian:1 folklore:1 collection:1 brother:1 grimm:1 nazarene:1 movement:1 gothic:1 revival:1 richard:1 wagner:1 academy:1 ideology:1 serious:2 particularly:1 ambiguous:1 academic:1 historical:2 importance:1 much:1 science:1 treat:1 inventor:1 conception:1 evolution:1 race:1 negative:1 political:1 social:1 consequence:1 many:1 historian:1 intend:1 reasonably:1 objective:1 research:2 project:3 region:1 either:1 end:1 result:2 support:1 nationalistic:1 others:1 nation:1 sponsor:1 produce:1 permanent:1 value:1 monumenta:1 germaniae:1 historica:1 monument:1 german:2 mgh:1 vast:1 series:1 run:1 hundred:1 volume:1 still:1 primary:1 source:1 material:1 essential:1 scholarly:1 late:1 antiquity:1 middle:1 age:1 however:1 term:1 title:1 interpret:1 broad:1 possible:1 initial:1 royal:1 patronage:1 connection:1 clear:1 perceived:1 germanness:2 also:1 romantic:1 |@bigram gothic_revival:1 richard_wagner:1 monumenta_germaniae:1 germaniae_historica:1 romantic_nationalism:1
7,151
Telecommunications_in_Malta
This article is an overview of telecommunications in Malta. Telephone Telephones - main lines in use: 187,000 (1997) Telephones - mobile cellular: 17,691 (1997), 141,006 (March 2001), 303,980, i.e. 75.8 per 100 population (2004) Telephone system: automatic system satisfies normal requirements domestic: submarine cables and microwave radio relay between islands international: 2 submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 18, shortwave 6 (1999) Radios: 255,000 (1997) Amateur Radio Operators: Approx. 500 Amateur Radio Repeaters: 1 VHF (9H1BBS 145.750MHz CTCSS 77Hz (Owned by G0DEO/9H1IA) 1 UHF (9H1BBS 433.175MHz CTCSS 77Hz (Owned by G0DEO/9H1IA) 1 ATV Repeater (Run by MARL Club) Amateur radio beacons: 1 HF 6 Meater Beacon 9H1SIX 50.023MHz JM75fv (Run by MARL Club) 1 HF 10 Meter Band Beacon 9H1LO/B on 28.223MHz 1 HF 30 Meter Band QRSS Beacon 9H1LO/B on 10.140.90MHz 1 HF 17 Meter Band PSK31 Beacon 9H1LO/B on 18.110.15MHz 1 VHF 2 Meter Band Beacon 9H1LO/B on 144.500MHz (currently summer months only) Television Television broadcast stations: 6 (2000) Televisions: 280,000 (1997) Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 17 (2005) Broadband Wireless Internet Service Provider Licenses: 3 (2005) Internet users: 59,000 (2002), 85,672, i.e. 21.3/100 inhabitants (2004) Country code (Top level domain): MT
Telecommunications_in_Malta |@lemmatized article:1 overview:1 telecommunication:1 malta:1 telephone:4 main:1 line:1 use:1 mobile:1 cellular:1 march:1 e:2 per:1 population:1 system:2 automatic:1 satisfies:1 normal:1 requirement:1 domestic:1 submarine:2 cable:2 microwave:1 radio:7 relay:1 island:1 international:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 amateur:3 operator:1 approx:1 repeater:2 vhf:2 ctc:2 uhf:1 atv:1 run:2 marl:2 club:2 beacon:6 hf:4 meater:1 meter:4 band:4 b:4 qrss:1 currently:1 summer:1 month:1 television:3 internet:4 service:2 provider:2 isps:1 broadband:1 wireless:1 license:1 user:1 inhabitant:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 mt:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 broadband_wireless:1
7,152
Politics_of_Malawi
Politics of Malawi takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Malawi is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Government of Malawi has been a multi-party democracy since 1994. Executive branch |President |Bingu wa Mutharika |DPP |20 May 2004 |- |Vice-President |Cassim Chilumpha |UDF |16 June 2004 |} Under the 1995 constitution, the president, who is both chief of state and head of the government, is chosen through universal direct suffrage every 5 years. Malawi has a vice president who is elected with the president. The president has the option of appointing a second vice president, who must be from a different party. The members of the presidentially appointed cabinet can be drawn from either within or outside of the legislature. Bakili Muluzi was president from 21 May 1994 to May 2004, having won reelection in 2000 with 51.4% of the vote to leading challenger Gwandaguluwe Chakuamba's 44.3% for the MCP-AFORD party. In the 2004 election Bingu wa Mutharika defeated Chakuamba by a ten point margin. Legislative branch The National Assembly has 194 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies. The constitution also provides for a second house, a Senate of 80 seats, but to date no action has been taken to create the Senate. The Senate is intended to provide representation for traditional leaders and the different geographical districts, as well as various special interest groups, such as women, youth, and the disabled. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. Malawi's judicial system, based on the English model, is made up of magisterial lower courts, a High Court, and a Supreme Court of Appeal. Local government Local government is carried out in 28 districts within three regions administered by regional administrators and district commissioners who are appointed by the central government. Local elections, the first in the multi-party era, took place on November 21, 2000. The UDF party won 70% of the seats in this election. The districts are Balaka, Blantyre, Chikwawa, Chiradzulu, Chitipa, Dedza, Dowa, Karonga, Kasungu, Likoma, Lilongwe, Machinga, Mangochi, Mchinji, Mulanje, Mwanza, Mzimba, Nkhata Bay, Nkhotakota, Nsanje, Ntcheu, Ntchisi,Neno Phalombe, Rumphi, Salima, Thyolo, Zomba International organization participation ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO External links Official page of the Government of Malawi
Politics_of_Malawi |@lemmatized politics:1 malawi:6 take:3 place:2 framework:1 presidential:1 representative:1 democratic:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:9 head:3 state:2 government:9 multi:3 party:7 system:2 executive:3 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 national:2 assembly:2 judiciary:2 independent:2 legislature:2 democracy:1 since:1 branch:3 bingu:2 wa:2 mutharika:2 dpp:1 may:3 vice:3 cassim:1 chilumpha:1 udf:2 june:1 constitution:3 chief:1 choose:1 universal:1 direct:1 suffrage:1 every:1 year:2 elect:2 option:1 appoint:3 second:2 must:1 different:2 member:2 presidentially:1 cabinet:1 draw:1 either:1 within:2 outside:1 bakili:1 muluzi:1 win:2 reelection:1 vote:1 lead:1 challenger:1 gwandaguluwe:1 chakuamba:2 mcp:1 aford:1 election:4 defeat:1 ten:1 point:1 margin:1 five:1 term:1 single:1 seat:3 constituency:1 also:1 provide:3 house:1 senate:3 date:1 action:1 create:1 intend:1 representation:1 traditional:1 leader:1 geographical:1 district:4 well:1 various:1 special:1 interest:1 group:1 woman:1 youth:1 disabled:1 political:1 judicial:2 base:1 english:1 model:1 make:1 magisterial:1 low:1 court:3 high:1 supreme:1 appeal:1 local:3 carry:1 three:1 region:1 administer:1 regional:1 administrator:1 commissioner:1 central:1 first:1 era:1 november:1 balaka:1 blantyre:1 chikwawa:1 chiradzulu:1 chitipa:1 dedza:1 dowa:1 karonga:1 kasungu:1 likoma:1 lilongwe:1 machinga:1 mangochi:1 mchinji:1 mulanje:1 mwanza:1 mzimba:1 nkhata:1 bay:1 nkhotakota:1 nsanje:1 ntcheu:1 ntchisi:1 neno:1 phalombe:1 rumphi:1 salima:1 thyolo:1 zomba:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acp:1 afdb:1 c:1 ccc:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 opcw:1 sadc:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 unmik:1 upu:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 page:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 bingu_wa:2 wa_mutharika:2 vice_president:3 presidentially_appoint:1 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 ccc_eca:1 eca_fao:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iso:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_opcw:1 sadc_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 upu_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1
7,153
ALF_Tales
ALF Tales is an animated American series that ran on the NBC television network on Saturdays from August 1988 to December 1989. The show was a spinoff from the series ALF: The Animated Series. The show had characters from that series play various characters from fairy tales. The fairy tale was usually altered for comedic effect in a manner relational to Fractured Fairy Tales. Each story also typically spoofed a film genre, such as the "Cinderella" episode done as an Elvis movie. Some episodes featured a "fourth wall" effect where ALF is backstage preparing for the episode, and Rob Cowan would appear drawn as a TV executive (who introduced himself as "Roger Cowan, network executive") to try and brief ALF on how to improve this episode. For instance Cowan once told ALF who was readying for a medieval themed episode that "less than 2% of our audience lives in the Dark Ages". Cast Paul Fusco - ALF (Gordon Shumway) (voice) Paulina Gillis - Augie/Rhonda (voice) Peggy Mahon - Flo (voice) Thick Wilson - Larson Petty/Bob (voice) Dan Hennessey - Sloop (voice) Rob Cowan (II) - Skip (voice) Don Francks - Additional Voices (voice) Marvin Goldhar - Additional Voices (voice) Greg Swanson - Additional Voices (voice) Debra Theraker - Additional Voices (voice) Michael Lamport - Additional Voices (voice) Harvey Atkin - Additional Voices (voice) Greg Morton - Additional Voices (voice) Stephen Ouimette - Additional Voices (voice) Andrew Sachs - Additional Voices (voice) John Stocker - Additional Voices (voice) Stuart Stone - Additional Voices (voice) Chris Wiggins - Additional Voices (voice) Marilyn Lightstone - Additional Voices (voice) Richard Yearwood - Additional Voices (voice) Eva Almos - Additional Voices (voice) Jayne Eastwood - Additional Voices (voice) Marla Lukofsky - Additional Voices (voice) Nick Nichols - Additional Voices (voice) Linda Sorensen - Additional Voices (voice) Don McManus - Additional Voices (voice) Ken Ryan - Additional Voices (voice) Robert Bockstael - Additional Voices (voice) Luba Goy - Additional Voices (voice) Rick Jones - Additional Voices (voice) Colin Fox - Additional Voices (voice) Wendy Brackman - Additional Voices (voice) John Koensgen - Additional Voices (voice) Ron Rubin - Additional Voices (voice) Peter Keleghan - Additional Voices (voice) Len Carlson - Additional Voices (voice) Alyson Court - Additional Voices (voice) Darrin Baker - Additional Voices (voice) DVD release The first seven episodes were released on DVD on May 30, 2006 in Region 1 by Lions Gate Home Entertainment in a single-disc release entitled ALF and The Beanstalk and Other Classic Fairy Tales. See also List of animated spinoffs from prime time shows External links ALFtv.NET: Fansite
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7,154
The_Duck_Family_(Disney)
For the scientific family that includes ducks, see Anatidae. The Duck family is a fictional family created by The Walt Disney Company. Its best known member is Donald Duck. Duck family members featured in Don Rosa's Duck Family Tree Pintail Duck Pintail Duck first appeared in the story called Back to Long Ago which first appeared in Uncle Scrooge #16. In that story it was revealed that he and his friend Matey Malcolm McDuck buried a treasure of potatoes for Captain Loyal Hawk of The Falcon Rover. He drowned three days later and was reborn as his descendant Donald Duck. Don Rosa used Pintail in his version of The Donald Duck Family Tree, as the oldest Duck Family member on the tree. Humperdink Duck Humperdink "Dabney" Duck is the late husband of Grandma Duck (Elvira Coot) and grandfather of Donald Duck. He worked as a farmer in Duckburg. He was the father of three children: Quackmore, Daphne, and Eider Duck. Humperdink Duck appears in person in The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck and has been referred to in a few other stories. Grandma Duck Elvira "Grandma Duck" Coot is the Duck family matriarch, the grandmother of Donald Duck and Gladstone Gander. In most stories, she is simply referred to as Grandma Duck. Grandma Duck was introduced to the Disney comic universe by Al Taliaferro in the newspaper comic strips - as a picture in 1940, in person in 1943. Taliaferro found inspiration for her in his own mother-in-law, Donnie M. Wheaton. Quackmore Duck Quackmore Duck was born in Duckburg, Calisota, United States on 1875 to Humperdink Duck and Elvira Coot. From an early age it was obvious he had a very nasty temper. He worked in his parents' farm till 1902 when he met Hortense McDuck and they became engaged. He started working for her brother Scrooge McDuck. By 1908 he was helping Hortense and her sister Matilda McDuck run their brother's empire as Scrooge's chief accountant, mainly because Scrooge thought that as a possible heir he would probably work hard and stay honest. In 1920 he finally married Hortense and later in the same year became the father of twins: Donald and Della. He remained the chief accountant till 1930 when a fight between Scrooge and his family ended all relationships between them. Quackmore retired and it is believed he died sometimes around 1950, although his exact date of death and death place are still unknown. Daphne Duck Daphne Duck, according to Don Rosa's story "The Sign of The Triple Distelfink", is the daughter of Humperdink Duck and Elvira Coot. On the day of her birth, a traveling worker painted a giant sign of The Triple Distelfink on her parents' stable. The symbol was supposed to bring the baby luck, and it did: Daphne was always incredibly lucky. She worked in her parents' farm until at least 1902. Later, she stopped working and started living on the things she won in contests. She married Goosetave Gander and on 1920 became the mother of Gladstone Gander. The child was born on her birthday and under the protection of the same symbol as his mother. Another character called Daphne Duck appears as the wife of Daffy Duck in a handful 1960s' Looney Tunes shorts. Like Honey Bunny, she is a female version of Daffy, and is voiced by Mel Blanc. Eider Duck Eider Duck was first mentioned in August 1944 in the story "The Fighting Falcon" by Carl Barks. In this story, Donald receives a falcon as a present by his uncle Eider who does not live in Duckburg. Barks never mentioned Eider again but Don Rosa decided to include him in his Duck Family Tree. According to Rosa, Eider is the son of Humperdink Duck and Elvira Coot. As of 1902, he worked on his parents' farm. He later married Lulubelle Loon and became the father of at least two sons, Abner and Fethry. Donald Duck Della Duck Della Duck was first mentioned in a newspaper comic strip on October 17, 1937. She was the daughter of Hortense McDuck and Quackmore Duck. According to comics writer Don Rosa, Della was "born" around 1920. Her twin brother is Donald Duck; she is also the mother of Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck. The identity of the boys' father is something of a mystery, as he is hidden by a bird and several branches on Disney comics artist Don Rosa's family tree. Very little is known about him. It was revealed in an early comic strip that Mr. Duck was sent to the hospital because Huey, Dewey and Louie placed a firecracker under his armchair as a prank, with disastrous results. It was because of this incident that Della (or "Dumbella" as she was called in the theatrical cartoon that introduced the nephews) sent her sons to her brother, Donald Duck. While originally meant to be a one-month stay, the nephews wound up staying with Donald permanently; the reasons for this are unknown. However, as both she and Donald are linked to Scrooge Mcduck in equal measure, and yet Donald is always referred to as Scrooge's closest living relative. This suggests she has disappeared. She is mentioned in the series PKNA, when Urk asks Duck Avanger (Donald Duck) whether he has a sister, Donald Duck answered yes (PKNA # 24). In one Donald adventure, Donald Duck dresses up in a long, red wig and notes how much he looks like his sister . Several stories written by Rosa also show Della as a child, alongside her brother Donald. Gladstone Gander Gladstone Gander, son of Daphne and Goosetave Gander. Fethry Duck Abner "Whitewater" Duck Abner Duck (nicknamed Whitewater) was created by Carl Barks and used only in his story "Log Jockey", published in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #267 on December, 1962. According to that story, he is Donald Duck's distant cousin, and works as a lumberjack in the woods. On Don Rosa's Duck Family Tree he is shown as a son of Eider Duck and Lulubelle Loon and the brother of Fethry Duck, making him Donald's cousin. In his second and last appearance in a story, "Smarter Than The Toughies" (published in the USA in Uncle Scrooge #349) by Lars Jensen and Daniel Branca, he is instead shown as the nephew of Scrooge McDuck's cousin Douglas McDuck, making him Donald's second cousin. Lulubelle Loon Lulubelle Loon is the wife of Eider Duck. She has appeared on Don Rosa's Duck family tree but she hasn't appeared anywhere else. She is also the mother of Fethry Duck and Abner Duck. Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck Other Ducks Ducks that, for various reasons, did not appear in Rosa's tree. Scrooge McDuck Uncle of Huey, Dewey, and Louie Daisy Duck April, May, and June Duck Dickie Duck Dickie Duck (Paperetta Yè-Yè in Italian) is a fictional character from the Scrooge McDuck universe created by Romano Scarpa. She was introduced as Goldie O'Gilt's granddaughter. But in one story by Romano Scarpa she is said to be Huey, Dewey and Louie's cousin. She has become popular in Italy, Denmark, Brazil and some other countries, while she is almost unknown in the USA and others. Goldie dropped Dickie off because she could not take care of her anymore. She was left in the care of Scrooge McDuck. Sometimes she worked as a reporter for Brigitta McBridge or for Scrooge's little known brother Gideon McDuck. In Brazil she appeared in her own series with her friends Neptunia, Olivia, Walter, and Beckett in a series of stories titled Os Adolescentes (translated loosely from Portuguese to The Teenagers) as a bonus story in Ze Carioca (a comic book starring José Carioca). The connection between Goldie and Dickie is generally ignored since they only made one appearance together. Dugan Duck Dugan Duck is Fethry Duck's nephew who seems to be a little bit younger than Huey, Dewey and Louie. In Italy he is known as Pennino; in Brazil, as Biquinho, and in Denmark as Pjuske. Unless Fethry and Abner have other siblings not shown on Don Rosa's family tree, the only way for Dugan to be Fethry's nephew is that he's Abner's son. Moby Duck Moby Duck was created by writer Vic Lockman and illustrator Tony Strobl in 1967. He first appeared in Donald Duck #112 where he is seen saving Donald from drowning at sea. Later that year Moby got his own comic book title which ran 11 issues until 1970, and then from 1973 to 1978 (issues #12-30). Illustrators of American Moby Duck stories include Strobl, Kay Wright, and Pete Alvarado. Not seen in the USA for two decades, he is now in use in comics produced in Italy and Brazil. His only appearances in animation are in a 1968 The Wonderful World of Disney show and a cameo appearance seated at one of the tables in the House of Mouse TV series. Moby is a disaster as a whaler, but a good sailor in general. He makes a living out of carrying cargo, especially for Scrooge McDuck. He also fights pirates and other villains, including the Beagle Boys, Mad Madam Mim, The Big Bad Wolf, and Captain Hook. Reflecting the shift in many cultures regarding whaling since Moby Duck's first appearance, the character was re-vamped in the 1990s to be an environmental activist and fight against whalers. Donald was Moby's first mate for a while but he was eventually replaced by Dimwitty Duck. Moby's other frequent supporting character is his pet porpoise Porpy. The name Moby Duck is a spoof from the classic Herman Melville novel Moby-Dick. Phooey Duck Huey, Dewey, Louie and Phooey along with Scrooge McDuck and Donald Duck Phooey Duck is the fourth nephew of Donald Duck and lost brother of Huey, Dewey and Louie. He is not really a character, he is the fourth nephew drawn by accident in the Donald Duck comic. He has been named Phooey by Disney comic editor Bob Foster. The name is originally a term which, sometimes spelled phooie, or fooey, expresses dislike, chagrin, or disappointment. There are many instances where Phooey appears. Some, however, are not really true appearances, but rather some other Junior Woodchuck who looks like the three nephews. One short Egmont-licensed Disney comic explained Phooey's sporadic appearances as a freak incident of nature. In one Saint Patrick's Day comic-book adventure, Phooey appears as a Leprechaun or Guardian Angel in disguise as a duckling. Upsy Duck Upsy Duck is Donald's cousin from the 1965 story "Mastering The Matterhorn", illustrated by Tony Strobl. On the Internet, he was for a long time known only from his appearance on a German Duck family tree , where he was called Gipfel Duck. Ludwig Von Drake Shamrock Gander Shamrock Gander is Gladstone Gander's nephew. He first appeared in Daisy Duck's Diary Four Color#648. In that story it is shown that he is as lucky as his uncle Gladstone. It is unknown how Shamrock can be Gladstone's nephew although Gladstone must have at least one sibling who is a parent of Shamrock. External links Don Rosa's Duck family tree
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7,155
Burt_Lancaster
Burton Stephen "Burt" Lancaster (November 2, 1913 – October 20, 1994) was an American film actor and star, noted for his athletic physique, distinct smile (which he called "The Grin") and, later, his willingness to play roles that went against his initial "tough guy" image. Initially dismissed as "Mr Muscles and Teeth", in the late 1950s Lancaster abandoned his "all-American" image and gradually came to be regarded as one of the best actors of his generation. Lancaster was nominated four times for Academy Awards and won once, for his work in Elmer Gantry in . He also won a Golden Globe for that performance, and BAFTA Awards for The Birdman of Alcatraz () and Atlantic City (). Early life Lancaster was born in New York City, the son of Elizabeth (née Roberts) and James Henry Lancaster, who was a postman. Burt Lancaster Both of his parents were Protestants of working-class Irish origin, with Lancaster's grandparents having been immigrants to the U.S. from Belfast and descendants of English immigrants to Ireland. Lancaster's family believed themselves to be related to Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts; their surname originates from 11th century French immigrants to England with the surname "de Lancastre". Lancaster grew up in East Harlem and spent much of his time on the streets, where he developed great interest and skill in gymnastics while attending the DeWitt Clinton High School. Later, he worked as a circus acrobat until an injury forced him to give up the profession. During World War II, Lancaster joined the United States Army and performed with the USO. Career Though initially unenthusiastic about acting, he returned from service, auditioned for a Broadway play and was offered a role. Although Harry Brown's A Sound of Hunting was not successful, Lancaster's performance drew the attention of a Hollywood agent who had him cast in the 1946 motion picture The Killers. The tall, muscular actor Lancaster's exact height is disputed, with contemporary sources listing him at 6 foot 2 inches (1.8796 m), but modern sources putting him at 6 foot 1 inch (1.85412 m) at his peak. won significant acclaim and appeared in two more films the following year. Subsequently, he played in a variety of films, especially in dramas, thrillers, and military and adventure films. In two, The Flame and the Arrow and The Crimson Pirate, a friend from his circus years, Nick Cravat, played a leading role, and both actors impressed audiences with their acrobatic prowess. In 1953, he played one of his most famous roles with Deborah Kerr in From Here to Eternity. The American Film Institute acknowledged the iconic status of the scene from that film in which he and Deborah Kerr make love on a Hawaiian beach amid the crashing waves. The organization named it one of "AFI's top 100 Most Romantic Films" of all time. In the mid-1950s, Lancaster went on challenging himself with varied cinematic roles, and he satisfied longtime aspirations by moving into film producing as well. His work was recognized in 1960 when he won the Academy Award for Best Actor, a Golden Globe Award, and the New York Film Critics Award for his performance in Elmer Gantry. In 1966, at the age of 52, Lancaster appeared nude in the film, The Swimmer. Lancaster made several films over the years with Kirk Douglas, including I Walk Alone (1948), Gunfight at the OK Corral (1957), The Devil's Disciple (1959), Seven Days in May (1964), and Tough Guys (1986), which fixed the notion of the pair as something of a team in the public imagination. Douglas was always second-billed under Lancaster in these films, but with the exception of I Walk Alone, in which Douglas played a villain, their roles were usually more or less the same size. During the later part of his career, Lancaster left adventure and acrobatic movies behind and portrayed more distinguished characters. This period brought him work on several European productions, with directors such as Luchino Visconti and Bernardo Bertolucci. Lancaster sought demanding roles and, if he liked a part or a director, was prepared to work for much lower pay than he might have earned elsewhere; he even helped to finance movies whose artistic value he believed in. He produced a number of films himself and also mentored such new directors as Sydney Pollack and John Frankenheimer, thus adding to his numerous acting achievements a pioneering role in the development of independent cinema. He also appeared in several TV films. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Lancaster has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6801 Hollywood Blvd. Personal life Lancaster vigorously guarded his private life. He was married three times: to June Ernst from 1935 until 1946; to Norma Anderson from 1946 to 1969, which also ended in divorce; and to Susan Martin in September 1990. All five of his children were with Anderson: Bill (who became a screenwriter), James, Susan, Joanna, and Sighle (pronounced Sheila). He was romantically involved with Deborah Kerr during the filming of From Here to Eternity'' in 1953. Buford, Kate (2000). - Burt Lancaster: An American Life. - New York, New York: Knopf - Distributed by Random House. - ISBN 0679446036 Lancaster was an unabashed liberal, who frequently spoke out with support for racial minorities. He was also instrumental in the formation of many liberal groups, through financial support. At one point, he was rumored to be a member of the Communist Party, because of his involvement in many liberal causes. He was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War and political movements such as McCarthyism, and he helped pay for the successful defense of a soldier accused of fragging another soldier during the war. Buford, Kate (2000). - Burt Lancaster: An American Life. - Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, - p.266. - ISBN 0306810190 In 1968, Lancaster actively supported the presidential candidacy of antiwar Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, and frequently spoke on his behalf in the Democratic primaries. In 1985, Lancaster, a longtime supporter of gay rights, joined the fight against AIDS after his close friend, Rock Hudson, contracted the disease. He campaigned for Michael Dukakis in the 1988 presidential election. Health problems and death As Lancaster grew older, heart trouble increasingly hindered him from working. He nearly died during a routine gall bladder operation in January 1980. Following two minor heart attacks he had to undergo an emergency quadruple heart bypass in 1983, after which he was in frail health. He suffered a severe stroke in November 1990, which left him partly paralyzed and with restricted speech. Lancaster died in his Century City apartment in Los Angeles from a third heart attack on October 20, 1994, at the age of 80. He is buried at Westwood Memorial Park in Westwood Village in Los Angeles. Filmography and awards Year Film Role Notes1946 The Killers 'Swede' Andersen 1947 Brute Force Joe Collins Desert Fury Tom Hanson 1948 I Walk Alone Frankie Madison All My Sons Chris Keller Sorry, Wrong Number Henry Stevenson Kiss the Blood Off My Hands William Earle 'Bill' Saunders 1949 Criss Cross Steve Thompson / Narrator Rope of Sand Michael (Mike) Davis 1950 The Flame and the Arrow Dardo Bartoli Mister 880 Steve Buchanan 1951 Vengeance Valley Owen Daybright Jim Thorpe -- All-American Jim Thorpe Ten Tall Men Sgt Mike Kincaid 1952 The Crimson Pirate Capitan Vallo Come Back, Little Sheba Doc Delaney 1953 South Sea Woman Master Gunnery Sgt. James O'Hearn From Here to Eternity 1st Sgt. Milton Warden New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best Actor Three Sailors and a Girl Marine (uncredited) 1954 His Majesty O'Keefe Captain David Dion O'Keefe/Narrator Apache Massai Vera Cruz Joe Erin 1955 The Kentuckian Elias Wakefield (Big Eli) Nominated — Golden Lion The Rose Tattoo Alvaro Mangiacavallo 1956 Trapeze Mike Ribble Silver Bear for Best ActorThe Rainmaker Bill Starbuck, aka Bill Smith, Bill Harley, Tornado Johnson Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1957 Gunfight at the O.K. Corral Marshal Wyatt Earp Sweet Smell of Success J.J. Hunsecker 1958 Run Silent Run Deep Lt. Jim Bledsoe Separate Tables John Malcolm 1959 The Devil's Disciple The Rev. Anthony Anderson 1960 The Unforgiven Ben Zachary Elmer Gantry Elmer Gantry Academy Award for Best ActorGolden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture DramaNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role1961 The Young Savages Hank Bell Judgment at Nuremberg Dr. Ernst Janning 1962 Birdman of Alcatraz Robert Stroud BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleVolpi CupNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama1963 A Child Is Waiting Dr. Ben Clark The Leopard (Gattopardo, Il) Prince Don Fabrizio Salina The List of Adrian Messenger Cameo 1964 Seven Days in May Gen. James Mattoon Scott The Train Paul Labiche 1965 The Hallelujah Trail Col. Thaddeus Gearhart 1966 The Professionals Bill Dolworth 1967 All About People Narrator 1968 The Scalphunters Joe Bass The Swimmer Ned Merrill 1969 Castle Keep Maj. Abraham Falconer The Gypsy Moths Mike Rettig 1970 Airport Mel Bakersfeld 1971 Lawman Bannock Marshal Jered Maddox Valdez Is Coming Valdez 1972 Ulzana's Raid McIntosh 1973 Scorpio Cross Executive Action James Farrington 1974 The Midnight Man Jim Slade Gruppo di famiglia in un interno (Conversation Piece) The Professor David di Donatello for Best Actor Moses the Lawgiver (TV mini-series) Moses 1976 ' 'Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson || Ned Buntline || |- | 1900 (Novecento) || Alfredo's Grandfather || |- | Victory at Entebbe (TV) || Shimon Peres || |- | The Cassandra Crossing || Col. Stephen Mackenzie || |- |rowspan="2"|1977 ||Twilight's Last Gleaming || Gen. Lawrence Dell || |- | The Island of Dr. Moreau || Dr. Paul Moreau ||Nominated — Saturn Award for Best Actor |- |1978 || Go Tell the Spartans || Maj. Asa Barker || |- |1979 ||Zulu Dawn || Col. Anthony Durnford || |- |1980 ||Atlantic City || Lou Pascal ||BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActorDavid di Donatello for Best ActorKansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama |- |rowspan="2"|1981 || Cattle Annie and Little Britches || Bill Doolin || |- | La pelle || Gen. Mark Clark || |- |rowspan="2"|1982 || Marco Polo TV mini-series || TeobaldoVisconti / Pope Gregory X || |- | Verdi (TV mini-series)|| Narrator in American version || |- |rowspan="2"|1983 || Local Hero || Felix Happer|| Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role |- | The Osterman Weekend || Maxwell Danforth || |- |rowspan="2"|1985 || Scandal Sheet || Harold Fallen || |- | Little Treasure || Delbert Teschemacher || |- |rowspan="3"|1986 || Väter und Söhne - Eine deutsche Tragödie (TV mini-series) || Geheimrat Carl Julius Deutz || |- | On Wings of Eagles (TV mini-series)|| Lieutenant Colonel Arthur D. "Bull" Simons || |- | Barnum || Phineas Taylor 'P.T.' Barnum || |- |1991 ||Separate But Equal (TV) || John W. Davis || |- |1986 ||Tough Guys || Harry Doyle || |- |1987 ||Il Giorno prima || Dr. Herbert Monroe || |- |1988 ||Rocket Gibraltar || Levi Rockwell|| |- |rowspan="3"|1989 ||Field of Dreams || Dr. Archibald 'Moonlight' Graham || |- | La Bottega dell'orefice || The Jeweller || |- | I Promessi sposi (TV mini-series) || Cardinal Federigo Borromeo || |- |rowspan="2"|1990 || The Phantom of the Opera || Gerard Carriere || |- | Voyage of Terror: The Achille Lauro Affair'' (TV) Leon Klinghoffer Notes External links
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7,156
Evolutionary_psychology
Evolutionary psychology (EP) attempts to explain psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in evolutionary biology. Evolutionary psychology applies the same thinking to psychology. Evolutionary psychologists (see, for example, Wilson, 1981; Buss, 2005; Durrant & Ellis, 2003; Pinker, 2002; Tooby & Cosmides, 2005) argue that much of human behavior is generated by psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. They hypothesize, for example, that humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language, making it nearly automatic, while inheriting no capacity specifically for reading and writing. Other adaptations, according to EP, might include the abilities to infer others' emotions, to discern kin from non-kin, to identify and prefer healthier mates, to cooperate with others, and so on. Consistent with the theory of natural selection, evolutionary psychology sees organisms as often in conflict with others of their species, including mates and relatives. For example, mother mammals and their young offspring sometimes struggle over weaning, which benefits the mother more than the child. Humans, however, have a marked capacity for cooperation under certain conditions as well. Evolutionary psychologists see those behaviors and emotions that are nearly universal, such as fear of spiders and snakes, as more likely to reflect evolved adaptations. Evolved psychological adaptations (such as the ability to learn a language) interact with cultural inputs to produce specific behaviors (e.g., the specific language learned). This view is contrary to the idea that human mental faculties are general-purpose learning mechanisms. Fields closely related to EP are animal behavioral ecology, human behavioral ecology, dual inheritance theory, and sociobiology. Overview Evolutionary psychology (EP) is an approach to the entire discipline that views human nature as a universal set of evolved psychological adaptations to recurring problems in the ancestral environment. Proponents of EP suggest that it seeks to heal a fundamental division at the very heart of science --- that between the soft human social sciences and the hard natural sciences, and that the fact that human beings are living organisms demands that psychology be understood as a branch of biology. Anthropologist John Tooby and psychologist Leda Cosmides note: "Evolutionary psychology is the long-forestalled scientific attempt to assemble out of the disjointed, fragmentary, and mutually contradictory human disciplines a single, logically integrated research framework for the psychological, social, and behavioral sciences—a framework that not only incorporates the evolutionary sciences on a full and equal basis, but that systematically works out all of the revisions in existing belief and research practice that such a synthesis requires." Tooby & Cosmides 2005, p. 5 Just as human physiology and evolutionary physiology have worked to identify physical adaptations of the body that represent "human physiological nature," the purpose of evolutionary psychology is to identify evolved emotional and cognitive adaptations that represent "human psychological nature." EP is, to quote Steven Pinker, "not a single theory but a large set of hypotheses" and a term which "has also come to refer to a particular way of applying evolutionary theory to the mind, with an emphasis on adaptation, gene-level selection, and modularity." EP proposes that the human brain comprises many functional mechanisms, evolutionary psychology Psyche Games. Accessed August 22 2007 called psychological adaptations or evolved cognitive mechanisms or cognitive modules designed by the process of natural selection. Examples include language acquisition modules, incest avoidance mechanisms, cheater detection mechanisms, intelligence and sex-specific mating preferences, foraging mechanisms, alliance-tracking mechanisms, agent detection mechanisms, and others. EP has roots in cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology (See also sociobiology). It also draws on behavioral ecology, artificial intelligence, genetics, ethology, anthropology, archaeology, biology, and zoology. EP is closely linked to sociobiology, but there are key differences between them including the emphasis on domain-specific rather than domain-general mechanisms, the relevance of measures of current fitness, the importance of mismatch theory, and psychology rather than behaviour. Most sociobiological research is now conducted in the field of behavioral ecology. The term evolutionary psychology was probably coined by American biologist Michael Ghiselin in a 1973 article published in the journal Science. Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby popularized the term "evolutionary psychology" in their highly influential 1992 book The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture. EP has been applied to the study of many fields, including economics, aggression, law, psychiatry, politics, literature, and sex. EP uses Nikolaas Tinbergen's four categories of questions and explanations of animal behavior. Two categories are at the species level; two, at the individual level, as noted in the table below. How vs. Why Questions:Sequential vs. Static PerspectiveHistorical/ DevelopmentalExplanation of current form in terms of a historical sequenceCurrent FormExplanation of the current form of speciesProximateHow organisms’ structures functionOntogenyDevelopmental explanations for changes in individuals, from DNA to their current formMechanismMechanistic explanations for how an organism’s structures workEvolutionaryWhy organisms evolved the structures (adaptations) they havePhylogenyThe history of the evolution of sequential changes in a species over many generationsAdaptationA species trait that evolved to solve a reproductive or survival problem in the ancestral environment The species-level categories (often called “ultimate explanations”) are the function (i.e., adaptation) that a behavior serves and the evolutionary process (i.e., phylogeny) that resulted in the adaptation (functionality). The individual-level categories are the development of the individual (i.e., ontogeny) and the proximate mechanism (e.g., brain anatomy and hormones). Evolutionary psychology mostly focuses on the adaptation (functional) category. Principles Evolutionary psychology is a hybrid discipline that draws insights from modern evolutionary theory, biology, cognitive psychology, anthropology, economics, computer science, and paleoarchaeology. The discipline rests on a foundation of core premises. According to evolutionary psychologist David Buss, these include: Manifest behavior depends on underlying psychological mechanisms, information processing devices housed in the brain, in conjunction with the external and internal inputs that trigger their activation. Evolution by selection is the only known causal process capable of creating such complex organic mechanisms. Evolved psychological mechanisms are functionally specialized to solve adaptive problems that recurred for humans over deep evolutionary time. Selection designed the information processing of many evolved psychological mechanisms to be adaptively influenced by specific classes of information from the environment. Human psychology consists of a large number of functionally specialized evolved mechanisms, each sensitive to particular forms of contextual input, that get combined, coordinated, and integrated with each other to produce manifest behavior. Similarly, pioneers of the field Leda Cosmides and John Tooby consider five principles to be the foundation of evolutionary psychology: The brain is a physical system. It functions as a computer with circuits that have evolved to generate behavior that is appropriate to environmental circumstances Neural circuits were designed by natural selection to solve problems that human ancestors faced while evolving into Homo sapiens Consciousness is a small portion of the contents and processes of the mind; conscious experience can mislead individuals to believe their thoughts are simpler than they actually are. Most problems experienced as easy to solve are very difficult to solve and are driven and supported by very complicated neural circuitry Different neural circuits are specialized for solving different adaptive problems. Modern skulls house a stone age mind. Evolutionary psychology is founded on the computational theory of mind, the theory that the mind, our "inner world," is the action of complex neural structures in the brain. For example, when a child shrinks in fear from a spider, the child's brain has attended to the spider, computed that it's a potential threat, and initiated a fear response. General evolutionary theory Main article: Evolution Evolutionary psychology is rooted in evolutionary theory. It is sometimes seen not simply as a sub-discipline of psychology but as a way in which evolutionary theory can be used as a meta-theoretical framework within which to examine the entire field of psychology. A few biologists challenge the basic premises of evolutionary psychology. See for example: Darwin's illustrations of beak variation in the finches of the Galápagos Islands. Natural selection Natural selection, a key component of evolutionary theory, involves three main ingredients: Genetically based inheritance of traits - some traits are passed down from parents to offspring in genes, Variation - heritable traits vary within a population (now we know that mutation is the source of some of this genetic variation), Differential survival and reproduction - these traits will vary in how strongly they promote the survival and reproduction of their bearers. Selection refers to the process by which environmental conditions "select" organisms with the appropriate traits to survive; these organisms will have such traits more strongly represented in the next generation. This is the basis of adaptive evolution. The insight of Wallace and Darwin was that this "natural selection" was creative - it could lead to new traits and even new species, it was based on differential survival of variable individuals, and it could explain the broad scale patterns of evolution. Sexual selection Many traits that are selected for can actually hinder survival of the organism while increasing its reproductive opportunities. Consider the classic example of the peacock's tail. It is metabolically costly, cumbersome, and essentially a "predator magnet." What the peacock's tail does do is attract mates. Thus, the type of selective process that is involved here is what Darwin called "sexual selection." Sexual selection can be divided into two types: Intersexual selection, which refers to the traits that one sex generally prefers in the other sex, (e.g. the peacock's tail). Intrasexual competition, which refers to the competition among members of the same sex for mating access to the opposite sex, (e.g. two stags locking antlers). Inclusive fitness Inclusive fitness theory, which was proposed by William D. Hamilton in 1964 as a revision to evolutionary theory, is essentially a combination of natural selection, sexual selection, and kin selection. It refers to the sum of an individual's own reproductive success in addition to the effects the individual's actions have on the reproductive success of their genetic relatives. General evolutionary theory, in its modern form, is essentially inclusive fitness theory. Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how "altruism" evolved. The dominant, pre-Hamiltonian view was that altruism evolved via group selection: the notion that altruism evolved for the benefit of the group. The problem with this was that if one organism in a group incurred any fitness costs on itself for the benefit of others in the group, (i.e. acted "altruistically"), then that organism would reduce its own ability to survive and/or reproduce, therefore reducing its chances of passing on its altruistic traits. Furthermore, the organism that benefited from that altruistic act and only acted on behalf of its own fitness would increase its own chance of survival and/or reproduction, thus increasing its chances of passing on its "selfish" traits. Inclusive fitness resolved "the problem of altruism" by demonstrating that altruism can evolve via kin selection as expressed in Hamilton's rule: cost < relatedness × benefit In other words, altruism can evolve as long as the fitness cost of the altruistic act on the part of the actor is less than the degree of genetic relatedness of the recipient times the fitness benefit to that recipient. This perspective reflects what is referred to as the gene-centered view of evolution and demonstrates that group selection is a very weak selective force. However, in recent years group selection has been making a comeback, (albeit a controversial one), as multilevel selection, which posits that evolution can act on many levels of functional organization, (including the "group" level), and not just the "gene" level. Foundations System level and problem Author Basic ideas Example adaptations System Level: Individual Problem: How to survive? Charles Darwin (1859) Natural Selection (or “survival selection”) The bodies and minds of organisms are made up of evolved adaptations designed to help the organism survive in a particular ecology (for example, the fur of polar bears). Bones, skin, vision, pain perception, etc. System Level: Dyad Problem: How to attract a mate and/or compete with members of one's own sex for access to the opposite sex? Charles Darwin (1859) Sexual selection Organisms can evolve physical and mental traits designed specifically to attract mates (e.g., the Peacock’s tail) or to compete with members of one’s own sex for access to the opposite sex (e.g., antlers). In most species with pronounced sexual selection, the adaptations are in males. These adaptations tend to evolve in species in which a successful male mates with multiple females. For instance, they appear in peacocks but not raptors, which are generally monogamous. Females rarely evolve such adaptations because being the "top female" doesn't improve a female's reproductive career as much as being "top male" improves a male's reproductive outcome. Peacock’s tail, antlers, courtship behavior, etc System Level:Family & Kin Problem: Gene replication. How to help those with whom we share genes survive and reproduce? W.D. Hamilton (1964) Inclusive fitness (or a "gene’s eye view" of selection, "kin selection") / The evolution of sexual reproduction Selection occurs most robustly at the level of the gene, not the individual, group, or species. Reproductive success can thus be indirect, via shared genes in kin. Being altruistic toward kin can thus have genetic payoffs. (Also see Gene-centered view of evolution) Also, Hamilton argued that sexual reproduction evolved primarily as a defense against pathogens (bacteria & viruses) to "shuffle genes" to create greater diversity, especially immunological variability, in offspring. Altruism toward kin, parental investment, the behavior of the social insects with sterile workers (e.g., ants). System Level:Non-kin small group Problem:How are resources best allocated in mating and/or parenting contexts to maximize inclusive fitness? Robert Trivers (1972) Parental Investment Theory / Parent - Offspring Conflict / Reproductive Value The two sexes often have conflicting strategies regarding how much to invest in offspring, and how many offspring to have. Parents allocate more resources to their offspring with higher reproductive value (e.g., "mom always liked you best"). Parents and offspring may have conflicting interests (e.g., when to wean, allocation of resources among offspring, etc.). Sexually dimorphic adaptations that result in a "battle of the sexes," parental favoritism, timing of reproduction, parent-offspring conflict, sibling rivalry, etc. System Level:Non-kin small group Problem: How to succeed in competitive interactions with non-kin? How to select the best strategy given the strategies being used by competitors? John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern (1944);John Maynard Smith (1982) Game Theory / Evolutionary Game Theory Organisms adapt, or respond, to competitors depending on the strategies used by competitors. Strategies are evaluated by the probable payoffs of alternatives. In a population, this typically results in an "evolutionary stable strategy," or "evolutionary stable equilibrium" -- strategies that, on average, cannot be bettered by alternative strategies. Facultative, or frequency-dependent, adaptations. Examples: hawks vs. doves, cooperate vs. defect, fast vs. coy courtship, etc. System Level:Non-kin small group Problem: How to maintain mutually beneficial relationships with non-kin in repeated interactions? Robert Trivers (1971) "Tit for Tat" Reciprocity One can play nice with non-kin if a mutually beneficially reciprocal relationship is maintained across multiple social interactions, and cheating is punished. Cheater detection, emotions of revenge and guilt, etc. System Level: Non-kin, large groups governed by rules and laws Problem: How to maintain mutually beneficial relationships with strangers with whom one may interact only once? Herbert Gintis (2000, 2003); and others. Generalized Reciprocity (Also called "strong reciprocity"). One can play nice with non-kin strangers even in single interactions if social rules against cheating are maintained by neutral third parties (e.g., other individuals, governments, institutions, etc.), a majority group members cooperate by generally adhering to social rules, and social interactions create a positive sum game (i.e., a bigger overall "pie" results from group cooperation). Generalized reciprocity may be a set of adaptations that were designed for small in-group cohesion during times of high inter-tribal warfare with out-groups. Today the capacity to be altruistic to in-group strangers may result from a serendipitous generalization (or "mismatch") between ancestral tribal living in small groups and today's large societies that entail many single interactions with anonymous strangers. (The dark side of generalized reciprocity may be that these adaptations may also underlie aggression toward out-groups.) To in-group members: Capacity for generalized altruism, acting like a "good Samaritan," cognitive concepts of justice, ethics and human rights. To out-group members: Capacity for xenophobia, racism, warfare, genocide. System Level:Large groups / culture. Problem:How to transfer information across distance and time? Richard Dawkins (1976) Memetic Selection Genes are not the only replicators subject to evolutionary change. “Memes” (e.g., ideas, rituals, tunes, cultural fads, etc.) can replicate and spread from brain to brain, and many of the same evolutionary principles that apply to genes apply to memes as well. Genes and memes may at times co-evolve ("gene-culture co-evolution"). Language, music, evoked culture, etc. Some possible by-products, or "exaptations," of language may include writing, reading, mathematics, etc. Source: Mills, M.E. (2004). Evolution and motivation. Symposium paper presented at the Western Psychological Association Conference, Phoenix, AZ. April, 2004. Middle-level evolutionary theories Middle-level evolutionary theories are theories that encompass broad domains of functioning. They are compatible with general evolutionary theory but not derived from it. Furthermore, they are applicable across species. During the early 1970s, three very important middle-level evolutionary theories were contributed by Robert Trivers The theory of parent-offspring conflict rests on the fact that even though a parent and his/her offspring are 50% genetically related, they are also 50% genetically different. All things being equal, a parent would want to allocate their resources equally amongst their offspring, while each offspring may want a little more for themselves. Furthermore, an offspring may want a little more resources from the parent than the parent is willing to give. In essence, parent-offspring conflict refers to a conflict of adaptive interests between parent and offspring. However, if all things are not equal, a parent may engage in discriminative investment towards one sex or the other, depending on the parent's condition. Additional middle-level evolutionary theories used in EP include: The Trivers-Willard hypothesis, which proposes that parents will invest more in the sex that gives them the greatest reproductive payoff (grandchildren) with increasing or marginal investment. Females are the heavier parental investors in our species. Because of that, females have a better chance of reproducing at least once in comparison to males, but males in good condition have a better chance of producing high numbers of offspring than do females in good condition. Thus, according to the Trivers-Willard hypothesis, parents in good condition are predicted to favor investment in sons, and parents in poor condition are predicted to favor investment in daughters. r/K selection theory, which, in ecology, relates to the selection of traits in organisms that allow success in particular environments. r-selected species, (in unstable or unpredictable environments), produce many offspring, each of which is unlikely to survive to adulthood, while K-selected species, (in stable or predictable environments), invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a better chance of surviving to adulthood. Evolved psychological mechanisms At a proximal level, evolutionary psychology is based on the hypothesis that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst a species, and should solve important problems of survival and reproduction. Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand psychological mechanisms by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might have served over the course of evolutionary history. While philosophers have generally considered human mind to include broad faculties, such as reason and lust, evolutionary psychologists describe EPMs as narrowly evolved to deal with specific issues, such as catching cheaters or choosing mates. Some mechanisms, termed domain-specific, deal with recurrent adaptive problems over the course of human evolutionary history. Domain-general mechanisms, on the other hand, deal with evolutionary novelty. Environment of evolutionary adaptedness EP argues that to properly understand the functions of the brain, one must understand the properties of the environment in which the brain evolved. That environment is often referred to as the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, or EEA for short. See also "Environment of evolutionary adaptation," a variation of the term used in Economics, e.g., in Rubin, Paul H., 2003, "Folk economics" Southern Economic Journal, 70:1, July 2003, 157-171. Definition The term environment of evolutionary adaptedness was coined by John Bowlby as part of attachment theory. It refers to the environment to which a particular evolved mechanism is adapted. More specifically, the EEA is defined as the set of historically recurring selection pressures that formed a given adaptation, as well as those aspects of the environment that were necessary for the proper development and functioning of the adaptation. In the environment in which ducks evolved, for example, attachment of ducklings to their mother had great survival value for the ducklings. Because the first moving being that a duckling was likely to see was its mother, a psychological mechanism that evolved to form an attachment to the first moving being would therefore properly function to form an attachment to the mother. In novel environments, however, the mechanism can malfunction by forming an attachment to a dog or human instead. Human EEA Humans, comprising the genus Homo, appeared between 1.5 and 2.5 million years ago, a time that roughly coincides with the start of the Pleistocene 1.8 million years ago. Because the Pleistocene ended a mere 12,000 years ago, most human adaptations either newly evolved during the Pleistocene, or were maintained by stabilizing selection during the Pleistocene. Evolutionary psychology therefore proposes that the majority of human psychological mechanisms are adapted to reproductive problems frequently encountered in Pleistocene environments. In broad terms, these problems include those of growth, development, differentiation, maintenance, mating, parenting, and social relationships. Mismatches If humans are mostly adapted to Pleistocene environments, then some psychological mechanisms should occasionally exhibit “mismatches” to the modern environment, similar to the attachment patterns of ducks. One example is the fact that although about 10,000 people are killed with guns in the US annually, CDC pdf whereas spiders and snakes kill only a handful, people nonetheless learn to fear spiders and snakes about as easily as they do a pointed gun, and more easily than an unpointed gun, rabbits or flowers. A potential explanation is that spiders and snakes were a threat to human ancestors throughout the Pleistocene, whereas guns (and rabbits and flowers) were not. There is thus a mismatch between our evolved fear-learning psychology and the modern environment. Research methods Evolutionary psychologists use several methods and data sources to test their hypotheses, as well as various comparative methods to test for similarities and differences between: humans and other species, males and females, individuals within a species, and between the same individuals in different contexts. They also use more traditional experimental methods involving, for example, dependent and independent variables. Evolutionary psychologists also use various sources of data for testing, including archeological records, data from hunter-gatherer societies, observational studies, self-reports, public records, and human products. Areas of research Areas of research in evolutionary psychology can be divided into broad categories of adaptive problems that arise from the broader theory of evolution itself: survival, mating, parenting, kinship, and group living. Survival The Hunting Hypothesis might explain the emergence of human coalitions as a psychological mechanism. With men being the providers for the family, their lives depended on hunting wild game. They could not risk going about such an arduous task on their own. If they did it alone they risked not catching anything at all sometimes. Also, the meat would spoil if they caught a large animal and could not finish it on their own. Therefore, they hunted together with other men and shared their food. These human coalitions can be seen today. One form of evolutionary adaptiveness can be found in morning sickness in women during their first trimester. Over thousands of years, women’s bodies have adapted to the dangers that the environment may pose to the developing fetus when they eat something. Therefore, during this time many women experience disgust and even vomiting when eating certain foods which may be toxic to the fetus. Vomiting is the body’s way of coping with the toxins in the environment and keeping them from reaching the child during this critical period when the vital organs are being formed. The function of this physiological reaction was to protect the fetus. Mating Given that sexual reproduction is the means by which genes are propagated into future generations, sexual selection plays a large role in the direction of human evolution. Human mating, then, is of interest to evolutionary psychologists who aim to investigate evolved mechanisms to attract and secure mates. Wilson, G.D. Love and Instinct. London: Temple Smith, 1981. Several lines of research have stemmed from this interest, such as studies of mate selection Buss, D. M. (1994). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. New York: Basic Books. Buss, D. M., & Barnes, M. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 559-570. Li, N. P., Bailey, J. M., Kenrick, D. T., & Linsenmeier, J. A. W. (2002). The necessities and luxuries of mate preferences: Testing the tradeoffs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 947-955. , mate poaching Schmitt, D. P., & Buss, D. M. (2001). Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 894-917. , and mate retention Buss, D. M. (1988). From vigilance to violence: Tactics of mate retention in American undergraduates. Ethology and Sociobiology, 9, 291-317. , to name a few. Much of the research on human mating is based on parental investment theory Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton. , which makes important predictions about the different strategies men and women will use in the mating domain (see above under "Middle-level evolutionary theories"). In essence, it predicts that women will be more selective when choosing mates, whereas men will not, especially under short-term mating conditions. This has led some researchers to predict sex differences in such domains as sexual jealousy Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1-49. Buss, D. M., Larsen, R. J., Westen, D., & Semmelroth J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological Science 3(4), 251–255 (however, see also, Harris, C. R. (2002) Sexual and romantic jealousy in heterosexual and homosexual adults. Psychological Science 13(1), 7–12 ), wherein females will react more aversively to emotional infidelity and males will react more aversively to sexual infidelity. This particular pattern is predicted because the costs involved in mating for each sex are distinct. Women, on average, should prefer a mate who can offer some kind of resources (e.g., financial, commitment), which means that a woman would also be more at risk for losing those valued traits in a mate who commits an emotional infidelity. Men, on the other hand, are limited by the fact that they can never be certain of their paternity because they do not bear offspring themselves. This obstacle entails that sexual infidelity would be more aversive than emotional infidelity for a man because investing resources in another man's offspring does not lead to propagation of the man's own genes. Another interesting line of research is that which examines women's mate preferences across the ovulatory cycle Haselton, M. G., & Miller, G. F. (2006). Women’s fertility across the cycle increases the short-term attractiveness of creative intelligence. Human Nature, 17(1), 50-73. Gangestad, S. W., Simpson, J. A., Cousins, A. J., Garver-Apgar, C. E., & Christensen, P. N. (2004). Women’s preferences for male behavioral displays change across the menstrual cycle. Psychological Science, 15(3), 203-207. . The theoretical underpinning of this research is that ancestral women would have evolved mechanisms to select mates with certain traits depending on their hormonal status. For example, the theory hypothesizes that, during the ovulatory phase of a woman's cycle (approximately days 10-15 of a woman's cycle Wilcox, A. J., Dunson, D. B., Weinberg, C. R., Trussell, J., & Baird, D. D. (2001). Likelihood of conception with a single act of intercourse: Providing benchmark rates for assessment of post-coital contraceptives. Contraception, 63, 211-215. ), a woman who mated with a male with high genetic quality would have been more likely, on average, to produce and rear a healthy offspring than a woman who mated with a male with low genetic quality. These putative preferences are predicted to be especially apparent for short-term mating domains because a potential male mate would only be offering genes to a potential offspring. This hypothesis allows researchers to examine whether women select mates who have characteristics that indicate high genetic quality during the high fertility phase of their ovulatory cycles. Indeed, studies have shown that women's preferences vary across the ovulatory cycle. In particular, Haselton and Miller (2006) showed that highly fertile women prefer creative but poor men as short-term mates. Creativity may be a proxy for good genes Miller, G. F. (2000b) The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature. Anchor Books: New York. . Research by Gangestad et al. (2004) indicates that highly fertile women prefer men who display social presence and intrasexual competition; these traits may act as cues that would help women predict which men may have, or would be able to acquire, resources. Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Main article: Evolutionary developmental psychologyIn evolutionary theory, what matters most is that individuals live long enough to reproduce and pass on their genes. So why do humans live so long after reproduction? Many evolutionary psychologists have proposed that living a long life improves the survival of babies because while the parents were out hunting, the grandparents cared for the young. According to Paul Baltes, the benefits granted by evolutionary selection decrease with age. Natural Selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics that appear among older adults, such as Alzheimer disease. If it were a disease that killed 20 year-olds instead of 70 year-olds this may have been a disease that natural selection could have destroyed ages ago. Thus, unaided by evolutionary pressures against nonadaptive conditions, we suffer the aches, pains, and infirmities of aging. And as the benefits of evolutionary selection decrease with age, the need for culture increases. Santrock, W. John (2005). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. pp.62. History 19th century After his seminal work in developing theories of natural selection, Charles Darwin devoted much of his final years to the study of animal emotions and psychology. He wrote two books;The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex in 1871 and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1872 that dealt with topics related to evolutionary psychology. He introduced the concepts of sexual selection to explain the presence of animal structures that seemed unrelated to survival, such as the peacock's tail. He also introduced theories concerning group selection and kin selection to explain altruism. Darwin pondered why humans and animals were often generous to their group members. Darwin felt that acts of generosity decreased the fitness of generous individuals. This fact contradicted natural selection which favored the fittest individual. Darwin concluded that while generosity decreased the fitness of individuals, generosity would increase the fitness of a group. In this case, altruism arose due to competition between groups. Darwin anticipated evolutionary psychology with this quote from the Origin of Species: In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. -- Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species, 1859, p. 449. Post world war II While Darwin's theories on natural selection gained acceptance in the early part of the 20th century, his theories on evolutionary psychology were largely ignored. Only after the second world war, in the 1950s, did interest increase in the systematic study of animal behavior. It was during this period that the modern field of ethology emerged. Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen were pioneers in developing the theoretical framework for ethology for which they would receive a Nobel prize in 1973. Sociobiology In 1975, E O Wilson built upon the works of Lorenz and Tinbergen by combining studies of animal behavior, social behavior and evolutionary theory in his book Sociobiology:The New Synthesis. Wilson included a chapter on human behavior. The specific chapter caused considerable controversy as it reignited the nature versus nurture debate. E O Wilson argues that the field of evolutionary psychology is essentially the same as sociobiology . According to Wilson, the heated controversies surrounding Sociobiology:The New Synthesis, significantly stigmatized the term "sociobiology". Evolutionary psychology emerged as a more acceptable term in the 1980s that was not tainted by earlier controversies, and also emphasized that organisms are "adaptation executors" rather than "fitness maximizers" (which can help to explain maladaptive behaviors due to "fitness lags" given novel environmental changes). Controversies in the evolutionary social sciences: a guide for the perplexed Evolutionary Psychology By Lance Workman, Will Reader Controversies Applying evolutionary theory to animal behavior is uncontroversial. However, adaptationist approaches to human psychology are contentious, with critics questioning the scientific nature of evolutionary psychology, and with more minor debates within the field itself. Criticisms of the field have also been addressed by scholars. ; in See also Behavioural genetics Dual inheritance theory Evolutionary developmental psychology Evolutionary educational psychology Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary Psychology Research Groups and Centers Gene-centered view of evolution Human behavioral ecology List of evolutionary psychologists Notes References Further reading Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 1-30. Full text Durrant, R., & Ellis, B.J. (2003). Evolutionary Psychology. In M. Gallagher & R.J. Nelson (Eds.), Comprehensive Handbook of Psychology, Volume Three: Biological Psychology (pp. 1-33). New York: Wiley & Sons. Full text Tooby, J. & Cosmides, L. (2005). Conceptual foundations of evolutionary psychology. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 5-67). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Full text For more readings, see the books page at the Human Behavior and Evolution Society External links Evolutionary Psychology page at Scholarpedia Evolutionary Psychology page at Citizendium What Is Evolutionary Psychology? by Clinical Evolutionary Psychologist Dale Glaebach. Academic societies Human Behavior and Evolution Society; international society dedicated to using evolutionary theory to study human nature The International Society for Human Ethology; promotes ethological perspectives on the study of humans worldwide The Association for Politics and the Life Sciences; international and interdisciplinary association concerned with evolutionary, genetic and ecological knowledge Society for Evolutionary Analysis in Law The New England Institute for Cognitive Science and Evolutionary Psychology The NorthEastern Evolutionary Psychology Society; regional society dedicated to encouraging scholarship and dialogue on the topic of evolutionary psychology Journals Evolutionary Psychology free access online scientific journal Evolution and Human Behavior; journal of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society Politics and the Life Sciences is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journal published by the Assoication for Politics and the Life Sciences Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective advances the interdisciplinary investigation of the biological, social, and environmental factors that underlie human behavior. It focuses primarily on the functional unity in which these factors are continuously and mutually interactive. These include the evolutionary, biological, and sociological processes as they interact with human social behavior. Biological Theory: Integrating Development, Evolution and Cognition devoted to theoretical advances in the fields of biology and cognition, with an emphasis on the conceptual integration afforded by evolutionary and developmental approaches. Evolutionary Anthropology Behavioral and Brain Sciences interdisciplinary articles in psychology, neuroscience, behavioral biology, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, linguistics and philosophy. About 30% of the articles have focused on evolutionary analyses of behavior. Evolution and Development Research relevant to interface of evolutionary and developmental biology Journal of Social, Evolutionary & Cultural Psychology Biological Theory: Integrating Development, Evolution and Cognition; publishes theoretical advances in the fields of biology and cognition, emphasizing the conceptual integration afforded by evolutionary and developmental approaches. Free access to Winter 2006 issues Videos Brief video clip re what EP is (from the "Evolution" PBS Series) TED talk by Steven Pinker about his book The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature Margaret Mead and Samoa; review of the nature vs. nurture debate triggered by Coming of Age in Samoa'' Video interview with Steven Pinker by Robert Wright (journalist) discussing evolutionary psychology Video interview with Edward O. Wilson by Robert Wright (journalist), contextualizing evolutionary psychology within science, politics, academics and philosophy Outline of psychology
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developmental_biology:1 video_clip:1 blank_slate:1 margaret_mead:1 mead_samoa:1
7,157
Imperialism
Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. Founded the De Beers Mining Company and owned the British South Africa Company, which established Rhodesia for itself. He liked to "paint the map British red," and declared: "all of these stars ... these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets." S. Gertrude Millin, Rhodes, London, 1933, p.138 The term imperialism commonly refers to a political or geographical domain such as the Ottoman Empire http://i-cias.com/e.o/ottomans.htm Ottoman Empire, Encyclopedia of the Orient the Russian Empire, http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire/ The Empire that was Russia, Library of Congress the Chinese Empire, or the British Empire, http://www.britishempire.co.uk/ The British Empire etc., but the term can equally be applied to domains of knowledge, beliefs, values and expertise, such as the empires of Christianity (see Christendom) http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3350 John B Cobb, Christianity and Empire, or Islam (see Caliphate). http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/ Islam Empire of Faith . Imperialism is usually autocratic, and also sometimes monolithic http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj93/rees.htm John Rees, Imperialism: globalisation, the state and war, International Socialism Journal 93, Winter 2001 in character. Overview Imperialism is found in the ancient histories of the Assyrian Empire, Chinese Empire, Roman Empire, Greece, the Persian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire (see Ottoman wars in Europe), ancient Egypt, India, the Aztec empire, and a basic component to the conquests of Genghis Khan and other warlords. Although imperialist practices have existed for thousands of years, the term "Age of Imperialism" generally refers to the activities of nations such as Britain, Japan, and Germany in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, e.g. the "Scramble for Africa" and the "Open Door Policy" in China. The word itself is derived from the Latin verb imperare (to command) and the Roman concept of imperium, while the actual term 'Imperialism' was coined in the sixteenth century, Oxford English Dictionary online (subscription required reflecting what are now seen as the imperial policies of Belgium, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Imperialism not only describes colonial, territorial policies, but also economic and/or military dominance and influence. Definitions from some other sources Definition 3 in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary (2007) is particularly apropos to our second (attitude) meaning above ; and also to the issue of how far non-military and not-overtly-territorial control can be called imperialism: [Imperialism:] The belief in the desirability of the acquisition of colonies and dependencies, or the extension of a country's influence through trade, diplomacy, etc. Usu. derog. Also on the issue of non-military control, we have this from the first paragraph of the article, "Imperialism," in the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (second edition): . . . Commonly associated with the policy of direct extension of sovereignty and dominion over non-contiguous and often distant overseas territories, it also denotes indirect political or economic control of powerful states over weaker peoples. Regarded also as a doctrine based on the use of deliberate force, imperialism has been subject to moral censure by its critics, and thus the term is frequently used in international propaganda as a pejorative for expansionist and aggressive foreign policy. (End of paragraph.) The following passage, from Wm. Roger Louis, Imperialism (1976) is also informative. He is discussing an influential theory of 19th century European imperialism by the historians John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson: More specifically, Robinson and Gallagher attack the traditional notion that "imperialism" is the formal rule or control by one people or nation over others. In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. A key to the thought of Robinson and Gallagher is the idea of empire "informally if possible and formally if necessary." [This last phrase referring to the fact that the British government was often reluctant to entangle itself with formal colonies. -- Wikipedia.] Louis, Page 4. See also Colonialism Cultural imperialism Empire Feudalism Hegemony Imperialism in Leninist theory John A. Hobson List of empires List of largest empires Chinese Empire British Empire Roman Empire Neocolonialism New Imperialism Oil imperialism Scientific imperialism Theories of New Imperialism Ultra-imperialism Uneven and combined development References Further reading Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharatai, Chinese, and Western, Geneva, INU PRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5. Robert Bickers/Christian Henriot, New Frontiers: Imperialism's New Communities in East Asia, 1842-1953, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7190-5604-7 Barbara Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism (History: Concepts,Theories and Practice), Longmans, 2006, ISBN 0582505836 John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400-2000, Penguin Books, 2008, ISBN 0141010223 Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0141007540 Michael Hardt and Toni Negri, Empire, Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-674-00671-2 E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875-1914, Abacus Books, 1989, ISBN 0349105987 E J Hobsbawm, On Empire: America, War, and Global Supremacy, Pantheon Books, 2008, ISBN 0375425373 J A Hobson, Imperialism: A Study, Cosimo Classics, 2005, ISBN 1596052503 Michael Hudson, Super Imperialism: The Origin and Fundamentals of U.S. World Dominance, Pluto Press, 2003, ISBN 0745319890 V I Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, International Publishers, New York, 1997, ISBN 0717800989 Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, Vintage Books, 1998, ISBN 0099967502 Simon C Smith, British Imperialism 1750-1970, Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 052159930X External links J.A Hobson, Imperialism a Study 1902. The Paradox of Imperialism by Hans-Hermann Hoppe. November 2006. Imperialism Quotations State, Imperialism and Capitalism by Joseph Schumpeter Economic Imperialism by A.J.P.Taylor Imperialism Entry in the Columbia Encyclopedia (Bartleby) The Nation-State, Core and Periphery: A Brief sketch of Imperialism in the 20th century. Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.61-93 [[zh:帝国主义] be-x-old:Імпэрыялізм
Imperialism |@lemmatized cecil:1 rhodes:2 cape:1 cairo:1 railway:1 project:1 found:1 de:1 beer:1 mine:1 company:2 british:9 south:1 africa:3 establish:1 rhodesia:1 like:1 paint:1 map:2 red:2 declare:1 star:1 vast:1 world:5 remain:1 reach:1 could:1 would:1 annex:1 planet:1 gertrude:1 millin:1 london:1 p:2 term:5 imperialism:35 commonly:2 refer:3 political:2 geographical:1 domain:2 ottoman:5 empire:33 http:6 cia:1 com:1 e:4 htm:2 encyclopedia:3 orient:1 russian:1 www:4 loc:1 gov:1 exhibit:1 russia:1 library:1 congress:1 chinese:4 britishempire:1 co:1 uk:2 etc:2 equally:1 apply:1 knowledge:1 belief:2 value:1 expertise:1 christianity:2 see:5 christendom:1 religion:1 online:2 org:3 showarticle:1 asp:1 title:1 john:5 b:1 cobb:1 islam:3 caliphate:1 pb:1 faith:1 usually:1 autocratic:1 also:8 sometimes:1 monolithic:1 pub:1 socialistreviewindex:1 rees:2 globalisation:1 state:4 war:3 international:5 socialism:1 journal:2 winter:2 character:1 overview:1 find:1 ancient:2 history:2 assyrian:1 roman:3 greece:1 persian:1 europe:1 egypt:1 india:1 aztec:1 basic:1 component:1 conquest:1 genghis:1 khan:1 warlord:1 although:1 imperialist:1 practice:2 exist:1 thousand:1 year:1 age:2 generally:1 activity:1 nation:3 britain:3 japan:1 germany:1 late:1 nineteenth:1 early:1 twentieth:1 century:4 g:1 scramble:1 open:1 door:1 policy:5 china:1 word:1 derive:1 latin:1 verb:1 imperare:1 command:1 concept:2 imperium:1 actual:1 coin:1 sixteenth:1 oxford:2 english:1 dictionary:2 subscription:1 require:1 reflect:1 imperial:1 belgium:1 france:1 netherlands:1 portugal:1 spain:1 asia:2 america:2 describe:1 colonial:1 territorial:2 economic:3 military:3 dominance:2 influence:2 definition:2 source:1 shorter:1 particularly:1 apropos:1 second:2 attitude:1 meaning:1 issue:2 far:2 non:3 overtly:1 control:4 call:1 desirability:1 acquisition:1 colony:2 dependency:1 extension:2 country:1 trade:2 diplomacy:1 usu:1 derog:1 first:1 paragraph:2 article:1 social:1 science:1 edition:1 associate:1 direct:1 sovereignty:1 dominion:1 contiguous:1 often:2 distant:1 overseas:1 territory:1 denote:1 indirect:1 powerful:1 weak:1 people:2 regard:1 doctrine:1 base:1 use:2 deliberate:1 force:1 subject:1 moral:1 censure:1 critic:1 thus:1 frequently:1 propaganda:1 pejorative:1 expansionist:1 aggressive:1 foreign:1 end:1 following:1 passage:1 wm:1 roger:1 louis:2 informative:1 discuss:1 influential:1 theory:4 european:1 historian:2 gallagher:3 ronald:1 robinson:3 specifically:1 attack:1 traditional:1 notion:1 formal:4 rule:1 one:1 others:1 view:1 mesmerize:1 region:1 color:1 bulk:1 emigration:1 capital:1 go:1 area:1 outside:1 key:1 thought:1 idea:1 informally:1 possible:1 formally:1 necessary:1 last:1 phrase:1 fact:1 government:1 reluctant:1 entangle:1 wikipedia:1 page:1 colonialism:1 cultural:1 feudalism:1 hegemony:1 leninist:1 hobson:3 list:2 large:1 neocolonialism:1 new:6 oil:1 scientific:1 ultra:1 uneven:1 combine:1 development:1 reference:1 read:1 guy:1 ankerl:1 coexist:1 contemporary:1 civilization:1 arabo:1 muslim:1 bharatai:1 western:1 geneva:1 inu:1 press:5 isbn:13 robert:1 bicker:1 christian:1 henriot:1 frontier:1 community:1 east:1 manchester:2 university:3 barbara:1 bush:1 postcolonialism:1 longmans:1 darwin:1 tamerlane:1 rise:1 fall:1 global:2 penguin:2 book:5 niall:1 ferguson:1 make:1 modern:1 michael:2 hardt:1 toni:1 negri:1 harvard:1 j:5 hobsbawm:2 abacus:1 supremacy:1 pantheon:1 study:2 cosimo:1 classic:1 hudson:1 super:1 origin:1 fundamental:1 u:1 pluto:1 v:1 lenin:1 high:1 stage:1 capitalism:2 publisher:1 york:1 edward:1 say:1 culture:1 vintage:1 simon:1 c:1 smith:1 cambridge:1 external:1 link:1 paradox:1 han:1 hermann:1 hoppe:1 november:1 quotation:1 joseph:1 schumpeter:1 taylor:1 entry:1 columbia:1 bartleby:1 core:1 periphery:1 brief:1 sketch:1 mehmet:1 akif:1 okur:1 rethink:1 towards:1 ontological:1 image:1 order:1 perception:1 affair:1 volume:1 xii:1 pp:1 zh:1 帝国主义:1 x:1 old:1 імпэрыялізм:1 |@bigram cecil_rhodes:1 ottoman_empire:3 http_www:4 loc_gov:1 showarticle_asp:1 genghis_khan:1 twentieth_century:1 scramble_africa:1 cultural_imperialism:1 manchester_manchester:1 niall_ferguson:1 external_link:1 han_hermann:1 hermann_hoppe:1 joseph_schumpeter:1 mehmet_akif:1
7,158
List_of_decades
This is a list of decades from the 17th century BC to the present century, including links to corresponding articles with more information about them. During the twentieth century, it became common to consider individual decades as historical entities in themselves. Particular trends, styles, and attitudes would be associated with and regarded as defining particular decades (which became known as "the twenties", "the sixties" and so on). Century Decades 17th BC 1690s BC 1680s BC 1670s BC 1660s BC 1650s BC 1640s BC 1630s BC 1620s BC 1610s BC 1600s BC 16th BC 1590s BC 1580s BC 1570s BC 1560s BC 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC 1500s BC 15th BC 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC 1440s BC 1430s BC 1420s BC 1410s BC 1400s BC 14th BC 1390s BC 1380s BC 1370s BC 1360s BC 1350s BC 1340s BC 1330s BC 1320s BC 1310s BC 1300s BC 13th BC 1290s BC 1280s BC 1270s BC 1260s BC 1250s BC 1240s BC 1230s BC 1220s BC 1210s BC 1200s BC 12th BC 1190s BC 1180s BC 1170s BC 1160s BC 1150s BC 1140s BC 1130s BC 1120s BC 1110s BC 1100s BC 11th BC 1090s BC 1080s BC 1070s BC 1060s BC 1050s BC 1040s BC 1030s BC 1020s BC 1010s BC 1000s BC 10th BC 990s BC 980s BC 970s BC 960s BC 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC 900s BC 9th BC 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC 800s BC 8th BC 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC 740s BC 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC 700s BC 7th BC 690s BC 680s BC 670s BC 660s BC 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC 600s BC 6th BC 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC 510s BC 500s BC 5th BC 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 4th BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 3rd BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 2nd BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 1st BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 1st 0s 10s 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s 70s 80s 90s 2nd 100s 110s 120s 130s 140s 150s 160s 170s 180s 190s 3rd 200s 210s 220s 230s 240s 250s 260s 270s 280s 290s 4th 300s 310s 320s 330s 340s 350s 360s 370s 380s 390s 5th 400s 410s 420s 430s 440s 450s 460s 470s 480s 490s 6th 500s 510s 520s 530s 540s 550s 560s 570s 580s 590s 7th 600s 610s 620s 630s 640s 650s 660s 670s 680s 690s 8th 700s 710s 720s 730s 740s 750s 760s 770s 780s 790s 9th 800s 810s 820s 830s 840s 850s 860s 870s 880s 890s 10th 900s 910s 920s 930s 940s 950s 960s 970s 980s 990s 11th 1000s 1010s 1020s 1030s 1040s 1050s 1060s 1070s 1080s 1090s 12th 1100s 1110s 1120s 1130s 1140s 1150s 1160s 1170s 1180s 1190s 13th 1200s 1210s 1220s 1230s 1240s 1250s 1260s 1270s 1280s 1290s 14th 1300s 1310s 1320s 1330s 1340s 1350s 1360s 1370s 1380s 1390s 15th 1400s 1410s 1420s 1430s 1440s 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s 1490s 16th 1500s 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s 1560s 1570s 1580s 1590s 17th 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s 1640s 1650s 1660s 1670s 1680s 1690s 18th 1700s 1710s 1720s 1730s 1740s 1750s 1760s 1770s 1780s 1790s 19th 1800s 1810s 1820s 1830s 1840s 1850s 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 20th 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 21st 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2050s 2060s 2070s 2080s 2090s 22nd 2100s
List_of_decades |@lemmatized list:1 decade:4 century:4 bc:188 present:1 include:1 link:1 correspond:1 article:1 information:1 twentieth:1 become:2 common:1 consider:1 individual:1 historical:1 entity:1 particular:2 trend:1 style:1 attitude:1 would:1 associate:1 regard:1 define:1 know:1 twenty:1 sixty:1 |@bigram twentieth_century:1
7,159
Mario_Botta
Telecommunication headquarter in Bellinzona The new headquarters building of the National Bank of Greece in Athens Mario Botta (born April 1, 1943) is a famous modern architect born in Mendrisio, Ticino canton, Switzerland. He designed his first house at age 16, although no-one mentions if it was built, and studied at the Liceo Artistico in Milan and the IUAV in Venice. His ideas were influenced by Le Corbusier, Carlo Scarpa, Louis Kahn. He opened his own practice in 1970 in Lugano. He designed his first buildings at age 16, a two-family house at Morbio Superiore in Ticino. While the arrangements of spaces in this structure is inconsistent, its relationship to its site, separation of living from service spaces, and deep window recesses echo of what would become his stark, strong, towering style. His designs tend to include a strong sense of geometry, often being based on very simple shapes, yet creating unique volumes of space. His buildings are often made of brick, yet his use of material is wide, varied, and often unique. His trademark style can be seen widely in Switzerland particularly the Ticino region and also in the Mediatheque in Villeurbanne (1988), a cathedral in Évry (1995), and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art or SFMoMA (1994). Religious works by Botta, including the Cymbalista Synagogue and Jewish Heritage Center were shown in London at the Royal Institute of British Architects in an exhibition entitled, Architetture del Sacro: Prayers in Stone. Jonathan Glancey, Spirit in the skylight, The Guardian, 19 December 2005 Recently (1998) he designed the new bus station for Vimercate (near Milan), an impressive red brick building linked to many facilities, underlining the city's recent development. He worked at La Scala's theatre renovation, which proved controversial as preservationists feared that historic details would be lost. On January 1, 2006 he received the Grand Officer award from President of the Italian Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi. In 2006 he designed his first ever spa, the Bergoase Spa in Arosa, Switzerland. The spa opens in December 2006 and cost an estimated CHF 35 million. Mario Botta participated in the Stock Exchange of Visions project in 2007. Notes External links Official website 2007 Interview with Mario Botta in The Leaf Review Stock Exchange Of Visions: Visions of Mario Botta (Video Interviews) Family house at Riva San Vitale Cathedral of Evry
Mario_Botta |@lemmatized telecommunication:1 headquarter:1 bellinzona:1 new:2 headquarters:1 building:4 national:1 bank:1 greece:1 athens:1 mario:4 botta:5 bear:2 april:1 famous:1 modern:2 architect:2 mendrisio:1 ticino:3 canton:1 switzerland:3 design:5 first:3 house:3 age:2 although:1 one:1 mention:1 build:1 study:1 liceo:1 artistico:1 milan:2 iuav:1 venice:1 idea:1 influence:1 le:1 corbusier:1 carlo:2 scarpa:1 louis:1 kahn:1 open:2 practice:1 lugano:1 two:1 family:2 morbio:1 superiore:1 arrangement:1 space:3 structure:1 inconsistent:1 relationship:1 site:1 separation:1 living:1 service:1 deep:1 window:1 recess:1 echo:1 would:2 become:1 stark:1 strong:2 tower:1 style:2 tend:1 include:2 sense:1 geometry:1 often:3 base:1 simple:1 shape:1 yet:2 create:1 unique:2 volume:1 make:1 brick:2 use:1 material:1 wide:1 varied:1 trademark:1 see:1 widely:1 particularly:1 region:1 also:1 mediatheque:1 villeurbanne:1 cathedral:2 évry:1 san:2 francisco:1 museum:1 art:1 sfmoma:1 religious:1 work:2 cymbalista:1 synagogue:1 jewish:1 heritage:1 center:1 show:1 london:1 royal:1 institute:1 british:1 exhibition:1 entitle:1 architetture:1 del:1 sacro:1 prayer:1 stone:1 jonathan:1 glancey:1 spirit:1 skylight:1 guardian:1 december:2 recently:1 bus:1 station:1 vimercate:1 near:1 impressive:1 red:1 link:2 many:1 facility:1 underline:1 city:1 recent:1 development:1 la:1 scala:1 theatre:1 renovation:1 prove:1 controversial:1 preservationist:1 fear:1 historic:1 detail:1 lose:1 january:1 receive:1 grand:1 officer:1 award:1 president:1 italian:1 republic:1 azeglio:1 ciampi:1 ever:1 spa:3 bergoase:1 arosa:1 cost:1 estimate:1 chf:1 million:1 participate:1 stock:2 exchange:2 vision:3 project:1 note:1 external:1 official:1 website:1 interview:2 leaf:1 review:1 video:1 riva:1 vitale:1 evry:1 |@bigram mario_botta:4 le_corbusier:1 san_francisco:1 la_scala:1 carlo_azeglio:1 stock_exchange:2 external_link:1
7,160
Mach_(kernel)
Mach is an operating system microkernel developed at Carnegie Mellon University to support operating system research, primarily distributed and parallel computation. It is one of the earliest examples of a microkernel, and still the standard by which similar projects are measured. The project at Carnegie Mellon ran from 1985 to 1994, ending with Mach 3.0. A number of other efforts have continued Mach research, including the University of Utah's Mach 4. Mach was developed as a replacement for the kernel in the BSD version of UNIX, so no new operating system would have to be designed around it. Today further experimental research on Mach appears ended, although Mach and its derivatives are in use in a number of commercial operating systems, such as NEXTSTEP and OPENSTEP, and most notably Mac OS X (using the XNU kernel). The Mach virtual memory management system was also adopted by the BSD developers at CSRG, and appears in modern BSD-derived UNIX systems, such as FreeBSD. Neither Mac OS X nor FreeBSD maintain the microkernel structure pioneered in Mach, although Mac OS X continues to offer microkernel Inter-Process Communication and control primitives for use directly by applications. Mach is the logical successor to Carnegie Mellon's Accent kernel. The lead developer on the Mach project, Richard Rashid, has been working at Microsoft since 1991 in various top-level positions revolving around the Microsoft Research division. Another of the original Mach developers, Avie Tevanian, was formerly head of software at NeXT, then Chief Software Technology Officer at Apple Computer until March 2006. History Mach concepts Since Mach was designed as a "drop-in" replacement for the traditional UNIX kernel, this discussion focuses on what distinguishes Mach from UNIX. It became clear early that UNIX's concept of everything-as-a-file might not be practical on modern systems, although some systems such as Plan 9 from Bell Labs have tried this way. Nevertheless, those same developers lamented the loss of flexibility that the original concept offered. Another level of virtualization was sought that would make the system "work" again. The critical abstraction in UNIX was the pipe. What was needed was a pipe-like concept that worked at a much more general level, allowing a broad variety of information be passed between programs. Such a system did exist using inter-process communication (IPC): A pipe-like system that would move any information between two programs, as opposed to file-like information. While many systems, including most Unixes, had added various IPC implementations over the years, at the time these were generally special-purpose libraries only really useful for one-off tasks. Carnegie Mellon University started experimentation along these lines under the Accent kernel project, using an IPC system based on shared memory. Accent was a purely experimental system with many features, developed in an ad-hoc fashion over a period of time with changing research interests. Additionally, Accent's usefulness for research was limited because it was not UNIX-compatible, and UNIX was already the de-facto standard for almost all operating system research. Finally, Accent was tightly coupled with the hardware platform on which it was developed, and at the time in the early 1980s it appeared there would soon be an explosion of new platforms, many of them massively parallel. Mach started largely as an effort to produce a cleanly-defined, UNIX-based, highly portable Accent. The result was a short list of generic concepts: a "task" is a set of resources that enable "threads" to run a "thread" is a single unit of code running on a processor a "port" defines a secure pipe for IPC between tasks "messages" are passed between tasks on ports Mach developed on Accent's IPC concepts, but made the system much more UNIX-like in nature, even able to run UNIX programs with little or no modification. To do this, Mach introduced the concept of a port, representing each endpoint of a two-way IPC. Ports had security and rights like files under UNIX, allowing a very UNIX-like model of protection to be applied to them. Additionally, Mach allowed any program to be handed privileges that would normally be given to the kernel only, in order to allow user space programs to handle things like interacting with hardware. Under Mach, and like UNIX, the operating system again becomes primarily a collection of utilities. As UNIX, Mach keeps the concept of a driver for handling the hardware. Therefore all the drivers for the present hardware have to be included in the microkernel. Other architectures based on Hardware Abstraction Layer or exokernels could move the drivers out of the microkernel. The main difference with UNIX is that instead of utilities handling files, they can handle any "task". More code was moved out of the kernel and into user space, resulting in a much smaller kernel and the rise of the term microkernel. Unlike traditional systems, under Mach a process, or "task", can consist of a number of threads. While this is common in modern systems, Mach was the first system to define tasks and threads in this way. The kernel's job was reduced from essentially being the operating system to maintaining the "utilities" and scheduling their access to hardware. The existence of ports and the use of IPC is perhaps the most fundamental difference between Mach and traditional kernels. Under UNIX, calling the kernel consists of an operation known as a syscall or trap. The program uses a library to place data in a well known location in memory and then causes a fault, a type of error. When the system is first started the kernel is set up to be the "handler" of all faults, so when the program causes a fault the kernel takes over, examines the information passed to it, and then carries out the instructions. Under Mach, the IPC system was used for this role instead. In order to call system functionality, a program would ask the kernel for access to a port, then use the IPC system to send messages to that port. Although the messages were triggered by syscalls as they would be on other kernels, under Mach that was pretty much all the kernel did—handling the actual request would be up to some other program. The use of IPC for message passing benefited support for threads and concurrency. Since tasks consisted of multiple threads, and it was the code in the threads that used the IPC mechanism, Mach was able to freeze and unfreeze threads while the message was handled. This allowed the system to be distributed over multiple processors, either using shared memory directly as in most Mach messages, or by adding code to copy the message to another processor if needed. In a traditional kernel this is difficult to implement; the system has to be sure that different programs don't try to write to the same memory from different processors. Under Mach this was well defined and easy to implement; it was the very process of accessing that memory, the ports, that was made a first-class citizen of the system. The IPC system initially had performance problems, so a few strategies were developed to minimize the impact. Like its predecessor, Accent, Mach used a single shared-memory mechanism for physically passing the message from one program to another. Physically copying the message would be too slow, so Mach relies on the machine's memory management unit (MMU) to quickly map the data from one program to another. Only if the data is written to would it have to be physically copied, a process known as copy-on-write. Messages were also checked for validity by the kernel, to avoid bad data crashing one of the many programs making up the system. Ports were deliberately modeled on the UNIX file system concepts. This allowed the user to find ports using existing file system navigation concepts, as well as assigning rights and permissions as they would on the file system. Development under such a system would be easier. Not only would the code being worked on exist in a traditional program that could be built using existing tools, it could also be started, debugged and killed off using the same tools. With a monokernel a bug in new code would take down the entire machine and require a reboot, whereas under Mach this would require only that the program be restarted. Additionally the user could tailor the system to include, or exclude, whatever features they required. Since the operating system was simply a collection of programs, they could add or remove parts by simply running or killing them as they would any other program. Finally, under Mach, all of these features were deliberately designed to be extremely platform neutral. To quote one text on Mach: Unlike UNIX, which was developed without regard for multiprocessing, Mach incorporates multiprocessing support throughout. Its multiprocessing support is also exceedingly flexible, ranging from shared memory systems to systems with no memory shared between processors. Mach is designed to run on computer systems ranging from one to thousands of processors. In addition, Mach is easily ported to many varied computer architectures. A key goal of Mach is to be a distributed system capable of functioning on heterogeneous hardware. (Appendix B, Operating System Concepts) There are a number of disadvantages, however. A relatively mundane one is that it is not clear how to find ports. Under UNIX this problem was solved over time as programmers agreed on a number of "well known" locations in the file system to serve various duties. While this same approach worked for Mach's ports as well, under Mach the operating system was assumed to be much more fluid, with ports appearing and disappearing all the time. Without some mechanism to find ports and the services they represented, much of this flexibility would be lost. Development Mach was initially hosted as additional code written directly into the existing 4.2BSD kernel, allowing the team to work on the system long before it was complete. Work started with the already functional Accent IPC/port system, and moved on to the other key portions of the OS, tasks and threads and virtual memory. As portions were completed various parts of the BSD system were re-written to call into Mach, and a change to 4.3BSD was also made during this process. By 1986 the system was complete to the point of being able to run on its own on the DEC VAX. Although doing little of practical value, the goal of making a microkernel was realized. This was soon followed by versions on the IBM PC/RT and for Sun Microsystems 68030-based workstations, proving the system's portability. By 1987 the list included the Encore Multimax and Sequent Balance machines, testing Mach's ability to run on multiprocessor systems. A public Release 1 was made that year, and Release 2 followed the next year. Throughout this time the promise of a "true" microkernel was not yet being delivered. These early Mach versions included the majority of 4.3BSD in the kernel, a system known as POE Server, resulting in a kernel that was actually larger than the UNIX it was based on. The idea, however, was to move the UNIX layer out of the kernel into user-space, where it could be more easily worked on and even replaced outright. Unfortunately performance proved to be a major problem, and a number of architectural changes were made in order to solve this problem. Unwieldy UNIX licensing issues were also plaguing researchers, so this early effort to provide a non-licensed UNIX-like system environment continued to find use, well into the further development of Mach. The resulting Mach 3 was released in 1990, and generated intense interest. A small team had built Mach and ported it to a number of platforms, including complex multiprocessor systems which were causing serious problems for older-style kernels. This generated considerable interest in the commercial market, where a number of companies were in the midst of considering changing hardware platforms. If the existing system could be ported to run on Mach, it would seem it would then be easy to change the platform underneath. Mach received a major boost in visibility when the Open Software Foundation (OSF) announced they would be hosting future versions of OSF/1 on Mach 2.5, and were investigating Mach 3 as well. Mach 2.5 was also selected for the NeXTSTEP system and a number of commercial multiprocessor vendors. Mach 3 led to a number of efforts to port other operating systems to the kernel, including IBM's Workplace OS and several efforts by Apple Computer to build a cross-platform version of the Mac OS. For some time it appeared that every future operating system would be based on Mach by the late 1990s. Performance problems Mach was originally intended to be a replacement for classical UNIX, and for this reason contained many UNIX-like ideas. For instance, Mach used a permissioning and security system patterned on UNIX's file system. Since the kernel was privileged (running in kernel-space) it was possible for malfunctioning or malicious programs to send it commands that would cause damage to the system, and for this reason the kernel checked every message for validity. Additionally most of the functionality was to be located in user-space programs, so this meant there needed to be some way for the kernel to grant these programs additional privileges, to operate on hardware for instance. Some of Mach's more esoteric features were also based on this same IPC mechanism. For instance, Mach was able to support multi-processor machines with ease. In a traditional kernel extensive work needs to be carried out to make it reentrant or interruptible, as programs running on different processors could call into the kernel at the same time. Under Mach, the bits of the operating system are isolated in servers, which are able to run, like any other program, on any processor. Although in theory the Mach kernel would also have to be reentrant, in practice this isn't an issue because its response times are so fast it can simply wait and serve requests in turn. Mach also included a server that could forward messages not just between programs, but even over the network, which was an area of intense development in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Unfortunately, the use of IPC for almost all tasks turned out to have serious performance impact. Benchmarks on 1997 hardware showed that Mach 3.0-based UNIX single-server implementations were about 50% slower than native UNIX. url2 Studies showed the vast majority of this performance hit, 73% by one measure, was due to the overhead of the IPC. And this was measured on a system with a single large server providing the operating system; breaking the system down further into smaller servers would only make the problem worse. It appeared the goal of a collection-of-servers was simply not possible. Many attempts were made to improve the performance of Mach and Mach-like microkernels, but by the mid-1990s much of the early intense interest had died. The concept of an operating system based on IPC appeared to be dead, the idea itself flawed. In fact, further study of the exact nature of the performance problems turned up a number of interesting facts. One was that the IPC itself was not the problem: there was some overhead associated with the memory mapping needed to support it, but this added only a small amount of time to making a call. The rest, 80% of the time being spent, was due to additional tasks the kernel was running on the messages. Primary among these was the port rights checking and message validity. In tests on a 486DX-50 a standard UNIX system call took 21 microseconds to complete, while a corresponding operation on Mach took 114 microseconds. Only 18 microseconds of this was hardware related; the rest was the Mach kernel running various routines on the message. When Mach was first being seriously used in the 2.x versions, performance was slower than traditional kernels, perhaps as much as 25%. This cost was not considered particularly worrying, however, because the system was also offering multi-processor support and easy portability. Many felt this was an expected and acceptable cost to pay. In fact the system was hiding a serious performance problem, one that only became obvious when Mach 3 started to be widely used, and developers attempted to make systems running in user-space. When Mach 3 attempted to move the operating system into user-space, the overhead suddenly became overwhelming. In this case consider the simple task of asking the system for the time. Under a true user-space system, there would be a server handling this request. The caller would trigger the IPC system to run the kernel, causing a context switch and memory mapping. The kernel would then examine the contents of the message to see if the caller had rights to call the server, and if so, do another mapping into the server's memory and another context switch to allow it to run. The process then repeats to return the results, adding up to a total of four context switches and memory mappings, as well as two runs of the code to check the rights and validity of the messages. To put numbers to this, a call into the BSD kernel on a 486DX-50 requires about 20 microseconds (μs). The same call on the same system running Mach 3 required 114 μs. Given a syscall that does nothing, a full round-trip under BSD would require about 40 μs, whereas on a user-space Mach system it would take just under 500 μs. In detailed testing published in 1991, Chen and Bershad found overall system performance was degraded by up to 66% compared to a traditional kernel. This was not the only source of performance problems. Another centered on the problems of trying to handle memory properly when physical memory ran low and paging had to occur. In the traditional monokernels the authors had direct experience with which parts of the kernel called which others, allowing them to fine tune their pager to avoid paging out code that was about to be used. Under Mach this wasn't possible because the kernel had no real idea what the operating system consisted of. Instead they had to use a single one-size-fits-all solution that added to the performance problems. Mach 3 attempted to address this problem by providing a simple pager, relying on user-space pagers for better specialization. But this turned out to have little effect. In practice, any benefits it had were wiped out by the expensive IPC needed to call it in. Other performance problems were related to Mach's support for multiprocessor systems. From the mid-1980s to the early 1990s, commodity CPUs grew in performance at a rate of about 60% a year, but the speed of memory access grew at only 7% a year. This meant that the cost of accessing memory grew tremendously over this period, and since Mach was based on mapping memory around between programs, any "cache miss" made IPC calls slow. Regardless of the advantages of the Mach approach, these sorts of real-world performance hits were simply not acceptable. As other teams found the same sorts of results, the early Mach enthusiasm quickly disappeared. After a short time many in the development community seemed to conclude that the entire concept of using IPC as the basis of an operating system was inherently flawed. Potential solutions IPC overhead is a major issue for Mach 3 systems. However, the concept of a multi-server system is still promising, though it still requires some research. The developers have to be careful to isolate code into modules that do not call from server to server. For instance, the majority of the networking code would be placed in a single server, thereby minimizing IPC for normal networking tasks. Most developers instead stuck with the original POE concept of a single large server providing the operating system functionality. In order to ease development, they allowed the operating system server to run either in user-space or kernel-space. This allowed them to develop in user-space and have all the advantages of the original Mach idea, and then move the debugged server into kernel-space in order to get better performance. Several operating systems have since been constructed using this method, known as co-location, among them Lites, MkLinux, OSF/1 and NeXTSTEP/OPENSTEP/Mac OS X. The Chorus microkernel made this a feature of the basic system, allowing servers to be raised into the kernel space using built-in mechanisms. Mach 4 attempted to address these problems, this time with a more radical set of upgrades. In particular, it was found that program code was typically not writable, so potential hits due to copy-on-write were rare. Thus it made sense to not map the memory between programs for IPC, but instead migrate the program code being used into the local space of the program. This led to the concept of "shuttles" and it seemed performance had improved, but the developers moved on with the system in a semi-usable state. Mach 4 also introduced built-in co-location primitives, making it a part of the kernel itself. By the mid-1990s, work on microkernel systems was largely dead, despite the market generally believing that all modern operating systems would be microkernel based by the 1990s. The only remaining widespread use of the Mach kernel is Apple's Mac OS X, which runs a heavily modified Mach 3 kernel. The Next Generation Further analysis demonstrated that the IPC performance problem was not as obvious as it seemed. Recall that a single-side of a syscall took 20 μs under BSD and 114 μs on Mach running on the same system. Of the 114, 11 were due to the context switch, identical to BSD. An additional 18 were used by the MMU to map the message between user-space and kernel space. This adds up to only 31 μs, longer than a traditional syscall, but not by much. The rest, the majority of the actual problem, was due to the kernel performing tasks such as checking the message for port access rights. While it would seem this is an important security concern, in fact, it only makes sense in a UNIX-like system. For instance, a single-user operating system running a cell phone or robot might not need any of these features, and this is exactly the sort of system where Mach's pick-and-choose operating system would be most valuable. Likewise Mach caused problems when memory had been moved by the operating system, another task that only really makes sense if the system has more than one address space. DOS and the early Mac OS had a single large address space shared by all programs, so under these systems the mapping is a waste of time. These realizations led to a series of second generation microkernels, which further reduced the complexity of the system and placed almost all functionality in the user space. For instance, the L4 kernel includes only seven functions and uses 12k of memory, whereas Mach 3 includes about 140 functions and uses about 330k of memory. IPC calls under L4 on a 486DX-50 take only 5 μs, faster than a UNIX syscall on the same system, and over 20 times as fast as Mach. Of course this ignores the fact that L4 is not handling permissioning or security, but by leaving this to the user-space programs, they can select as much or as little overhead as they require. The potential performance gains of L4 are tempered by the fact that the user-space applications will often have to provide many of the functions formerly supported by the kernel. In order to test the end-to-end performance, MkLinux in co-located mode was compared with an L4 port running in user-space. L4 added about 5%-10% overhead, compared to Mach's 15%, all the more interesting considering the double context switches needed. These newer microkernels have revitalized the industry as a whole, and many formerly dead projects such as the GNU Hurd have received new attention as a result. Operating systems and kernels based on Mach GNU Hurd (based on GNU Mach) Lites MkLinux mtXinu MachTen MacMach Mac OS X iPhone OS, which is based on the full Mac OS X NEXTSTEP OSF/1 Workplace OS xMach UNICOS MAX See also Microkernel L4 microkernel family EROS microkernel family References J. Bradley Chen, Brian N. Bershad. The impact of operating system structure on memory system performance, ACM Press, 1994, ISBN 0-89791-632-8 Notes External links The Mach project at Carnegie Mellon The Mach System – Appendix to Operating System Concepts (7th ed) by Avi Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin and Greg Gagne A comparison of Mach, Amoeba and Chorus Towards Real Microkernels – Contains numerous performance measurements, including those quoted in the article The Performance of µ-Kernel-Based Systems – Contains an excellent performance comparison of Linux running as a monokernel, on Mach 3 and on L4 Mach kernel source code - Browsable version of the Mach Kernel source code on the FreeBSD/Linux kernel cross reference site
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Mehrgarh
Mehrgarh, () one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC) sites in archaeology, lies on what is now the "Kachi plain" of today's Balochistan, Pakistan. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia." Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. "Mehrgarh". Guide to Archaeology . Located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the present-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi, Mehrgarh was discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jean-François Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986. The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh—in the northeast corner of the site—was a small farming village dated between 7000 BC–5500 BC. Lifestyle and technology Early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BC, with houses built with mud bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC. Possehl, Gregory L. 1996. "Mehrgarh." Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press, Oxford. In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Coppa, A. et al. 2006. "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population." Nature. Volume 440. 6 April, 2006. Archaeological significance A relief map of Pakistan showing Mehrgarh. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization," according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus of archaeology at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, "There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life." Chandler, Graham. 1999. "Traders of the Plain." Saudi Aramco World. According to Catherine Jarrige of the Centre for Archaeological Research Indus Balochistan, Musée Guimet, Paris …the Kachi plain and in the Bolan basin (are) situated at the Bolan peak pass, one of the main routes connecting southern Afghanistan, eastern Iran, the Balochistan hills and the Indus valley. This area of rolling hills is thus located on the western edge of the Indus valley, where, around 2500 BC, a large urban civilization emerged at the same time as those of Mesopotamia and the ancient Egyptian empire. For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, a continuous sequence of dwelling-sites has been established from 7000 BC to 500 BC, (as a result of the) explorations in Pirak from 1968 to 1974; in Mehrgarh from 1975 to 1985; and of Nausharo from 1985 to 1996. "Indus and Mehrgarh archaeological mission", The Centre for Archaeological Research Indus Balochistan, Musée Guimet. On line. The chalcolithic people of Mehrgarh also had contacts with contemporaneous cultures in northern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and southern central Asia. Kenoyer, J. Mark, and Kimberly Heuston. 2005. The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press. 176 pages. ISBN 0195174224. Mehrgarh Period I A figurine from Mehrgarh, c. 3000 BCE. (Musée Guimet, Paris) Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Mehrgarh Period I 7000 BC–5500 BC, was Neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use of pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been found, along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea shore and lapis lazuli found far in Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those areas. A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a stratified context in the South Asia. In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region. "Here we describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago. These findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in an early farming culture." Mehrgarh Period VII Somewhere between 2600 BC and 2000 BC, the city seems to have been largely abandoned, which is when the Indus Valley Civilisation was in its middle stages of development. It has been surmised that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh migrated to the fertile Indus valley as the Balochistan became more arid due to climatic changes. Common variant spellings Mehrgarh is also spelled as Mehrgahr, Merhgarh or Merhgahr. Kachi plain is also spelled as Kacchi plain, Katchi plain. See also Indus Valley Civilization Pirak Quetta Nausharo Bolan Pass Notes Eksterne lenker Dr. Ahmad Hasan Dani, "History Through The Centuries", National Fund for Cultural Heritage Mehrgarh (Balochistan) Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, "Early Developments of Art, Symbol and Technology in the Indus Valley Tradition", www.harappa.com "Stone age man used dentist drill", BBC News "Mehrgarh", Travel Web
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Big_Bang
According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. The graphic scheme above is an artist concept illustrating the expansion of a portion of a flat universe. The Big Bang is a cosmological model of the initial conditions and subsequent development of the universe. It is supported by the most comprehensive and accurate explanations from current scientific evidence and observation. Evidence for the Big Bang, www.talkorigins.org What is the evidence for the Big Bang?, UCLA Division of Astronomy and Astrophysics As used by cosmologists, the term Big Bang generally refers to the idea that the universe has expanded from a primordial hot and dense initial condition at some finite time in the past, and continues to expand to this day. The scientist and Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaître proposed what became known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe, although he called it his "hypothesis of the primeval atom". The framework for the model relies on Albert Einstein's general relativity and on simplifying assumptions (such as homogeneity and isotropy of space). The governing equations had been formulated by Alexander Friedmann. After Edwin Hubble discovered in 1929 that the distances to far away galaxies were generally proportional to their redshifts, as suggested by Lemaître in 1927, this observation was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity. If the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing today, everything must have been closer together in the past. This idea has been considered in detail back in time to extreme densities and temperatures, Carl H. Gibson(2001)"The First Turbulent Mixing and Combustion" Carl H. Gibson(2001)"Turbulence And Mixing In The Early Universe" Carl H.Gibson(2005)"The First Turbulent Combustion" and large particle accelerators have been built to experiment on and test such conditions, resulting in significant confirmation of the theory, but these accelerators have limited capabilities to probe into such high energy regimes. Without any evidence associated with the earliest instant of the expansion, the Big Bang theory cannot and does not provide any explanation for such an initial condition; rather, it describes and explains the general evolution of the universe since that instant. The observed abundances of the light elements throughout the cosmos closely match the calculated predictions for the formation of these elements from nuclear processes in the rapidly expanding and cooling first minutes of the universe, as logically and quantitatively detailed according to Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term Big Bang during a 1949 radio broadcast, as a derisive reference to a theory he did not accept. Hoyle later helped considerably in the effort to figure out the nuclear pathway for building certain heavier elements from lighter ones. After the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum (i.e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength) sketched out a blackbody curve, most scientists were fairly convinced by the evidence that some Big Bang scenario must have occurred. History The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations. In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were "island universes" outside our Milky Way. Ten years later, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein's equations of general relativity, showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the static universe model advocated by Einstein. (English translation in: ) In 1924, Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, predicted that the recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe. (Translated in: ) In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion in forward time required that the universe contracted backwards in time, and would continue to do so until it could contract no further, bringing all the mass of the universe into a single point, a "primeval atom", at a point in time before which time and space did not exist. As such, at this point, the fabric of time and space had not yet come into existence. Starting in 1924, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured, mostly by Slipher. In 1929, Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity—now known as Hubble's law. Lemaître had already shown that this was expected, given the Cosmological Principle. Artist's depiction of the WMAP satellite gathering data to help scientists understand the Big Bang During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non-standard cosmologies to explain Hubble's observations, including the Milne model, the oscillatory universe (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman) Reissued (1987). New York (NY): Dover Publications ISBN 0-486-65383-8. and Fritz Zwicky's tired light hypothesis. . After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady state model, whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time. The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it derisively as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949. It is commonly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative. However, Hoyle later denied that, saying that it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for radio listeners. See chapter 9 of The Alchemy of the Heavens by Ken Croswell, Anchor Books, 1995. For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio source counts, began to favor the latter. The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding the physics of the universe at earlier and earlier times, and reconciling observations with the basic theory. Huge strides in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of major advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of copious data from satellites such as COBE, the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP. Cosmologists now have fairly precise measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating. Overview Timeline of the Big Bang Extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past. This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity. How closely we can extrapolate towards the singularity is debated—certainly not earlier than the Planck epoch. The early hot, dense phase is itself referred to as "the Big Bang", There is no consensus about how long the Big Bang phase lasted. For some writers this denotes only the initial singularity, for others the whole history of the universe. Usually, at least the first few minutes (during which helium is synthesized) are said to occur "during the Big Bang". and is considered the "birth" of our universe. Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae, measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, and measurements of the correlation function of galaxies, the universe has a calculated age of 13.73 ± 0.12 billion years. The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the contents of the universe. The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation. In the most common models, the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high energy density, huge temperatures and pressures, and was very rapidly expanding and cooling. Approximately 10−37 seconds into the expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which the universe grew exponentially. After inflation stopped, the universe consisted of a quark-gluon plasma, as well as all other elementary particles. Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle-antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions. At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number, leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and anti-leptons—of the order of 1 part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present universe. Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 6 The universe continued to grow in size and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing. Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form. Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 7 After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments. At about 10−6 seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton-antiproton pairs (similarly for neutrons-antineutrons), so a mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles. A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos). A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion (one thousand million; 109; SI prefix giga) Kelvin and the density was about that of air, neutrons combined with protons to form the universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei. As the universe cooled, the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation. After about 379,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly hydrogen); hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation. Peacock (1999), chapter 9 The Hubble Ultra Deep Field showcases galaxies from an ancient era when the universe was younger, denser, and warmer according to the Big Bang theory. Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today. The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe. The three possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter, hot dark matter and baryonic matter. The best measurements available (from WMAP) show that the dominant form of matter in the universe is cold dark matter. The other two types of matter make up less than 18% of the matter in the universe. Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which apparently permeates all of space. The observations suggest 72% of the total energy density of today's universe is in this form. When the universe was very young, it was likely infused with dark energy, but with less space and everything closer together, gravity had the upper hand, and it was slowly braking the expansion. But eventually, after numerous billion years of expansion, the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the universe to slowly begin to accelerate. Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically. All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and Einstein's General Relativity. As noted above, there is no well-supported model describing the action prior to 10−15 seconds or so. Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier. Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics. Underlying assumptions The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws, and the Cosmological Principle. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic. These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but today there are efforts to test each of them. For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10−5. Also, General Relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the solar system and binary stars while extrapolation to cosmological scales has been validated by the empirical successes of various aspects of the Big Bang theory. Detailed information of and references for tests of general relativity are given at Tests of general relativity. If the large-scale universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth, the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican Principle, which states that there is no preferred (or special) observer or vantage point. To this end, the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10−5 via observations of the CMB. This ignores the dipole anisotropy at a level of 0.1% due to the peculiar velocity of the solar system through the radiation field. The universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10% level. FLRW metric General relativity describes spacetime by a metric, which determines the distances that separate nearby points. The points, which can be galaxies, stars, or other objects, themselves are specified using a coordinate chart or "grid" that is laid down over all spacetime. The cosmological principle implies that the metric should be homogeneous and isotropic on large scales, which uniquely singles out the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric (FLRW metric). This metric contains a scale factor, which describes how the size of the universe changes with time. This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made, called comoving coordinates. In this coordinate system, the grid expands along with the universe, and objects that are moving only due to the expansion of the universe remain at fixed points on the grid. While their coordinate distance (comoving distance) remains constant, the physical distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the universe. The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space. Horizons An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons. Since the universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us. This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed. Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never "catch up" to very distant objects. This defines a future horizon, which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence. The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our universe. Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times. So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space. If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well. Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 3 Observational evidence The earliest and most direct kinds of observational evidence are the Hubble-type expansion seen in the redshifts of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, and the abundance of light elements (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis). These are sometimes called the three pillars of the big bang theory. Many other lines of evidence now support the picture, notably various properties of the large-scale structure of the cosmos which are predicted to occur due to gravitational growth of structure in the standard Big Bang theory. Hubble's law and the expansion of space Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted—the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed: where v is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object D is the comoving proper distance to the object and H0 is Hubble's constant, measured to be km/s/Mpc by the WMAP probe. Hubble's law has two possible explanations. Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies—which is untenable given the Copernican Principle—or the universe is uniformly expanding everywhere. This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedman in 1922 and Georges Lemaître in 1927, well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson and Walker. The theory requires the relation to hold at all times, where D is the proper distance, , and v, H, and D all vary as the universe expands (hence we write H0 to denote the present-day Hubble "constant"). For distances much smaller than the size of the observable universe, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However, the redshift is not a true Doppler shift, but rather the result of the expansion of the universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected. Peacock (1999), chapter 3 That space is undergoing metric expansion is shown by direct observational evidence of the Cosmological Principle and the Copernican Principle, which together with Hubble's law have no other explanation. Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogenous, supporting the Cosmological Principle that the universe looks the same in all directions, along with much other evidence. If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us, they would not be so similar in different directions. Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican Principle, that the Earth is not in a central position, on a cosmological scale. Astronomers reported their measurement in a paper published in the December 2000 issue of Nature titled The microwave background temperature at the redshift of 2.33771 which can be read here. A press release from the European Southern Observatory explains the findings to the public. Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the universe. Uniform cooling of the cosmic microwave background over billions of years is explainable only if the universe is experiencing a metric expansion, and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion. Cosmic microwave background radiation WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation During the first few days of the universe, the universe was in full thermal equilibrium, with photons being continually emitted and absorbed, giving the radiation a blackbody spectrum. As the universe expanded, it cooled to a temperature at which photons could no longer be created or destroyed. The temperature was still high enough for electrons and nuclei to remain unbound, however, and photons were constantly "reflected" from these free electrons through a process called Thomson scattering. Because of this repeated scattering, the early universe was opaque to light. When the temperature fell to a few thousand Kelvin, electrons and nuclei began to combine to form atoms, a process known as recombination. Since photons scatter infrequently from neutral atoms, radiation decoupled from matter when nearly all the electrons had recombined, at the epoch of last scattering, 379,000 years after the Big Bang. These photons make up the CMB that is observed today, and the observed pattern of fluctuations in the CMB is a direct picture of the universe at this early epoch. The energy of photons was subsequently redshifted by the expansion of the universe, which preserved the blackbody spectrum but caused its temperature to fall, meaning that the photons now fall into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation is thought to be observable at every point in the universe, and comes from all directions with (almost) the same intensity. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson accidentally discovered the cosmic background radiation while conducting diagnostic observations using a new microwave receiver owned by Bell Laboratories. Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions—the radiation was found to be isotropic and consistent with a blackbody spectrum of about 3 K—and it pitched the balance of opinion in favor of the Big Bang hypothesis. Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize for their discovery. In 1989, NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE), and the initial findings, released in 1990, were consistent with the Big Bang's predictions regarding the CMB. COBE found a residual temperature of 2.726 K and in 1992 detected for the first time the fluctuations (anisotropies) in the CMB, at a level of about one part in 105. John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded Nobels for their leadership in this work. During the following decade, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based and balloon experiments. In 2000–2001, several experiments, most notably BOOMERanG, found the universe to be almost spatially flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies. (See shape of the universe.) In early 2003, the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy satellite (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. This satellite also disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but the results were consistent with the inflation theory in general, it confirms too that a sea of cosmic neutrinos permeates the universe, a clear evidence that the first stars took more than a half-billion years to create a cosmic fog. Another satellite like it, scheduled for launch in April 2009, the Planck Surveyor, will provide even more accurate measurements of the CMB anisotropies. Many other ground- and balloon-based experiments are also currently running; see Cosmic microwave background experiments. The background radiation is exceptionally smooth, which presented a problem in that conventional expansion would mean that photons coming from opposite directions in the sky were coming from regions that had never been in contact with each other. The leading explanation for this far reaching equilibrium is that the universe had a brief period of rapid exponential expansion, called inflation. This would have the effect of driving apart regions that had been in equilibrium, so that all the observable universe was from the same equilibrated region. Abundance of primordial elements Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium-4, helium-3, deuterium and lithium-7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen, H. All the abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons, which itself can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for 4He/H, about 10−3 for ²H/H, about 10−4 for ³He/H and about 10−9 for 7Li/H. Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 4 The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for 4He, and a factor of two off for 7Li; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties. Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by BBN is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to "tune" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium. Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe (i.e., before star formation, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than ³He, and in constant ratios, too. Galactic evolution and distribution This panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The galaxies are color coded by redshift. Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars provide strong evidence for the Big Bang. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters. Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory. Other lines of evidence After some controversy, the age of universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with (i.e., slightly larger than) the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars. The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of temperature-sensitive emission lines in gas clouds at high redshift. This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift; this seems to be roughly true, but unfortunately the amplitude does depend on cluster properties which do change substantially over cosmic time, so a precise test is impossible. Features, issues and problems While very few researchers now doubt the Big Bang occurred, the scientific community was once divided between supporters of the Big Bang and those of alternative cosmological models. Throughout the historical development of the subject, problems with the Big Bang theory were posed in the context of a scientific controversy regarding which model could best describe the cosmological observations (see the history section above). With the overwhelming consensus in the community today supporting the Big Bang model, many of these problems are remembered as being mainly of historical interest; the solutions to them have been obtained either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations. The core ideas of the Big Bang—the expansion, the early hot state, the formation of helium, the formation of galaxies—are derived from many independent observations including abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure and Type Ia supernovae, and can hardly be doubted as important and real features of our universe. Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics. Of these features, dark energy and dark matter are considered the most secure: remaining issues, such as the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter, are not considered to be fatal as it is anticipated that they can be solved through further refinements of the theory. On the other hand, inflation and baryogenesis remain speculative features of current Big Bang models: they provide satisfying explanations for important features of the early universe, but could be replaced by alternative ideas without affecting the rest of the theory. If inflation is true, baryogenesis must have occurred, but not vice versa. Explanations for such phenomena remain at the frontiers of inquiry in physics. Horizon problem The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light. In a universe of finite age, this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact. Kolb and Turner (1988), chapter 8 The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature. A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis). During inflation, the universe undergoes exponential expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other's particle horizon. The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations, which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe. Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian, which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB. If inflation occurred, exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon. Flatness/oldness problem The overall geometry of the universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. From top to bottom: a closed universe with positive curvature, a hyperbolic universe with negative curvature and a flat universe with zero curvature. The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric. The universe may have positive, negative or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density. Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density, positive if greater, and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be flat. The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat. Strictly, dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant drives the universe towards a flat state; but our universe remained close to flat for several billion years, before the dark energy density became significant. Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10−43 seconds, the fact that the universe has reached neither a Heat Death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires some explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the universe density must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today. A resolution to this problem is offered by inflationary theory. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that its curvature would have been smoothed out. Thus, it is believed that inflation drove the universe to a very nearly spatially flat state, with almost exactly the critical density. Magnetic monopoles The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. Grand unification theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles. This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness. Kolb and Turner, chapter 8 A resolution to the horizon, flatness, and magnetic monopole problems alternative to cosmic inflation is offered by the Weyl curvature hypothesis. Baryon asymmetry It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter. Kolb and Turner, chapter 6 It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot, it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and anti-baryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. An unknown process called "baryogenesis" created the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied. These require that baryon number is not conserved, that C-symmetry and CP-symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium. (Translated in Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics Letters 5, 24 (1967).) All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry. Globular cluster age In the mid-1990s, observations of globular clusters appeared to be inconsistent with the Big Bang. Computer simulations that matched the observations of the stellar populations of globular clusters suggested that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with the 13.7-billion-year age of the universe. This issue was generally resolved in the late 1990s when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters. There still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, but it is clear that these objects are some of the oldest in the universe. Dark matter A pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the universe, according to the best ΛCDM model fits. Roughly ninety-five percent is in the exotic forms of dark matter and dark energy During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter. In addition, the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now indicated by numerous observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and X-ray measurements of galaxy clusters. The evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, and no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway. . Dark energy Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae have revealed that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed "dark energy". Dark energy is indicated by several other lines of evidence. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is very nearly spatially flat, and therefore according to general relativity the universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass/energy. But the mass density of the universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering, and is found to have only about 30% of the critical density. Since dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the "missing" energy density. Dark energy is also required by two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the universe, one using the frequency of gravitational lenses, and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure as a cosmic ruler. Negative pressure is a property of vacuum energy, but the exact nature of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a cosmological constant and quintessence. Results from the WMAP team in 2008, which combined data from the CMB and other sources, indicate that the universe today is 72% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos. The energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the universe, but the dark energy density remains constant (or nearly so) as the universe expands. Therefore matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the universe in the past than it does today, but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant. In the ΛCDM, the best current model of the Big Bang, dark energy is explained by the presence of a cosmological constant in the general theory of relativity. However, the size of the constant that properly explains dark energy is surprisingly small relative to naive estimates based on ideas about quantum gravity. Distinguishing between the cosmological constant and other explanations of dark energy is an active area of current research. The future according to the Big Bang theory Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density, then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch. Kolb and Turner, 1988, chapter 3 Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down, but never stop. Star formation would cease as all the interstellar gas in each galaxy is consumed; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death. Modern observations of accelerated expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, would remain together, and they too would be subject to heat death, as the universe expands and cools. Other explanations of dark energy—so-called phantom energy theories—suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called Big Rip. Speculative physics beyond Big Bang theory Artist concept of the universe expansion, where space (including hypothetical non-observable portions of the universe) is represented at each time by the circular sections. Note on the left the dramatic expansion (not to scale) occurring in the inflationary epoch, and at the center the expansion acceleration. The scheme is decorated with WMAP images on the left and with the representation of stars at the appropriate level of development.Image from WMAP press release, 2006. While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest moments of the universe's history. The Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems require the existence of a singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these theorems assume that general relativity is correct, but general relativity must break down before the universe reaches the Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of quantum gravity may avoid the singularity. Some proposals, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are: models including the Hartle-Hawking no-boundary condition in which the whole of space-time is finite; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time, but without the need for a singularity. brane cosmology models in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory; the pre-big bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically. chaotic inflation, in which inflation events start here and there in a random quantum-gravity foam, each leading to a bubble universe expanding from its own big bang. Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in a much larger and older universe, or multiverse, and not the literal beginning. Religious interpretations The Big Bang is a scientific theory, and as such stands or falls by its agreement with observations. But as a theory which addresses the origins of reality, it has always been entangled with theological and philosophical implications. In the 1920s and '30s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory. This perception was enhanced by the fact that Georges Lemaître, who put the theory forth, was a Roman Catholic priest. Notes References Books Further reading For an annotated list of textbooks and monographs, see physical cosmology. External links be-x-old:Вялікі выбух
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7,163
Henrik_Ibsen
Henrik Johan Ibsen (; 20 March 1828 – 23 May 1906) was a major 19th-century Norwegian playwright of realistic drama and poet. He is often referred to as the "father of modern drama" and is one of the founders of modernism in the theatre. On Ibsen's role as "father of modern drama," see ; on Ibsen's relationship to modernism, see Moi (2006, 1-36). Alongside Olav Duun and Knut Hamsun, Ibsen is held to be the greatest of Norwegian authors, celebrated as a national symbol by Norwegians, and one of the most important playwrights of all time. His plays were considered scandalous to many of his era, when Victorian values of family life and propriety largely held sway in Europe and any challenge to them was considered immoral and outrageous. Ibsen's work examined the realities that lay behind many facades, possessing a revelatory nature that was disquieting to many contemporaries. Ibsen introduced a critical eye and free inquiry into the conditions of life and issues of morality. Family and youth Henrik Ibsen was born to Knud Ibsen and Marichen Altenburg, a relatively well-to-do merchant family, in the small port town of Skien, Norway, which was primarily noted for shipping timber. He was a descendant of some of the oldest and most distinguished families of Norway, including the Paus family. Ibsen later pointed out his distinguished ancestors and relatives in a letter to Georg Brandes. Shortly after his birth his family's fortunes took a significant turn for the worse. His mother turned to religion for solace and his father began to suffer from severe depression. The characters in his plays often mirror his parents, and his themes often deal with issues of financial difficulty as well as moral conflicts stemming from dark secrets hidden from society. At fifteen, Ibsen left home. He moved to the small town of Grimstad to become an apprentice pharmacist and began writing plays. In 1846, a liaison with a servant produced an illegitimate child, whom he later rejected. While Ibsen did pay some child support for fourteen years, he never met his illegitimate son, who ended up as a poor blacksmith. Ibsen went to Christiania (later renamed Oslo) intending to matriculate at the university. He soon rejected the idea (his earlier attempts at entering university were blocked as he did not pass all his entrance exams), preferring to commit himself to writing. His first play, the tragedy Catiline (1850), was published under the pseudonym "Brynjolf Bjarme," when he was only 22, but it was not performed. His first play to be staged, The Burial Mound (1850), received little attention. Still, Ibsen was determined to be a playwright, although the numerous plays he wrote in the following years remained unsuccessful. Life and writings He spent the next several years employed at the Norwegian Theater in Bergen, where he was involved in the production of more than 145 plays as a writer, director, and producer. During this period he did not publish any new plays of his own. Despite Ibsen's failure to achieve success as a playwright, he gained a great deal of practical experience at the Norwegian Theater, experience that was to prove valuable when he continued writing. Ibsen returned to Christiania in 1858 to become the creative director of Christiania's National Theater. He married Suzannah Thoresen the same year and she gave birth to their only child, Sigurd. The couple lived in very poor financial circumstances and Ibsen became very disenchanted with life in Norway. In 1864, he left Christiania and went to Sorrento in Italy in self-imposed exile. He was not to return to his native land for the next 27 years, and when he returned it was to be as a noted playwright, however controversial. His next play, Brand (1865), was to bring him the critical acclaim he sought, along with a measure of financial success, as was the following play, Peer Gynt (1867), to which Edvard Grieg famously composed incidental music and songs. Although Ibsen read excerpts of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and traces of the latter's influence are evident in Brand, it was not until after Brand that Ibsen came to take Kierkegaard seriously. Initially annoyed with his friend Georg Brandes for comparing Brand to Kierkegaard, Ibsen nevertheless read Either/Or and Fear and Trembling. Ibsen's next play Peer Gynt was consciously informed by Kierkegaard. Shapiro, Bruce. Divine Madness and the Absurd Paradox. (1990) ISBN 9780313272905 Downs, Brian. Ibsen: The Intellectual Background (1946) With success, Ibsen became more confident and began to introduce more and more of his own beliefs and judgments into the drama, exploring what he termed the "drama of ideas." His next series of plays are often considered his Golden Age, when he entered the height of his power and influence, becoming the center of dramatic controversy across Europe. Portrait from around 1870Ibsen moved from Italy to Dresden, Germany in 1868, where he spent years writing the play he regarded as his main work, Emperor and Galilean (1873), dramatizing the life and times of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate. Although Ibsen himself always looked back on this play as the cornerstone of his entire works, very few shared his opinion, and his next works would be much more acclaimed. Ibsen moved to Munich in 1875 and published A Doll's House in 1879. The play is a scathing criticism of the blind acceptance of traditional roles of men and women in Victorian marriage. Ibsen followed A Doll's House with Ghosts (1881), another scathing commentary on Victorian morality, in which a widow reveals to her pastor that she had hidden the evils of her marriage for its duration. The pastor had advised her to marry her then fiancé despite his philandering, and she did so in the belief that her love would reform him. But she was not to receive the result she was promised. Her husband's philandering continued right up until his death, and the result is that her son is syphilitic. Even the mention of venereal disease was scandalous, but to show that even a person who followed society's ideals of morality had no protection against it, that was beyond scandalous. Hers was not the noble life which Victorians believed would result from fulfilling one's duty rather than following one's desires. Those idealized beliefs were only the Ghosts of the past, haunting the present. In An Enemy of the People (1882), Ibsen went even further. In earlier plays, controversial elements were important and even pivotal components of the action, but they were on the small scale of individual households. In An Enemy, controversy became the primary focus, and the antagonist was the entire community. One primary message of the play is that the individual, who stands alone, is more often "right" than the mass of people, who are portrayed as ignorant and sheeplike. The Victorian belief was that the community was a noble institution that could be trusted, a notion Ibsen challenged. In An Enemy of the People Ibsen chastised not only the right wing or 'Victorian' elements of society but also the liberalism of the time. He illustrated how people on both sides of the social spectrum could be equally self-serving. An Enemy of the People was written as a response to the people who had rejected his previous work, Ghosts. The plot of the play is a veiled look at the way people reacted to the plot of Ghosts. The protagonist is a doctor, a pillar of the community. The town is a vacation spot whose primary draw is a public bath. The doctor discovers that the water used by the bath is being contaminated when it seeps through the grounds of a local tannery. He expects to be acclaimed for saving the town from the nightmare of infecting visitors with disease, but instead he is declared an 'enemy of the people' by the locals, who band against him and even throw stones through his windows. The play ends with his complete ostracism. It is obvious to the reader that disaster is in store for the town as well as for the doctor, due to the community's unwillingness to face reality. As audiences by now expected of him, his next play again attacked entrenched beliefs and assumptions—but this time his attack was not against the Victorians but against overeager reformers and their idealism. Always the iconoclast, Ibsen was equally willing to tear down the ideologies of any part of the political spectrum, including his own. The Wild Duck (1884) is considered by many to be Ibsen's finest work, and it is certainly the most complex. It tells the story of Gregers Werle, a young man who returns to his hometown after an extended exile and is reunited with his boyhood friend Hjalmar Ekdal. Over the course of the play the many secrets that lie behind the Ekdals' apparently happy home are revealed to Gregers, who insists on pursuing the absolute truth, or the "Summons of the Ideal". Among these truths: Gregers' father impregnated his servant Gina, then married her off to Hjalmar to legitimize the child. Another man has been disgraced and imprisoned for a crime the elder Werle committed. And while Hjalmar spends his days working on a wholly imaginary "invention", his wife is earning the household income. Ibsen displays masterful use of irony: despite his dogmatic insistence on truth, Gregers never says what he thinks but only insinuates, and is never understood until the play reaches its climax. Gregers hammers away at Hjalmar through innuendo and coded phrases until he realizes the truth; Gina's daughter, Hedvig, is not his child. Blinded by Gregers' insistence on absolute truth, he disavows the child. Seeing the damage he has wrought, Gregers determines to repair things, and suggests to Hedvig that she sacrifice the wild duck, her wounded pet, to prove her love for Hjalmar. Hedvig, alone among the characters, recognizes that Gregers always speaks in code, and looking for the deeper meaning in the first important statement Gregers makes which does not contain one, kills herself rather than the duck in order to prove her love for him in the ultimate act of self-sacrifice. Only too late do Hjalmar and Gregers realize that the absolute truth of the "ideal" is sometimes too much for the human heart to bear. Letter from Ibsen to his English reviewer and translator Edmund Gosse: "30.8.[18]99. Dear Mr. Gosse! It was to me a hearty joy to receive your letter. So I will finally personal meet you and your wife. I am at home every day in the morning until 1 o'clock. I am happy and surprised of your excellent Norwegian! Yours friendly obliged Henrik Ibsen." Interestingly, late in his career Ibsen turned to a more introspective drama that had much less to do with denunciations of Victorian morality. In such later plays as Hedda Gabler (1890) and The Master Builder (1892) Ibsen explored psychological conflicts that transcended a simple rejection of Victorian conventions. Many modern readers, who might regard anti-Victorian didacticism as dated, simplistic and even clichéd, have found these later works to be of absorbing interest for their hard-edged, objective consideration of interpersonal confrontation. Hedda Gabler and The Master Builder center on female protagonists whose almost demonic energy proves both attractive and destructive for those around them. Hedda Gabler is probably Ibsen's most performed play, with the title role regarded as one of the most challenging and rewarding for an actress even in the present day. There are a few similarities between Hedda and the character of Nora in A Doll's House, but many of today's audiences and theater critics feel that Hedda's intensity and drive are much more complex and much less comfortably explained than what they view as rather routine feminism on the part of Nora. Ibsen had completely rewritten the rules of drama with a realism which was to be adopted by Chekhov and others and which we see in the theater to this day. From Ibsen forward, challenging assumptions and directly speaking about issues has been considered one of the factors that makes a play art rather than entertainment. Ibsen returned to Norway in 1891, but it was in many ways not the Norway he had left. Indeed, he had played a major role in the changes that had happened across society. The Victorian Age was on its last legs, to be replaced by the rise of Modernism not only in the theater, but across public life. Death Ibsen died in Christiania (now Oslo) on May 23, 1906 after a series of strokes. When his nurse assured a visitor that he was a little better, Ibsen sputtered "On the contrary" and died. He was buried in Vår Frelsers gravlund ("The Graveyard of Our Savior") in central Oslo. In 2006 the 100th anniversary of Ibsen's death was commemorated in Norway and many other countries, and the year dubbed the "Ibsen year" by Norwegian authorities. On May 23, 2006 - the occasion of the hundred-year commemoration of Ibsen's death - the Ibsen Museum reopened a completely restored writer's home with the original interior, original colors and decor. Also in May 2006, a biographical puppet production of Ibsen's life named 'The Death of Little Ibsen' debuted at New York City's Sanford Meisner Theater. List of works 1850 Catiline (Catilina) 1850 The Burial Mound also known as The Warrior's Barrow (Kjæmpehøjen) 1851 Norma (Norma) 1852 St. John's Eve (Sancthansnatten) 1854 Lady Inger of Oestraat (Fru Inger til Østeraad) 1855 The Feast at Solhaug (Gildet paa Solhoug) 1856 Olaf Liljekrans (Olaf Liljekrans) 1857 The Vikings at Helgeland (Hærmændene paa Helgeland) 1862 Digte - only released collection of poetry, included "Terje Vigen". 1862 Love's Comedy (Kjærlighedens Komedie) 1863 The Pretenders (Kongs-Emnerne) 1866 Brand (Brand) 1867 Peer Gynt (Peer Gynt) 1869 The League of Youth (De unges Forbund) 1873 Emperor and Galilean (Kejser og Galilæer) 1877 Pillars of Society (Samfundets Støtter) 1879 A Doll's House (Et Dukkehjem) 1881 Ghosts (Gengangere) 1882 An Enemy of the People (En Folkefiende) 1884 The Wild Duck (Vildanden) 1886 Rosmersholm (Rosmersholm) 1888 The Lady from the Sea (Fruen fra Havet) 1890 Hedda Gabler (Hedda Gabler) 1892 The Master Builder (Bygmester Solness) 1894 Little Eyolf (Lille Eyolf) 1896 John Gabriel Borkman (John Gabriel Borkman) 1899 When We Dead Awaken (Når vi døde vaagner) See also Problem play Realism Naturalism Nineteenth-century theatre Notes References Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth A Commentary on the Works of Henrik Ibsen (New York: Macmillan, 1894) Koht, Halvdan. The Life of Ibsen translated by Ruth Lima McMahon and Hanna Astrup Larsen. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1931. Lucas, F. L. The Drama of Ibsen and Strindberg, Cassell, London, 1962. A useful introduction, giving the biographical background to each play and detailed play-by-play summaries and discussion for the theatre-goer (including the less well-known plays). Ferguson, Robert. Henrik Ibsen: A New Biography. Richard Cohen Books, London, 1996. Meyer, Michael. Ibsen. History Press Ltd., Stroud, 2004. Moi, Toril. 2006. Henrik Ibsen and the Birth of Modernism: Art, Theater, Philosophy. Oxford and New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 9780199202591. Haugan, Jørgen. Henrik Ibsens Metode:Den Indre Utvikling Gjennem Ibsens Dramatikk ( Norwegian: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag. 1977) External links Ibsen Studies The only international academic journal devoted to Ibsen Online course by Ibsen scholar Brian Johnston author of The Ibsen Cycle and To the Third Empire: Ibsen's Early Drama Extensive resource in several languages from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Works by or about Henrik Ibsen at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) (plain text and HTML) (the biography by Edmund Gosse) Henrik Ibsen - A Bibliography of Criticism and Biography, by Ina Ten Eyck Firkins, from Project Gutenberg "Ibsen and His Discontents" - a critical, conservative view of Ibsen's works, written by Theodore Dalrymple
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7,164
Concentration
In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute, or reduce the amount of solvent (for instance, by selective evaporation). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances are fully miscible there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve (except in certain circumstances, when supersaturation may occur). Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to either coexisting phases or a suspension. The point of saturation depends on many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. Analytical concentration includes all the forms of that substance in the solution. Qualitative description These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration. The solutions on the left are more dilute, compared to the more concentrated solutions on the right. Often in informal, non-technical language, concentration is described in a qualitative way, through the use of adjectives such as "dilute" for solutions of relatively low concentration and of others like "concentrated" for solutions of relatively high concentration. Those terms relate the amount of a substance in a mixture to the observable intensity of effects or properties caused by that substance. For example, a practical rule is that the more concentrated a chromatic solution is, the more intensely colored it is (usually). Quantitative notation For scientific or technical applications, a qualitative account of concentration is almost never sufficient; therefore quantitative measures are needed to describe concentration. There are a number of different ways to quantitatively express concentration; the most common are listed below. They are based on mass, volume, or both. Depending on what they are based on it is not always trivial to convert one measure to the other, because knowledge of the density might be needed to do so. At times this information may not be available, particularly if the temperature varies. Mass versus volume Some units of concentration — particularly the most popular one, molarity — require knowledge of a substance's volume, which unlike mass is variable depending on ambient temperature and pressure. In fact (partial) molar volume can even be a function of concentration itself. This is why volumes are not necessarily completely additive when two liquids are added and mixed. Volume-based measures for concentration are therefore not to be recommended for non-dilute solutions or problems where relatively large differences in temperature are encountered (e.g. for phase diagrams). Unless otherwise stated, all the following measurements of volume are assumed to be at a standard state temperature and pressure (for example 0 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere or 101.325 kPa). The measurement of mass does not require such restrictions. Mass can be determined at a precision of < 0.2 mg on a routine basis with an analytical balance and more precise instruments exist. Both solids and liquids are easily quantified by weighing. The volume of a liquid is usually determined by calibrated glassware such as burettes and volumetric flasks. For very small volumes precision syringes are available. The use of graduated beakers and cylinders is not recommended as their indication of volume is mostly for decorative rather than quantitative purposes. The volume of solids, particularly of powders, is often difficult to measure, which is why mass is the more usual measure. For gases the opposite is true: the volume of a gas can be measured in a gas burette, if care is taken to control the pressure, but the mass is not easy to measure due to buoyancy effects. Molarity See also: Molar concentration Molarity (in units of mol/L, molar, or M) or molar concentration denotes the number of moles of a given substance per liter of solution. A capital letter M is used to abbreviate the units of mol/L. For instance: The actual formula for molarity is: Such a solution may be described as "0.50 molar." It must be emphasized that a 0.5 molar solution contains 0.5 moles of solute in 1.0 liter of solution. This is not equivalent to 1.0 liter of solvent. A 0.5 mol/L solution will contain either slightly more or slightly less than 1 liter of solvent because the process of dissolution causes the volume of the liquid to increase or decrease. Following the system of units, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the United States authority on measurement, considers the term molarity and the unit symbol M to be obsolete, and suggests instead the amount-of-substance concentration (c) with units mol/m3 or other units used alongside the SI such as mol/L . This recommendation has not been universally implemented in academia or chemistry research yet. Preparation of a solution of known molarity involves adding an accurately weighed amount of solute to a volumetric flask, adding some solvent to dissolve it, then adding more solvent to fill to the volume mark. When discussing the molarity of minute concentrations, such as in pharmacological research, molarity is expressed in units of millimolar (mmol/L, mM, 1 thousandth of a molar), micromolar (μmol/L, μM, 1 millionth of a molar) or nanomolar (nmol/L, nM, 1 billionth of a molar). Although molarity is by far the most commonly used measure of concentration, particularly for dilute aqueous solutions, it does suffer from a number of disadvantages. Masses can be determined with great precision as balances are often very precise. Determining volume is often not as precise. In addition, due to a thermal expansion, the molarity of a solution changes with temperature without adding or removing any mass. For non-dilute solutions another problem is that the molar volume of a substance is itself a function of concentration so that volume is not strictly additive. Molality Molality (mol/kg, molal, or m) denotes the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (not solution). For instance: adding 1.0 mole of solute to 2.0 kilograms of solvent constitutes a solution with a molality of 0.50 mol/kg. Such a solution may be described as "0.50 molal". The term molal solution is used as a shorthand for a "one molal solution", i.e. a solution which contains one mole of the solute per 1000 grams of the solvent. Following the system of units, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the United States authority on measurement, considers the unit symbol m to be obsolete, and suggests instead the term 'molality of substance B' (mB) with units mol/kg or a related unit of the SI . This recommendation has not been universally implemented in academia yet. Note that molality is sometimes represented by the symbol (m), while molarity by the symbol (M). The two symbols are not meant to be confused, and should not be used as symbols for units. The unit for molality is mol/kg. (The unit m means meter.) Like other mass-based measures, the determination of molality only requires a good scale, because the masses of both solvent and solute can be obtained by weighing, and molality is independent of the physical conditions like temperature and pressure, providing advantages over molarity. In a dilute aqueous solution near room temperature and standard atmospheric pressure, the molarity and molality will be very similar in value. This is because 1 kg of water roughly corresponds to a volume of 1 L at these conditions, and because the solution is dilute, the addition of the solute makes a negligible impact on the volume of the solution. However, in all other conditions, this is usually not the case. Mole fraction The mole fraction Χ, (also called molar fraction) denotes the number of moles of solute as a proportion of the total number of moles in a solution. For instance: 1 mole of solute dissolved in 9 moles of solvent has a mole fraction of 1/10 or 0.1. Mole fractions are dimensionless quantities. (The mole percentage or molar percentage, denoted "mol %" and equal to 100% times the mole fraction, is sometimes quoted instead of the mole fraction.) This measure is used very frequently in the construction of phase diagrams. It has a number of advantages: the measure is not temperature dependent (such as molarity) and does not require knowledge of the densities of the phase(s) involved a mixture of known mole fraction can be prepared by weighing off the appropriate masses of the constituents the measure is symmetrical: in the mole fractions Χ=0.1 and Χ=0.9, the roles of 'solvent' and 'solute' are reversed. As both mole fractions and molality are only based on the masses of the components it is easy to convert between these measures. This is not true for molarity, which requires knowledge of the density. Mass percentage (fraction) Mass percentage denotes the mass of a substance in a mixture as a percentage of the mass of the entire mixture. (Mass fraction xm can be used instead of mass percentage by dividing mass percentage to 100.) For instance: if a bottle contains 40 grams of ethanol and 60 grams of water, then it contains 40% ethanol by mass or 0.4 mass fraction ethanol. Commercial concentrated aqueous reagents such as acids and bases are often labeled in concentrations of weight percentage with the specific gravity also listed. In older texts and references this is sometimes referred to as weight-weight percentage (abbreviated as w/w or wt%). In water pollution chemistry, a common term of measuring total mass percentage of dissolved solids in an aqueous medium is total dissolved solids. Mass-volume percentage Mass-volume percentage, (sometimes referred to as weight-volume percentage or percent weight per volume and often abbreviated as % m/v or % w/v) describes the mass of the solute in g per 100 mL of the resulting solution. Mass-volume percentage is often used for solutions made from a solid solute dissolved in a liquid. For example, a 40% w/v sugar solution contains 40 g of sugar per 100 mL of resulting solution. Volume-volume percentage Volume-volume percentage (sometimes referred to as percent volume per volume and abbreviated as % v/v) describes the volume of the solute in mL per 100 mL of the resulting solution. This is most useful when a liquid - liquid solution is being prepared, although it is used for mixtures of gases as well. For example, a 40% v/v ethanol solution contains 40 mL ethanol per 100 mL total volume. The percentages are only additive in the case of mixtures of ideal gases. Normality Normality highlights the chemical nature of salts: in solution, salts dissociate into distinct reactive species (ions such as H+, Fe3+, or Cl-). Normality accounts for any discrepancy between the concentrations of the various ionic species in a solution. For example, in a salt such as MgCl2, there are two moles of Cl- for every mole of Mg2+, so the concentration of Cl- is said to be 2 N (read: "two normal"). Further examples are given below. it may also refer to the concentration of a solute in any solution.The normality of a solution is the number of gram equivalent weight of a solute per litre of its solution. For example hydrochloric acid(HCl).One litre of aqueous solution of HCl acid contains 36.5 grams HCl.It is called 1N (one normal)solution of HCl.It is given by :- Normality (N)=Weight of solute in grams/gram equivalent weight*volume in litre. Definition A normal is one gram equivalent of a solute per liter of solution. The definition of a gram equivalent varies depending on the type of chemical reaction that is discussed - it can refer to acids, bases, redox species, and ions that will precipitate. Usage It is critical to note that normality measures a single ion which takes part in an overall solute. For example, one could determine the normality of hydroxide or sodium in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, but the normality of sodium hydroxide itself has no meaning. Nevertheless it is often used to describe solutions of acids or bases, in those cases it is implied that the normality refers to the H+ or OH− ion. For example, 2 Normal sulfuric acid (H2SO4), means that the normality of H+ ions is 2, or that the molarity of the sulfuric acid is 1. Similarly for 1 Molar H3PO4 the normality is 3 as it contains three H+ ions. Specific cases As ions in solution can react through different pathways, there are three common definitions for normality as a measure of reactive species in solution: In acid-base chemistry, normality is used to express the concentration of protons or hydroxide ions in the solution. Here, the normality differs from the molarity by an integer value - each solute can produce n equivalents of reactive species when dissolved. For example: 1 M aqueous Ca(OH)2 is 2 N (normal) in hydroxide. In redox reactions, normality measures the quantity of oxidizing or reducing agent that can accept or furnish one mole of electrons. Here, the normality scales from the molarity, most commonly, by a fractional value. Calculating the normality of redox species in solution can be challenging. In precipitation reactions, normality measures the concentration of ions which will precipitate in a given reaction. Here, the normality scales from the molarity again by an integer value. Practical uses The measure of normality is extremely useful for titrations - given two species that are known to react with a known ratio, one simply needs to scale the volumes of solutions with known normalities to get a complete reaction with the following equation: NaVa=NbVb However, normality cannot reliably represent an unambiguous measure of the concentration of a solution. Since the measure of normality depends on the reaction that the solute participates in, the same concentration of solute can possess two different normalities for two different reactions. For example, Mg2+ is 2 N with respect to a Cl- ion, but it is only 1 N with respect to an O2- ion. Accordingly, normality is no longer used to represent the concentration of a solution as such. Instead, a solution should be labeled according to its molarity, and it is then possible to calculate the normality for a particular titration using the equation above. NIST has also stipulated that this unit is obsolete and recommends discontinuing its use. Equivalents Expression of concentration in equivalents per liter (or more commonly, milliequivalents per liter) is based on the same principle as normality. A normal solution is one equivalent per liter of solution (Eq/L). The use of equivalents and milliequivalents as a means of expressing concentration is losing favor, but medical reporting of serum concentrations in mEq/L still occurs. Formal The formal (F) is yet another measure of concentration similar to molarity. Formal concentrations are sometimes used when solving chemical equilibrium problems. It is calculated based on the formula weights of chemicals per liter of solution. The difference between formal and molar concentrations is that the formal concentration indicates moles of the original chemical formula in solution, without regard for the species that actually exist in solution. Molar concentration, on the other hand, is the concentration of species in solution. For example: if one dissolves sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in a liter of water, the compound dissociates into the Na+ and CO32- ions. Some of the CO32- reacts with the water to form HCO3- and H2CO3. If the pH of the solution is low, there is practically no Na2CO3 left in the solution. So, although we have added 1 mol of Na2CO3 to the solution, it does not contain 1 M of that substance. (Rather, it contains a molarity based on the other constituents of the solution.) However, it was once said that such solutions contain 1 F of Na2CO3. "Parts-per" notation The parts-per notation is used in some areas of science and engineering because it does not require conversion from weights or volumes to more chemically relevant units such as normality or molarity. It describes the amount of one substance in another, and is thus related to the mass fraction. It is the ratio of the amount of the substance of interest to the amount of that substance plus the amount of the substance it is in. Parts per hundred (denoted by '%' [the per cent symbol], and very rarely 'pph') - denotes the amount of a given substance in a total amount of 100 regardless of the units of measure as long as they are the same. e.g. 1 gram per 100 gram. 1 part in 102. Parts per thousand (denoted by '‰' [the per mille symbol], and occasionally 'ppt', though this should be avoided) denotes the amount of a given substance in a total amount of 1000 regardless of the units of measure as long as they are the same. e.g. 1 milligram per gram, or 1 gram per kilogram. 1 part in 103. Parts per million ('ppm') denotes the amount of a given substance in a total amount of 1,000,000 regardless of the units of measure used as long as they are the same. e.g. 1 milligram per kilogram. 1 part in 106. Parts per billion ('ppb') denotes the amount of a given substance in a total amount of 1,000,000,000 regardless of the units of measure as long as they are the same. e.g. 1 milligram per tonne. 1 part in 109. Parts per trillion ('ppt') denotes the amount of a given substance in a total amount of 1,000,000,000,000 regardless of the units of measure as long as they are the same. e.g. 1 milligram per kilotonne. 1 part in 1012. Parts per quadrillion ('ppq') denotes the amount of a given substance in a total amount of 1,000,000,000,000,000 regardless of the units of measure as long as they are the same. e.g. 1 milligram per megatonne. 1 part in 1015. Notes for clarity The notation is used for convenience and the units of measure must be denoted for clarity though this is frequently not the case even in technical publications. In atmospheric chemistry and in air pollution regulations, the parts per notation is commonly expressed with a v following, such as ppmv, to indicate parts per million by volume. This works fine for gas concentrations (e.g., ppmv of carbon dioxide in the ambient air) but, for concentrations of non-gaseous substances such as aerosols, cloud droplets, and particulate matter in the ambient air, the concentrations are commonly expressed as μg/m³ or mg/m³ (e.g., μg or mg of particulates per cubic metre of ambient air). This expression eliminates the need to take into account the impact of temperature and pressure on the density and hence weight of the gas. The usage is generally quite fixed inside most specific branches of science, leading some researchers to believe that their own usage (mass/mass, volume/volume or others) is the only correct one. This, in turn, leads them not to specify their usage in their research, and others may therefore misinterpret their results. For example, electrochemists often use volume/volume, while chemical engineers may use mass/mass as well as volume/volume. Many academic papers of otherwise excellent level fail to specify their usage of the part-per notation. The difference between expressing concentrations as mass/mass or volume/volume is quite significant when dealing with gases and it is very important to specify which is being used. It is quite simple, for example, to distinguish ppm by volume from ppm by mass or weight by using ppmv or ppmw. Table of concentration measures Frequently used standards of concentration Measurement Notation Generic formula Typical units atomic percentage (A) at.% % atomic percentage (B) at.% % Mass percentage wt% % Mass-volume percentage - % though strictly %g/mL Volume-volume percentage - % Molarity M mol/L (or M or mol/dm3) Molinity - mol/kg Molality m mol/kg (or m**) Molar fraction Χ (chi) (decimal) Formal F mol/L (or F) Normality N N Parts per hundred % (or pph) dg/kg Parts per thousand ‰ (or ppt*) g/kg Parts per million ppm mg/kg Parts per billion ppb µg/kg Parts per trillion ppt* ng/kg Parts per quadrillion ppq pg/kg </table> * Although 'ppt' is usually used to denote 'parts per trillion', it is on occasion used for 'parts per thousand'. Sometimes 'ppt' is also used as an abbreviation for precipitate. ** Obsolete unit symbols. See also Chemical equilibrium Serial dilution References Note (1) : The table above is described in terms of solvents and solutes; however the units given often also apply to other types of mixture. Note (2) : The use of billion, trillion, and quadrillion above follows the short scale usage of these words.
Concentration |@lemmatized chemistry:5 concentration:43 measure:31 much:1 give:13 substance:24 mixed:2 another:4 apply:2 sort:1 chemical:9 mixture:8 frequently:4 concept:1 limit:1 homogeneous:1 solution:68 refer:6 amount:22 solute:28 solvent:15 concentrate:4 one:16 must:4 add:10 reduce:3 instance:5 selective:1 evaporation:1 contrast:1 dilute:8 unless:2 two:8 fully:1 miscible:1 exist:3 dissolve:7 point:2 say:3 saturate:1 additional:1 saturated:1 except:1 certain:1 circumstance:1 supersaturation:1 may:7 occur:3 instead:6 phase:5 separation:1 lead:3 either:2 coexist:1 suspension:1 saturation:1 depends:1 many:2 variable:2 ambient:5 temperature:10 precise:4 nature:2 analytical:2 include:1 form:2 qualitative:4 description:1 glass:1 contain:13 red:1 dye:1 demonstrate:1 change:2 left:1 compare:1 concentrated:1 right:1 often:10 informal:1 non:4 technical:3 language:1 describe:9 way:2 use:30 adjective:1 relatively:3 low:2 others:3 like:3 high:1 term:6 relate:2 observable:1 intensity:1 effect:2 property:1 cause:2 example:14 practical:2 rule:1 chromatic:1 intensely:1 color:1 usually:4 quantitative:3 notation:7 scientific:1 application:1 account:3 almost:1 never:1 sufficient:1 therefore:3 need:4 number:8 different:4 quantitatively:1 express:7 common:3 list:2 base:12 mass:37 volume:48 depend:4 always:1 trivial:1 convert:2 knowledge:4 density:4 might:1 time:2 information:1 available:2 particularly:4 vary:1 versus:1 unit:27 popular:1 molarity:24 require:6 unlike:1 pressure:6 fact:1 partial:1 molar:16 even:2 function:2 necessarily:1 completely:1 additive:3 liquid:7 recommend:3 problem:3 large:1 difference:3 encounter:1 e:10 g:13 diagram:2 otherwise:2 state:4 following:2 measurement:5 assume:1 standard:5 degree:1 celsius:1 atmosphere:1 kpa:1 restriction:1 determine:5 precision:3 mg:4 routine:1 basis:1 balance:2 instrument:1 solid:5 easily:1 quantify:1 weigh:3 calibrate:1 glassware:1 burette:2 volumetric:2 flask:2 small:1 syrinx:1 graduated:1 beaker:1 cylinder:1 indication:1 mostly:1 decorative:1 rather:2 purpose:1 powder:1 difficult:1 usual:1 gas:8 opposite:1 true:2 care:1 take:3 control:1 easy:2 due:2 buoyancy:1 see:2 also:8 mol:16 l:12 denote:15 mole:23 per:44 liter:10 capital:1 letter:1 abbreviate:4 actual:1 formula:4 emphasize:1 equivalent:10 slightly:2 less:1 process:1 dissolution:1 increase:1 decrease:1 follow:4 system:2 national:2 institute:2 technology:2 united:2 authority:2 consider:2 symbol:9 obsolete:4 suggest:2 c:1 alongside:1 si:2 recommendation:2 universally:2 implement:2 academia:2 research:3 yet:3 preparation:1 know:3 involve:2 accurately:1 weighed:1 fill:1 mark:1 discuss:2 minute:1 pharmacological:1 millimolar:1 mmol:1 mm:1 thousandth:1 micromolar:1 μmol:1 μm:1 millionth:1 nanomolar:1 nmol:1 nm:1 billionth:1 although:4 far:1 commonly:5 used:1 aqueous:7 suffer:1 disadvantage:1 great:1 addition:2 thermal:1 expansion:1 without:2 remove:1 strictly:2 molality:11 kg:13 molal:4 kilogram:4 constitute:1 shorthand:1 gram:13 b:2 mb:1 related:1 note:5 sometimes:7 represent:3 mean:4 confuse:1 meter:1 determination:1 good:1 scale:5 obtain:1 independent:1 physical:1 condition:3 provide:1 advantage:2 near:1 room:1 atmospheric:2 similar:2 value:4 water:5 roughly:1 correspond:1 make:2 negligible:1 impact:2 however:4 case:5 fraction:15 χ:4 call:2 proportion:1 total:10 dimensionless:1 quantity:2 percentage:22 equal:1 quote:1 construction:1 dependent:1 known:2 prepare:2 appropriate:1 constituent:2 symmetrical:1 role:1 reverse:1 component:1 entire:1 xm:1 divide:1 bottle:1 ethanol:5 commercial:1 reagent:1 acid:8 label:2 weight:12 specific:3 gravity:1 old:1 text:1 reference:2 w:4 wt:2 pollution:2 dissolved:2 medium:1 percent:2 v:8 ml:7 resulting:2 sugar:2 result:2 useful:2 well:2 ideal:1 normality:29 highlight:1 salt:2 salts:1 dissociate:2 distinct:1 reactive:3 specie:9 ion:12 h:4 cl:4 discrepancy:1 various:1 ionic:1 every:1 n:8 read:1 normal:6 litre:3 hydrochloric:1 hcl:4 definition:3 varies:1 type:2 reaction:7 redox:3 precipitate:3 usage:6 critical:1 single:1 part:26 overall:1 could:1 hydroxide:5 sodium:4 meaning:1 nevertheless:1 imply:1 refers:1 oh:2 sulfuric:2 similarly:1 three:2 react:2 pathway:1 proton:1 differs:1 integer:2 produce:1 ca:1 oxidize:1 agent:1 accept:1 furnish:1 electron:1 fractional:1 calculate:3 challenge:1 precipitation:1 extremely:1 titration:2 ratio:2 simply:1 get:1 complete:1 equation:2 nava:1 nbvb:1 cannot:1 reliably:1 unambiguous:1 since:1 participate:1 possess:1 respect:2 accordingly:1 longer:1 accord:1 possible:1 particular:1 nist:1 stipulate:1 discontinue:1 expression:2 milliequivalent:2 principle:1 eq:1 lose:1 favor:1 medical:1 reporting:1 serum:1 meq:1 still:1 formal:6 f:4 solve:1 equilibrium:2 indicate:2 original:1 regard:1 actually:1 hand:1 carbonate:1 compound:1 na:1 reacts:1 ph:1 practically:1 leave:1 area:1 science:2 engineering:1 conversion:1 chemically:1 relevant:1 thus:1 interest:1 plus:1 hundred:2 cent:1 rarely:1 pph:2 regardless:6 long:6 thousand:3 mille:1 occasionally:1 ppt:6 though:3 avoid:1 milligram:5 million:3 ppm:4 billion:3 ppb:2 tonne:1 trillion:4 kilotonne:1 quadrillion:3 ppq:2 megatonne:1 clarity:2 convenience:1 publication:1 air:4 regulation:1 ppmv:3 work:1 fine:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 gaseous:1 aerosol:1 cloud:1 droplet:1 particulate:2 matter:1 μg:2 cubic:1 metre:1 eliminate:1 hence:1 generally:1 quite:3 fix:1 inside:1 branch:1 researcher:1 believe:1 correct:1 turn:1 specify:3 misinterpret:1 electrochemists:1 engineer:1 academic:1 paper:1 excellent:1 level:1 fail:1 significant:1 deal:1 important:1 simple:1 distinguish:1 ppmw:1 table:3 generic:1 typical:1 atomic:2 molinity:1 chi:1 decimal:1 dg:1 µg:1 ng:1 pg:1 occasion:1 abbreviation:1 serial:1 dilution:1 short:1 word:1 |@bigram saturated_solution:1 ambient_temperature:2 unless_otherwise:1 degree_celsius:1 mole_solute:6 mmol_l:1 commonly_used:1 aqueous_solution:4 atmospheric_pressure:1 mole_fraction:9 dimensionless_quantity:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 acid_hcl:1 sodium_hydroxide:2 sulfuric_acid:2 hydroxide_ion:1 redox_reaction:1 sodium_carbonate:1 per_cent:1 carbon_dioxide:1 particulate_matter:1 cubic_metre:1 mg_kg:1
7,165
AMOS_(programming_language)
AMOS BASIC is a dialect of the BASIC programming language implemented on the Amiga computer. AMOS BASIC was published by Europress Software and originally written by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos. History AMOS is a descendant of STOS BASIC for the Atari ST. AMOS BASIC was first produced in 1990. AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways. The original AMOS version was interpreted which, whilst working fine, suffered from performance problems. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed, that reduced this problem. After the original version of AMOS, Europress released two other versions: Easy AMOS, a simpler version for beginners, and AMOS Professional, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better IDE, ARexx support, a new UI sublanguage and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS. AMOS was mostly used to make video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software. The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners. Perhaps AMOS BASIC's biggest disadvantage was its incompatibility with the Amiga's operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of the operating system. Today the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS has since been released under a BSD style license by Clickteam - a company that includes the original programmer. Software using AMOS BASIC ABase Miggybyte Scorched Tanks Spectrapaint games by Vulcan Software, amongst which the Valhalla trilogy See also Alvyn Basic — An attempt to recreate an open source multiplatform BASIC interpreter, syntax-compatible with AMOS Professional. Project seems to have gone inactive during 2004. sdlBasic — a multiplatform Basic interpreter, multiplaform and open-source, using SDL libraries, very inspired from AMOS. External links Source code for AMOS and STOS (68000 ASM) The AMOS Factory (An AMOS support/community site) Mattathias BASIC (Open source AMOS compiler, early alpha) Amigacoding website (contains indepth info and references for AMOS)
AMOS_(programming_language) |@lemmatized amos:23 basic:14 dialect:2 programming:1 language:3 implement:1 amiga:5 computer:3 publish:1 europress:2 software:6 originally:1 write:3 françois:1 lionet:1 constantin:1 sotiropoulos:1 history:1 descendant:1 stos:2 atari:1 st:1 first:1 produce:1 compete:1 platform:2 acid:1 blitz:1 differ:1 different:1 allow:1 easy:2 creation:1 fairly:1 demand:1 multimedia:1 full:1 structure:1 code:3 many:1 high:1 level:1 function:2 load:1 image:1 animation:1 sound:1 display:1 various:1 way:1 original:4 version:7 interpret:1 whilst:1 work:1 fine:1 suffer:1 performance:1 problem:3 later:1 compiler:2 develop:1 reduce:1 release:2 two:1 simpler:1 beginner:2 professional:2 advanced:1 added:1 feature:1 good:1 ide:1 arexx:1 support:2 new:4 ui:1 sublanguage:1 flow:1 control:2 construct:1 neither:1 significantly:1 popular:1 mostly:1 use:5 make:2 video:1 game:2 platformers:1 graphical:1 adventure:1 educational:1 mildly:1 successful:1 within:1 community:3 ease:1 especially:1 attractive:1 perhaps:1 big:1 disadvantage:1 incompatibility:1 operating:2 system:2 interface:2 instead:1 directly:1 cause:2 program:1 non:1 standard:1 user:1 also:2 compatibility:1 today:1 decline:1 popularity:1 along:1 despite:1 small:1 enthusiast:1 still:1 source:5 since:1 bsd:1 style:1 license:1 clickteam:1 company:1 include:1 programmer:1 abase:1 miggybyte:1 scorch:1 tank:1 spectrapaint:1 vulcan:1 amongst:1 valhalla:1 trilogy:1 see:1 alvyn:1 attempt:1 recreate:1 open:3 multiplatform:2 interpreter:2 syntax:1 compatible:1 project:1 seem:1 go:1 inactive:1 sdlbasic:1 multiplaform:1 sdl:1 library:1 inspired:1 external:1 link:1 asm:1 factory:1 site:1 mattathias:1 early:1 alpha:1 amigacoding:1 website:1 contain:1 indepth:1 info:1 reference:1 |@bigram blitz_basic:1 user_interface:1 external_link:1
7,166
Demographics_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands
This article is about the demographic features of the population of the British Virgin Islands, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 19,615 (July 2000 est.) 21,730 (July 2003 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 21.9% (male 2,401; female 2,358) 15-64 years: 73.1% (male 8,181; female 7,709) 65 years and over: 5% (male 578; female 503) (2003 est.) Population growth rate 1.97% (2006 est.) Birth rate 15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 15 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) Death rate 4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 4.46 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) Net migration rate 12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 10.45 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.15 male(s)/female total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2003 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 18.8 deaths/1,000 live births female: 15.6 deaths/1,000 live births male: 21.86 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 76.06 years male: 75.07 years female: 77.1 years (2003 est.) Total fertility rate 1.72 children born/woman (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate Definition Field Listing Rank Order NA% HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS Definition Field Listing Rank Order NA HIV/AIDS - deaths Definition Field Listing Rank Order NA Nationality noun: British Virgin Islander(s) adjective: British Virgin Islander Ethnic groups 1999 census: Black 83.36% White 7.28% Mixed 5.38% East Indian 3.14% Other 0.84% Religions Protestant 86% - Methodist 33% - Anglican 17% - Church of God 9% - Seventh-Day Adventist 6% - Baptist 4% - Jehovah's Witnesses 2% - other 15% Roman Catholic 10% none 2% other 2% Languages English (official) Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97.8% (1991 est.) male: NA% female: NA%
Demographics_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:14 british:3 virgin:3 island:1 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:2 est:15 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:11 female:11 growth:1 rate:7 birth:8 death:7 net:1 migration:1 migrant:2 sex:1 ratio:1 total:5 infant:1 mortality:1 live:4 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:4 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 definition:4 field:3 list:3 rank:3 order:3 na:5 people:1 nationality:1 noun:1 islander:2 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 census:1 black:1 white:1 mixed:1 east:1 indian:1 religion:1 protestant:1 methodist:1 anglican:1 church:1 god:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 baptist:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 roman:1 catholic:1 none:1 language:1 english:1 official:1 literacy:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:4 adult_prevalence:1 nationality_noun:1 day_adventist:1 adventist_baptist:1 jehovah_witness:1 literacy_definition:1
7,167
Anthem
The term anthem means either a specific form of Anglican church music (in music theory and religious contexts), or more generally, a song (or composition) of celebration, usually acting as a symbol for a distinct group of people, as in the term "national anthem" or "sports anthem". Etymology The word is derived from the Greek ἀντίφωνα (antiphōna) through the Saxon antefn, a word which originally had the same meaning as antiphony. Anthems and the church An anthem is a form of church music, particularly in the service of the Church of England, in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy, and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Though the anthem of the Church of England is analogous to the motet of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches, both being written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as a musical form essentially English in its origin and development. The anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic "votive antiphon" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints. Though anthems were written in the Elizabethan period by Byrd, Tallis and others they are not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662, when the famous rubric "In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem" first appears. In common usage among many Protestant churches, an "anthem" often refers to any short sacred choral work presented during the course of a worship service. In the context of an Anglican service, an "anthem" is a composition to an English religious text. From this widening usage has come the more modern sense of the word. Music theory Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, in order that the words could be clearly heard. Late in the sixteenth century the "verse anthem", in which passages for solo voices alternated with passages for full choir, began to evolve. This became the dominant form in the Restoration period, when composers such as Henry Purcell and John Blow wrote elaborate examples for the Chapel Royal with orchestral accompaniment. In the nineteenth century Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which could stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the same century Charles Villiers Stanford composed examples which used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been produced on this model since his time, generally by organists rather than professional composers and often in a conservative style. Major composers have tended to compose anthems only in response to commissions and for special occasions; examples include Edward Elgar's Great is the Lord and Give unto the Lord (both with orchestral accompaniment), Benjamin Britten's Rejoice in the Lamb (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem and today heard mainly as a concert piece), and (on a much smaller scale) Ralph Vaughan Williams' O taste and see, written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should be only in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertory. Modern use The word "anthem" is commonly used to describe a celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in the term "national anthem". Many pop songs are used as anthems, such as Queen's "We are the Champions", which is commonly used as a sports anthem. The term "anthemic" is a modern word coined to describe music with an emotive connotation to it. See also The following is a list of articles on anthems: National anthem List of National anthems List of anthems Gay anthem Sports anthem Notable anthems: La Espero (anthem of the language Esperanto) God Save the Queen (National anthem of the United Kingdom and New Zealand) Hail to the Chief (American Presidential anthem) The Internationale (Socialist anthem) The Red Flag (Socialist anthem) References Peter Le Huray "Anthem" in Stanley Sadie, ed. The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians (London: Macmillan, 1980) ISBN 0-333-23111-2
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7,168
Jacob_Abbott
Jacob Abbott (November 14, 1803 – October 31, 1879) was an American writer of children's books. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 Abbott was born at Hallowell, Maine. He graduated from Bowdoin College in 1820; studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Amherst College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for Young Ladies in Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829-1833; was pastor of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845-1848 of the Mount Vernon School for Boys, in New York City. He was a prolific author, writing juvenile fiction, brief histories, biographies, religious books for the general reader, and a few works in popular science. He died in Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time after 1839, and where his brother, Samuel Phillips Abbott, founded the Abbott School. His Rollo Books, such as Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play, Rollo in Europe, etc., are the best known of his writings, having as their chief characters a representative boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two generations of young American readers a service not unlike that performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of Evenings at Home, The History of Sandford and Merton, and the The Parent's Assistant. Fewacres in 1906, Abbott's residence at Farmington, Maine His brothers, John Stevens Cabot Abbott and Gorham Dummer Abbott, were also authors. His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, Austin Abbott, both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott, and Edward Abbott, a clergyman, were also well-known authors. See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the Author by Edward Abbott with a bibliography of his works. Other works of note: Lucy Books, Jonas Books, Harper's Story Books, Marco Paul, Gay Family, and Juno Books. References External links Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos. Six volumes, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887-1889 Works by Jacob Abbott at Internet Archive - 100+ scanned books many illustrated first editions. Works by Jacob Abbott at Online Books
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7,169
Majed_Moqed
A former law student, Majed Mashaan Gh. Moqed (, also transliterated Moqued) was one of five men named by the FBI to be hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77 in the September 11 attack. History Moqed was a law student from the small town of Annakhil, Saudi Arabia (west of Medina), studying at King Fahd University's Faculty of Administration and Economics, before he dropped out was apparently recruited into al-Qaeda in 1999 along with friend Satam al-Suqami, with whom he had earlier shared a college room. The two trained at Khalden, a large training facility near Kabul that was run by Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi. A friend in Saudi Arabia claimed he was last seen there in 2000, before leaving to study English in the United States. Arab News, 9/22/01 In November 2000, Moqed and al-Suqami flew into Iran from Bahrain together. Some time late in 2000, Moqed traveled to the United Arab Emirates, where he purchased traveler's cheques presumed to have been paid for by 9/11 financier Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Wail al-Shehri, Saeed Alghamdi, Hamza Alghamdi, Ahmed al-Haznawi and Ahmed al-Nami. Known as al-Ahlaf during the preparations, Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others Moqed then moved in with hijackers Salem al-Hazmi, Abdulaziz al-Omari and Khalid al-Mihdhar in an apartment in Paterson, New Jersey. 2001 According to the FBI, Moqed first arrived in the United States on May 2, 2001. In March 2001, Moqed, Hani Hanjour, al-Hazmi and Ahmed al-Ghamdi rented a minivan and travelled to Fairfield, Connecticut. There they met a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provided them with false IDs. (This was possibly Eyad Alrababah, a Jordanian charged with document fraud). Moqed was one of the five hijackers who asked for a state identity card on August 2, 2001. On August 24, both al-Mihdhar and Moqed tried to purchase flight tickets from the American Airlines online ticket-merchant, but had technical difficulties resolving their address and gave up. Statement of FBI Director Robert S. Mueller III to 9/11 Joint Intelligence Committee Hani Hanjour and Majed Moqed Employees at Advance Travel Service in Totowa, New Jersey later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hani Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorize, and after being told the agency didn't accept personal cheques, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid $1842.25 total in cash. Boston.com / Fighting Terrorism During this time, Moqed was staying in Room 343 of the Valencia Motel. On September 2, Moqed paid cash for a $30 weekly membership at Gold's Gym in Greenbelt, Maryland. Three days later he was seen on an ATM camera with Hani Hanjour. After the attacks, employees at an adult video store, Adult Lingerie Center, in Beltsville claimed that Moqed had been in the store three times, although there were no transactions slips that confirmed this. Newsday, 9/23/01 Attack According to the 9/11 Commission Report, Moqed set off the metal detector at the airport and was screened with a hand-wand. He passed the cursory inspection, and was able board his flight at 7:50. He was seated in 12A, adjacent to al-Mihdhar who was in 12B. Moqed helped to hijack the plane and assisted Hani Hanjour in crashing the plane into the Pentagon at 9:37 A.M., killing 189 people (64 on the plane and 125 on the ground). The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C. Passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Ted Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of the Pentagon, killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI. After the attacks his family told Arab News that Moqed had been a fan of sports, and enjoyed travelling. Additionally, the U.S. announced it had found a "Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Student Identity Card" bearing Moqed's name in the rubble surrounding the Pentagon. They also stated that it appeared to have been a forgery 9/11 Commission Report Notes and References External links The Final 9/11 Commission Report Photo gallery
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7,170
General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (typically abbreviated GATT) was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was formed in 1947 and lasted until 1994, when it was replaced by the World Trade Organization. The Bretton Woods Conference had introduced the idea for an organization to regulate trade as part of a larger plan for economic recovery after World War II. As governments negotiated the ITO, 15 negotiating states began parallel negotiations for the GATT as a way to attain early tariff reductions. Once the ITO failed in 1950, only the GATT agreement was left. The GATT's main objective was the reduction of barriers to international trade. This was achieved through the reduction of tariff barriers, quantitative restrictions and subsidies on trade through a series of agreements. The GATT was a treaty, not an organization although a small secretariat occupied what is today the Centre William Rappard in Geneva, Switzerland. The functions of the GATT were taken over by the World Trade Organization which was established during the final round of negotiations in early 1990s. The history of the GATT can be divided into three phases: the first, from 1947 until the Torquay Round, largely concerned which commodities would be covered by the agreement and freezing existing tariff levels. A second phase, encompassing three rounds, from 1959 to 1979, focused on reducing tariffs. The third phase, consisting only of the Uruguay Round from 1986 to 1994, extended the agreement fully to new areas such as intellectual property, services, capital, and agriculture. Out of this round the WTO was born. GATT signatories occasionally negotiated new trade agreements that all countries would enter into. Each set of agreements was called a round. In general, each agreement bound members to reduce certain tariffs. Usually this would include many special-case treatments of individual products, with exceptions or modifications for each country. Inception The precursor organization to the GATT, called the International Trade Organization (ITO), was first proposed in February 1946 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The negotiating countries of the ITO began parallel negotiations for the GATT as a way to introduce early tariff cuts. The plan called for the ITO to take control over GATT, once the ITO was finalized. Owing to the United States failing to implement the ITO, GATT was the only organization left. On 1 January, 1948 the agreement was signed by 23 countries: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, China, Cuba, the Czechoslovak Republic, France, India, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Southern Rhodesia, Syria, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. According to GATT's own estimates, the negotiations created 123 agreements that covered 45,000 tariff items that related to approximately one-half of world trade or $10 billion in trade. GATT 1947 in the US The GATT, as an international agreement, is a treaty. Under United States law it is classified as a congressional-executive agreement. Based on the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act it allowed the executive branch negotiating power over trade agreements with temporary authority from Congress. At the time it functioned as a provisional, but promising trade system. The agreement is based on the "unconditional most favored nation principle" This means that the conditions applied to the most favored trading nation (i.e. the one with the fewest restrictions) apply to all trading nations. In the US, there was large opposition against the International Trade Organization (which had been ratified in several countries), and thus President Truman never even submitted it to the Congress. Rounds GATT held a total of 8 rounds. Annecy Round - 1950 The second round took place in 1949 in Annecy, France. 13 countries took part in the round. The main focus of the talks was more tariff reductions, around 5000 total.. Torquay Round - 1951 The third round occurred in Torquay, England in 1951. 38 countries took part in the round. 8,700 tariff concessions were made totaling the remaining amount of tariffs to three-fourths of the tariffs which were in effect in 1948. The contemporaneous rejection by the United States of the Havana Charter signified the establishment of the GATT as a governing world body. Michael Hudson, Super Imperialism: The Origin and Fundamentals of U.S. World Dominance, 2nd ed. (London and Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 2003), 258. Geneva Round - 1955-1956 The fourth round returned to Geneva in 1955 and lasted until May 1956. 26 countries took part in the round. $2.5 billion in tariffs were eliminated or reduced. Dillon Round - 1960-1962 The fifth round occurred once more in Geneva and lasted from 1960 to 1962. The talks were named after U.S. Treasury Secretary and former Under Secretary of State, Douglas Dillon, who first proposed the talks. 26 countries took part in the round. Along with reducing over $4.9 billion in tariffs, it also yielded discussion relating to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC). Kennedy Round - 1964-1967 The sixth round was the last to take place in Geneva from 1964 until 1967 and was named after the late US President Kennedy in his memory. 66 countries Source: WTO website: http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min98_e/slide_e/slide_list.htm took part in the round. Concessions were made on $40 billion worth of tariffs. Some of the GATT negotiation rules were also more clearly defined. Tokyo Round - 1973-1979 Reduced tariffs and established new regulations aimed at controlling the proliferation of non-tariff barriers and voluntary export restrictions. 102 countries countries took part in the round. Concessions were made on $190 billion worth. Uruguay Round - 1986-1993 The Uruguay Round began in 1986. It was the most ambitious round to date, hoping to expand the competence of the GATT to important new areas such as services, capital, intellectual property, textiles, and agriculture. 123 countries took part in the round. Agriculture was essentially exempted from previous agreements as it was given special status in the areas of import quotas and export subsidies, with only mild caveats. However, by the time of the Uruguay round, many countries considered the exception of agriculture to be sufficiently glaring that they refused to sign a new deal without some movement on agricultural products. These fourteen countries came to be known as the "Cairns Group", and included mostly small and medium sized agricultural exporters such as Australia, Brazil, Canada, Indonesia, and New Zealand. The Agreement on Agriculture of the Uruguay Round continues to be the most substantial trade liberalization agreement in agricultural products in the history of trade negotiations. The goals of the agreement were to improve market access for agricultural products, reduce domestic support of agriculture in the form of price-distorting subsidies and quotas, eliminate over time export subsidies on agricultural products and to harmonize to the extent possible sanitary and phytosanitary measures between member countries. GATT and the World Trade Organization In 1993 the GATT was updated (GATT 1994) to include new obligations upon its signatories. One of the most significant changes was the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The 75 existing GATT members and the European Communities became the founding members of the WTO on 1 January 1995. The other 52 GATT members rejoined the WTO in the following two years (the last being Congo in 1997). Since the founding of the WTO, 21 new non-GATT members have joined and 29 are currently negotiating membership. There are a total of 153 member countries in the WTO. Of the original GATT members, only the SFR Yugoslavia has not rejoined the WTO. Since FR Yugoslavia, (renamed to Serbia and Montenegro and with membership negotiations later split in two), is not recognised as a direct SFRY successor state; therefore, its application is considered a new (non-GATT) one. The contracting parties who founded the WTO ended official agreement of the "GATT 1947" terms on 31 December, 1995. Whereas GATT was a set of rules agreed upon by nations, the WTO is an institutional body. The WTO expanded its scope from traded goods to trade within the service sector and intellectual property rights. Although it was designed to serve multilateral agreements, during several rounds of GATT negotiations (particularly the Tokyo Round) plurilateral agreements created selective trading and caused fragmentation among members. WTO arrangements are generally a multilateral agreement settlement mechanism of GATT. What is the WTO? (Official WTO site) References External links GATT Turns 60 Official Website of the GATT / WTO All GATT Panel Reports GATT Digital Library 1947-1994 at Stanford University The WTO and Global Trade at PBS BBCnews World/Europe country profile
General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade |@lemmatized general:2 agreement:23 tariff:17 trade:22 typically:1 abbreviate:1 gatt:36 outcome:1 failure:1 negotiate:6 government:2 create:3 international:5 organization:11 ito:8 form:2 last:5 replace:1 world:9 bretton:1 wood:1 conference:1 introduce:2 idea:1 regulate:1 part:8 large:2 plan:2 economic:3 recovery:1 war:1 ii:1 state:7 begin:3 parallel:2 negotiation:8 way:2 attain:1 early:3 reduction:4 fail:2 leave:2 main:2 objective:1 barrier:3 achieve:1 quantitative:1 restriction:3 subsidy:4 series:1 treaty:2 although:2 small:2 secretariat:1 occupy:1 today:1 centre:1 william:1 rappard:1 geneva:5 switzerland:1 function:2 take:11 establish:2 final:1 round:33 history:2 divide:1 three:3 phase:3 first:3 torquay:3 largely:1 concerned:1 commodity:1 would:3 cover:2 freeze:1 exist:2 level:1 second:2 encompass:1 focus:2 reduce:5 third:2 consist:1 uruguay:5 extend:1 fully:1 new:10 area:3 intellectual:3 property:3 service:3 capital:2 agriculture:6 wto:17 bear:1 signatory:2 occasionally:1 country:18 enter:1 set:2 call:3 bound:1 member:9 certain:1 usually:1 include:3 many:2 special:2 case:1 treatment:1 individual:1 product:5 exception:2 modification:1 inception:1 precursor:1 propose:2 february:1 united:6 nation:5 social:1 council:1 negotiating:1 cut:1 control:2 finalize:1 owe:1 implement:1 january:2 sign:2 australia:2 belgium:1 brazil:2 burma:1 canada:2 ceylon:1 chile:1 china:1 cuba:1 czechoslovak:1 republic:1 france:2 india:1 lebanon:1 luxembourg:1 netherlands:1 zealand:2 norway:1 pakistan:1 southern:1 rhodesia:1 syria:1 south:1 africa:1 kingdom:1 accord:1 estimate:1 item:1 relate:2 approximately:1 one:4 half:1 billion:5 u:5 law:1 classify:1 congressional:1 executive:2 base:2 reciprocal:1 act:1 allow:1 branch:1 power:1 temporary:1 authority:1 congress:2 time:3 provisional:1 promise:1 system:1 unconditional:1 favored:2 principle:1 mean:1 condition:1 apply:2 trading:3 e:1 opposition:1 ratify:1 several:2 thus:1 president:2 truman:1 never:1 even:1 submit:1 hold:1 total:4 annecy:2 place:2 talk:3 around:1 occur:2 england:1 concession:3 make:3 remain:1 amount:1 fourth:2 effect:1 contemporaneous:1 rejection:1 havana:1 charter:1 signify:1 establishment:1 govern:1 body:2 michael:1 hudson:1 super:1 imperialism:1 origin:1 fundamental:1 dominance:1 ed:1 london:1 sterling:1 va:1 pluto:1 press:1 return:1 may:1 eliminate:2 dillon:2 fifth:1 name:2 treasury:1 secretary:2 former:1 douglas:1 along:1 also:2 yield:1 discussion:1 creation:2 european:2 community:2 eec:1 kennedy:2 sixth:1 late:1 memory:1 source:1 website:2 http:1 www:1 org:1 english:1 htm:1 worth:2 rule:2 clearly:1 define:1 tokyo:2 reduced:1 regulation:1 aim:1 proliferation:1 non:3 voluntary:1 export:3 ambitious:1 date:1 hop:1 expand:2 competence:1 important:1 textile:1 essentially:1 exempt:1 previous:1 give:1 status:1 import:1 quota:2 mild:1 caveat:1 however:1 consider:2 sufficiently:1 glare:1 refuse:1 deal:1 without:1 movement:1 agricultural:5 fourteen:1 come:1 know:1 cairn:1 group:1 mostly:1 medium:1 sized:1 exporter:1 indonesia:1 continue:1 substantial:1 liberalization:1 goal:1 improve:1 market:1 access:1 domestic:1 support:1 price:1 distorting:1 harmonize:1 extent:1 possible:1 sanitary:1 phytosanitary:1 measure:1 update:1 obligation:1 upon:2 significant:1 change:1 become:1 found:2 rejoin:2 following:1 two:2 year:1 congo:1 since:2 founding:1 join:1 currently:1 membership:2 original:1 sfr:1 yugoslavia:2 fr:1 rename:1 serbia:1 montenegro:1 later:1 split:1 recognise:1 direct:1 sfry:1 successor:1 therefore:1 application:1 contracting:1 party:1 end:1 official:3 term:1 december:1 whereas:1 agree:1 institutional:1 scope:1 good:1 within:1 sector:1 right:1 design:1 serve:1 multilateral:2 particularly:1 plurilateral:1 selective:1 caused:1 fragmentation:1 among:1 arrangement:1 generally:1 settlement:1 mechanism:1 site:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 turn:1 panel:1 report:1 digital:1 library:1 stanford:1 university:1 global:1 pbs:1 bbcnews:1 europe:1 profile:1 |@bigram bretton_wood:1 tariff_barrier:2 geneva_switzerland:1 southern_rhodesia:1 trade_gatt:1 http_www:1 sfr_yugoslavia:1 serbia_montenegro:1 contracting_party:1 gatt_wto:2 external_link:1
7,171
Republic_of_Fiji_Military_Forces
The Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF), with a total manpower of 3,500 men, is one of the smallest militaries in the world. The 3,200 men in the active army are organized into six infantry and one engineer battalions, with approximately 6,000 reserves forming a further three. There was formerly one "Zulu" company of counter-revolutionary specialists, which was deactivated in late 2000 due to a mutiny by some of its members. The first two regular battalions of the Fiji Infantry Regiment are traditionally stationed overseas on peacekeeping duties; the 1st Battalion has been posted to Lebanon, Iraq, and East Timor under the command of the UN, while the 2nd Battalion is stationed in Sinai with the MFO. The 3rd Battalion is stationed in the capital, Suva, and the remaining three are spread throughout the islands. == Organization == Structure of the Military of Fiji Commander RFMF - The Commander RFMF is of 1 star rank. He is assisted by the Deputy Commander and the Chief of Staff, who are responsible for Strategic Command and Land Force Command. The current Commander is Commodore Frank Bainimarama. Strategic Command - Strategic Command is responsible for all of the long term and strategic concerns of the RFMF, including welfare, legal issues, sustainability issues etc. Land Force Command - Land Force Command is the operational organisation of the RFMF, and is responsible for all of the main units: HQ Land Force Command Land Force Battalion Naval Unit Fiji Infantry Regiment Regular Force 1st Battalion 2nd Battalion 3rd Battalion Territorial Force 4th Battalion 5th Battalion 7th/8th Battalion Fiji Engineer Regiment Logistic Support Unit Force Training Group The Fijian Navy The military includes a 300-man strong Navy, which on 25 July 2005 celebrated the thirtieth anniversary of its founding. It was formed in 1975, following the government's ratification of the United Nations Law of the Sea convention. The Navy is responsible for maritime needs in border control, such as watching over Fiji's exclusive economic zone and organizing task and rescue missions. It currently operates 9 patrol boats. Military aid is received from Australia, the People's Republic of China, and the United Kingdom (although the latter has suspended aid as a result of the 2006 military coup against the civilian government). Speaking at 30th anniversary celebrations on 26 July 2006, Commander Bradley Bower said that the greatest challenge facing the navy of a maritime country like Fiji was to maintain sovereignty and the maritime environment, to acquire, restore, and replace equipment, and to train officers to keep pace with changing situations. Political controversies Fiji's Military has a history of political intervention. In 1987, soldiers were responsible for two military coups, and in 2000, the Military organized a countercoup to quash George Speight's civilian coup. Since 2000, the Military has had a sometimes tense relationship with the Qarase government, and has strongly opposed its plans to establish a Commission with the power to compensate victims and pardon perpetrators of the coup. Among other objections, the Military claims that its integrity and discipline would be undermined if soldiers who mutinied in the 2000 upheaval were to be pardoned. On 4 August 2005, Opposition Leader Mahendra Chaudhry called for more Indo-Fijians, who presently comprise less than one percent of the Military personnel, to be recruited. This would help guarantee political stability, he considered. He also spoke against government plans to downsize the military. Military spokesman Lieutenant Colonel Orisi Rabukawaqa responded the next day by saying that the Military was not an ethnic Fijian body, that it stood to serve the entire nation, and that there was no colour bar in its recruitment or promotion. He said that many Indo-Fijians had been reluctant to commit themselves to a Military career because of the slow progress of promotion, often preferring to be discharged and to use their record as a stepping stone to a successful career in some other field. Nevertheless, he appreciated the Indo-Fijian contribution to the Military, and noted the success of Lieutenant Colonel Mohammed Aziz, the head of the Military's legal unit who was a pivotal figure in the court martial of soldiers who mutinied in 2000. Ironically the rate of promotion of indigenous Fijian officers had been very rapid after the 1987 coup, and subsequent expansion of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces. On 26 August 2005, the government announced plans to study ways to reduce the size of the military. Military engineers would be transferred to the Regional Development Ministry, said Home Affair Minister Josefa Vosanibola, and the reduction of the Military forces would coincide with an increase in the numbers of the police force. On 26 September 2005, Rabukawaqa revealed that the Military had decided to curtail certain operations in order to stay within its budget. The cuts would affect maritime patrols, search and rescue operations, training and exercises, School Cadet training, and the deployment of Military engineers to rural areas. These cuts would be made to ensure that activities accorded a higher priority, such as peacekeeping operations in the Sinai Peninsula and Iraq, officer cadet training with the New Zealand Defence Forces, and the prosecution of soldiers charged with mutiny, would not be affected, Rabukawaqa said. The next day, Lesi Korovavala, Chief Executive Officer of the Ministry of Home Affairs, told the Fiji Village news service that the Military had undertaken the reductions on its own initiative, in consultation with the department, an explanation corroborated by Lieutenant Colonel Rabukawaqa. On 5 December 2006, the Fijian army staged a third coup d'état. On February 7, 2008, the head of the RFMF and post-coup interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama stated: "Qarase [...] does not understand the role of the Military and as such is misinforming the nation. [...] [I]f there are practices and policies which have potential to undermine the national security and territorial integrity of Fiji, the RFMF has every right under the Constitution to intervene." "Qarase wrong about military: Bainimarama", Fiji Times, February 7, 2008 Aircraft inventory 1 Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin 1 Harbin Y-11 Harbin Y-11 / Y12 - CombatAircraft.com The AS-365 Dauphin crashed off the coast of the main Island in July 1994, the army had a smaller AS-350 which continued to operate till mid 1997. There are no aircraft in the RFMF inventory to date. Notes References External links Official RFMF website Former RFMF commanders
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7,172
Hops
Hops are the female flower cones, also known as strobiles, of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus). The hop is part of the family Cannabaceae, which also includes the genus Cannabis (hemp). They are used primarily as a flavoring and stability agent in beer, though hops are also used for various purposes in other beverages and herbal medicine. The first documented use of hops in beer as a bittering agent is from the eleventh century. Prior to this period, brewers used whatever bitter herbs and flowers were around. Dandelion, burdock root, marigold and heather were often used prior to the discovery of hops. Understanding Beer - A Broad Overview of Brewing, Tasting and Analyzing Beer - October 12th, 2006, Beer & Brewing, The Brewing Process Hops are used extensively in brewing today for their many purported benefits, including balancing the sweetness of the malt with bitterness, contributing a variety of desirable flavors and aromas, and having an antibiotic effect that favors the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms. Hop cone in a Hallertau, Germany, hop yard The hop plant is a vigorous climbing herbaceous perennial, usually grown up strings in a field called a hopfield, hop garden or hop yard when grown commercially. Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world, with different types being used for particular styles of beer. History The first recorded reference to hops was by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. The first documented instance of hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany, although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing in that country was 1079. Not until the thirteenth century in Germany did hops begin to start threatening the use of gruit for flavoring. In Britain, hopped beer was first imported from Holland around 1400; however, hops were initially condemned in 1519 as a "wicked and pernicious weed". In 1471, Norwich, England banned the plant from the use in the brewing of beer, and it wasn't until 1524 that hops were first grown in southeast England. It was another century before hop cultivation began in the present-day United States in 1629. World production Important production centers are the Hallertau Valley in Germany (which, in 2006, had more hop-growing area than any other country in the world), http://www.hmelj-giz.si/ihgc/doc/5-EC%20table%20Nov06.pdf and the Yakima (Washington) and Willamette (Oregon) valleys in the United States. NCGR-Corvallis Humulus Genetic Resources The principal production centres in the UK are in Kent (which produces Kent Goldings hops) and Worcestershire. Untitled Document Essentially all of the harvested hops are used in beer making. A superstructure of overhead wires supports strings that in turn support vines Global prices for hops (along with barley and malt) are currently on the rise due to a combination of prolonged drought conditions in Australia, North America and New Zealand, a poor harvest in Europe, increasing fuel prices and the rising demand for corn ethanol in the United States. Beer Prices Rising Amid Crop Shortage Methods Hop bines are a climbing plant, similar to beans and peas in that respect. 'Training'(or twiddling) the bines up strings or wires supports plants, allowing the plants significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile. Energy that would have been required to build structural cells is also freed for crop growth. Until mechanisation, the need for massed labor at harvest time meant hop-growing had a big social impact. For example, many of those hop picking in Kent, a hop region first mechanised in the 1960s, were Eastenders. For them, the annual migration meant not just money in the family pocket but a welcome break from the grime and smoke of London. Whole families would come down on special trains and live in hoppers' huts and gradients for most of September, even the smallest children helping in the fields. Connie's Homepage - Hop Picking in Kent George Orwell: Hop-picking In Kent, the numbers of hop-pickers who came down from the city meant that many growers issued their own currency to those doing the labor. In some cases, the coins issued, often adorned with fanciful hops images, were themselves quite beautiful. As the currency could in the main be spent only at the company store, this was effectively a truck system. Charles Levett Hop Tokens, 60 Bushels Denomination, The Fitzwilliam Museum, fitzmuseum.cam.ack.uk Sonoma County in California was, pre-mechanization, a major US producer of hops. As in other hop-growing regions, the labor-intensive harvesting work involved large numbers of migrant workers traveling from other parts of the state or elsewhere for the annual hop harvest. During the Great Depression, many workers were migrant laborers from Oklahoma and the surrounding region who had recently come to California. Others included locals, particularly older school children. Sometimes whole families would work in the harvest. The remnants of this significant hop industry are still noticeable in the form of old hop kilns that survive in Sonoma County. In part because of the hop industry's importance to the county, local Florian Dauenhauer of Santa Rosa, the seat of Sonoma County, created one of the earliest and most significant hop-harvesting machines but ironically this mechanization helped destroy the local industry. It enabled large-scale mechanized production which moved to larger farms in other areas. As of 2005, the ten leading countries for hop cultivation (based on reported total production B.12.11.02.Tableau Global.xls ) were: Early season hop growth in a hop yard in the Yakima Valley, Washington with Mount Adams in the distance Hop producing country Output in tonnes (t) Germany 34,438 USA 23,494 China 10,576 Czech Republic 7,831 Poland 3,414 Slovenia 2,539 United Kingdom 1,693 Spain 1,537 Ukraine 1,474 France 1,372 Brewing Hops are dried in an oast house before they are used in the brewing process. Hop resins are composed of two main acids: alpha and beta acids. Alpha acids have a mild antibiotic/bacteriostatic effect against Gram-positive bacteria, and favor the exclusive activity of brewing yeast in the fermentation of beer. Alpha acids are responsible for the bitter flavor in the beer. Cross-section drawing of a hop Beta acids do not isomerize during the boil of wort, and have a negligible effect on beer flavor. Instead they contribute to beer's bitter aroma, and high beta acid hop varieties are often added at the end of the wort boil for aroma. Beta acids may oxidize into compounds that can give beer off-flavors of rotten vegetables or cooked corn. The effect of hops on the finished beer varies by type and use, though there are two main hop types: bittering and aroma. Bittering hops have higher concentrations of alpha acids, and are responsible for the large majority of the bitter flavor of a beer. European (so called "noble") hops typically average 5-9% alpha acids by weight, and the newer American species typically ranging from 8-19% aabw. Aroma hops usually have a lower concentration of alpha acids (~5%) and are the primary contributors of hop aroma and (non-bitter) flavor. Bittering hops are boiled for a longer period of time, typically 60-90 minutes, in order to maximize the isomerization of the alpha acids. They often have inferior aromatic properties, as the aromatic compounds evaporate off during the boil. The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which otherwise insoluble alpha acids (AAs) are isomerized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in International Bitterness Units (IBUs). Unboiled hops are only mildly bitter. On the other hand, the (non-bitter) flavor and aroma of hops come from the essential oils, which evaporate during the boil. Aroma hops are typically added to the wort later to prevent the evaporation of the essential oils, to impart "hop flavor" (if during the final 10 minutes of boil) or "hop aroma" (if during the final 3 minutes, or less, of boil). Aroma hops are often added after the wort has cooled and the beer has fermented, a technique known as "dry hopping" which contributes to the hop aroma. The four major essential oils in hops are Myrcene, Humulene, Caryophyllene, and Farnesene which comprise about 60-80% of the essential oils for most hop varieties. Today there is a substantial amount of "dual-use" hops as well, which have high concentrations of alpha acids and good aromatic properties. These can be added to the boil at any time, depending on the desired effect. Flavors and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include "grassy", "floral", "citrus", "spicy", "piney," "lemony," and "earthy". Most of the common commercial lagers have fairly low hop influence, while true pilseners should have noticeable noble hop aroma and certain ales (particularly the highly-hopped style known as India Pale Ale, or IPA) can have high levels of bitterness. Undried or "wet" hops are sometimes used. http://www.denverpost.com/business/ci_10422358 Hop varieties Particular hop varieties are associated with beer regions and styles, for example pale lagers are usually brewed with European (and often Czech and/or German) noble hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau and Strissel Spalt. British ales use hop varieties such as Fuggles, Goldings and Bullion. North American beers use Cascade hops, Columbia hops, Willamette hops and Amarillo hops. Noble hops Mature hops growing in a hop yard (Germany) The term noble hops traditionally refers to four varieties of hop which are low in bitterness and high in aroma. They are the central European cultivars, Hallertau, Tettnanger, Spalt, and Saaz. czhops.cz They are each named for a specific region or city in which they were first grown or primarily grown - Hallertau, Tettnang, Spalt and Žatec (Saaz in German). They contain high amounts of the hop oil humulene and low amounts of alpha acids cohumulone and adhumulone, as well as lower amounts of the harsher-tasting beta acids lupulone, colupulone, and adlupulone. Their low relative bitterness but strong aroma are often distinguishing characteristics of European-style lager beer, such as Pilsener, Dunkel, and Oktoberfest/Märzen. In beer, they are considered aroma hops (as opposed to bittering hops); see Pilsner Urquell as a classic example of the Bohemian Pilsener style, which showcases Noble hops. As with grapes, land where the hops were grown affects the hops' characteristics. Much as Dortmunder beer may only within the EU be labelled "Dortmunder" if it has been brewed in Dortmund, Noble hops may only officially be considered "Noble" if they were grown in the areas for which the hops varieties were named. Some consider the English varieties Fuggle and East Kent Goldings to be noble. They are characterized through analysis as having an alpha:beta ratio of 1:1, low alpha-acid levels (2–5%) with a low cohumulone content, low myrcene in the hop oil, high humulene in the oil, a ratio of humulene:caryophyllene above three, and poor storability resulting in them being more prone to oxidation. In reality this means that they have a relatively consistent bittering potential as they age, due to beta-acid oxidation, and a flavor that improves as they age during periods of poor storage. The term Noble Hop is a traditional designation for hops grown in four areas in Southern Germany, mainly Bavaria. Saaz in Austrian Bohemia resp. Sudetenland, though, became part of Czechoslovakia after 1918, as Zatec, and the German population was expelled in 1945. The traditional names are like the French appellations for grapes & wine. Historically, these regions produced superior quality hops, particularly well suited for continental European style beers. Hops grown outside these regions cannot be 'Noble Hops' but nonetheless may be excellent hops. Hallertau or Hallertauer – The original German lager hop; named after Hallertau or Holledau region in central Bavaria. Due to susceptibility to crop disease, it was largely replaced by Hersbrucker in the 1970s and 1980s. (Alpha acid 3.5–5.5% / beta acid 3–4%) Saaz – Noble hop used extensively in Bohemia to flavor pale Czech lagers such as Pilsner Urquell. Soft aroma and bitterness. (Alpha acid 3–4.5% /Beta acid 3–4.5%) Spalt – Traditional German noble hop from the Spalter region south of Nuremberg. With a delicate, spicy aroma. (Alpha acid 4–5% / beta acid 4–5%) Tettnang – Comes from Tettnang, a small town in southern Baden-Württemberg in Germany. The region produces significant quantities of hops, and ships them to breweries throughout the world. Noble German dual use hop used in European pale lagers, sometimes with Hallertau. Soft bitterness. (Alpha Acid 3.5–5.5% / Beta Acid 3.5–5.5%) Other uses The only major commercial use for hops is in beer, although hops are also an ingredient in Julmust, a carbonated beverage similar to cola soda that is popular in Sweden during December, as well as malta, a Latin American soft drink. Tom's of Maine deodorant uses hops for its antibacterial activity Hops are also used in herbal medicine in a way similar to valerian, as a treatment for anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia. A pillow filled with hops is a popular folk remedy for sleeplessness. Hops may be used alone, but more frequently they are combined with other herbs, such as valerian. The relaxing effect of hops is largely due to a specific chemical component: dimethylvinyl carbinol. Hops tend to be unstable when exposed to light or air and lose their potency after a few months' storage. Bourne, Edmund J. (132). "Natural Relief for Anxiety". See also Gruit Mugwort an herb historically used as a bitter in beer production Rhamnus prinoides References Notes Bibliography University of Vermont Extension System Department of Plant and Soil Science Growing Hops in New England - COH 27 Leonard P. Perry, Extension Associate Professor
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7,173
John_Danforth
John Claggett "Jack" Danforth (born September 5, 1936) is a former United States Ambassador to the United Nations and former Republican United States Senator from Missouri. He is an ordained Episcopal priest. Danforth is married to Sally D. Danforth and has five adult children. Education and early career Danforth was born in 1936 in St. Louis, Missouri. He attended St. Louis Country Day School, received his bachelor's degree from Princeton University in 1958, and attended both law and divinity graduate schools at Yale University. Danforth is the grandson of William H. Danforth founder of Ralston Purina. His father was Donald Danforth, a former chief executive of the company. One of his brothers is Dr. Bill Danforth, former chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis. In his first bid to run for public office at any level he was elected in 1968 at the age of 32 to be Missouri's Attorney General. On his staff of assistant attorneys general were Kit Bond, John Ashcroft, and Clarence Thomas. In 1970 Danforth ran for the United States Senate for the first time, against Democratic incumbent Stuart Symington. Danforth was defeated in a close race. In 1972 Danforth's colleague Bond was elected Missouri Governor at the age of 33, and Danforth was re-elected Attorney General. The two projected an image of Missouri's young Republican wunderkind in a state that traditionally had been Democratic. Senate races John Danforth In 1976 Danforth ran to succeed retiring Senator Stuart Symington. He ran in the Republican primary with little opposition. The Democrats had a three-way battle among Symington's son James W. Symington, former Missouri Governor Warren Hearnes and rising political star Congressman Jerry Litton. Litton and his entire family were killed when the plane taking them to their victory party in Kansas City crashed on take off in Chillicothe, Missouri. Hearnes, who had finished second in the primary far behind Litton, was appointed to challenge Danforth. Danforth easily won even though Jimmy Carter of Georgia won Missouri in the presidential election. Danforth was narrowly re-elected in 1982. His Democratic opponent was Harriett Woods, a relatively unknown state senator from the St. Louis suburb of University City, Missouri. She was active in women's rights organizations and collected union support. She was a cousin of Democratic Senator Howard Metzenbaum of Ohio. Her speeches denounced Ronald Reagan's policies so vigorously that she ran on the nickname, "Give 'em Hell, Harriett" (a play on the famous Truman phrase). Danforth won 51% to 49%. Woods' pro-choice stance was said to be the reason for her defeat. Woods and Danforth stayed on good terms following her defeat. In 1988 Danforth crushed Democrat Jay Nixon, 68% to 32%. Danforth chose not to run for a fourth term and retired from the Senate in 1995. He was succeeded by former Missouri governor John Ashcroft. In January 2001, when Missouri Democrats lined up against John Ashcroft to oppose his nomination for U.S. Attorney General, Danforth's name was invoked. Woods testified in the Senate Judiciary hearings: "He (Ashcroft) is indeed a man of deep conviction, but in Missouri, he increasingly has been seen as an extremist who can be ruthless for political ends." Former U.S. Senator Tom Eagleton reacted to the nomination by saying: "John Danforth would have been my first choice. John Ashcroft would have been my last choice." Senate career During the 1991 Senate hearings regarding U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, Danforth used his considerable clout to aid the confirmation of Thomas, who had served Danforth during his state attorney general years and later as an aide in the Senate. The bond was further strengthened in that both men had studied to be ordained. Thomas was studying to be a Catholic priest at Conception Seminary College in Nodaway County, Missouri when a racial comment he heard at the college about the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. caused him to quit. After leaving the seminary, Thomas attended Episcopal services, and Danforth is an ordained Episcopal priest. A political moderate, Danforth was once quoted as saying he joined the Republican Party for "the same reason you sometimes choose which movie to see — [it's] the one with the shortest line". Danforth is a longtime opponent of the capital punishment, as he made clear on Senate floor in 1994 New Voices - Conservative Voices . When Danforth entered politics, Missouri was a reliably Democratic state with both its U.S. Senators and Governors regularly being Democrats. Prior to Symington, Danforth's seat in the Senate was held by Democratic Party heavyweights Thomas Hart Benton and Harry S. Truman. Post-Senate career Faith and Politics: How the "Moral Values" Debate Divides America and How to Move Forward Together by John Danforth Danforth has had a colorful post-Senate career. Office of Special Counsel - Waco — In 1999, Democratic U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno appointed Danforth to lead an investigation into the FBI's role in the 1993 Waco Siege. Danforth appointed Democratic U.S. Attorney Edward L. Dowd, Jr. for the Eastern District of Missouri as his deputy special counsel for Waco. He also hired Bryan Cave law firm partner Thomas A. Schweich as his chief of staff. Assistant U.S. Attorney James G. Martin served as Danforth's director of investigative operations for what became known as the "Waco Investigation." Short list of vice president candidates — In July 2000, Danforth's name was leaked as being on the short list of potential vice presidential nominees for Republican candidate George W. Bush, along with Michigan Governor John Engler, New York Governor George Pataki, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, and former American Red Cross President Elizabeth Dole. Just one week before the 2000 Republican National Convention was to be held in Philadelphia, campaign sources said that Dick Cheney, the man charged with leading the selection process for the nominee, had recommended Danforth to Bush for the position. Bush secretly met with Danforth at a hotel in Chicago, and three days later Danforth held a press conference stating he would be stepping down from his appointed role in the Waco investigations because an unforeseen political opportunity had suddenly come up. However, despite growing speculation that Danforth was Bush's final pick, Bush selected Cheney himself for the position. U.S. Special Envoy to Sudan — In September 2001, President Bush appointed Danforth a special envoy to Sudan. He brokered a peace deal that officially ended the civil war in the South between Sudan's Islamic government and Christian-backed Sudanese rebels, but elements of that conflict still remain unresolved (as has the separate Darfur conflict). The Second Sudanese Civil War ended in January 2005, with the signing of a peace agreement. Due to the Islamic-dominated North's military superiority, most of southern Sudan was decimated and the Christian rebels, and thus Danforth, achieved little for their efforts. Danforth's swear-in to be the Ambassador to UN by Justice Clarence Thomas, who is also his former assistant U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations — On July 1, 2004, Danforth was sworn in as the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, succeeding John Negroponte, who left the post after becoming the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq in June. Danforth is best remembered for attempts to bring peace to the Sudan but only stayed at the UN for five months. Danforth was mentioned as a successor to Secretary of State Colin Powell. Six days after the announcement that Condoleezza Rice was going to take the position Danforth submitted his resignation on November 22, 2004, effective January 20, 2005. Danforth's resignation letter said, "Forty-seven years ago, I married the girl of my dreams, and, at this point in my life, what is most important to me is to spend more time with her." Funerals of Ronald Reagan and Katharine Graham — As an ordained Episcopal priest, Danforth officiated the funeral services of former president Ronald Reagan on June 11, 2004 at the Washington National Cathedral although Ronald Reagan was not an Episcopalian. He did the same for Washington Post executive Katharine Graham in 2001, also at the National Cathedral. Battles with the Christian Right — On March 30, 2005, Danforth wrote an op-ed piece in the New York Times critical of the Republican party. The article began: "By a series of recent initiatives, Republicans have transformed our party into the political arm of conservative Christians...". The article by an ordained Episcopal priest (followed by a June 17, 2005 piece headlined "Onward, Moderate Christian Soldiers") ignited considerable debate both pro and con. The Washington Post on February 2, 2006, headlined its article "'St. Jack' and the Bullies in the Pulpit". Danforth is the author of the book Faith and Politics: How the "Moral Values" Debate Divides America and How to Move Forward Together. Danforth has received a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. Danforth is currently a partner at Bryan Cave. Danforth is one of the eight directors (not all living) of the Commission on Presidential Debates. Danforth is currently a Member of the Global Leadership Foundation, an organization which works to promote good governance around the world. Welcome to GLF Global Leadership Foundation See also George H. W. Bush Supreme Court candidates References External links UN Press release on becoming US Ambassador to the UN
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7,174
Akihabara
Akihabara in 2007 Akihabara at night ("Field of Autumn Leaves"), also known as , is an area of Tokyo, Japan. It is located less than five minutes by rail from Tokyo Station. Its name is frequently shortened to Akiba () in Japan. While there is an official locality named Akihabara nearby, part of Taitō-ku, the area known to most people as Akihabara (including the railway station of the same name) is actually Soto-Kanda, a part of Chiyoda-ku. Akihabara is a major shopping area for electronic, computer, anime, and otaku goods, including new and used items. New items are mostly to be found on the main street, Chūōdōri, with many kinds of used items found in the back streets of Soto Kanda 3-chōme. First-hand parts for PC-building are readily available from a variety of stores. Tools, electrical parts, wires, microsized cameras and similar items are found in the cramped passageways of Soto Kanda 1-chōme (near the station). Foreign tourists tend to visit the big name shops like Laox or other speciality shops near the station, though there is more variety and lower prices at locales a little further away. Akihabara gained some fame through being home to one of the first stores devoted to personal robots and robotics. Timeline Buildings in Akihabara Between stores in Akihabara The area was just out of Sujikai-gomon city gate (present Mansei bridge) which was one of the city gates (Mitsuke) of old Edo (Tokyo). It was the gateway from inner Edo to northern and northwestern Japan and Kan’ei-ji temple in Ueno. Many dealers, craftsmen and relatively lower class samurai lived there. 1869: A major blaze destroyed the area. It brought about the decision to clear the 30,000 square metres of land in order to keep future fires from getting into inner Tokyo city. 1870: In this cleared land a small Shinto shrine once in old Edo Castle was built. The shrine's name was , which means "the extinguisher shrine"). But many downtown Tokyo residents misunderstood the shrine. They thought that the deity Akiba or Akiha () which was the most popular fire-controlling deity in central and eastern Japan must have been enshrined in it. They also called the cleared land "Akiba ga hara" or "Akibappara" which means "the deity Akiba's square". 1888: The shrine moved to Matsugaya, near Asakusa. 1890: Extension of the rail line (now the Tōhoku Main Line) from Ueno to Akihabara. At first there was no passenger service, for south of the station was the Akihabara cargo docks, where goods from all over the world would flow into Kanda by river and be hauled up the east bank of the canal to be ticketed at the central cargo transport window. From the Meiji to the Shōwa period, as the electric railway improved transport to Akihabara and the surrounds, and especially due to the growth in dealerships, the district was designated as Seika Shijō (: vegetables and fruits market). 1925: Akihabara-Tokyo station connection opened as the Tohoku line extended to Tokyo. 1930: The temporary Manseibashi Subway Station opens; it is closed in November 1931. 1932: As the Green Line station opened with an interconnection, Akihabara became an important transfer point. 1935: Official establishment of Seika Shijō. (Kanda Seika Shijō). 1936: The site of Manseibashi Station was closed (later the Transportation Museum—now closed). Railway mania had reached its zenith. The area became the number one place for electrical supplies. Circa 1945-1955 After World War II, a black market at Kanda developed around the first school of electrical manufacturing (now the Tokyo Denki University:). Clustered around the Sobu Main line, what began as a host of electrical stores selling vacuum tubes, radio goods and electrical items to the students, has today come to be known as Electric Town. Called "musen" or "wireless" shops, they were the first to begin selling radios. With the advent of wireless and radio goods, people came to be much more connected. 1960s: Thanks to advanced technology, the rival Nipponbashi district of Osaka took its position as an equally prominent Electric Town, selling vast volumes of household consumer durable goods such as televisions, refrigerators and washing machines. 1980s: Accompanying the spread of the personal computer in family homes ("Famikom"), local shops increasingly began to deal in computer games, and major gaming chain stores appeared on the market. 1989: Kanda Seika Shijō moved to Ōta-ku, south district of Tokyo. 1990s: With the Yamada and Kojima household chain stores appearing throughout the suburban outskirts of Tokyo, the sale of consumer durables at Akihabara was greatly reduced, however the sale of computer goods increased in equal measure. 1991:Sofmap begins its rise as a major seller of new and used Japan-market computer parts and software, including popular systems from NEC (PC-8801 and 9801), Sharp (X68000) and Fujitsu (FM-Towns). Sofmap chain stores begin popping up in different locations in Akihabara. 1994: The Windows PC boom and accompanying computer store growth began. It was also during the 1990s that the anime craze grew out of computer games, and the youth group known as otaku began to pour into Akihabara. Since 2000, with name-brand computer sales in decline, anime shops have arisen in their place, selling to the otaku crowd. August 25, 2005: Tsukuba Express, Tokyo's fastest private railway, opens in Akihabara. Since 2005, major redevelopment and modernization of the station and surrounding area. June 8, 2008: The Akihabara massacre took place on the Sunday-pedestrian-zoned Chūōdōri street. A man killed seven in an attack on a crowd using a truck and a dagger. At least 6 dead in Tokyo stabbing spree Retrieved June 8, 2008 Man stabs shoppers in Tokyo street Retrieved June 8, 2008 NHKニュース　秋葉原通り魔事件 死者６人に "NHK News Akihabara Passerby Incident Death Toll to Six" Retrieved June 8, 2008 Establishments around Akihabara Manseibashi Police Station 万世橋警察署 ：警視庁 is a station of Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. The station takes its name from the nearby bridge, Manseibashi. The area north of the bridge is Akihabara Electric Town". The station is located slightly east of the Mansei bridge (), on the Akihabara side of the Kanda River. In addition to the police station, the building houses other government offices. The station began as a substation of Kanda Police Station in April 1905. It was disbanded a year later, but re-established in various forms until June 1927, when it was established as the Kanda Manseibashi Police Station. It moved back in with the Kanda station after the station was destroyed in the World War II fire-bombing of Tokyo. In November 1948 the station was re-established under its present name, Manseibashi Police Station. New station buildings were completed in 1969 and again in 2000. See also Nipponbashi, in Osaka References External links Akihabara Official website Akihabara Official website Articles In Tokyo, a Ghetto of Geeks from Washington Post Akihabara Guide @ Picturetokyo.comAkihabara Information & Gallery Akihabara - Tokyo Media Akihabara tours, forums, maps, and reviews for visitors: Akibanana Printable Akihabara shopping map (word doc) Akihabara shopping map by ZiM Map in English Publication JPT Staff, Makoto Nakajima (2008). The Akiba. Japan Publications Trading. ISBN 9784889962499
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Series_(mathematics)
In mathematics, given an infinite sequence of numbers , a series is informally the result of adding all those terms together: . These can be written more compactly using the summation symbol ∑. An example is the famous series from Zeno's Dichotomy The terms of the series are often produced according to a certain rule, such as by a formula, by an algorithm, by a sequence of measurements, or even by a random number generator. As there are an infinite number of terms, this notion is often called an infinite series. Unlike finite summations, series need tools from mathematical analysis to be fully understood and manipulated. In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics and computer science. Basic properties Series can be composed of terms from any one of many different sets including real numbers, complex numbers, and functions. The definition given here will be for real numbers, but can be generalized. Given an infinite sequence of real numbers , define Call the partial sum to N of the sequence , or partial sum of the series. A series is the sequence of partial sums, . Potential confusion When talking about series, one can refer either to the sequence of the partial sums, or to the sum of the series, i.e., the limit of the sequence of partial sums (see the formal definition in the next section) – it is clear which one is meant from context. To make a distinction between these two completely different objects (sequence vs. summed value), one sometimes omit the limits (atop and below the sum's symbol), as in in order to refer to the formal series, that may or may not have a definite sum. Convergent series A series  ∑an  is said to 'converge' or to 'be convergent' when the sequence of partial sums has a finite limit. If the limit of SN is infinite or does not exist, the series is said to diverge. When the limit of partial sums exists, it is called the sum of the series The easiest way that an infinite series can converge is if all the an are zero for n sufficiently large. Such a series can be identified with a finite sum, so it is only infinite in a trivial sense. Working out the properties of the series that converge even if all the terms are non-zero is the essence of the study of series. Consider the example It is possible to "visualize" its convergence on the real number line: we can imagine a line of length 2, with successive segments marked off of lengths 1, ½, ¼, etc. There is always room to mark the next segment, because the amount of line remaining is always the same as the last segment marked: when we have marked off ½, we still have a piece of length ½ unmarked, so we can certainly mark the next ¼. This argument does not prove that the sum is equal to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is at most 2. In other words, the series has an upper bound. Mathematicians extend this idiom to other, equivalent notions of series. For instance, when we talk about a recurring decimal, as in we are talking, in fact, just about the series for which it stands (0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + …). But since these series always converge to real numbers (because of what is called the completeness property of the real numbers), to talk about the series in this way is the same as to talk about the numbers for which they stand. In particular, it should offend no sensibilities if we make no distinction between 0.111… and 1/9. Less clear is the argument that , but it is not untenable when we consider that we can formalize the proof knowing only that limit laws preserve the arithmetic operations. See 0.999... for more. Examples A geometric series is one where each successive term is produced by multiplying the previous term by a constant number. Example: In general, the geometric series converges if and only if |z| < 1. The harmonic series is the series The harmonic series is divergent. An alternating series is a series where terms alternate signs. Example: The series converges if r > 1 and diverges for r ≤ 1, which can be shown with the integral criterion described below in convergence tests. As a function of r, the sum of this series is Riemann's zeta function. A telescoping series converges if the sequence bn converges to a limit L as n goes to infinity. The value of the series is then b1 − L. Properties of series Series are classed not only by whether they converge or diverge: they can also be split up based on the properties of the terms an (absolute or conditional convergence); type of convergence of the series (pointwise, uniform); the class of the term an (whether it is a real number, arithmetic progression, trigonometric function); etc. Non-negative terms When an is a non-negative real number for every n, the sequence SN of partial sums is non-decreasing. It follows that a series ∑an with non-negative terms converges if and only if the sequence SN of partial sums is bounded. For example, the series is convergent, because the inequality and a telescopic sum argument imply that the partial sums are bounded by 2. Absolute convergence A series is said to converge absolutely if the series of absolute values converges. It can be proved that this is sufficient to make not only the original series converge to a limit, but also for any reordering of it to converge to the same limit. Conditional convergence A series of real or complex numbers is said to be conditionally convergent (or semi-convergent) if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent. A famous example is the alternating series which is convergent (and its sum is equal to ln 2), but the series formed by taking the absolute value of each term is the divergent harmonic series. The Riemann series theorem says that any conditionally convergent series can be reordered to make a divergent series, and moreover, if the an are real and S is any real number, that one can find a reordering so that the reordered series converges with sum equal to S. Abel's test is an important tool for handling semi-convergent series. If a series has the form where the partial sums BN = are bounded, λn has bounded variation, and exists: then the series is convergent. This applies to the pointwise convergence of many trigonometric series, as in with 0 < x < 2π. Abel's method consists in writing bn+1 = Bn+1 − Bn, and in performing a transformation similar to integration by parts (called summation by parts), that relates the given series to the absolutely convergent series Convergence tests n-th term test: If lim<sub>n→∞</sup> an ≠ 0 then the series diverges. Comparison test 1: If ∑bn  is an absolutely convergent series such that |an | ≤ C |bn | for some number C  and for sufficiently large n , then ∑an  converges absolutely as well. If ∑|bn | diverges, and |an | ≥ |bn | for all sufficiently large n , then ∑an  also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the an  alternate in sign). Comparison test 2: If ∑bn  is an absolutely convergent series such that |an+1 /an | ≤ |bn+1 /bn | for sufficiently large n , then ∑an  converges absolutely as well. If ∑|bn | diverges, and |an+1 /an | ≥ |bn+1 /bn | for all sufficiently large n , then ∑an  also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the an  alternate in sign). Ratio test: If |an+1/an| approaches a number less than one as n approaches infinity, then ∑an converges absolutely. When the limit of the ratio is 1, convergence can sometimes be determined as well. Root test: If there exists a constant C < 1 such that |an|1/n ≤ C for all sufficiently large n, then ∑an converges absolutely. Integral test: if ƒ(x) is a positive monotone decreasing function defined on the interval [1, ∞) with ƒ(n) = an for all n, then ∑an converges if and only if the integral  ∫1∞ ƒ(x) dx is finite. Cauchy's condensation test: If an is non-negative and non-increasing, then the two series  ∑an  and  ∑2ka(2k) are of the same nature: both convergent, or both divergent. Alternating series test: A series of the form ∑(−1)n an (with an ≥ 0) is called alternating. Such a series converges if the sequence an is monotone decreasing and converges to 0. The converse is in general not true. For some specific types of series there are more specialized convergence tests, for instance for Fourier series there is the Dini test. Series of functions A series of real- or complex-valued functions converges pointwise on a set E, if the series converges for each x in E as an ordinary series of real or complex numbers. Equivalently, the partial sums converge to ƒ(x) as N → ∞ for each x ∈ E. A stronger notion of convergence of a series of functions is called uniform convergence. The series converges uniformly if it converges pointwise to the function ƒ(x), and the error in approximating the limit by the Nth partial sum, can be made small independently of x by choosing a sufficiently large N. Uniform convergence is desirable for a series because many properties of the terms of the series are then retained by the limit. For example, if a series of continuous functions converges uniformly, then the limit function is also continuous. Similarly, if the ƒn are integrable on a closed and bounded interval I and converge uniformly, then the series is also integrable on I and can be integrated term-by-term. Tests for uniform convergence include the Weierstrass' M-test, Abel's uniform convergence test, Dini's test, and the Cauchy criterion. More sophisticated types of convergence of a series of functions can also be defined. In measure theory, for instance, a series of functions converges almost everywhere if it converges pointwise except on a certain set of measure zero. Other modes of convergence depend on a different metric space structure on the space of functions under consideration. For instance, a series of functions converges in mean on a set E to a limit function ƒ provided as N → ∞. Power series Many functions can be represented as Taylor series; these are infinite series involving powers of the independent variable and are also called power series. For example, the series converges to for all x. In general, a power series is any series of the form Such a series converges on a certain open disc of convergence centered at the point c, and may also converge at some of the points of the boundary. The radius of this disc is known as the radius of convergence, and can in principle be determined from the asymptotics of the coefficients an. The convergence is uniform on closed and bounded (that is, compact) subsets of the interior of the disc of convergence: to wit, it is uniformly convergent on compact sets. Historically, mathematicians such as Leonhard Euler operated liberally with infinite series, even if they were not convergent. When calculus was put on a sound and correct foundation in the nineteenth century, rigorous proofs of the convergence of series were always required. However, the formal operation with non-convergent series has been retained in rings of formal power series which are studied in abstract algebra. Formal power series are also used in combinatorics to describe and study sequences that are otherwise difficult to handle; this is the method of generating functions. Laurent series Laurent series generalize power series by admitting terms into the series with negative as well as positive exponents. A Laurent series is thus any series of the form If such a series converges, then in general it does so in an annulus rather than a disc, and possibly some boundary points. The series converges uniformly on compact subsets of the interior of the annulus of convergence. Dirichlet series A Dirichlet series is one of the form where s is a complex number. For example, if all an are equal to 1, then the Dirichlet series is the Riemann zeta function Like the zeta function, Dirichlet series in general play an important role in analytic number theory. Generally a Dirichlet series converges if the real part of s is greater than a number called the abscissa of convergence. In many cases, a Dirichlet series can be extended to an analytic function outside the domain of convergence by analytic continuation. For example, the Dirichlet series for the zeta function converges absolutely when Re s > 1, but the zeta function can be extended to a holomorphic function defined on   with a simple pole at 1. Trigonometric series A series of functions in which the terms are trigonometric functions is called a trigonometric series: The most important example of a trigonometric series is the Fourier series of a function. History of the theory of infinite series Development of infinite series Greek mathematician Archimedes produced the first known summation of an infinite series with a method that is still used in the area of calculus today. He used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of . Archimedes and Pi-Revisited. The idea of an infinite series expansion of a function was first conceived in India by Madhava in the 14th century, who also developed precursors to the modern concepts of the power series, the Taylor series, the Maclaurin series, rational approximations of infinite series, and infinite continued fractions. He discovered a number of infinite series, including the Taylor series of the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, tangent and arctangent, the Taylor series approximations of the sine and cosine functions, and the power series of the radius, diameter, circumference, angle θ, π and π/4. His students and followers in the Kerala School further expanded his works with various other series expansions and approximations, until the 16th century. In the 17th century, James Gregory also worked on infinite series and published several Maclaurin series. In 1715, a general method for constructing the Taylor series for all functions for which they exist was provided by Brook Taylor. Leonhard Euler in the 18th century, developed the theory of hypergeometric series and q-series. Convergence criteria The study of the convergence criteria of a series began with Madhava in the 14th century, who developed tests of convergence of infinite series, which his followers further developed at the Kerala School. In Europe, however, the investigation of the validity of infinite series is considered to begin with Gauss in the 19th century. Euler had already considered the hypergeometric series on which Gauss published a memoir in 1812. It established simpler criteria of convergence, and the questions of remainders and the range of convergence. Cauchy (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria. The terms convergence and divergence had been introduced long before by Gregory (1668). Leonhard Euler and Gauss had given various criteria, and Colin Maclaurin had anticipated some of Cauchy's discoveries. Cauchy advanced the theory of power series by his expansion of a complex function in such a form. Abel (1826) in his memoir on the binomial series corrected certain of Cauchy's conclusions, and gave a completely scientific summation of the series for complex values of and . He showed the necessity of considering the subject of continuity in questions of convergence. Cauchy's methods led to special rather than general criteria, and the same may be said of Raabe (1832), who made the first elaborate investigation of the subject, of De Morgan (from 1842), whose logarithmic test DuBois-Reymond (1873) and Pringsheim (1889) have shown to fail within a certain region; of Bertrand (1842), Bonnet (1843), Malmsten (1846, 1847, the latter without integration); Stokes (1847), Paucker (1852), Chebyshev (1852), and Arndt (1853). General criteria began with Kummer (1835), and have been studied by Eisenstein (1847), Weierstrass in his various contributions to the theory of functions, Dini (1867), DuBois-Reymond (1873), and many others. Pringsheim's (from 1889) memoirs present the most complete general theory. Uniform convergence The theory of uniform convergence was treated by Cauchy (1821), his limitations being pointed out by Abel, but the first to attack it successfully were Seidel and Stokes (1847-48). Cauchy took up the problem again (1853), acknowledging Abel's criticism, and reaching the same conclusions which Stokes had already found. Thomae used the doctrine (1866), but there was great delay in recognizing the importance of distinguishing between uniform and non-uniform convergence, in spite of the demands of the theory of functions. Semi-convergence A series is said to be semi-convergent (or conditionally convergent) if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent. Semi-convergent series were studied by Poisson (1823), who also gave a general form for the remainder of the Maclaurin formula. The most important solution of the problem is due, however, to Jacobi (1834), who attacked the question of the remainder from a different standpoint and reached a different formula. This expression was also worked out, and another one given, by Malmsten (1847). Schlömilch (Zeitschrift, Vol.I, p. 192, 1856) also improved Jacobi's remainder, and showed the relation between the remainder and Bernoulli's function Genocchi (1852) has further contributed to the theory. Among the early writers was Wronski, whose "loi suprême" (1815) was hardly recognized until Cayley (1873) brought it into prominence. Fourier series Fourier series were being investigated as the result of physical considerations at the same time that Gauss, Abel, and Cauchy were working out the theory of infinite series. Series for the expansion of sines and cosines, of multiple arcs in powers of the sine and cosine of the arc had been treated by Jakob Bernoulli (1702) and his brother Johann Bernoulli (1701) and still earlier by Viète. Euler and Lagrange simplified the subject, as did Poinsot, Schröter, Glaisher, and Kummer. Fourier (1807) set for himself a different problem, to expand a given function of x in terms of the sines or cosines of multiples of x, a problem which he embodied in his Théorie analytique de la Chaleur (1822). Euler had already given the formulas for determining the coefficients in the series; Fourier was the first to assert and attempt to prove the general theorem. Poisson (1820-23) also attacked the problem from a different standpoint. Fourier did not, however, settle the question of convergence of his series, a matter left for Cauchy (1826) to attempt and for Dirichlet (1829) to handle in a thoroughly scientific manner (see convergence of Fourier series). Dirichlet's treatment (Crelle, 1829), of trigonometric series was the subject of criticism and improvement by Riemann (1854), Heine, Lipschitz, Schläfli, and DuBois-Reymond. Among other prominent contributors to the theory of trigonometric and Fourier series were Dini, Hermite, Halphen, Krause, Byerly and Appell. Generalizations Asymptotic series Asymptotic series, otherwise asymptotic expansions, are infinite series whose partial sums become good approximations in the limit of some point of the domain. In general they do not converge. But they are useful as sequences of approximations, each of which provides a value close to the desired answer for a finite number of terms. The difference is that an asymptotic series cannot be made to produce an answer as exact as desired, the way that convergent series can. In fact, after a certain number of terms, a typical asymptotic series reaches its best approximation; if more terms are included, most such series will produce worse answers. Divergent series Under many circumstances, it is desirable to assign a limit to a series which fails to converge in the usual sense. A summability method is such an assignment of a limit to a subset of the set of divergent series which properly extends the classical notion of convergence. Summability methods include Cesàro summation, (C,k) summation, Abel summation, and Borel summation, in increasing order of generality (and hence applicable to increasingly divergent series). A variety of general results concerning possible summability methods are known. The Silverman–Toeplitz theorem characterizes matrix summability methods, which are methods for summing a divergent series by applying an infinite matrix to the vector of coefficients. The most general method for summing a divergent series is non-constructive, and concerns Banach limits. Series in Banach spaces The notion of series can be easily extended to the case of a Banach space. If xn is a sequence of elements of a Banach space X, then the series Σxn converges to x ∈ X if the sequence of partial sums of the series tends to x; to wit, as N → ∞. More generally, convergence of series can be defined in any abelian Hausdorff topological group. Specifically, in this case, Σxn converges to x if the sequence of partial sums converges to x. Summations over arbitrary index sets Definitions may be given for sums over an arbitrary index set I. There are two main differences with the usual notion of series: first, there is no specific order given on the set I; second, this set I may be uncountable. Families of non-negative numbers When summing a family {ai}, i ∈ I, of non-negative numbers, one may define When the sum is finite, the set of i ∈ I such that ai > 0 is countable. Indeed for every n ≥ 1, the set is finite, because If I  is countably infinite and enumerated as I = {i0, i1,...} then the above defined sum satisfies provided the value ∞ is allowed for the sum of the series. Any sum over non-negative reals can be understood as the integral of a non-negative function with respect to the counting measure, which accounts for the many similarities between the two constructions. Abelian topological groups Let a : I → X, where I  is any set and X  is an abelian Hausdorff topological group. Let F  be the collection of all finite subsets of I. Note that F  is a directed set ordered under inclusion with union as join. Define the sum S  of the family a as the limit if it exists and say that the family a is unconditionally summable. Saying that the sum S  is the limit of finite partial sums means that for every neighborhood V  of 0 in X, there is a finite subset A0 of I  such that Because F  is not totally ordered, this is not a limit of a sequence of partial sums, but rather of a net. For every W, neighborhood of 0 in X, there is a smaller neighborhood V  such that V − V ⊂ W. It follows that the finite partial sums of an unconditionally summable family ai, i ∈ I, form a Cauchy net, that is: for every W, neighborhood of 0 in X, there is a finite subset A0 of I  such that When X  is complete, a family a is unconditionally summable in X  if and only if the finite sums satisfy the latter Cauchy net condition. When X  is complete and ai, i ∈ I, is unconditionally summable in X, then for every subset J ⊂ I, the corresponding subfamily aj, j ∈ J, is also unconditionally summable in X. When the sum of a family of non-negative numbers, in the extended sense defined before, is finite, then it coincides with the sum in the topological group X = R. If a family a in X  is unconditionally summable, then for every W, neighborhood of 0 in X, there is a finite subset A0 of I  such that ai ∈ W  for every i not in A0. If X  is first-countable, it follows that the set of i ∈ I  such that ai ≠ 0 is countable. This need not be true in a general abelian topological group (see examples below). Unconditionally convergent series Suppose that I = N. If a family an, n ∈ N, is unconditionally summable in an abelian Hausdorff topological group X, then the series in the usual sense converges and has the same sum, By nature, the definition of unconditional summability is insensitive to the order of the summation. When ∑an is unconditionally summable, then the series remains convergent after any permutation σ of the set N of indices, with the same sum, It can be proved that the converse holds: is a series ∑an converges after any permutation, then it is unconditionally convergent. When X  is complete, then unconditional convergence is also equivalent to the fact that all subseries are convergent; if X  is a Banach space, this is equivalent to say that for every sequence of signs εn = 1 or −1, the series converges in X. If X  is a Banach space, then one may define the notion of absolute convergence. A series ∑an of vectors in X  converges absolutely if If a series of vectors in a Banach space converges absolutely then it converges unconditionally, but the converse only holds in finite dimensional Banach spaces (theorem of ). Well-ordered sums Conditionally convergent series can be considered if I is a well-ordered set, for example an ordinal α0. One may define by transfinite induction : and for a limit ordinal α, if this limit exists. If all limits exist up to α0, then the series converges. Examples Given a function f : X→Y, with Y an abelian topological group, define for every a ∈ X the function whose support is a singleton {a}. Then in the topology of pointwise convergence (that is, the sum is taken in the infinite product group YX ). In the definition of partitions of unity, one constructs sums of functions over arbitrary index set I, While, formally, this requires a notion of sums of uncountable series, by construction there are, for every given x, only finitely many nonzero terms in the sum, so issues regarding convergence of such sums do not arise. Actually, one usually assumes more: the family of functions is locally finite, i.e., for every x there is a neighborhood of x in which all but a finite number of functions vanish. Any regularity property of the φi,  such as continuity, differentiability, that is preserved under finite sums will be preserved for the sum of any subcollection of this family of functions. On the first uncountable ordinal ω1 viewed as a topological space in the order topology, the constant function f: [0,ω1) → [0,ω1] given by f(α) = 1 satisfies (in other words, ω1 copies of 1 is ω1) only if one takes a limit over all countable partial sums, rather than finite partial sums. This space is not separable. See also Convergent series Sequence transformations Infinite product Continued fraction Iterated binary operation List of mathematical series References Bromwich, T.J. An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series MacMillan & Co. 1908, revised 1926, reprinted 1939, 1942, 1949, 1955, 1959, 1965. Notes External links Graphical simulation of series convergence Many example problems on series, with solutions Infinite Series Tutorial
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7,176
Diuretic
This illustration shows where some types of diuretics act, and what they do. A diuretic is any drug that elevates the rate of urination and thus provides a means of forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each class does so in a distinct way. Types High ceiling loop diuretics High ceiling diuretics are diuretics that may cause a substantial diuresis - up to 20% Drug Monitor - Diuretics of the filtered load of NaCl and water. This is huge when compared to normal renal sodium reabsorption which leaves only ~0.4% of filtered sodium in the urine. Loop diuretics have this ability, and are therefore often synonymous with high ceiling diuretics. Loop diuretics, such as furosemide, inhibit the body's ability to reabsorb sodium at the ascending loop in the kidney which leads to a retention of water in the urine as water normally follows sodium back into the extracellular fluid (ECF). Other examples of high ceiling loop diuretics include ethacrynic acid, torsemide and bumetanide. Thiazides Drugs such as hydrochlorothiazide act on the distal convoluted tubule and inhibit the Sodium-chloride symporter leading to a retention of water in the urine as water normally follows penetrating solutes. Potassium-sparing diuretics These are diuretics which do not promote the secretion of potassium into the urine; thus, potassium is spared and not lost as much as in other diuretics. The term "potassium-sparing" refers to an effect rather than a mechanism or location; nonetheless, the term almost always refers to two specific classes that have their effect at similar locations: Aldosterone antagonists: Spironolactone, which is a competitive antagonist of aldosterone. Aldosterone normally adds sodium channels in the principal cells of the collecting duct and late distal tubule of the nephron. Spironolactone prevents aldosterone from entering the principal cells, preventing sodium reabsorption. A similar agent is potassium canreonate. Epithelial sodium channel blockers: amiloride and triamterene. Calcium-sparing diuretics The term "calcium-sparing diuretic" is sometimes used to identify agents that result in a relatively low rate of excretion of calcium. The reduced concentration of calcium in the urine can lead to an increased rate of calcium in serum. The sparing effect on calcium can be beneficial in hypocalcemia, or unwanted in hypercalcemia. The thiazides and potassium-sparing diuretics are considered to be calcium-sparing diuretics. The thiazides cause a net decrease in calcium lost in urine. The potassium-sparing diuretics cause a net increase in calcium lost in urine, but the increase is much smaller than the increase associated with other diuretic classes. By contrast, loop diuretics promote a significant increase calcium excretion. This can increase risk of reduced bone density. Osmotic diuretics Compounds such as mannitol are filtered in the glomerulus, but cannot be reabsorbed. Their presence leads to an increase in the osmolarity of the filtrate. To maintain osmotic balance, water is retained in the urine. Glucose, like mannitol, is a sugar that can behave as an osmotic diuretic. Unlike mannitol, glucose is commonly found in the blood. However, in certain conditions such as diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glucose in the blood exceeds the maximum reabsorption capacity of the kidney. When this happens, glucose remains in the filtrate, leading to the osmotic retention of water in the urine. Use of some drugs, especially stimulants may also increase blood glucose and thus increase urination. Low ceiling diuretics The term "low ceiling diuretic" is used to indicate that a diuretic has a rapidly flattening dose effect curve (in contrast to "high ceiling", where the relationship is close to linear). It refers to a pharmacological profile, not a chemical structure. However, there are certain classes of diuretic which usually fall into this category, such as the thiazides. Uses In medicine, diuretics are used to treat heart failure, liver cirrhosis, hypertension and certain kidney diseases. Some diuretics, such as acetazolamide, help to make the urine more alkaline and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as aspirin in cases of overdose or poisoning. Diuretics are often abused by sufferers of eating disorders, especially bulimics, in attempts at weight loss. The antihypertensive actions of some diuretics (thiazides and loop diuretics in particular) are independent of their diuretic effect. That is, the reduction in blood pressure is not due to decreased blood volume resulting from increased urine production, but occurs through other mechanisms and at lower doses than that required to produce diuresis. Indapamide was specifically designed with this in mind, and has a larger therapeutic window for hypertension (without pronounced diuresis) than most other diuretics. Mechanism of action Classification of common diuretics and their mechanisms of action: Examples Mechanism Location (numbered in distance along nephron) - Ethanol, Water inhibits vasopressin secretion 1. Acidifying salts CaCl2, NH4Cl 1. Arginine vasopressinreceptor 2 antagonists amphotericin B, lithium citrate inhibit vasopressin's action 5. collecting duct Aquaretics Goldenrod, Juniper Increases blood flow in kidneys 1. Na-H exchanger antagonists dopamine promote Na+ excretion 2. proximal tubule Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors acetazolamide, dorzolamide inhibit H+ secretion, resultant promotion of Na+ and K+ excretion 2: proximal tubule Loop diuretics bumetanide, ethacrynic acid, furosemide, torsemide inhibit the Na-K-2Cl symporter 3. medullary thick ascending limb Osmotic diuretics glucose (especially in uncontrolled diabetes), mannitol promote osmotic diuresis 2. proximal tubule, descending limb Potassium-sparing diuretics amiloride, spironolactone, triamterene, potassium canrenoate. inhibition of Na+/K+ exchanger: Spironolactone inhibits aldosterone action, Amiloride inhibits epithelial sodium channels 5. cortical collecting ducts Thiazides bendroflumethiazide, hydrochlorothiazide inhibit reabsorption by Na+/Cl- symporter 4. distal convoluted tubules Xanthines caffeine, theophylline inhibit reabsorption of Na+, increase glomerular filtration rate 1. tubules Chemically, diuretics are a diverse group of compounds that either stimulate or inhibit various hormones that naturally occur in the body to regulate urine production by the kidneys. Herbal medications are not inherently diuretics. They are more correctly called aquaretics. Adverse effects The main adverse effects of diuretics are hypovolemia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis and hyperuricemia . Each are at risk of certain types of diuretics and present with different symptoms. Adverse effect Diuretics Symptoms Hypovolemia loop diuretics thiazideslassitude thirst muscle cramps hypotension hypokalemia acetazolamides loop diuretics thiazidesmuscle weakness paralysis arrhythmia Hyperkalemia amilorides triamterenes spironolactonearrhythmia muscle cramps paralysis hyponatremia thiazides furosemidesCNS symptoms coma metabolic alkalosis loop diuretics thiazidesarrhythmia CNS symptoms metabolic acidosis acetazolamides amilorides triamtereneKussmaul respirations muscle weakness neurological symptoms lethargy coma seizures stupor hypercalcemia thiazidesgout tissue calcification fatigue depression confusion anorexia nausea vomiting constipation pancreatitis increased urination hyperuricemia thiazides loop diureticsgout See also antidiuretic References External links Diagram at cvpharmacology.com Sharma M.K
Diuretic |@lemmatized illustration:1 show:1 type:3 diuretic:47 act:2 drug:4 elevate:1 rate:4 urination:3 thus:3 provide:1 mean:1 forced:1 diuresis:5 several:1 category:2 increase:15 excretion:6 water:9 body:3 although:1 class:4 distinct:1 way:1 high:5 ceiling:7 loop:12 may:2 cause:3 substantial:1 monitor:1 filtered:2 load:1 nacl:1 huge:1 compare:1 normal:1 renal:1 sodium:9 reabsorption:5 leave:1 urine:12 ability:2 therefore:1 often:2 synonymous:1 furosemide:2 inhibit:9 reabsorb:2 ascend:2 kidney:5 lead:5 retention:3 normally:3 follow:2 back:1 extracellular:1 fluid:1 ecf:1 example:2 include:1 ethacrynic:2 acid:2 torsemide:2 bumetanide:2 thiazide:8 hydrochlorothiazide:2 distal:3 convolute:2 tubule:7 chloride:1 symporter:3 penetrate:1 solute:1 potassium:9 spar:8 promote:4 secretion:3 lose:3 much:2 term:4 refers:2 effect:8 rather:1 mechanism:5 location:3 nonetheless:1 almost:1 always:1 two:1 specific:1 similar:2 aldosterone:5 antagonist:3 spironolactone:4 competitive:1 add:1 channel:3 principal:2 cell:2 collect:3 duct:3 late:1 nephron:2 prevent:2 enter:1 agent:2 canreonate:1 epithelial:2 blocker:1 amiloride:3 triamterene:2 calcium:10 sparing:2 sometimes:1 use:4 identify:1 result:2 relatively:1 low:4 reduced:2 concentration:2 serum:1 beneficial:1 hypocalcemia:1 unwanted:1 hypercalcemia:2 consider:1 net:2 decrease:1 small:1 associate:1 contrast:2 significant:1 risk:2 bone:1 density:1 osmotic:6 compound:2 mannitol:4 filter:1 glomerulus:1 cannot:1 presence:1 osmolarity:1 filtrate:2 maintain:1 balance:1 retain:1 glucose:6 like:1 sugar:1 behave:1 unlike:1 commonly:1 find:1 blood:6 however:2 certain:4 condition:1 diabetes:2 mellitus:1 exceed:1 maximum:1 capacity:1 happen:1 remains:1 especially:3 stimulant:1 also:2 indicate:1 rapidly:1 flatten:1 dose:1 curve:1 relationship:1 close:1 linear:1 refer:1 pharmacological:1 profile:1 chemical:1 structure:1 usually:1 fall:1 us:1 medicine:1 treat:1 heart:1 failure:1 liver:1 cirrhosis:1 hypertension:2 disease:1 acetazolamide:2 help:1 make:1 alkaline:1 helpful:1 substance:1 aspirin:1 case:1 overdose:1 poisoning:1 abuse:1 sufferer:1 eat:1 disorder:1 bulimic:1 attempt:1 weight:1 loss:1 antihypertensive:1 action:5 particular:1 independent:1 reduction:1 pressure:1 due:1 decreased:1 volume:1 production:2 occur:2 dos:1 require:1 produce:1 indapamide:1 specifically:1 design:1 mind:1 large:1 therapeutic:1 window:1 without:1 pronounce:1 classification:1 common:1 number:1 distance:1 along:1 ethanol:1 inhibits:2 vasopressin:2 acidify:1 salts:1 arginine:1 vasopressinreceptor:1 amphotericin:1 b:1 lithium:1 citrate:1 aquaretics:2 goldenrod:1 juniper:1 flow:1 na:7 h:2 exchanger:2 antagonists:1 dopamine:1 proximal:3 carbonic:1 anhydrase:1 inhibitor:1 dorzolamide:1 resultant:1 promotion:1 k:4 medullary:1 thick:1 limb:2 uncontrolled:1 descend:1 canrenoate:1 inhibition:1 cortical:1 bendroflumethiazide:1 cl:1 xanthine:1 caffeine:1 theophylline:1 glomerular:1 filtration:1 chemically:1 diverse:1 group:1 either:1 stimulate:1 various:1 hormone:1 naturally:1 regulate:1 herbal:1 medication:1 inherently:1 correctly:1 call:1 adverse:3 main:1 hypovolemia:2 hypokalemia:2 hyperkalemia:2 hyponatremia:2 metabolic:4 alkalosis:2 acidosis:2 hyperuricemia:2 present:1 different:1 symptom:5 thiazideslassitude:1 thirst:1 muscle:3 cramp:2 hypotension:1 acetazolamides:2 thiazidesmuscle:1 weakness:2 paralysis:2 arrhythmia:1 amilorides:2 triamterenes:1 spironolactonearrhythmia:1 furosemidescns:1 coma:2 thiazidesarrhythmia:1 cns:1 triamterenekussmaul:1 respiration:1 neurological:1 lethargy:1 seizure:1 stupor:1 thiazidesgout:1 tissue:1 calcification:1 fatigue:1 depression:1 confusion:1 anorexia:1 nausea:1 vomit:1 constipation:1 pancreatitis:1 diureticsgout:1 see:1 antidiuretic:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 diagram:1 cvpharmacology:1 com:1 sharma:1 |@bigram loop_diuretic:10 extracellular_fluid:1 sodium_chloride:1 potassium_spar:5 spar_diuretic:5 collect_duct:3 diabetes_mellitus:1 kidney_disease:1 carbonic_anhydrase:1 glomerular_filtration:1 adverse_effect:3 metabolic_acidosis:2 muscle_cramp:2 muscle_weakness:1 nausea_vomit:1 external_link:1
7,177
Douglas_Adams
Douglas Noel Adams (11 March 1952 – 11 May 2001) was an English author, dramatist and musician. He is best known as the author of the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series. Hitchhiker's began on radio, and developed into a "trilogy" of five books (which sold more than fifteen million copies during his lifetime) as well as a television series, a comic book series, a radio play, a computer game, and a feature film that was completed after Adams' death. The series has also been adapted for live theatre using various scripts; the earliest such productions used material newly written by Adams. He was known to some fans as Bop Ad (after his illegible signature), or by his initials "DNA"; Adams was proud of the coincidence that he was born in Cambridge the year before the elucidation of the structure of DNA in the same city. FAQ posted to alt.fan.douglas-adams In addition to The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, Douglas Adams wrote or co-wrote three stories of the science fiction television series Doctor Who and served as Script Editor during the seventeenth season. His other written works include the Dirk Gently novels, and he co-wrote two Liff books and Last Chance to See, itself based on a radio series. Adams also originated the idea for the computer game Starship Titanic, which was produced by a company that Adams co-founded, and adapted into a novel by Terry Jones. A posthumous collection of essays and other material, including an incomplete novel, was published as The Salmon of Doubt in 2002. His Science Fiction-Humour books are similar to the style of Jasper Fforde, Neil Gaiman and Rob Grant. His fans and friends also knew Adams as an environmental activist, a confirmed atheist, and a lover of fast cars, cameras, the Macintosh computer, and other "techno gizmos". The biologist Richard Dawkins dedicated his book The God Delusion to Douglas Adams and in it described how Adams came to understand evolution. Douglas was a keen technologist, writing about such topics as e-mail and Usenet before they became widely known. Toward the end of his life he was a sought-after lecturer on topics including technology and the environment. Early life Douglas Adams was born to Janet Adams (née Donovan, and now known as Janet Thrift) and Christopher Douglas Adams in Cambridge, England. His parents had one other child together, Susan, who was born in March 1955. His parents separated and divorced in 1957, and Douglas, Susan, and Janet moved in with Janet's parents, the Donovans, in Brentwood, Essex. Douglas' grandmother kept her house as an official RSPCA refuge for hurt animals, which "exacerbated young Douglas' hayfever and asthma". Christopher Adams remarried in July 1960, to Mary Judith Stewart (born Judith Robertson). From this marriage, Douglas Adams had a half-sister, Heather. Janet remarried in 1964, to a veterinarian, Ron Thrift, providing two more half-siblings to Douglas: Jane and James Thrift. Education and early works Douglas Adams was known to some fans as "Bop Ad", because of his illegible signature. Adams attended Primrose Hill Primary School in Brentwood. He took the exams and interview for Brentwood School at six, and attended the preparatory school from 1959 to 1964, then the main school until 1970. He was in the top stream, and specialised in the arts in the sixth form, after which he stayed an extra term in a seventh form class, customary in the school for those preparing for Oxbridge entrance exams. While at prep school, his English teacher, Frank Halford, reportedly awarded Adams the only ten out of ten of his teaching career for creative writing. BBC - h2g2 - Douglas Adams Adams remembered this for the rest of his life, especially when facing writer's block. Some of Adams' earliest writing was published at the school, such as a report on the school's photography club in The Brentwoodian (in 1962) or spoof reviews in the school magazine Broadsheet (edited by Paul Neil Milne Johnstone). He also designed the cover of one issue of the Broadsheet. Adams also had a letter and short story published nationally in the UK in The Eagle, the boys' comic, in 1965. He met Griff Rhys Jones, who was in the year below, at school, and was in the same class as Stuckist artist Charles Thomson; all three appeared together in a production of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar in 1968. Adams was six feet tall (1.83 m) by age 12 and he stopped growing at 6'5" (1.96 m). Later, he made jokes about his towering stature: "[T]he form-master wouldn't say 'Meet under the clock tower,' or 'Meet under the war memorial,' but 'Meet under Adams.'" On the strength of a bravura essay on religious poetry that discussed the Beatles along with William Blake, he was awarded a place at St John's College, Cambridge to read English, entering in 1971. Webb, Nick, "Adams, Douglas Noël (1952 – 2001)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn, Oxford University Press, January 2005 accessed 25 October 2005 Adams attempted to get into the Footlights Dramatic Club, with which several other names in British comedy had been affiliated. He was turned down, and started to write and perform in revues with Will Adams (no relation) and Martin Smith, forming a group called "Adams-Smith-Adams." Later, in another attempt to join Footlights, Adams was encouraged by Simon Jones and found himself working with Rhys Jones, among others. In 1974, Adams graduated with a B.A. in English literature. Some of his early work appeared on BBC2 (television) in 1974, in an edited version of the Footlights Revue from Cambridge, that year. A version of the revue performed live in London's West End led to Adams being discovered by Monty Python's Graham Chapman. The two formed a brief writing partnership, and Adams earned a writing credit in one episode (episode 45: "Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Liberal Party") of Monty Python's Flying Circus for a sketch called "Patient Abuse". In the sketch, a man who had been stabbed by a nurse arrives at his doctor's office bleeding from the stomach. The doctor asks him to fill out numerous senseless forms before he will administer treatment (a joke later incorporated into the Vogons' obsession with paperwork). Adams also contributed to a sketch on the album for Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Douglas Adams in his first Monty Python appearance, in full surgeon's garb in episode 42. Douglas had two brief appearances in the fourth series of Monty Python's Flying Circus. At the beginning of episode 42, "The Light Entertainment War", Adams is in a surgeon's mask (as Dr Emile Koning, according to on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while Michael Palin narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another but never actually gets started. At the beginning of episode 44, "Mr Neutron", Adams is dressed in a "pepperpot" outfit and loads a missile on to a cart driven by Terry Jones, who is calling for scrap metal ("Any old iron..."). The two episodes were broadcast in November 1974. Adams and Chapman also attempted non-Python projects, including Out of the Trees. Some of Adams' early radio work included sketches for The Burkiss Way in 1977 and The News Huddlines. He also wrote, again with Graham Chapman, the 20 February 1977 episode of Doctor on the Go, a sequel to the Doctor in the House television comedy series. As Adams had difficulty selling jokes and stories, he took a series of odd jobs. A biography from an early edition of one of the HHGG novels says: After graduation he spent several years contributing material to radio and television shows as well as writing, performing, and sometimes directing stage revues in London, Cambridge and at the Edinburgh Fringe. He has also worked at various times as a hospital porter, barn builder, chicken shed cleaner, bodyguard, radio producer and script editor of Doctor Who. Adams worked as a bodyguard in the mid-1970s. He was employed by a Qatar Arab family which had made its fortune in oil. "Adams, Douglas Noël." Britannica Book of the Year, 2002 from Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition. accessed 13 November 2005. He had anecdotes about the job: one story related that the family once ordered one of everything from a hotel's menu, tried all the dishes, and sent out for hamburgers. Another story had to do with a prostitute sent to the floor Adams was guarding one evening. They acknowledged each other as she entered, and an hour later, when she left, she is said to have remarked, "At least you can read while you're on the job." Webb, page 93. In 1979, Adams and John Lloyd wrote scripts for two half-hour episodes of Doctor Snuggles: "The Remarkable Fidgety River" and "The Great Disappearing Mystery" (episodes seven and twelve). John Lloyd was also co-author of two episodes from the original "Hitchhiker" radio series (Fit the Fifth and Fit the Sixth (also known as Episodes Five and Six, see explanation below)), as well as The Meaning of Liff and The Deeper Meaning of Liff. Lloyd and Adams also collaborated on an SF movie comedy project based on The Guinness Book of World Records, which would have starred John Cleese as the UN Secretary General, and had a race of aliens beating humans in athletic competitions, but the humans winning in all of the "absurd" record categories. This latter project never proceeded past a treatment. After the first radio series of The Hitchhiker's Guide became successful, Adams was made a BBC radio producer, working on Week Ending and a pantomime called Black Cinderella Two Goes East. He left the position after six months to become the script editor for Doctor Who. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was a concept for a science-fiction comedy radio series pitched by Adams and radio producer Simon Brett to BBC Radio 4 in 1977. Adams came up with an outline for a pilot episode, as well as a few other stories (reprinted in Neil Gaiman's book Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion) that could potentially be used in the series. According to Adams, the idea for the title The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy occurred to him while he lay drunk in a field in Innsbruck, Austria (though he joked that the BBC would instead claim it was Spain "probably because it's easier to spell" One of the webpages about Hitchhiker's on bbc.co.uk states "The BBC used to say this happened in Spain, but we know how to spell Innsbruck now." ), gazing at the stars. He had been wandering the countryside while carrying a book called the Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe when he ran into a town where, as he humorously describes, everyone was either "deaf" and "dumb" or only spoke languages he could not understand. After wandering around and drinking for a while, he went to sleep in the middle of a field and was inspired by his inability to communicate with the townspeople. He later said that due to his constantly retelling this story of inspiration, he no longer had any memory of the moment of inspiration itself, and only remembered his retellings of that moment. A postscript to M. J. Simpson's biography of Adams, Hitchhiker: A Biography of Douglas Adams, provides evidence that the story was in fact a fabrication and that Adams had conceived the idea some time after his trip around Europe. Despite the original outline, Adams was said to make up the stories as he wrote. He turned to John Lloyd for help with the final two episodes of the first series. Lloyd contributed bits from an unpublished science fiction book of his own, called GiGax. Webb, page 120. However, very little of Lloyd's material survived in later adaptations of Hitchhiker's, such as the novels and the TV series. The TV series itself was based on the first six radio episodes, but sections contributed by Lloyd were largely re-written. BBC Radio 4 broadcast the first radio series weekly in the UK in March and April 1978. Following the success of the first series, another episode was recorded and broadcast, which was commonly known as the Christmas Episode. A second series of five episodes was broadcast one per night, during the week of 21 January - 25 January 1980. While working on the radio series (and with simultaneous projects such as The Pirate Planet) Adams developed problems keeping to writing deadlines that only got worse as he published novels. Adams was never a prolific writer and usually had to be forced by others to do any writing. This included being locked in a hotel suite with his editor for three weeks to ensure that So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish was completed. May 2004 review of Don't Panic by Neil Gaiman. He was quoted as saying, "I love deadlines. I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by." Despite the difficulty with deadlines, Adams eventually authored five novels in the series, published in 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984 and 1992. The books formed the basis for other adaptations, such as three-part comic book adaptations for each of the first three books, an interactive text-adventure computer game, and a photo-illustrated edition, published in 1994. This latter edition featured a 42 Puzzle designed by Adams, which was later incorporated into paperback covers of the first four "Hitchhiker's" novels (the paperback for the fifth re-used the artwork from the hardcover edition). Internet Book List page, with links to all five novels, and reproductions of the 1990s paperback covers that included the 42 Puzzle. In 1980, Adams also began attempts to turn the first Hitchhiker's novel into a movie, making several trips to Los Angeles, California, and working with a number of Hollywood studios and potential producers. The next year, 1981, the radio series became the basis for a BBC television mini-series "The Hitch Hikers Guide to the Galaxy" broadcast in six parts. When he died in 2001 in California, he had been trying again to get the movie project started with Disney, which had bought the rights in 1998. The screenplay finally got a posthumous re-write by Karey Kirkpatrick, was green-lit in September 2003, and the resulting movie was released in 2005. Radio producer Dirk Maggs had consulted with Adams, first in 1993, and later in 1997 and 2000 about creating a third radio series, based on the third novel in the Hitchhiker's series. They also vaguely discussed the possibilities of radio adaptations of the final two novels in the five-book "trilogy." As with the movie, this project was only realised after Adams' death. The third series, The Tertiary Phase, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in September 2004 and was subsequently released on audio CD. With the aid of a recording of his reading of Life, the Universe and Everything and editing, Douglas Adams himself can be heard playing the part of Agrajag posthumously. So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish and Mostly Harmless made up the fourth and fifth radio series, respectively (on radio they were titled The Quandary Phase and The Quintessential Phase) and these were broadcast in May and June of 2005, and also subsequently released on Audio CD. The last episode in the last series (with a new, "more upbeat" ending) concluded with, "The very final episode of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams is affectionately dedicated to its author." Ibid. Page 356 More recently, the film makers at Smoov Filmz adapted the anecdote that Arthur Dent relates about biscuits in So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish into a short film called "Cookies." Smoov Filmz homepage. "Cookies" is featured under "Filmz and Projects." Adams also discussed the real-life episode that inspired the anecdote in a 2001 speech, reprinted in his posthumous collection The Salmon of Doubt. He also told the story on the radio programme It Makes Me Laugh on 19 July 1981. Dirk Gently series In between Adams' first trip to Madagascar with Mark Carwardine in 1985, and their series of travels that formed the basis for the radio series and non-fiction book Last Chance to See, Adams wrote two other novels with a new cast of characters. Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency was first published in 1987, and was described by its author as "a kind of ghost-horror-detective-time-travel-romantic-comedy-epic, mainly concerned with mud, music and quantum mechanics." It received many rave reviews from American newspapers upon its publication in the USA. Adams borrowed a few ideas from two Doctor Who stories he had worked on: City of Death and Shada. A sequel novel, The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul was published a year later. This was an entirely original work, Adams' first since So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. Reviewers, however, were not as generous with praise for the second volume as they had been for the first. After the obligatory book tours, Adams was off on his round-the-world excursion which supplied him with the material for Last Chance to See. Doctor Who Adams sent the script for the HHGG pilot radio programme to the Doctor Who production office in 1978, and was commissioned to write The Pirate Planet (see below). He had also previously attempted to submit a potential movie script, called "Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen," which later became his novel Life, the Universe and Everything (which in turn became the third Hitchhiker's Guide radio series). Adams then went on to serve as script editor on the show for its seventeenth season in 1979. Altogether, he wrote three Doctor Who serials starring Tom Baker as the Doctor: The Pirate Planet (the second serial in the "Key To Time" arc, in Season 16) City of Death (with producer Graham Williams, from an original storyline by writer David Fisher. It was transmitted under the pseudonym "David Agnew") Shada (only partially filmed and not broadcast due to industrial disputes) The episodes authored by Adams are some of the few that have not been novelised as Adams would not allow anyone else to write them, and asked for a higher price than the publishers were willing to pay. A 1990s Doctor Who FAQ Adams was also known to allow in-jokes from The Hitchhiker's Guide to appear in the Doctor Who stories he wrote and other stories on which he served as Script Editor. Subsequent writers have also inserted Hitchhiker's references, even as recently as 2007. Conversely, at least one reference to Doctor Who was worked into a Hitchhiker's novel. In Life, the Universe and Everything, two characters travel in time and land on the pitch at Lord's Cricket Ground. The reaction of the radio commentators to their sudden appearance is very similar to the reactions of commentators in a scene in the eighth episode of the 1965 – 66 story The Daleks' Master Plan, which has the Doctor's TARDIS materialise on the pitch at Lord's. Elements of Shada and City of Death were reused in Adams' later novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, in particular the character of Professor Chronotis, and Dirk Gently himself clearly fills much the same plot role as the Doctor (though the character is very different). Big Finish Productions eventually remade Shada as an audio play starring Paul McGann as the Doctor. Accompanied by partially animated illustrations, it was webcast on the BBC website in 2003, and subsequently released as a two-CD set later that year. An omnibus edition of this version was broadcast on the digital radio station BBC7 on 10 December 2005. Adams is credited with introducing a fan and later friend of his, the zoologist Richard Dawkins, to Dawkins' future wife, Lalla Ward, who had played the part of Romana in Doctor Who. Dawkins confirmed this in his published eulogy of Adams. Edge: LAMENT FOR DOUGLAS By Richard Dawkins When he was at school, he wrote and performed a play called Doctor Which. Music Adams played the guitar left-handed and had a collection of twenty-four left-handed guitars when he died in 2001 (having received his first guitar in 1964). He also studied piano in the 1960s with the same teacher as Paul Wickens, the pianist who later played in Paul McCartney's band (and composed the music for the 2004 – 2005 editions of the Hitchhiker's Guide radio series). Webb, page 49. The Beatles, Pink Floyd and Procol Harum all had great influence on Adams' work. Pink Floyd Adams included a direct reference to Pink Floyd in the original radio version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, in which he describes the main characters surveying the landscape of an alien planet while Marvin, their android companion, hums Pink Floyd's "Shine on You Crazy Diamond". This was cut out of the CD version. Adams also compared the various noises that the kakapo makes to "Pink Floyd studio out-takes" in his nonfiction book on endangered species, Last Chance to See. Adams' official biography shares its name with the song "Wish You Were Here" by Pink Floyd. Adams was friends with Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and, on the occasion of Adams' 42nd birthday (the number 42 having special significance, being The Answer to Life, the Universe and Everything and also Adams' age when his daughter Polly was born), he was invited to make a guest appearance at Pink Floyd's 28 October 1994 concert at Earls Court in London, playing rhythm guitar on the songs "Brain Damage" and "Eclipse". Video is not available of this event, but a link to audio is present below. Adams chose the name for Pink Floyd's 1994 album, The Division Bell, by picking the words from the lyrics to one of its tracks, namely "High Hopes". Gilmour also performed at Adams' memorial service following his death in 2001. Pink Floyd and their lavish stage shows were also the inspiration for the Adams-created fictional rock band "Disaster Area", described in the Hitchhiker's Guide as "not only the loudest rock band in the galaxy, but in fact the loudest noise of any kind". One element of Disaster Area's stage show was to send a space ship hurtling into a sun, probably inspired by the plane that would crash into the stage during some of Pink Floyd's live shows, usually at the end of "On the Run". The 1968 Pink Floyd song "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" may also have influenced the ideas behind Disaster Area. Procol Harum Douglas Adams was a friend of Gary Brooker, the lead singer, pianist and songwriter of the progressive rock band Procol Harum. Adams is known to have invited Brooker to one of the many parties that Adams held at his house. On one such occasion Gary Brooker performed the full (4 verse) version of his hit song "A Whiter Shade of Pale". Brooker also performed at Adams' memorial service. Adams also appeared on stage with Brooker to perform "In Held Twas in I" at Redhill when the band's lyricist Keith Reid was not available. On several other occasions he had been known to introduce Procol Harum at their gigs. Adams also let it be known that while writing he would listen to music, and this would occasionally influence his work. On one occasion the title track from the Procol Harum album Grand Hotel was playing when... Other musical links Adams made a number of references to music and musicians who had influenced his work through his books. In the Hitchhiker's Guide series, examples include one of the two mice, in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, suggesting that as they have not found the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything, they should instead make it up, proposing to use the question "How many roads must a man walk down?" This is a line from Bob Dylan's song, "Blowin' in the Wind". Prior to this scene, in the same novel, the ship's computer onboard the Heart of Gold, unable to assist or prevent the ship's impending destruction with two nuclear missiles closing in on it, sings "You'll Never Walk Alone" in the background, a Rodgers and Hammerstein hit from the musical Carousel which had been an early 1960s rock hit in the UK and then was adopted as a crowd chant by many football fans, in particular Liverpool supporters, a recording of which ended up on Pink Floyd's album Meddle, interspersed throughout the track, "Fearless". The Restaurant at the End of the Universe, the second novel in the series, is dedicated to the 1980 Paul Simon soundtrack album, One-Trick Pony. Adams says he played it "incessantly" while writing the book. In one scene in the fourth novel, So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish, Arthur Dent listens to a Dire Straits LP and Adams goes on to pay tribute to their lead guitarist, Mark Knopfler. Adams later revealed that the particular song to which he refers in the book — although never by name — is "Tunnel of Love", from the Making Movies album. And in the final novel, Mostly Harmless, Elvis is discovered playing in a diner attended by Ford Prefect and Arthur Dent, where he is simply known as "The King". Besides modern rock music, Douglas Adams was a great admirer of the work of Johann Sebastian Bach, which provides a minor plot element in Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency. Adams was also good friends with The Monkees' Michael Nesmith. In the early 1990s, one of the aborted attempts to have The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy adapted into a movie would have had Nesmith as its producer. Adams was also a fan of The Beatles. He makes a reference to Paul McCartney in Life, the Universe and Everything and quotes lyrics and titles from songs by The Beatles in Mostly Harmless and Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency. In 'Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency' this exchange takes place: "Yes, it is," said the Professor. "Wait--let it be. It won't be long." Richard stared in disbelief. "You say there's a horse in your bathroom, and all you can do is stand there naming Beatles songs?" "Well, the bathroom window's open. I expect she came in through that." "You're doing it deliberately, aren't you?" Adams also does this several times in The Salmon of Doubt. In Chapter 3 there is a conversation between Kate and Dirk, which includes the following exchange: "So?" "I looked around and I noticed there wasn't a chair." Taken together, these two lines form a quotation from "Norwegian Wood" on the Rubber Soul album. Computer games and projects Douglas Adams created an interactive fiction version of HHGG together with Steve Meretzky from Infocom in 1984. In 1986 he participated in a week-long brainstorming session with the Lucasfilm Games team for the game Labyrinth. Later he was also involved in creating Bureaucracy (also by Infocom, but not based on any book). Adams was also responsible for the computer game Starship Titanic, which was published in 1998 by Simon and Schuster. Terry Jones wrote the accompanying book, entitled Douglas Adams’s Starship Titanic, since Adams was too busy with the computer game to do both. In April 1999, Adams initiated the h2g2 collaborative writing project, an experimental attempt at making The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy a reality, and at harnessing the collective brainpower of the internet community. In 1990, Adams wrote and presented a television documentary programme Hyperland Internet Movie Database's page for Hyperland. which featured Tom Baker as a "software agent" (similar to the "Assistants" used in several versions of Microsoft Office, derived from their failed "Bob" program), and interviews with Ted Nelson, which was essentially about the use of hypertext. Although Adams did not invent hypertext, he was an early adopter and advocate of it. This was the same year that Tim Berners-Lee used the idea of hypertext in his HTML. Personal beliefs Atheism and view on religion Adams described himself as a "radical atheist", though he used the term for emphasis so that he would not be asked if he meant agnostic. He stated in an interview with American Atheists David Silverman's interview with Douglas Adams which first appeared in the American Atheists' Winter 1998 – 1999 newsletter. that this made things easier, but most importantly it conveyed the fact that he really meant it, had thought about it, and that it was an opinion he held seriously. He stated that his views had nothing to do with belief, and stated that "I am convinced there is no God", and devoted himself to secular causes such as environmentalism. Despite this, he did state in the same interview that he was "fascinated by religion." [...] "I love to keep poking and prodding at it. I’ve thought about it so much over the years that that fascination is bound to spill over into my writing." His fascination he ascribed to the fact that so many "otherwise rational... intelligent people... nevertheless take [the existence of God] seriously". The evolutionary biologist and atheist Richard Dawkins in The God Delusion uses Adams' influence throughout to exemplify arguments for non-belief; Dawkins jokingly states that Adams is "possibly [my] only convert" to atheism. In the same paragraph Dawkins expresses missing his close friend. Observer, The God Delusion, 5 November 2006 The book is dedicated to Adams' memory, quoting him, "Isn’t it enough to see that a garden is beautiful without having to believe that there are fairies at the bottom of it too?". Sentient puddle One analogy Adams put forward about religion was that of the "sentient puddle." This analogy is intended to refute the suggestion that the existence of God and his love for humankind would be proven because the world is perfectly designed for our needs. He compared such thinkers to an intelligent puddle of water. Adams said the puddle is certain that the hole in the ground it occupies must have been designed specifically for it because it fits so well. Of course, the puddle exists as it does because of the hole, until it has entirely evaporated under the beating sun. The full text is reproduced in the essay "Is there an Artificial God?" "Lament for Douglas Adams" by Richard Dawkins, which refers to the same allegory. First published on 14 May 2001, accessed on 13 July 2006. Environmental activism Adams was also an environmental activist who campaigned on behalf of a number of endangered species. This activism included the production of the non-fiction radio series Last Chance to See, in which he and naturalist Mark Carwardine visited rare species such as the Kakapo and Baiji, and the publication of a tie-in book of the same name. In 1992, this was made into a CD-ROM combination of audio book, e-book and picture slide show. Adams and Mark Carwardine contributed the 'Meeting a Gorilla' passage from Last Chance to See to the book The Great Ape Project. This book, edited by Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer launched a wider-scale project in 1993, which calls for the extension of moral equality to include all great apes, human or nonhuman. In 1994 he participated in a climb of Mount Kilimanjaro while wearing a rhino suit for the British charity organisation Save the Rhino. Many different people participated in the same climb and took turns wearing the rhino suit; Adams wore the suit while traveling to the mountain before the climb proper began. About £100,000 were raised through that event, benefiting schools in Kenya and a Black Rhinoceros preservation programme in Tanzania. Adams was also an active supporter of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund. Since 2003, Save the Rhino has held an annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture around the time of his birthday to raise money for environmental campaigns. Details of Fifth Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture. The lectures in the series are: 2003 Richard Dawkins — Queerer than we can suppose: the strangeness of science 2004 Robert Swan — Mission Antarctica 2005 Mark Carwardine — Last Chance to See... Just a bit more 2006 Robert Winston — Is the Human an Endangered Species? 2007 Richard Leakey — Wildlife Management in East Africa – Is there a future? 2008 Steven Pinker — The Stuff of Thought, Language as a Window into Human Nature 2009 Benedict Allen — Unbreakable Technology Adams was a serious fan of technology. Though he did not buy his first word processor until 1982, he had considered one as early as 1979. He was quoted as saying that until 1982, he had difficulties with "the impenetrable barrier of jargon. Words were flying backwards and forwards without concepts riding on their backs." In 1982, his first purchase was a 'Nexus'. In 1983, when he and Jane Belson went out to Los Angeles, he bought a DEC Rainbow. Upon their return to England, Adams bought an Apricot, then a BBC Micro and a Tandy 1000. Simpson, Hitchhiker, pages 184 – 5. In Last Chance to See Adams mentions his Cambridge Z88, which he had taken to Zaire on a quest to find the Northern White Rhinoceros. Adams' posthumously published work, The Salmon of Doubt, features multiple articles written by Douglas on the subject of technology, including reprints of articles that originally ran in MacUser magazine, and in The Independent on Sunday newspaper. In these, Adams claims that one of the first computers he ever saw was a Commodore PET, and that his love affair with the Apple Macintosh first began after seeing one at Infocom's headquarters in Massachusetts in 1983 (though that was actually very likely an Apple Lisa). Adams was a Macintosh user from the time they first came out in 1984 until his death in 2001. He was the first person to buy a Mac in the UK (the second being Stephen Fry - though some accounts differ on this, saying Fry bought the first). Adams was also an "Apple Master", one of several celebrities whom Apple made into spokespeople for its products (other Apple Masters included John Cleese and Gregory Hines). Adams' contributions included a rock video that he created using the first version of iMovie with footage featuring his daughter Polly. The video can still be seen on Adams' .Mac homepage. Adams even installed and started using the first release of Mac OS X in the weeks leading up to his death. His very last post to his own forum was in praise of Mac OS X and the possibilities of its Cocoa programming framework. Adams' final post on his forums at douglasadams.com Adams can also be seen in the Omnibus tribute included with the Region One/NTSC DVD release of the TV adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide using Mac OS X on his PowerBook G3. Adams used e-mail extensively from the technology's infancy, adopting a very early version of e-mail to correspond with Steve Meretzky during the pair's collaboration on Infocom's version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. While living in New Mexico in 1993 he set up another e-mail address and began posting to his own USENET newsgroup, alt.fan.douglas-adams, and occasionally, when his computer was acting up, to the comp.sys.mac hierarchy. alt.fan.douglas-adams access through Google's newsgroup reader. Many of his posts are now archived through Google. Challenges to the authenticity of his messages later led Adams to set up a message forum on his own website to avoid the issue. Personal life In the early 1980s, Adams had an affair with novelist Sally Emerson, who was separated from her husband at that time. Adams later dedicated his book Life, the Universe and Everything to Ms. Emerson. In 1981 Emerson returned to her husband, Peter Stothard, a contemporary of Adams at Brentwood School, and later editor of The Times. Adams was soon introduced by friends to Jane Belson, with whom he later became romantically involved. Belson was the "lady barrister" mentioned in the jacket-flap biography printed in his books during the mid-1980s ("He [Adams] lives in Islington with a lady barrister and an Apple Macintosh"). The two lived in Los Angeles together during 1983 while Adams worked on an early screenplay adaptation of Hitchhiker's. When the deal fell through, they moved to London, and after several separations ("He is currently not certain where he lives, or with whom") and an aborted engagement, they were married on 25 November 1991. Adams and Belson had one daughter together, Polly Jane Rocket Adams, born on 22 June 1994, in the year that Adams turned 42. In 1999, the family moved from London to Santa Barbara, California, where they lived until Adams' death. Following his funeral, Jane Belson and Polly Adams returned to London. Webb, Chapter 10 Death Douglas Adams' gravestone, Highgate Cemetery, North London Adams died of a heart attack at the age of 49 on 11 May 2001, during the rest period of his regular workout at a private gym in Montecito, California. He had unknowingly suffered a gradual narrowing of the coronary arteries, which led at that moment to a myocardial infarction and a fatal cardiac arrhythmia. Adams had been due to deliver the commencement address at Harvey Mudd College on 13 May. List of collegiate commencement speakers in the Chronicle of Higher Education His funeral was held on 16 May 2001 in Santa Barbara, California. Several friends and people he had worked with were in attendance. His ashes were placed in Highgate Cemetery in north London in June 2002. Simpson, [[Hitchhiker: A Biography of Douglas Adams |Hitchhiker]], pages 337 – 8 A memorial service was held on 17 September 2001 at St. Martin-in-the-Fields Church, Trafalgar Square, London. This became the first church service of any kind broadcast live on the web by the BBC. Gaiman, 204 Video clips of the service are still available on the BBC's website for download. Douglas Adams' Service of Celebration clips on the BBC website In May 2002, The Salmon of Doubt was published, containing many short stories, essays, and letters, as well as eulogies from Richard Dawkins, Stephen Fry (in the UK edition), Christopher Cerf (in the U.S. edition), and Terry Jones (in the U.S. paperback edition). It also includes eleven chapters of his long-awaited but unfinished novel, The Salmon of Doubt, which was likely to become a new Dirk Gently novel. Other events after Adams' death included the completion of Shada, radio dramatisations of the final three books in the Hitchhiker's series, and the completion of the film adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. An 18-part radio series based on the Dirk Gently novels was announced in 2007, with transmission scheduled for October of that year. Dirk Maggs News and New Projects page Biographies His official biography, Wish You Were Here, by Nick Webb, was published on 6 October 2003 (ISBN 0-7553-1155-8). Press release announcing Nick Webb's biography of Adams from 2 July 2003. Another biography is Hitchhiker: A Biography of Douglas Adams (2003) by M. J. Simpson, with a foreword in the UK edition by John Lloyd (ISBN 0-340-82488-3), and was revised and updated in paperback in February 2004 (ISBN 0-340-82489-1). The American hardback edition contains a foreword by Neil Gaiman (ISBN 1-932112-17-0), and its April 2005 paperback equivalent (ISBN 1-932112-35-9) has an extra chapter about the movie. Upon the mutual discovery that Webb and Simpson were both working on new posthumous biographies, the two authors agreed that the former would focus on Adams' life and personality, and the latter on his work. In 1992, ITV's The South Bank Show produced a documentary about Douglas Adams which featured Dirk Gently and characters from Hitchhikers and contributions from Stephen Fry, Richard Dawkins and John Lloyd. The BBC produced a tribute as part of their TV series Omnibus. It was first broadcast on BBC 2 on 4 August 2001, presented by Kirsty Wark. The programme included interviews with Stephen Fry, Clive Anderson, Terry Jones, Griff Rhys Jones, Richard Dawkins and John Lloyd, among others. A copy is included with the Region One DVD release of the Hitchhiker's Guide TV series. A movie documentary, Life, The Universe and Douglas Adams, was released in 2002, directed and produced by Rick Mueller and Joel Greengrass. Archive footage of Adams is generously included, as well as interviews with Adams' friends, colleagues and family. This documentary was narrated by Neil Gaiman and is available on VHS tape. Press release announcing the Life, the Universe, and Douglas Adams documentary video from 15 April 2002. Earlier biographies include: Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion (1988, 1993, 2002), Neil Gaiman et al. Reissued October 2003 (ISBN 1-84023-742-2) with new chapters by M. J. Simpson and David K. Dickson. M. J. Simpson's book The Pocket Essential Hitchhiker's Guide was first published in April 2001 in the UK (ISBN 1-903047-40-4), and revised and reprinted after the death of Douglas Adams in October 2001. A third revision, (though titled the "Second, Revised Edition") was published in April 2005 in the UK, with new material (ISBN 1-904048-46-3). Works The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy on audio and video: The original 12 radio episodes (from 1978 and 1980) are available in CD sets from BBC Audio (as The Primary & Secondary Phases), as well as on a single MP3-CD. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was the first radio series released on Compact Disc and on MP3-CD, respectively, by the then BBC Radio Collection. The three additional phases adapted from the last three books in the series are available from BBC Audio. The Tertiary Phase was broadcast on BBC Radio 21 September to 26 October 2004, whilst The Quandary Phase was broadcast 3 May to 24 May 2005, and The Quintessential Phase followed immediately afterward, from 31 May through 21 June 2005. A script book for the original 12 episodes has been published, and a new script book for the final 14 episodes was published in July 2005. BBC Audio released a CD boxset containing all 26 episodes in October 2005. A DVD release of each of the three 2004 – 2005 series, featuring mixes in 5.1 surround sound, are also planned for release in 2006, starting in October, per Dirk Maggs. However, as of December 2006, only the Tertiary Phase has been released on DVD. While the first disc is not a DVD-Audio, as was originally announced, it still marks the first release of any radio series in a 5.1 mix on DVD by BBC Audio. The six-episode TV adaptation is also available from the BBC (or its distributors, e.g. Warner Home Video in the USA and Canada) on VHS and DVD. Novels in the Hitchhiker series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1979) The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (1980) Life, the Universe and Everything (1982) So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish (1984) Mostly Harmless (1992) All of the above are also available as unabridged audio books, read by Adams. These were preceded by abridged audio books of the first four novels, read by Stephen Moore. To tie in with the film release, The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy is also available as an audiobook read by Stephen Fry. Martin Freeman, who portrayed Arthur Dent in the movie adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide, has recorded audiobook editions of the last four books in the series, released between June and December 2006. The volumes in the Hitchhiker's series have also been collected into omnibus editions, including The Hitchhiker's Trilogy (released in 1982), The Hitchhiker's Quartet (released in 1986), The More than Complete Hitchhiker's Guide (released in 1987), and The Ultimate Hitchhiker's Guide (released in 1997). The latter two editions also include the short story Young Zaphod Plays it Safe. Dirk Gently series Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency (1987) The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (1988) The Salmon of Doubt (incomplete, 2002) Adams recorded an abridged audiobook adaptation of the first novel in this series in the 1980s. The sequel was performed by Simon Jones, also in an abridged adaptation. Both were released by Simon and Schuster Audioworks in the United States, and are out of print. Adams, a decade later, recorded unabridged adaptations of both novels, which are both available in six CD sets. Following Adams' death an audiobook of the partially completed Salmon of Doubt was recorded by Simon Jones. Other books The Meaning of Liff (1983, with John Lloyd) The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts (1985, with Geoffrey Perkins) The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book (1986, edited by Douglas Adams and Peter Fincham), which includes Young Zaphod Plays it Safe (also printed in a slightly reworked version in The Wizards of Odd, The Salmon of Doubt, and several omnibus editions of Hitchhiker) The Private Life of Genghis Khan, also available in the first edition of The Salmon of Doubt, though later removed due to copyright issues A Christmas Fairly Story [sic] by Douglas Adams and Terry Jones A "Supplement to The Meaning of Liff" with John Lloyd and Stephen Fry The Deeper Meaning of Liff (1990, with John Lloyd; extended version of The Meaning of Liff) Last Chance to See (1990, with Mark Carwardine, non-fictional account of several trips to see endangered species; according to a piece in The Salmon of Doubt, this book gave Adams the most satisfaction, if not the highest sales. An abridged audiobook version read by Adams was also released.) The Illustrated Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1994) Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic (1997), written by Terry Jones (who insists he wrote the whole thing while in the nude), based on an idea by Douglas Adams; also available as an audiobook, read by Terry Jones The Salmon of Doubt (2002), unfinished novel manuscript (11 chapters), short stories, essays, and interviews (also available as an audiobook, read by Simon Jones) Other works Monty Python's Flying Circus Episode 45, Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Liberal Party (1972) The Pirate Planet - a Doctor Who serial first broadcast in 1978, available on VHS and DVD City of Death - a Doctor Who serial, cowritten with Graham Williams, based on a story by David Fisher, first broadcast in October 1978, available on VHS and DVD. Shada - a Doctor Who serial, originally intended to be broadcast in January/February 1980. Available footage released on video in 1992. A complete, animated form was made available on the web in 2003, and on CD later that same year. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game) (1984, with Steve Meretzky) Bureaucracy (computer game) (1987) Hyperland (TV documentary) (1990) Starship Titanic (computer game) (1998) h2g2 (internet project) (1999) The Internet: The Last Battleground of the 20th century (radio series) (2000) The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future (radio series) (2001) In 2004, BBC Audio published a 3-CD set entitled Douglas Adams at the BBC, which covers the author's work from 1974 to 2003, including posthumous projects and tributes. The CD is again narrated by Simon Jones. Tributes and honorifics There is an official appreciation society (fan club) named ZZ9 Plural Z Alpha after the sector of the galaxy in which The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy says the planet Earth is located. 18610 Arthurdent is a small main belt asteroid. Felix Hormuth discovered it on 7 February 1998. It is named after Arthur Dent, the bewildered hero of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. The name was officially published and announced by the Minor Planet Center of the International Astronomical Union on either 9 May or 10 May 2001 (accounts differ) - a day or two before Adams' death. On 25 January 2005, it was announced the asteroid with preliminary designation 2001 DA42 had been named 25924 Douglasadams in his honour. It was chosen because it referenced the year of Adams' death, his initials and the number "42". MSNBC article about the announcement of an Asteroid named after Adams, dated 25 January 2005. Every 25 May, Towel Day is celebrated in recognition of Adams. BBC In various British Universities, notably Cambridge, Oxford, York and Exeter, student societies, known as a "Douglas Adams Society", or "DougSoc" for short, were formed to honour the spirit engendered in Adams' works. At Cambridge, the appreciation group was called the Cambridge University Life, the Universe and Everything Society (CULUES) Archived pages of the now-disbanded Oxford University Douglas Adams Society at the Internet Archive. York University DougSoc homepage. On 17 May 2001 MIT students hung a banner reading "So long and thanks for all the wit" and a towel. This hack was not taken down for an entire day. IHTFP Hack Gallery. So Long and Thanks for All the Wit Richard Dawkins' book The God Delusion is dedicated to Adams. The British pop-funk group Level 42 took the numeric part of their name from Deep Thought's answer to the meaning of life, the universe and everything from Adams' books, adding the 'Level' part "to pad it out." The lead single from OK Computer, the third album by British rock group Radiohead, is named "Paranoid Android" in reference to Marvin from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. The 2005 DVD release of the Doctor Who serial City of Death includes the documentary "Paris in the Springtime". Written by Jonathan Morris and produced by Ed Stradling, the documentary pays tribute in some detail to Adams' contributions to the hit BBC series, and includes excerpts from two interviews with Adams himself conducted by Kevin Davies, who had worked as an animator on the 1981 BBC Hitch Hikers' TV series . In 2007, Adams' first Doctor Who serial, The Pirate Planet was included in the BBC/2|entertain DVD release of The Key to Time. This included another documentary, Parrot Fashion, produced Davies himself and featuring archive material of Adams, along with anecdotes from cast and crew, Adams' half-brother James Thrift and his friend and biographer Nick Webb. St John's College, Cambridge awards an annual "Douglas Adams Prize" for a humorous piece of writing. St John's College - Teaching & Research - Douglas Adams Prize Not to be confused with the Adams Prize in mathematics, also from St John's. The Black Library novel Fulgrim written by Graham McNeill contains a passage saying "...Improbably the ship The Heart of Gold was destroyed...", a reference to The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and its infinite improbability drive powered ship The Heart of Gold. See also h2g2 Towel Day The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future, Adams' final project for BBC Radio 4 before his death. 42 puzzle, the 42 Puzzle is a game devised by Douglas Adams in 1994 for the United States series of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy books. Notes External links Douglas Adams' official web site, established by him, and still operated by The Digital Village. Douglas Adams' .mac homepage Parrots, the Universe and Everything, 87 min talk at University of California Santa Barbara, 2001 (RealAudio) Douglas Adams speech at Digital Biota 2 (1998) (The audio of the speech) Guardian Books "Author Page", with profile and links to further articles. Douglas Adams — Rotten.com library article. Douglas Adams & his Computer – An article about his Mac IIfx Photo of Adams' grave Douglas Adams with Pink Floyd
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7,178
Emma_Abbott
Emma Abbott (December 9, 1850 – January 5, 1891) was an American operatic soprano and impresario known for her pure, clear voice of great flexibility and volume. Biography Emma Abbott Abbot was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of a struggling Chicago musician. As a child she studied singing, piano, and the guitar with her father. Her family suffered from financial problems, and in order to help she began performing professionally at the age of nine. She made her debut as a guitar player and singer in Peoria, Illinois in 1859 and was teaching guitar by age 13. www.picturehistory.com In 1866 she joined an itinerant concert troup; touring around the country. While performing on the road she met and befriended Clara Louise Kellogg. Upon hearing Emma in a concert in Toledo, Clara made it a point to meet her and encourage her to pursue an opera career. Consequently, Emma studied in New York City under Achille Errani, and made her concert début there in December 1871. Hitchcock and Preston, Grove Music Online In 1872 Abbott went abroad to study with Sangiovanni in Milan and Marchesi. This was followed by further studies with Pierre François Wartel and Delle Sedie in Paris. She appeared in several productions in Paris, earning rave reviews for her fine soprano voice. She was awarded a contract with the Royal Opera in London and made her début at Covent Garden as Marie in La fille du régiment in 1876. However, her contract was cancelled shortly thereafter when she refused to sing Violetta from Verdi's La traviata on moral grounds. That same year she secretly married Eugene Wetherell (d 1889) and they returned to the United States, where she remained for the rest of her career. Hitchcock and Preston, Grove Music Online On February 23, 1877, Abbott made her American operatic début in New York, once again portraying Marie. The following year she and her husband organized an opera company known by her name (the Abbott English Opera Company), which toured extensively throughout the United States. Her husband ran the business end of the company and she managed the artistic side, often starring in the productions. The company garnered a reputation among the public for quality productions and was quite successful. Among the notable roles that Abbott sang with the company are Juliette in Gounod's Roméo et Juliette, Virginia in Paul and Virginia, Josephine in H. M. S. Pinafore, the title role in Flotow's Martha, Amina in Bellini's La Sonnambula, and Violetta in La Traviata, a role which apparently she no longer objected to. Hitchcock and Preston, Grove Music Online Abbott continued performing up until her sudden and unexpected death of pneumonia in Salt Lake City in 1891. Throughout her career, she retained artistic control over her troupe, which sometimes numbered 60. Although the company's repertoire included works from the French, Italian and English operatic literatures, they always performed in English. Many of the works were abridged and interpolated songs were commonplace. For this reason the company and Abbot were not popular with many music critics who were not happy with the changes to the standard repertoire. However, the company was incredibly popular with the public and was consistently financially successful. Abbott herself became known among Americans as ‘the people’s prima donna’. Hitchcock and Preston, Grove Music Online References Sources Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607-1896. Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1967.
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7,179
Ice_skating
Outdoor ice skating in Austria Ice skating is moving on ice by use of ice skates. It can be done for a variety of reasons, including leisure, traveling, and various sports. Ice skating occurs both on specially prepared indoor and outdoor tracks, as well as on naturally occurring bodies of frozen water such as lakes and rivers. History 'Skating fun' by 17th century Dutch painter Hendrick Avercamp. A study by Federico Formenti of the University of Oxford suggests that the earliest ice skating happened in Southern Finland about 4000 years ago. Originally, skates were merely sharpened, flattened bone strapped to the bottom of the foot. Skaters did not actually skate on the ice, but rather glided on top of it. True skating emerged when a steel blade with sharpened edges was used. Skates now cut into the ice instead of gliding on top of it. Adding edges to ice skates was invented by the Dutch in the 13th or 14th century. These ice skates were made of steel, with sharpened edges on the bottom to aid movement. The construction of modern ice skates has stayed largely the same. The Skater, 1782, a portrait of William Grant by Gilbert Stuart. Central Park, New York City, Winter: The Skating Pond, 1862. In the Netherlands, ice skating was considered proper for all classes of people to participate in, as shown in many pictures by the Old Masters. James II of England came to the Netherlands in exile, and he fell for the sport. When he went back to England, this "new" sport was introduced to the British aristocracy, and was soon enjoyed by people from all walks of life. It is said that Queen Victoria got to know her future husband, Prince Albert, better through a series of ice skating trips; meanwhile Fenland agricultural workers became masters of speed skating. However, in other places, participation in ice skating was limited to members of the upper classes. Emperor Rudolf II of the Holy Roman Empire enjoyed ice skating so much he had a large ice carnival constructed in his court in order to popularise the sport. King Louis XVI of France brought ice skating to Paris during his reign. Madame de Pompadour, Napoleon I, Napoleon III, and the House of Stuart were, among others, royal and upper class fans of ice skating. How it works Ice skating works because the metal blade at the bottom of the ice skate shoe can glide with very little friction over the surface of the ice. However, slightly leaning the blade over and digging one of its edges into the ice ("rockover and bite") gives skaters the ability to increase friction and control their movement at will. In addition, by choosing to move along curved paths while leaning their bodies radially and flexing their knees, skaters can use gravity to control and increase their momentum. They can also create momentum by pushing the blade against the curved track which it cuts into the ice. Skillfully combining these two actions of leaning and pushing— a technique known as "drawing"— results in what looks like effortless and graceful curvilinear flow across the ice. How the low-friction surface develops is not exactly known, but a large body of knowledge does exist. These are explained below. Experiments show that ice has a minimum kinetic friction at −7°C (19°F), and many indoor skating rinks set their system to a similar temperature. The low amount of friction actually observed has been difficult for physicists to explain, especially at lower temperatures. On the surface of any body of ice at a temperature above about −20°C (−4°F), there is always a thin film of liquid water, ranging in thickness from only a few molecules to thousands of molecules. This is because an abrupt end to the crystalline structure is not the most entropically favorable possibility. The thickness of this liquid layer depends almost entirely on the temperature of the surface of the ice, with higher temperatures giving a thicker layer. However, skating is possible at temperatures much lower than −20°C, at which temperature there is no naturally occurring film of liquid. When the blade of an ice skate passes over the ice, the ice undergoes two kinds of changes in its physical state: an increase in pressure, and a change in temperature due to kinetic friction and the heat of melting. Direct measurements Colbeck et al., American Journal of Physics. vol. 65, no. 6; June 1997; p.488-92; abstract at http://www.skridsko.net/klubbar/data/science.html show that the heating due to friction is greater than the cooling due to the heat of melting. Although high pressure can cause ice to melt, by lowering its melting point, the pressure required is far greater than that actually produced by ice skates. Frictional heating does lead to an increase in the thickness of the naturally occurring film of liquid, but measurements with an atomic force microscope have found the boundary layer to be too thin to supply the observed reduction in friction http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/21/science/21ice.html?ex=1298178000&en=5dc1e24f6f921e16&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss . Dangers The first main danger in ice skating is falling on the ice, which is dependent on the quality of the ice surface, the design of the ice skate, and the skill and experience of the skater. While serious injury is rare, a number of (short track) skaters have been paralysed after a fall when they hit the boarding. An additional danger of falling is injury caused by the skater's own metal blades or those of other skaters. Falling can be fatal if a helmet is not worn to protect against serious head trauma. Accidents are rare but most common with collisions or pairs skating. The second, and more serious, danger is falling through the ice into the freezing water underneath when skating outdoors on a frozen body of water. This can lead to serious injury or death due to shock, hypothermia or drowning. It is often difficult or impossible for skaters to climb out of the water back onto the ice due to the ice repeatedly breaking, the skater being weighed down by skates and thick winter clothing, or the skater becoming disoriented under water. The skater may even not be able to find the hole he fell through. This may result in drowning or hypothermia, but the rapid cooling can also create a state in which someone can be revived up to hours after having fallen in the water. Competitions Major international competitions are sanctioned by the International Skating Union (ISU). These include the Winter Olympic Games, the World Championships, the World Junior Figure Skating Championships, the European Figure Skating Championships, the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, and the ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating. at Frysia, the Netherlands, the Elfstedentocht is a 200 km long race on natural ice around the province, which was held for the first time in 1909 and has by 2008 been held only 15 times because the ice along the entire course has to be thick enough for large groups to skate on. It is expected to become an even more rare event in the future, due to climate change. Figure skating competitions include competitions under the categories of USFSA or ISI. Communal games on ice A number of recreational activity games can be played on ice. Rousette skating is a recreational event based on ice skating. Various tagging games with different rules. Curling envolves sliding heavy, polished granite stones down a strip of ice towards a target. Synthetic ice Synthetic ice uses a hard polymer skating surface that can be set up anywhere in any climate. It does not require water, cold weather, chilling equipment, or maintenance equipment. Major strides in synthetic ice technology have been made in recent years, which have brought synthetic ice surfaces from some manufacturers with skating characteristics that are very close to that of real ice. See Also Tour Skating References Formenti F. and Minetti A.E. (2007) Human locomotion on ice: the evolution of ice skating energetics through history Formenti F. and Minetti A.E. (2008) The first humans travelling on ice: an energy saving strategy?ice skating. External links Scientific Papers Gabor Somorjai, the father of modern surface chemistry NHL US Website Icehockeylinks Queens Finest Skaters, A UK run ice skating community site with hockey skate reviews and a forum Ice Skating shown in maximum card from Israel Ice skating rinks are the center of winter fun during a Canadian winter
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7,180
Dominican_Order
Dominican Order Coat of Arms Saint Dominic saw the need for a new type of organization to address the needs of his time, one that would bring the dedication and systematic education of the older monastic orders to bear on the religious problems of the burgeoning population of cities, but with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or the secular clergy The Order of Preachers (), after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic in the early 13th century in France. Membership in the Order includes the friars, The word friar is etymologically related to the word for brother in Latin. the nuns, the sisters, and lay persons affiliated with the order (formerly known as tertiaries). A number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries the Dominicans are referred to as Blackfriars on account of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits. Dominicans were Blackfriars, as opposed to Whitefriars (i.e., the Carmelites) or Greyfriars (i.e., Franciscans). They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars (the Austin friars) who wear a similar habit. In France, the Dominicans are also known as Jacobins, because their first convent in Paris bore the name Saint Jacques, and Jacques is Jacobus in Latin. Their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or Hounds of the Lord. The reference to "hounds" draws on the tradition that St. Dominic's mother, while pregnant with him, had a vision of a black and white dog with a torch in its mouth; wherever the dog went, it set fire to the earth. It was explained that the vision was fulfilled when Dominic and his followers went forth, clad in black and white, setting fire to the earth with the Gospel. In English, the word "hound" has two further meanings that may be drawn upon. A hound is loyal, and the Dominicans have a reputation as obedient servants of the faith. And a hound pursues its quarry ("hounds"), with perhaps a sometimes negative connotation or reference to the order's involvement with the Holy Inquisition. Members of the order generally carry the letters O.P. standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers, after their names. Founded to preach the gospel and to combat heresy, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, who is currently Father Carlos Azpiroz Costa. Foundation Like his contemporary, Francis of Assisi, Dominic saw the need and the quick growth of the Dominicans and Franciscans during their first century confirms that the orders of mendicant friars met a need. argues the Dominicans and other mendicant orders were an adaptation to the rise of the profit economy in medieval Europe. He had been asked to accompany his bishop from Osma on a diplomatic mission to Denmark, to arrange the marriage between the son of King Alfonso VIII of Castile and a niece of King Valdemar II of Denmark. At that time the south of France was the stronghold of Albigensian thought, centered around the town of Albi. This unorthodox expression of Christianity held that matter was evil and only spirit was good, a fundamental challenge to the notion of incarnation, central to Roman Catholic theology. The Albigensians, more commonly known as the Cathars (a heretical gnostic sect), lived very simply and saw themselves as more fervent followers of the poor Christ. Dominic saw the need for a response that would take the good elements in the Albigensian movement to sway them back to mainstream Christian thought. The mendicant preacher emerged from this insight. Unfortunately, Dominic's ideal of winning the Albigensians over was not held by all office bearers and the population of Albi was decimated in the Albigensian crusade. Dominic became the spiritual father to several Albigensian women he had reconciled to the faith, and he established them in a convent in Prouille. In 1207 Dominic was given authority over the convent by the local bishop. This convent would become the foundation of the Dominican nuns, thus making the Dominican nuns older than the Dominican friars. Dominic sought to establish a new kind of order, one that would bring the dedication and systematic education of the older monastic orders like the Benedictines to bear on the religious problems of the burgeoning population of cities, but with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or the secular clergy. Dominic's new order was to be a preaching order, trained to preach in the vernacular languages but with a sound background in academic theology. Rather than earning their living on vast farms as the monasteries had done, the new friars would survive by begging, "selling" themselves through persuasive preaching. Saint Dominic established a religious community in Toulouse in 1214, to be governed by the rule of St. Augustine Rule of St. Augustine (pdf) and statutes to govern the life of the friars, including the Primitive Constitution. Primitive Constitution (The statutes were inspired by the Constitutions of Prémontré.) The founding documents establish that the Order was founded for two purposes—preaching and the salvation of souls. The organization of the Order of Preachers was approved in December 1216 by Pope Honorius III (see also Religiosam vitam; Nos attendentes). The Order's origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its later development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate. Indeed, many years after St. Dominic faced off against the Cathari, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain would be drawn from the Dominican order, Tomás de Torquemada. In Spain the Domincans oversaw a regime in which acts of torture and murder were committed on an industrial scale. See http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/mass/torquemada/index.html History The history of the Order may be divided into three periods: The Middle Ages (from their foundation to the beginning of the sixteenth century); The Modern Period up to the French Revolution; The Contemporary Period. Middle Ages Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis St. Thomas Aquinas considered by the Catholic Church to be its greatest theologian, is girded by angels with a mystical belt of purity after his proof of chastity The Dominican friars quickly spread, including to England, where they appeared in Oxford in 1221. The thirteenth century is the classic age of the Order, the witness to its brilliant development and intense activity. This last is manifested especially in the work of teaching. By preaching it reached all classes of Christian society, fought heresy, schism, and paganism by word and book, and by its missions to the north of Europe, to Africa, and Asia passed beyond the frontiers of Christendom. Its schools spread throughout the entire Church; its doctors wrote monumental works in all branches of knowledge and two among them, Albertus Magnus, and especially Thomas Aquinas, founded a school of philosophy and theology which was to rule the ages to come in the life of the Church. An enormous number of its members held offices in Church and State—as popes, cardinals, bishops, legates, inquisitors, confessors of princes, ambassadors, and paciarii (enforcers of the peace decreed by popes or councils). The expansion of the Order was not without its problems. The Order of Preachers, which should have remained a select body, developed beyond bounds and absorbed some elements ill-fitted to its form of life. A period of relaxation ensued during the fourteenth century owing to the general decline of Christian society. The weakening of doctrinal activity favoured the development here and there of the ascetic and contemplative life and there sprang up, especially in Germany and Italy, an intense and exuberant mysticism with which the names of Meister Eckhart, Heinrich Suso, Johannes Tauler, and St. Catherine of Siena are associated. (See German mysticism, which has also been called "Dominican mysticism.") This movement was the prelude to the reforms undertaken, at the end of the century, by Raymond of Capua, and continued in the following century. It assumed remarkable proportions in the congregations of Lombardy and the Netherlands, and in the reforms of Savonarola at Florence. At the same time the Order found itself face to face with the Renaissance. It struggled against pagan tendencies in humanism, in Italy through Dominici and Savonarola, in Germany through the theologians of Cologne but it also furnished humanism with such advanced writers as Francesco Colonna (writer of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili) and Matteo Bandello. Its members, in great numbers, took part in the artistic activity of the age, the most prominent being Fra Angelico and Fra Bartolomeo. Reformation to French Revolution Bartolomé de Las Casas, as a settler in the New World, he was galvanized by witnessing the brutal torture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists. He became famous for his advocacy of the rights of Native Americans, whose cultures, especially in the Caribbean, he describes with care The modern period consists of the three centuries between the religious revolution at the beginning of the sixteenth century (Protestantism) and the French Revolution and its consequences. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the order was on the way to a genuine renaissance when the Revolutionary upheavals occurred. The progress of heresy cost it six or seven provinces and several hundreds of convents, but the discovery of the New World opened up a fresh field of activity. Its gains in America and those which arose as a consequence of the Portuguese conquests in Africa and the Indies far exceeded the losses of the order in Europe, and the seventeenth century saw its highest numerical development. The sixteenth century was a great doctrinal century, and the movement lasted beyond the middle of the eighteenth century. In modern times the order lost much of its influence on the political powers, which had universally fallen into absolutism and had little sympathy for the democratic constitution of the Preachers. The Bourbon courts of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were particularly unfavourable to them until the suppression of the Society of Jesus. In the eighteenth century, there were numerous attempts at reform which created, especially in France, geographical confusion in the administration. Also during the eighteenth century, the tyrannical spirit of the European powers and, still more, the spirit of the age lessened the number of recruits and the fervour of religious life. The French Revolution ruined the order in France, and the crises which more or less rapidly followed considerably lessened or wholly destroyed numerous provinces. Nineteenth century to present The contemporary period of the history of the Preachers begins with the restorations of provinces undertaken after the revolutions which had destroyed the Order in several countries of the Old World and the New. This period begins more or less in the early nineteenth century. The revolutions not having totally destroyed certain of the provinces, nor decimated them, simultaneously, the Preachers were able to take up the laborious work of restoration in countries where the civil legislation did not present insurmountable obstacles. During this critical period the number of Preachers seems never to have sunk below 3,500. The statistics for 1876 give 3,748 religious, but 500 of these had been expelled from their convents and were engaged in parochial work. The statistics for 1910 give a total of 4,472 religious both nominally and actually engaged in the proper activities of the Order. In the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows, 917 student brothers and 237 novices. http://www.op.org/international/assets/pdf/Stats/english/HistWW_en.pdf Their provinces cover the world, http://www.op.org/international/english/Links/categories/provinces.htm and include four provinces in the United States. Spanish Mendicant friars from the Order of Preachers at Saint Thomas Aquinas' School, Caracas, Venezuela, 1952 In the revival movement France held a foremost place, owing to the reputation and convincing power of the orator, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802-1861). He took the habit of a Friar Preacher at Rome (1839), and the province of France was canonically erected in 1850. From this province were detached the province of Lyon, called Occitania (1862), that of Toulouse (1869), and that of Canada (1909). The French restoration likewise furnished many laborers to other provinces, to assist in their organization and progress. From it came the master general who remained longest at the head of the administration during the nineteenth century, Père Vincent Jandel (1850-1872). Here should be mentioned the province of St. Joseph in the United States. Founded in 1805 by Father Edward Fenwick, afterwards first Bishop of Cincinnati, Ohio (1821-1832), this province has developed slowly, but now ranks among the most flourishing and active provinces of the order. In 1910 it numbered seventeen convents or secondary houses. In 1905, it established a large house of studies at Washington, D.C., called the Dominican House of Studies. The province of France has produced a large number of preachers, several of whom became renowned. The conferences of Notre-Dame-de-Paris were inaugurated by Père Lacordaire. The Dominicans of the province of France furnished most of the orators: Lacordaire (1835-1836, 1843-1851), Jacques Monsabré (1869-1870, 1872-1890), Joseph Ollivier (1871, 1897), Thomas Etourneau (1898-1902). Since 1903 the pulpit of Notre Dame has been occupied by a Dominican. Père Henri Didon (d. 1900) was one of the most esteemed orators of his time. The house of studies of the province of France publishes L'Année Dominicaine (founded 1859), La Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et Theologiques (1907), and La Revue de la Jeunesse (1909). French Dominicans founded and administer the École Biblique et Archéologique française de Jérusalem founded in 1890 by Père Marie-Joseph Lagrange O.P. (1855-1938), one of the leading international centres for Biblical research. It is at the École Biblique that the famed Jerusalem Bible (both editions) was prepared. Likewise Yves Cardinal Congar, O.P., one of the emblematic theologians of the Twentieth century, was a product of the French province of the Order of Preachers. The province of the Philippines is recruited from Spain, where it has several preparatory houses. In the Philippines it has charge of the University of Santo Tomas -- the Pontifical and the Royal university under the Spanish colonial government for nearly three centuries. For nearly half a century, it was the oldest university under the flag of the United States which later occupied the Philippines. The Order also has several colleges including the Colegio de San Juan de Letran, and six establishments. In China it administers the missions of North and South Fo-Kien, in the Japanese Empire, those of Formosa (now Taiwan) and Shikoku, besides establishments at New Orleans, at Caracas, and at Rome. The province of Spain has seventeen establishments in the Peninsula and the Canaries, as well as the missions of Urubamba, Peru. Since 1910 it has published at Madrid an important review, La Ciencia Tomista. The province of the Netherlands has a score of establishments, and the missions of Curaçao and Puerto Rico. Other provinces also have their missions. That of Piedmont has establishments at Constantinople and Smyrna; that of Toulouse, in Brazil; that of Lyon, in Cuba, that of Ireland, in Australia and Trinidad and Tobago; that of Belgium, in the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo), and so on. Dominican in habit Doctrinal development has had an important place in the restoration of the Preachers. Several institutions besides those already mentioned have played important parts. Such is the Biblical school at Jerusalem, open to the religious of the Order and to secular clerics, and which publishes the Revue Biblique. The faculty of theology of the University of Freiburg, confided to the care of the Dominicans in 1890, is flourishing and has about 250 students. The Collegium Angelicum, established at Rome (1911) by Master Hyacinth Cormier, is open to regulars and seculars for the study of the sacred sciences. To the reviews mentioned above must be added the Revue Thomiste, founded by Père Thomas Coconnier (d. 1908), and the Analecta Ordinis Prædicatorum (1893). Among the numerous writers of the order in this period are: Cardinals Thomas Zigliara (d. 1893) and Zephirin González (d. 1894), two esteemed philosophers; Father Alberto Guillelmotti (d. 1893), historian of the Pontifical Navy, and Father Heinrich Denifle, one of the most famous writers on medieval history (d. 1905). Divisions Nuns The Dominican nuns were founded by St. Dominic even before he had established the friars. They are contemplatives in the cloistered life. However, due to the influence of the Franciscan Order the Nuns began to be referred to as the "Second Order" but this is not exactly correct for the Dominican Order as for the Franciscan Order. The Friars and Nuns together form the Order of Preachers properly speaking. The nuns celebrated their 800th anniversary in 2006. OP 800 - Home Sisters Dominican sisters carry on a number of apostolates. They are distinct from the nuns. The sisters are a way of living the vocation of a Third Order Dominican. As well as the friars, Dominican sisters live their lives supported by four common values, often referred to as the Four Pillars of Dominican Life, they are: community life, common prayer, study and service. St. Dominic called this fourfold pattern of life the "holy preaching." Henri Matisse was so moved by the care that he received from the Dominican Sisters that he collaborated in the design and interior decoration of their Chapelle du Saint-Marie du Rosaire in Vence, France. Laity Dominican laity are governed by their own rule, the Rule of the Lay Fraternities of St. Dominic, promulgated by the Master in 1987. http://laity.op.org/eng/library/RULELatinEnglish.pdf It is the fifth Rule of the Dominican Laity; the first was issued in 1285. See also the Lay Dominican Web Library. Spirituality "Dominican Friars for Life" at the 2009 March for Life in Washington, DC Dominican Emphasis on Learning The spiritual tradition of Dominic's Order is punctuated not only by charity, study and preaching, but also by instances of mystical union. The Dominican emphasis on learning and on charity distinguishes it from other monastic and mendicant orders. As the Order first developed on the European continent, learning continued to be emphasized by these friars and their sisters in Christ. These religious also struggled for a deeply personal, intimate relationship with God. When the Order reached England, many of these attributes were kept, but the English gave the Order additional, specialized characteristics. This topic will be discussed at more length below. Dominic's search for a close relationship with God was determined and unceasing. He rarely spoke, so little of his interior life is known. What is known about it comes from accounts written by people near to him. St. Cecilia remembered him as cheerful, charitable and full of unceasing vigor. From a number of accounts, singing was apparently one of Dominic's great delights. Woods, 31-32. Dominic practiced self-scourging and would mortify himself as he prayed alone in the chapel at night for 'poor sinners.' He owned a single habit, refused to carry money, and would allow no one to serve him. Woods, 32. The spirituality evidenced throughout all of the branches of the Order reflects the spirit and intentions of its founder, though some of the elements of what later developed may have surprised the Castilian friar. Fundamentally, Dominic was "a man of prayer who utilized the full resources of the learning available to him to preach, to teach, and even materially to assist those searching for the truth found in the gospel of Christ. It is that spirit which [Dominic] bequeathed to his followers". Woods, 34. St. Humbert Humbert of Romans, the Master General of the Order from 1254 to 1263, was a great administrator, as well as preacher and writer. It was under his tenure as Master General that the sisters in the Order were given official membership. Humbert was a great lover of languages, and encouraged linguistic studies among the Dominicans, primarily Arabic, because of the missionary work friars were pursuing in the East. He also wanted his friars to reach excellence in their preaching, and this was his most lasting contribution to the Order. The growth of the spirituality of young preachers was his first priority. Woods, 35. He once cried to his students: ". . . consider how excellent this office [of preaching] is, because it is apostolic; how useful, because it is directly ordained for the salvation of souls; how perilous, because few have in them, or perform, what the office requires, for it is not without great danger. . . . Item, take note that this office calls for excellency of life, so that just as the preacher speaks from a raised position, so he may also preach the Gospel from the mountain of an excellent life" Bennett, 83. Quoted from Humbert, Biblitheca Maxima Veterum Patrum, vol. xxv. (Lyon, 1677) Humbert is at the center of ascetic writers in the Dominican Order. In this role, he added significantly to its spirituality. His writings are permeated with "religious good sense," and he used uncomplicated language that could edify even the weakest member. Woods, 37. Humbert advised his readers: "[young Dominicans] are also to be instructed not to be eager to see visions or work miracles, since these avail little to salvation, and sometimes we are fooled by them; but rather they should be eager to do good in which salvation consists. Also, they should be taught not to be sad if they do not enjoy the divine consolations they hear others have; but they should know the loving Father for some reason sometimes withholds these. Again, they should learn that if they lack the grace of compunction or devotion they should not think they are not in the state of grace as long as they have good will, which is all that God regards". Woods, 37. Quoted from Benedict Ashley, The Dominicans (Collegeville, MN, 1990). The English Dominicans took this to heart, and made it the focal point of their mysticism, as will be seen below. Albertus Magnus Another who contributed significantly to the spirituality of the Order is Albertus Magnus, the only person of the period to be given the appellation "Great". His influence on the brotherhood permeated nearly every aspect of Dominican life. Albert was a scientist, philosopher, theologian, spiritual writer, ecumenist, and diplomat. Under the auspices of Humbert of Romans, Albert molded the curriculum of studies for all Dominican students, introduced Aristotle to the classroom and probed the work of Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus. Woods, 38. Indeed, it was the thirty years of work done by Thomas Aquinas and himself (1245-1274) that allowed for the inclusion of Aristotelian study in the curriculum of Dominican schools. Bennett, 66. One of Albert's greatest contributions was his study of Dionysus the Areopagite, a mystical theologian whose words left an indelible imprint in the medieval period. Magnus' writings made a significant contribution to German mysticism, which became vibrant in the minds of the Beguines and women such as Hildegard of Bingen and Mechthild of Magdeburg. Woods, 39. Mysticism, for the purposes of this study, refers to the conviction that all believers have the capability to experience God's love. This love may manifest itself through brief ecstatic experiences, such that one may be engulfed by God and gain an immediate knowledge of Him, which is unknowable through the intellect alone. Ross, 162 Albertus Magnus championed the idea, drawn from Dionysus, that positive knowledge of God is possible, but obscure. Thus, it is easier to state what God is not, than to state what God is: ". . . we affirm things of God only relatively, that is, casually, whereas we deny things of God absolutely, that is, with reference to what He is in Himself. And there is no contradiction between a relative affirmation and an absolute negation. It is not contradictory to say that someone is white-toothed and not white". Tugwell, 153. See also, Wood, 41. Albert the Great was the first theologian to clarify how wisdom and understanding enhance one's faith in God. According to him, these are the tools that God uses to commune with a contemplative. Love in the soul is both the cause and result of true understanding and judgement. It causes not only an intellectual knowledge of God, but a spiritual and emotional knowledge as well. Contemplation is the means whereby one can obtain this goal of understanding. Things that once seemed static and unchanging become full of possibility and perfection. The contemplative then knows that God is, but she does not know what God is. Thus, contemplation forever produces a mystified, imperfect knowledge of God. The soul is exalted beyond the rest of God's creation but it cannot see God Himself. Hinnebusch, History of the Dominican Order, 299. See also, Tugwell, 40-95, 134-98. Charity and Meekness As the image of God grows within man, he learns to rely less on an intellectual pursuit of virtue and more on an affective pursuit of charity and meekness. Meekness and charity guide Christians to acknowledge that they are nothing without the One (Christ) who created them, sustains them, and guides them. Thus, man then directs his path to that One, and the love for, and of, Christ guides man's very nature to become centered on the One, and on his neighbor as well. Ross, 169. Charity is the manifestation of the pure love of Christ, both for and by His follower. Although the ultimate attainment for this type of mysticism is union with God, it is not necessarily visionary, nor does it hope only for ecstatic experiences; instead, mystical life is successful if it is imbued with charity. The goal is just as much to become like Christ as it is to become one with Him. Ross, 162. Those who believe in Christ should first have faith in Him without becoming engaged in such overwhelming phenomena. The Dominican Order was affected by a number of elemental influences. Its early members imbued the order with a mysticism and learning. The Europeans of the Order embraced ecstatic mysticism on a grand scale and looked to a union with the Creator. The English Dominicans looked for this complete unity as well, but were not so focused on ecstatic experiences. Instead, their goal was to emulate the moral life of Christ more completely. The Dartford nuns were surrounded by all of these legacies, and used them to create something unique. Though they are not called mystics, they are known for their piety toward God and their determination to live lives devoted to, and in emulation of, Him. Dartford Priory was established long after the primary period of monastic foundation in England had ended. It emulated, then, the monasteries found in Europe—mainly France and German—as well as the monastic traditions of their English Dominican brothers. As already stated, the first nuns to inhabit Dartford were sent from Poissy Priory in France. Evidence for the strength of the English Dominican nuns' vocation is strong itself. Even on the eve of the Dissolution, Prioress Jane Vane wrote to Cromwell on behalf of a postulant, saying that though she had not actually been professed, she was professed in her heart and in the eyes of God. This is only one such example of dedication. Profession in Dartford Priory seems, then, to have been made based on personal commitment, and one's personal association with God. Lee, "Monastic and Secular Learning," 61. Rosary Throughout the centuries, the Holy Rosary has been an important element among the Dominicans. See Guy Bedouelle, Saint Dominic. The Grace of the Word (Ignatius 1987). Pope Pius XI stated that: The Rosary of Mary is the principle and foundation on which the very Order of Saint Dominic rests for making perfect the life of its members and obtaining the salvation of others. Robert Feeney, The Rosary: "The Little Summa" ISBN 0962234710 Histories of the Holy Rosary often attribute its origin to Saint Dominic himself through the Blessed Virgin Mary. Catherine Beebe, St. Dominic and the Rosary ISBN 0898705185 Our Lady of the Rosary is the title received by the Marian apparition to Saint Dominic in 1208 in the church of Prouille in which the Virgin Mary gave the Rosary to him. For centuries, Dominicans have been instrumental in spreading the rosary and emphasizing the Catholic belief in the power of the rosary. History of the Dominicans http://www.domcentral.org/study/ashley/ds02ital2.htm On January 1, 2008, the Master of the Order declared a year of dedication to the Rosary. Re-discovering the Rosary as a means of contemplation International Dominican Information Felix Randal: Dominican Year of the Rosary Missionary Activity of the Dominicans The Dominican Order came into being in the Middle Ages at a time when religion began to be contemplated in a new way. Men who gave themselves and their souls completely into the keeping of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cold and quiet cloister. Instead, they traveled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church. Out of this ideal emerged two orders of mendicant friars: one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi; the other, the Friars Preachers, by Dominic of Guzman. The man who established the Dominican Order offered his followers a lofty and abiding cause. Dominic inspired his followers with loyalty to learning and virtue, a deep recognition of the spiritual power of worldly deprivation and the religious state, and a highly developed governmental structure. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 7. He also produced a group people who succeeded in converting Albigensians to the orthodox faith. At the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his Order to develop a "mixed" spirituality. They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation. The brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality. While these traits had an impact on the women of the Order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics and made those characteristics their own. In England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart. St. Dominic As the father of the Order of Preachers, Dominic had a lasting influence on a group of people who sought to fulfill his ideals. As a young adolescent, he had a particular love of theology and the Scriptures became the foundation of his spirituality. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 17. Dominic studied in Palencia for a decade and maintained a dedication to purpose and a self-sacrificing attitude that caused the poor of the city to love him. During his sojourn in Palencia, Spain experienced a dreadful famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books and other equipment in order to help his neighbors. Tugwell, 53 Dominic was also noticed by important members of the religious community of Spain. After he completed his studies, Bishop Martin Bazan and Prior Diego d'Achebes appointed Dominic to the cathedral chapter and he became a regular canon under the Rule of St. Augustine and the Constitutions for the cathedral church of Osma. At the age of twenty-four or twenty-five, he was ordained to the priesthood. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 19. In the spring of 1203, Dominic joined Prior Diego on an embassy to Denmark for the monarchy of Spain. Dominic was fired by a reforming zeal after they encountered Albigensian heretics at Toulouse. He set about reconverting the region to orthodox Christianity. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 20. On the return trip to Spain, the two brethren met with a group of papal legates who were determined to triumph over the Manichean menace. Prior Diego saw immediately one of the paramount reasons for the spread of the unorthodox movement: the representatives of the Holy Church acted and moved with an offensive amount of pomp and ceremony. On the other hand, the Cathars lived in a state of apostolic self-sacrifice that was widely appealing. For these reasons, Prior Diego suggested that the papal legates begin to live a reformed apostolic life. The legates agreed to change if they could find a strong leader. The prior took up the challenge, and he and Dominic dedicated themselves to the conversion of the Albigensians. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 23. Dominican Convent Established As time passed, Prior Diego sanctioned the building of a monastery for girls whose parents had sent them to the care of the Albigensians because their families were too poor to fulfill their basic needs. Tugwell, 54-55 The monastery was at Prouille Tugwell, 389 and would later become Dominic's headquarters for his missionary effort there. Woods, 29-30 Prior Diego died, after two years in the mission field, on his return trip to Spain. When his preaching companions heard of his death, all save Dominic and a very small number of others returned to their homes. Founding of the Order of Preachers In July of 1215, with the approbation of Bishop Foulques of Toulouse, Dominic ordered his followers into an institutional life. Its purpose was revolutionary in the pastoral ministry of the Catholic Church. These priests were organized and well trained in religious studies. Many men influenced the shape and character of the Dominican Order, but it was Dominic himself who combined the available components into a vital and vigorous, whole existence. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 41. Dominic needed a framework—a rule—with which to organize these components. The Rule of St. Augustine was an obvious choice for the Dominican Order, according to Dominic's successor, Jordan of Saxony, because it lent itself to the "salvation of souls through preaching". Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 44. By this choice, however, the Dominican brothers designated themselves not monks, but canons-regular. They could practice ministry and common life while existing in individual poverty. Hinnebusch, The History of the Dominican Order, 44. See also Tugwell, 55. Dominic's education at Palencia gave him the knowledge he needed to overcome the Manicheans. With charity, the other concept that most defines the work and spirituality of the Order, study became the method most used by the Dominicans in working to defend the Church against the perils that hounded it, and also of enlarging its authority over larger areas of the known world. Bennett,52. In Dominic's thinking, it was impossible for men to preach what they did not or could not understand. When the brethren left Prouille, then, to begin their apostolic work, Dominic sent Matthew of Paris to establish a school near the University of Paris. This was the first of many Dominican schools established by the brethren, some near large universities throughout Europe. The women of the Order also established schools for the children of the local gentry Mysticism By 1300, the enthusiasm for preaching and conversion within the Order lessened. Mysticism, full of the ideas Albertus Magnus expostulated, became the devotion of the greatest minds and hands within the organization. Bennett, 71. This was especially true of the Dominicans in Germany and France. It became a "powerful instrument of personal and theological transformation both within the Order of Preachers and throughout the wider reaches of Christendom. Woods, 44. Albertus Magnus helped shape English Dominican thought through his idea that God is knowable, but obscure. Additionally, the English friars shared his belief that wisdom and understanding enhance one's faith in God. The English Dominicans also studied classical writers. This was also part of his legacy. Although Albertus Magnus did much to instill mysticism in the Order of Preachers, it is a concept that reaches back to the Hebrew Bible. In the tradition of Holy Writ, the impossibility of coming face to face with God is a recurring motif, thus the commandment against graven images (Exodus 20.4-5). As time passed, Jewish and early Christian writings presented the idea of 'unknowing,' where God's presence was enveloped in a dark cloud. These images arose out of a confusing mass of ambiguous and ambivalent statements regarding the nature of God and man's relationship to Him. Woods, 45-47. Other passages attest to the opposite circumstance: that of seeing God and talking with Him. Obviously, the conflict between seeing and not-seeing exists in early texts as well as later ones. It also permeates the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. The consequence is a paradox that emerges repeatedly throughout Christian Scripture and the mysticism found in the early foundations of the Church. Woods, 48. All of these ideas associated with mysticism were at play in the spirituality of the Dominican community, and not only among the men. In Europe, in fact, it was often the female members of the Order, such as Catherine of Siena, Mechthild of Magdeburg, Christine of Stommeln, Margaret Ebner, and Elsbet Stagl, Woods, 110. that gained reputations for having mystical experiences. Dominican Convents Although Dominic and the early brethren had instituted female Dominican houses at Prouille and other places by 1227, some of the brethren of the Order had misgivings about the necessity of female religious establishments in an Order whose major purpose was preaching, a duty in which women could not traditionally engage. In spite of these doubts, women's houses dotted the countryside throughout Europe. There were seventy-four Dominican female houses in Germany, forty-two in Italy, nine in France, eight in Spain, six in Bohemia, three in Hungary, and three in Poland. Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality, 13. Many of the German religious houses that lodged women had been home to communities of women, such as Beguines, that became Dominican once they were taught by the traveling preachers and put under the jurisdiction of the Dominican authoritative structure. A number of these houses became centers of study and mystical spirituality in the fourteenth century. There were one hundred and fifty-seven nunneries in the Order by 1358. In that year, the number lessened due to disasters like the Black Death. Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality, 14. In places besides Germany, convents were founded as retreats from the world for women of the upper classes. These were original projects funded by wealthy patrons, including other women. Among these was Countess Margaret of Flanders who established the monastery of Lille, while Bal-Duchesse at Oudergern near Brussels was built with the wealth of Adelaide of Burgundy, Duchess of Brabant (1262). Hinnebusch, History of the Dominican Order, 337. Female houses differed from male Dominican houses in a lack of apostolic work for the women. Instead, the sisters chanted the Divine Office and kept all the monastic observances. Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality, 70-73. Their lives were often much more strict than their brothers' lives. The sisters had no government of their own, but lived under the authority of the general and provincial chapters of the Order. They were compelled to obey all the rules and shared in all the applicable privileges of the Order. Like the Priory of Dartford, all Dominican nunneries were under the jurisdiction of friars. The friars served as their confessors, priests, teachers and spiritual mentors. Hinnebsch, History of the Domiican Order, 382 Women could not be professed to the Dominican religious life before the age of thirteen. The formula for profession contained in the Constitutions of Montargis Priory (1250) demands that nuns pledge obedience to God, the Blessed Virgin, their prioress and her successors according to the Rule of St. Augustine and the institute of the Order, until death. The clothing of the sisters consisted of a white tunic and scapular, a leather belt, a black mantle, and a black veil. Candidates to profession were tested to reveal whether they were actually married women who had merely separated from their husbands. Their intellectual abilities were also tested. Nuns were to be silent in places of prayer, the cloister, the dormitory, and refectory. Silence was maintained unless the prioress granted an exception for a specific cause. Speaking was allowed in the common parlor, but it was subordinate to strict rules, and the prioress, subprioress or other senior nun had to be present. Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality, 30. Because the nuns of the Order did not preach among the people, the need to engage in study was not as immediate or intense as it was for men. They did participate, however, in a number of intellectual activities. Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality, 31. Along with sewing and embroidery, nuns often engaged in reading and discussing correspondence from Church leaders. In the Strassburg monastery of St. Margaret, some of the nuns could converse fluently in Latin. Learning still had an elevated place in the lives of these religious. In fact, Margarette Reglerin, a daughter of a wealthy Nuremberg family, was dismissed from a convent because she did not have the ability or will to learn. Hinnebusch, History of the Dominican Order, 384 As heirs of the Dominican priory of Poissy in France, the Dartford sisters were also heirs to a tradition of profound learning and piety. Sections of translations of spiritual writings in Dartford's library, such as Suso's Little Book of Eternal Wisdom and Laurent du Bois' La Somme le Roi, show that the "ghoostli" link to Europe was not lost in the crossing of the Channel. It survived in the minds of the nuns. Also, the nuns shared a unique identity with Poissy as a religious house founded by a royal house. The English nuns were proud of this heritage, and aware that many of them shared in England's great history as members of the noble class, as will be seen in the next chapter. Devotion to the Virgin Mary was another very important aspect of Dominican spirituality, especially for female members. As an Order, the Dominicans believed that they were established through the good graces of Christ's mother, and through prayers she sent missionaries to save the souls of nonbelievers. Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality, 152. All Dominicans sang the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin each day and saluted her as their advocate. English Province In England, the Dominican Province began at the second general chapter of the Dominican Order in Bologna during the spring of 1221. Dominic dispatched twelve friars to England under the guidance of their English prior, Gilbert of Fresney. They landed in Dover on August 5, 1221. The province came officially into being at its first provincial chapter in 1230. William Hinnebusch. The Early English Friars Preachers, 1. The English Province was a component of the international Order from which it obtained its laws, direction and instructions. It was also, however, a group comprised of Englishmen. Its direct supervisors were from England, and the members of the English Province dwelt and labored in English cities, towns, villages, and roadways. English and European ingredients constantly came in contact. The international side of the province's existence influenced the national, and the national responded to, adapted, and sometimes constrained the international. William Hinnebusch. The Early English Friars Preachers, 2. The first Dominican site in England was at Oxford, in the parishes of St. Edward and St. Adelaide. William Hinnebusch. The Early English Friars Preachers, 4. The friars built an oratory to the Blessed Virgin Mary Hinnebusch, Early English Friars Preachers, 6. There was a dispute over this oratory in 1228. and by 1265, the brethren, in keeping with their devotion to study, began erecting a school. Actually, the Dominican brothers likely began a school immediately after their arrival, as priories were legally schools. Hinnebusch, Early English Friars Preachers, 8-9. Information about the schools of the English Province is limited, but a few facts are known. Much of the information available is taken from visitation records. Maura O'Carroll, "The Educational Organisation of the Dominicans in England and Wales 1221-1348: A Multidisciplinary Approach," Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum 50 (1980): 32. The "visitation" was a section of the province through which visitors to each priory could describe the state of its religious life and its studies to the next chapter. There were four such visits in England and Wales—Oxford, London, Cambridge and York. O'Carroll,33 All Dominican students were required to learn grammar, old and new logic, natural philosophy and theology. Of all of the curricular areas, however, theology was the most important. This is not surprising when one remembers Dominic's zeal for it. O'Carroll,57. English Dominican mysticism in the late medieval period differed from European strands of it in that, whereas European Dominican mysticism tended to concentrate on ecstatic experiences of union with the divine, English Dominican mysticism's ultimate focus was on a crucial dynamic in one's personal relationship with God. This was an essential moral imitation of the Savior as an ideal for religious change, and as the means for reformation of humanity's nature as an image of divinity. This type of mysticism carried with it four elements. First, spiritually it emulated the moral essence of Christ's life. Second, there was a connection linking moral emulation of Christ's life and humanity's disposition as images of the divine. Third, English Dominican mysticism focused on an embodied spirituality with a structured love of fellow men at its center. Finally, the supreme aspiration of this mysticism was either an ethical or an actual union with God. Ross, 160 For English Dominican mystics, the mystical experience was not expressed just in one moment of the full knowledge of God, but in the journey of, or process of, faith. This then led to an understanding that was directed toward an experiential knowledge of divinity. It is important to understand, however, that for these mystics it was possible to pursue mystical life without the visions and voices that are usually associated with such a relationship with God. They experienced a mystical process that allowed them, in the end, to experience what they had already gained knowledge of through their faith only. Ross, 163 The center of all mystical experience is, of course, Christ. English Dominicans sought to gain a full knowledge of Christ through an imitation of His life. English mystics of all types tended to focus on the moral values that the events in Christ's life exemplified. This led to a "progressive understanding of the meanings of Scripture--literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical" Ross, 164 --that was contained within the mystical journey itself. From these considerations of Scripture comes the simplest way to imitate Christ: an emulation of the moral actions and attitudes that Jesus demonstrated in His earthly ministry becomes the most significant way to feel and have knowledge of God. The English concentrated on the spirit of the events of Christ's life, not the literality of events. They neither expected nor sought the appearance of the stigmata The appearance of St. Francis's and Catherine of Siena's stigmata is well known. or any other physical manifestation. They wanted to create in themselves that environment that allowed Jesus to fulfill His divine mission, insofar as they were able. At the center of this environment was love: the love that Christ showed for humanity in becoming human. Christ's love reveals the mercy of God and His care for His creation. English Dominican mystics sought through this love to become images of God. Love led to spiritual growth that, in turn, reflected an increase in love for God and humanity. This increase in universal love allowed men's wills to conform to God's will, just as Christ's will submitted to the Father's will. Clark, 83 Concerning humanity as the image of Christ, English Dominican spirituality concentrated on the moral implications of image-bearing rather than the philosophical foundations of the imago Dei. The process of Christ's life, and the process of image-bearing, amends humanity to God's image. Clark, 90-98. See also, Ross, 165 The idea of the "image of God" demonstrates both the ability of man to move toward God (as partakers in Christ's redeeming sacrifice), and that, on some level, man is always an image of God. As their love and knowledge of God grows and is sanctified by faith and experience, the image of God within man becomes ever more bright and clear. Ross, 166-167 Mottos Laudare, Benedicere, Praedicare To praise, to bless and to preach (from the Dominican Missal, Preface of the Blessed Virgin Mary) Veritas Truth Contemplari et Contemplata Aliis Tradere To study and to hand on the fruits of study (or, to contemplate and to hand on the fruits of contemplation) Dominican saints and blesseds Saint Dominic (d. 1221) St. Peter Martyr (d. 1252) St. Zedislava Berkiana (d. 1252) St. Hyacinth (d. 1257) St. Margaret of Hungary (d. 1271) St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) St. Raymond of Peñafort (d. 1275) St. Albert the Great (d. 1280) St. Agnes of Montepulciano (d. 1317) St. Catherine of Siena (d. 1380) St. Vincent Ferrer (d. 1419) St. Antoninus (d. 1459) Pope Saint Pius V (d. 1572) St. Louis Bertrand (d. 1581) St. Catherine de Ricci (d. 1590) St. Rose of Lima (d. 1617) St. Martin de Porres (d. 1639) St. John Macias (d. 1645) St. Louis de Montfort (d. 1716) Numerous Dominicans were included in the canonization of the 117 martyrs of Vietnam and a group of martyrs in Nagasaki, including St. Lorenzo Ruiz. Numerous Dominicans have been beatified, including Blessed Jordan of Saxony, Blessed Pier Giorgio Frassati, Blessed Henry Suso, Pope Blessed Innocent V, Pope Blessed Benedict XI, and Blessed Reginald of Orleans. See also Aquinas and the Sacraments Chinese Rites controversy Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament Dominican Rite - The Separate Use for Dominicans in the Latin Church Mexican Inquisition Miriam MacGillis and The Great Story Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicum) Sainte Marie de La Tourette, modernist Dominican monastery designed by Le Corbusier Superior Institute of Religious Sciences of St. Thomas Aquinas The Blackfriars of Shrewsbury The Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, The Catholic University of the Philippines, Manila Third Order of St. Dominic Thought of Thomas Aquinas Blackfriars (many name places in Britain testifying to former Dominican presence) References External links Order of Preachers Homepage - Available in English, French and Spanish Other Order of Preachers or Dominicans - Catholic Encyclopedia article Philately of Dominican Order Lectures in Dominican History The Mysticism of Catherine of Siena be-x-old:Ордэн дамініканаў
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7,181
Gadolinium
Gadolinium () is a chemical element that has the symbol Gd and atomic number 64. Characteristics Gadolinium >99.9% purity Gadolinium is a silvery-white, malleable and ductile rare-earth metal with a metallic lustre. It crystallizes in hexagonal, close-packed alpha form at room temperature, but, when heated to 1508 K or more, it transforms into its beta form, which has a body-centered cubic structure. Unlike other rare earth elements, gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air. However, it tarnishes quickly in moist air, forming a loosely-adhering oxide which spalls off, exposing more surface to oxidation. Gadolinium reacts slowly with water, and is soluble in dilute acids. Gadolinium-157 has the highest thermal neutron capture cross-section of any known nuclide with the exception of xenon-135, 49,000 barns, but it also has a fast burn-out rate, limiting its usefulness as a nuclear control rod material. http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/resources/n-lengths/elements/gd.html NIST Gadolinium is strongly paramagnetic at room temperature, and exhibits ferromagnetic properties below room temperature. Gadolinium demonstrates a magnetocaloric effect whereby its temperature increases when it enters a magnetic field and decreases when it leaves the magnetic field. The effect is considerably stronger for the gadolinium alloy Gd5(Si2Ge2) . Applications Gadolinium is used for making gadolinium yttrium garnets, which have microwave applications, and gadolinium compounds are used for making phosphors for colour TV tubes. Gadolinium is also used for manufacturing compact discs and computer memory. Gadolinium is used in nuclear marine propulsion systems as a burnable poison. Gadolinium is also used as a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclear reactors, particularly of the CANDU type. Gadolinium also possesses unusual metallurgic properties, with as little as 1% of gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of iron, chromium, and related alloys to high temperatures and oxidation. Because of their paramagnetic properties, solutions of organic gadolinium complexes and gadolinium compounds are used as intravenous MRI contrast agent to enhance images in medical magnetic resonance imaging. Magnevist is the most widespread example. Besides MRI, gadolinium (Gd) is also used in other imaging. In X-ray, gadolinium is contained in the phosphor layer, suspending in a polymer matrix at the detector. Terbium-doped gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2O2S: Tb) at the phosphor layer is to convert the X-rays releasing from the source into light. Gd can emit at 540 nm (green light spectrum = 520 – 570 nm), which is very useful for enhancing the imaging quality of the X-ray that is exposed to the photographic film. Beside Gd's spectrum range, the compound also has a K-edge at 50 kiloelectronVolts (keV), which means its absorption of X-ray through photoelectric interactions is great. The energy conversion of Gd is up to 20%, which means, one-fifth of the X-ray striking on the phosphor layer can be converted into light photons. Gadolinium oxyorthosilicate (Gd2SiO5, GSO; usually doped by 0.1-1% of Ce) is a single crystal that is used as a scintillator in medical imaging such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET) or for detecting neutrons. Gadolinium gallium garnet (Gd3Ga5O12) is a material with good optical properties, and is used in fabrication of various optical components and as substrate material for magneto–optical films. In the future, gadolinium ethyl sulfate, which has extremely low noise characteristics, may be used in masers. Furthermore, gadolinium's high magnetic moment and low Curie temperature (which lies just at room temperature) suggest applications as a magnetic component for sensing hot and cold. Due to extremely high neutron cross-section of gadolinium, this element is very effective for use with neutron radiography. History In 1880, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed spectroscopic lines due to gadolinium in samples of didymium and gadolinite; French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran separated gadolinia, the oxide of Gadolinium, from Mosander's yttria in 1886. The element itself was isolated only recently. Gadolinium, like the mineral gadolinite, is named after Finnish chemist and geologist Johan Gadolin. In older literature, the natural form of the element is often called an earth, meaning that the element came from Earth. In fact, gadolinium is the element that comes from the earth, gadolinia. Earths are compounds of the element and one or more other elements. The two most common combining-elements are oxygen and sulfur. For example, gadolinia contains gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3). Biological role Gadolinium has no known native biological role, but in research on biological systems it has a few roles. It is used as a component of MRI contrast agents, as, in the 3+ oxidation state, the metal has 7 unpaired f electrons. This causes water around the contrast agent to relax quickly, enhancing the quality of the MRI scan. Second, as a member of the lanthanides, it is used in various ion channel electrophysiology experiments, where it is used to block sodium leak channels, as well as to stretch activated ion channels. Gadolinium-based contrast agents are dangerous in patients with kidney disease. The contrast agent is normally chelated as it is expected to pass through the body quickly. In patients with kidney disease, the excretion is slower and the gadolinium becomes unbound, causing serious health issues. Occurrence Gadolinium is never found in nature as the free element, but is contained in many rare minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite. It occurs only in trace amounts in the mineral gadolinite, which was also named after Johan Gadolin. Today, it is prepared by ion exchange and solvent extraction techniques, or by the reduction of its anhydrous fluoride with metallic calcium. Value In 1994, the cost of gadolinium was about US$ 0.12 per gram, and it has only increased in value by about US$ 0.01 per gram since then. : 1994.....$0.121 per gram ( or $55 per pound) 1995.....$0.121 per gram ( or $55 per pound) 1996.....$0.115 per gram (or $115 per kilogram) 1997.....$0.115 per gram (or $115 per kilogram) 1998.....$0.115 per gram (or $115 per kilogram) 1999.....$0.115 per gram (or $115 per kilogram) 2000.....$0.130 per gram (or $130 per kilogram) 2001.....$0.130 per gram (or $130 per kilogram) 2002.....$0.130 per gram (or $130 per kilogram) 2003.....$0.130 per gram (or $130 per kilogram) 2004.....$0.130 per gram (or $130 per kilogram) 2005.....$0.130 per gram (or $130 per kilogram) Compounds Compounds of gadolinium include: Fluorides: GdF3 Chlorides: GdCl3 Bromides: GdBr3 Nitrates: Gd(NO3)3 Iodides: GdI3 Oxides: Gd2O3 Sulfides: Gd2S3 Nitrides: GdN Organics: gadodiamide See also gadolinium compounds. Isotopes Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd, 157Gd, 158Gd and 160Gd, and 1 radioisotope, 152Gd, with 158Gd being the most abundant (24.84% natural abundance). The predicted double beta decay of 160Gd has never been observed (only lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years has been set experimentally F. A. Danevich et al., Quest for double beta decay of 160Gd and Ce isotopes. Nucl. Phys. A 694(2001)375. ). Twenty nine radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being alpha-decaying 152Gd (naturally occurring) with a half-life of 1.08×1014 years, and 150Gd with a half-life of 1.79×106 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives less than 74.7 years. The majority of these have half-lives less than 24.6 seconds. Gadolinium isotopes have 4 metastable isomers, with the most stable being 143mGd (T½=110 seconds), 145mGd (T½=85 seconds) and 141mGd (T½=24.5 seconds). The primary decay mode at atomic masses lower than the most abundant stable isotope, 158Gd, is electron capture, and the primary mode at higher atomic masses is beta decay. The primary decay products for isotopes of weights lower than 158Gd are the element Eu (europium) isotopes and the primary products at higher weights are the element Tb (terbium) isotopes. Gadolinium-153 has a half-life of 240.4±10 days and emits gamma radiation with strong peaks at 41 keV and 102 keV. It is used as a gamma ray source in X-ray absorptiometry or bone density gauges for osteoporosis screening, and in the Lixiscope portable X-ray imaging system. Precautions As with the other lanthanides, gadolinium compounds are of low to moderate toxicity, although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Also, in patients with renal failure or other pro-inflammatory conditions, there is data associating its use with development of nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy as a side effect of gadolinium chelates used as a contrast agent for MRI examinations. References General references Los Alamos National Laboratory – Gadolinium External links WebElements.com – Gadolinium Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis – Complication of Gadolinium MR Contrast It's Elemental – Gadolinium refrigerator uses gadolinium metal that heats up when exposed to magnetic field FDA Advisory on Gadolinium-Based Contrast
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7,182
Frances_Abington
Portrait by Joshua Reynolds. Frances "Fanny" Abington (1737 – 4 March 1815) was a British actress. Biography She was born Frances Barton, the daughter of a private soldier, and began her career as a flower girl and a street singer. As a servant to a French milliner, she learned about costume and acquired a knowledge of French which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first appearance on the stage was at Haymarket in 1755 as Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's play, Busybody. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 5 In 1756, on the recommendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the Drury Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard and Kitty Clive. In 1759, after an unhappy marriage to her music teacher James Abington, a royal trumpeter, she is mentioned in the bills as "Mrs Abington". Her first success was in Ireland as Lady Townley (in The Provok'd Husband by Vanbrugh and Cibber), and it was only after five years, on the pressing invitation of David Garrick, that she returned to Drury Lane. There she remained for eighteen years, being the first to play more than thirty important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777). In April 1772, when James Northcote saw her Miss Notable in Cibber's The Lady's Last Stake, he remarked to his brother "I never saw a part done so excellent in all my life, for in her acting she has all the simplicity of nature and not the least tincture of the theatrical". Letter, 8 April 1772, in William T. Whitley, Artists and Their Friends in England 1700-1799 (1928) vol. II, p.289. Her Shakespearean heroines -Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and Ophelia - were no less successful than her comic characters - Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue. It was as the last character in Love for Love that Sir Joshua Reynolds painted his best portrait of her. In 1782 she left Drury Lane for Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1790 until 1797, she reappeared, quitting it finally in 1799. Her ambition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of fashion copied her clothing, and a headdress she wore was widely adopted and known as the Abington cap. Notes
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7,183
Easter_Rising
The Easter Rising () Department of the Taoiseach - Easter Rising , was an insurrection staged in Ireland during Easter Week, 1916. The Rising was mounted by Irish republicans with the aims of ending British rule in Ireland and establishing an Irish Republic. It was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798. Organised by the Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, [http://books.google.com/books?id=_RhCAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22military+council%22+irb&q=%22military+council%22+&pgis=1#search_anchorLeaders and Men of the Easter Rising: Dublin 1916] Francis X. Martin 1967 p105 the Rising lasted from Easter Monday 24 April to 30 April 1916. Members of the Irish Volunteers, led by schoolteacher and barrister Patrick Pearse, joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army of James Connolly, along with 200 members of Cumann na mBan, seized key locations in Dublin and proclaimed an Irish Republic independent of Britain. There were some actions in other parts of Ireland but, except for the attack on the RIC barracks at Ashbourne, County Meath, they were minor. The Rising was suppressed after seven days of fighting, and its leaders were court-martialled and executed, but it succeeded in bringing physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics. In the 1918 General Election, the last all-island election held in Ireland, to the British Parliament, Republicans won 73 seats out of 105, on a policy of abstentionism from Westminster and Irish independence. This came less than two years after the Rising. In January 1919, the elected members of Sinn Féin who were not still in prison at the time, including survivors of the Rising, convened the First Dáil and established the Irish Republic. The British Government refused to accept the legitimacy of the newly declared nation, leading to the Irish War of Independence. Background Since the Act of Union 1800 that joined Ireland and Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, opposition to the union had taken two forms: parliamentary constitutionalism and physical force. Daniel O’Connell, who founded the Repeal Association in 1840, pursued repeal of the Act in the British House of Commons and through mass meetings. The Young Irelanders were active members of the repeal movement, but broke with O’Connell in 1846 and established the Irish Confederation, and its leaders, William Smith O'Brien, Thomas Francis Meagher and John Blake Dillon, led the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. The Fenians staged another revolt in 1867. Though defeated, they continued as a secret, oath-bound society. Sean Cronin, The McGarrity Papers, Anvil Books, 1972. In 1873, a Fenian convention was held in Dublin, and adopted the name Irish Republican Brotherhood, and a constitution. It passed two resolutions: that the central committee of the IRB constituted itself to act as the government of the Irish Republic, and that the Head Centre (chairman) of the IRB would be President of the Republic, until such time as the Irish people freely elected its own government. Eoin Neeson, Myths from Easter 1916, p. 67 The Home Rule League and Charles Stewart Parnell’s Irish Parliamentary Party succeeded in having a large number of members elected to Westminster where, through the tactic of obstructionism and by virtue of holding the balance of power, they succeeded in having three Home Rule bills introduced. Parnell's objectives, however, went beyond that of limited Home Rule. This became clear when in a speech in January 1885, he said "No man has a right to fix the boundary of a march of a nation..." F.S.L. Lyons, Parnell, Gill & Macmillan, FP 1977, ISBN 0 7171 3939 5 pg. 264 The First Home Rule Bill of 1886 was defeated in the House of Commons. The Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 was passed by the Commons but rejected by the House of Lords. The Third Home Rule Bill of 1912 was again rejected by the Lords, but under the Parliament Act 1911 (passed by H. H. Asquith with the support of John Redmond who became IPP leader on the death of Parnell) would become law after two years. Redmond, unlike Parnell, saw Home Rule as an end in itself. Eoin Neeson, Myths from Easter 1916, p. ? Ulster Unionists, led by Sir Edward Carson, and both the Tories and Lords were opposed to home rule, seeing it as a threat to their interests. The Unionists formed the Ulster Volunteer Force on 13 January 1913, prepared to violently resist the imposition of home rule, and threats of force were made by Conservative leader Andrew Bonar Law and other members of his party. The Green Flag, Kee, p.400-1. The IRA, Coogan, p.8-11 Kee, 170-2 This led to the formation of the Irish Volunteers, a force dedicated to defending home rule, on 25 November 1913. Kee, 201-2 The Home Rule Act received Royal Assent on 18 September 1914, but excluded an as yet undefined area in the Province of Ulster. Kee, 181-2 The Bill was then suspended until after the World War, which had broken out a month previously, causing the Irish Volunteers to split, a majority called the National Volunteers supporting the Allied and British war effort. Meanwhile, the IRB, reorganised by determined men such as Thomas Clarke, Easter 1916: The Irish rebellion, Charles Townshend, 2005, page 18, The McGarrity Papers: revelations of the Irish revolutionary movement in Ireland and America 1900 – 1940, Sean Cronin, 1972, page 16, 30, The Provisional IRA, Patrick Bishop & Eamonn Mallie, 1988, page 23, The Secret Army: The IRA, Rv Ed, J Bowyer Bell 1997, page 9, The IRA, Tim Pat Coogan, 1984, page 31 and Seán MacDermott, continued to plan, not for limited home rule under the British Crown, but for an independent Irish Republic. The Fenians, Michael Kenny, The National Museum of Ireland in association with Country House, Dublin, 1994, ISBN 0 946172 42 0 Planning the Rising Plans for the Easter Rising began within days of the August declaration of the war against Germany. The Supreme Council of the IRB held a meeting in 25 Parnell Square and, under the old dictum that "England's difficulty is Ireland's opportunity", decided to take action sometime before the conclusion of the war. The Council made three decisions: to establish a military council, seek whatever help possible from Germany, and secure control of the Volunteers. Although the overall ambition of the IRB was the establishment of an independent Irish Republic, it was not necessarily through a single act of rebellion that this was to be achieved. Historian Eoin Neeson suggests that a plan involving a military victory was never a consideration, allowing that the leaders considered there would be some military success. Eoin Neeson, Myths from Easter 1916, p. ? The IRB set out three objectives for the Rising: First, declare an Irish Republic, second, revitalise the spirit of the people and arouse separatist national fervour, and thirdly, claim a place at the post war peace conference. Michael Foy & Brian Barton, The Easter Rising, J.H. Haynes & Co., ISBN 0 7509 3433 6 To this end, the IRB's treasurer, Tom Clarke, formed a Military Council to plan the rising, initially consisting of Patrick Pearse, Eamonn Ceannt, and Joseph Plunkett, with himself and Seán Mac Diarmada added shortly thereafter. All of these were members of the IRB, and all but Clarke were members of the Irish Volunteers. The second objective of the IRB was at this stage already well advanced. The IRB had infiltrated a number of social organisations, including the Gaelic Athletic Association<ref>P. S. O’Hegarty writes that “of the seven founding members they were probably all Fenians, but at least four of them were.” While the Fenians used it naturally, it was not a political organisation, according to Hegarty; it remained faithful to its purpose: the Preservation and Cultivation of National Pastimes, though they did use it for the strengthening of national feeling generally. A History of Ireland Under the Union 1801 to 1922, pp. 611-612, P. S. O'Hegarty, Methuen & Co. Ltd, London</ref>, the Gaelic League, Sinn Féin, trade unions, and later the Irish Citizen Army. Through these organisations they wanted to provide the drive for nationalism, separatism and ultimately change. Since its inception in 1913, the Volunteers, whose formation was instigated by the IRB precisely for the purpose of staging a rising, Myths from Easter 1916, Eoin Neeson, 2007, page 79, Easter 1916: The Irish Rebellion, Charles Townshend, 2005, page 41, The IRA, Tim Pat Coogan, 1970, page 33, The Irish Volunteers 1913-1915,F. X. Martin 1963, page 24, The Easter Rising, Michael Foy & Brian Barton, 2004, page 7, Myths from Easter 1916, Eoin Neeson, 2007, page 79, Victory of Sinn Féin, P.S. O’Hegarty, page 9-10, The Path to Freedom, Michael Collins, 1922, page 54, Irish Nationalism, Sean Cronin, 1981, page 105, A History of Ireland Under the Union, P. S. O’Hegarty, page 669, 1916: Easter Rising, Pat Coogan, page 50, Revolutionary Woman, Kathleen Clarke, 1991, page 44, The Bold Fenian Men, Robert Kee, 1976, page 203, The IRB: The Irish Republican Brotherhood from the League to Sinn Féin, Owen McGee, 2005, 353-354 was increasingly coming under the control of that organisation, as IRB members worked to promote one another to officer rank whenever possible; hence by 1916 a large proportion of the Volunteer leadership were devoted republicans. A notable exception was their founder and Chief-of-Staff Eoin MacNeill who at the time was unaware of the IRB's intentions. MacNeill planned to use the Volunteers as a bargaining tool with Britain following World War I. F.S.L. Lyons, Ireland Since the Famine, Collins/Fontana, 1971; p. 341 MacNeill approved of armed resistance only if the British attempted to impose conscription on Ireland for the World War or if they launched a campaign of repression against Irish nationalist movements, in such a case he believed that they would have mass support. MacNeill's view was supported within the IRB, by Bulmer Hobson. Nevertheless, the IRB hoped either to win him over to their side (through deceit if necessary) or bypass his command altogether. Myths from Easter 1916, Eoin Neeson, 2007 Negotiations were opened with the German High Command, represented by Count Bethmann-Hollweg, Count Rudolph Nadolny and Captain Heydal in Germany. The IRB was represented by Joseph Plunkett (who travelled to Berlin in 1915) in addition to his father, Count Plunkett. Eoin Neeson, Myths from Easter 1916, p. ? Roger Casement, who had been in Germany since 1914, negotiated separately as the representative of the Volunteers. Casement was never a member of the IRB, and was kept unaware of the degree that the IRB had infiltrated the Volunteers. Brian Inglis, Roger Casement, HBJ, 1973, p. 299 Casement's aims were to form an brigade of Irish POWs in German camps who would be released in order to fight against England on the side of Ireland, The Irish War by Tony Geraghty (ISBN 978-0006386742), page 319 as well as to secure a shipment of weapons from Germany for the under-equipped Volunteers. The former proved unsuccessful, and while he did manage to secure a shipment of rifles, the German aid was less than he had hoped. In America also there were negotiations taking place with the German Ambassador in Washington, D.C., Count Johann Heinrich von Bernsdorff, and first secetary, Wolf von Igel. John Devoy, leader of Clan na Gael, was also involved in these negotiations, which were to continue through 1914, 1915 and 1916. From these negotiations the IRB received the agreement from the German government that if the Irish could establish their status as a nation “deprived of lawful statehood,” then Germany would afford them a hearing at the post-war peace conference. "Desmond's Rising" Memoirs of Desmond FitzGerald; Liberties Press, Dublin, 1968 and 2006, pp.142-144. James Connolly, head of the Irish Citizen Army (ICA), a group of armed socialist trade union men and women, were completely unaware of the IRB's plans, and threatened to initiate a rebellion on their own if other parties refused to act. As the ICA was barely 200 strong, any action they might take would have been in the nature of a forlorn hope. Though if they had decided to go it alone, the IRB and the Volunteers would possibly have come to their aid. Eoin Neeson, Myths from Easter 1916, p. ? Thus the IRB leaders met with Connolly in January 1916 and convinced him to join forces with them. They agreed to act together the following Easter and made Connolly the sixth member of the Military Committee (Thomas MacDonagh would later become the seventh and final member). In an effort to thwart informers and, indeed, the Volunteers' own leadership, Pearse issued orders in early April for three days of "parades and manoeuvres" by the Volunteers for Easter Sunday (which he had the authority to do, as Director of Organization). The idea was that the republicans within the organization (particularly IRB members) would know exactly what this meant, while men such as MacNeill and the British authorities in Dublin Castle would take it at face value. However, MacNeill got wind of what was afoot and threatened to "do everything possible short of phoning Dublin Castle" to prevent the rising. MacNeill was briefly convinced to go along with some sort of action when Mac Diarmada revealed to him that a shipment of German arms was about to land in County Kerry, planned by the IRB in conjunction with Roger Casement; he was certain that the authorities discovery of such a shipment would inevitably lead to suppression of the Volunteers, thus the Volunteers were justified in taking defensive action (including the originally planned maneuvers). Michael Tierney, Eoin MacNeill, pp. 199, 214 Casement, disappointed with the level of support offered by the Germans, returned to Ireland on a German U-boat and was captured upon landing at Banna Strand in Tralee Bay. The arms shipment, aboard the German ship Aud — disguised as a Norwegian fishing trawler—had been scuttled after interception by the British navy, as the local Volunteers had failed to rendezvous with it. The following day, MacNeill reverted to his original position when he found out that the ship carrying the arms had been scuttled. With the support of other leaders of like mind, notably Bulmer Hobson and The O'Rahilly, he issued a countermand to all Volunteers, canceling all actions for Sunday. This only succeeded in putting the rising off for a day, although it greatly reduced the number of Volunteers who turned out. British Naval Intelligence had been aware of the arms shipment, Casement's return and the Easter date for the rising through radio messages between Germany and its embassy in the United States that were intercepted by the Navy and deciphered in Room 40 of the Admiralty. Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising, p. 138 The information was passed to the Under-Secretary for Ireland, Sir Matthew Nathan, on 17 April, but without revealing its source, and Nathan was doubtful about its accuracy. Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising, p. 79 When news reached Dublin of the capture of the Aud and the arrest of Casement, Nathan conferred with the Lord Lieutenant, Lord Wimborne. Nathan proposed to raid Liberty Hall, headquarters of the Citizen Army, and Volunteer properties at Father Matthew Park and at Kimmage, but Wimborne was insisting on wholesale arrests of the leaders. It was decided to postpone action until after Easter Monday and in the meantime Nathan telegraphed the Chief Secretary, Augustine Birrell, in London seeking his approval. Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising, pp. 81-87 By the time Birrell cabled his reply authorising the action, at noon on Monday 24 April 1916, the Rising had already begun. The Rising Easter Monday The Volunteers' Dublin division was organized into four battalions. As a result of the countermanding order all of them saw a far smaller turnout than originally planned. The 1st battalion under Commandant Ned Daly mustered at Blackhall Street, numbering about 250 men. They were to occupy the Four Courts and areas to the northwest to guard against attack from the west, principally from the Royal and Marlborough Barracks; the exception was D Company, 1st Battalion, a company of 12 men led by Captain Seán Heuston, who were to occupy the Mendicity Institution, across the river from the Four Courts. The 2nd battalion comprised about 200 men under Commandant Thomas MacDonagh who gathered at St. Stephen's Green with orders to take Jacob's Biscuit Factory, Bishop Street, south of the city centre, and a smaller number of men who gathered at Fairview, in the northeast, and who were later directed to the General Post Office. McNally, Michael and Dennis, Peter, Easter Rising 1916: Birth of the Irish Republic, p. 39 In the southeast Commandant Éamon de Valera commanded about 130 men of the 3rd battalion who would take Boland's Bakery and a number of surrounding buildings to cover Beggars Bush Barracks and the main road and railway from Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire) harbour. Commandant Éamonn Ceannt's 4th battalion, numbering about 100 men, mustered at Emerald Square in Dolphin's Barn; They were to occupy the workhouse known as the South Dublin Union to the southwest and defend against attack from the Curragh. McNally, Michael and Dennis, Peter, Easter Rising 1916: Birth of the Irish Republic, p. 40 A joint force of about 400 Volunteers and Citizen Army gathered at Liberty Hall under the command of Commandant James Connolly. Of these, about 100 men and women of the Citizen Army under Commandant Michael Mallin were sent to occupy St. Stephen's Green, and a small detachment of the Citizen Army under Captain Seán Connolly were directed to seize the area around the City Hall, next to Dublin Castle, including the offices of the Daily Express. Castles of Ireland: Part II - Dublin Castle at irelandforvisitors.com The remainder was to occupy the General Post Office. This was the headquarters battalion, and as well as Connolly it included four other members of the Military Council: Patrick Pearse, President and Commander-in-Chief, Tom Clarke, Seán Mac Dermott and Joseph Plunkett. McNally, Michael and Dennis, Peter, Easter Rising 1916: Birth of the Irish Republic, p. 41 At midday a small team of Volunteers and Fianna members attacked the Magazine Fort in the Phoenix Park and disarmed the guards, with the intent to seize weapons and blow up the building as a signal that the rising had begun. They set explosives but failed to obtain any arms. The explosion was not loud enough to be heard in the city. Caulfield, Max, The Easter Rebellion, pp. 48-50 At the same time the Volunteer and Citizen Army forces throughout the city moved to occupy and secure their positions. Seán Connolly's unit made an assault on Dublin Castle, shooting dead a police sentry and overpowering the soldiers in the guardroom, but did not press home the attack. The Under-secretary, Sir Matthew Nathan, who was in his office with Colonel Ivor Price, the Military Intelligence Officer, and A. H. Norway, head of the Post Office, was alerted by the shots and helped close the castle gates. Foy and Barton, The Easter Rising, pp. 84-85 The rebels occupied the Dublin City Hall and adjacent buildings. Mallin's detachment, which was joined by Constance Markiewicz (Countess Markiewicz), occupied St. Stephen's Green, digging trenches and commandeering vehicles to build barricades. They took several buildings, including the Royal College of Surgeons, but did not make an attempt on the Shelbourne Hotel, a tall building overlooking the park. Foy and Barton, The Easter Rising, pp. 87-90 Daly's men, erecting barricades at the Four Courts, were the first to see action. A troop of the 5th and 12th Lancers, part of the 6th Cavalry Reserve Regiment, was escorting an ammunition convoy along the north Quays when it came under fire from the rebels. Unable to break through, they took refuge in nearby buildings. Caulfield, Max, the Easter Rebellion, pp. 54-55 The headquarters battalion, led by Connolly, marched the short distance to O'Connell Street. They charged the GPO, expelled customers and staff, and took a number of British soldiers prisoner. Two flags were hoisted on the flag poles on either end of the GPO roof: the tricolour at the right corner at Henry Street and a green flag with the inscription 'Irish Republic' at the left corner at Princess Street. A short time later, Pearse read the Proclamation of the Republic outside the GPO. Foy and Barton, The Easter Rising, pp. 192, 195 The Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in Ireland, General Lovick Friend, was on leave in England. When the insurrection began the Officer Commanding the Dublin Garrison, Colonel Kennard, could not be located. His adjutant, Col. H. V. Cowan, telephoned Marlborough Barracks and asked for a detachment of troops to be sent to Sackville Street (O'Connell Street) to investigate the situation at the GPO. He then telephoned Portobello, Richmond and the Royal Barracks and ordered them to send troops to relieve Dublin Castle. Finally, he contacted the Curragh and asked for reinforcements to be sent to Dublin. Caulfield, Max, The Easter Rebellion, p. 69 A troop of the 6th Reserve Cavalry Regiment, dispatched from Marlborough Barracks, proceeded down O'Connell Street. As it passed Nelson's Pillar, level with the GPO, the rebels opened fire, killing three cavalrymen and two horses Agony at Easter:The 1916 Irish Uprising, Thomas M. Coffey, pages 38, 44, 155 and fatally wounding a fourth man. The cavalrymen retreated and were withdrawn to barracks. This action is often referred to, inaccurately, as the "Charge of the Lancers." Foy and Barton, pp. 197-198 A piquet from the 3rd (Reserve) Battalion, Royal Irish Regiment (RIR), approaching the city from Richmond Barracks, encountered an outpost of Éamonn Ceannt's force under Section-Commander John Joyce in Mount Brown, at the north-western corner of the South Dublin Union. A party of twenty men under Lieutenant George Malone was ordered to march on to Dublin Castle. They proceeded a short distance with rifles sloped and unloaded before coming under fire, losing three men in the first volley, then broke into a tan-yard opposite. Malone's jaw was shattered by a bullet as he went in. The Commanding Officer, Lieutenant-Colonel R. L. Owens, brought up the remainder of his men from Richmond Barracks. A company with a Lewis Gun was sent to the Royal Hospital (not then a hospital but the British military headquarters), overlooking the Union. The main body took up positions along the east and south walls of the Union, occupying houses and a block of flats, then opened fire on the rebel positions, forcing Joyce and his men to retreat across open ground. A party led by Lieut. Alan Ramsey broke open a small door next to the Rialto gate, but Ramsey was shot and killed, and the attack was repulsed. A second wave led by Capt. Warmington charged the door but Warmington, too, was killed. The remaining troops, trying to break in further along the wall, were enfiladed from Jameson's distillery in Marrowbone Lane. Eventually the superior numbers and firepower of the British were decisive; they forced their way inside and the small rebel force in the tin huts at the eastern end of the Union surrendered. Caulfield, Max, The Easter Rebellion, pp. 76-80 Tuesday to Saturday British forces initially put their efforts into securing the approaches to Dublin Castle and isolating the rebel headquarters, which they believed was in Liberty Hall. The British commander, Brigadier-General W. H. M. Lowe, worked slowly, unsure of the size of the force he was up against, and with only 1,269 troops in the city when he arrived from the Curragh Camp in the early hours of Tuesday 25 April. City Hall was taken on Tuesday morning. The rebel position at St Stephen's Green, held by the Citizen Army under Michael Mallin, was made untenable after the British placed snipers and machine guns in the Shelbourne Hotel and surrounding buildings. As a result, Mallin's men retreated to the Royal College of Surgeons building. British firepower was provided by field artillery summoned from their garrison at Athlone which they positioned on the northside of the city at Phibsborough and at Trinity College, and by the patrol vessel Helga, which sailed upriver from Kingstown. Lord Wimborne, the Lord Lieutenant, declared martial law on Tuesday evening. On Wednesday, 26 April, the guns at Trinity College and Helga shelled Liberty Hall, and the Trinity College guns then began firing at rebel positions in O'Connell Street. Reinforcements were sent to Dublin from England, and disembarked at Kingstown on the morning of 26 April. Heavy fighting occurred at the rebel-held positions around the Grand Canal as these troops advanced towards Dublin. The Sherwood Foresters were repeatedly caught in a cross-fire trying to cross the canal at Mount Street. Seventeen Volunteers were able to severely disrupt the British advance, killing or wounding 240 men. The rebel position at the South Dublin Union (site of the present day St. James's Hospital), further west along the canal, also inflicted heavy losses on British troops trying to advance towards Dublin Castle. Cathal Brugha, a rebel officer, distinguished himself in this action and was badly wounded. The headquarters garrison, after days of shelling, were forced to abandon their headquarters when fire caused by the shells spread to the GPO. They tunnelled through the walls of the neighbouring buildings in order to evacuate the Post Office without coming under fire and took up a new position in 16 Moore Street. On Saturday 29 April, from this new headquarters, after realizing that they could not break out of this position without further loss of civilian life, Pearse issued an order for all companies to surrender. Pearce surrendered unconditionally to Brigadier-General Lowe. The surrender document read: BBC News The Rising outside Dublin Irish Volunteer units turned out for the Rising in several places outside of Dublin, but due to Eoin MacNeill's countermanding order, most of them returned home without fighting. In addition, due to the interception of the German arms aboard the Aud, the provincial Volunteer units were very poorly armed. At Ashbourne, County Meath, the North County Dublin Volunteers (also known as the Fingal Volunteers), led by Thomas Ashe and his second in command Richard Mulcahy, attacked the RIC barracks. Reinforcements came from Slane and after a five-hour battle, the Volunteers captured over 90 prisoners. There were 8–10 RIC deaths and two Volunteer fatalities, John Crennigan and Thomas Rafferty. The action pre-figured the guerrilla tactics of the Irish Republican Army in the Irish War of Independence from 1919 to 1921. Elsewhere in the east, Seán MacEntee and County Louth Volunteers killed a policeman and a prison guard. In County Wexford, the Volunteers took over Enniscorthy from Tuesday until Friday, before symbolically surrendering to the British Army at Vinegar Hill – site of a famous battle during the Irish Rebellion of 1798. In the west, Liam Mellows led 600-700 Volunteers in abortive attacks on several police stations, at Oranmore and Clarinbridge in County Galway. There was also a skirmish at Carnmore in which two RIC men were killed. However his men were poorly-armed, with only 25 rifles and 300 shotguns, many of them being equipped only with pikes. Towards the end of the week, Mellows' followers were increasingly poorly-fed and heard that large British reinforcements were being sent westwards. In addition, the British warship, HMS Gloucester arrived in Galway Bay and shelled the fields around Athenry where the rebels were based. On 29 April the Volunteers, judging the situation to be hopeless, dispersed from the town of Athenry. Many of these Volunteers were arrested in the period following the rising, while others, including Mellows had to go "on the run" to escape. By the time British reinforcements arrived in the west, the rising there had already disintegrated. In the north, several Volunteer companies were mobilised in County Tyrone and 132 men on the Falls Road in Belfast. In the south, around 1,000 Volunteers mustered in Cork, under Tomás Mac Curtain on Easter Sunday, but they dispersed after receiving several contradictory orders from the Volunteer leadership in Dublin. Casualties The British Army reported casualties of 116 dead, 368 wounded and 9 missing. 16 policemen died and 29 were wounded. Irish casualties were 318 dead and 2,217 wounded. The Volunteers and ICA recorded 64 killed in action, but otherwise Irish casualties were not divided into rebels and civilians. Foy and Barton, The Easter Rising, page 325 Aftermath General Maxwell quickly signalled his intention “to arrest all dangerous Sinn Feiners,” including “those who have taken an active part in the movement although not in the present rebellion,” Townshend, Easter 1916, page 273 reflecting the popular belief that Sinn Féin, a separatist organisation that was neither militant nor republican, was behind the Rising. A total of 3,430 men and 79 women were arrested, although most were subsequently released. In attempting to arrest members of the Kent family in County Cork on 2 May, a Head Constable was shot dead in a gun battle. Richard Kent was also killed, and Thomas and William Kent were arrested. In a series of courts martial beginning on 2 May, ninety people were sentenced to death. Fifteen of those (including all seven signatories of the Proclamation) had their sentences confirmed by Maxwell and were executed by firing squad between 3 May and 12 May (among them the seriously-wounded Connolly, shot while tied to a chair due to a shattered ankle). Not all of those executed were leaders: Willie Pearse described himself as "a personal attaché to my brother, Patrick Pearse"; John MacBride had not even been aware of the Rising until it began, but had fought against the British in the Boer War fifteen years before; Thomas Kent did not come out at all—he was executed for the killing of a police officer during the raid on his house the week after the Rising. The most prominent leader to escape execution was Eamon de Valera, Commandant of the 3rd Battalion. A Royal Commission was set up to enquire into the causes of the Rising. It began hearings on 18 May under the chairmanship of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst. The Commission heard evidence from Sir Matthew Nathan, Augustine Birrell, Lord Wimborne, Sir Neville Chamberlain (Inspector-General of the Royal Irish Constabulary), General Lovick Friend, Major Ivor Price of Military Intelligence and others. Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising pp. 153-159 The report, published on 26 June, was critical of the Dublin administration, saying that "Ireland for several years had been administered on the principle that it was safer and more expedient to leave the law in abeyance if collision with any faction of the Irish people could thereby be avoided." Townshend, Charles, Easter 1916: The Irish Rebellion p. 297 Birrell and Nathan had resigned immediately after the Rising. Wimborne had also reluctantly resigned, but was re-appointed, and Chamberlain resigned soon after. 1,480 men were interned in England and Wales under Regulation 14B of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, many of whom, like Arthur Griffith, had little or nothing to do with the affair. Camps such as Frongoch internment camp became “Universities of Revolution” where future leaders like Michael Collins, Terence McSwiney and J. J. O’Connell began to plan the coming struggle for independence. The Green Dragon No 4, Autumn 1997 Roger Casement was tried in London for high treason and hanged at Pentonville Prison on 3 August. According to Peter Berresford Ellis it has become firmly set in people’s minds that the Dublin people jeered the prisoners as they were led off to imprisonment, and that this description of how Dublin viewed the insurrection has almost become written in stone. He suggests that it was certainly a view that the imperial propaganda of the time wanted to impress on everyone, The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965, pg. 195-96 and that newspapers were unlikely to publish anything to the contrary. 1916 Easter Rising - Newspaper archive — from the BBC History website Examples cited The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965, pg. 195-96 by Berresford Ellis include, Dorothy Macardle, writing in her The Irish Republic, "The people had not risen. Some had cursed the insurgents." The Irish Republic, Dorothy Macardle, Victor Gollancz London 1937 (Hard Cover), pg.191 Thomas M. Coffey in Agony at Easter: The 1916 Irish Uprising writes, "The defeated insurgents quickly learnt how most Dubliners still felt about their rebellion when a raucous crowd came pouring out of the side streets to accost them ... The flood of insults was so fierce and vitriolic it hit the marching prisoners with an almost physical impact." Agony at Easter: The 1916 Irish Uprising, Thomas M. Coffey, Pelican, Harmondsworth 1971, pg.259-60 According to Berresford Ellis this perspective became less tenable when a long obscure eyewitness account of the period resurfaced in 1991. Canadian journalist and writer, Frederick Arthur McKenzie, Among his many books was his account of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904—5 and another on Japan’s occupation of Korea. In 1931 McKenzie became one of the earliest official biographers of Lord Beaverbrook. In 1916 he was a war correspondent for Canadian newspapers and War Illustrated, a British propaganda publication. was one of the best-known and reputable war correspondents of his day according to Berresford Ellis. He was one of two Canadian journalists who arrived in Dublin with the English reinforcements sent to put down the insurrection. McKenzie had no sympathy for the Irish ‘rebels’ and German sympathizers, as he perceived them, and was no anti-imperialist. The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965, pg. 196-97 McKenzie published The Irish Rebellion: What happened and Why, with C. Arthur Pearson in London in 1916, he notes, "I have read many accounts of public feeling in Dublin in these days. They are all agreed that the open and strong sympathy of the mass of the population was with the British troops. That this was in the better parts of the city, I have no doubt, but certainly what I myself saw in the poorer districts did not confirm this. It rather indicated that there was a vast amount of sympathy with the rebels, particularly after the rebels were defeated." Berresford Ellis then cites a passage by McKenzie describing how he watched as people were waving and cheering as a regiment approached, and that he commented to his companion they were cheering the soldiers. Noticing then that they were escorting Irish prisoners, he realised that they were actually cheering the rebels. The rebels he says were walking in military formation and were loudly and triumphantly singing a rebel song. McKenzie reports speaking to a group of men and women at street corners, "shure, we cheer them" said a woman, "why wouldn’t we? Aren't they our own flesh and blood." Dressed in khaki McKenzie was mistaken for a British soldier as he went about Dublin back streets were people cursed him openly, and "cursed all like me strangers in their city." J.W Rowath, a British officer had a comparable experience to McKenzie and observed that "crowds of men and women greeted us with raised fists and curses." The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965, pg. 196-97 Brian Barton & Micheal Foy cite Frank Robbins of the Irish Citizen Army who records seeing a group of Dubliners gathered to cheer the prisoners while being marched into Richmond barracks. Under the Starry Plough, Frank Robbins, Academy Press (Dublin 1977), ISBN 0906187001, pg. 127 They also report de Valera’s surrendered Boland’s mill, were crowds lined the pavement in Grand Canal Street and Hogan Place and pleaded with the insurgents to take shelter in their houses rather than surrender. Foy and Barton concluded "Public attitudes locally were not uniformly hostile in an area which the police had come to regard as increasingly militant in the months before the Rising. Some of the British soldiers who fought there noted a strong antipathy towards them." At the South Dublin Union, Major de Courcy Wheeler noted that there was no hostility from the people towards the insurgents: "It was perfectly plain that all their admiration was for the heroes who had surrendered." The Easter Rising, Brian Barton & Micheal Foy, Sutton Publishing Ltd. Gloucestershire, UK, ISBN 10: 0750934336, pg.206 This account flatly contradicts most of the contemporary accounts, says Berresford Ellis. The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965, pg. 197 This is a view shared by Michael Foy and Brian Barton The Easter Rising, Brian Barton & Micheal Foy, Sutton Publishing Ltd. Gloucestershire, UK, ISBN 10: 0750934336 also highlighting expressions of sympathy from the people who watched the prisoners being marched away. Quoting the diary of John Clarke a shopkeeper who writes "Thus ends the last attempt for poor old Ireland. What noble fellows. The cream of the land. None of your corner-boy class." Foy & Barton cited in John Clarke Diary, National Library of Ireland, MS 10485 Foy and Barton felt the contradictions could be modified by other factors. They examined the routes which the British soldiers took the prisoners. Michael Mallin’s column of prisoners they say were marched two miles to Richmond barracks through a "strongly loyalist and Protestant artisan class district." It was from this district that the Royal Dublin Fusiliers and other Irish regiments of the British army drew their recruits. It was around Richmond barracks they say, lived people who were economically dependent on the military. Another aspect they raise was the degree of hostility from Dublin women whose sons were serving in the army in France. They note that some priests at Church Street rebuked the insurgent prisoners and wounded. However the generally accepted account of the population of Dublin being uniformly hostile to the surrendered insurgents is one of the myths repeated so often as to become 'history.' The Easter Rising, Brian Barton & Micheal Foy, Sutton Publishing Ltd. Gloucestershire, UK, ISBN 10: 0750934336, pg.203-9 Berresford Ellis concludes that it has becomes clear that the insurrection of 1916 needs more considered research and analysis before we can be certain that it is "assessed in its rightful historical context." The assertion that it was an unpopular rising by a small band who were jeered and insulted on their defeat as they were led off into captivity is just one of "the myths that have been propagated." The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965, pg. 198 A meeting called by Count Plunkett on 19 April 1917 led to the formation of a broad political movement under the banner of Sinn Féin J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA, page 27 which was formalised at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis of 25 October 1917. The Conscription Crisis of 1918 further intensified public support for Sinn Féin before the general elections to the British Parliament on 14 December 1918, which resulted in a landslide victory for Sinn Féin, whose MPs gathered in Dublin on 21 January 1919 to form Dáil Éireann and adopt the Declaration of Independence. Robert Kee The Green Flag: Ourselves Alone Legacy of the Rising Some survivors of the Rising went on to become leaders of the independent Irish state and those who died were venerated by many as martyrs. Their graves in Arbour Hill military prison in Dublin became a national monument and the text of the Proclamation was taught in schools. An annual commemoration, in the form of a military parade, was held each year on Easter Sunday, culminating in a huge national celebration on the 50th anniversary in 1966. RTÉ: 1966 News Items Relating to the 1916 Easter Rising Commemorations With the outbreak of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, government, academics and the media began to revise the country’s militant past, and particularly the Easter Rising. The coalition government of 1973—1977, in particular the Minister for Posts and Telegraphs, Conor Cruise O'Brien, began to promote the view that the violence of 1916 was essentially no different to the violence then taking place in the streets of Belfast and Derry. Cruise O'Brien and others asserted that the Rising was doomed to military defeat from the outset, and that it failed to account for the determination of Ulster Unionists to remain in the United Kingdom. O'Brien, Conor Cruise, States of Ireland Hutchinson, 1972 ISBN 0 09 113100 6, pp. 88, 99 "Revisionist" historians Deane, Seamus, Wherever Green is Read, in Ní Dhonnchadha and Dorgan, Revising the Rising, Field Day, Derry, 1991 ISBN 0 946755 25 6, p. 91 began to write of it in terms of a "blood sacrifice." Foster, Roy F., Modern Ireland 1600 – 1972, Penguin 1989 ISBN 978-0140132502, p. 484 While the Rising and its leaders continued to be venerated by Irish republicans – including members and supporters of the IRA and Sinn Féin – with murals in republican areas of Belfast and other towns celebrating the actions of Pearse and his comrades, and a number of parades held annually in remembrance of the Rising, the Irish government discontinued its annual parade in Dublin in the early 1970s, and in 1976 it took the unprecedented step of proscribing (under the Offences against the State Act) a 1916 commemoration ceremony at the GPO organised by Sinn Féin and the Republican commemoration Committee. Irish Times, 22 April 1976 A Labour Party TD, David Thornley, embarrassed the government (of which Labour was a member) by appearing on the platform at the ceremony, along with Máire Comerford, a survivor of the Rising, and Fiona Plunkett, sister of Joseph Plunkett. Irish times, 26 April 1976 This culminated in the complete ignoring of the seventy fifth anniversary of the Rising in 1991 by the State. With the advent of a Provisional IRA ceasefire and the beginning of what became known as the Peace Process during the 1990s, the official view of the Rising became more positive and in 1996 an eightieth anniversary commemoration at the Garden of Remembrance in Dublin was attended by the Taoiseach and leader of Fine Gael, John Bruton. Reconstructing the Easter Rising, Colin Murphy, The Village, 16 February 2006 In 2005 the Taoiseach, Bertie Ahern, announced the government’s intention to resume the military parade past the GPO from Easter 2006, and to form a committee to plan centenary celebrations in 2016. Irish Times, 22 October 2005 90th Anniversary of the 1916 Rising The 90th anniversary of the 1916 Easter Rising was commemorated by a military parade held in Dublin on Easter Sunday, 16 April 2006. The President of Ireland (Mary McAleese), the Lord Mayor of Dublin (Catherine Byrne), the Taoiseach (Bertie Ahern), members of the Irish Government and other invited guests reviewed the parade as it passed the General Post Office, headquarters of the Rising. The parade comprised some 2,500 personnel from the Irish Defence Forces (representing the Army, Air Corps, Naval Service, Irish Army Reserve and Naval Reserve), the Garda Síochána, Irish United Nations Veterans Association and members of the Organisation of National Ex-Servicemen and Women. The parade started at Dublin Castle and proceeded via Dame Street and College Green to the GPO, where a wreath was laid by the President. Earlier Ahern laid a wreath in Kilmainham Jail where the leaders of the rising were executed. The Taoiseach said the ceremonies were 'about discharging one generation's debt of honour to another.' The wreath-laying was attended by 92-year-old Father Joseph Mallin (son of ICA leader Michael Mallin), the only surviving child of the executed rebels, who was flown in from Hong Kong by the Irish Government for the event. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/4914362.stm This was the first official commemoration held in Dublin since the early 1970s. Notes Bibliography Bell, J. Bowyer, The Secret Army: The IRA ISBN 1-85371-813-0 Caulfield, Max, The Easter Rebellion, Dublin 1916 ISBN 1-57098-042-X Coogan, Tim Pat, 1916: The Easter Rising ISBN 0-304-35902-5 Coogan, Tim Pat, The IRA (Fully Revised & Updated), HarperCollins, London, 2000, ISBN 0 00 653155 5 De Rosa, Peter. Rebels: The Irish Rising of 1916. Fawcett Columbine, New York. 1990. ISBN 0-449-90682-5 Foy, Michael and Barton, Brian, The Easter Rising ISBN 0-7509-2616-3 Greaves, C. Desmond, The Life and Times of James ConnollyKee, Robert, The Green Flag ISBN 0-14-029165-2 Kostick, Conor & Collins, Lorcan, The Easter Rising, A Guide to Dublin in 1916 ISBN 0-86278-638-X Lyons, F.S.L., Ireland Since the Famine ISBN 0-00-633200-5 Martin, F.X. (ed.), Leaders and Men of the Easter Rising, Dublin 1916Macardle, Dorothy, The Irish RepublicMcNally, Michael and Dennis, Peter, Easter Rising 1916: Birth of the Irish Republic (2007), Osprey Publishing, ISBN 9781846030673 Murphy, John A., Ireland In the Twentieth CenturyNeeson, Eoin, Myths from Easter 1916, Aubane Historical Society, Cork, 2007, ISBN 978 1 903497 34 0 Ó Broin, Leon, Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1970 Purdon, Edward, The 1916 RisingTownshend, Charles, Easter 1916: The Irish RebellionThe Memoirs of John M. Regan, a Catholic Officer in the RIC and RUC, 1909–48, Joost Augusteijn, editor, Witnessed Rising, ISBN 978-1-84682-069-4. Clayton, Xander: AUD, Plymouth 2007. Eberspächer, Cord/Wiechmann, Gerhard: "Erfolg Revolution kann Krieg entscheiden". Der Einsatz von S.M.H. LIBAU im irischen Osteraufstand 1916 ("Success revolution may decide war". The use of S.M.H. LIBAU in the Irish Easter rising 1916), in: Schiff & Zeit, Nr. 67, Frühjahr 2008, S. 2-16. Edited by Ruán O’Donnell, The Impact of the 1916 Rising: Among the Nations, Irish Academic Press Dublin 2008, ISBN 978 0 7165 2965 External links The 1916 Rising - an Online Exhibition. National Library of Ireland Essay on the Rising, by Garret FitzGerald Special 90th Anniversary supplement from The Irish Times'' Easter Rising 50th Anniversary audio & video footage from RTÉ (Irish public television) Easter Rising site and walking tour of 1916 Dublin News articles and letters to the editor in "The Age", 27 April 1916 Press comments 1916-1996 The 1916 Rising by Norman Teeling a ten-painting suite acquired by An Post for permanent display at the General Post Office (Dublin) A photograph of the surrender of Pearse to General Lowe See also "Easter, 1916", a poem by William Butler Yeats Ballymun flats be-x-old:Велікоднае паўстаньне
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7,184
Central_African_Armed_Forces
The Forces armées centrafricaines (FACA) are the armed forces of the Central African Republic, established after independence in 1960. Today they are a rather weak institution, dependent on international support to hold back the enemies in the current civil war. Its disloyalty to the president came to the fore during the mutinies in 1996-1997, but ever since then it has faced internal problems. It has been strongly criticised by human rights organisations due to its terror, including killings, torture and sexual violence. History Role of military in domestic politics The military has played an important role in the history of Central African Republic. The current president, General François Bozizé is a former army chief-of-staff and his government includes several high-level military officers. Among the country’s five presidents since independence in 1960, three have been former army chiefs-of-staff, who have taken power through coups d’état. No president with military background has however been succeeded by a new military president. The country’s first president, David Dacko was overthrown by his army chief-of-staff, Jean-Bédel Bokassa in 1966. Following Bokassa, David Dacko was restored in 1981, only to be overthrown once again by his new army chief of staff, General André Kolingba after only a few months in power. In 1993, Ange-Félix Patassé became the first elected president of the country. He became soon unpopular within the army, resulting in violent mutinies in 1996-1997. In May 2001, there was an unsuccessful coup attempt by Kolingba and once again Patassé had to turn to friends abroad for support, this time Libya and DR Congo were helpful. Some months later, in the end of October, Patassé sacked his army chief-of-staff, François Bozizé, and tried to arrest him. Bozizé then fled to Chad and gathered a group of rebellions. In 2002, he seized Bangui for a short period. In March 2003 Bozizé took power through a coup d’état . – Histoire: République centrafricaine . Importance of ethnicity When General Kolingba became president in 1981, he implemented an ethnicity-based recruitment policy for the administration. Kolingba was a member of the Yakoma tribe from the south of the country, which made up approximately 5% of the total population. During his rule, members of Yakoma were granted all key positions in the administration and made up a majority of the military. This later had disastrous consequences, when Kolingba was replaced by a member of a northerner tribe, Ange-Félix Patassé. Army mutinies of 1996 -1997 Soon after the election 1993, Patassé became unpopular within the army, not least because of his inability to pay their wages (partly due to economic mismanagement and partly because France suddenly ended its economic support for the soldiers’ wages). Another reason for the irritation was that most of FACA consisted of soldiers from Kolingba’s ethnic group, the Yakoma. During Patassé’s rule they were becoming increasingly marginalised, while Patassé created militias favouring his own Gbaya tribe, as well as neighbouring Sara and Kaba. This resulted in army mutinies in 1996-1997, where fractions of the military clashed with the presidential guard, the Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP) and militias loyal to Patassé. – UNDP: Fiche Pays: République centrafricaine (2005) . On April 18, 1996, there was a first mutiny by 200-300 soldiers who claimed that they had not received their wage since 1992-1993. The confrontations between the soldiers and the presidential guard resulted in 9 dead and 40 wounded. French forces were supporting (Operation Almandin I) and acted negotiators. The unrest ended when the soldiers were finally paid their wages by France and the President agreed not to start legal proceedings against the soldiers. On May 18, 1996, a second mutiny was led by 500 soldiers who refused to be disarmed and denounced the agreement reached in April. The French forces were once again called to Bangui (Operation Almadin II), supported by military from Chad and Gabon. 3,500 foreigners were evacuated during the unrest, which killed 43 persons and wounded 238. On May 26, a peace agreement was signed between France and the mutineers. The latter were promised amnesty, allowed to retain their weapons. Their security was ensured by the French military. On November 15, 1996, there was a third mutiny and 1,500 French soldiers were flown in to ensure the safety of the foreigners. The mutineers demanded the discharge of the president. On 6 December, a negotiation process started, facilitated by Gabon, Burkina-Faso, Chad and Mali. The military – supported by the opposition parties – keeps claiming that Patassé has to resign. In January, 1997, however, the Bangui Agreements were signed and the French EFAO troop was replaced by the 1,350 soldiers of the Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB). In March, all mutineers were granted amnesty. The fighting between MISAB and the mutineers continued with a large offensive in June, resulting in up to 200 casualties. After this final clash, the mutineers stayed calm. After the mutinies, President Patassé suffered from a typical "dictator’s paranoia", resulting in a period of cruel terror executed by the presidential guard and various militia within the FACA loyal to the president, such as the Karako. It was directed against the Yakoma tribe, of which it is estimated that 20,000 persons fled during this period. But the oppression also targeted other parts of the society. The president accused his former ally France of supporting his enemies and seeks new international ties. When he strengthened his presidential guard (creating the FORSIDIR, see below), he Libya sent him 300 additional soldiers for his own personal safety. When former President Kolingba attempted a coup d’état in 2001 (which was, according to Patassé, supported by France), the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC) of Jean-Pierre Bemba in DR Congo came to his rescue. – Amnesty International: Amnesty International Report 2002 Crimes conducted by Patassé’s militias and Congolese soldiers during this period are now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, who wrote that "sexual violence appears to have been a central feature of the conflict", having identified more than 600 rape victims. – Yahoo News: ICC to investigate Central African Republic sexual violence, 22 May 2007 Present situation The FACA has been dominated by soldiers from the Yakoma ethnic group since the time of Kolingba. It has hence been considered disloyal by the two northerner presidents Patassé and Bozizé, both of whom have equipped and run their own militias outside FACA. The military also proved its disloyalty during the mutinies in 1996-1997. Although Francois Bozizé has a background in FACA himself (being its chief-of-staff from 1997 to 2001), he has been cautious by retaining the defence portfolio, as well as by appointing his son Jean-Francis Bozizé cabinet director in charge of running the Ministry of Defence. He kept his old friend General Antoine Gambi as Chief of Staff. Due to failure to curb deepening unrest in the northern part of the country, Gambi was in July 2006 replaced with Bozizé’s old friend from the military academy, Jules Bernard Ouandé. – AFRIK: Un nouveau chef pour l’armée centrafricaine, July 6, 2006 Military’s relations with the society The forces assisting Bozizé in seizing the power in 2003 were not paid what they were promised and started looting, terrorising and killing ordinary citizens. Summary executions have taken place with the implicit approval of the government. The situation has deteriorated since early 2006 and the regular army and the presidential guard regularly execute exertion, torture, killings and other human rights violations. There is no possibility for the national judicial system to investigate these cases. At the end of 2006, there were an estimated 150,000 internally displaced people. During a UN mission in the northern part of the country in November 2006, the mission had a meeting with a prefect who said that he could not maintain law and order over the military and the presidential guards. The FACA conducts summary executions and burn houses. Only on the route between Kaga-Bandoro and Ouandago, some 2,000 houses have been burnt, leaving an estimated 10,000 persons homeless. – Internal displacement in Central African Republic: a protection crisis, January 26, 2007 Reform of the army Both the Multinational Force in the Central African Republic (FOMUC) and France are assisting in the current reform of the army. One of the key priorities of the reform of the military is make it more ethnically diversified. It should also integrate Bozizé’s own rebel group (mainly consisting of members of his own Gbaya tribe). Many of the Yakoma soldiers who left the country after the mutinies in 1996-1997 have now returned and must also be reintegrated into the army. At the same time, BONUCA holds seminars in topics such as the relationship between military and civil parts of society. – Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Central African Republic, March 31, 2003 Foreign military presence in support of the Government Peacekeeping and peace enforcing forces Since the mutinies, a number of peacekeeping and peace enforcing international missions have been present in Central African Republic. There has been a discussion of the deployment of a regional United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force in both Chad and Central African Republic. But it is considered to shore up the ineffectual Darfur Peace Agreement. The missions deployed in the country during the last 10 years are the following: – Sudan Issue Brief: A widening war around Sudan - The proliferation of armed groups in the Central African Republic, January 2007 + International Peace Supporting Missions in Central African Republic Mission Name Organisation Dates Greatest Strength Tasks Inter-African Mission to Monitor the Implementation of the Bangui Agreements (Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui, MISAB) Burkina Faso, Chad, Gabon, Mali, Senegal and Togo February 1997 to April 1998 820 To monitor the fulfilling of the Bangui Agreements UN Mission in the Central African Republic (Mission des Nations Unies en République centrafricaine, MINURCA) UN April 1998 to February 2000 1,350 Maintain peace and security; supervise disarmament; technical assistance during 1998 elections United Nations Peace-building Office (Bureau politique d’observation des Nations Unies en Centrafrique, BONUCA) UN February 2000 to present Five military and six civilian police advisers to follow up on security-related reforms and to assist in the implementation of the training programmes for the national police. Consolidate peace and national reconciliation; strengthen democratic institutions; facilitate international mobilization for national reconstruction and economic recovery. Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD) CEN-SAD December 2001 to January 2003 300 Enforce and restore peace Multinational Force in the Central African Republic (Force multinationale en Centrafrique, FOMUC) Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) January 2003 to present 380 Ensure security; restructure FACA; and fight rebels in north-east Chad In addition to the multilateral forces, there have been bilateral support from other African countries, such as the Libyan and Congolese support to Patassé, mentioned above. Bozizé is in many ways dependent on Chad support. Chad has an interest in CAR, since it needs to ensure calmness close to its oil fields and the pipeline leading to the Cameroonian coast, close to the troubled northwest CAR. Before seizing power, Bozizé built up his rebel force in Chad, trained and augmented by the Chadian. President Déby assisted him actively in taking the power in March 2003 (his rebel forces included 100 Chadian soldiers). After the coup, another 400 soldiers were sent. Current direct support includes the 150 non-FOMUC Chadian troops that patrol the border area near Goré, the Chadian soldiers patrolling Bangui, but most of all the Chadian soldiers within the presidential lifeguard. The CEMAC Force includes 121 Chadian soldiers. France There has been an almost uninterrupted French military presence in Central African Republic since independence, regulated through agreements between the two Governments. The French troops were allowed to be based in the country and to intervene in cases of destabilisation. This was particularly important during the cold war era, when Francophone Africa was regarded as a natural French sphere of influence. Additionally, the strategic location of the country made it a more interesting location for military bases than its neighbours and Bouar and Bangui were hence two of the most important French bases abroad. However, in 1997, following Lionel Jospin’s expression “Neither interference nor indifference”, France came to adopt new strategic principles for its presence in Africa. This included a reduced permanent presence on the continent and an increased support to multilateral interventions. – New York Times: Out of Africa? Not the French, 12 January 2003 In Central African Republic, the Bouar base and the Béal Camp (at that time home to 1,400 French soldiers) in Bangui were shut down, as the French concentrated its African presence to Abidjan, Dakar, Djibouti, Libreville and N’Djamena and the deployment of a Force d’action rapide, based in France. – Guy Martin: France’s African policy in transition: disengagement and redeployment, University of Virginia, 2000 However, due to the situation in the country, France has retained a military presence. During the mutinies, 2,400 French soldiers were patrolling the streets of Bangui. Their official task was to evacuate foreign citizens, but this did not prevent direct confrontations with the mutineers (resulting in French and mutineer casualties). The level of French involvement resulted in protests among the Central African population, since many took party for the mutineers and accused France of defending a dictator against the people’s will. Voices were also heard in France where some blamed France for its protection of a discredited ruler, totally incapable of exerting power and managing the country. – Francis Laloupo: Centrafrique, un destin confisqué After the mutinies in 1997, the MISAB was a multilateral force, but it was armed, equipped, trained and managed by France. The Chadian, Gabonese and Congolese soldiers of the current Force multinationale en Centrafrique (FOMUC) mission in the country also enjoys logistical support from French soldiers. A study carried out by the US Congressional Research Service reveals however that France has again increased its arms sales to Africa and during the 1998-2005 period, France was the leading supplier of arms to the continent. – William Church: Africa: France Increases Arms Sales and Intervention, November 6, 2006 Components and units Air Force The Air Force is almost inoperable. Mirage F1 planes from the French Air Force regularly patrol troubled regions of the country and also participate in direct confrontations. – Inter-agency Mission to Birao (CAR): 16 to 23 January 2007 According to some sources, Bozizé used the money he got from the mining concession in Bakouma to buy two old MI 8 helicopters from Ukraine and one Hercules C 130, built in the 1950s, from USA. – Centrafrique : Bozizé ou la chronique d’une chute annoncée, 2004 The air force operates otherwise 7 light aircraft, including a single helicopter: ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aermacchi AL-60 | | utility | AL-60C-5 Conestoga | 6 | |----- | Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil | | utility helicopter | AS 350B | 1 | |} Garde républicaine (GR) GR consists of so called patriots that fought for Bozizé when he seized power in 2003 (mainly from the Gbaya tribe), together with soldiers from Chad. They are guilty of numerous assaults on the civil population, such as terror, aggression, sexual violence. Only a couple of months after Bozizé’s seizure of power, in May 2003, taxi and truck drivers conducted a strike against these outrages. New amphibious force Bozizé has created an amphibious force. It is called the Second Battalion of the Ground Forces and it patrols the Ubangi river. The staff of the sixth region in Bouali (mainly made up of members of the former president’s lifeguard) was transferred to the city of Mongoumba, located on the river. This city had previously been plundered by forces from MLC, that had crossed the border. – Actualité Centrafrique de sangonet - Dossier 16: Le président Bozizé crée deux nouveaux bataillons, April 25, 2003 Veteran Soldiers A program for disarmament and reintegration of veteran soldiers is currently taking place. A national commission for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration was put in place in September 2004. The commission is in charge of implementing a program wherein approximately 7,500 veteran soldiers will be reintegrated in civil life and obtain education. Discontinued groups and units that are no longer part of FACA FORSIDIR: The presidential lifeguard, Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP), was in March 1998 transformed to the Force spéciale de défense des institutions républicaines (FORSDIR). In contrary to the army – which consisted mainly of southerner Yakoma members and which thereby was unreliable for the northerner president – this unit consisted of northerners loyal to the president. Before eventually being dissolved in January 2,000, this highly controversial group became feared for their terror and troubled Patassé’s relation with important international partners, such as France. Of its 1,400 staff, 800 were subsequently reintegrated into FACA, under the command of the chief-of-staff. The remaining 400 recreated the USP (once again under the command of the chief-of-staff) . Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP): USP was Patassé’s presidential guard before and after FORSIDIR. When he was overthrown by Bozizé in 2003, the USP was dissolved and while some of the soldiers have been absorbed by FACA, others are believed to have joined the pro-Patassé rebel group FDPC that is fighting FACA in the north of the country. The Patriots or Liberators: Accompanied Bozizé when he seized power in March 2003. They are now a part of Bozizé’s lifeguard, the Garde républicaine, together with soldiers from Chad. Office central de répression du banditisme (OCRB): OCRB was a special unit within the police created to fight the looting after the army mutinies in 1996 and 1997. OCRB was guilty of numerous summary executions and arbitrary detentions, for which it has never been put on trial. MLPC Militia: Le Mouvement de libération du peuple centrafricain (MLPC) was the former president, Patassé’s political party. Its militia was active already during the 1993 election, but was strengthened during the mutinies 1996 and 1997, particularly through its Karako militia. Its core consisted of Sara people from Chad and Central African Republic but during the mutinies it recruited many young people in Bangui. DRC Militia: Rassemblement démocratique centrafricain (RDC) is the party of General Kolingba who was president during the 1980s. Its militia is said to have camps in Mobaye and have bonds to former officials of Kolingba’s “cousin” Mobutu Sese Seko in DR Congo. References External links Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series, Volume 43 Issue 12, Pages 16909A - 16910A, Published Online: 26 Jan 2007: Operation Boali, French aid mission to FACA CIA World Factbook US Department of State - Bureau of African Affairs: Background note
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7,185
Contract_bridge
Contract bridge, usually known simply as bridge, is a trick-taking card game of skill and chance (the relative proportions depending on the variant played). It is played by four players who form two partnerships; the partners sit opposite each other at a table. The game consists of the auction (often called bidding) and play, after which the hand is scored. The bidding ends with a contract, which is a declaration by one partnership that their side will take at least a stated number of tricks, with a specified suit as trump or without trumps. The rules of play are similar to other trick-taking games, with addition of the feature that one player's hand is displayed face up on the table as the "dummy". Bridge can be played in tournaments, where two or more tables play the same deals of cards and the results are compared; this form is called duplicate bridge. Competitions in duplicate bridge range from small clubs with only a few tables, to the World Championships and Olympiads where often hundreds of tables play the same hands. Game play See Contract bridge glossary for an explanation of unfamiliar words or phrases in this article. Two partnerships of two players each are needed to play bridge. The four players sit around a table with partners opposite one another. The compass directions are often used to refer to the four players, aligned with their seating pattern. Thus, South and North form one partnership and East and West form the other. A session of bridge consists of several deals (also called hands or boards). A hand is dealt, the bidding (or auction) proceeds to a conclusion and then the hand is played. Finally, the hand's result is scored. The goal of a single deal is to achieve the highest score with given cards. The score is affected by two principal factors: the number of tricks bid in the auction, and the number of tricks taken during play. The concept of contract, which distinguishes contract bridge from its predecessors, refers to a statement by one partnership that they shall take at least a certain number of tricks, with a given suit as trumps, or without trumps. The contract consists of two components: level and strain (also called denomination). Level represents the number of tricks to be taken above the first six (referred to as the book) — this treatment (and the requirement that the lowest possible level is one) ensures that at least a majority of the tricks must be taken by the partnership that wins the contract. Since there are 13 possible tricks, there are seven levels, numbered 1-7, corresponding to 7-13 tricks to take. Five strains are ranked, from lowest to highest, as clubs (), diamonds (), hearts (), spades (), and no trump (NT). The two lower-ranked strains ( and ) are called the minor suits (or minors), and the higher-ranked strains ( and ) are called majors. For instance, the contract "3 hearts" is an assertion that the partnership will take nine tricks (book plus three) with hearts as the trump suit. Thus, there are 7 × 5 = 35 possible basic contracts; 1 being the lowest, followed by 1 etc., up to 7NT. In the bidding stage or auction, the pairs compete to determine who proposes the highest-ranked contract, and the side that wins the bidding must then strive to fulfil that bargain by winning at least the contracted number of tricks in play if it is to obtain a score. Broadly speaking, there is an incentive to bid accurately to the optimum contract and then to play to make the contracted number of tricks (or more if good play or luck allows). If the side that wins the auction (declaring side) then takes the contracted number of tricks (or more), it is said to have made the contract and is awarded a score; otherwise, the contract is said to be defeated or set and points are awarded to the opponents (defenders). In finding an optimum contract, it can sometimes pay to bid slightly too high with the expectation of losing points, rather than allow the opposing side to bid and make a larger score. This is known as a sacrifice, and is quite common if both sides are contesting the final contract. This aspect is more common in some forms of duplicate bridge (which is played in competitions and many clubs) in which the goal is to get a better score than any other partnership facing the same hands, by however small a margin and in whatever way possible. Dealing The game is played with a standard deck of 52 cards. In rubber bridge (or other non-duplicate games), the cards are shuffled before each deal, and the dealer deals the cards clockwise one at a time, starting with the left-hand opponent so each player receives a hand of thirteen cards. The deal rotates clockwise each hand. In duplicate bridge the hands are shuffled and dealt only once at the beginning of the session. Players do not throw their cards to the center of the table during the play but instead play them immediately in front of themselves and turn them face down at the end of the trick. At the end of the hand each player returns his hand, intact, to the bridge boards in which it is transported to other tables so that everyone can play the same deals. The results for different players playing the same deal can then be compared largely removing element of random chance from scores. It also allows that in the case of an irregularity or dispute over a hand it can be reviewed and who played which cards in what order determined. In some competitions, boards are pre-dealt prior to the competition, especially if the same hands are to be played at many locations (for example in a large national or international tournament). There are also special computerised dealing machines used these days for pre-dealing hands at large tournaments and in many clubs. As the boards arrive for play at each subsequent table, the four players take their cards from the board and should count them to ensure that there are 13 cards in their hand so that any irregularity can be corrected before the auction and play commence. The auction The auction determines the declaring side and the final contract. Only one of the partners of the declaring side, referred to as declarer, plays the hand, while the other becomes the dummy (i.e. doing nothing). In addition to establishing strain and level, the final contract may be doubled (by the opponents) or redoubled (by the declaring side after the opponents had already doubled), in which case the scoring of the hand is increased, whether the contract is made or defeated. During the auction, each player makes a call in turn, which must be one of the following: a Bid (stating a level and a denomination) Double (when the last call other than pass was a bid by an opponent) Redouble (when the last call other than pass was a double by an opponent) Pass (when unwilling to make one of the three preceding calls) (Note: although technically incorrect, the word "bid" is also often used informally in place of "call") The auction starts with the dealer and proceeds clockwise with each player, having first evaluated their hand, making a call in order. The auction ends when three successive passes occur at some point after the dealer's first call. If all four players pass in the first round, the deal is not played (in rubber bridge the deal is not scored and the hand is redealt by the original dealer, while in duplicate the score is recorded as zero for each pair since re-dealing a hand that has been 'passed out' is prohibited by the rules). A bid specifies a level and denomination, and ostensibly denotes a willingness to play the corresponding contract. A player wishing to bid must make a bid that is sufficient; a bid is sufficient if it specifies any denomination on a higher level than the last bid, or a higher-ranked denomination on the same level. Thus, after a bid of 3, bids of 2 or 3 are not allowable, but 3 or 4 are. A double can be made only after the opponents have made a bid. At its simplest, this states that the player is confident that the opponents cannot make their bid during play and the player is willing to risk doubling their score if they do and the penalty if they do not. However, in modern bridge, the double is more often used in a conventional sense, to ask partner to bid or to pass information to partner. A "redouble" can be made only after an opponent's double; it increases the points scored and the penalty for failure yet further. In practice, the double and redouble are often used systemically for other purposes, though if they are in effect for the final contract they increase the score regardless of their intended meaning. Double and redouble remain in effect only until the next bid — any subsequent bid invalidates them. Once the auction ends, the last bid (together with any double or redouble that followed it) becomes the contract, and the level of this bid determines the number of tricks required to fulfil the contract and its strain determines what suit, if any, will be trumps. It should be noted that the primary purpose of early bids is to exchange information rather than to determine the final contract. As most players play, most calls (bids, doubles and redoubles, and sometimes even passes) are not made with the intention that they become the final contract, but to describe the player's hand strength and distribution, so that the partnership can make an educated guess which contract would be the optimal one. The set of agreements used by a partnership about the meanings of each call is referred to as a bidding system, full details of which must be made available to the opponents; 'secret' systems are not allowed. The pair that did not win the contract is called the defense. The pair that made the last bid is divided further: the player who first made a bid in the denomination of the final contract becomes the declarer and his partner becomes the dummy. For example, suppose West is the dealer and the bidding was: West North East Southpass 1 pass 1pass 2 double 3pass 4 pass pass pass Then East and West would be the defenders, South would be the declarer (being the first to bid spades), North would be the dummy, and spades the trump suit; 10 tricks would be required by declarer (and dummy). Since East's double was invalidated by the subsequent South's 3 bid, it does not affect the contract. For the purpose of determining the declarer, bids in the denomination of the final contract by the defense are ignored. Bidding boxes, which allow the calls to be placed using cards rather than announced orally, are often used to prevent players at nearby tables overhearing the bidding and to avoid voice inflexions passing information to a partner. The play of the hand The play consists of thirteen tricks, each trick consisting of one card played from each of the four hands. Aces are high in bridge, followed by kings, queens, jacks, 10s, 9s ... down to 2s, the lowest card in each suit. The first card played in a trick is called the lead; after the lead play proceeds clockwise around the table. Any card may be selected from a hand as the lead, but the remaining hands must follow suit, meaning they must play a card of the same suit as the lead, unless the hand in question has no more cards of that suit, in which case any card may be played. The hand that plays the highest card in the suit of the lead wins the trick, unless any of the played cards are of the trump suit, in which case the hand that plays the highest trump card wins the trick. The hand that wins the trick plays the lead card of the next trick, until all the cards have been played. The first lead, called the opening lead, is made by the defender to the left of the declarer. After the opening lead is played, the dummy lays his/her hand face up on the table in four columns, one for each suit, with the column of the trump suit (if there is one) on the right as dummy looks at the table. The declarer is responsible for selecting cards to play from the dummy's hand and from his own hand in turn. The defenders each choose the cards to play from their own hands. Dummy is allowed to prevent declarer from infringing the rules but otherwise must not interfere with the play; for example, dummy may attempt to prevent declarer from leading from the wrong hand (by stating, e.g., "you won the last trick in dummy") but must not comment on opponents' actions or make suggestions as to play. In casual bridge games the dummy often does nothing, but in duplicate bridge dummy must play cards from the dummy hand at declarer's instruction (e.g., by stating "jack of hearts please, partner", or less frequently by touching or pointing at the jack of hearts). The contract level sets a specific target: in the example above, the declarer must attempt to win ten tricks (the assumed "book" of six, plus four as bid, with spades as trumps), to make the contract and get a positive score. Success in this goal is rewarded by points in the scoring phase for the declarer's side. If the declarer fails to make the contract, the defenders are said to have set or defeated the contract (declarer has gone down), and are awarded points for doing so. Scoring The goal for each pair is to make as high a score as possible. However, if the contract is made, its level is the primary factor affecting the scoring, rather than the number of tricks taken in play: for example, if the declarer takes all 13 tricks without trumps, there is a huge score difference between the cases of contract being 1NT and 7NT. The premium for contracting to take more tricks ensures competitiveness in the auction: even if a partnership holds a majority of the high cards and the opponents have no interest in bidding, they are still encouraged to bid high in order to achieve the best possible score, which in turn often results in contracts that are difficult to make. When the declarer makes the contract, the declarer's side receives points for: Every trick bid and made (20 for minor suit contracts, 30 for major suit and no-trump ones, with an additional 10 points for the first trick at no-trump) Overtricks (tricks taken over the contract level), again with 20 for minor suits, 30 for majors and no-trump Bonuses for contract level Other specific bonuses When the declarer fails to make the contract, the defending pair receives points for undertricks — the number of tricks by which declarer fell short of the goal. Because of the structure of bonuses, certain bid levels have special significance. The most important level is game, which is any contract whose bid trick value is 100 or more points. Game level varies by suit, since different suits are worth different amounts in scoring. The game level for no-trump is 3 (9 tricks), the game level for hearts or spades (major suits) is 4 (10 tricks), and the game level for clubs or diamonds (minor suits) is 5 (11 tricks). Because of the attractiveness of the game bonus, much of the bidding revolves around investigating a possibility to bid a makeable game. High bonuses are also awarded for bidding and making small slam (level 6) and grand slam (level 7, i.e., all the tricks). The contracts below game level are called partial contracts or partscores. The concept of vulnerability affects scoring and introduces a wider range of tactics in bidding and play. Every partnership is beforehand assigned one of two states: vulnerable or non-vulnerable. When a pair is vulnerable, game and slam bonuses are higher, as are penalties for failure to make the contract. Methods for assigning vulnerability differ for duplicate and rubber bridge. There are two important variations in bridge scoring: rubber scoring and duplicate/Chicago scoring. They share most features, but differ in how the total score is accumulated. In rubber bridge, the declaring partnership counts points for successfully taken contracted tricks "below the line" on a scoresheet (which can be accumulated to make a game), while penalties and bonuses are tallied "above the line". The first partnership to accumulate two games gets a "rubber" bonus. In duplicate bridge, all the points are accumulated for each hand by itself and present a single score, expressed as a positive number (sum of trick points and bonus points) to the winning pair, and by implication, as a negative number to the opponents. (A third form, "Chicago" bridge, is a 'friendly' game that uses duplicate scoring, with every deal scored as a single number, but usually with only one table (i.e., not duplicated elsewhere) and with vulnerability assigned in a very simple fashion.) Bonuses are given for hands which made game immediately and not accumulated between hands. In duplicate bridge, the same hand is played unchanged across two or more tables and the results are compared. Scores are for each table are recorded on traveling slips that move with the boards or on pickup slips taken to the director. More recently, wireless electronic scoring is becoming more common. Each table has a purpose-built keypad on which players enter the score which is then transmitted directly to the scoring computer, doing way with paper-slips and associated errors entirely. Resulting scores for each board are expressed in matchpoints or international match points (IMP). Regardless of the actual contract, the competitor (pair or team) with the best performance on each board gets the highest number of points for that board and vice versa. The competitor with the highest total number of points becomes the winner of the tournament. Thus, even with bad cards, a competitor can win the tournament if it has bid better and/or played better than the other players who played the same set of cards. Matchpoint or (for teams) "Board-a-match" scoring simply awards a team or pair one matchpoint for every other pair that had any lower score playing the same hands on that board and half a matchpoint for every other pair that had exactly the same score. IMPS convert differences in scores using a sliding scale. 0 IMPS are awarded for a 0-10 point difference. Laws of Duplicate Contract Bridge Rules of contract bridge are standardized by World Bridge Federation and published in the book Laws of Duplicate Contract Bridge. The last edition was issued in 1997 and consists of 93 laws (articles). All duplicate bridge sponsoring organizations on lower levels must apply these rules. A large portion of the laws, though, is devoted to dealing with various irregular situations, and as such it is mostly used by tournament directors (referees) as a reference book. These laws do not apply to rubber bridge, which has its own set of laws, the Laws of Contract Bridge, issued in 1993; the rules are broadly similar to those of duplicate bridge. In practice, simpler rules for dealing with irregularities than those set out in the lawbook are often applied by the players themselves or by house rules. History Bridge is member of the family of trick-taking games and is a development of Whist, which had become the dominant such game enjoying a loyal following for centuries. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Bridge is the English pronunciation of a game called Biritch, which was also known as Russian Whist. The oldest known Biritch rule book dates from 1886 and documents many significant bridge-like developments from whist: dealer chose the trump suit, or nominated his partner to do so; there was a call of no trumps (biritch); dealer's partner's hand became dummy; points were scored above and below the line; game was 3NT, 4H and 5D (although 8 club odd tricks and 15 spade odd tricks were needed); the score could be doubled and redoubled; and there were slam bonuses. This game, and variants of it known as bridge (Elwell 1905 and Benedict 1900) and bridge-whist, (Melrose 1901) became popular in the United States and the UK in the 1890s despite the long-established dominance of whist. (Foster 1889) In 1904 auction bridge, (also known as royal auction bridge (Bergholt 1915) ), was developed, in which the players bid in a competitive auction to decide the contract and declarer. The object became to make at least as many tricks as were contracted for and penalties were introduced for failing to do so. The modern game of contract bridge was the result of innovations to the scoring of auction bridge made by Harold Stirling Vanderbilt and others. The most significant change was that only the tricks contracted for were scored below the line toward game or a slam bonus, a change that resulted in bidding becoming much more challenging and interesting. Also new was the concept of vulnerability, making sacrifices to protect the lead in a rubber more expensive, and the various scores were adjusted to produce a more balanced game. Vanderbilt set out his rules in 1925, and within a few years contract bridge had so supplanted other forms of the game that "bridge" became synonymous with "contract bridge." In the USA, most of the bridge played today is duplicate bridge, which is played at clubs, in tournaments and online. In the UK, rubber bridge is still popular in both homes and clubs, as is duplicate bridge. Tournaments Bridge is a game of skill played with randomly dealt cards, which makes it also a game of chance, or more exactly, a tactical game with inbuilt randomness, imperfect knowledge and restricted communication. The chance element is in the deal of the cards; in competitions and clubs the chance element is largely eliminated by comparing results of multiple pairs in identical situations. This is achievable when there are eight or more players, sitting at two or more tables, and the deals from each table are preserved and passed to the next table, thereby duplicating them for the next table of participants to play. At the end of a session, the scores for each deal are compared, and the most points are awarded to the players doing the best with each particular deal. This measures skill because each player is being judged only on the ability to bid with, and play, the same cards as other players. This form of the game is referred to as duplicate bridge and is played in clubs and tournaments, which can gather as many as several hundred players. Duplicate bridge is a mind sport, and its popularity gradually became comparable to that of chess, with which it is often compared for its complexity and the mental skills required for high-level competition. Bridge and chess are the only "mind sports" recognized by the International Olympic Committee, although they were not found eligible for the main Olympic program. The basic premise of duplicate bridge had previously been used for whist matches as early as 1857. Initially, bridge was not thought to be suitable for duplicate competition; it wasn't until the 1920s that (auction) bridge tournaments became popular. In 1925 when contract bridge first evolved, bridge tournaments were becoming popular, but the rules were somewhat in flux, and several different organizing bodies were involved in tournament sponsorship: the American Bridge League (formerly the American Auction Bridge League, which changed its name in 1929), the American Whist League, and the United States Bridge Federation. In 1935, the first officially recognized world championship was held. By 1937, however, the American Contract Bridge League had come to power (a union of the ABL and the USBF), and it remains the principal organizing body for bridge tournaments in North America. In 1958, the World Bridge Federation was founded, as bridge had become an international activity. Bidding boxes and bidding screens Bidding box In tournaments, "bidding boxes" are frequently used. A bidding box is a box of cards, each bearing the name of one of the legal calls in bridge. A player wishing to make a call displays the appropriate card from the box, rather than making an oral declaration. This prevents unauthorized information (i.e., anything other than the call itself) from being conveyed via voice inflection. In top national and international events, "bidding screens" are used. These are diagonal screens that are placed across the table, preventing partners from seeing each other during the game; often the screen is removed after the auction is complete. Game strategy Bidding Much of the complexity in bridge arises from the difficulty of arriving at a good final contract in the auction. This is a difficult problem: the two players in a partnership must try to communicate sufficient information about their hands to arrive at a makeable contract, but the information they can exchange is restricted—information may be passed only by the calls made and later by the cards played, not by other means; in addition, the agreed-upon meaning of each call and play must be available to the opponents. Since a partnership that has freedom to bid gradually at leisure can exchange more information, and since a partnership that can interfere with the opponents' bidding (as by raising the bidding level rapidly) can cause difficulties for their opponents, bidding systems are both informational and strategic. It is this mixture of information exchange and evaluation, deduction, and tactics that is at the heart of bidding in bridge. A number of basic rules of thumb in bridge bidding and play are summarized as bridge maxims. Bidding systems and conventions A bidding system is a set of partnership agreements on the meanings of bids. A partnership's bidding system is usually made up of a core system, modified and complemented by specific conventions (optional customizations incorporated into the main system for handling specific bidding situations) which are pre-chosen between the partners prior to play. The line between a well-known convention and a part of a system is not always clear-cut: some bidding systems include specified conventions by default. Bidding systems can be divided into mainly natural systems such as Acol and Standard American, and mainly artificial systems such as the Precision Club. Calls are usually considered to be either natural or conventional (artificial). A natural bid is one in which the suit and level bid is essentially passing the information "I have this suit for you"; a natural double says in effect "I want to raise the stakes as I don't think the opponents can make their contract". By contrast, a conventional (artificial) call offers and/or asks for information by means of pre-agreed coded interpretations, in which some calls convey very specific information or requests that are not part of the natural meaning of the call. Thus in response to 4NT, a 'natural' bid of 5 would state a preference towards a diamond suit or a desire to play the contract in 5 diamonds, whereas if the partners have agreed to use the common Blackwood convention, a bid of 5 in the same situation would say nothing about the diamond suit, but tell the partner that the hand in question contains exactly one ace. Conventions are valuable in bridge because of the need to pass information beyond a simple like or dislike of a particular suit, and because the limited bidding space can be used more efficiently by taking situations in which a given call will have less utility, because the information it would convey is not valuable or because the desire to convey that information would arise only rarely, and giving that call an artificial meaning that conveys more useful (or more frequently useful) information. There are a very large number of conventions from which players can choose; many books have been written detailing bidding conventions. Well-known conventions include Stayman (to ask for the showing of any 4 card major suit in a 1NT opener's hand), Jacoby transfers (a request by the weak hand for the stronger partner to bid the agreed suit first, and therefore to become the declarer), and the Blackwood convention (to ask for information on the number of aces and kings held, used in slam bidding situations). The term preempt refers to a high level tactical bid by a weak hand, relying upon a long suit rather than high-value cards for tricks. Preemptive bids serve a double purpose — they allow players to indicate they are bidding on the basis of a long suit in an otherwise weak hand, which is important information to share, and they also consume substantial bidding room before a possibly strong opposing pair can identify whether they have a good possibility to play the hand, or in what suit or at what level they should do so. Several systems include the use of opening bids or other early bids with weak hands including long (usually six to eight card) suits at the 2, 3 or even 4 levels as preempts. Basic natural systems As a rule, a natural suit bid indicates a holding of at least four (or more, depending on the situation and the system) cards in that suit as an opening bid, or a lesser number when supporting partner; a natural NT bid indicates a balanced hand. Most systems use a count of high card points as the basic evaluation of the strength of a hand, refining this by reference to shape and distribution if appropriate. In the most commonly used point count system, aces are counted as 4 points, kings as 3, queens as 2, and jacks as 1 point; therefore, the deck contains 40 points. In addition, the distribution of the cards in a hand into suits may also contribute to the strength of a hand and be counted as distribution points. A better than average hand, containing 12 or 13 points, is usually considered sufficient to open the bidding, i.e., to make the first bid in the auction. A combination of two such hands (i.e., 25 or 26 points shared between partners) is often sufficient for a partnership to bid, and generally to make, game in a major suit or notrump (more are usually be needed for a minor suit game, as the level is higher). In natural systems, a 1NT opening bid usually reflects a hand that has a relatively balanced shape (usually between two and four (or less often five) cards in each suit) and a sharply limited number of high card points, usually somewhere between 12 and 18 — the most common ranges use a span of exactly three points, e.g., 12-14, 15-17 or 16-18). Opening bids of 3 or higher are preemptive bids, i.e., bids made with weak hands that especially favor a particular suit, opened at a high level in order to define the hand's value quickly and to frustrate the opposition. For example, a hand of would be a candidate for an opening bid of 3, designed to make it difficult for the opposing team to bid and find their optimum contract even if they have the bulk of the points, as it is nearly valueless unless spades are trump, it contains good enough spades that the penalty for being set should not be higher than the value of an opponent game, and the high card weakness makes it more likely that the opponents have enough strength to make game themselves. Openings at the 2 level are either unusually strong (2NT, natural, and 2, artificial) or preemptive, depending on the system. Unusually strong bids communicate an especially high number of points (normally 20 or more) or a high trick-taking potential (normally 8 or more). Opening bids at the one level are made with hands containing 12–13 points or more and which are not suitable for one of the preceding bids. Using Standard American with 5-card majors, opening hearts or spades usually promises a 5-card suit. Partnerships who agree to play 5-card majors open a minor suit with 4-card majors and then bid their major suit at the next opportunity. Doubles are sometimes given conventional meanings in otherwise mostly natural systems. A natural, or penalty double, is one used to try to gain extra points when the defenders are confident of setting (defeating) the contract. The most common example of a conventional double is the takeout double of a low-level suit bid, implying support for the unbid suits or the unbid major suits and asking partner to choose one of them. Variations on the basic themes Bidding systems depart from these basic ideas in varying degrees. Standard American, for instance, is a collection of conventions designed to bolster the accuracy and power of these basic ideas, while Precision Club is a system that uses the 1 opening bid for all or almost all strong hands (but sets the threshold for "strong" rather lower than most other systems) and may include other artificial calls to handle other situations (but it may contain natural calls as well). Many experts today use a system called 2/1 game forcing (pronounced two over one game forcing), which is similar to but more complicated than Standard American. In the UK, Acol is the most common system. There are also a variety of advanced techniques used for hand evaluation. The most basic is the Milton Work point count, (the 4-3-2-1 system detailed above) but this is sometimes modified in various ways, or either augmented or replaced by other approaches such as losing trick count, honor point count, law of total tricks, or Zar Points. Common conventions and variations within natural systems include: Point count required for 1 NT opening bid ('kamikaze' 10-12, 'weak' 12-14, 'intermediate' ~14-16, or 'strong' ~16-18) Whether an opening bid of 1 and 1 requires a minimum of 4 or 5 cards in the suit (4 or 5 card majors) Whether 1 (and sometimes 1) is 'natural' or 'suspect' (also called 'phoney'), signifying an opening hand lacking a notable heart or spade suit Whether opening bids at the two level are 'strong' (20+ points) or 'weak' (i.e., pre-emptive with a 6 card suit). (Note: an opening bid of 2 is usually played in otherwise natural systems as conventional, signifying any exceptionally strong hand) Blackwood (either the original version or Roman Key Card) Stayman (together with Blackwood, described as "the two most famous conventions in Bridge". Bridge Lessons series, Stayman & Transfer (Deal 1), by Andrew Robson ) Whether the partnership will play bids of 2D and 2H (and sometimes other bids) over 1 NT as transfers What types of cue bids (e.g. rebidding the opponent's suit) the partnership will play, if any. Whether doubling a contract at the 1, 2 and sometimes higher levels signifies a belief that the opponents' contract will fail and a desire to raise the stakes (a penalty double), or an indication of strength but no biddable suit coupled with a request that partner bid something (a takeout double). How the partnership's bidding practices will be varied if their opponents intervene or compete. Which (if any) bids are forcing and require a response. Within play, it is also commonly agreed what systems of opening leads, signals and discards will be played: Conventions for the opening lead govern how the first card to be played will be chosen and what it will mean, Signals indicate how cards played within a suit are chosen — for example, playing a noticeably high (or low) card when this would not be expected can signal encouragement to continue playing the suit, and a low (or high) card can signal discouragement and a desire for partner to choose some other suit. Discards cover the situation when a player cannot follow suit and therefore has free choice what card to play or throw away. In such circumstances the thrown-away card can be used to indicate some aspect of the hand, or a desire for a specific suit to be played. Advanced bidding techniques Every call (including "pass", also sometimes called "no bid) serves two purposes. It confirms or passes some information to a partner, and also denies by implication any other kind of hand which would have tended to support an alternative call. For example, a bid of 2NT immediately after partner's 1NT not only shows a balanced hand of a certain point range, but also tends to deny possession of a five-card major suit (otherwise the player would have bid it) or even a four card major suit (or the player would probably have used the Stayman convention). Likewise, in some partnerships the bid of 2 in the sequence 1NT - 2 - 2 - 2 between partners (opponents passing throughout) explicitly shows five hearts but also confirms four cards in spades: the bidder must hold at least five hearts to make it worth looking for a heart fit after 2 denied a four card major, and with at least five hearts, a Stayman bid must have been justified by having exactly four spades, the other major (since Stayman (as used by this partnership) is not useful with anything except a four card major suit). Taken from Andrew Robson Bridge Lessons series, "Stayman & Transfer", deal 14 Thus an astute partner can read much more than the surface meaning into the bidding. The situations detailed here are extremely simple examples; many instances of advanced bidding involve specific agreements related to very specific situations and subtle inferences regarding entire sequences of calls. Play techniques Terence Reese, a prolific author of bridge books, points out that there are only four ways of taking a trick by force, two of which are very easy: playing a high card that no one else can beat trumping an opponent's high card establishing long suits (the last cards in a suit will take tricks if the opponents don't have the suit and are unable to trump) playing for the opponents' high cards to be in a particular position (if their ace is to the left of your king, your king may be able to take a trick) Nearly all trick-taking techniques in bridge can be reduced to one of these four methods. The optimum play of the cards can require much thought and experience, and is too complicated to describe in a short article. However, below are some of the common techniques. Techniques by declarer establishing long suits finessing when not to finesse the holdup (mostly at NT contracts) timing unblocking blocking managing entries trumping the crossruff when to draw trumps (how many rounds to draw) when not to draw trumps ruffing losers discarding a quick loser complete crossruff Advanced techniques by declarer card reading (counting the hand) the duck the dummy reversal the endplay various coups the squeeze the principle of restricted choice the theory of vacant spaces (probability) techniques for playing various suit combinations percentages the safety play Techniques by defenders Defense is commonly seen as much harder than playing as a declarer mainly because the defenders have less information than the declarers. It starts from an opening lead. The opening lead can often determine the number of tricks the defenders can win. It's so important that the common opening lead conventions are usually included in the convention card. Below are the most commonly used conventions: Which card to lead in a suit the higher card from a doubleton to show count, create ruff opportunity, and avoid blocking (with or without honors) the top card from a three-card sequence with honor(s) to cash and possibly establish the suit (strong enough to do so) the smallest one or the fourth-highest card in a suit with honor to encourage return and help establish the suite (both suit and no-trump contracts) A or K from a suit led by AK for suit and no-trump contracts (depending on conventions) one card from a three-card suit without honor in suit and no-trump contracts (depending on conventions) Which suit to lead singleton/doubleton for ruff in the second/third round longest and strongest in notrump contracts partner's bid suit trump suit Aggressive or passive leads After the opening lead, the most important technique is signaling. There are three types of signals: attitude signals, count signals, and suit preference signals. Among them, the attitude signals are most frequently used. As its name shows, signaling is to disclose one defender's card information to the other defender (and the declarer as well). Since the defenders usually have access to less information, communication is more crucial in defense. As seen above, both opening lead and signals disclose valuable information to help communicate. Other techniques for better communication include unblocking, overtaking, ducking, etc. Generally, it's more effective for a beginner to learn play as a declarer before play as a defender since techniques for defenders are related to the declarer techniques, which are easier to understand. ExampleFor definition of terms used in the example, see Contract bridge glossary. The cards are dealt as in the diagram, and North is the dealer. As neither North nor East have sufficient strength to open the bidding, they each pass, denying such strength. South, next in turn, opens with the bid of 1, which denotes a reasonable heart suit (at least 4 or 5 cards long, depending on the system) and at least 12 high card points. West overcalls with 1, North supports partner's suit with 2, and East supports spades with 2. South inserts a game try of 3, inviting the partner to bid the game of 4 with good club support and overall values, and North complies, as North has extra values in the form of the A, a fourth trump (the previous bid promised only three), and the doubleton queen of clubs to fit with partner's strength there. (North could instead have bid 3, indicating not enough strength for game.) The bidding was: WestNorthEastSouth PassPass11223Pass4PassPassPass In the auction, North-South are trying to investigate whether their cards are sufficient to make a game (ten tricks in hearts or spades, 11 tricks in clubs or diamonds), which yields bonus points if bid and made. East-West are competing in spades, hoping to play a contract in spades at a low level. 4 is the final contract, 10 tricks being required for N-S to make with hearts as trump. South is the declarer, having been first to bid hearts, and the player to South's left, West, has to choose the first card in the play, known as the opening lead. West chooses the spade king because spades is the suit the partnership has shown strength in, and because they have agreed that when they hold two touching honors (or adjacent honors) they will play the higher one first. West plays the card face down, to give their partner and the declarer (but not dummy) a chance to ask any last questions about the bidding or to object if they believe West is not the correct hand to lead. After that, North's cards are laid on the table and North becomes dummy, as both the North and South hands will be controlled by the declarer. West turns the lead card face up, and the declarer studies the two hands to make a plan for the play. The bottom line is, since the trump ace, a spade, and a diamond trick must be lost, a trick must not be lost in clubs. Tactically, if the K is held by West, South will find it very hard to prevent it making a trick. However, there is an almost-equal chance that it is held by East, in which case it can be 'trapped' against the ace, and will be beaten, using a strategy known as a finesse. After considering the cards, the declarer directs dummy (North) to play a small spade. East plays low (small card) and South takes the A, gaining the lead. South proceeds by drawing trump, leading the K. West decides there is no benefit to holding back, and winning with the ace, cashes the Q. For fear of a ruff and discard, West plays a diamond instead of another spade. Declarer ducks (plays low) from the table, and East scores the Q. Not having anything better to do, East returns the remaining trump, taken in South's hand. The trumps now accounted for, South can now execute the finesse, perhaps trapping the king as planned. South enters the dummy (i.e. wins in the dummy's hand) by leading a low diamond, using dummy's A to win the trick, and leads the Q from dummy to the next trick. East covers the queen with the king, and South takes the trick with the Ace, and proceeds by cashing the remaining master J. (If East doesn't play the king, then South will play a low club from South's hand and the queen will win anyway, this being the essence of the finesse). The game is now safe: South ruffs a small club with a dummy's trump, then ruffs a diamond in hand for an entry back, and ruffs the last club in dummy (sometimes described as a crossruff). Finally, South claims the remaining tricks by showing his or her hand, as it now contains only high trumps and there's no need to play the hand out to prove they are all winners. (The trick-by-trick notation used above can be also expressed in tabular form, but a textual explanation is usually preferred in practice, for reader's convenience. Plays of small cards or discards are often omitted from such a description, unless they were important for the outcome). North-South score the required 10 tricks, and their opponents take the remaining 3. The contract is fulfilled, and North enters +620 for the winning side (North-South are in charge of bookkeeping in duplicate tournaments) on the traveling sheet. All players return their own cards to the board, and the next deal is played. Bridge on the Internet There are several free and some subscription-based servers available for playing bridge on the Internet. OKbridge is the oldest of the still-running Internet Bridge services; players of all standards, from beginners to world champions may be found playing there. OKbridge is a subscription based club, so it offers premium services such as customer support and ethics reviews. Another subscription-based and institutionalized online Bridge club since 1994 is Bridge Club Live (BCL). With the claim of being "The Friendliest Bridge Club of the World", BCL organizes 4-6 day annual meetings in different countries each year to get together its members. SWAN Games is a more recent competitor of subscription-based online Bridge clubs. Bridge Base Online is the most populated online bridge club in the world, in part because it is free to play regular games thereon. The above online clubs offer various features such as options to earn ACBL masterpoints, play in online tournaments, compile lists of friends, purchase software to improve Bridge skills, and earn money playing Bridge. On Bridge Base Online there is also a VuGraph feature where important international events are shown for anyone interested to watch. Some national contract bridge organizations that now offer online bridge play to their members include the English Bridge Union, the Dutch Bridge Union and the Australian Bridge Federation. MSN and Yahoo! Games have several online rubber bridge rooms. In 2001, World Bridge Federation issued a special edition of the lawbook adapted for internet and other electronic forms of the game. Differences relevant to online play include: Flexibility when to play, and choice of opponent skill level. Player rating systems may attempt to measure ability without regard to the number of games played or the number of years spent accumulating masterpoints. Fewer restrictions on the conventions that are permitted. Unauthorised information cannot be passed by tone of voice or body language (but can much more easily be passed by external communication). Detailed records can be kept, to help resolve complaints. The software prevents improper plays and calls. There are also a number of disadvantages: Inability to decide on bidding convention ahead of time, because partners are (usually) strangers. A reduced social element. Players may leave before a hand finishes, or in the middle of a planned session, either intentionally or because of connection difficulties. Computer bridge After many years of little progress, at the end of the twentieth century computer bridge made big strides forward. In 1996, the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) initiated official World Championships Computer Bridge, to be held annually along with a major bridge event. The first Computer Bridge Championship took place in 1997 at the North American Bridge Championships in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Strong bridge playing programs such as Jack (World Champion computer bridge 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006) and Wbridge5 (World Champion computer bridge 2005 and 2007) would probably rank among the top few thousand human pairs worldwide. A series of articles published in 2005 and 2006 in the Dutch bridge magazine IMP describes matches between Jack and seven top Dutch pairs. A total of 196 boards were played. Overall, the program Jack lost, but by a small margin (359 versus 385 imps). Notable bridge people American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) - Hall of Fame members and year inducted Baron, Hermine Becker, B. Jay Becker, Michael Blackwood, Easley Bluhm, Lou Bruce, David Churchill, S. Garton Corn Jr., Ira G. Crane, Barry Crawford, John Culbertson, Ely Culbertson, Josephine Eisenberg, William (Billy) Farell, Mary Jane Fishbein, Harry Francis, Henry Freeman, Richard Freilich, Edith Frey, Richard Fry Jr., SamGerber, John Goldberg, Richard Goldman, Robert (Bobby), 1999 Goren, Charles, 1964 Gottlieb, Michael Hamilton, Fred Hamman, Robert Harkavy, Harry Hawes, Emma Jean Hazen, Lee Jacoby, James (Jim) Jacoby, Oswald Kantar, Edwin Kaplan, Edgar Kay, Norman Kearse, Amalya Kehela, Sami Kennedy, BettyLandy, Alvin Lazard, Sidney Lenz, Sidney Leventritt, Peter Lightner, Theodore Mahmood, Zia, 2007 Maier, Merwyn Manfield, Edward Mathe, Lewis Miles, Marshall Mitchell, Jacqui Mitchell, Victor (Vic) Morehead, Albert Moyse, Alphonse Murray, Eric Nail, G. Robert Nickell, Nick Passell, Mike Pender, PeterRapee, George Robinson, Steve Root, William Rosenkranz, George Ross, Hugh Roth, Alvin Rubens, Jeff Rubin, Ira Sanborn, Kerri Sanders, Carol Sanders, Thomas Schenken, Howard Schleifer, Meyer Sheardown, Percy Sheinwold, Alfred Silodor, Sidney Sims, P. Hal Sobel, Alexander (Al) Sobel-Smith, Helen Solomon, Charles Soloway, Paul Sontag, Alan Stansby, Lew Stayman, Samuel Stone, TobiasTreadwell, David Truscott, Alan Truscott, Dorothy Vanderbilt, Harold von Zedtwitz, Waldemar Wagar, Margaret Wei-Sender, Katherine Weichsel, Peter Wolff, Robert Woosley, Kit Work, Milton Young, Sally European Bridge League - Medals of Distinction Gold Medal 1975 Geoffrey BUTLER England 1983 Jaime ORTIZ-PATINO England 1987 Nils E. JENSEN Sweden 1994 David BARDACH Israel 1995 Jose DAMIANI France 1999 Anna Maria TORLONTANO Italy 1999 Bill PENCHARZ England 2002 Paul MAGERMAN Belgium 2003 Jose Manuel de OLIVEIRA Portugal 2006 Radoslaw KIELBASINSKI Poland 2008 Yves AUBRY France Silver Medal 1977 Nils E. JENSEN Sweden 1977 Gunnar ZABEL Denmark 1979 Marc HODLER Switzerland 1979 Jut KRAMER Netherlands 1985 Reuben KUNIN Israel 1989 David BARDACH Israel 1989 Andre BOEKHORST Netherlands 1989 Marian FRENKIEL Poland 1989 Emmy van der HELM Netherlands 1989 Harry van der HELM Netherlands 1989 Bill PENCHARZ England 1989 Karl ROHAN Austria 1991 Panos GERONTOPOULOS Greece 1991 Anna Maria TORLONTANO Italy 1999 Jose Manuel de OLIVEIRA Portugal 1999 Margaret PARNIS-ENGLAND Malta 2004 Micke MELANDER Sweden Bronze Medal 1992 Hans GRUBER Austria 1999 Mario DIX Malta 2001 Aureliano YANES Spain Creators and early inventors, in the first half of the 20th century: Henry Beasley Easley Blackwood Sr. Ely Culbertson Oswald Jacoby Maurice Harrison-Gray J.C.H. Marx Terence Reese Howard Schenken Alfred Sheinwold S.J. Simon P. Hal Sims Helen Sobel Smith Samuel Stayman Paul Stern Milton Work Influential players and theorists in the second half of the 20th century: Giorgio Belladonna Pietro Forquet Benito Garozzo Charles Goren Edgar Kaplan Hugh Kelsey Mike Lawrence Rixi Markus Victor Mollo Omar Sharif Boris Schapiro Modern world-top experts: Cezary Balicki David Berkowitz Norberto Bocchi Michael Rosenberg Larry Cohen Giorgio Duboin Fulvio Fantoni Bob Hamman Geir Helgemo Lorenzo Lauria Zia Mahmood Jeff Meckstroth Claudio Nunes Eric Rodwell Adam Żmudziński Alfredo Versace Bridge players in fiction: James Bond Vice Admiral Sir Miles Messervy Hercule Poirot Lucy Ricardo Ethel Mertz Norma Desmond Lily Bart, in the novel The House of Mirth Bridge playing is a feature in EF Benson's Lucia novels. Definitions of common terms Reading General History of bridgeFoster's Whist Manual by R.F. Foster. London, Frederick Warne and Co. with Mudie and Sons. (4th ed, 1899)The Bridge Manual by "John Doe" (George Cavendish Benedict). London, Mudie and Sons. (1900)Bridge Whist by C.J. Melrose. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. (1901)Elwell's Advanced Bridge by J.B. Elwell. London, George Newnes. (5th ed., 1905)Bridge and Auction Bridge by "Valet de Pique". London, Eveleigh Nash. (1912)Royal Auction Bridge by Ernest Bergholt. London, George Routledge & Sons. (1915?) The Mad World of Bridge by Jack Olsen. New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston. (1960) The Walk of the Oysters by Rex Mackey, London, W.H.Allen, 1964. Bridge Is My Game'' by Jack Olsen with Charles Goren. New York, Doubleday. (1965) American Bridge Teachers' Association (ABTA) Book of the Year Recipients 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - 1985 - 1986 - 1987 - 1988 - 1989 - 1990 - 1991 - Basic Book Award: 1991 - Advanced Book Award: 1992 - 1992 - Advanced Book Award: 1993 - Basic Book Award: 1993 - Advanced Book Award: 1994 - 1995 - 1996 - 1996 - Kantar Kantar Lessons III (Teaching Book) 1997 - Hall-Hall How The Experts Win At Bridge (Advanced) 1997 - Kantar Bridge For Dummies (Beginner/Student) 1998 - McMullin Easybridge! (Beginner/Student) 1998 - Granovetters Forgive Me, Partner (Advanced) 1999 - Kantar Eddie Kantar Teachers Modern Bridge Defense (Basic) 1999 - Kantar Eddie Kantar Teaches Advanced Bridge Defense (Advanced) 1999 - Seagram & Smith 25 Bridge Conventions You Should Know (Student) 2000 - Kantar Kantar Lessons Vol 4 (Advanced) 2000 - Grant Improving your Judgement - Opening The Bidding Beginner/Intermediate) 2001 - Grant Commonly Used Conventions 2002 - Bird & Smith Bridge Technique Series 2003 - Grant Bridge Basics I (beginner/novice) 2003 - Thurston 25 Steps to Learning 2/1 (Intermediate/Advanced) 2004 - Bird Notrump Contracts 2005 - Bergen Declarer Play the Bergen Way 2006 - Julian Laderman, A Bridge to Simple Squeezes 2007 - Beginner - Learn to Play Bridge by Gary Brown 2007 - Intermediate Book - Major Suit Raises I & II by Pat Harrington American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) 2007 Survey on favorite bridge books ACBL Bridge Bulletin, June 2007, pp20-22 Top 10 Books as rated by Experts - in descending order Top 10 Books as rated by Other Readers - in descending order External links General links Wspólny Język 2005 (Polish Standard) Karen's Bridge Library (resources for learning to play bridge) Mastering Bridge, resources for teachers and students of bridge Associations and bodies American Bridge Association American Contract Bridge League Australian Bridge Federation Canadian Bridge Federation English Bridge Union United States Bridge Federation World Bridge Federation References
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7,186
Mathematical_game
This article is about using mathematics to study the inner-workings of multiplayer games which, on the surface, may not appear mathematical at all. If you were looking for games that directly involve mathematics in their play, see mathematical puzzle. Mathematical Games was a column written by Martin Gardner that appeared in the Scientific American. Information on his column and other recreational mathematics publications can be found in the recreational mathematics article. A mathematical game is a multiplayer game whose rules, strategies, and outcomes can be studied and explained by mathematics. Examples of such games are Tic-tac-toe and Dots and Boxes, to name a couple. On the surface, a game need not seem mathematical or complicated to still be a mathematical game. For example, even though the rules of Mancala are straightforward, mathematicians analyze the game using combinatorial game theory. Mathematical games differ from mathematical puzzles in that all mathematical puzzles require math to solve them whereas mathematical games may not require a knowledge of mathematics to play them or even to win them. Thus the actual mathematics of mathematical games may not be apparent to the average player. Some mathematical games are topics of interest in recreational mathematics. When studying the mathematics of games, the mathematical analysis of the game is more important than actually playing the game. To analyze a game mathematically, the mathematician studies the rules of the game in order to understand the inner-workings of the game, to determine winning strategies, and to possibly to determine if a game has a solution. Specific mathematical games and puzzles Abstract Strategy Games (No chance involved) Sometimes it is not immediately obvious that a particular game involves chance. Often a card game is described as "pure strategy" and such, but a game with any sort of random shuffling or face-down dealing of cards should not be considered to be "no chance". Lattice board Angels and Devils Chess Chess variants Chomp Domineering Dots and boxes Go Go variants Hex Hexapawn L game Philosopher's football Rhythmomachy Non-lattice boards and other games Graph pebbling Hackenbush Chopsticks (Hand game) Nim Sim Sprouts Chance involved or imperfect information 24 Prisoner's dilemma See also Solved game Games of skill External links Historical Math Problems/Puzzles at Convergence Maths game for young children
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7,187
Data_compression_ratio
Data compression ratio, also known as compression power, is a computer-science term used to quantify the reduction in data-representation size produced by a data compression algorithm. The data compression ratio is analogous to the physical compression ratio used to measure physical compression of substances, and is defined in the same way, as the ratio between the uncompressed size and the compressed size: JPEG FAQ: Coding & Compression Cisco IOS Data Compression - Statistical versus Dictionary Compression Olympus Glossary DocuWare Glossary Formulas Thus a representation that compresses a 10MB file to 2MB has a compression ratio of 10/2 = 5, often notated as an explicit ratio, 5:1 (read "five to one"), or as an implicit ratio, 5X. Note that this formulation applies equally for compression, where the uncompressed size is that of the original; and for decompression, where the uncompressed size is that of the reproduction. Sometimes the space savings is given instead, which is defined as the reduction in size relative to the uncompressed size: Thus a representation that compresses a 10MB file to 2MB would yield a space savings of 1 - 2/10 = 0.8, often notated as a percentage, 80%. For signals of indefinite size, such as streaming audio and video, the compression ratio is defined in terms of uncompressed and compressed data rates instead of data sizes: and instead of space savings, one speaks of data-rate savings, which is defined as the data-rate reduction relative to the uncompressed data rate: For example, uncompressed songs in CD format have a data rate of 16 bits/channel x 2 channels x 44.1 kHz ≅ 1.4 Mbit/s, whereas AAC files on an iPod are typically compressed to 128 kbit/s, yielding a compression ratio of 11.025, for a data-rate savings of 0.91, or 91%. When the uncompressed data rate is known, the compression ratio can be inferred from the compressed data rate. Note: There is some confusion about the term 'compression ratio', particularly outside academia and commerce. In particular, some authors use the term 'compression ratio' to mean 'space savings', even though the latter is not a ratio; and others use the term 'compression ratio' to mean its inverse, even though that equates higher compression ratio with lower compression. Lossless compression of digitized data such as video, digitized film, and audio preserves all the information, but can rarely do much better than 2:1 compression because of the intrinsic entropy of the data. In contrast, lossy compression (for example JPEG, or MP3) can achieve much higher compression ratios at the cost of a decrease in quality, as visual or audio compression artifacts from loss of important information are introduced. See also Peak signal-to-noise ratio References External links Maximum Compression - Lossless data compression software benchmarks / comparisons Nondegrading lossy compression
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7,188
Laurence_Sterne
Laurence Sterne (November 24, 1713 – March 18, 1768) was an Irish-born English novelist and an Anglican clergyman. He is best known for his novels The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, and A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy; but he also published many sermons, wrote memoirs, and was involved in local politics. Sterne died in London after years of fighting consumption. Biography Laurence Sterne was born November 24, 1713 in Clonmel, County Tipperary, Ireland. His father was an Ensign in a British regiment recently returned from Dunkirk. Sterne’s father’s regiment was disbanded on the day of Sterne’s birth, and within six months the family had returned to Yorkshire in northern England. The first decade of Sterne’s life was spent moving from place to place as his father was reassigned throughout Ireland. During this period Sterne never lived in one place for more than a year. Sterne was sent to Hipperholme Grammar School near Halifax when he was ten years old; he never saw his father again. Sterne was admitted to a sizarship at Jesus College, Cambridge, in July 1733 at the age of 20. His great-grandfather Richard Sterne had been the Master of the college. Sterne graduated with a degree of Bachelor of Arts in January 1737; and returned in the summer of 1740 to be awarded his Master of Arts degree. Sterne seems to have been destined to become a clergyman, and was ordained as a deacon in March of 1737 and as a priest in August, 1738. Shortly thereafter Sterne was awarded the vicarship living of Sutton-on-the-Forest in Yorkshire (1713-1768). Sterne married Elizabeth Lumley in 1741. Both were ill with consumption. In 1743, he was presented to the neighbouring living of Stillington by Rev. Richard Levett, Prebendary of Stillington, who was patron of the living. The Life and Times of Laurence Sterne, Wilbur Lucius Cross, Russell & Russell, 1967 Subsequently Sterne did duty both there and at Sutton. He was also a prebendary of York Minster. Sterne’s life at this time was closely tied with his uncle, Dr. Jaques Sterne, the Archdeacon of Cleveland and Precentor of York Minster. Sterne’s uncle was an ardent Whig, and urged Sterne to begin a career of political journalism which resulted in some scandal for Sterne and, eventually, a terminal falling-out between the two men. Jaques Sterne was a powerful clergyman but a mean-tempered man and a rabid politician. In 1741–42 Sterne wrote political articles supporting the administration of Sir Robert Walpole for a newspaper founded by his uncle but soon withdrew from politics in disgust. His uncle became his archenemy, thwarting his advancement whenever possible. Sterne lived in Sutton for twenty years, during which time he kept up an intimacy which had begun at Cambridge with John Hall-Stevenson, a witty and accomplished bon vivant, owner of Skelton Hall in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire. Without Stevenson, Sterne may have been a more decorous parish priest, but might never have written Tristram Shandy. It was while living in the country-side, having failed in his attempts to supplement his income as a farmer and struggling with tuberculosis, that Sterne began work on his most famous novel, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, the first volumes of which were published in 1759. Sterne was at work on his celebrated comic novel during the year that his mother died, his wife was seriously ill, and he was ill himself with consumption. The publication of Tristram Shandy made Sterne famous in London and on the continent. He was delighted by the attention, and spent part of each year in London, being feted as new volumes appeared. Indeed, Baron Fauconberg rewarded Sterne by appointing him as the perpetual curate of Coxwold, North Yorkshire. In 1759, to support his dean in a church squabble, Sterne wrote A Political Romance (later called The History of a Good Warm Watch-Coat), a Swiftian satire of dignitaries of the spiritual courts. At the demands of embarrassed churchmen, the book was burned. Thus, Sterne lost his chances for clerical advancement but discovered his real talents. Turning over his parishes to a curate, he began Tristram Shandy. An initial, sharply satiric version was rejected by Robert Dodsley, the London printer, just when Sterne's personal life was upset. His mother and uncle both died. His wife had a nervous breakdown and threatened suicide. Sterne continued his comic novel, but every sentence, he said, was “written under the greatest heaviness of heart.” In this mood, he softened the satire and told about Tristram's opinions, his eccentric family, and ill-fated childhood with a sympathetic humour, sometimes hilarious, sometimes sweetly melancholic—a comedy skirting tragedy. Sterne continued to struggle with his illness, and departed England for France in 1762 in an effort to find a climate that would alleviate his suffering. Sterne was lucky to attach himself to a diplomatic party bound for Turin, as England and France were still adversaries in the Seven Years' War. Sterne was gratified by his reception in France where reports of the genius of Tristram Shandy had made him a celebrity. Aspects of this trip to France were incorporated into Sterne’s second novel, A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy, which was published at the beginning of 1768. The novel was written during a period in which Sterne was increasingly ill and weak. Less than a month after Sentimental Journey was published, early in 1768, Sterne's strength failed him, and he died in his lodgings at 41 Old Bond Street on the 18 March, at the age of 54. He was buried in the churchyard of St George's, Hanover Square. In a curiously "Shandean" twist in events, it appears that Sterne's body was stolen shortly after it was interred and sold to the anatomists. It was recognised by somebody who knew him and discreetly reinterred. When the churchyard of St. George's was redeveloped in the 1960s, his skull was disinterred (in a manner befitting somebody who chose for himself the nickname of "Yorick"), partly identified by the fact that it was the only skull of the five in Sterne's grave that bore evidence of having been anatomised, and transferred to Coxwold Churchyard in 1969. The story of the reinterment of Sterne's skull in Coxwold is alluded to in Malcolm Bradbury's novel To The Hermitage. Works Sterne's early writing life was unremarkable. He wrote letters, had two ordinary sermons published (in 1747 and 1750), and tried his hand at satire. He was involved in, and wrote about, local politics in 1742. His major publication prior to Tristram Shandy was the satire A Political Romance (1759), aimed at conflicts of interest within York Minster. A posthumously published piece on the art of preaching, A Fragment in the Manner of Rabelais, appears to have been written in 1759. Sterne did not begin work on Tristram Shandy until he was 46 years old. Sterne is best known for his novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, for which he became famous not only in England, but throughout Europe. Translations of the work began to appear in all the major European languages almost upon its publication, and Sterne influenced European writers as diverse as Diderot and the German Romanticists. His work had also noticeable influence over Brazilian author Machado de Assis, who made exceptional (and outstandingly original) usage of the digressive technique in the masterful novel Epitaph for a Small Winner. Indeed, the novel, in which Sterne manipulates narrative time and voice, parodies accepted narrative form, and includes a healthy dose of "bawdy" humor, was largely dismissed in England as being too corrupt. Samuel Johnson's verdict in 1776 was that "Nothing odd will do long. Tristram Shandy did not last." This is strikingly different from the views of European critics of the day, who praised Sterne and Tristram Shandy as innovative and superior. Voltaire called it "clearly superior to Rabelais", and later Goethe praised Sterne as "the most beautiful spirit that ever lived." Both during his life and for a long time after, efforts were made by many to reclaim Sterne as an arch-sentimentalist; parts of Tristram Shandy, such as the tale of Le Fever, were excerpted and published separately to wide acclaim from the moralists of the day. The success of the novel and its serialized nature also allowed many imitators to publish pamphlets concerning the Shandean characters and other Shandean-related material even while the novel was yet unfinished. The novel itself is difficult to describe. The story starts with the narration, by Tristram, of his own conception. It proceeds by fits and starts, but mostly by what Sterne calls "progressive digressions" so that we do not reach Tristram's birth before the third volume. The novel is rich in characters and humor, and the influences of Rabelais and Cervantes are present throughout. The novel ends after 9 volumes, published over a decade, but without anything that might be considered a traditional conclusion. Sterne inserts sermons, essays and legal documents into the pages of his novel; and he explores the limits of typography and print design by including marbled pages and, most famously, an entirely black page within the narrative. Many of the innovations that Sterne introduced, adaptations in form that should be understood as an exploration of what constitutes the novel, were highly influential to Modernist writers like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, and more contemporary writers such as Thomas Pynchon and David Foster Wallace. Italo Calvino referred to Tristram Shandy as the "undoubted progenitor of all avant-garde novels of our century." The Russian Formalist writer Viktor Shklovsky regarded Tristram Shandy as the archetypal, quintessential novel, of which all other novels are mere subsets: "Tristram Shandy is the most typical novel of world literature." However, the leading critical opinions of Tristram Shandy tend to be markedly polarised in their evaluations of its significance. Since the 1950s, following the lead of D.W. Jefferson, there are those who argue that, whatever its legacy of influence may be, Tristram Shandy in its original context actually represents a resurgence of a much older, Renaissance tradition of "Learned Wit" - owing a debt to such influences as the Scriblerian approach. A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy is a less influential book, although it was better received by English critics of the day. The book has many stylistic parallels with Tristram Shandy, and indeed, the narrator is one of the minor characters from the earlier novel. Although the story is more straightforward, A Sentimental Journey can be understood to be part of the same artistic project to which Tristram Shandy belongs. Two volumes of Sterne's Sermons were published during his lifetime; more copies of his Sermons were sold in his lifetime than copies of Tristram Shandy, and for a while he was better known in some circles as a preacher than as a novelist. The sermons though are conventional in both style and substance. Several volumes of letters were published after his death, as was Journal to Eliza, a more sentimental than humorous love letter to a woman Sterne was courting during the final years of his life. Compared to many eighteenth century authors Sterne's body of work is quite small. Bibliography His works, first collected in 1779. were edited, with newly discovered letters, by J. P. Browne (London, 1873). A less complete edition was edited by G. Saintsbury (London, 1894). The Florida Edition of Sterne's works is currently the leading scholarly edition - although the final volume (Sterne's letters) has yet to be published. René Bosch, Labyrinth of Digressions: Tristram Shandy as Perceived and Influenced by Sterne's Early Imitators (Amsterdam, 2007) W. M. Thackeray, in English Humourists of the Eighteenth Century (London, 1853; new edition, New York, 1911) Percy Fitzgerald, Life of Laurence Sterne (London, 1864; second edition, London, 1896) Paul Stapfer, Laurence Sterne, sa personne et ses ouvrages (second edition, Paris, 1882) H. D. Traill, Laurence Sterne, "English Men of Letters," (London, 1882) Texte, Rousseau et le cosmopolitisme littôraire au XVIIIème siècle (Paris, 1895) H. W. Thayer, Laurence Sterne in Germany (New York, 1905) P. E. More, Shelburne Essays (third series, New York, 1905) W. L. Cross, [http://www.archive.org/details/lifetimesoflaure00crosuoftLife and Times of Sterne, (New York, 1909)] W. S. Sichel, Sterne; A Study (New York, 1910) L. S. Benjamin, Life and Letters (two volumes, 1912) Arthur Cash, Laurence Sterne: The Early and Middle Years (ISBN 0-416-82210-X, 1975) and Laurence Sterne: The Later Years (ISBN 0-416-32930-6, 1986) Rousseau, George S. (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-3454-1 D. W. Jefferson, "Tristram Shandy and the Tradition of Learned Wit" in Essays in Criticism, 1(1951), 225-48 Laurence Sterne: Study resource materials on mantex.co.uk Tristram Shandy: An Annotated Bibliography by Jack Lynch The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). Vol. 10. The Age of Johnson. III. Sterne, and the Novel of His Times. Bibliography. Bibliography for the study of Laurence Sterne Useful Articles on Laurence Sterne, available online References See also Hypertext fiction External links The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy & A Sentimental Journey. Munich: Edited by Günter Jürgensmeier, 2005 From Sterne to Baldessari: The Illustration of Tristram Shandy, 1760–1996 Laurence Sterne in Cyberspace includes links to various e-texts of both Tristram Shandy and A Sentimental Journey Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: The Scrapbook Mind of Laurence Sterne Asterisk*: a site inspired by Sterne dedicated to the study of innovative narrative tristramshandyweb.it: The Tristram Shandy Web - Annotated edition of "Tristram Shandy", in hypertext format. With bibliography. Criticism. Laurence Sterne Resource Laurence Sterne at the Google Books Search Sterne at The Internet Archive Text Search The Shandean: A Journal Devoted to the Works of Laurence Sterne (tables of contents available online)
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Aeon
The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age", "forever" or "for eternity". It is a Latin transliteration from the koine Greek word (aion), from the archaic (aiwon). In Homer it typically refers to life or lifespan, but by at least Hesiod it could refer to ages or generations. It has a similar meaning to the Sanskrit word kalpa and Hebrew word olam. A cognate Latin word aevum or aeuum (cf. ) for "age" is present in words such as longevity and mediæval. Math words page 16 Although a proposal was made in 1957 to define an aeon to be a unit of time equal to one billion years (1 Ga), the idea was not approved as a unit of scientific measure and is seldom used for a specific period of time. Its more common usage is for any long, indefinite, period of time. Eternity or Age Bible translation is treatment of the Hebrew word olam and the Greek word aion. These two words have similar meaning, and Young's Literal Translation renders them and their derivatives as “age” or “age-during”. Other English versions most often translate them to indicate eternality, being translated as eternal, everlasting, forever, etc. However, there are notable exceptions to this in all major translations, such as : “…I am with you always, to the end of the age” (NRSV), the word “age” being a translation of aion. Rendering aion to indicate eternality in this verse would result in the contradictory phrase “end of eternity”, so the question arises whether it should ever be so. Canon F.W. Farrar “Mercy and Judgment” 1904 pages 378-382 http://www.tentmaker.org/books/mercyandjudgment/mercy_and_judgment_ch1.html Proponents of Universal Reconciliation point out that this has significant implications for the problem of hell. Thomas Talbott "Three Pictures of God in Western Theology" 1995 pages 13-15 http://www.willamette.edu/~ttalbott/PICTURES.pdf Contrast in well-known English translations with its rendering in Young's Literal Translation: And these shall go away to punishment age-during, but the righteous to life age-during. (YLT) Matthew 25:46 Young's Literal Translation Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life. (NIV) Matthew 25:46 New International Version These will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life. (NASB) Matthew 25:46 New American Standard Bible And these shall go away into everlasting punishment, but the righteous into life eternal. (KJV) Matthew 25:46 King James Version And these will depart into everlasting cutting-off, but the righteous ones into everlasting life. (NWT) Matthew 25:46 New World Translation In Sanskrit literatures the measurement of time are from pel(smaller than second), ghadi(around 45 minutes), days(from sunrise to next sunrise), weeks(7 days), months,years, century, yugabhdha 100 centuries, yug or Yuga ( more than 432,000 years). In philosophy and mysticism Plato used the word aeon to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was "behind" the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous allegory of the cave. Christianity's idea of "eternal life" comes from the word for life, zoe, and a form of aeon Strong's link for the word Eternal (Aeon) in the Christian Concept of Eternal Life , which could mean life in the next aeon, the Kingdom of God, or Heaven, just as much as immortality, as in . According to the heterodox Christian doctrine of Universal Reconciliation, the Greek New Testament scriptures use the word "eon" to mean a long period of time (perhaps 1000 years) and the word "eonian" to mean "during a long period of time"; Thus there was a time before the eons, and the eonian period is finite. After each man's mortal life ends, he is judged worthy of eonian life or eonian punishment. That is, after the period of the eons, all punishment will cease and death is overcome and then God becomes the all in each one. This contrasts with the traditional Christian belief in eternal life and eternal punishment. Occultists sometimes speak of a "magical Aeon" that may last for far less time, perhaps as little as 2,000 years. See Thelema. In Gnosticism In many Gnostic systems, the various emanations of God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleos (The Broadest Aeon), Bythos ("depth or profundity", Greek ), Proarkhe ("before the beginning", Greek ), the Arkhe ("the beginning", Greek ), are called aeons. This first being is also an æon and has an inner being within itself, known as Ennoea ("thought, intent"), Charis ("grace"), or Sige ("silence", Greek ). The split perfect being conceives the second aeon, Caen ("power"), within itself. Along with the male Caen comes the female æon, Akhana ("love"). Aeons bear a number of similarities to Judaeo-Christian angels, including their roles as servants and emanations of God, and their existence as beings of light. In fact, certain Gnostic Angels, such as Armozel, also happen to be Aeons. The aeons often came in male/female pairs called syzygies, and were frequently numerous (20-30). Two of the most commonly listed æons were Jesus and Sophia. The aeons constitute the pleroma ("region of light"). The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness — that is, the physical world. When an æon named Sophia emanates without her partner aeon, the result is the Demiurge, or half-creator, Occasionally referred to as 'Yalda Baoth in Gnostic texts a creature that should never have come into existence. This creature does not belong to the pleroma, and the One emanates two savior æons, Christ and the Holy Spirit, to save humanity from the Demiurge. Christ then took the form of the human Jesus, in order to be able to teach humanity how to achieve gnosis; that is, return to the pleroma. Myther and others suggest that the whole mechanism can be an allegorical representation of violation of CP symmetry, required to create a universe of matter, by facilitating particles to win over antiparticles. CP symmetry requires emanation of equal amount of matter and antimatter which obviously has been violated somehow in the beginning of the universe; otherwise we would not have a material universe. Æons may denote this conjugation of particles-antiparticles produced in equal number. Somehow the perfect symmetry of Pleroma gets violated and a particle or a number of particles (Sophia) ensued without its/their antiparticle counterparts, resulting in an increase in number of particles (birth of Demiurge) – a process which ultimately led to the creation of our physical universe.The Gnostic Gospel of Judas, recently found, purchased, held, and translated by the National Geographic Society, also mentions the aeons and speaks of Jesus' teachings of them. The Lost Gospel - online feature from National Geographic, including Coptic text, English translation, and photos Valentinus The Valentinian system was, until recently, only known through the criticisms of its opponents; however, the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library has given access to Valentinian texts, including sources that have been tentatively identified as written by Valentinus. According to Tertullian's Against the Valentinians, the Gnostic Valentinus had 30 different aeons that emanate each other in sequence. The first eight of these aeons, corresponding to generations one through four below, are referred to as the Ogdoad. Tertullian. Against the Valentinians. () Books 7-8. Scheme of the Aeons First generation:Bythos (The Depth) and Sige (The Silence) Second generation:Caen (Power) and Akhana (Immensity) Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana:Nous (Nus, Mind) and Aletheia (Veritas, Truth) Fourth generation, emanated from Nous and Aletheia:Sermo (the Word) and Vita (the Drive) Fifth generation, emanated from Sermo and Vita:Anthropos (Mankind) and Ecclesia (Civilization/ Community) Sixth generation: Emanated from Sermo and Vita:Bythios (Profound) and Mixis (Mixture) Ageratos (Ageless) and Henosis (Unification)Autophyes (Growth) and Hedone (Pleasure)Acinetos (Immovable) and Syncrasis (Commixture)Monogenes (Common origin) and Macaria (Destined death) Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:Paracletus (Comforter) and Pistis (Faith)Patricas (Paternal) and Elpis (Hope)Metricos (Maternal) and Agape (Love)Ainos (Praise) and Synesis (Intelligence)Ecclesiasticus (Son of Ecclesia) and Macariotes (Blessedness)Theletus (Perfect) and Sophia (Wisdom) According to Myther et alia in some unreferenced work,The total number of Æons, being 32, reflects the similarity of the mechanism to the Tree of Life, which, as suggested in the Zohar, incorporates 10 Sephiroth and 22 paths interconnecting these 10 Sephiroth; while 10 Æons are created during the first five generations from which come the other 22 Æons later during the sixth generation. "Myther" et al. Ptolemy and Colorbasus According to St. Irenaeus Irenaeus. Against heresies (Latin: Adversus Haereses) also known as The Detection and Overthrow of Falsely So-Called Gnosis book 1, chapter 12 , the followers of the Gnostics Ptolemy and Colorbasus had aeons that differ from those of Valentinius. Logos is created when Anthropos learns to speak. The first four are called the Tetrad and the eight are called the Ogdoad.First generation:Bythos (the One) and Sige (Silence, Charis, Ennoea, etc.) Second generation (conceived by the One):Caen (Power) and Akhana (Love) Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana:Ennoae (Thought) and Thelesis (Will) Fourth generation, emanated from Ennoae and Thelesis:Nous (or Monogenes) and AletheiaFifth generation, emanated from Nouse and Aletheia:Anthropos (Homo, Man) and Ecclesia (Church) Sixth generation, emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:Logos and ZoeSeventh generation: Emanated from Logos and Zoe:Bythius and MixisAgeratos and HenosisAutophyes and HedoneAcinetos and SyncrasisMonogenes and MacariaEmanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:Paracletus and PistisPatricos and ElpisMetricos and AgapeAinos and SynesisEcclesiasticus and MacariotesTheletos and Sophia'' The order of Anthropos and Ecclesia versus Logos and Zoe is somewhat debated; different sources give different accounts. Logos and Zoe are unique to this system as compared to the previous, and may be an evolved version of the first, totalling 34 aeons, but it is not clear if the first two were actually regarded aeons. See also Plato Gnosticism Kalpa References External links Tertullian's account against the Valentinians is the source text for much of what we know about the Æons. Corresponding text in original Latin Irenaeus: Against heresies Gnosis.org- Website of Information on Gnosticism Dark Mirrors of Heaven: Gnostic Cosmogony
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7,190
Bunyip
This article is about a mythical creature. There is also a town called Bunyip, Victoria The bunyip (usually translated as "devil" or "spirit" This translation does not accurately represent the role of the bunyip in Aboriginal mythology or its possible origins. It is probably rather an attempt by European settlers to rephrase a concept unknown to them in more familiar terms. The original meaning of the term may have simply been Diprotodon or Palorchestes, but the bunyip as currently understood is a mythological creature distinct from other "spirit" entities in Aboriginal mythology and probably retaining some vestiges of actual prehistoric animals. ) is a mythical creature from Australian folklore. Various accounts and explanations of bunyips have been given across Australia since the early days of the colonies. It has also been identified as an animal recorded in Aboriginal mythology, similar to known extinct animals. Characteristics Bunyip (1935) Artist Unknown, from the National Library of Australia digital collections demonstrates the variety in descriptions of the mythical creature. Descriptions of bunyips vary widely. It is usually given as a sort of lake monster. Common features in Aboriginal descriptions include a dog-like face, dark fur, a horse-like tail, flippers, and walrus-like tusks or horns or a duck like bill. According to legend, they are said to lurk in swamps, billabongs, creeks, riverbeds, and waterholes. Early accounts During the early settlement of Australia by Europeans the notion that the bunyip was an actual unknown animal that awaited discovery became common. Early European settlers, unfamiliar with the sights and sounds of the island continent's peculiar fauna, regarded the bunyip as one more strange Australian animal and sometimes attributed unfamiliar animal calls or cries to it. One of the earliest accounts of the bunyip was in 1821 when Hamilton Hume recovered some large unusual bones from Lake Bathurst in New South Wales. He wrote about the monster that was very much like a hippopotamus and which he and the Philosophical Society of Australasia believed to be evidence of the existence of the Bunyip. A large number of bunyip sightings occurred between 1840s and 1850s, particularly in the southeastern colonies of Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, as European settlers extended their reach. Victorian sightings Geelong Region Another early written account is attributed to escaped convict William Buckley in his 1852 biography. His 1852 account records "in.. Lake Moodewarri [now Lake Modewarre] as well as in most of the others inland...is a...very extraordinary amphibious animal, which the natives call Bunyip." Buckley's account suggests he saw such a creature on several occasions. He adds "I could never see any part, except the back, which appeared to be covered with feathers of a dusky grey colour. It seemed to be about the size of a full grown calf... I could never learn from any of the natives that they had seen either the head or tail." Flannery, T. (Ed.)(2002): The Life and Adventures of William Buckley; 32 Years a wanderer amongst the Aborigines of the then unexplored country around Port Phillip, now the Province of Victoria by John Morgan. First published 1852. This edition, Text Publishing, Melbourne Australia. P.66. ISBN 1877008206 Greta Bunyip The Greta Bunyip was a bunyip which was believed to have lived in the swamps of the Greta area, in Victoria, Australia. Locals often heard a loud booming sound which emitted mysteriously from the swamps, yet none of the frequent search parties were able to locate the source of the sound. Once the swamps were drained, the sound subsided. Some Greta locals believed that the bunyip moved on to another area, while others believed it had died once its habitat was gone. New South Wales accounts In 1846, a peculiar skull was taken from the banks of Murrumbidgee River in New South Wales which initial reports concluded that it was the skull of something unknown to science. In 1847 the so-called bunyip skull was put on exhibition in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days. Visitors flocked to see it and The Sydney Morning Herald said that it prompted many people to speak out about their 'bunyip sightings'. "Almost everyone became immediately aware that he had heard 'strange sounds' from the lagoons at night, or had seen 'something black' in the water." It was eventually concluded that it was a 'freak of nature' and not a new species. The 'bunyip skull' disappeared from the museum soon afterwards, and its present location is unknown. Bunyips - Evidence South Australian sightings Between 1852 and 1895, several sightings of bunyips in South Australia were recorded and documented in the South Australian Register. A "12 to 14 foot long" creature was sighted on 30 December 1852 in a Mount Gambier lagoon. South Australian Register. 30 December 1852. Page 3a . On 28 November 1853, a similar sighting was made at a lagoon near Melrose, South Australia quoting that the creature "like that of a horse with thick bristly hair... Its actual length would be from 15 to 18 feet." South Australian Register. 25 January 1854. Page 3f On 20 August 1881 a similar creature was sighted in a salt water lake between Robe and Beachport, South Australia. Another sighting occurred on 21 February 1883 in a Koolunga waterhole. South Australian Register. 21 February 1883. Page 6c On 19 August 1884, it was reported that Mr W.H. Cornish of Dublin, South Australia had captured a bunyip. South Ausrtralian Register. 19 August 1884. Page 5b A report of a bunyip at Warra Warra Waterhole, Crystal Brook by more than six people over ten days was made on 31 January 1889. South Australian Register. 31 January 1889. Page 5b South Australian Register. 6 February 1889. Page 7g The last documented report in the register was at Umpherston Cave, Mount Gambier in 1895. South Australian Register. 27 August 1895. Page 5b Cultural references The Bunyip River flows into Westernport Bay in southern Victoria and the town of Bunyip, Victoria is named for the legendary creature. The Bunyip is the banner of a local weekly newspaper published in the town of Gawler, South Australia. First published as a pamphlet by the Gawler Humbug Society in 1863, the name was chosen because, "the Bunyip is the true type of Australian Humbug!" There is a coin operated Bunyip in Murray Bridge, South Australia at Sturt Reserve on the town's river front. The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek, Jenny Wagner ISBN 0-14-050126-6 is a Australian children's picture book about a bunyip The title inspired the House of the Gentle Bunyip, House of the Gentle Bunyip, Hodgkinson St, Clifton Hill, Victoria (next to the Baptist Church) The house was finally saved by Ecumenical Housing (now Melbourne Affordable Housing) and redeveloped as a home for low income people. The campaign and VCAT hearings set many precedents for planning in Victoria. was a community house established in the 1970s A tale of a bunyip is included in Andrew Lang's The Brown Fairy Book (1904). During the 1950s and 1960s, "Bertie the Bunyip" was a children's show in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, created by Lee Dexter, an Australian. Bertie The Bunyip Another depiction of a bunyip in the 1989 illustrated children's book A Kangaroo Court A Kangaroo Court ISBN 0-333-45032-9, Mary O'Toole, illustrated by Keith McEwan . See also Australian Aboriginal mythology#Rainbow Serpent External links Bunyips ... enter the lair of the bunyip if you dare - interactive for kids / National Library of Australia References Further reading:
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7,191
Friesland
Friesland (, West Frisian: Fryslân, Dutch: Friesland) is a province in the north of the Netherlands and part of the bigger region known as Frisia. In order to distinguish it from the other Frisian regions, it is commonly specified as Westerlauwer Frisia, Westerlauwer Friesland, West Frisia or West Friesland. The latter two names may lead people to confuse the region with the neighbouring landscape called 'West-Friesland', in the North Holland province. Up until the end of 1996, the province bore Friesland as its official name. In 1997 this Dutch name lost its official status to the Frisian Fryslân. Friesland has 643,000 inhabitants (2005) and its capital is Leeuwarden (Ljouwert), with 91,817 inhabitants, in the center of the province. Distinguishing features Friesland distinguishes itself from the other eleven provinces through having its own language, West Frisian, which is also spoken in a minor part of the province of Groningen, to the east. Closely related languages, East Frisian ("Seeltersk", which is different from "East Frisian (Ostfriesisch)", a collection of Low German dialects of East Frisia) and North Frisian, are spoken in the Saterland and in North Friesland areas in Germany, respectively. Friesland was a part of the German empire until 1680 when it separated and joined The Netherlands. Part of the old Friesland remained with Germany (Ostfriesland). Friesland is mainly an agricultural province. The famous black and white Friesian cattle and the well known black Friesian horse originated here. Tourism is another important source of income, the greatest touristic destinations are the lakes in the south west of the province, and the islands in the Wadden Sea in the north. Technology companies such as Asset Control have also set up base in Friesland. The province is famous for its speed skaters, with mass participation in cross-country ice skating when weather conditions permit. When winters are cold enough to allow the freshwater canals to freeze hard, the province holds its traditional Elfstedentocht (Eleven cities tour), a 200 kilometers ice skating tour. In the warmer months, many Frisians practice wadlopen, the traditional art of wading across designated sections of the Wadden Sea at low tide. Another Frisian practice is fierljeppen, a sport with some similarities to pole vaulting. A jump consists of an intense sprint to the pole (polsstok), jumping and grabbing it, then climbing to the top while trying to control the pole's forward and lateral movements over a body of water and finishing with a graceful landing on a sand bed opposite to the starting point. Because of all the diverse skills required in fierljeppen, fierljeppers are considered to be very complete athletes with superbly developed strength and coordination. Another interesting feature is the presence of many windmills. There are 195 windmills in the province of Friesland, from a total of about 1200 in the entire country. Cities The Elfstedentocht passes all eleven cities of Fryslân Leeuwarden () Sneek (Snits) IJlst (Drylts) Sloten (Sleat) Stavoren (Starum) Hindeloopen (Hylpen) Workum (Warkum) Bolsward (Boalsert) Harlingen (Harns) Franeker (Frjentsjer) Dokkum (Dokkum) Major towns Leeuwarden ( Ljouwert ) Sneek ( Snits ) Drachten (mun. Smallingerland) Heerenveen (It Hearrenfean) Joure ( de Jouwer ) Frisian cattle Municipalities Achtkarspelen Ameland Boarnsterhim Bolsward Dantumadiel Dongeradeel Ferwerderadiel Franekeradeel Gaasterlân-Sleat Harlingen Heerenveen Het Bildt Kollumerland c.a. Leeuwarden Leeuwarderadeel LemsterlandLittenseradiel Menaldumadeel Nijefurd Ooststellingwerf Opsterland Schiermonnikoog Skarsterlân Smallingerland Sneek Terschelling Tytsjerksteradiel Vlieland Weststellingwerf Wûnseradiel Wymbritseradiel See also Frisia Frisian Islands Frisian Solar ChallengeFrisians West Frisian language Frise References External links Website of visitFryslân.nl Website of the province Frisian Film Archive Ancient History of Friesland Map of Province Frisian Droughts Frisian homeland site Bus schedules: Friesland
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7,192
H.263
H.263 is a video codec standard originally designed as a low-bitrate compressed format for videoconferencing. It was developed by the ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) in a project ending in 1995/1996 as one member of the H.26x family of video coding standards in the domain of the ITU-T. H.263 has since found many applications on the internet: much Flash Video content (as used on sites such as YouTube, Google Video, MySpace, etc.) is encoded in this format, though many sites now use VP6 encoding, which is supported since Flash 8. The original version of the RealVideo codec was based on H.263 up until the release of RealVideo 8. The codec was first designed to be utilized in H.324 based systems (PSTN and other circuit-switched network videoconferencing and videotelephony), but has since also found use in H.323 (RTP/IP-based videoconferencing), H.320 (ISDN-based videoconferencing), RTSP (streaming media) and SIP (Internet conferencing) solutions. H.263 was developed as an evolutionary improvement based on experience from H.261, the previous ITU-T standard for video compression, and the MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 standards. Its first version was completed in 1995 and provided a suitable replacement for H.261 at all bitrates. It was further enhanced in projects known as H.263v2 (also known as H.263+ or H.263 1998) and H.263v3 (also known as H.263++ or H.263 2000). The next enhanced codec developed by ITU-T VCEG (in partnership with MPEG) after H.263 is the H.264 standard, also known as AVC and MPEG-4 part 10. As H.264 provides a significant improvement in capability beyond H.263, the H.263 standard is now considered primarily a legacy design (although this is a recent development). Most new videoconferencing products now include H.264 as well as H.263 and H.261 capabilities. Versions Since the original ratification of H.263 in March 1996 (approving a document that was produced in November 1995), there have been two subsequent additions which improved on the original codec by additional optional annexes (extensions). For example, the H.263v2 added a deblocking filter via Annex J. The original H.263 specified the following annexes: Annex A - Inverse transform accuracy specification Annex B - Hypothetical Reference Decoder Annex C - Considerations for Multipoint Annex D - Unrestricted Motion Vector mode Annex E - Syntax-based Arithmetic Coding mode Annex F - Advanced Prediction mode Annex G - PB-frames mode Annex H - Forward Error Correction for coded video signal In March 1997, an informative Annex I describing Error Tracking — an encoding technique for providing improved robustness to data losses and errors, was approved to provide information for the aid of implementers having an interest in such techniques. H.263v2 (H.263+) H.263v2 (also known as H.263+ or as the 1998 version of H.263) is the informal name of the second edition of the ITU-T H.263 international video coding standard. It retained the entire technical content of the original version of the standard, but enhanced H.263 capabilities by adding several annexes which can substantially improve encoding efficiency and provide other capabilities (such as enhanced robustness against data loss in the transmission channel). The H.263+ project was ratified by the ITU in February 1998. It added the following Annexes: Annex I - Advanced INTRA Coding mode Annex J - Deblocking Filter mode Annex K - Slice Structured mode Annex L - Supplemental Enhancement Information Specification Annex M - Improved PB-frames mode Annex N - Reference Picture Selection mode Annex O - Temporal, SNR, and Spatial Scalability mode Annex P - Reference picture resampling Annex Q - Reduced-Resolution Update mode (see implementors' guide correction as noted below) Annex R - Independent Segment Decoding mode Annex S - Alternative INTER VLC mode Annex T - Modified Quantization mode Annex X - Profiles and levels definition H.263v2 also added support for flexible customized picture formats and custom picture clock frequencies. Previously the only picture formats supported in H.263 had been Sub-QCIF, QCIF, CIF, 4CIF, and 16CIF, and the only picture clock frequency had been 30000/1001 (approximately 29.97) clock ticks per second. H.263v2 specified a set of recommended modes in an informative appendix (Appendix II, since deprecated): Level 1Level 2Level 3 Advanced INTRA Coding Deblocking Filter Supplemental Enhancement Information (Full-Frame Freeze Only) Modified Quantization Unrestricted Motion Vectors Slice Structured Mode Reference Picture Resampling (Implicit Factor-of-4 Mode Only) Advanced Prediction Improved PB-frames Independent Segment Decoding Alternate INTER VLC Level 1Level 2Level 3 H.263v3 (H.263++) and Annex X The definition of H.263v3 (also known as H.263++ or as the 2000 version of H.263) consisted of the addition of three additional annexes. These annexes and an additional annex that specified profiles (approved the following year) were originally published as separate documents from the main body of the standard itself. The additional annexes specified are: Annex U - Enhanced reference picture selection mode Annex V - Data-partitioned slice mode Annex W - Additional supplemental enhancement information specification Annex X (originally specified in 2001) - Profiles and levels definition The prior informative Appendix II (recommended optional enhancement) was obsoleted by the creation of the normative Annex X. In June 2001, another informative appendix (Appendix III, Examples for H.263 encoder/decoder implementations) was approved. It describes techniques for encoding and for error/loss concealment by decoders. In January 2005, a unified H.263 specification document was produced (with the exception of Appendix III, which remains as a separately-published document). In August 2005, an implementors guide was approved to correct a small error in the seldom-used Annex Q reduced-resolution update mode. Applications H.263 video can be decoded with the free LGPL-licensed libavcodec library (part of the ffmpeg project) which is used by programs such as ffdshow, VLC media player and MPlayer. External links The ITU-T specification for H.263 IETF AVT Working Group - Group that reviews codec packetizations for RTP RFC 4629 - RTP Payload Format for ITU-T Rec. H.263 Video RFC 2429 - RTP Payload Format for the 1998 Version of ITU-T Rec. H.263 Video (H.263+) (Obsolete, upgraded spec in RFC 4629) RFC 2190 - RTP Payload Format for H.263 Video Streams (Historic) Intel Integrated Performance Primitives H.263 implementation in vic (source code available) H.263 for .NET be-x-old:H.263
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The_Canterbury_Tales
A woodcut from William Caxton's second edition of the Canterbury Tales printed in 1483. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the remaining twenty-two in verse). The tales are contained inside a frame tale and told by a collection of pilgrims on a pilgrimage from London Borough of Southwark to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The shrine was destroyed in the 16th century during the dissolution of the monasteries. The Canterbury Tales are written in Middle English. The tales are considered to be his magnum opus, influenced by the structure of The Decameron, which Chaucer is said to have read on an earlier visit to Italy, but Chaucer peopled his tales with 'sondry folk' rather than Boccaccio's fleeing nobles. Synopsis On an April day, a group of English pilgrims meet outside Tabard Inn and are joined by the innkeeper, just outside London. They set out on a pilgrimage from London to Canterbury to pay their respects to the tomb of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The group is described in detail, with characters from all classes, upper and lower, represented. Religious characters, such as a prioress, monk and a Pardoner, travel alongside a shipman, miller, carpenter, reeve, squire, yeoman and a knight, among others. Harry Bailey, the innkeeper, suggests a game where they all tell stories to each other along the way. The pilgrims agree to tell four stories each, two on the way to Canterbury, and two on the way back. The person who tells the best story, as determined by the host, will have his supper paid for by the rest of the group. The tale-telling begins with the knight and proceeds as the pilgrims near Canterbury, each person telling a story that reflects their social position, and some telling stories which are intended to make fun of others in the group. No winner is chosen by the host in the end, and not all of the pilgrims have told their tales by the time the story ends. Chaucer adds to the work a retraction apologizing for anything written which may have offended. Dating issues The opening folio of the Hengwrt manuscript contains the beginning of the General Prologue. The date of the conception and writing of The Canterbury Tales as a collection of stories has proved difficult to discover. It seems clear that the Tales were begun after some of Chaucer's other works, such as Legend of Good Women, which fails to mention them in a list of other works by the author. Also, it was probably written after his Troilus and Criseyde, since Legend is written in part as an apology for the portrayal of women in the Criseyde character. Troilus is dated to sometime between 1382 and 1388, with Legend coming soon after, possibly in 1386-87. In any case, work on The Canterbury Tales as a whole probably began in the late 1380s and continued as Chaucer neared his death in the year 1400. Pearsall, p. 1. Cooper, p. 5. Two of the tales, The Knight's Tale and The Second Nun's Tale, were probably written before the compilation of stories was ever thought of. Both of these tales are mentioned in the Prologue to the aforementioned Legend of Good Women. Pearsall, p. 2. Other tales, such as the Clerk's and the Man of Law's, are also suggested to have been written earlier and added into the Canterbury Tales framework after the fact. These suggestions, however, are less supported by scholars. Pearsall, p. 4. The Monk's Tale is one of the few describing an event which provides a clear date. It describes the death of Bernabò Visconti, which occurred on 19 December 1385, although some scholars believe the lines about him were added after the main tale had already been written. Pearsall, p. 5. The Shipman's Tale was in all likelihood written before The Wife of Bath's Tale, as in parts the Shipman speaks as if he were a woman, leading scholars to believe that the Shipman's Tale was originally intended for the Wife of Bath, before she became a more prominent character. References to her in Envoy to Bukton (1396) seem to indicate that her character was quite famous in London by that time. Pearsall, pp. 5-6. Chaucer's use of sources also provide chronological clues. The Pardoner's Tale, the Wife of Bath's Prologue, and the Franklin's Tale all draw frequent reference to St. Jerome's Epistola adversus Jovinianum. Jerome's work is also an addition to Chaucer's Prologue to a revised Legend of Good Women dated to 1394, suggesting that these three tales were written sometime in the mid-1390s. Scholars have also used Chaucer's references to astronomy to find the dates specific tales were written. From the data Chaucer provides in the prologue, for example, the pilgrimage in which the tales are told takes place in 1387. However, this assumes that, when looking up astronomical data, Chaucer stayed with current events. Pearsall, p. 7. Text A total of 83 medieval manuscripts of The Canterbury Tales are known to exist, more than any other vernacular medieval literary work except The Prick of Conscience. This is taken as evidence of the tales' popularity during the 15th century. Pearsall, 8 Fifty-five of these manuscripts are thought to have once been complete, while 28 more are so fragmentary that it is difficult to tell whether they were copied individually or were part of a larger set. Cooper, 6—7 The Tales vary in both minor and major ways from manuscript to manuscript, with many of the minor variations obviously coming from copyists' errors. However, other variations suggest that Chaucer himself was constantly adding to and revising his work as it was copied and distributed. No official, complete version of the Tales exists and it is impossible with the information available to determine the order Chaucer intended them to be placed in or even, in some cases, whether he even had any intention in mind. Cooper, 7 Pearsall, 14-15 There are clues which have led to the two most popular methods of ordering the tales. Scholars usually divide the tales into ten fragments. The tales that make up a fragment are directly connected and make clear distinctions about what order they go in, usually with one character speaking to and then stepping aside for another character. Between fragments, however, there is less of a connection. This means that there are several possible permutations for the order of the fragments and consequently the tales themselves. The most popular ordering of the fragments is as follows: Fragment Tales Fragment I(A) General Prologue, Knight, Miller, Reeve, Cook Fragment II(B1) Man of Law Fragment III(D) Wife, Friar, Summoner Fragment IV(E) Clerk, Merchant Fragment V(F) Squire, Franklin Fragment VI(C) Physician, Pardoner Fragment VII(B2) Shipman, Prioress, Sir Thopas, Melibee, Monk, Nun's Priest Fragment VIII(G) Second Nun, Canon's Yeoman Fragment IX(H) Manciple Fragment X(I) Parson An alternative to this order is the placing of Fragment VIII(G) before VI(C). In other cases, the above order follows that set by early manuscripts. Fragments I and II almost always follow each other, as do VI and VII, IX and X in the oldest manuscripts. Fragments IV and V, by contrast are located in varying locations from manuscript to manuscript. Victorians would frequently move Fragment VII(B2) to follow Fragment II(B1), but this trend is no longer followed and has no justification. Even the earliest surviving manuscripts are not Chaucer's originals, the oldest being MS Peniarth 392 D (called "Hengwrt"), compiled by a scribe shortly after Chaucer's death. The scribe uses the order shown above, though he does not seem to have had a full collection of Chaucer's tales, so part are missing. The most beautiful of the manuscripts of the tales is the Ellesmere manuscript, and many editors have followed the order of the Ellesmere over the centuries, even down to the present day. Pearsall, 10, 17 Cooper, 8 The latest of the manuscripts is William Caxton's 1478 print edition, the first version of the tales to be published in print. Since this version was created from a now-lost manuscript, it is counted as among the 83 manuscripts. Language The Canterbury Tales were written in Middle English, specifically in a dialect associated with London and spellings associated with the then emergent chancery standard. Although we have no manuscript of the Tales in Chaucer's own hand, two were copied around the time of his death by Adam Pinkhurst, a scribe whom he seems to have worked closely with before, meaning that we can be fairly sure about how Chaucer himself wrote the Tales. Linne R. Mooney, ‘Chaucer’s Scribe’, Speculum, 81 (2006), 97–138. Chaucer's generation of English-speakers was among the last to pronounce e at the end of words (so for Chaucer the word <care> was pronounced , not as the found in modern English). This meant that later copyists tended to be inconsistent in their copying of final -e and this for many years gave scholars the impression that Chaucer himself was inconsistent in using it. e.g. Ian Robinson, Chaucer's Prosody: A Study of the Middle English Verse Tradition (London: Cambridge University Press, 1971). It has now been established, however, that -e was an important part of Chaucer's morphology (having a role in distinguishing, for example, singular adjectives from plural and subjunctive verbs from indicative). Seminal studies included M. L. Samuels, 'Chaucerian Final '-e' ', Notes and Queries, 19 (1972), 445-48 and D. Burnley, 'Inflection in Chaucer's Adjectives', Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, 83 (1982), 169-77. The pronunciation of Chaucer's writing otherwise differs most prominently from Modern English in that his language had not undergone the Great Vowel Shift: pronouncing Chaucer's vowels as they would be pronounced today in European languages like Italian, Spanish or German generally produces pronunciations more like Chaucer's own than Modern English pronunciation would. In addition, sounds now written in English but not pronounced were still pronounced by Chaucer: the word <knight> for Chaucer was , not . The pronunciation of Chaucer's poetry can now be reconstructed fairly confidently through detailed philological research; the following gives an IPA reconstruction of the opening lines of The Merchant's Prologue; it is likely, however, that when a word ending in a vowel was followed by a word beginning in a vowel, the two vowels were elided into one syllable: 'Wepyng and waylyng, care and oother sorwe I knowe ynogh, on even and a-morwe,' Quod the Marchant, 'and so doon other mo That wedded been.' Text from The Riverside Chaucer, ed. by Larry D. Benson, 3rd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 153. Based on the information in Norman Davies, 'Language and Versification', in The Riverside Chaucer, ed. by Larry D. Benson, 3rd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. xxv-xli. 'Weeping and wailing, care and other sorrow I know enough, in the evening and in the morning,' said the Merchant, 'and so does many another who has been married.' Sources A Tale from the Decameron by John William Waterhouse. No other work prior to Chaucer's is known to have set a collection of tales within the framework of pilgrims on a pilgrimage. It is obvious, however, that Chaucer borrowed portions, sometimes very large portions, of his stories from earlier stories, and that his work was influenced by the general state of the literary world in which he lived. Storytelling was the main entertainment in England at the time, and storytelling contests had been around for hundreds of years. In 14th-century England the English Pui was a group with an appointed leader who would judge the songs of the group. The winner received a crown and, as with the winner of the Canterbury Tales, a free dinner. It was common for pilgrims on a pilgrimage to have a chosen "master of ceremonies" to guide them and organize the journey. Cooper, p. 10. The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio contains more parallels to the Canterbury Tales than any other work. Like the Tales, it features a number of narrators who tell stories along a journey they have undertaken (to flee from the Black Plague). It ends with an apology by Boccaccio, much like Chaucer's Retraction to the Tales. One-fourth of the tales in Canterbury Tales parallels a tale in the Decameron, although most of them have closer parallels in other stories. Scholars thus find it unlikely that Chaucer had a copy of the work on hand, surmising instead that he must have merely read the Decameron while visiting Italy at some point. Cooper, pp. 10-11. Each of the tales has its own set of sources which have been suggested by scholars, but a few sources are used frequently over several tales. These include poetry by Ovid, the Bible in one of the many vulgate versions it was available in at the time (the exact one is difficult to determine), and the works of Petrarch and Dante. Chaucer was the first author to utilize the work of these last two, both Italians. Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy appears in several tales, as do the works of John Gower, a known friend to Chaucer. A full list is impossible to outline in little space, but Chaucer also, lastly, seems to have borrowed from numerous religious encyclopedias and liturgical writings, such as John Bromyard's Summa praedicantium, a preacher's handbook, and St. Jerome's Adversus Jovinianum. Cooper, pp. 12-16. Analysis |Canterbury Cathedral. View from the north west circa 1890-1900 (retouched from a black & white photograph). Genre and structure Canterbury Tales falls into the same category or genre as many other works of its day as a collection of stories organized into a frame narrative or frame tale. Chaucer's Tales differed from other stories in this genre chiefly in its intense variation. Most story collections focused on a theme, usually a religious one. Even in the Decameron, storytellers are encouraged to stick to the theme decided on for the day. Chaucer's work has much more variation, not only in theme, but in the social class of the tellers and the meter and style of each story told, than any other story of the frame narrative genre. The idea of a pilgrimage appears to have been a useful device to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes, and was also unprecedented. Introducing a competition among the tales encourages the reader to compare the tales in all their variety, and allows Chaucer to showcase the breadth of his skill in different genres and literary forms. Cooper, 8-9 While the structure of the Tales is largely linear, with one story following another, it is also much more than that. In the General Prologue, Chaucer describes, not the tales to be told, but the people who will tell them, making it clear that structure will depend on the characters rather than a general theme or moral. This idea is reinforced when the Miller interrupts to tell his tale after the Knight has finished his. Having the Knight go first, gives one the idea that all will tell their stories by class, with the Knight going first, followed by the Monk, but the Miller's interruption makes it clear that this structure will be abandoned in favor of a free and open exchange of stories among all classes present. General themes and points of view arise as tales are told which are responded to by other characters in their own tales, sometimes after a long lapse in which the theme has not been addressed. Cooper, 17-18 Lastly, Chaucer does not pay much attention to the progress of the trip, to the time passing as the pilgrims travel, or specific locations along the way to Canterbury. His writing of the story seems focused primarily on the stories being told, and not on the pilgrimage itself. Cooper, 18 Style The variety of Chaucer's tales shows the breadth of his skill and his familiarity with countless rhetorical forms and linguistic styles. Medieval schools of rhetoric at the time encouraged such diversity, dividing literature (as Virgil suggests) into high, middle, and low styles as measured by the density of rhetorical forms and vocabulary. Another popular method of division came from St. Augustine, who focused more on audience response and less on subject matter (a Virgilian concern). Augustine divided literature into "majestic persuades", "temperate pleases", and "subdued teaches". Writers were encouraged to write in a way that kept in mind the speaker, subject, audience, purpose, manner, and occasion. Chaucer moves freely between all of these styles, showing favoritism to none. He not only considers the readers of his work as an audience, but the other pilgrims within the story as well, creating a multi-layered rhetorical puzzle of ambiguities. Chaucer's work thus far surpasses the ability of any single medieval theory to uncover. Cooper, 22-24 With this Chaucer avoids targeting any specific audience or social class of readers, focusing instead on the characters of the story and writing their tales with a skill proportional to their social status and learning. However, even the lowest characters, such as the Miller, show surprising rhetorical ability, although their subject matter is more lowbrow. Vocabulary also plays an important part, as those of the higher classes refer to a woman as a "lady", while the lower classes use the word "wenche", with no exceptions. At times the same word will mean entirely different things between classes. The word "pitee", for example, is a noble concept to the upper classes, while in the Merchant's Tale it refers to sexual intercourse. Again, however, tales such as the Nun's Priest's Tale show surprising skill with words among the lower classes of the group, while the Knight's Tale is at times extremely simple. Cooper, 24-25 Chaucer uses the same meter throughout almost all of his tales, with the exception of Sir Thopas and his prose tales. It is a decasyllable line, probably borrowed from French and Italian forms, with riding rhyme and, occasionally, a caesura in the middle of a line. His meter would later develop into the heroic meter of the 15th and 16th centuries and is an ancestor of iambic pentameter. He avoids allowing couplets to become too prominent in the poem, and four of the tales (the Man of Law's, Clerk's, Prioress', and Second Nun's) use rhyme royal. Cooper, 25-26 Historical context and themes The Peasant's Revolt of 1381 is mentioned in the Tales. The time of the writing of The Canterbury Tales was a turbulent time in English history. The Catholic Church was in the midst of the Great Schism and, though it was still the only Christian authority in Europe, was the subject of heavy controversy. Lollardy, an early English religious movement led by John Wycliffe, is mentioned in the Tales, as is a specific incident involving pardoners (who gathered money in exchange for absolution from sin) who nefariously claimed to be collecting for St. Mary Rouncesval hospital in England. The Canterbury Tales is among the first English literary works to mention paper, a relatively new invention which allowed dissemination of the written word never before seen in England. Political clashes, such as the 1381 Peasant's Revolt and clashes ending in the deposing of King Richard II, further reveal the complex turmoil surrounding Chaucer in the time of the Tales''' writing. Many of his close friends were executed and he himself was forced to move to Kent in order to get away from events in London. Cooper, 5-6 Social class and convention The Tales constantly reflect the conflict between classes. For example, the division of the three estates; the characters are all divided into three distinct classes, the classes being "those who pray" (the clergy), "those who fight" (the nobility), and "those who work" (the commoners and peasantry). Most of the tales are interlinked by common themes, and some "quit" (reply to or retaliate for) other tales. Convention is followed when the Knight begins the game with a tale, as he represents the highest social class in the group. But when he is followed by the Miller, who represents a lower class, it sets the stage for the Tales to reflect both a respect for and a disregard for upper class rules. Helen Cooper, as well as Mikhail Bakhtin and Derek Brewer, call this opposition "the ordered and the grotesque, Lent and Carnival, officially approved culture and its riotous, and high-spirited underside." Cooper, 19 Several works of the time contained the same opposition. Religion The Canterbury Tales includes an account of Jews murdering a deeply pious and innocent Christian boy ('The Prioress's Tale'). This blood libel against Jews became a part of English literary tradition. Rubin,106—107 However, the story the Prioress tells did not originate in the works of Chaucer: it was well known in the 14th century. "The Prioress's Tale", by prof. Jane Zatta Relativism vs. reality Chaucer's characters each express different, sometimes vastly different views of reality, creating an atmosphere of relativism. As Helen Cooper says, "Different genres give different readings of the world: the fabliau scarcely notices the operations of God, the saint's life focuses on those at the expense of physical reality, tracts and sermons insist on prudential or orthodox morality, romances privilege human emotion." The sheer number of varying persons and stories renders the Tales as a set unable to arrive at any definite truth or reality. Cooper, 21 Influence It is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution that this work made to English literature was in popularising the literary use of the vernacular, English, rather than French or Latin. English had, however, been used as a literary language for centuries before Chaucer's life, and several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, and the Pearl Poet—also wrote major literary works in English. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was responsible for starting a trend rather than simply being part of it. It is interesting to note that, although Chaucer had a powerful influence in poetic and artistic terms, which can be seen in the great number of forgeries and mistaken attributions (such as The Flower and the Leaf which was translated by John Dryden), modern English spelling and orthography owes much more to the innovations made by the Court of Chancery in the decades during and after his lifetime. Reception The beginning of The Knight's Tale from the Ellesmere manuscript. Chaucer's day The intended audience of The Canterbury Tales has proved very difficult to determine. There are no external clues other than that Chaucer was a courtier, leading some to believe that he was a court poet and wrote mostly for the nobility. However, none of his associates mention the fact that he was a poet in any known historical document. Scholars have suggested that the poem was intended to be read aloud, which is probable as that was a common activity at the time. However, it also seems to have been intended for private reading as well, since Chaucer frequently refers to himself as the writer, rather than the speaker, of the work. Determining the intended audience directly from the text is even more difficult, since the audience is part of the story. This makes it difficult to tell when Chaucer is writing to the fictional pilgrim audience or the actual reader. Pearsall, 294-5 It is obvious that Chaucer's works were distributed in some form while he was alive, probably in fragmented pieces or as individual tales. Scholars speculate that manuscripts were circulated among his friends, but likely remained unknown to most people until after his death. However, the speed with which copyists strove to write complete versions of his tale in manuscript form shows that Chaucer was a famous and respected poet in his own day. The Hengwrt and Ellesmere manuscripts are examples of the care taken to distribute the work. More manuscript copies of the poem exist than for any other poem of its day except The Prick of Conscience, causing some scholars to give it the medieval equivalent of "best-seller" status. Even the most elegant of the illustrated manuscripts, however, is not nearly as decorated and fancified as the work of authors of more respectable works such as John Lydgate's religious and historical literature. Pearsall, 295-97 15th century John Lydgate and Thomas Occleve were among the first critics of Chaucer's Tales, praising the poet as the greatest English poet of all time and the first to truly show what the language was capable of poetically. This sentiment is universally agreed upon by later critics into the mid-15th century. Glosses included in Canterbury Tales manuscripts of the time praised him highly for his skill with "sentence" and rhetoric, the two pillars by which medieval critics judged poetry. The most respected of the tales was at this time the Knight's, as it was full of both. Pearsall, 298-302 Literary additions and adaptations The postulated return journey has intrigued many and continuations have been written as well, often to the horror or (occasional) delight of Chaucerians everywhere, as tales written for the characters who are mentioned but not given a chance to speak. The Tale of Beryn is a story by an anonymous author within a 15th century manuscript of the work. The tales are rearranged and there are some interludes in Canterbury, which they had finally reached, and Beryn is the first tale on the return journey, told by the Merchant. John Lydgate's Siege of Thebes is also a depiction of the return journey but the tales themselves are actually prequels to the tale of classical origin told by the Knight in Chaucer's work. The title of the work has become an everyday phrase and been variously adapted and adopted; for example Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale, and others. Many literary works (both fiction and non-fiction alike) have used a similar frame narrative to the Canterbury Tales as an homage. Science Fiction writer Dan Simmons wrote his Hugo Award winning novel Hyperion based around an extra-planetary group of pilgrims. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used The Canterbury Tales as a structure for his 2004 non-fiction book about evolution - The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. His animal pilgrims are on their way to find the common ancestor, each telling a tale about evolution. Henry Dudeney's book The Canterbury Puzzles contains a part which is supposedly lost text from the Tales. Historical mystery novelist P.C. Doherty wrote a series of novels based on "The Canterbury Tales," making use of the story frame and of Chaucer's characters. The graphic novel Worlds' End, part of Neil Gaiman's The Sandman series, has the same basic storyline as The Canterbury Tales. Several very different people meet in an inn and agree to tell tales while they wait for a storm to end. British author JK Rowling cites The Pardoner's Tale, one of The Canterbury Tales, as her inspiration for the fairy tale The Tale of Three Brothers. This is very prominent in the Harry Potter series, especially in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the last book. The song, "A Whiter Shade of Pale," by Procol Harum appears to contain a reference to Chaucer's work: "...And so it was, later, as the miller told his tale, that her face, at first just ghostly, turned a whiter shade of pale." Stage and film adaptationsThe Two Noble Kinsmen, by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, a retelling of "The Knight's Tale", was first performed in 1613 or 1614 and published in 1634. 1944, A Canterbury Tale, a film jointly written and directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, is based on the narrative frame of Chaucer's tales - that is, a group of strangers, each with his or her own story and in need of some kind of redemption, making their way to Canterbury together. The movie opens with a scene showing a group of medieval pilgrims journeying by foot and on horseback through the Kentish countryside as a narrator speaks the opening lines of the Tales' prologue. This scene makes a now-famous transition to the time of World War 2. The film's main story takes place in an imaginary town in Kent and ends with the main characters arriving at Canterbury Cathedral, bells pealing and Chaucer's words again resounding. A Canterbury Tale is recognized as one of the Powell-Pressburger team's most poetic and artful films. It was produced as wartime propaganda, using Chaucer's poetry, referring to the famous pilgrimage, and offering stirring photography of Kent to remind the public of what made Britain so special and worth fighting for. One scene in the film centers on a local historian lecturing his audience of British soldiers about the pilgrims of Chaucer's time and the vibrant history of England. 1961, Erik Chisholm completed his opera, The Canterbury Tales. The opera is in three acts: The Wyf of Bath’s Tale, The Pardoner’s Tale and The Nun’s Priest’s Tale. 1972 For the Pasolini movie, see The Canterbury Tales (film)1975, Alan Plater wrote a modern re-telling of the stories in a series of television plays for BBC2: Trinity Tales. In this adaptation, the stories were told by a party of rugby league supporters on their way to a cup final at Wembley. Screen Online 1995, in Se7en, the book is featured in the film where Morgan Freeman is trying to learn more about the murderer's background and motives. 2001, A Knight's Tale took its name from "The Knight's Tale," with a fictionalized Chaucer portrayed as a friend to the knight. At one point Chaucer declares he will use his verse to vilify two church officials who cheated him; they are a summoner and a pardoner. However the film actually has very little to do with the tale. In a deleted scene included on the DVD release, Chaucer is also seen with his wife, who comments that his new companions "seem much more fun than those boring old pilgrims you hung out with last year." 2004, BBC, modern re-tellings of selected tales. 2005, Royal Shakespeare Company, translation by Mike Poulton References Notes Bibliography Cooper, Helen. The Canterbury Tales. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0198711557 Pearsall, Derek. The Canterbury Tales. London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1985. ISBN 0048000213 Rubin, Alexis P., ed. (1993): Scattered Among the Nations: Documents Affecting Jewish History. 49 to 1975. Wall & Emerson. ISBN 1895131103. Further reading Collette, Carolyn. Species, Phantasms and Images: Vision and Medieval Psychology in the Canterbury Tales. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001. Kolve, V.A. and Glending Olson (Eds.) (2005). The Canterbury Tales: Fifteen Tales and The General Prologue; Authoritative Text, Sources and Backgrounds, Criticism. A Norton Critical Edition (2nd ed.). New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-92587-0. LC PR1867.K65 2005. Thompson, N.S. Chaucer, Boccaccio, and the Debate of Love: A Comparative Study of the Decameron and the Canterbury Tales''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-198-12378-7. External links General Modern Translation and Other Resources at eChaucer Geoffrey Chaucer’s art of Poetry The Canterbury Tales Project: publishing transcripts, images, collations and analysis of all surviving 15th century copies Audio clips Audio clip from the first part of the Miller's Tale Audio clip from the second part of the Miller's tale Audio clip from the prologue of the Canterbury Tales Audio clip from The Miller's Tale and The Second Nun's Tale Online texts The Canterbury Tales, complete text and audio at PublicLiterature.org "Modern English translation of the Canterbury Tales" Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ~ Presented by ELF The Canterbury Tales: A Complete Translation into Modern English Facsimiles Originals from the British Library high resolution scans of William Caxton's two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales The Hengwrt Manuscript: high-resolution image of the first page of the oldest manuscript copy. Manuscript images, transcripts and collations from The Miller's Tale and *The Nun's Priest's Tale
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7,194
Incompatible-properties_argument
The Incompatible-properties argument is the idea that no description of God is consistent with reality. For example, if one takes the definition of God to be described fully from the Bible, then the claims of what properties God has described therein might be argued to lead to a contradiction. Evil vs. good and omnipotence The problem of evil is the argument that the existence of evil is incompatible with the concept of an omnipotent and perfectly good God. A variation does not depend on the existence of evil. A truly omnipotent God could create all possible worlds. A "good" God can create only "good" worlds. A God that created all possible worlds would have no moral qualities whatsoever, and could be replaced by a random generator. The standard response is to argue a distinction between "could create" and "would create." In other words, God "could" create all possible worlds but that is simply not in God's nature. This has been argued by theologians for centuries. However, the result is that a "good" God is incompatible with some possible worlds, thus incapable of creating them without losing the property of being a totally different God. Purpose vs. timelessness One argument based on incompatible properties rests on a definition of God that includes a will, plan or purpose and an existence outside of time. To say that a being possesses a purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist. This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call "time". It may be one direction of causality, the direction of increasing entropy, or some other emergent property of a world. These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal. In general, God's time would not be related to our time. God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so. However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose. Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose. (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means -- at any point in spacetime -- time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.) A God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing. Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created. Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will Another pair of incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or free will. Omniscience concerning the past and present (properly defined relative to Earth) is not a problem, but omniscience regarding the future implies it has been determined. That is possible only in a deterministic world. Simplicity vs. omniscience Another pair is simplicity and omniscience. God's memory alone vastly exceeds the terabytes in our computers, and bits (or bytes) are the fundamental mathematical units of information. Information is not "ineffable" and cannot be reduced to something simpler. Furthermore, God must live forever and therefore must have a deterministic processing unit or infinite error correction mechanisms. The simplest implementation is deterministic and quite unconscious, seemingly incompatible with an intelligent being. See also Existence of God Theological noncognitivism External links A description of 10 more incompatibilities A response to William Craig --Technical paper on omniscience and time. Omniscience and Omnipotence
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7,195
George_Mason_University
George Mason University (often referred to as GMU or Mason) is a large public university with a main campus in unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, United States, south of and adjacent to the city of Fairfax. "City Map." City of Fairfax. Accessed October 20, 2008. Additional campuses are located nearby in Arlington County, Prince William County, and Loudoun County. Named after American revolutionary, patriot, and founding father George Mason, the University was founded as a branch of the University of Virginia in 1957 and became an independent institution in 1972. Recognized for its strong law, economics, nursing and public policy programs, the University enrolls over 30,000 students, making it the second largest university in the Commonwealth of Virginia. History George Mason University is named after American revolutionary, patriot, and founding father George Mason. The University traces its roots back to the 1950s when the Virginia legislature passed a resolution, in January 1956, to establish a branch college of the University of Virginia in Northern Virginia. In September 1957 the new college opened its doors to seventeen students, all of whom enrolled as freshmen in a renovated elementary school building at Bailey's Crossroads. John Norville Gibson Finley served as Director of the new branch, which was known as University College. George Mason, (1725-1792) after whom the University is named. The city of Fairfax purchased and donated of land to the University of Virginia for the college's new location, which was referred to as the Fairfax Campus. In 1959, the Board of Visitors of UVA selected a permanent name for the college: George Mason College of the University of Virginia. The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first of Fairfax Campus began in 1962. In the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students. Local jurisdictions of Fairfax County, Arlington County, and the cities of Alexandria and Falls Church agreed to appropriate $3 million to purchase land adjacent to GMC to provide for a Fairfax Campus in 1966 with the intention that the institution would expand into a regional university of major proportions, including the granting of graduate degrees. On April 7, 1972 the Virginia General Assembly enacted legislation which separated George Mason College from its parent institution, the University of Virginia. Renamed that day by the legislation, George Mason College became George Mason University. In 1978, the George Mason University Foundation purchased the former Kann's department store in Arlington. In March 1979 the Virginia General Assembly authorized the establishment of the George Mason University School of Law (GMUSL) - contingent on the transfer of the Kann's building to George Mason University. GMUSL began operations in that building on July 1, 1979 and received provisional accreditation from the American Bar Association in 1980. The ABA granted full approval to GMUSL in 1986. Also, in 1979, the university moved all of its athletic programs to NCAA Division I. Enrollment that year passed 11,000. The university opened its Arlington campus in 1982, two blocks from the Virginia Square-GMU station in Arlington. In 1986 the university's governing body, the Board of Visitors, approved a new master plan for the year based on an enrollment of 20,000 full-time students with housing for 5,000 students by 1995. That same year university housing opened to bring the total number of residential students to 700. Through a bequest of Russian immigrant Shelley Krasnow the University established the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study in 1991. The Institute was created to further the understanding of the mind and intelligence by combining the fields of cognitive psychology, neurobiology, and artificial intelligence. In 1992, GMU's new Prince William Institute began classes in a temporary site in Manassas, Virginia. The Institute moved to a permanent site located on the Rt. 234 bypass, ten miles (16 km) south of Manassas, by the year 1997, and is now known as the Prince William Campus. The university graduated more than 5,000 students that following spring. While George Mason University is relatively young, particularly compared to established research universities in Virginia, it has grown rapidly, reaching an enrollment of 29,889 students in 2006 , and is the second largest university in the state of Virginia, exceeded only by Virginia Commonwealth University. According to a 2005 report issued by the university, enrollment is expected to reach 35,000 students by 2011 with more than 7,000 resident students. In 2002 Mason celebrated its 30th anniversary as a University by launching its first capital campaign with a goal to raise $110 million. It concluded by raising $142 million, $32 million more than their goal. The George Mason University logo, originally designed in 1982, was updated in 2004. In 2008, the School of Management celebrated its 30th anniversary. Also, in 2008 they also changed their mascot from the furry green "Gunston" to a green and yellow faced patriot named "The Patriot". Campuses Fairfax The new Volgenau School of Information Technology and Engineering building. The main campus of George Mason University is situated on just south of the Fairfax, Virginia in central Fairfax County, approximately west of Washington, D.C. The Fairfax campus is served on the Washington Metro by the Vienna/Fairfax-GMU station on the Orange line. A 15 minute shuttle in addition to the CUE bus, free for students with a Mason ID card, serves the students through routes from the Metro station to the University. Design and Construction In the early 1960s four buildings were constructed around a lawn in Fairfax, appropriately named East, West, North (later, Krug Hall), and South (later, Finley Hall). The first four structures, today dubbed "The Original Four," "around a lawn" were understood as a clear reference to the buildings around The Lawn of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. In addition, in the words of the architects, the architecture of the buildings was meant to reflect Jeffersonian influence through the use of red brick with buff colored mortar, white vertical columns, and sloped shingled roofs. Master plans were developed to incorporate further development, which saw new additions such as Fenwick Library and Lecture Hall. By 1979 master plan development was handled by the firm of Sasaki & Associates, which continued to work alongside the university in the years that followed. Student housing first became available in 1977. The 1980s saw the biggest expansion with new buildings being added on each year including the Patriot Center. Recent years have seen the most activity on campus. Innovation Hall, a new academic building, opened in 2003. Student apartment buildings Liberty Square and Potomac Heights opened in 2004 to accommodate an unprecedented demand from students. The fall of 2005 saw the number of residential students surpass 4,100. The Sandy Creek parking deck and Research I, a four-story facility that includes faculty offices and instructional and research laboratories, opened in 2006. The latter includes a semi-detached tower that houses the Astronomy Department’s rooftop telescope. The Fairfax campus is undergoing a massive, $500 million construction campaign that includes a new Information Technology and Engineering building, a new Visual and Performing Arts building, a new dining hall, a renovated Physical Education building (in addition to the recently renovated Aquatic and Fitness Center), and a new residential building. Also, George Mason is planning a new hotel and conference center, and yet another new residential building. Even the roads are changing: the Patriot Circle has received a new roundabout this summer. By 2010, Mason will have over of new building space as compared to 2006. Not only is Mason experiencing a construction boom, but it also has another Master Plan and Library Master Plan in the works. The Fairfax campus is undergoing a complete transformation. Housing & Residence Life Liberty Square, an upperclassmen residence area which opened in 2003 Fairfax is the only campus of George Mason University with on-campus student housing. There are five housing areas housing approximately 5,000 students: President's Park, DUCC (Dominion Hall, University Commons and Commonwealth Hall), TAP (Townhouses, Student Apartments), YRC (Liberty Square and Potomac Heights) and the newest housing area Chesapeake (Tidewater, Blue Ridge, Shenandoah, Piedmont and Northern Neck). A sixth housing area is currently under construction to house an additional thousand students. York River Corner includes Liberty Square and Potomac Heights, built in 2003. YRC houses approximately 1,000 upperclassmen combined, with about 500 at each development. Both are fully furnished apartments in two, four, or six-person units. A view of George Mason's Chesapeake housing area. Chesapeake includes the buildings Tidewater, Piedmont, Blue Ridge , Shenandoah and Northern Neck. Northern Neck consists of Upperclassmen housing in Apartment style rooms, while the other buildings feature combinations of various suite style rooms. The area also contains a Conference Space, Convenience Store, Dining Hall, Fitness Facility, and a future Starbucks (completed in Spring 2009). President's Park President's Park opened in 1989 and is the largest housing area, with more than 1,000 students living in two, three, or five person dorm rooms. President's Park is exclusively for freshman. There are thirteen residential buildings, all named after past U.S. Presidents, surrounding Eisenhower hall in the center, with a diner,vending areas, study lounge, and TV lounge. Dominion Hall, University Commons and Commonwealth Hall, or DUCC, houses approximately one-thousand students, including some freshmen, sophomores and primarily upper-class students. Dominion and Commonwealth Hall were built in 1981 and are five-story buildings offering double-occupancy suite-style rooms for upperclassmen. University Commons was built in 1986 and comprises eight buildings. Townhouses, Student Apartments, Patriots Village, houses approximately 1,000 upperclassmen. The townhouses and student apartments became available in 1987, and Patriots Village which has modules from 1984 through 1988. There are 35 two-bedroom townhouses located 1/8th of a mile north of the campus on State Route 123. In summer 2008 the Patriot Village area will be demolished to make room for the hotel and conference center. Student Apartments were renovated in 2002 and are located inside Patriot Circle, just west of the main quad. They comprise nine three-story buildings of one, two, and three-bedroom units. Patriots Village consists of dozens of permanent modulars located outside of Patriot Circle, just east of Ox Road, offering modular and suite-style units. Student Life Barack Obama delivering a speech to students at the Johnson Center in 2007. The Johnson Center The George W. Johnson Learning Center, more commonly known as the Johnson Center or JC, is the central hub on campus, completed in 1995 and named after University President of 18-years, George W. Johnson. Located in the center of campus, the $30 million, building was built as the first of its kind building on any American campus, acting both as a main library and a student union. The ground floor includes a buffet style restaurant, the campus radio station, a coffee shop, 300-seat movie theater, and Dewberry Hall. The main floor includes the campus bookstore, a large food court with several fast food restaurants, and the ground floor of the library. The second and third floors of the Johnson Center are primarily used by the library, with multiple group meeting rooms, computer labs, and a full service restaurant located on the third floor. The Johnson Center serves as the center for student life with many activities and productions sponsored by Program Board and Student Government. In 2004 during the Democratic Primaries, Senator John Kerry, the eventual Democratic Nominee for President, visited George Mason University and gave a speech on the floor of the Johnson Center. In 2007, shortly after announcing on his website that he would establish a presidential exploratory committee, Senator Barack Obama gave a speech at the "Yes We Can" rally at the Johnson Center atrium. The next week he formally announced his intentions of running for president. George Mason University's Center for the Arts. The Center for the Arts includes a 2,000-seat Concert Hall built in 1990. The concert hall can be converted into a more intimate 800-seat theater. Most Center for the Arts events take place here, including operas, orchestras, ballets, and musical and theatrical performances. The Patriot Center The Patriot Center is a 10,000 seat arena for the Men's and Women's basketball team. The Patriot Center is also host to over 100 concerts and events throughout the year, annually attracting major performers like Bob Dylan, David Bowie, Ricardo Arjona, REM, Linkin Park and the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. The Aquatic and Fitness Center opened in 1998 at a cost of $11 million. The center includes an Olympic size swimming pool containing eight 50-meter lanes, twenty-two lanes, two movable bulkheads, and a diving area equipped with two 1-meter and two 3-meter spring boards, a Warm-water recreational pool, Locker rooms, a whirlpool, a coed sauna, and a family changing room. Fenwick Library was originally built in 1967, with additions in 1974, a tower in 1983, and renovations in 2005-2006. It was named for Charles Rogers Fenwick, one of George Mason's founders. Fenwick Library is the main research library at George Mason. Its resources include: most of the university's books, microforms, print and bound journals, government documents, and maps. Electronic resources include networked and stand-alone CD-ROMs, the libraries' online catalog, a number of databases available through the libraries' membership in various consortia, and Internet access. Another important collection of research materials housed in Fenwick is the Government Documents collection. This collection includes both federal and Virginia state documents. Both sets of documents contain items from the administrative, legislative, and judicial branches of government, and constitute an invaluable source of primary source materials for students and faculty in political science, public policy, sociology, business and other fields. There is also a special GIS center in Fenwick Library which conducts GIS drop-in sessions every week. George Mason is a member of the Consortium of Universities of the Washington Metropolitan Area, granting it access to resources of thirteen other libraries in the Nation's capital. Arlington The George Mason University School of Law on the Arlington campus The Arlington campus was established in 1979 by the Virginia General Assembly for the newly founded law school. In 1980, graduate and professional programs were also offered in the building, a converted Kann's department store. Since then the school has grown to offer a multitude of graduate degrees. In 1996, Arlington's campus began its first phase in a three phase campus redevelopment project. In 1998, Hazel Hall was completed to house the law school, the Mercatus Center, and the Institute for Humane Studies. The second phase, to be completed in 2007 is underway for a building to house the School of Public Policy, the College of Education and Human Development, the School of Information Technology and Engineering, the School of Management, the Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, the School of Computational Science, the College of Visual & Performing Arts and academic and student supports services. Arlington's campus is projected to reach an enrollment of 10,000 students by the completion of its redevelopment. The Arlington campus is served on the Washington Metro by the Virginia Square-GMU station on the Orange line. The station is located approximately two blocks west of the campus. Prince William George Mason's Prince William campus opened On August 25, 1997 in Manassas. It is located on of land. The campus offers a high-tech/bio-tech and emphasizes bioinformatics, biotechnology, forensic biosciences educational and research programs in addition to computer and information technology. The campus also offers creative programs of instruction, research, and public/private partnerships in the Prince William County area. Prince William offers: a M.A. in New Professional Studies in Teaching, M.A.I.S. with a concentration in Recreation Resources Management, B.S. in Administration of Justice, Undergraduate programs in Health, Fitness, and Recreation Resources, Graduate programs in Exercise, Fitness and Health Promotion, and Nontraditional programs through Continuing and Professional Education in Geographic Information Systems and Facility Management. Prince William also boasts the 300-seat Verizon Auditorium, the Freedom Aquatic and Fitness Center, and an , $40 million Performing Arts Center scheduled to open in 2008. Other buildings on the Prince William campus include: The Occoquan Building, which houses various academic, research, and administrative resources including a Student Health clinic, Bull Run Hall, a building which opened in the fall of 2004, and Discovery Hall, which was completed in 1998 at a cost of $20.4 million. Loudoun In the fall of 2005, the university opened a temporary site in Loudoun County, Virginia. Several months later, it announced the gift of of land by Greenvest, LLC, to build a fourth suburban campus. The campus was scheduled to open in 2009. However, the proposal was voted down by the Loudoun County Board of Supervisors, as part of the larger Dulles South project. As a result, the gift was rescinded. Loudoun Supervisors Quash Dulles South Project - washingtonpost.com Committed to expanding its presence in Loudoun, the university has now proposed a possible joint campus with Northern Virginia Community College. The campus would be located in Brambleton, Virginia. http://www.loudountimes.com/news/2008/aug/15/joint-gmu-nvcc-campus-considered-loudoun/ Mason's current Loudoun site offers four graduate programs: Master's in Business Administration, Masters and doctoral programs in the College of Education and Human Development, Graduate Degree in Nursing, and a Master of Science in Telecommunications. It also offers five undergraduate programs: minor in Business and Management, certificates in the College of Education and Human Development, BS in health science, minor in Information Technology, and an introductory course in Social Work. Other graduate level courses, such as those offered by the Department of Information and Software Engineering, are periodically taught at the site. As Mason's presence in Loudoun grows from a small branch of the university into a major satellite campus, it will increasingly offer the same services available to students attending George Mason University's Fairfax, Arlington, and Prince William campuses. Ras Al Khaimah George Mason opened a campus in the Ras Al Khaimah emirate of the United Arab Emirates in the early 2000s. The Ras Al Khaimah Campus - George Mason University The Ras Al Khaimah campus offered three undergraduate degree programs; BS in Biology, BS in Business Administration, and BS in Electronics and Communications Engineering. They added a course in Educational leadership and management. The course was a scholarship for 50 educators from RAK Area from Sheikh Saqr program for government excellence along with the RAK Educational Zone. All credits earned at the campus were transferable to Mason's American campuses. On February 27, 2009, Mason announced they will be closing the Ras Al Khamimah campus at the end of the Spring 2009 semester. University Provost, Peter Stearns, cited that the relationship between George Mason University and the partner foundation in RAK worked smoothly until early 2009. He explained that the foundation would be reducing the financial support as well as attempting to change the academic reporting structure. In an e-mail to students Stearns wrote, “We have not been able to reach agreement with our RAK partner on a budget and administrative structure that, in our judgment, assures our ability to provide an education that meets Mason standards.” http://www.thenational.ae/article/20090226/NATIONAL/302411756/0/NEWS No one ever graduated from the Ras al Khaimah 'campus' and it never grew beyond one building. http://chronicle.com/daily/2009/02/12575n.htm, George Mason U. Will Close Its Campus in the Persian Gulf, By ANDREW MILLS http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/education/01campus.html?em George Mason University, Among First With an Emirates Branch, Is Pulling Out Academics The Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study is located on the Fairfax campus. The university has strength in the basic and applied sciences with critical mass in proteomics, neuroscience and computational sciences. Research support comes to Mason faculty from such agencies as the National Institutes of Health, NASA, the National Science Foundation and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Likewise, the Center for Secure Information Systems is designated as a Center of Academic Excellence (CAE) as well as a Center of Academic Excellence in Research (CAE-R) in Information Assurance Education by the National Security Agency. http://www.nsa.gov/ia/academic_outreach/nat_cae/institutions.shtml#va, National Centers of Academic Excellence Institutions Mason is also home to the Center for History and New Media whose various history websites attract more than one million visitors each month. Mason's Center for Global Education's study abroad program has been rated highly offering dozens of programs ranging from one-week spring break programs to full year programs. Mason was awarded $25 million in 2005 from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health, for construction of a Regional Biocontainment Laboratory at the Prince William Campus in Manassas. Rankings Most of the following rankings have been noted and can be found in the US News & World Report, and other rankings publications. U.S. News & World Report ranked George Mason University #1 in its new category of Up-and-coming National Universities, 2009. The School of Public Policy is ranked 1st in the nation for federally-funded public policy, public affairs, public administration and political science research. The university is ranked 70th in North America and 86th worldwide by the web-based Webometrics Ranking of World Universities World Universities' ranking on the Web: Top USA & Canada 4th most diverse university in the nation, by the Princeton Review in 2008. 8th in the world political economy, 30th in public economics by econphd.net. econphd.net The School of Law is ranked 41st in the nation by US News & World Report 30th in the nation graduate Public Policy program by US News & World Report 51st in the nation graduate History program for 2005 by US News & World Report 45th in the nation graduate Public Affairs program by US News & World Report 63rd in the nation graduate Nursing program for 2007 by US News & World Report 65th in the nation graduate Education program for 2008 by US News & World Report 74th in the 2009 list of “Best Undergraduate Business Programs” by U.S. News & World Report 152nd in the nation graduate Biological Sciences programs by US News & World Report 6th in the nation graduate Industrial/Organizational Psychology doctoral program. US News and World Report Schools and colleges Research at GMU is organized into centers, laboratories, and collaborative programs. Research and Scholarship from GMU's website These include the College of Humanities and Social Sciences, the College of Education and Human Development, New Century College, the College of Health and Human Services, the College of Visual and Performing Arts, the Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study, the School of Computational Sciences, the Volgenau School of Information Technology and Engineering, the School of Law, the School of Public Policy, and the College of Science, the School of Management. In addition, GMU's Office of the Provost includes research centers that deal with economics, global education, and teaching excellence. Athletics George Mason Athletic logo 2005-Present The school's sports teams are called the Patriots. The university's men's and women's sports teams participate in the NCAA's Division I, and are members of the Colonial Athletic Association, or CAA. The school's colors are green and gold. George Mason has two NCAA Division I National Championship to its credit: 1985 Women's Soccer and 1996 Men's Indoor Track & Field. George Mason University was catapulted into the national spotlight in March 2006, when its men's basketball team qualified for the Final Four of the NCAA Men's Basketball Tournament by defeating the Michigan State Spartans, the defending champion North Carolina Tar Heels, the Wichita State Shockers, and the top-seeded Connecticut Huskies. Their "Cinderella" journey ended in the Final Four with a loss to the eventual tournament champion Florida Gators by a score of 73-58 . As a result of the team's success in the tournament, the Patriots were ranked 8th in the final ESPN/USA Today Poll for the 2005-06 season. The New York Times, The Washington Post, Baltimore Sun, and USA Today featured the story on their front pages, and was ranked by several publications as the sports story of the year. The Patriots, who had never won an NCAA tournament game before 2006, became the first team from the CAA to crash the Final Four and were the first true mid-major conference team since 1979 to do so (that year, the Larry Bird-led Indiana State Sycamores as a #1 seed, and the Penn Quakers as a #9 seed both reached the Final Four). The Patriots also tied LSU as the lowest-seeded team to reach the Final Four (both did it as #11-seeds; LSU did it in 1986). In 2008, the Patriots returned to the NCAA Tournament after winning the CAA Tournament. They were given a 12 seed and matched up against 5th-seeded Notre Dame. The Patriots were unable to make another miracle run, losing to the Irish by a score of 68-50. Organizations George Mason offers more than 200 clubs and organizations, including 16 fraternities, 15 sororities, 24 International-student organizations, 25 religious organizations, a student programming board, student government, club sports, speech and debate teams, and student media. Mason also offers an Army ROTC program, called The "Patriot Battalion." Mason's club sports include crew, equestrian, field hockey, football, lacrosse, underwater hockey, fencing, and rugby. Media Mason offers two official print publications, Broadside, the student newspaper, and the Mason Gazette, the University-published newspaper. Mason also operates a Campus radio station, WGMU Radio. The online radio station offers music, entertainment, news, and public affairs relating to the University. The Mason Cable Network offers entertainment and information on the public-access channel 89. Mason also offers the following publications: Broadside, weekly student newspaper [], Connect2Mason online media and news convergence Web site, student run blog VoxPop, student literary magazine Phoebe, graduate literary journal So to Speak, a feminist literary journal GMView and Senior Speak, an annual yearbook publication and video. New Voices in Public Policy, School of Public Policy student journal. DigitalCampus, a podcast from the Center for History and New Media Hispanic Culture Review, student bilingual (Spanish/English) journal on Hispanic literature and culture Between approximately 1993 and 1998, George Mason University was also the home of The Fractal: Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy. In Fall 2008, the Lampoon-esque web-based newspaper, The Mason Squire, premiered to the student body. The site features fake news stories along with criticisms of the University, and is rapidly gaining popularity with the student population. Their mottos include "Because fake news doesn’t report itself" and "Fake news just got a whole lot sexier." Fraternity & Sorority Life George Mason University does not have traditional Fraternity & Sorority housing or a "Greek row." Several Panhellenic Council organizations have, however, established "Living/Learning Floors" in the University Commons. Alpha Omicron Pi has had a floor since 2004, Gamma Phi Beta has had a floor since 2006, and Alpha Phi has had a floor since 2007. Officially, "Greek Life" is referred to as "Fraternity & Sorority Life" at George Mason University to eliminate confusion among the very diverse student population. Most organizations in the Interfraternity Council (IFC) and Panhellenic Council (PHC) hold one or two large charitable events each year. Most organizations in the National Pan-Hellenic Conference (NPHC) and Multicultural Greek Council (MGC) hold a series of smaller charitable events throughout the year. The NPHC is also known for its annual Step Show. The most well-known event associated with Fraternity & Sorority Life on campus is held each spring and is called Greek Week. This annual event includes competitive sporting and trivia events, charitable fund raising, and is usually ended with Greek Sing. Organizations participating in Greek Sing put together 10-15 minute themed shows which have included extravagant costumes, set designs, lighting displays, multimedia presentations, dances, singing, acrobatics, and more. PHC holds a formal recruitment each fall. Informal recruitment is held in spring. Many PHC organizations also offer continuous open recruitment (or continuous open bidding) after the designated recruitment period. IFC has a designated one-week rush period in the fall and spring. This week is regulated and monitored, but participants are not registered or tracked. Presidents past and present Lorin A. Thompson, (1966-73) Vergil H. Dykstra, (1973-1977) Robert C. Krug, (1977-1978) George W. Johnson, (1978-1996) Alan G. Merten, (1996-present) Notable alumni Corporate/Non-Profit Stefan Becker, Vice President, CGI Group, Inc. Kendal Carson, President, Cardinal Bank L. Kevin Kelly, CEO executive search firm Heidrick & Struggles, Inc. Business Week (firm helped secure Eric Schmidt as executive of Google) Terry Klaassen, Founder & Executive Vice President and Chief Cultural Officer, Sunrise Senior Living Jim Laychak, President, Pentagon Memorial Fund Michael Gallagher, President and Founder, The Stevie Awards Mary Manning, Vice President, CACI Alan Harbitter, Chief Technology Officer, Nortel Government Solutions George O'Connor, Vice President, Entergy Corporation Muna Abu-Sulayman, Executive Director, Kingdom Foundation Zainab Salbi, President, Women for Women International Debora J. Wilson, President & CEO, The Weather Channel Government and politics David P. Baker, Chief, Alexandria, Virginia Police Department Anna E. Cabral, 42nd Treasurer of the United States. Kathleen L. Casey, Commissioner of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Sean Connaughton, U.S. Maritime Administrator Ken Cuccinelli, Virginia State Senator and 2009 candidate for Attorney General of Virginia Bob Deuell, Texas State Senator Kristine A. Iverson, Assistant Secretary of Labor - Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs Mohammad Khazaee, Representative of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations Mark B. Madsen, Utah State Senator Mike Mazzei, Oklahoma State Senator Paul F. Nichols, Virginia House Delegate Nancy Pfotenhauer, Adviser to the John McCain Campaign, former executive Vice President of Citizens for a Sound Economy, former President of the Independent Women's Forum, and former President of Americans for Prosperity. Karl Rove, Former Deputy Chief of Staff to President George W. Bush William P. Winfree, NASA Literary Richard Bausch, American novelist Sharon Creech, American novelist of children's fiction Carolyn Kreiter-Foronda, Poet Laureate of Virginia http://www.carolynforonda.com/ Mark Winegardner, Author Rebecca Wee, American poet Media Chad Ford, sports journalist and founder of ESPN Insider Angie Goff, W-USA 9 TV - Traffic Presenter Hala Gorani, News Anchor, CNN Brian Krebs, American journalist Nicole Livas, WVBT Fox 43 - News Anchor Vanessa LaFaso, Managing Editor, Northern Virginia Magazine Stephen Moore, economic writer and policy analyst, founder of Club for Growth, member of the Wall Street Journal editorial board, contributing editor for National Review Brian Van De Graaff, WJLA 7 TV - Meteorologist Susan Rook, Former News Anchor, CNN & CNN Talkback Live Sports Julius Achon, Ugandan middle distance runner, currently holds the 800m American Collegiate Record Kwame Adjeman-Pamboe, forward, Colorado Rapids Abdi Bile, Olympic runner Shawn Camp, Relief Pitcher, Toronto Blue Jays Jennifer Derevjanik, Point guard, Phoenix Mercury Ben Dogra, sports agent Mike Kohn, Olympic bobsledder Dayton Moore, General Manager, Senior Vice President of Baseball Operations, Kansas City Royals Rob Muzzio, Decathlon Champion, Olympic Athlete J.J. Picollo, Director of Player Development, Kansas City Royals Chris Widger, Catcher, MLB (Free Agent) Entertainment Kyle "K-Dog" Benham, Associate Producer/Radio personality John Driscoll, Actor Kristi Lauren Glakas, Miss Virginia Teen, Miss Virginia USA 2004, USA 1999 Miss Virginia 2005 Archie Kao, Actor Jennifer Pitts, Miss Virginia 2002, Miss Virginia USA 2005 Other Anousheh Ansari, Space Tourist Sibel Edmonds, Former FBI translator Jon Gettman, marijuana reform activist and leader of the Coalition for Rescheduling Cannabis, longtime contributor to High Times magazine Frederick I. Moxley Notable faculty College of Humanities and Social Sciences Mary Catherine Bateson, daughter of American cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead, former Clarence J. Robinson Professor in Anthropology and English, now Professor Emerita. Now retired. Roger Wilkins, Pulitzer Prize winner for coverage of the Watergate scandal (along with Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein while he was working at The Washington Post.) Now retired. Richard Norton Smith Presidential historian & Former director of five presidential libraries. Carma Hinton, documentary flimmaker. Credits include The Gate of Heavenly Peace Shaul Bakhash, scholar of Persian studies. Husband of Haleh Esfandiari. Peter Mandaville, professor of international affairs and scholar of political Islam. Hugh Heclo, professor of American politics and winner of John Gaus award. Martin Sherwin, Pulitzer Prize winner for his biography of Robert Oppenheimer Department of Economics Peter Boettke Donald J. Boudreaux James M. Buchanan, Nobel Prize-winning economist (1986) Bryan Caplan Tyler Cowen Robin Hanson Arnold Kling Daniel B. Klein Peter T. Leeson Kevin McCabe Russell Roberts Vernon Smith, Nobel Prize-winning economist (2002) Alex Tabarrok Gordon Tullock Richard E. Wagner Walter E. Williams College of Science Abul Hussam, inventor of the Sono arsenic filter, for which he received the 2007 sustainability prize awarded by the National Academy of Engineering Lance Liotta, cancer researcher Rainald Lohner, computational fluid dynamicist Jagadish Shukla, climate scientist and member of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize Michael Summers, planetary scientist and atmospheric physicist James Trefil, physicist, and author Edward Wegman, statistician Yuntao Wu, AIDS researcher Peggy Agouris, Geoinformatics, Chair of GGS Department and Director of CEOSR School of Public Policy Kenneth Button Desmond Dinan School of Management Jim Larranaga, GMU head men's basketball coach See also Austrian school of economics Broadside Phoebe Center for History and New Media City-University-Energysaver Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study George Mason Patriots George Mason Patriots men's basketball 2005-06 George Mason Patriots men's basketball team George Mason University School of Law Institute for Humane Studies Mercatus Center Patriot Center Volgenau School of Information Technology and Engineering References External links Official website Official Athletics website Connect2Mason Student Run Blog
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7,196
History_of_Mauritania
The history of Mauritania dates back to the 3rd century. Mauritania is named after the ancient Berber kingdom of Mauretania. Pre-colonization The Sahara has linked rather than divided the peoples who inhabit it and has served as an avenue for migration and conquest. Mauritania, lying next to the Atlantic coast at the western edge of the desert, received and assimilated into its complex society many waves of these migrants and conquerors. Berbers moved south to Mauritania beginning in the third century A.D., followed by Arabs in the eighth century, subjugating and assimilating Mauritania's original inhabitants. From the eighth through the fifteenth century, black kingdoms of the western Sudan, such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, brought their political culture from the south. Warner, Rachel. "Historical setting". In Mauritania: A Country Study (Robert E. Handloff, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (June 1988). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The divisive tendencies of the various groups within Mauritanian society have always worked against the development of Mauritanian unity. Both the Sanhadja Confederation, at its height from the eighth to the tenth century, and the Almoravid Empire, from the eleventh to the twelfth century, were weakened by internecine warfare, and both succumbed to further invasions from the Ghana Empire and the Almohad Empire, respectively. The one external influence that tended to unify the country was Islam. The Islamization of Mauritania was a gradual process that spanned more than 500 years. Beginning slowly through contacts with Berber and Arab merchants engaged in the important caravan trades and rapidly advancing through the Almoravid conquests, Islamization did not take firm hold until the arrival of Yemeni Arabs in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and was not complete until several centuries later. Gradual Islamization was accompanied by a process of Arabization as well, during which the Berber masters of Mauritania lost power and became vassals of their Arab conquerors. From the fifteenth to the nineteenth century, European contact with Mauritania was dominated by the trade for gum arabic. Rivalries among European powers enabled the Arab-Berber population, the Maures (Moors), to maintain their independence and later to exact annual payments from France, whose sovereignty over the Senegal River and the Mauritanian coast was recognized by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Although penetration beyond the coast and the Senegal River began in earnest under Louis Faidherbe, governor of Senegal in the mid-1800s , European conquest or "pacification" of the entire country did not begin until 1900. Because extensive European contact began so late in the country's history, the traditional social structure carried over into modern times with little change. French colonization Detailed map of North-western Mauritania in 1958 The history of French colonial policy in Mauritania is closely tied to that of the other French possessions in West Africa, particularly to that of Senegal, on which Mauritania was economically, politically, and administratively dependent until independence. The French policy of assimilation and direct rule, however, was never applied with any vigor in Mauritania, where a system that corresponded more to Britain's colonial policies of association and indirect rule developed. Colonial administrators relied extensively on Islamic religious leaders and the traditional warrior groups to maintain their rule and carry out their policies. Moreover, little attempt was made to develop the country's economy. After World War II, Mauritania, along with the rest of French West Africa, was involved in a series of reforms of the French colonial system, culminating in independence in 1960. These reforms were part of a trend away from the official policies of assimilation and direct rule in favor of administrative decentralization and internal autonomy. Although the nationalistic fervor sweeping French West Africa at this time was largely absent in Mauritania, continuous politicking (averaging one election every eighteen months between 1946 and 1958) provided training for political leaders and awakened a political consciousness among the populace. Nevertheless, when Mauritania declared its independence in 1960, its level of political as well as economic development was, at best, embryonic. Independence, Ould Daddah era, and the Saharan War As the country gained independence on November 28, 1960, the capital city Nouakchott was founded at the site of a small colonial village, the Ksar, while 90% of the population was still nomadic. With independence, larger numbers of ethnic Sub-Saharan Africans (Haalpulaar, Soninke, and Wolof) entered Mauritania, moving into the area north of the Senegal River. As before independence, the sedentary lifestyle of these groups made them more receptive to and useful in state formation, and they quickly came to dominate state administration, even if the Moorish groups built up by the French remained in charge of the political process. Moors reacted to this change by increasing pressures for Arabization, to Arabicize many aspects of Mauritanian life, such as law and language, and ethnic tension built up - helped by a common memory of warfare and slave raids. President Moktar Ould Daddah, originally helped to the post by the French, rapidly reformed Mauritania into an authoritarian one-party state in 1964, with his new constitution. Daddah's own Parti du Peuple Mauritanien (PPM) became the ruling organization. The President justified this decision on the grounds that he considered Mauritania unready for western-style multi-party democracy. Under this one-party constitution, Daddah was reelected in uncontested elections in 1966, 1971 and 1976. To take advantage of the country's sizable iron ore deposits in Zouerate, the new government built a 675-km railway and a mining port. Production began in 1963. The mines were operated by a foreign owned consortium that paid its approximately 3,000 expatriate workers handsomely - their salaries accounted for two-thirds of the country's entire wages bill. When the Mauritanian miners went on a two-month strike in the late 1960s the army intervened and eight miners were killed. Left-wing opposition to the government mounted and some miners formed a clandestine Marxist union in 1973. President Ould Daddah survived the challenge from left-wing opponents by nationalising the company in 1974 and withdrawing from the franc zone, substituting the ouguiya for the CFA. In 1975, partly for nationalist reasons and partly for fear of Moroccan expansionism, Mauritania invaded and annexed the southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in 1975, renaming it Tiris al-Gharbiyya. However, after nearly three years of raids by the Sahrawi guerrillas of the Polisario Front, Mauritania's economic and political stability began to crumble. Despite French and Moroccan military aid, Polisario raids against the Zouerate railway and mines threatened to bring about economic collapse, and there were deep misgivings in the military about the Saharan adventure. Ethnic unrest contributed to the disarray. Black Africans from the south were conscripted as front-line soldiers, after the northern Sahrawi minorities and their Moorish kin had proven unreliable in the fight against Polisario, but many of the southerners rebelled against having to fight what they considered an inter-Arab war. After the government quarters in Nouakchott had twice been shelled by Polisario forces, unrest simmered, but Daddah's only response was to further tighten his hold on power. On July 10 1978, Col. Mustafa Ould Salek led a bloodless coup d’état that ousted the President, who would later go into exile in France. Power passed to the military strongmen of the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN). Polisario immediately declared a cease-fire, and peace negotiations began under the sponsorship of Polisario's main backer, Algeria. With the CMSN's leader reluctant to break with France and Mauritania, the country refused to give in to Polisario demands for a troop retreat, and Ould Salek's careless handling of the ethnic issue (massively discriminating against Black Africans in nominating for government posts) contributed to further unrest. In early 1979, he was pushed aside by another group of officers, who renamed the junta the Military Committee for National Salvation (CMSN). Col. Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidallah soon emerged as its main strongman. 1978 to 1991 In 1979, Polisario broke off the cease-fire and unleashed a string of new attacks on military and government targets. Mauritania, under its new government, immediately returned to the table to meet Polisario's goals, declaring full peace, a troop retreat, relinquishing their portion of Western Sahara and recognizing the Front as the Sahrawi people's sole representative. Morocco, occupying the northern half of Western Sahara and also involved in combat against Polisario, reacted with outrage, and launched a failed 1981 coup against the CMSN. Mauritania broke off relations with Rabat in protest, although ties were later restored. In interior policy, Haidallah sought to improve relations between Moors and Black Africans, among other things officially decreeing the ban of slavery for the first time in the country's history, but he neither tried nor achieved a radical break with the sectarian and discriminating policies of previous regimes. An attempt to reinstate civilian rule was abandoned after the above-mentioned Moroccan-sponsored coup attempt nearly brought down the regime; foreign-backed plots also involved Persian Gulf countries and Libya, and the country several times appeared to be under military threat from Morocco. With Haidallah's ambitious political and social reform program undone by continuing instability, regime inefficiency and a plethora of coup attempts and intrigues from within the military establishment, the CMSN chairman turned increasingly autocratic, excluding other junta officers from power, and provoking discontent by frequently reshuffling the power hierarchy to prevent threats to his position. On December 12, 1984, Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya deposed Haidallah and declared himself Chairman of the CMSN. Like other rulers before him, he promised a swift transfer to democracy, but then made little of these promises. The discord between conflicting visions of Mauritanian society as either black or Arab, again rose to the surface during the intercommunal violence that broke out in April 1989 (the "1989 Events"), when a Mauritania-Senegal border dispute escalated into violence between the two communities. Tens of thousands of black Mauritanians fled or were expelled from the country, and many remain in Senegal as refugees. This is also where the black Mauritanian movement FLAM is based. Although tension has since subsided, the Arab-African racial tension remains an important feature of the political dialog today. The country continues to experience ethnic tensions between its black minority population and the dominant Mauri (Arab-Berber) populace. A significant number from both groups, however, seek a more diverse, pluralistic society. 1991 to present Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in 1991 which put an end to formal military rule. However, Ould Taya's election wins were dismissed as fraudulent by both opposition groups and external observers. In 1998, Mauritania became the third Arab country to recognize Israel, despite strong internal opposition. In 2001, elections incorporated more safeguards against voter fraud but opposition candidate (and former leader) Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidallah was nevertheless arrested prior to election day on charges of planning a coup, released the same day, and rearrested after the election. Attempted military coups and unrest instigated by Islamist opponents of the regime marred the early years of the 21st century, and the Taya regime's heavy-handed crackdowns were criticized by human rights groups. On June 8, 2003 a failed coup attempt was made against President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya by forces unhappy with his imprisonment of Islamic leaders in the wake of the US-led invasion of Iraq and his establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel. The coup was suppressed after one day of fighting in the capital when pro-Taya military forces arrived from the countryside. A number of government officials were detained after the coup including the head of the Supreme Court, Mahfoud Ould Lemrabott, and the Secretary of State for Women's Affairs, Mintata Mint Hedeid. The coup leader, Saleh Ould Hanenna, a former army colonel sacked for opposing Taya's pro-Israel policies, was not captured or killed during the coup. (See this BBC article on theories behind the coup.) On August 3, 2005 the Mauritanian military, including members of the presidential guard, seized control of key points in the capital of Nouakchott, performing a coup against the government of President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya who was out of the country, attending the funeral of Saudi King Fahd. The officers released the following statement: The national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority, which our people have suffered from during the past years. (BBC) Taya was never able to return to the country, and remains in exile. The new junta called itself the Military Council for Justice and Democracy, and democracy and rule of law. Col.. Ely Ould Mohamed Vall emerged as leader at an early stage. Dissidents were released, and the political climate relaxed. A new constitution was approved in June 2006. Elections were held in March 2007, Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi was elected president and Vall stood down. On August 6, 2008, Mauritania's presidential spokesman Abdoulaye Mamadouba said President Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, Prime Minister Yahya Ould Ahmed Waghf and the interior minister, were arrested by renegade Senior Mauritanian army officers, unknown troops and a group of generals, and were held under house arrest at the presidential palace in Nouakchott. afp.google.com, Coup in Mauritania as president, PM arrested news.bbc.co.uk, Troops stage 'coup' in Mauritania ap.google.com, Coup under way in Mauritania: president's office In the apparently successful and bloodless coup d'etat, Abdallahi daughter, Amal Mint Cheikh Abdallahi said: "The security agents of the BASEP (Presidential Security Battalion) came to our home and took away my father." telegraph.co.uk,Mauritania president under house arrest as army stages coup The coup plotters are top fired Mauritania’s security forces, which include General Muhammad Ould ‘Abd Al-‘Aziz, General Muhammad Ould Al-Ghazwani, General Philippe Swikri, and Brigadier General (Aqid) Ahmad Ould Bakri. themedialine.org, Generals Seize Power in Mauritanian Coup Mauritanian lawmaker, Mohammed Al Mukhtar, announced that "many of the country's people were supporting the takeover attempt and the government is "an authoritarian regime" and that the president had "marginalized the majority in parliament." ap.google.com, Renegade army officers stage coup in Mauritania References Further reading Newton, Alex, History of West Africa (1988) External links Background Note: Mauritania - History from the US State Department. History of Mauritania
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7,197
Compression_ratio
The compression ratio of an internal-combustion engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber; from its largest capacity to its smallest capacity. It is a fundamental specification for many common combustion engines. In a piston engine it is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at the top of its stroke. Picture a cylinder with the piston at the bottom of its stroke containing 1000 cc of air. When the piston has moved up to the top of its stroke inside the cylinder, and the remaining volume inside the head or combustion chamber has been reduced to 100 cc, then the compression ratio would be proportionally described as 1000:100, or with fractional reduction, a 10:1 compression ratio. A high compression ratio is desirable because it allows an engine to extract more mechanical energy from a given mass of air-fuel mixture due to its higher thermal efficiency. High ratios place the available oxygen and fuel molecules into a reduced space along with the adiabatic heat of compression - causing better mixing and evaporation of the fuel droplets. Thus they allow increased power at the moment of ignition and the extraction of more useful work from that power by expanding the hot gas to a greater degree. Higher compression ratios will however make gasoline engines subject to engine knocking, also known as detonation and this can reduce an engine's efficiency or even physically damage it. Diesel engines on the other hand operate on the principle of compression ignition, so that a fuel which resists autoignition will cause late ignition which will also lead to engine knock. Formula The ratio is calculated by the following formula: , where = cylinder bore (diameter) = piston stroke length = volume of the combustion chamber (including head gasket). This is the minimum volume of the space into which the fuel and air is compressed, prior to ignition. Because of the complex shape of this space, it is usually measured directly rather than calculated. Typical compression ratios Petrol/gasoline engine Due to pinging (detonation), the CR in a gasoline/petrol powered engine will usually not be much higher than 10:1, although some production automotive engines built for high-performance from 1955-1972 had compression ratios as high as 12.5:1, which could run safely on the high-octane leaded gasoline then available. A technique used to prevent the onset of knock is the high "swirl" engine that forces the intake charge to adopt a very fast circular rotation in the cylinder during compression that provides quicker and more complete combustion. Recently, with the addition of variable valve timing and knock sensors to delay ignition timing, it is possible to manufacture gasoline engines with compression ratios of over 11:1 that can use 87 MON (octane rating) fuel. In engines with a 'ping' or 'knock' sensor and an electronic control unit, the CR can be as high as 13:1 (2005 BMW K1200S). In 1981, Jaguar released a cylinder head that allowed up to 14:1 compression; but settled for 12.5:1 in production cars. The cylinder head design was known as the "may fireball" head. Petrol/gasoline engine with pressure-charging In a turbocharged or supercharged gasoline engine, the CR is customarily built at 9:1 or lower. Petrol/gasoline engine for racing Motorcycle racing engines can use compression ratios as high as 14:1, and it is not uncommon to find motorcycles with compression ratios above 12.0:1 designed for 86 or 87 octane fuel. Racing engines burning methanol and ethanol often exceed a CR of 15:1. Consumers may note that "gasohol", or 90% gasoline with 10% ethanol gives a higher octane rating (knock suppression). Gas-fueled engine In engines running exclusively on LPG or CNG, the CR may be higher, due to the higher octane rating of these fuels. Diesel engine In an auto-ignition diesel engine, (no electrical sparking plug--the hot air of compression lights the injected fuel) the CR will customarily exceed 14:1. Ratios over 22:1 are common. The appropriate compression ratio depends on the design of the cylinder head. The figure is usually between 14:1 and 16:1 for direct injection engines and between 18:1 and 20:1 for indirect injection engines. Fault finding and diagnosis Measuring the compression pressure of an engine, with a pressure gauge connected to the spark plug opening, gives an indication of the engine's state and quality. There is, however, no formula to calculate compression ratio based on cylinder pressure. If the nominal compression ratio of an engine is given, the pre-ignition cylinder pressure can be estimated using the following relationship: where is the cylinder pressure at bottom dead center (BDC) which is usually at 1 atm, is the compression ratio, and is the specific heat ratio for the working fluid, which is about 1.4 for air, and 1.3 for methane-air mixture. For example, if an engine running on gasoline has a compression ratio is 10:1, the cylinder pressure at top dead center (TDC) is This figure, however, will also depend on cam (i.e. valve) timing. Generally, cylinder pressure for common automotive designs should at least equal 10 bar, or, roughly estimated in pounds per square inch (psi) as between 15 and 20 times the compression ratio, or in this case between 150 psi and 200 psi, depending on cam timing. Purpose-built racing engines, stationary engines etc. will return figures outside this range. Factors including late intake valve closure (relatively speaking for camshaft profiles outside of typical production car range, but not necessarily into the realm of competition engines) can produce a misleadingly low figure from this test. Excessive connecting rod clearance, combined with extremely high oil pump output (rare but not impossible) can sling enough oil to coat the cylinder walls with enough oil to facilitate reasonable piston ring seal artificially give a misleadingly high figure, on engines with compromised ring seal. This can actually be used to some slight advantage. If a compression test does give a low figure, and it has been determined it is not due to intake valve closure/camshaft characteristics, then one can differentiate between the cause being valve/seat seal issues and ring seal by squirting engine oil into the spark plug orifice, in a quantity sufficient to disperse across the piston crown and the circumference of the top ring land, and thereby effect the mentioned seal. If a second compression test is performed shortly thereafter, and the new reading is much higher, it would be the ring seal that is problematic, whereas if the compression test pressure observed remains low, it is a valve sealing (or more rarely head gasket, or breakthrough piston or rarer still cylinder wall damage) issue. If there is a significant (> 10%) difference between cylinders, that may be an indication that valves or cylinder head gaskets are leaking, piston rings are worn or that the block is cracked. If a problem is suspected then a more comprehensive test using a leak-down tester can locate the leak. Saab Variable Compression engine Because cylinder bore diameter, piston stroke length and combustion chamber volume are almost always constant, the compression ratio for a given engine is almost always constant, until engine wear takes its toll. One exception is the experimental Saab Variable Compression engine (SVC). This engine, designed by Saab Automobile, uses a technique that dynamically alters the volume of the combustion chamber (Vc), which, via the above equation, changes the compression ratio (CR). To alter Vc, the SVC 'lowers' the cylinder head closer to the crankshaft. It does this by replacing the typical one-part engine block with a two-part unit, with the crankshaft in the lower block and the cylinders in the upper portion. The two blocks are hinged together at one side (imagine a book, lying flat on a table, with the front cover held an inch or so above the title page). By pivoting the upper block around the hinge point, the Vc (imagine the air between the front cover of the book and the title page) can be modified. In practice, the SVC adjusts the upper block through a small range of motion, using a hydraulic actuator. Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engines The SAAB SVC is an advanced and workable addition to the world of VCR engines, the first being built and tested by Harry Ricardo in the 1920s. This work led to him devising the octane rating system that is still in use today. SAAB has recently been involved in working with the 'Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies', to produce a modern petrol VCR engine that showed an efficiency comparable with that of a Diesel. Many companies have been carrying out their own research in to VCR Engines, including Nissan, Volvo, PSA/Peugeot-Citroën and Renault but so far with no publicly demonstrated results. The Atkinson cycle engine was one of the first attempts at variable compression. Since the compression ratio is the ratio between dynamic and static volumes of the combustion chamber the Atkinson cycle's method of increasing the length of the powerstroke compared to the intake stroke ultimately altered the compression ratio at different stages of the cycle. Dynamic Compression Ratio The calculated compression ratio, as given above, presumes that the cylinder is sealed at the bottom of the stroke (bottom dead centre - BDC), and that the volume compressed is the actual volume. However: intake valve closure (sealing the cylinder) always takes place after BDC, which causes some of the intake charge to be compressed backwards out of the cylinder by the rising piston at very low speeds; only the percentage of the stroke after intake valve closure is compressed. This "corrected" compression ratio is commonly called the "dynamic compression ratio". This ratio is higher with more conservative (i.e., earlier, soon after BDC) intake cam timing, and lower with more radical (i.e., later, long after BDC) intake cam timing, but always lower than the static or "nominal" compression ratio. The actual position of the piston can be determined by trigonometry, using the stroke length and the connecting rod length (measured between centers). The absolute cylinder pressure is the result of an exponent of the dynamic compression ratio. This exponent is a polytropic value for the ratio of variable heats for air and similar gases at the temperatures present. This compensates for the temperature rise caused by compression, as well as heat lost to the cylinder. Under ideal (adiabatic) conditions, the exponent would be 1.4, but a lower value, generally between 1.2 and 1.3 is used, since the amount of heat lost will vary among engines based on design, size and materials used, but provides useful results for purposes of comparison. For example, if the static compression ratio is 10:1, and the dynamic compression ratio is 7.5:1, a useful value for cylinder pressure would be (7.5)^1.3 × atmospheric pressure, or 13.7 bar. (× 14.7 psi at sea level = 201.8 psi. The pressure shown on a gauge would be the absolute pressure less atmospheric pressure, or 187.1 psi.) The two corrections for dynamic compression ratio affect cylinder pressure in opposite directions, but not in equal strength. An engine with high static compression ratio and late intake valve closure will have a DCR similar to an engine with lower compression but earlier intake valve closure. Additionally, the cylinder pressure developed when an engine is running will be higher than that shown in a compression test for several reasons. The much higher velocity of a piston when an engine is running versus cranking allows less time for pressure to bleed past the piston rings into the crankcase. a running engine is coating the cylinder walls with much more oil than an engine that is being cranked at low RPM, which helps the seal. the higher temperature of the cylinder will create higher pressures when running vs. a static test, even a test performed with the engine near operating temperature. A running engine does not stop taking air & fuel into the cylinder when the piston reaches BDC; The mixture that is rushing into the cylinder during the downstroke develops momentum and continues briefly after the vacuum ceases (in the same respect that rapidly opening a door will create a draft that continues after movement of the door ceases). This is called scavenging. Intake tuning, cylinder head design, valve timing and exhaust tuning determine how effectively an engine scavenges. Compression ratio versus overall pressure ratio Compression ratio and overall pressure ratio are interrelated as follows: Compression ratio 1:1 3:1 5:1 10:1 15:1 20:1 25:1 35:1 Pressure ratio 1:1 2:1 10:1 22:1 40:1 56:1 75:1 110:1 The reason for this difference is that compression ratio is defined via the volume reduction, , Pressure ratio is defined as the pressure increase . From the combined gas law we get: Since T2 is much higher than T1 (compressing gases puts work into them, i.e. heats them up), CR is much lower than PR. See also Overall pressure ratio - a closely related ratio for jet engines External links Variable compression engine Cam Timing vs. Compression Ratio Analysis
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combustion_engine:3 combustion_chamber:8 piston_engine:2 gasoline_engine:6 diesel_engine:3 compression_ignition:1 petrol_gasoline:3 gasoline_petrol:1 valve_timing:3 ignition_timing:1 octane_rating:4 methanol_ethanol:1 gasoline_ethanol:1 indirect_injection:1 spark_plug:2 psi_psi:1 intake_valve:6 valve_closure:6 connecting_rod:2 shortly_thereafter:1 atmospheric_pressure:2 closely_related:1 external_link:1
7,198
Emperor_Tenmu
(c. 631 - October 1, 686) was the 40th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Spelling note: A modified Hepburn romanization system for Japanese words is used throughout Western publications in a range of languages including English. Unlike the standard system, the "n" is maintained even when followed by "homorganic consonants" (e.g., shinbun, not shimbun). In the same way that Wikipedia has not yet adopted a consensus policy to address spelling variations in English (e.g., humour, not humor), variant spellings based on place of articulation are unresolved, perhaps unresolvable -- as in Emperor Temmu vs. Emperor Tenmu, which are each construed as technically correct. He ruled from 672 until his death in 686. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 55-58; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 268-269. Genealogy He was the youngest son of Emperor Jomei and Empress Saimei, and the younger brother of the Emperor Tenji. His name at birth was Prince Ōama (大海人皇子:Ōama no ōji). He was succeeded by Empress Jitō, who was both his niece and his wife. During the reign of his elder brother, Emperor Tenji, Temmu was forced to marry several of Tenji's daughters because Tenji thought those marriages would help to strengthen political ties between the two brothers. The nieces he married included Princess Unonosarara, today known as the Empress Jitō, and Princess Ōta. Temmu also had other consorts whose fathers were influential courtiers. Temmu had many children, including his crown prince Kusakabe by Princess Unonosarara; Princess Tōchi; Prince Ōtsu and Princess Ōku by Princess Ōta (whose father also was Tenji); and Prince Toneri, the editor of Nihonshoki and father of Emperor Junnin. Through Prince Kusakabe, Temmu had two emperors and two empresses among his descendents. Empress Shōtoku was the last of these imperial rulers from his lineage. Events of Temmu's life Emperor Temmu is the first monarch of Japan, to whom the title tenno was assigned contemporaneously—not only by later generations. The only document on his life was Nihonshoki. However, it was edited by his son, Prince Toneri, and the work was written during the reigns of his wife and children, causing one to suspect its accuracy and impartiality. Temmu's father died while he was young, and he grew up mainly under the guidance of Empress Saimei. He was not expected to gain the throne, because his brother Tenji was the crown prince, being the older son of their mother, the reigning empress. After Tenji ascended to the throne, Temmu was appointed crown prince. This was because Tenji had no appropriate heir among his sons at that time, as none of their mothers was of a rank high enough to give the necessary political support. Tenji was suspicious that Temmu might be so ambitious as to attempt to take the throne, and felt the necessity to strengthen his position through politically advantageous marriages. Tenji was particularly active in improving the military institutions which had been established during the Taika reforms. Asakawa, Kan'ichi. (1903). The Early Institutional Life of Japan, p. 313. In his old age, Tenji had a son, Prince Ōtomo, by a low-ranking consort. Since Ōtomo had weak political support from his maternal relatives, the general wisdom of the time held that it was not a good idea for him to ascend to the throne, yet Tenji was obsessed with the idea. In 671 Temmu felt himself to be in danger and volunteered to resign the office of crown prince to become a monk. He moved to the mountains in Yoshino, Yamato province (now in Yoshino, Nara), officially for reasons of seclusion. He took with him his sons and one of his wives, Princess Unonosarara, a daughter of Tenji. However, he left all his other consorts at the capital, Omikyō in Ōmi Province (today in Otsu, Shiga). A year later, (in 672) Tenji died and Prince Ōtomo ascended to the throne as Emperor Kōbun. Temmu assembled an army and marched from Yoshino to the east, to attack Omikyō in a counterclockwise movement. They marched through Yamato, Iga and Mino provinces to threaten Omikyō in the adjacent province. The army of Temmu and the army of the young Emperor Kōbun fought in the northwestern part of Mino (nowadays Sekigahara, Gifu). Temmu's army won and Kōbun committed suicide (Jinshin incident). Post-Meiji chronology In the 10th year of Tenji, in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇10年), designated his son as his heir; and modern scholars construe this as meaning that the son would have received the succession (‘‘senso’’) after his father's death. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōbun is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Brown, pp. 268-269; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] If this understanding were valid, then it would it would follow: In the 1st year of Kōbun (672): Emperor Kōbun, in the 1st year of his reign (弘文天皇1年), died; and his uncle Ōaomi-shinnō received the succession (‘‘senso’’) after the death of his nephew. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Temmu could be said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, pp. 55-58; Varley, p. 44. Pre-Meiji chronology Prior to the 19th century, Otomo was understood to have been a mere interloper, a pretender, an anomaly; and therefore, if that commonly-accepted understanding were to have been valid, then it would have followed: In the 10th year of Tenji, in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇10年), died; and despite any military confrontations which ensued, the brother of the dead sovereign would have received the succession (‘‘senso’’); and after a time, it would have been understood that Emperor Temmu rightfully acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). As might be expected, Emperor Temmu was no less active than former-Emperor Tenji in improving the Taika military institutions. Temmu's reign brought many changes, such as: (1) a centralized war department was organized; (2) the defenses of the Inner Country near the Capital were strengthened; (3) forts and castles were built near Capital and in the western parts of Honshū—and in Kyushu; (4) troops were reviewed; and all provincial governors were ordered to complete the collection of arms and to study tactics. Asakawa, pp. 313-314. The legendary tomb of Emperor Temmu, NaraIn 673 Temmu moved the capital back to Yamato province on the Kiymihara plain, naming his new capital Asuka. The Man'yōshū includes a poem written after the Jinshin conflict of 672 has ended: Our Sovereign, a god, Has made his Imperial City Emperor Temmu's capital was build on the plain of Kiymihara at Asuka. Out of the stretch of swamps, Where chestnut horses sank To their bellies. -- Ōtomo Miyuki Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai. (1969). The Man'yōshū, p. 60. At Asuka, Emperor Temmu was enthroned. He elevated Unonosarara to be his empress. He reigned from this capital until his death in 686. Politics In Nihonshoki Temmu is described as a great innovator, but the neutrality of this description is doubtful, since the work was written under the control of his descendants. It seems clear, however, that Temmu strengthened the power of the emperor and appointed his sons to the highest offices of his government, reducing the traditional influence of powerful clans such as the Ōtomo and Soga. He renewed the system of kabane, the hereditary titles of duty and rank, but with alterations, including the abolition of some titles. Omi and Muraji, the highest kabane in the earlier period, were reduced in value in the new hierarchy, which consisted of eight kinds of kabane. Each clan received a new kabane according to its closeness to the imperial bloodline and its loyalty to Temmu. Temmu attempted to keep a balance of power among his sons. Once he traveled to Yoshino together with his sons, and there had them swear to cooperate and not to make war on each other. This turned out to be ineffective: one of his sons, Prince Ōtsu, was later executed for treason after the death of Temmu. Temmu's foreign policy favored the Korean kingdom Silla, which took over the entire Korean peninsula in 676. After the unification of Korea by Silla, Temmu decided to break diplomatic relations with the Tang dynasty of China, evidently in order to keep on good terms with Silla. Temmu used religious structures to increase the authority of the imperial throne. During his reign there was increased emphasis on the tie between the imperial household and the Grand Shrine of Ise (dedicated to the ancestor goddess of the emperors, Amaterasu) by sending his daughter Princess Oku as the newly established Saiō of the shrine, and several festivals were financed from the national budget. He also showed favor to Buddhism, and built several large temples and monasteries. On the other hand, all Buddhist priests, monks and nuns were controlled by the state, and no one was allowed to become a monk without the state's permission. This was aimed at preventing cults and stopping farmers from turning into priests. Kugyō Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Temmu's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Sadaijin, Soga no Akae no Omi Brown, p. 269. Udaijin, Nakatomi no Kane no Muraji [see above] Naidaijin Era of Temmu's reign The years of Temmu's reign were marked by only one era name or nengō which was proclaimed in the final months of the emperor's life; and Shuchō ended with Temmu's death. Titsingh, p. 55-58. Shuchō (686) Non-nengō period The early years of Temmu's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or nengō. [see above] The Taika era innovation of naming time periods -- nengō -- was discontinued during these years, but it was reestablished briefly in 686. The use of nengō languished yet again after Temmu's death until Emperor Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701. See Japanese era name -- "Non-nengo periods" See Temmu (period) (673-686). In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of Gukanshō offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taihō time-frame: "The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō [(686+7=692?)]; and (2) Taika, which was four years long [695-698]. (The first year of this era was kinoto-hitsuji [695].) ...In the third year of the Taika era [697], Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince." Brown, p. 270. Wives and Children Empress: Princess Uno-no-sarara (鸕野讃良皇女)(Empress Jitō) (645-703) Prince Kusakabe (草壁皇子) (662-689), Father of Emperor Mommu and Empress Genshō Hi: Princess Ōta (大田皇女) (644-667), daughter of Emperor Tenji Princess Ōku (大伯皇女) (661-701), Saiō in Ise Shrine(673-686) Prince Ōtsu (大津皇子) (663-686) Hi: Princess Ōe (大江皇女) (?-699), daughter of Emperor Tenji Prince Naga (長皇子) (?-715) Prince Yuge (弓削皇子) (?-699) Hi: Princess Niitabe (新田部皇女) (?-699), daughter of Emperor Tenji Prince Toneri (舎人皇子) (676-735), Father of Emperor Junnin Bunin: Fujiwara no Hikami-no-iratsume (藤原氷上娘) (?-682), daughter of Fujiwara no Kamatari Princess Tajima (但馬皇女) (?-708), married to Prince Takechi Bunin: Soga no Ōnu-no-iratsume (蘇我大蕤娘) (?-724), daughter of Soga no Akae Prince Hozumi (穂積皇子) (?-715) Princess Ki (紀皇女) (?-?) Princess Takata (田形皇女) (?-728), Saiō in Ise Shrine(706-707), and married to Prince Mutobe later Bunin: Fujiwara no Ioe-no-iratsume (藤原五百重娘), daughter of Fujiwara no Kamatari Prince Niitabe (新田部皇子) (?-735) Court lady: Nukata no Ōkimi (額田王) Princess Tōchi (十市皇女) (648?-678), married to Emperor Kōbun Court lady: Munakata no Amako-no-iratsume (胸形尼子娘), daughter of Munakata-no-Kimi Tokuzen Prince Takechi (高市皇子) (654-696) Court lady: Shishihito no Kajihime-no-iratsume (宍人梶媛娘), daughter of Shishihito-no-Omi Ōmaro Prince Osakabe (刑部皇子/忍壁皇子) (?-705) Princess Hatsusebe (泊瀬部皇女) (?-741), married to Prince Kawashima (son of Emperor Tenji) – Princess Taki (託基皇女/多紀皇女) (?-751), Saiō in Ise Shrine(698-before701), and married to Prince Shiki(son of Emperor Tenji) later Prince Shiki (磯城皇子) (?-?) Notes References Asakawa, Kan'ichi. (1903). The Early Institutional Life of Japan. Tokyo: Shueisha [New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corp., 1963]. Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969). The Man'yōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08620-2 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult
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Wikipedia:Phase_II_feature_requests%2FCookies,_logins,_and_privacy
This page is obsolete! It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software. Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community. See Wikipedia:Feature requests for current requests. Cookies, logins, and privacy In addition, given that the certain cookies have stopped working, can't I have a "log in" to confirm my id? Everytime I hit "preferences" otherwise, I get a new user ID. I noticed last weekend that I can set my ID in Preferences to anybody else's, certainly, if they are not using it. I would not care if people had mutlyiple IDs. But, I do see a problem in my setting my ID to, say Larry Sanger and entering content all over which will wrongly be identified as his in recent changes. And possibly elsewhere. RoseParks There is a secure user-ID already--it is the "User ID number" shown on the Preferences page. If you are using recent versions of MSIE or Netscape you can see the ID number and the IP address by moving the mouse over the user name. (A popup saying something like "ID 1622 from 165.79.13.xxx" should appear.) It should be non-trivial for anyone else to use that ID number, since it protected by a random number in the user's cookie (which is compared with a copy on the server). Eventually a more conventional username/password combination may become an option, but this is unlikely to happen soon. --CliffordAdams (or somebody with ID 1675 :-) I second the request for a more conventional username/password combination. This is one thing necessary to make the website fully scaleable. --User:LMS The ".xxx" bit in dynamic IP addresses is commendable, but is there a way to do something similar for people logging in from institutions with static IP addresses ending in letters? The last one I saw listed the entire address. Certainly anyone with a static IP should have a firewall, but I think we've seen enough mischievous people wander through that the precaution of masking the IP still has merit. And no that's not a rhetorical question, as I'll be logging on from a static IP starting in early June 2002. --KQ I'm not sure "privacy" is a good thing here. The price one pays for freedom is accountability: anyone should be able to edit anything, but I don't think they should be able to do so without being identified (at least with their chosen pseudonym--they can still hide behind whatever anonymity their Internet connection gives them). When I find some vandalism, for example, I look back in the Recent Changes list for that same IP and check those pages--I usually find more. Likewise, when I get to know certain posters, I get to know what might be interesting or important to read. If someone is concerned about privacy, that's his problem, and he should take the burden of using software to anonymize himself (and there's plenty of software available to do that). --LDC I, for one, do not care about anonymity here, but pseudonymity would be fine. We almost have the latter with userids, were it not for the "from IP-Address" misfeature. LDC, if you know that userid 715 broke a page, is it really harder to find all other pages touched by them without knowing three octets of their IP? The main use I see for that is correlating pseudonyms to realnames, which is mainly useful for prosecution (I don't assume that we want to criminalize WikiVandals, though), or ... direct marketing. --Robbe I think you've misunderstood. What I'm talking about specifically is not having the entire static IP address shown of someone logging in from an address ending in letters. All it would take is to .xxx a portion of it so that the firewall is not constantly fending off requests. This is the same courtesy already extended to people logging in from any IP address ending in numerals. My concern for it stems from the fact that it identifies where the person works or attends school, which if you'll pardon my saying so, is not necessarily anyone's business. If it's not workable then you can expect to have me not continue contributing. --KQ I usually use a static IP, but Recent Changes (hover over my name) only shows a masked IP, not my domain. Did you see this on the main Wikipedia, or one of the internationals? UseModWiki can turn off name lookup, and I'd assumed from the RC display that it was turned off. You're asking that mybox.frobnuts.com be masked as mybox.xxx.xxx, (which is a domain name rather than an ip address, to be unnecessarily picky) so that FrobNuts's network (thus their firewall) won't be identifiable? Even the current method really doesn't provide that level of protection, or much privacy of any kind beyond a casual glance. For example, 111.222.333.444 would display as "111.222.333.xxx", and thus "hide" a specific host, but the network can likely still be identified via a simple whois lookup on "111.222.333". With my usual IP address, the two leading numbers are sufficient to tell you where I'm logged in from; you don't even need the third one. In general, only a residential poster would have some anonymity, simply because the ip address (whether static or dynamic) usually maps back to the ISP, not a specific business or school. To achieve the equivalent level of privacy you're asking for, even the ip addresses should be masked as xxx.xxx.xxx.444 rather than as they are now. --loh I second the reverse masking of the IP addresses--it still allows identification, but not by geography, etc. Though you'd probably need more than just the last three to make people in dynamic IP networks id'able. eh. no perfect answer. -- TheCunctator Interesting. I don't remember if it was on the English wikipedia or the Spanish one; it's been some months past. I had two concerns; one was indeed not giving the entire IP address (or domain name); the other was not revealing immediately where contributors post from, leaving it instead to their own discretion. I haven't seen it again; but if it was originally from the Spanish wikipedia that would be because I've contributed nearly all I can in Spanish. :-) I expect that I'll try it from another computer to see how it displays and will be using anonymizer or somesuch if it's not to my satisfaction. Thanks.. See also : Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests
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