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6,900 | Protestant_Church_in_the_Netherlands | Westerkerk in Amsterdam. The Protestant Church in the Netherlands (, abbreviated PKN) came into being on 1 May 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church (Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk, NHK), the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, GKN) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). Since 1961 the churches have been going through an organizational process to this end. At the time of its formation, the PKN had roughly 2,000 congregations and a membership of some 2,300,000, about 15% of the Dutch population. After the Roman Catholic Church, it is the second largest church body in the Netherlands. The PKN has four different types of congregations: Protestant Congregations are local congregations from different church bodies that have merged. Dutch Reformed congregations Reformed Churches (congregations of the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands) Lutheran congregations (congregations of the former Evangelical-Lutheran Church) Lutheran congregations are special in that they are federated in a separate Lutheran Synod, which is an autonomous synod in the PKN, the Lutheran Synod also sends representatives to the PKN Synod. Congregations staying out of the merger Some congregations and members in the Dutch Reformed Church did not agree with the merger and have separated. They have organized themselves in the Hersteld Hervormde Kerk ("Restored Reformed Church"), or HHK. Estimations of their membership vary from 35,000 up to 70,000 people in about 120 local congregations. They disagree with the plural constitution of the merged church which contains, as they see it, contradicting Reformed and Lutheran confessions. This group also condemns same-sex marriages and female clergy. Only those congregations belonging to the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands have the legal right to secede from the PKN without losing its property and church during a transition period of 10 years. Five congregations have so far decided to form the Voortgezette Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland ("Continued Reformed Churches in the Netherlands") with about 3,400 members. Two congregations joined one of the other smaller reformed churches in the Netherlands. Some minorities within congregations that joined the PKN decided to leave the church and associated themselves individually with one of the other reformed churches. The PKN, a former state church (at least in part), is a denomination which contains both liberal and conservative movements. Local congregations have far-reaching powers concerning "controversial" matters (such as whether or not women are admitted as members of the congregation's consistory or admittance to holy communion). External links Protestant Church in the Netherlands official website Protestant Church in the Netherlands official website Three-way PKN union drastically changes Dutch denominational landscape (May 24, 2004) Hersteld Hervormde Kerk Voortgezette Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland | Protestant_Church_in_the_Netherlands |@lemmatized westerkerk:1 amsterdam:1 protestant:4 church:23 netherlands:10 abbreviate:1 pkn:9 come:1 may:2 merger:3 dutch:5 reform:6 nederlandse:1 hervormde:3 kerk:4 nhk:1 reformed:6 gereformeerde:3 kerken:3 nederland:3 gkn:1 evangelical:2 lutheran:7 kingdom:1 evangelisch:1 lutherse:1 het:1 koninkrijk:1 der:1 nederlanden:1 since:1 go:1 organizational:1 process:1 end:1 time:1 formation:1 roughly:1 congregation:18 membership:2 population:1 roman:1 catholic:1 second:1 large:1 body:2 four:1 different:2 type:1 local:3 merge:2 former:4 special:1 federate:1 separate:2 synod:4 autonomous:1 also:2 send:1 representative:1 stay:1 member:3 agree:1 organize:1 hersteld:2 restore:1 hhk:1 estimation:1 vary:1 people:1 disagree:1 plural:1 constitution:1 contain:2 see:1 contradict:1 confession:1 group:1 condemn:1 sex:1 marriage:1 female:1 clergy:1 belong:1 legal:1 right:1 secede:1 without:1 lose:1 property:1 transition:1 period:1 year:1 five:1 far:2 decide:2 form:1 voortgezette:2 continue:1 two:1 join:2 one:2 small:1 minority:1 within:1 leave:1 associate:1 individually:1 state:1 least:1 part:1 denomination:1 liberal:1 conservative:1 movement:1 reach:1 power:1 concern:1 controversial:1 matter:1 whether:1 woman:1 admit:1 consistory:1 admittance:1 holy:1 communion:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:2 three:1 way:1 union:1 drastically:1 change:1 denominational:1 landscape:1 |@bigram evangelical_lutheran:2 external_link:1 |
6,901 | Batavi_(Germanic_tribe) | The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt van Rijn The Batavians (Latin Batavi) Not Batavii. Cf. the place name Oppidum Batavorum, Caesar, De bello Gallico, book IV, c. 10 and Tacitus, Germania 29. were a Germanic tribe, originally part of the Chatti, reported by Tacitus to have lived around the Rhine delta, in the area that is currently the Netherlands, "an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side" (Tacitus, Historiae iv). This led to the Latin name of Batavia for the area. The Dutch applied the familiar name Batavia to their colonial factory on the island of Java, now Jakarta. The same name is applied to several military units, originally raised among the Batavi. The tribal name, probably a derivation from batawjō ("good island", from Germanic bat- "good, excellent" and awjō "island, land near water"), refers to the region's fertility, today known as the fruitbasket of the Netherlands (the Betuwe). Finds of wooden tablets show that at least some were literate. The Batavian myth In the 16th-century invention of a suitably antique origin myth for the Dutch people that would be expressive of their self-identification as separate from their neighbors in the national struggle with Spain of the Eighty Years War for Dutch independence, the Batavians came to be regarded as their eponymous ancestors. This section follows Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches, (New York) 1987, ch. II "Patriotic Scripture", especially pp 72ff. The mix of fancy and fact in the Cronyke van Hollandt, Zeelandt ende Vriesland (called the Divisiekronike), first published in 1517, brought the spare remarks in Tacitus' newly-rediscovered Germania to a popular public; it was being reprinted as late as 1802. I. Schöffer, "The Batavian myth during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries," in P.A.M. Geurts and A.E.M. Janssen, Geschiedschrijving in Nederland ('Gravenhage) 1981:84-109, noted by Schama 1987. Contemporary Dutch virtues of independence, fortitude and industry were rendered fully recognizable among the Batavians in more scholarly history represented in Hugo Grotius' Liber de Antiquitate Republicae Batavicorum (1610). The myth was perpetuated by Romeyn de Hooghe's Spiegel van Staat der Vereenigden Nederlanden ("Mirror of the State of the United Netherlands", 1706), which also ran to many editions, and it was revived in the atmosphere of Romantic nationalism in the late eighteenth-century reforms that saw a short-lived Batavian Republic and, in the colony of the Dutch East Indies, a capital (now Jakarta) that was named Batavia. Modern variants of the Batavian founding myth are made more credible by pointing out that the Batavians were only part of the ancestry of the Dutch people, together with the Frisians, Franks and Saxons, and by tracing patterns of DNA. Echoes of this supposed cultural continuity may still be found in popularisations of the history that follows. Location The Batavians were mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary Commentarii de Bello Gallico, as living on an island formed by the Rhine River after it splits, one arm being the Waal the other the Lower Rhine/Old Rhine. The strategic position, to wit the high bank of the Waal-- which offered an unimpeded view far into Germania Transrhenanum (Germania Beyond the Rhine)--was recognized first by Drusus, who built a massive fortress (castra) and a headquarters (praetorium) in imperial style. The latter was in use until the Batavian revolt. Archeological evidence suggests they lived in small villages, composed of 6 to 12 houses in the very fertile lands between the rivers, and lived by agriculture and cattle-raising . Finds of horse skeletons in graves suggest a strong equestrian preoccupation. On the south bank of the Waal (in what is now Nijmegen) a Roman administrative center was built, called Oppidum Batavorum. An Oppidum was a fortified warehouse, where a tribe's treasures were stored and guarded. This centre was razed during the Batavian Revolt. The Batavi (the name is believed to derive from a West Germanic root also present in "better" (possibly meaning "superior men")) moved into the Betuwe in the late 1st century BC. The previous inhabitants of the area were Celtic-speaking Gauls, as evidenced by the two Latinised Celtic names for their chief town: Batavodurum and Noviomagus (Nijmegen, Neth). Birley (2002) 42-3 It is unclear whether the existing inhabitants were simply subjugated with the Batavi forming a ruling elite, or the existing inhabitants simply displaced. For this reason it is also uncertain whether the Batavi remained Germanic-speaking or adopted the Belgic Gallic tongue of the indigenes. Military units Funerary stela of one of Nero's Corporis Custodes (imperial bodyguard). The bodyguard, Indus, was of the Batavian tribe. The first Batavian commander we know of is named Chariovalda, who led a charge across the Visurgin (Weser) against the Cherusci led by Arminius during the campaigns of Germanicus in Germania Transrhenanum (Annales II, 11). Tacitus (De origine et situ Germanorum XXIX) described the Batavians as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the Germanic wars, with cohorts under their own commanders transferred to Britannia. They retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: "They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms", Tacitus remarked. Well-regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming—for men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. Dio Cassius describes this surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the "barbarians"—the British Celts— at the battle of the River Medway, 43: The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germanic tribesmen, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. [...] Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them. (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20) It is uncertain how they were able to accomplish this feat. The late 4th century writer on Roman military affairs Vegetius mentions soldiers using reed rafts, drawn by leather leads, to transport equipment across rivers. Vegetius De re militari III.7 But the sources suggest the Batavi were able to swim across rivers actually wearing full armour and weapons. This would only have been possible by the use of some kind of buoyancy device: Ammianus Marcellinus mentions that the Cornuti regiment swam across a river floating on their shields "as on a canoe" (357 AD). Ammianus Marcellinus XVI.11 Since the shields were wooden, they may have provided sufficient buoyancy The Batavians also provided a contingent for the Emperor's Horse Guard. Numerous altars and tombstones of the Batavian cohors, dating to the 2nd century and 3rd century, have been found along Hadrian's Wall, notably at Castlecary and Carrawburgh, Germany, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Austria. Batavian Rebellion Despite the alliance, one of the high-ranking Batavi, Julius Paullus, to give him his Roman name, was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion. His kinsman Gaius Julius Civilis was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted by Galba, he was retained at Rome, and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the Roman Empire, 69, he headed a Batavian rebellion. He managed to capture Castra Vetera, the Romans lost two legions while two others (I Germanica and XVI Gallica) were controlled by the rebels. The rebellion became a real threat to the Empire when the conflict escalated to northern Gaul and Germania. The Roman army retaliated and invaded Batavia. A bridge was built over the river Nabalia, where the warring parties approached each other on both sides to negotiate peace. The narrative was told in great detail in Tacitus' History, book iv, although, unfortunately, the narrative breaks off abruptly at the climax. Following the uprising, Legio X Gemina was housed in a stone castra to keep an eye on the Batavians. The fate of the Batavians The Batavians were still mentioned in 355 during the reign of Constantius II (317 - 361), when their island was already dominated by the Salii, a Frankish tribe that had sought Roman protection there in 297 AD after having been expelled from their own country by the Saxons. Constantius Gallus added inhabitants of Batavia to his legions, "of whose discipline we still make use." Zosimus, New History. London: Green and Chaplin (1814). Book 3. It has been assumed they merged with the Salii shortly before or after and, after having been expelled by another tribe (it has been proposed this were the Chamavi), shared their subsequent migration to Toxandria, an ancient name for current Brabant after (358). Notes See also List of places named Batavia Laeti External links Tacitus, Histories, Book iv A map of the Roman province Germania Inferior and neighbouring tribes. 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6,902 | All_Quiet_on_the_Western_Front | All Quiet on the Western Front () is a novel written by Erich Maria Remarque, a France/French veteran of World War I. The book shows the war's horrors and also the deep detachment from German civilian life felt by many men returning from the front. The novel was first published in November and December 1928 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung and in book form in late January 1929. This book and its sequel, The Road Back, were among the books banned and burned in Nazi Germany. It sold 2.5 million copies in twenty-five languages in its first eighteen months in print. In 1930 the book was turned into an Oscar-winning movie of the same name, directed by Lewis Milestone. Title and translation The 1930 English translation by Arthur Wesley Wheen gives the title as All Quiet on the Western Front. The literal translation of "Im Westen nichts Neues" is "Nothing New in the West", with "West" being the war front; this was a routine dispatch used by the German Army. Brian Murdoch's 1993 translation would render the phrase as "there was nothing new to report on the western front" within the narrative. Explaining his retention of the original book-title, he says: Although it does not match the German exactly (there is a different kind of irony in the literal version...), Wheen's title has justly become part of the English language and is retained here with gratitude. The phrase "all quiet on the western front" later became popular slang for lack of action (in reference to the Phoney War in World War II's Western Front). Major characters Cover of 1st English language edition Paul Bäumer Paul Bäumer is the narrator and main character of the novel, representing Remarque's own experience in World War I. Aged 19, Paul, who is an amateur writer of several poems and a play, is persuaded by his schoolmaster, Kantorek, to enlist in the German Army for World War I. He is deployed to the western front, where he experiences the devastating physical and psychological effects of intense combat, including the horrific wounding or death of his friends. Paul reflects on the war as he witnesses the dehumanizing conditions of combat and the robbing of soldiers of their individuality and love of life. "The life that has borne [Bäumer] through these years" falls at the end of the novel, in October 1918. At the time, the western front was sufficiently quiet that the army dispatches for the day read that there was nothing new to report from the western front, and the book's German title refers to this. In the novel's adaptations for films, this is presented as a physical death rather than a spiritual death. In the end, his body on the earth has a look of calm that showed "that he could not have suffered long." Albert Kropp Perhaps Paul's closest friend, Kropp was in his class at school and is described as the clearest thinker of the group. Kropp is wounded towards the end of the novel and undergoes an amputation. Both he and Bäumer end up spending time in a Roman Catholic hospital together, Bäumer suffering from shrapnel wounds to the leg and arm. Though Kropp initially plans to commit suicide if he requires an amputation, the book suggests he postponed suicide because of the strength of military camaraderie. Kropp and Bäumer part ways when Bäumer is recalled to his regiment after recovering. Haie Westhus Haie is described as being tall and strong, and a peat-digger by profession. Overall, his size and behavior make him seem older and more mature than Paul, yet he is the same age as Paul and his school-friends (roughly 19 at the start of the book). Haie also has a good sense of humor. During combat, he is injured in his back, fatally (see ch7) — the resulting wound is large enough for Paul to see Haie's breathing lung when Himmelstoss carries him to safety. Müller Müller is about 19 years of age, and one of Bäumer's classmates, when he also joins the German army as a volunteer to go to the war. Carrying his old school books with him to the battlefield, he constantly reminds himself of the importance of learning and education. Even while under enemy fire, he "mutters propositions in physics". He became interested in Kemmerich's boots and inherits them when Kemmerich dies early in the novel. He is killed later in the book after being shot point-blank in the stomach with a flare gun. As he was dying "quite conscious and in terrible pain", he gave his pocket-book and the boots he inherited from Kemmerich to Bäumer. Stanislaus Katczinsky Also known as Kat, he has the most positive influence on Paul and his comrades on the battlefield. Katczinsky was a cobbler in civilian life; he is older than Paul Bäumer and his comrades, about 40 years old, and serves as their leadership figure. He also represents a literary model highlighting the differences between the younger and older soldiers. While the older men have already had a life of professional and personal experience before the war, Bäumer and the men of his age have had little life experience or time for personal growth. When Katczinsky is killed it is as though a great hero has died. Kat is also well known for his ability to scavenge nearly any item needed, above all, food. At one point he secures four tins of lobster. Bäumer describes Kat as possessing a sixth sense. One night, Bäumer along with a group of other soldiers are holed up in a factory with neither rations nor comfortable bedding. Katczinsky leaves for a short while, returning with straw to put over the bare wires of the beds. Later, to feed the hungry men, Kat brings bread, a bag of horse meat, a lump of fat, a pinch of salt and a pan in which to cook the food. Kat is injured by an air attack at the end of the story, being hit by shrapnel. Bäumer carries him back to camp on his back, only to discover upon their arrival that a stray splinter had hit Kat in the temple and killed him on the way. He is thus the last of Paul's close friends to die in battle. It is Kat's death that eventually makes Bäumer careless whether he survives the war or not, but that he can face the rest of his life without fear. "Let the months and the years come, they can take nothing from me, they can take nothing more." Tjaden One of Bäumer's non-schoolmate friends. Before the war Tjaden was a locksmith. A big eater with a grudge against the former postman-turned corporal Himmelstoss (thanks to his strict 'disciplinary actions'), though, manages to forgive him later in the book. Throughout the book, Paul frequently remarks on how much of an eater he is, yet somehow manages to stay as "thin as a rake". Tjaden survives the War and becomes a well-liked school teacher in the sequel, The Road Back. Minor characters Kantorek Kantorek was the schoolmaster of Paul and his friends, including Kropp, Leer, and Müller. Behaving "in a way that cost [him] nothing," Kantorek is a strong supporter of the war and cajoles Bäumer and other students in his class to join the war effort. Among twenty enlistees was Joseph Behm, the first of the class to die in battle. In an example of tragic irony, Behm was the only one who did not want to sacrifice his life in the line of duty. Kantorek is essentially a hypocrite, urging the young men he teaches to fight in the name of patriotism, while not voluntarily enlisting himself. In a twist of fate, Kantorek is later called up as a soldier as well. He very reluctantly joins the ranks of his former students, only to be grilled and taunted by Mittelstädt, one of the students he had earlier persuaded to enlist. Leer Leer is a soldier in Bäumer's company, and one of his classmates. He is very popular with women; when he and his comrades meet three French girls, he is the first to seduce one of them. Bäumer describes Leer's ability to attract girls by saying "Leer is an old hand at the game". In chapter 11, Leer is hit by a shell fragment, which also hits Bertink. The shrapnel tears open Leer's hip, causing him to bleed to death quickly. His death causes Paul to ask himself, "What use is it to him now that he was such a good mathematician in school?" Bertink Lieutenant Bertink, often referred to as the company commander, is the leader of Bäumer's company. His men have a great respect for him, and Bertink has great fondness for his men. He permits them to eat the rations of the men that had been killed in action, standing up to the chef who would only allow them their allotted share. Bertink is genuinely despondent when he learns that few of his men had survived an engagement. When he and the other characters are trapped in a trench under heavy attack, Bertink spots a flamethrower team advancing on them, which will certainly kill them all. Although already shot in the chest and hit in the chin by the same shell fragment that killed Leer, Bertink manages to kill the flamethrower team, and right afterward he mutters "good", assured that his men will live, and slumps down dead. Himmelstoss Remarque's portrayal of Himmelstoss easily raises the ire of the reader. Before enlisting in the war he was a post-man. He is a power-hungry corporal with special contempt for Paul and his friends, taking sadistic pleasure in punishing the minor infractions of his trainees during their basic training in preparation for their deployment. However, Bäumer and his comrades have a chance to get back at Himmelstoss, mercilessly whipping him on the night before they board trains to go to the front. Himmelstoss later joins them at the front, revealing himself as a coward who shirks his duties for fear of getting hurt or killed, and pretends to be wounded because of a scratch on his face. Bäumer beats him and when a lieutenant comes along looking for men for a trench charge, Himmelstoss joins and leads the charge. He carries Haie Westhus' body to Bäumer after he is fatally wounded. Matured and repentant through his experiences Himmelstoss later asks for forgiveness from his previous charges. As he becomes the new staff cook, to prove his friendship he secures two pounds of sugar for Bäumer and half a pound of butter for Tjaden. Detering Detering was a young farmer who loved his wife and farm and constantly longed to return to them. He is especially fond of horses and is angered when seeing them used in combat. He says, "It is of the vilest baseness to use horses in the war," when the group hears several wounded horses writhe and scream for a long time before dying. He is driven to desert when he sees a cherry blossom, which reminds him of home too much and inspires him to leave. He is found by military police and court-martialled, and is never heard of again. Josef Hamacher Hamacher is a patient at the Catholic hospital where Paul and Albert Kropp are temporarily stationed. He has an intimate knowledge of the workings of the hospital. He also has a "shooting license," certifying him as sporadically not responsible for his actions due to a head wound, though he is clearly quite sane and exploiting his license so he can stay in the hospital and away from the war as long as possible. Franz Kemmerich Kemmerich had enlisted in the army for WWI along with his best friend and classmate, Bäumer. Kemmerich is shot in the leg early in the story; his injured leg had to be amputated, and he dies shortly thereafter. In anticipation of Kemmerich's imminent death, Müller was eager to get his boots. While in hospital, someone stole Kemmerich's watch from him, causing him great distress, prompting him to ask about his watch every time his friends came to visit him in the hospital. Joseph Behm A student in Paul's class. Behm was the only student that was not quickly influenced by Kantorek's patriotism to join the war. Eventually, due to pressure from friends and Kantorek, he joins the war. He is the first of Paul's friends to die, and he dies in a horrifying fashion: He is blinded in no man's land and cut down by enemy fire. Gérard Duval Duval is the first person whom Paul kills in hand-to-hand combat. As a civilian, Duval was a French printer, married and with a child. When Duval dives into a sodden shell hole occupied by Paul while retreating from a failed attack, Paul stabs Duval three times in the chest. As they sit, trapped together in a shell hole in No-Man's Land, Duval dies slowly and Paul experiences profound remorse, eventually swearing to devote his life to Duval's family. Kropp and Kat later comfort Paul by noting the joyful abandon with which snipers kill many times each day, and Paul resolves to repress the encounter with Duval with the other horrors he has endured. Film, TV, and theatrical adaptations Film In 1930, an American film of the novel was made, directed by Lewis Milestone. The screenplay was by Maxwell Anderson, George Abbott, Del Andrews, C. Gardner Sullivan, with uncredited work by Walter Anthony and Milestone. It stars Louis Wolheim, Lew Ayres, John Wray, Arnold Lucy and Ben Alexander. The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1930 for its producer Carl Laemmle Jr., and an Academy Award for Directing for Lewis Milestone. It was the first all-talking non-musical film to win the Best Picture Oscar. It also received two further nominations: Best Cinematography, for Arthur Edeson, and Best Writing Achievement for Abbott, Anderson and Andrews. TV film In 1979, the film was remade for CBS television by Delbert Mann, starring Richard Thomas of The Waltons as Paul Bäumer and Ernest Borgnine as Kat. Radio On November 9, 2008, a radio adaptation was broadcast on BBC Radio 3 with Paul Bäumer played by Robert Lonsdale and Katczinsky played by Shannon Graney. Music Elton John's 1982 album, Jump Up! features the song, "All Quiet On The Western Front" (written by Elton and Bernie Taupin). The song is a sorrowful rendition of the novel's story, with lyrics pertaining to the loss after the war ("It's gone all quiet on the Western Front / Male Angels sigh / ghosts in a flooded trench / As Germany dies"). Theatre In 2006 Nottingham Playhouse commissioned a play of the book by Robin Kingsland prior to a UK Tour. References See also Bildungsroman External links CliffsNotes Spark Notes | All_Quiet_on_the_Western_Front |@lemmatized quiet:6 western:10 front:14 novel:9 write:3 erich:1 maria:1 remarque:3 france:1 french:3 veteran:1 world:4 war:21 book:15 show:2 horror:2 also:10 deep:1 detachment:1 german:7 civilian:3 life:9 felt:1 many:2 men:11 return:3 first:7 publish:1 november:2 december:1 newspaper:1 vossische:1 zeitung:1 form:1 late:1 january:1 sequel:2 road:2 back:6 among:2 ban:1 burn:1 nazi:1 germany:2 sell:1 million:1 copy:1 twenty:2 five:1 language:3 eighteen:1 month:2 print:1 turn:1 oscar:2 win:3 movie:1 name:2 direct:3 lewis:3 milestone:4 title:5 translation:4 english:3 arthur:2 wesley:1 wheen:2 give:2 literal:2 im:1 westen:1 nichts:1 neues:1 nothing:6 new:4 west:2 routine:1 dispatch:2 use:4 army:5 brian:1 murdoch:1 would:2 render:1 phrase:2 report:2 within:1 narrative:1 explain:1 retention:1 original:1 say:3 although:2 match:1 exactly:1 different:1 kind:1 irony:2 version:1 justly:1 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6,903 | Los_Angeles_Dodgers | The Los Angeles Dodgers are a Major League Baseball team based in Los Angeles, California, USA. The team is in the Western Division of the National League. Established in 1883, the team originated in Brooklyn, New York, where it was known by a number of names before becoming the Brooklyn Dodgers circa 1911. The team moved to Los Angeles before the 1958 season. The Dodgers are the reigning National League West champions. Team history Early Brooklyn baseball Brooklyn was home to numerous baseball clubs in the mid-1850s. Eight of 16 participants in the first convention were from Brooklyn, including the Atlantic, Eckford and Excelsior clubs that combined to dominate play for most of the 1860s. Brooklyn helped make baseball commercial, as the locale of the first paid admission games, a series of three all star contests matching New York and Brooklyn in 1858. Brooklyn also featured the first two enclosed baseball grounds, the Union Grounds and the Capitoline Grounds; enclosed, dedicated ballparks accelerated the evolution from amateurism to professionalism. Despite the success of Brooklyn clubs in the first Association, officially amateur until 1869, they fielded weak teams in the succeeding National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, the first professional league formed in 1871. The Excelsiors no longer challenged for the amateur championship after the war and never entered the professional NA. The Eckfords and Atlantics declined to join until 1872 and thereby lost their best players; Eckford survived only one season and Atlantic four, with losing teams. The National League replaced the NA in 1876 and granted exclusive territories to its eight members, excluding the Atlantics in favor of the New York Mutuals who had shared the same home grounds. When the Mutuals were expelled by the League, the Hartford Dark Blues club moved in, changed its name to The Brooklyn Hartfords and played its home games at Union Grounds in 1877 before disbanding. By 1890 New Yorkers (Brooklyn was a separate city until it became a borough in 1898) routinely called anyone from Brooklyn a "trolley dodger," due to the vast network of street car lines criss-crossing the borough as people dodged trains to play on the streets. When the second Washington Park burned down early in the 1891 season, the team moved to nearby Eastern Park, which was bordered on two sides by street car tracks. That's when the team was first called the Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers. That was soon shortened to Dodgers. Rivalry with the Giants The historic and heated rivalry between the Dodgers and the Giants is more than a century old, and is the longest rivalry in baseball history, having begun when both clubs played in New York City (the Dodgers in Brooklyn and the Giants in Manhattan). When both franchises moved to California in 1958, the rivalry was easily transplanted with them, as the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco have long been rivals in economic, cultural, and political arenas throughout the history of the State of California. “Uncle Robbie” and the “Daffiness Boys” Manager Wilbert Robinson, another former Oriole, popularly known as “Uncle Robbie,” restored the Brooklyn team to respectability, with his “Brooklyn Robins” winning pennants to reach the 1916 and 1920 World Series, losing both, but contending perennially for several seasons. Charles Ebbetts and Ed McKeever died within a week in 1925, and Robbie was named president while still field manager. Upon assuming the title of president, however, Robinson’s ability to focus on the field declined, and the teams of the late 1920s were often fondly referred to as the “Daffiness Boys” for their distracted, error-ridden style of play. Outfielder Babe Herman was the leader both in hitting and in zaniness. The signature Dodger play from this era occurred when Herman doubled into a double play, in which three players - Dazzy Vance, Chick Fewster, and Herman - all ended up at third base at the same time. After his removal as club president, Wilbert Robinson returned to managing, and the club’s performance rebounded somewhat. When Robinson retired in 1931, he was replaced as manager by Max Carey. Although some suggested renaming the "Robins" the "Brooklyn Canaries," after Carey (whose last name was originally "Carnarius"), the name "Brooklyn Dodgers" returned to stay following Robinson's retirement. It was during this era that Willard Mullin, a noted sports cartoonist, fixed the Brooklyn team with the lovable nickname of “Dem Bums.” After hearing his cab driver ask "So how did those bums do today?" Mullin decided to sketch an exaggerated version of famed circus clown Emmett Kelly to represent the Dodgers in his much-praised cartoons in the New York World-Telegram. Both the image and the nickname caught on, so much so that many a Dodger yearbook cover, from 1951 through 1957, featured a Willard Mullin illustration with the Brooklyn Bum. Perhaps the highlight of the Daffiness Boys era came after Wilbert Robinson had left the dugout. In 1934, Giants player/manager Bill Terry was asked about the Dodgers’ chances in the coming pennant race and cracked infamously, “Is Brooklyn still in the league?” Managed now by Casey Stengel (who played for the Dodgers in the 1910s and would go on to greatness managing the New York Yankees), the 1934 Dodgers were determined to make their presence felt. As it happened, the season ended with the Giants tied with the St. Louis Cardinals for the pennant, with the Giants’ remaining games against the Dodgers. Stengel (along with a legion of angry Brooklyn fans) led his Bums to the Polo Grounds for the showdown, and they beat the Giants twice to knock them out of the pennant race. The “Gashouse Gang” Cardinals nailed the pennant by beating the Cincinnati Reds those same two days. One key development during this era was the 1938 appointment of Leland Stanford MacPhail — better known as Larry MacPhail — as the Dodgers' general manager. MacPhail, who brought night baseball to MLB as general manager of the Reds, also introduced Brooklyn to night baseball and ordered the successful refurbishing of Ebbets Field. He also brought Reds voice Red Barber to Brooklyn as the Dodgers' lead announcer in 1939, just after MacPhail broke the New York baseball executives' agreement to ban live baseball broadcasts, enacted because of the fear of what effect the radio calls would have on the home teams' attendance. MacPhail remained with the Dodgers until 1942, when he returned to the Armed Forces for World War II. (He later became one of the New York Yankees' co-owners, bidding unsuccessfully for Barber to join him in the Bronx as announcer.) MacPhail's surviving son Leland Jr. (Lee MacPhail) and surviving grandson Andy MacPhail also became MLB execs. The first major-league baseball game to be televised was Brooklyn’s 6-1 victory over Cincinnati at Ebbets Field on August 26, 1939. Batting helmets were introduced to Major League Baseball by the Dodgers in 1941. Breaking the color barrier For most of the first half of the 20th century, no Major League Baseball team employed an African American player. A parallel system of Negro Leagues developed, but most of the Negro League players were denied a chance to prove their skill before a national audience. Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play for a Major League Baseball team when he played his first major league game on April 15, 1947, as a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers. It happened mainly due to General Manager Branch Rickey's efforts. The deeply religious Rickey's motivation appears to have been primarily moral although business considerations were also present. Rickey was a member of The Methodist Church, the antecedent denomination to The United Methodist Church of today, which was a strong advocate for social justice and active later in the Civil Rights movement. The inclusion of Robinson on the team also led the Dodgers to move its spring training site. Prior to 1946, the Dodgers held their spring training in Jacksonville, Florida. However, the city's stadium refused to host an exhibition game with the Montreal Royals, which Robinson was a member of at the time, due to segregation laws. Sanford also refused to host the game. Ultimately, City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach agreed to host the game with Robinson playing. The team would return to Daytona Beach for spring training in 1947, this time with Robinson on the big club. Although the Dodgers ultimately built Dodgertown and its Holman Stadium further south in Vero Beach, and played there for 61 spring training seasons from 1948 through 2008, Daytona Beach would rename City Island Ballpark to Jackie Robinson Ballpark in his honor. This event was the harbinger of the integration of sports in the United States, the concomitant demise of the Negro Leagues, and is regarded as a key moment in the history of the American Civil Rights movement. Robinson was an exceptional player, a speedy runner who sparked the whole team with his intensity, and was given the inaugural Rookie of the Year award, which is now named the Jackie Robinson award in his honor. The Dodgers' willingness to integrate, when many other teams refused to, was a key factor in their 1947-1956 success. They won six pennants in those 10 years with the help of Robinson, three-time MVP Roy Campanella, Cy Young Award winner Don Newcombe, Jim Gilliam, and Joe Black. Robinson would eventually go on to become the first African-American elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. “Wait ’til next year!” Brooklyn Dodgers win the 1955 World Series. After the wilderness years of the 1920s and 1930s, the Dodgers were rebuilt into a contending club first by general manager Larry MacPhail and then the legendary Branch Rickey. Led by Pee Wee Reese, Jackie Robinson and Gil Hodges in the infield, Duke Snider in center field, Roy Campanella behind the plate, and Don Newcombe on the pitcher's mound, the Dodgers won pennants in 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953, only to fall to the New York Yankees in all five of the subsequent World Series. The annual ritual of building excitement, followed in the end by disappointment, became a common pattern to the long suffering fans, and “Wait ’til next year!” became an unofficial Dodger slogan. While the Dodgers generally enjoyed success during this period, in 1951 they fell victim to one of the largest collapses in the history of baseball. On August 11, Brooklyn led the National League by an enormous 13½ games over their archrivals, the Giants. However, while the Dodgers went 26-22 from that time until the end of the season, the Giants went on an absolute tear, winning an amazing 37 of their last 44 games, including their last seven in a row. At the conclusion of the season, the Dodgers and the Giants were tied for first place, forcing a three-game playoff for the pennant. The Giants took Game 1 by a score of 3-1 before being shut out by the Dodgers' Clem Labine in Game 2, 10-0. It all came down to the final game, and Brooklyn seemed to have the pennant locked up, holding a 4-2 lead in the bottom of the ninth inning. However, Giants outfielder Bobby Thomson hit a stunning three-run walk-off home run off the Dodgers' Ralph Branca to secure the NL Championship for New York. Today, this home run is known as the Shot Heard 'Round The World. It was later revealed that the Giants had cheated in 1951 by stealing signals from the outfield and relaying them to hitters, including Thomson. In 1955, by which time the core of the Dodger team was beginning to age, “next year” finally came. The fabled “Boys of Summer” shot down the "Bronx Bombers" in seven games, led by the first-class pitching of young left-hander Johnny Podres, whose key pitch was a changeup known as “pulling down the lampshade” because of the arm motion used right when the ball was released. Podres won two Series games, including the deciding seventh. The turning point of Game 7 was a spectacular double play that began with left fielder Sandy Amoros running down Yogi Berra’s long fly ball, then throwing to shortstop Pee Wee Reese, who doubled up a surprised Gil McDougald at first base to preserve the Dodger lead. The Dodgers won 2-0. Although the Dodgers lost the World Series to the Yankees in 1956 (during which the Yankees pitcher Don Larsen pitched the only postseason perfect game in baseball history), it hardly seemed to matter. Brooklyn fans had their memory of triumph, and soon that would be all they were left with – a victory that decades later would be remembered in the Billy Joel single "We Didn't Start the Fire," which included the line, "Brooklyn's got a winning team." Move to California Walter O'Malley Real estate businessman Walter O'Malley had acquired majority ownership of the Dodgers in 1950, when he bought the shares of his co-owners, the estate of Branch Rickey and the late John L. Smith. Before long he was working to buy new land in Brooklyn to build a more accessible and better arrayed ballpark than Ebbets Field. Beloved as it was, Ebbets Field had grown old and was not well served by infrastructure, to the point where the Dodgers could not sell the park out even in the heat of a pennant race (despite largely dominating the league from 1946 to 1957). New York City Construction Coordinator Robert Moses, however, sought to force O'Malley into using a site in Flushing Meadows, Queens – the site for what eventually became Shea Stadium. Moses' vision involved a city-built, city-owned park, which was greatly at odds with O'Malley's real-estate savvy. When it became clear to O'Malley that he was not going to be allowed to buy any suitable land in Brooklyn, he began thinking elsewhere. Meanwhile, non-stop transcontinental air travel had become routine during the years since the Second World War, and teams were no longer bound by much slower railroad timetables. Because of these transportation advances, it became possible to locate teams further apart – as far west as California – while maintaining the same game schedules. When Los Angeles officials attended the 1956 World Series looking to entice a team to move to the City of Angels, they were not even thinking of the Dodgers. Their original target had been the Washington Senators (who would in fact move to Bloomington, Minnesota to become the Minnesota Twins in 1961). At the same time, O'Malley was looking for a contingency in case Moses and other New York politicians refused to let him build the Brooklyn stadium he wanted, and sent word to the Los Angeles officials that he was interested in talking. Los Angeles offered him what New York would not: a chance to buy land suitable for building a ballpark, and own that ballpark, giving him complete control over all its revenue streams. Meanwhile, Giants owner Horace Stoneham was having similar difficulty finding a replacement for his team's antiquated home stadium, the Polo Grounds. Stoneham was considering moving the Giants to Minneapolis, but was persuaded instead to move them to San Francisco, ensuring that the Dodgers would have a National League rival closer than St. Louis. So the two arch-rival teams, the Dodgers and Giants, moved out to the West Coast together after the 1957 season. The Brooklyn Dodgers played their final game at Ebbets Field on September 24, 1957, which the Dodgers won 2-0 over the Pittsburgh Pirates. On April 18, 1958, the Los Angeles Dodgers played their first game in LA, defeating the former New York and now new San Francisco Giants, 6-5, before 78,672 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Sadly, catcher Roy Campanella, left partially paralyzed in an off-season accident, was never able to play for Los Angeles. A 2007 HBO film, Brooklyn Dodgers: The Ghosts of Flatbush, is a documentary covering the Dodgers history from early days to the beginning of the Los Angeles era. New start The process of building Walter O'Malley's dream stadium soon began in semi-rural Chavez Ravine, in the hills just north of downtown L.A. There was some political controversy, as the residents of the ravine, mostly Hispanic and mostly poor, resisted the eminent domain removal of their homes (land which had been previously condemned for a public housing project, Elysian Park Heights) and gained some public sympathy. Still, O'Malley and the city government were determined, and construction proceeded. The resistance of the residents against their removal was known as the Battle of Chavez Ravine. In the meantime, the Dodgers played their home games from 1958 to 1961 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, a gargantuan football and track-and-field stadium that had been built in 1923, and then expanded to host the 1932 Summer Olympics. The Coliseum's dimensions were not optimal for baseball, and the best way to fit a baseball diamond into the oval-shaped stadium was to lay the third-base line parallel to the short axis of the oval, and the first-base parallel to the long axis. This resulted in a left-field fence that was only about 250 feet from home plate. A 40-foot high screen was erected to prevent home runs from becoming too trivial to hit. Still, the 1958 season saw 182 home runs hit to left field in the home games, whereas just three were hit to center field, and only eight to right field. The Dodgers outfielder Wally Moon, newly acquired for the 1959 season, became adept at launching lazy fly balls over or onto the screen, which became known as "Moon shots." He led the National League with triples in 1959. In 1959, the season ended in a tie between the Dodgers and the Milwaukee Braves. The Dodgers won the tie-breaking playoff. 1959 also saw a team other than the Yankees win the A.L. pennant, one of only two such years in the 16-year stretch from 1949 through 1964, and because of the Dodgers' move to Los Angeles, this resulted in the first World Series since 1948 to have no games in New York City. In a lively World Series, the Dodgers defeated the "Go-Go" White Sox in six games, thoroughly cementing the bond between the baseball team and its new Southern California fans. Commemorating its 50th year in Los Angeles, the Dodgers team again played one more game in the Memorial Coliseum on March 29, 2008 - an exhibition game to benefit a cancer research charity. The crowd of 115,300, the largest in baseball history in any country, any league, saw the Dodgers lose to the Boston Red Sox by a score of 7 - 4. Due to intervening renovations, the Coliseum's left field corner was shortened to only 190 feet, calling for an even-taller left-field fence of 60 feet. Kevin Cash of the Red Sox and James Loney of the Dodgers did hit home runs over that fence, but there were unexpectedly-few home runs in the game. Despite the passage of 50 plus years since departing from Brooklyn, many in the borough, and the nation, continue efforts to encourage a move back east. Many of these efforts take the shape of letter writing campaigns, online petitions and nostalgic articles. Brooklyn Dodgers merchandise is still popular among fans as well. Major League Baseball estimates $9 million in sales every year. The Baseball Hall of Fame reports that Brooklyn photos and broadcasts are the museum's second biggest sellers behind the Yankees, Ebay lists close to 1,000 items a day relating to the Brooklyn Dodgers, and the Library of Congress has over 100 books on Brooklyn Dodger teams, third only to the Yankees and Red Sox. There have been occasional attempts to move the Dodgers back to Brooklyn. State senator Tom Bartosiewicz tried hard to persuade them in the early 1980s, but was rebuffed. A stronger chance was in 1998, when the O'Malley family sold up to Rupert Murdoch's Fox company. In the course of bidding, a committee convened by the City and State of New York (including Roger Kahn, author of Boys of Summer) made an offer to the club which was turned down, despite being larger than the eventual sale price. The 1960s: Pitching, defense, and speed Former Dodger greats adorn the exterior of Dodger Stadium Construction on Dodger Stadium was completed in time for Opening Day 1962. With its clean, simple lines and its picturesque setting amid hills and palm trees, the ballpark quickly became an icon of the Dodgers and their new California lifestyle, and it remains one of the most highly-regarded stadiums in baseball even today. Despite the fact that the Dodgers have played in Dodger Stadium longer than they had played in Ebbett's Field, the stadium remains surprisingly fresh. O'Malley was determined that there would not be a bad seat in the house, achieving this by cantilevered grandstands that have since been widely imitated. More importantly for the team, the stadium's spacious dimensions, along with other factors, gave defense an advantage over offense, and the Dodgers moved to take advantage of this by assembling a team that would excel with its pitching. The core of the team's success in the 1960s was the dominant pitching tandem of Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale, who combined to win 4 of the 5 Cy Young Awards from 1962 to 1966, during a time in which only one award was given to the top pitcher from either of the two major leagues. Top pitching also came from Claude Osteen, an aging Johnny Podres, and reliever Ron Perranoski. The hitting attack, on the other hand, was not impressive, and much of the offensive spark came from the exploits of speedy shortstop Maury Wills, who led the league in stolen bases every year from 1960 to 1965, and set a modern record with 104 thefts in 1962. The Dodgers' strategy was once described as follows: "Wills hits a single, steals second, and takes third on a grounder. A sacrifice fly brings him home. Koufax or Drysdale pitches a shutout, and the Dodgers win 1-0." Although few games followed this model exactly, the Dodgers nevertheless tallied a high proportion of wins in a low-scoring manner that relied on their pitching and defense rather than their offense - with the exception of a few seasons. For example, in 1962, Tommy Davis lead the Major Leagues with 153 RBI, and he lead the National League in batting average and in hits. Seasons of over 150 RBI are quite rare by a player in modern-day pro baseball. Davis led the league in batting twice for the Dodgers. The 1962 pennant race ended in a tie, and the Dodgers were defeated by the archrival Giants in the tie-breaking playoff, but the Dodgers proceeded to win the pennant in three of the next four years. The 1963 World Series was a four-game sweep of the Yankees, in which the Dodgers were so dominant that the vaunted Bronx Bombers never even took a lead against Koufax, Podres, and Drysdale. After an injury-plagued 1964, the Dodgers bounced back to win the 1965 World Series in a seven games against the Minnesota Twins. Game one happened to fall on the Yom Kippur holy day, and Koufax (who is Jewish) refused to pitch on that day, a decision for which he was widely praised. The Dodgers rebounded from losing the first two games, with Koufax pitching shutouts in Games five and seven (with only two days rest in between) to win the crown and the World Series MVP Award. The Dodgers again won the pennant in 1966, but the team was running out of gas, and it was swept in the World Series by the upstart Baltimore Orioles. Koufax retired that winter, with his career cut short by arthritis in the elbow of his pitching arm, and Maury Wills was traded away. Don Drysdale continued to be effective, setting a record with six consecutive shutouts in 1968, but he finished with just a 14 - 12 record due to the Dodgers' poor hitting that year. While the Dodgers were sub-par for several seasons thereafter, a new core of young talent was developing in their farm system. They won another pennant in 1974, and although they were quickly dismissed by the dynastic Oakland Athletics in the World Series, it was a sign of good things to come. The late 1970s: The early Lasorda years For 23 years, beginning in 1954, the Dodgers had been managed by Walter Alston, a quiet and unflappable man who commanded great respect from his players. Alston's tenure is the third-longest in baseball history for a manager with a single team, after Connie Mack and John McGraw. His retirement near the end of the 1976 season, after winning 7 pennants and 4 World Series titles over his career, cleared the way for an entirely different personality to take the helm of the Dodgers. Tommy Lasorda was a 49-year-old former minor-league pitcher who had been the team's top coach under Alston, and before that had been manager of the Dodgers' top minor league team. He was colorful and gregarious, an enthusiastic cheerleader in contrast to Alston's taciturn demeanor. He quickly became a larger-than-life personality, associating with Frank Sinatra and other celebrities, with a penchant for eating Italian food in large volumes. He became well-known for sayings such as, "If you cut me, I bleed Dodger blue," and for referring to God as "the Great Dodger in the sky." Although some considered his persona to be a schtick and found it wearing, his enthusiasm won him a reputation as an "ambassador for baseball," and it is impossible to think of the Dodgers from the late '70s to the early '90s without thinking of Lasorda. Another transition had recently occurred, higher up in the Dodgers management. Walter O'Malley passed control of the team to his son Peter, who would continue to oversee the Dodgers on his family's behalf through 1998. New blood had also been injected into the team on the field. The core of the team was now the infield, composed of Steve Garvey (1B), Davey Lopes (2B), Bill Russell (SS), and Ron Cey (3B). These four remained in the starting lineup together from 1973 to 1981, longer than any other infield foursome in baseball history. The pitching staff remained strong, anchored by Don Sutton and Tommy John. The Dodgers won NL West titles in both 1977 and 1978, and defeated the Philadelphia Phillies both years in the National League Championship Series, only to be defeated in the World Series both years by the Yankees. In 1980, they swept a three game series from the Houston Astros in the final weekend of the regular season (including Don Sutton's brilliant save) and were in a first place tie in the National League West, but lost to the Astros 7-1 in the one-game playoff. The 1980s: Fernandomania and the Bulldog The Opening Day starting pitcher for 1981 was a 20-year-old rookie from Mexico: Fernando Valenzuela. Pressed into service due to an injury to Jerry Reuss, Valenzuela pitched a shutout that day, and proceeded to win his first 8 decisions through mid-May. The youthful left-hander, speaking only Spanish but sporting a devastating screwball, became a sensation. “Fernandomania” gripped both Southern California, where huge crowds turned out to see him pitch, as well as in his home country of Mexico, where the number of radio stations that carried Dodger games increased that year from three stations to 17. Valenzuela became the only pitcher ever to be named Rookie of the Year and win the Cy Young Award in the same season. The Dodgers' torrid start assured them of a playoff berth in the strike-shortened split season. After defeating the Montreal Expos with the help of a ninth-inning two-out home run by Rick Monday in the fifth and deciding game of the National League Championship Series they proceeded to defeat the Yankees in the World Series in six games, with the World Series MVP award split three ways among Ron Cey, Pedro Guerrero and Steve Yeager. The Dodgers won NL West titles in 1983 and 1985, but lost in the NLCS both those years (to the Phillies and Cardinals, respectively). The 1985 NLCS was particularly memorable for Game 6, in which the Dodgers were protecting a 5-4 lead in the ninth inning, hoping to force a deciding seventh game. With two runners on and first base open, Lasorda elected not to walk Cards slugger Jack Clark, who proceeded to hit a home run off Tom Niedenfuer and send St. Louis to the World Series. After seven years of high strikeout totals, and a 21-win season in 1986, Valenzuela sat out for most of the 1988 season. Plagued by arm troubles that were widely blamed on his being overused by Lasorda, his effectiveness faded before he turned 30. The new anchor of the pitching staff was a right-hander named Orel Hershiser. He had been given the nickname "Bulldog" by Lasorda, more as a hopeful motivational tool than an objective description of his personality, but by 1988 he had matured into one of baseball's most effective pitchers. That year he won 23 games and the Cy Young Award, and broke Don Drysdale's major league record by tossing 59 consecutive scoreless innings, ending with a 10-inning shutout on his final start of the season. 1988 World Series Championship Team The 1988 Championship won by the Dodgers is all the more magical for the fact that the Dodgers were not expected to compete. They enjoyed career years from several players, and were inspired by the fiery intensity of newcomer Kirk Gibson (the league's Most Valuable Player that year), as well as the quiet but steady Hershiser and the always ebullient Lasorda. Although they entered the NLCS as decided underdogs to the powerful New York Mets, who they were 1-10 against during the regular season, the Dodgers prevailed in a back-and-forth series that went the entire seven games and saw Hershiser come on for the save in game 4. The World Series matched them with an even more powerful opponent, the Oakland Athletics, who owned baseball's best regular-season record with 104 wins against only 58 defeats. Featuring the "Bash Brothers" duo of Mark McGwire and José Canseco, the A's took an early lead in Game 1 on a grand slam by Canseco, and led 4-3 going into the bottom of the ninth inning. With two outs, pinch-hitter Mike Davis drew a base on balls from formidable closer Dennis Eckersley. During Davis' at-bat, Lasorda had the light-hitting infielder Dave Anderson on deck so the Athletics would pitch to Davis more carefully. Then, Gibson, hobbled by injuries to both his legs that included a strained MCL and a severely pulled hamstring, came in to pinch hit. After fighting off several pitches and working the count full, Gibson got the backdoor slider he was looking for and pulled it into the right field pavilion for a two-run, walk-off home run, winning the game for the Dodgers, 5-4. Widely considered one of the most memorable and improbable home runs in baseball history, Gibson's dramatic home run was his only appearance of the entire series, and it set the tone for the following four games. Hershiser dominated the Athletics in Games 2 and 5, and was on the mound when the Dodgers completed their stunning 4 games to 1 upset of the A's, capping off an incredible personal season by being named the Series MVP. Few remember that the Dodgers were so injury riddled during their World Series appearance. They won the Series in Game 5 with lifetime reserves Danny Heep and Mickey Hatcher in the starting lineup. Post-1988: Rookies and the FOX era The "Think Blue" sign, modeled after the famous Hollywood Sign has evolved into one of the team's slogans After 1988, the Dodgers did not win another postseason game until 2004, though they did reach the playoffs in 1995 and 1996, narrowly missed in 1991 and 1997, and led the NL West when the end of the 1994 season was cancelled by a strike. Hershiser, like Valenzuela before him, suffered an arm injury in 1990, and he never regained the production he had earlier in his career. From 1992 to 1996, five consecutive Dodgers were named Rookie of the Year: Eric Karros, Mike Piazza, Raúl Mondesí, Hideo Nomo, and Todd Hollandsworth, which is a record. After nearly 20 years at the helm, Lasorda retired in 1996, though he still remained with the Dodgers as an executive vice-president. He was replaced as manager by longtime Dodgers shortstop Bill Russell. Nearly a half-century of unusual stability (only two managers 1954–1996, owned by a single family 1950-1998) finally came to an end. After L.A. city officials rejected a proposal to bring an NFL stadium and franchise to Chavez Ravine in 1998, the O'Malley family sold the Dodgers to Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation, owner of the Fox network (which also owns broadcast rights to MLB games) and 20th Century Fox. Among the new ownership's early moves were trading away popular catcher Piazza, and replacing Russell with veteran manager Davey Johnson. Johnson's volatile tenure ended two years later, and he was followed as manager by Jim Tracy. Fox made the first changes to the home uniform since the club moved from Brooklyn and introduced the team's first alternate jersey and cap, adding silver to the team's official colors (although they have rarely been used since). The team became more steady on the field in the early 2000s, with four consecutive winning seasons under the leadership of manager Tracy, starting pitcher Chan Ho Park, slugger Shawn Green, third baseman Adrián Beltré, and catcher Paul Lo Duca. The 2002 season was marked by the emergence of Éric Gagné as one of baseball's top relief pitchers. Gagné later won the Cy Young Award in 2003, converting all 55 of his save opportunities that year, and holding the league to a 1.20 ERA and striking out 137 batters in 82 1/3 innings. Gagné would later establish a new major league record for consecutive saves, with 84 saves spanning parts of the 2002, 2003 and 2004 seasons. The McCourts and the Sabermetric experiment In 2004, the Dodgers were returned to family ownership, as News Corp sold the team to Boston real estate developer Frank McCourt. McCourt immediately hired Paul DePodesta as his new general manager, replacing Dan Evans. As an assistant general manager in Oakland under Billy Beane, DePodesta favored a highly statistical approach to evaluating prospects and potential free-agents. This sabermetric approach, widely publicized in the book Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game by Michael Lewis, led many to believe that new owner McCourt was unwilling to pay for high priced talent, and would thus reduce the Dodgers to a status similar to small-market teams such as Oakland. With a team largely assembled by DePodesta's predecessors, and augmented by some acquisitions of his own, DePodesta saw the Dodgers near the top of the standings through much of 2004. In an effort to put the team over the top that year, DePodesta pulled off a number of mid-season trades, including sending away three key players (including popular team leader LoDuca), while obtaining several new players. The Dodgers did manage to win the NL West in 2004, but bowed out quickly in four games in the Division Series to the eventual National League champion St. Louis Cardinals. During the winter of 2004-05, the team parted ways with several more longtime players, including Beltré and Green. Their replacements included starting pitcher Derek Lowe, outfielder J. D. Drew, and the run-producing, but aging second baseman Jeff Kent. DePodesta's radical overhaul did not bear fruit in 2005, as the Dodgers suffered from clubhouse strife and stifling injuries, finishing with their second-worst record in Los Angeles history. The club also faced an overwhelming number of injuries that quickly scuttled the team's hopes of repeating as division champions. Among them were Drew's broken wrist, All-Star shortstop Cesar Izturis's injury that required Tommy John Surgery, and closer Gagné's deteriorating elbow condition that would also require surgery and force him to miss much of the 2005 season. Manager Jim Tracy also parted ways with the team at the end of the 2005 season, citing irreconcilable differences with DePodesta. However, DePodesta himself was fired by McCourt less than a month later, with McCourt later citing DePodesta's lack of leadership and dissatisfaction over DePodesta's handling of the process of hiring a new manager. Ned Colletti was hired as the new Dodger GM on November 16, 2005. Colletti and Little Newly hired Colletti was responsible for a tangible change in attitude and guided the Dodgers' resurgence in the 2006 season. He hired former Red Sox manager Grady Little to lead the team and also traded oft-troubled Milton Bradley for Oakland Athletics prospect Andre Ethier. His off season acquisitions also included former Atlanta Braves shortstop Rafael Furcal and former Red Sox third baseman Bill Mueller. Coletti also signed former All-Star shortstop Nomar Garciaparra, even though the team already had two other former All-Star shortstops (Furcal and the then-injured Cesar Izturis). Garciaparra agreed to play first base and adjusted quite well in the field and remained productive at the plate, producing several key hits in Dodger victories. Due to the crowded infield, untimely injuries and several players' lack of production, the team was rebuilt during the season. The flurry of trading saw Cesar Izturis go to the Chicago Cubs for Greg Maddux while Willy Aybar and Danys Baez went to Atlanta for Wilson Betemit. A series of rookies were called up and provided substantial everyday contributions. Among them were catcher Russell Martin, who won the starting catching job after being called up in May and starting pitcher Chad Billingsley, who had several quality starts in August and September. Andre Ethier led the team in batting with a .308 batting average as the team's everyday left fielder through much of the season. Rookie first baseman James Loney hit very well in his short time with the team, tying Gil Hodges’ 56-year-old Dodgers record with 9 RBI in one game on September 28. Another key move was handing the closer's role to rookie (but Japanese League veteran) Takashi Saito, where he flourished, notching 24 saves in 26 opportunities while posting a 2.07 ERA. After a heated pennant race, in which the most memorable moment occurred when the Dodgers hit four consecutive home runs on September 18 to tie the score in the ninth inning and then won the game on a tenth-inning walk-off homer by Nomar Garciaparra, the Dodgers entered the 2006 playoffs in the National League's Wild Card spot, having tied the San Diego Padres for the division lead but having lost 13 of 18 head-to-head meetings with the Padres. They were eventually swept, 3-0, by the New York Mets in the 2006 National League Division Series. In 2007, the Los Angeles Dodgers sent three players (Brad Penny, Takashi Saito, and Russell Martin) to the all-star game, and at one point, the Dodgers had a record of 54-41, which was then the best record in the National League. After a hitting slump, the Dodgers fell to 60-59, and seven games out of first place in the N.L. West. The Dodgers were able to rebound, however, and had a 79-69 record with three weeks left in the season. At this point, the Dodgers trailed the San Diego Padres by 1 1/2 games in the wild card slot, and the Arizona Diamondbacks by 3 1/2 games. However, the Dodgers lost 10 of their next 11 games, which eliminated the Dodgers from post season play, and would finish the season with a disappointing 82-80 record. The last few weeks of the season were disrupted further by public complaints in the media by some of the veteran ballplayers about the lack of respect afforded them by some of the younger players on the team. This led to a divided clubhouse, as younger players consistently got more playing time at the expense of the veterans. After the season and weeks of media speculation, Grady Little resigned as manager, citing personal reasons . A few days later the Dodgers announced the hiring of former New York Yankees skipper Joe Torre to be the team's new manager. The Dodgers Today: Torre, the Youth Movement, and Mannywood At the start of the season, Joe Torre found himself with a whole new team, including new players Andruw Jones and Japanese pitcher Hiroki Kuroda. To add to his troubles, Don Mattingly was unable to perform his hitting coach duties, and third basemen Nomar Garciaparra and Andy LaRoche were out with injuries, leaving the starting third base position to rookie Blake DeWitt, who had never played above level A ball in the minor leagues. DeWitt stepped up early, when Nomar went down again with a calf injury. The team suffered a serious blow when star player Rafael Furcal was injured in the midst of the best start of his career. Many substitutions were used, including rookies Chin-Lung Hu and Luis Maza, but could not duplicate Furcal's offense. Staff ace Brad Penny and slugger Jones began to underperform, leading to trips to the DL for both. Despite the problems with the roster, as well as their record, the Dodgers were only behind first-place Arizona by one game at the All-Star break. The season saw progress in the teams prospects, including a call-up for top prospect Clayton Kershaw, as well as comebacks from veteran pitchers, most notably Chan Ho Park. Chad Billingsley quickly grew to be the team's ace, being one of the leaders in strikeouts and ERA and being the first pitcher on the Dodgers to get double-digit wins. For the majority of the season, the club hovered around a .500 record. To bolster a lineup of mostly young players, Ned Colletti made trades for shortstop Angel Berroa, third-baseman Casey Blake, and on July 31, 2008 the Los Angeles Dodgers acquired outfielder Manny Ramirez from the Boston Red Sox in a 3-way deal that sent third baseman Andy LaRoche and single-A prospect pitcher Bryan Morris to the Pittsburgh Pirates and all-star outfielder Jason Bay to the Red Sox. Ramirez brought an energy to the team that it had lacked previously and also energized the fanbase. After playing more than 140 games of catch-up, the Dodgers swept Arizona to take first place in the last series of the season for the two teams on September 7 after being 4 games behind the week before. The Dodgers clinched the 2008 National League Western Division title on September 25 as the Arizona Diamondbacks were eliminated by losing to the St. Louis Cardinals 12-3. On October 4, 2008 they beat the Cubs 3-0 to sweep the 2008 NLDS and moved on to the NLCS, where they faced the Philadelphia Phillies and were eliminated, losing the series 4-1. 2009 started on a higher note, with Kuroda winning his start opening day in San Diego. Unfortunately, Kuroda would go on the disabled list with a strained oblique muscle days later. Chad Billingsley would take over as staff ace, winning his first five starts of the season. The Dodgers would prove to be almost unbeatable at Dodger Stadium in April and May. In the first home game of the season, an 11-1 drumming of the Giants, new Dodger Orlando Hudson hit for the cycle, the first Dodger since Wes Parker in 1970 to do so. That game proved to be the beginning of Major League history. On May 6th, 2009, the Dodgers broke a MLB modern day record when they won their 13th straight game at home to start the season, making their home record 13-0. However, the following day, MLB suspended Manny Ramirez for 50 games for the use of performance enhancing drugs. http://losangeles.dodgers.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090507&content_id=4603850&vkey=news_la&fext=.jsp&c_id=la </blockquote> The team faltered briefly, losing 4 of their next five, but began to rebound on the road, beating the Phillies 2 of 3 in Philadelphia (the first time Los Angeles won in Philly since 2007). By the end of May they had the best won-loss record in baseball, and were scoring more runs without Manny than they had with him. Other historical notes Historical statistics First MLB team to employ and start a black player in the 20th century (Jackie Robinson in 1947) First baseball team to win championships in different leagues in consecutive years (1890) First TV broadcast (1939) First use of batting helmets (1941) First West Coast team (1958) - along with the San Francisco Giants First MLB team to open an office in Asia (1998) Largest home-opener crowd (78,762 in 1958) Largest attendance: 93,103 (1959) and 115,300 (2008) Broke and set a new MLB modern day record for a home start going 13-0 (2009) Tournament of Roses Parade On January 1, 2008, The Dodgers kicked off their 50th year (actually the 51st) in Los Angeles by building a float for the 119th annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, CA. The riders on the float contained past and current Dodgers, including Tom Lasorda, Nomar Garciaparra, Don Newcombe, Fernando Valenzuela, Steve Garvey, Eric Karros, James Loney, Takashi Saito, Hong-Chih Kuo, and Brad Penny. Also on the float was Vin Scully, the Dodgers announcer of 59 years and the Dodgers organist, Nancy Bea Hefley. Asian players The Dodgers have been groundbreaking in their signing of players from Asia; namely, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Former owner Peter O'Malley began reaching out in 1980 by starting clinics in China and Korea, building baseball fields in two Chinese cities, and in 1998 becoming the first major league team to open an office in Asia. The Dodgers were the first team to start a Japanese player in recent history, pitcher Hideo Nomo, a Korean player, pitcher Chan Ho Park, and the first Taiwanese player, Chin-Feng Chen. In addition, they were the first team to send out three Asian pitchers, from different Asian countries, in one game, Chan Ho Park, Hong-Chih Kuo, and Takashi Saito. In the 2008 season the Dodgers had the most Asian players on its roster of any major league team with five. They included Japanese pitchers Takashi Saito and Hiroki Kuroda; Korean pitcher Chan Ho Park; and Taiwanese pitcher Hong-Chih Kuo and infielder Chin-Lung Hu. Uniforms The Dodgers uniforms have remained relatively unchanged for almost 70 years. The home jersey is white with Dodgers written in script across the chest in blue. The word Dodgers was first used on the front of the teams home jersey in 1933, and the uniform was white with red pinstripes and the Brooklyn stylized B on the left shoulder. , Brooklyn Dodgers Uniform History, The Dodgers also wore green outlined uniforms and green caps throughout the 1937 season but reverted to a blue template the following year. Since 1952 the team has had a red uniform number under the Dodgers script. The road jersey is gray with Los Angeles written in script across the chest in blue. The road jerseys also have a red uniform number under the script. The Dodgers have worn the current uniforms on the field since 1939 with only minor cosmetic changes. The most obvious of these is the removal of "Brooklyn" from the road jerseys and the replacement of the stylized "B" with the interlocking "L.A." on the caps in 1958. In 1970 the Dodgers removed the city name from the road jerseys and had Dodgers on both the home and away uniforms. The city script returned to the road jerseys in 1999. Also in 1999 the tradition rich Dodgers flirted with an alternate uniform for the first time since 1944 (when all blue satin uniforms were introduced). These 1999 alternate jerseys had a royal blue top with the Dodgers script in white across the chest and the red number on the front. These were worn with white pants and a new Dodger cap complete with a silver brim, silver top button and silver Dodger logo. These alternates proved unpopular and the team abandoned them after only one season just as they did 55 years earlier with the blue satin uniforms. Fan support A fan waves a rally towel during the 2008 NLCS The Dodgers have a fiercely loyal fanbase, evidenced by the fact that the Dodgers were the first MLB team to attract more than 3 million fans in a season (in 1978), and accomplished that feat 6 more times before any other franchise did it once. On July 3, 2007, Dodgers management announced that total franchise attendance, dating back to 1901, had reached 175 million, a record for all professional sports. The Dodgers also recently set the world record for the greatest attendance for a single baseball game during an exhibition game against the Boston Red Sox at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in honor of the Dodgers 50th anniversary in Los Angeles with over 115,000 fans in attendance. All proceeds from the game benefitted the official charity of the Dodgers, ThinkCure! which supports cancer research at Children's Hospital Los Angeles and City of Hope. Radio and television As noted above, Vin Scully has called Dodgers games since 1950. His longtime partners were Jerry Doggett (1956-1987) and Ross Porter (1977-2004). In 1976, he was selected by Dodgers fans as the Most Memorable Personality (on the field or off) in the team's history. He is also a recipient of the Baseball Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasters (inducted in 1982). He currently is in his 59th year with the team. Unlike the modern style in which multiple sportscasters have an on-air conversation (usually with one functioning as play-by-play announcer and the other(s) as color commentator), Scully, Doggett and Porter generally called games solo, trading with each other inning-by-inning. In the 1980s and 90s, Scully would call the entire radio broadcast except for the 3rd and 7th inning; allowing the other Dodger commentators to broadcast an inning. Scully continues to call Dodgers games without a color commentator. When Doggett retired after the 1987 season, he was replaced by Hall-of-Fame Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale, who previously broadcast games for the crosstown California Angels. Drysdale died in his hotel room following a heart attack before a game in 1993, resulting in a very difficult broadcast for Scully and Porter, who were told of the death but could not mention in on-air until Drysdale' family had been notified and the official announcement of the death made. He was replaced by former Dodgers outfielder Rick Monday. Porter's tenure was terminated somewhat controversially after the 2004 season, after which the current format of play-by-play announcers and color commentators was installed, led by newcomer Charley Steiner as well as Scully and Monday. Today, Scully calls a limited schedule of games (all home games and road games in NL West ballparks) for both flagship radio station KABC and television outlets KCAL-TV and Prime Ticket. Scully is simulcast for the first three innings of each of his appearances, then announces only for the TV audience. If Scully is calling the game, Charley Steiner takes over play-by-play on radio beginning with the fourth inning, with Rick Monday as color commentator. If Scully is not calling the game, Eric Collins and Steve Lyons call the entire game on television while Steiner and Monday do the same on radio. In the event the Dodgers are in post-season play, Scully calls the first three and last three innings of the radio broadcast alone; with Charley Steiner and Rick Monday handling the middle innings. The Dodgers also broadcast on radio in Spanish, and the play-by-play is handled by another Ford C. Frick Award winner, Jaime Jarrin. Jarrin has been with the Dodgers since 1959. The color analyst for some games is former Dodger pitcher Fernando Valenzuela, for whom Jarrin once translated post-game interviews. The Spanish-language flagship is KHJ. Live traffic reports pertaining to Dodger Stadium are broadcast from the Dodgers Transportation Center inside the ballpark. KABC radio's Captain Jorge Jarrin (son of Dodger broadcaster Jaime Jarrin) and Doug Dunlap handle those duties during the pre-game and post-game shows as well as during Dodger Talk following the game. In 2006, the Dodgers introduced an on demand channel on Time Warner Cable called "Dodgers on Demand", hosted by Tony Kinkela. Currently, Steiner has been converted to radio-only with Rick Monday. Jerry Reuss was removed from his broadcast position, though he is still with the club to serve in other aspects. Steve Lyons will be retained as a color-commentator, and the Dodgers recently hired ESPN broadcaster Eric Collins as a play-by-play announcer to replace Steiner on road games for television. Public address announcers From the Dodgers' move to Los Angeles from Brooklyn in 1958, the Dodgers employed a handful of well-known public address announcers; the most famous of which was John Ramsey, who served as the PA voice of the Dodgers from 1958 until his retirement in 1982; as well as announcing at other venerable Los Angeles venues, including the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Sports Arena, and the Forum. Ramsey died in 1990. Dennis Packer, Nick Nickson, Pete Arbogast and Mike Carlucci also served as Dodger Stadium announcers following Ramsey's retirement. Packer and Arbogast were emulators of John Ramsey, using the same style of announcing Ramsey was famous for. Arbogast won the job on the day that Ramsey died in 1989, by doing a verbatim imitation of Ramsey's opening and closing remarks that were standard at each game. The current Dodgers public address announcer is Eric Smith. Quick facts Founded: 1855, as a member of the National Association of Baseball Players and minor Inter-State League. The team moved up to the American Association in 1884 and transferred to the National League in 1890. Chairman: Frank McCourt Chief Executive Officer: Jamie McCourt President/Chief Operating Officer: Dennis Mannion Special Advisor to the Chairman: Tommy Lasorda General Manager: Ned Colletti Logo design: cursive "Dodgers" superimposed over a red streaming baseball Uniform: Cap is "Dodger blue" with white "LA" (letters overlapped) centered on front of cap; home is "Dodger blue" on "wedding gown" white, jersey has cursive "Dodgers" (similar to logo but without baseball) across chest; away is "Dodger blue" on gray, jersey has similar cursive "Los Angeles" across chest; names were printed on back of home or away jerseys from circa 1970 to 2004. The names on the back are restored as of the 2007 season, after a two-year absence KABC-TV:Dodger Stadium Debuts New Parking Plan Mar. 29, 2007 Retrieved April 8, 2007 . Radio: KABC 790 AM Local Television: FSN Prime Ticket (Formerly FSN West 2), KCAL-TV Spring Training Facility: Camelback Ranch, Glendale, AZ World Series Wins: 6 (1 Brooklyn, 5 Los Angeles) Rivals: San Francisco Giants Arch-Rivals in both New York City and California. New York Yankees 11 World Series meetings (Interleague) Baseball Hall of Famers Other Dick Williams – who played for the Dodgers from 1951–54 and again in 1956 – was inducted as a manager having never managed the Dodgers. Vin Scully is permanently honored in the Hall's "Scribes & Mikemen" exhibit as a result of winning the Ford C. Frick Award in . As with all Frick Award recipients, he is not officially considered an inducted member of the Hall of Fame. Retired numbers <b>Pee Wee ReeseSS, CoachJuly 1, 1984<b>Tommy LasordaP, M, GMAug 15, 1997<b>Duke SniderOFJuly 6, 1980<b>Jim Gilliam2B, 3B, CoachOct 10, 1978<b>Don SuttonPAug 14, 1998<b>Walter AlstonManagerJune 5, 1977<b>Sandy KoufaxPJune 4, 1972<b>Roy CampanellaCJune 4, 1972<b>Jackie Robinson2BJune 4, 1972<b>Don DrysdalePJuly 1, 1984 Since 1997, Robinson's #42 has been retired throughout Major League Baseball in honor of his breaking the color barrier in 1947. Robinson is the only major league baseball player to have this honor bestowed upon him. He spent his entire career with the Dodgers, who retired his number in 1972. Because the MLB decided to grandfather the use of the number 42 out of the game, New York Yankees closer Mariano Rivera still wears the number as he is the only active player who wore the number before it was retired across all of Major League Baseball. Koufax, Campanella, and Robinson were the first Dodgers to have their numbers retired. They were all retired in a ceremony at Dodger Stadium on June 4, 1972. Gilliam died suddenly in 1978 at the age of 49, after a 28-year career with the Dodgers organization. The Dodgers retired his number two days after his death, prior to Game 1 of the 1978 World Series, making him the only non-Hall-of-Famer to have his number retired by the Dodgers. The Dodgers have not issued #34 since the departure of Fernando Valenzuela in 1991, although it has not been officially retired. Steve Garvey's #6 was not reissued for 19 years until it was given to Dante Bichette in spring training of 2002 and was not worn during a regular season game until Ron Coomer wore it in 2003. Presidents Charlie Byrne 1883-1897 Charles Ebbets 1898-1925 Edward J. McKeever 1925-1925 (interim) Wilbert Robinson 1925-1929 Frank B. York 1930-1932 Stephen J. McKeever 1933-1938 Larry MacPhail 1939-1942 Branch Rickey 1943-1950 Walter O'Malley 1950-1970 Peter O'Malley 1970-1997 (sold franchise to NewsCorp in 1998) Bob Graziano 1998-2004 Frank McCourt (co-chairsperson; bought franchise from NewsCorp in 2004) Jamie McCourt 2004-Present (co-chairsperson; appointed president by her husband Frank) Managers Since 1884, the Dodgers have used a total of 29 Managers. Joe Torre, the current Manager of the Dodgers, has held the position since 2008. The managers of the Los Angeles Dodgers (1958-present) are as follows: Walter Alston (1958-1976) (in Brooklyn since 1954) Tommy Lasorda (1976-1996) Bill Russell (1996-1998) Glenn Hoffman (1998) Davey Johnson (1999-2000) Jim Tracy (2001-2005) Grady Little (2006-2007) Joe Torre (2008-Present) General Managers Larry MacPhail (1938-1942) Branch Rickey (1943-1950) Buzzie Bavasi (1950-1968) Fresco Thompson (1968-1968) Al Campanis (1968-1987) Fred Claire (1987-1998) Tommy Lasorda (1998) Kevin Malone (1999-2001) Dave Wallace (2001) Dan Evans (2001-2004) Paul DePodesta (2004-2005) Ned Colletti (2005-present) Current roster Minor league affiliations AAA: Albuquerque Isotopes, Pacific Coast League AA: Chattanooga Lookouts, Southern League Advanced A: Inland Empire 66ers, California League A: Great Lakes Loons, Midwest League Rookie: Ogden Raptors, Pioneer League Rookie: Arizona League Dodgers, Arizona League Rookie: Santo Domingo Dodgers, Dominican Summer League Minor league rosters Further reading Red Barber, [http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bookinfo/3275.htmlRhubarb in the Catbird Seat] Stanley Cohen, Dodgers! The First 100 Years Robert W. Creamer, [http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bookinfo/3113.htmlStengel: His Life and Times] Steve Delsohn, True Blue: The Dramatic History of the Los Angeles Dodgers, Told By the Men Who Lived It Carl Erskine and Vin Scully, Tales From the Dodger Dugout: Extra Innings Harvey Froemmer, New York City Baseball Cliff Gewecke, Day by Day in Dodgers History Andrew Goldblatt, The Giants and the Dodgers: Four Cities, Two Teams, One Rivalry Peter Golenbock, Bums: An Oral History of the Brooklyn Dodgers Doris Kearns Goodwin, Wait Till Next Year: A Memoir Frank Graham, The Brooklyn Dodgers: An Informal History Orel Hershiser with Jerry B. Jenkins, Out Of The Blue Donald Honig, The Los Angeles Dodgers: Their First Quarter Century Roger Kahn, The Boys of Summer Roger Kahn, The Era 1947-1957: When the Yankees, the Giants and the Dodgers Ruled the World Mark Langill, The Los Angeles Dodgers Tommy Lasorda with David Fisher, The Artful Dodger Jane Leavy, Sandy Koufax: A Lefty's Legacy Joseph McCauley, Ebbets Field: Brooklyn's Baseball Shrine William McNeil, The Dodgers Encyclopedia Tom Meany (editor), The Artful Dodgers Andrew Paul Mele, A Brooklyn Dodgers Reader John J. Monteleone (editor), Branch Rickey's Little Blue Book Thomas Oliphant, Praying for Gil Hodges: A Memoir of the 1955 World Series and One Family's Love of the Brooklyn Dodgers David Plaut, Chasing October: The Dodgers-Giants Pennant Race of 1962 Carl E. Prince, Brooklyn's Dodgers: The Bums, The Borough and The Best of Baseball Jackie Robinson, I Never Had It Made Gene Schoor, The Complete Dodgers Record Book Gene Schoor, The Pee Wee Reese Story Duke Snider with Bill Gilbert, The Duke of Flatbush Michael Shapiro, The Last Good Season: Brooklyn, The Dodgers, and Their Final Pennant Race Together Glen Stout, The Dodgers: 120 Years of Dodgers Baseball Neil J. Sullivan, The Dodgers Move West Jules Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy John Weaver, Los Angeles: The Enormous Village, 1781-1981 See also All-Time roster List of Los Angeles Dodgers people Los Angeles Dodgers Season-by-Season Records 1988 Los Angeles Dodgers Dodger Dog Dodgers award winners and league leaders Dodgers statistical records and milestone achievements List of Los Angeles Dodgers broadcasters Los Angeles Dodgers Minor League Affiliations References External links Current records and standings Los Angeles Team Building - Dodger's Mentoring LA Dodgers Tickets Los Angeles Dodgers Baseball Reference The Hardball Times Article on the 1960s Los Angeles Dodgers in The Hardball Times. | Los_Angeles_Dodgers |@lemmatized los:41 angeles:41 dodger:234 major:17 league:63 baseball:50 team:85 base:11 california:11 usa:1 western:2 division:6 national:19 establish:2 originate:1 brooklyn:56 new:46 york:24 know:9 number:15 name:13 become:23 circa:2 move:22 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6,904 | Formula_One | Formula One, also known as Formula 1 or F1, and currently officially referred to as the FIA Formula One World Championship, http://www.fia.com/en-GB/sport/championships/f1/Pages/SeasonGuide.aspx is the highest class of auto racing sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). The "formula" in the name refers to a set of rules to which all participants and cars must comply http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/discovering-what-makes-formula-one-formula-one.html http://www.conceptcarz.com/view/racing/racingClassCars.aspx?racingClassID=4 . The F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held on purpose-built circuits, and to a lesser extent, former public roads and closed city streets. The results of each race are combined to determine two annual World Championships, one for the drivers and one for the constructors, with racing drivers, constructor teams, track officials, organizers and circuits required to be holders of valid Super Licences http://argent.fia.com/web/fia-public.nsf/B875CF540CCF75E5C125758300329A2B/$FILE/1-2009%20F1%20SPORTING%20REGULATIONS%20(Showing%20Alterations)%2024-03-2009.pdf , the highest class racing licence issued by the FIA. http://www.fia.com/resources/documents/1797101136__Appendix_L_a.pdf Formula One cars race at high speeds, up to with engines revving up to a formula imposed limit of 18,000 RPM. The cars are capable of pulling in excess of 5 G-forces in some curves. The performance of the cars is highly dependent on electronics (although traction control and driving aids have been banned since 2007), aerodynamics, suspension and on tyres. The formula has seen many evolutions and changes through the history of the sport. Europe is Formula One's traditional centre, where all of the teams are based, and where around half the races take place. However, the sport's scope has expanded significantly in recent years and Grands Prix are held all over the world. Events in Europe and the Americas have been dropped in favour of races in Asia and the Middle East - of the eighteen races in 2008, nine were held outside Europe. Formula One is a massive television event, with an average of about 55 million people worldwide watching the Grand Prix weekend coverage . The Formula One Group is the legal holder of the commercial rights . As the world's most expensive sport, http://sports.espn.go.com/rpm/racing/f1/news/story?id=3611184 its economic effect is significant, and its financial and political battles are widely covered. Its high profile and popularity makes it an obvious merchandising environment, which leads to very high investments from sponsors, translating into extremely high budgets for the constructor teams . However, mostly since year 2000, due to the always increasing expenditures, several teams, including works teams from car makers and those teams with minimum support from the automotive industry or other F1 teams, have gone bankrupt or been bought out by companies that want to easily establish a racing team within the sport. History See 2009 Formula One season for details of the 2009 season The Formula One series has its roots in the European Grand Prix Motor Racing (q.v. for pre-1947 history) of the 1920s and 1930s. The "formula" is a set of rules which all participants and cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed after World War II in 1946, with the first non-championship races being held that year. A number of Grand Prix racing organisations had laid out rules for a World Championship before the war, but due to the suspension of racing during the conflict, the World Drivers' Championship was not formalised until 1947. The first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958. National championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One races were held for many years but, due to the rising cost of competition, the last of these occurred in 1983. The sport's title, Formula One, indicates that it is intended to be the most advanced and most competitive of the FIA's racing formulae. The return of racing (1950–1958) The first Formula One World Championship was won by Italian Giuseppe Farina in his Alfa Romeo in 1950, barely defeating his Argentine teammate Juan Manuel Fangio. However Fangio won the title in 1951, 1954, 1955, 1956 & 1957 (His record of five World Championship titles stood for 45 years until German driver Michael Schumacher took his sixth title in 2003), his streak interrupted after an injury by two-time champion Alberto Ascari of Ferrari. Although the UK's Stirling Moss was able to compete regularly, he was never able to win the World Championship, and is now widely considered to be the greatest driver never to have won the title. Fangio, however, is remembered for dominating Formula One's first decade and has long been considered the "grand master" of Formula One. The period was dominated by teams run by road car manufacturers—Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, Mercedes Benz and Maserati - all of whom had competed before the war. The first seasons were run using pre-war cars like Alfa's 158. They were front engined, with narrow treaded tyres and 1.5 litre supercharged or 4.5 litre naturally aspirated engines. The 1952 and 1953 world championships were run to Formula Two regulations, for smaller, less powerful cars, due to concerns over the number of Formula One cars available. When a new Formula One, for engines limited to 2.5 litres, was reinstated to the world championship in 1954, Mercedes-Benz introduced the advanced W196, which featured innovations such as desmodromic valves and fuel injection as well as enclosed streamlined bodywork. Mercedes won the drivers championship for two years, before withdrawing from all motorsport in the wake of the 1955 Le Mans disaster. The 'Garagistes' (1959–1980) The first major technological development, Cooper's re-introduction of mid-engined cars (following Ferdinand Porsche's pioneering Auto Unions of the 1930s), which evolved from the company's successful Formula 3 designs, occurred in the 1950s. Australian Jack Brabham, World Champion in 1959, 1960 and 1966, soon proved the new design's superiority. By 1961, all regular competitors had switched to mid-engined cars. The Ferguson P99, a four-wheel drive design, was the last front-engined F1 car to enter a world championship race. It was entered in the 1961 British Grand Prix, the only front-engined car to compete that year. The first British World Champion was Mike Hawthorn, who drove a Ferrari to the title in 1958. However, when Colin Chapman entered F1 as a chassis designer and later founder of Team Lotus, British racing green came to dominate the field for the next decade. Between Jim Clark, Jackie Stewart, John Surtees, Jack Brabham, Graham Hill, and Denny Hulme, British teams and Commonwealth drivers won twelve world championships between 1962 and 1973. In 1962, Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional space frame design. This proved to be the greatest technological breakthrough since the introduction of mid-engined cars. In 1968, Lotus painted Imperial Tobacco livery on their cars, thus introducing sponsorship to the sport. Aerodynamic downforce slowly gained importance in car design from the appearance of aerofoils in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s, Lotus introduced ground effect aerodynamics that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds (though the concept had previously been used on Jim Hall's Chaparral 2J in 1970). So great were the aerodynamic forces pressing the cars to the track, (up to 5 times the car's weight), that extremely stiff springs were needed to maintain a constant ride height, leaving the suspension virtually solid, depending entirely on the tyres for any small amount of cushioning of the car and driver from irregularities in the road surface. Big business (1981–2000) Beginning in the 1970s, Bernie Ecclestone rearranged the management of Formula One's commercial rights; he is widely credited with transforming the sport into the billion-dollar business it is today. When Ecclestone bought the Brabham team in 1971 he gained a seat on the Formula One Constructors' Association and in 1978 became its President. Previously the circuit owners controlled the income of the teams and negotiated with each individually, however Ecclestone persuaded the teams to "hunt as a pack" through FOCA. He offered Formula One to circuit owners as a package which they could take or leave. In return for the package almost all are required to surrender trackside advertising. The formation of the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA) in 1979 set off the FISA-FOCA war, during which FISA and its president Jean-Marie Balestre clashed repeatedly with FOCA over television revenues and technical regulations. The Guardian said of FOCA that Ecclestone and Max Mosley "used it to wage a guerrilla war with a very long-term aim in view." FOCA threatened to set up a rival series, boycotted a Grand Prix and FISA withdrew its sanction from races. The result was the 1981 Concorde Agreement, which guaranteed technical stability, as teams were to be given reasonable notice of new regulations. Roebuck, Nigel "Power struggles and techno wars" Sunday Times 1993-03-07 Although FISA asserted its right to the TV revenues, it handed the administration of those rights to FOCA. FISA imposed a ban on ground effect aerodynamics in 1983. By then, however, turbocharged engines, which Renault had pioneered in 1977, were producing over and were essential to be competitive. By 1986, a BMW turbocharged engine achieved a flash reading of 5.5 bar pressure, estimated to be over in qualifying for the Italian Grand Prix. The following year power in race trim reached around , with boost pressure limited to only 4.0 bar. BMW's performance at the Italian GP is the highest qualifying figure given in Bamsey. The estimate is from Heini Mader, who maintained the engines for the Benetton team. It should be noted that maximum power figures from this period are necessarily estimates; BMW's dynamometer, for example, was only capable of measuring up to . Figures higher than this are estimated from engine plenum pressure readings. Power in race trim at that time was lower than for qualifying due to the need for greater reliability and fuel efficiency during the race. These cars were the most powerful open-wheel circuit racing cars ever. To reduce engine power output and thus speeds, the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in 1984 and boost pressures in 1988 before banning turbocharged engines completely in 1989. The development of electronic driver aids began in the 1980s. Lotus began to develop a system of active suspension which first appeared in 1982 on the F1 Lotus 91 and Lotus Esprit road car. By 1987, this system had been perfected and was driven to victory by Ayrton Senna in the Monaco Grand Prix that year. In the early 1990s, other teams followed suit and semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control were a natural progression. The FIA, due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill, banned many such aids for 1994. This led to cars that were previously dependent on electronic aids becoming very "twitchy" and difficult to drive (notably the Williams FW16), and many observers felt that the ban on driver aids was a ban in name only as they "have proved difficult to police effectively". The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement in 1992 and a third in 1997, which expired on the last day of 2007. On the track, the McLaren and Williams teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s, with Brabham also being competitive in the early part of the 1980s, winning two drivers' championships with Nelson Piquet. Powered by Porsche, Honda, and Mercedes-Benz, McLaren won sixteen championships (seven constructors', nine drivers') in that period, while Williams used engines from Ford, Honda, and Renault to also win sixteen titles (nine constructors', seven drivers'). The rivalry between racing legends Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost became F1's central focus in 1988, and continued until Prost retired at the end of 1993. Senna died at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix after crashing into a wall on the exit of the notorious curve Tamburello, having taken over Prost's lead drive at Williams that year. The FIA worked to improve the sport's safety standards since that weekend, during which Roland Ratzenberger also lost his life in an accident during Saturday qualifying. No driver has died on the track at the wheel of a Formula One car since, though two track marshals have lost their lives, one at the 2000 Italian Grand Prix, and the other at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix. Since the deaths of Ayrton Senna, Roland Ratzenberger and Gilles Villeneuve, the FIA has used safety as a reason to impose rule changes which otherwise, under the Concorde Agreement, would have had to be agreed upon by all the teams - most notably the changes introduced for 1998. This so called 'narrow track' era resulted in cars with smaller rear tyres, a narrower track overall and the introduction of 'grooved' tyres to reduce mechanical grip. There would be four grooves, on the front and rear - although initially three on the front tyres in the first year - that ran through the entire circumference of the tyre. The objective was to reduce cornering speeds and to produce racing similar to rain conditions by enforcing a smaller contact patch between tyre and track. This, according to the FIA, was to promote driver skill and provide a better spectacle. Results have been mixed as the lack of mechanical grip has resulted in the more ingenious designers clawing back the deficit with aerodynamic grip - pushing more force onto the tyres through wings, aerodynamic devices etc - which in turn has resulted in less overtaking as these devices tend to make the wake behind the car 'dirty' (turbulent) preventing other cars from following closely, due to their dependence on 'clean' air to make the car stick to the track. The grooved tyres also had the unfortunate side effect of initially being of a harder compound, to be able to hold the groove tread blocks, which resulted in spectacular accidents in times of aerodynamic grip failure (e.g., rear wing failures), as the harder compound could not grip the track as well. Drivers from McLaren, Williams, Renault (formerly Benetton) and Ferrari, dubbed the "Big Four", have won every World Championship from 1984 to the present day. Due to the technological advances of the 1990s, the cost of competing in Formula One rose dramatically. This increased financial burden, combined with four teams' dominance (largely funded by big car manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz), caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive, but to stay in business. Financial troubles forced several teams to withdraw. Since 1990, twenty-eight teams have pulled out of Formula One. This has prompted former Jordan owner Eddie Jordan to say that the days of competitive privateers are over. The manufacturers' return (2000–2009) Michael Schumacher and Ferrari won an unprecedented five consecutive drivers’ championships and six consecutive constructors’ championships between 1999 and 2004. Schumacher set many new records, including those for Grand Prix wins (91), wins in a season (13 of 18), and most drivers' championships (7). Schumacher's championship streak ended on September 25, 2005 when Renault driver Fernando Alonso became Formula One’s youngest champion at that time. In 2006, Renault and Alonso won both titles again. Schumacher retired at the end of 2006 after sixteen years in Formula One. During this period the championship rules were frequently changed by the FIA with the intention of improving the on-track action and cutting costs. Team orders, legal since the championship started in 1950, were banned in 2002 after several incidents in which teams openly manipulated race results, generating negative publicity, most famously by Ferrari at the 2002 Austrian Grand Prix. Other changes included the qualifying format, the points scoring system, the technical regulations and rules specifying how long engines and tyres must last. A 'tyre war' between suppliers Michelin and Bridgestone saw lap times fall, although at the 2005 United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis seven out of ten teams did not race when their Michelin tyres were deemed unsafe for use. During 2006, Max Mosley outlined a ‘green’ future for Formula One, in which efficient use of energy would become an important factor. And the tyre war ended, as Bridgestone became the sole tyre supplier to Formula One for the 2007 season. Since 1983, Formula One had been dominated by specialist race teams like Williams, McLaren and Benetton, using engines supplied by large car manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz, Honda, Renault and Ford. Starting in 2000, with Ford’s creation of the largely unsuccessful Jaguar team, new manufacturer-owned teams entered Formula One for the first time since the departure of Alfa Romeo and Renault at the end of 1985. By 2006, the manufacturer teams–Renault, BMW, Toyota, Honda and Ferrari–dominated the championship, taking five of the first six places in the constructors' championship. The sole exception was McLaren, which is part-owned by Mercedes Benz. Through the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association (GPMA) they negotiated a larger share of Formula One’s commercial profit and a greater say in the running of the sport. Outside the World Championship Currently, the terms "Formula One race" and "World Championship race" are effectively synonymous; since 1984, every Formula One race has counted towards the World Championship, and every World Championship race has been to Formula One regulations. This has not always been the case, and in the earlier history of Formula One many races took place outside the world championship. European non-championship racing In the early years of Formula One, before the world championship was established, there were around twenty races held from late Spring to early Autumn in Europe, although not all of these were considered significant. Most competitive cars came from Italy, particularly Alfa Romeo. After the start of the world championship these non-championship races continued. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship (e.g., in 1950, a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held, of which only six counted towards the World Championship). In 1952 and 1953, when the world championship was run for Formula Two cars, a full season of non-championship Formula One racing took place. Some races, particularly in the UK, including the Race of Champions, Oulton Park International Gold Cup and International Trophy, were attended by the majority of the world championship contenders. These became less common through the 1970s and 1983 saw the last non-championship Formula One race: The 1983 Race of Champions at Brands Hatch, won by reigning World Champion Keke Rosberg in a Williams Cosworth in a close fight with American Danny Sullivan. South African Formula One championship South Africa's flourishing domestic Formula One championship ran from 1960 through to 1975. The frontrunning cars in the series were recently retired from the world championship although there was also a healthy selection of locally built or modified machines. Frontrunning drivers from the series usually contested their local World Championship Grand Prix, as well as occasional European events, although they had little success at that level. British Formula One Series The old fashioned DFV helped make the UK domestic Formula One series possible between 1978 and 1980. As in South Africa a generation before, second hand cars from manufacturers like Lotus and Fittipaldi Automotive were the order of the day, although some, such as the March 781, were built specifically for the series. In 1980, the series saw South African Desiré Wilson become the only woman to win a Formula One race when she triumphed at Brands Hatch in a Wolf WR3. Racing and strategy A Formula One Grand Prix event spans a weekend, beginning with two free practice sessions on Friday (except in Monaco, where Friday practices are moved to Thursday), and one free practice on Saturday. Additional drivers (commonly known as third drivers) are allowed to run on Fridays, but only two cars may be used per team, requiring a race driver to give up their seat. A Qualifying session is held after the last free practice session. This session determines the starting order for the race. Qualifying A knock-out qualifying system determines the starting order of the race. The qualifying session is split into three phases. In the first phase, all twenty cars are permitted on the track for a twenty minute qualification session. Only their fastest time will count and drivers may complete as many laps as they wish. At the end of the first session, the slowest five cars are eliminated and will take no further part in qualifying. These cars will make up the last five grid positions in the order of their times. After the demise of the Super Aguri team during the 2008 season, the rules were changed slightly. See The times for the fifteen remaining cars are reset for the next fifteen minute session. The slowest five cars will make up the grid in positions 11 to 15 in the order of their times set in this session. The recorded fastest times for the ten remaining cars are then wiped in preparation for the final (ten minute) session referred to as the 'Pole Position Shootout'. At the end of this period, the cars will be arranged on the grid in positions one to ten in accordance to their fastest lap time. In the first two sessions, cars may run any fuel load and drivers knocked out after those sessions may refuel ahead of the race. However, the top-ten drivers must start the race with whatever fuel was left in the car at the end of the final qualifying session. For all the sessions, if a driver starts a timed lap before the chequered flag falls for the end of that session, their time will count even if they cross the finishing line after the session has ended. The race The race begins with a warm-up formation lap, after which the cars assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified. If a driver stalls before the parade lap and the rest of the field pass him, then he must start from the back of the grid. If he manages to drive off and at least one car is behind him, he is permitted to retake his original position. A racer may also elect to start from pit-lane if he has any last minute problems with the car. If they choose to do this, they must wait for all cars to pass pit-lane before they may begin the race. A light system above the track indicates the start of the race. The race distance is equal to the least number of complete laps which exceed a distance of (although Monaco is ), and are limited to two hours. In practice they usually last about ninety minutes. Throughout the race, drivers may make one or more pit stops in order to refuel and change tyres. Teams are supplied with tyres exclusively from Bridgestone. Bridgestone have developed four tyre compounds of which they then select two for the teams to use at a given race event. Drivers must use both tyre compounds during a race for at least one stint except when it rains and drivers switch to either intermediate or extreme wets, then they are no longer required to use both sets of dry tyres. Creating the usage of both types of tyres was introduced in the hope of bringing more excitement to the sport. The softer of the available compounds for the weekend's tyres can be seen with a green stripe on the tyre's sidewall. When a driver comes around to lap another, the latter must move out of the way within three blue flags (waved by the trackside marshals), or face a penalty from the race stewards. Points system Various systems for awarding championship points have been used since 1950. From 2010, it is possible that the winner of the two annual championships may be the driver with the most wins and the team with the most points at the end of the season. In the case of a tie in wins, the drivers' championship would be awarded to the driver having the higher number of points; if these are equal, second place finishes are considered, and so on. The scoring system where by the driver with the most wins (as opposed to most accumulated points) becomes world champion was due to be introduced for the 2009 season, however following protests from F1 teams and drivers this rule change has been deferred until a possible 2010 introduction. The points system therefore remains unchanged for 2009. To receive points a racer need not finish the race, but at least 90% of the winner's race distance must be completed. Therefore, it is possible for a driver to receive some points even though he retired before the end of the race. In that case the scoring is based on the distance completed in comparison to other drivers. It is also possible for the lower points not to be awarded because insufficient drivers completed 90% of the winner's distance. The system could be revised prior to the start of the 2010 season. In the event that less than 75% of the race laps are completed, only half points are awarded to the drivers and constructors. This has happened on only 5 occasions in the history of the championship, with the last occurence at the 2009 Malaysian Grand Prix when the race was called off after 31 laps due to torrential rain. 1st place 10 points 2nd place 8 points 3rd place 6 points 4th place 5 points 5th place 4 points 6th place 3 points 7th place 2 points 8th place 1 point Constructors Since 1984 Formula One teams have been required to build the chassis in which they compete, and consequently the terms "team" and "constructor" became more or less interchangeable. This requirement distinguishes the sport from series such as the IndyCar Series which allows teams to purchase chassis, and "spec series" such as GP2, which require all cars be kept to an identical specification. The sport's 1950 debut season saw eighteen teams compete, but due to high costs many dropped out quickly. In fact, such was the scarcity of competitive cars for much of the first decade of Formula One that Formula Two cars were admitted to fill the grids. Ferrari is the only still-active team which competed in 1950. Early manufacturer involvement came in the form of a "factory team" or "works team" (that is, one owned and staffed by a major car company), such as those of Alfa Romeo, Ferrari or Renault. After having virtually disappeared by the early 1980s, factory teams made a comeback in the 1990s and 2000s and now form half the grid with Ferrari, BMW, Renault, Toyota and Honda either setting up their own teams or buying out existing ones. Mercedes-Benz owns 40% of the McLaren team and manufactures the team's engines. Factory teams currently make up the top competitive teams; in 2008 wholly owned factory teams took four of the top five positions in the Constructors' Championship, and McLaren took the other. Ferrari holds the record for having won the most Constructors' Championships (fifteen). Companies such as Climax, Repco, Cosworth, Hart, Judd and Supertec, which had no direct team affiliation, often sold engines to teams that could not afford to manufacture them. In the early years independently owned Formula One teams sometimes also built their engines, though this became less common with the increased involvement of major car manufacturers such as BMW, Ferrari, Honda, Mercedes-Benz, Renault and Toyota, whose large budgets rendered privately built engines less competitive. Cosworth was the last independent engine supplier, but lost its last customers after the 2006 season. Beginning in 2007, the manufacturers' deep pockets and engineering ability took over, eliminating the last of the independent engine manufacturers. It is estimated that the big teams spend €100 to €200 million ($125–$250 million) per year per manufacturer on engines alone. Formula 1 : News Cosworth - F1-Live.com http://www.speedtv.com/articles/auto/formulaone/27851/ In the 2007 season, for the first time since the 1984 rule, two teams used chassis built by other teams. Super Aguri started the season using a modified Honda Racing's RA106 chassis (used by Honda in the 2006 season), while Scuderia Toro Rosso used a modified Red Bull Racing RB3 chassis (same as the one used by Red Bull in the 2007 season). Such a decision did not come as a surprise because of spiraling costs and the fact that Super Aguri is partially owned by Honda and Toro Rosso is half owned by Red Bull. Formula One team Spyker raised a complaint against this decision, and other teams such as McLaren and Ferrari have officially confirmed that they support the campaign. Because of this use of other teams' chassis, the 2006 season could have been the last one in which the terms "team" and "constructor" were truly interchangeable. This attracted the Prodrive team to F1 to the 2008 season, where it intended to run a customer car. After not being able to secure a package from McLaren, Prodrive's intention to enter the 2008 season was dropped after Williams threatened legal action against them. Now, it seems that customer cars concept will be formally banned in 2010. Although teams rarely disclose information about their budgets, it is estimated that they range from US$66 million to US$400 million each. Entering a new team in the Formula One World Championship requires a £25 million (about US$47 million) up-front payment to the FIA, which is then repaid to the team over the course of the season. As a consequence, constructors desiring to enter Formula One often prefer to buy an existing team: B.A.R.'s purchase of Tyrrell and Midland's purchase of Jordan allowed both of these teams to sidestep the large deposit and secure the benefits that the team already had, such as TV revenue. Time line showing the history of each (current as of 2009) constructor's involvement in F1, under various names. Drivers Each driver is assigned a number. The previous season's champion is designated number 1, with his team-mate given number 2. Numbers are then assigned in order according to each team's position in the previous season's constructors' championship. The number 13 is not used. There have been exceptions to this rule, such as in 1993 and 1994, when the current World Drivers' Champion (Nigel Mansell and Alain Prost, respectively) was no longer competing in Formula One. In this case the drivers for the team of the previous year's champion are given numbers 0 (Damon Hill, on both occasions) and 2 (Prost himself and Ayrton Senna—replaced after his death by David Coulthard and occasionally Nigel Mansell–respectively). The number 13 has not been used since 1976, before which it was occasionally assigned at the discretion of individual race organisers. Before 1996, only the world championship winning driver and his team generally swapped numbers with the previous champion–the remainder held their numbers from prior years, as they had been originally set at the start of the 1974 season. For many years, for example, Ferrari held numbers 27 and 28, regardless of their finishing position in the world championship. Michael Schumacher holds the record for having won the most Drivers' Championships, with seven. Jochen Rindt became the only posthumous World Champion after a fatal accident at the 1970 Italian Grand Prix. Feeder series Most F1 drivers start in kart racing competitions, and then come up through traditional European single seater series like Formula Ford and Formula Renault to Formula 3, and finally the GP2 Series. GP2 started in 2005, replacing Formula 3000, which itself had replaced Formula Two as the last major "stepping stone" into F1. Most champions from this level graduate into F1, but 2006 GP2 champion Lewis Hamilton became the first F2, F3000 or GP2 champion to win the Formula One driver's title in 2008. Jack Brabham, F1 champion in 1959, 1960 and 1966, won the French Formula Two championship in 1966, but there was no international F2 championship that year. Drivers are not required to have competed at this level before entering Formula One. British F3 has supplied many F1 drivers, with champions including Nigel Mansell, Ayrton Senna and Mika Häkkinen having moved straight from that series to Formula One. More rarely a driver may be picked from an even lower level, as was the case with 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen, who went straight from Formula Renault to F1. American Championship Car Racing has also contributed to the Formula One grid with mixed results. CART Champions Mario Andretti and Jacques Villeneuve became F1 World Champions. Other CART or ChampCar Champions, like Michael Andretti and Cristiano da Matta won no races in F1. Other drivers have taken different paths to F1; Damon Hill raced motorbikes, and Michael Schumacher raced in sports cars, albeit after climbing through the junior single seater ranks. To race, however, the driver must hold an FIA Super Licence–ensuring that the driver has the requisite skills, and will not therefore be a danger to others. Some drivers have not had the license when first signed to a F1 team; Räikkönen received the license despite having only 23 car races to his credit. Beyond F1 Most F1 drivers retire in their mid to late 30s; however, many keep racing in disciplines which are less physically demanding. The German touring car championship, the DTM, is a popular category involving ex-drivers such as two-times F1 champion Mika Häkkinen, Ralf Schumacher and Jean Alesi, and some F1 drivers have left to race in America – Nigel Mansell and Emerson Fittipaldi duelled for the 1993 CART title, Juan Pablo Montoya and Scott Speed have moved to NASCAR. Some drivers have gone to A1GP (Narain Karthikeyan), and some, such as Gerhard Berger and Alain Prost, returned to F1 as team owners. A series for former Formula One drivers, called Grand Prix Masters, ran briefly in 2005 and 2006. Others have become pundits for TV coverage such as Martin Brundle for ITV (and subsequently BBC) and Jean Alesi for Italian national network RAI and David Coulthard for the BBC. Others, such as Damon Hill and Jackie Stewart take active roles in motorsport in their own countries. Grands Prix The number of Grands Prix held in a season has varied over the years. Only seven races comprised the inaugural world championship season; over the years the calendar has almost tripled in size. Though the number of races had stayed at sixteen or seventeen since the 1980s, it reached nineteen in . Six of the original seven races took place in Europe; the only non-European race that counted towards the World Championship in 1950 was the Indianapolis 500, which, due to lack of participation by F1 teams, since it required cars with different specifications from the other races, was later replaced by the United States Grand Prix. The F1 championship gradually expanded to other non-European countries as well. Argentina hosted the first South American grand prix in 1953, and Morocco hosted the first African World Championship race in . Asia (Japan in ) and Oceania (Australia in ) followed. The current seventeen races are spread over the continents of Europe, Asia, Oceania and South America. Traditionally each nation has hosted a single Grand Prix, which carries the name of the country. If a single country hosts multiple Grands Prix in a year they receive different names. For instance, a European country (such as Britain, Germany or Spain) which has hosted two Grands Prix has the second one known as the European Grand Prix, while Italy's second grand prix was named after nearby republic of San Marino. Similarly, as two races were scheduled in Japan in /, the second event was known as the Pacific Grand Prix. In , the United States hosted three Grands Prix. The Grands Prix, some of which have a history that pre-dates the Formula One World Championship, are not always held on the same circuit every year. The British Grand Prix, for example, though held every year since 1950, alternated between Brands Hatch and Silverstone from 1963 to 1986. The only other race to have been included in every season is the Italian Grand Prix. The World Championship event has taken place exclusively at Monza with just one exception: in 1980, it was held at Imola, host to the San Marino Grand Prix until . One of the newest races on the Grand Prix calendar, held in Bahrain, represents Formula One's first foray into the Middle East with a high-tech purpose-built desert track. The Bahrain Grand Prix, and other new races in China and Turkey, present new opportunities for the growth and evolution of the Formula One Grand Prix franchise while new facilities also raise the bar for other Formula One racing venues around the world. In order to make room on the schedule for the newer races, older or less successful events in Europe and the Americas have been dropped from the calendar, such as these in Argentina, Austria, Mexico, San Marino, and the United States. In 2007 it was confirmed that new Grands Prix would be added to the calendar. The first was the Singapore Grand Prix in September 2008, which had the honour of the first night race ever held in Formula One. The Official Formula 1 Website The second was the Indian Grand Prix which will be held in Delhi, India. The Official Formula 1 Website Other changes included the removal of the United States Grand Prix from the calendar, Indianapolis Motor Speedway and the move of the European Grand Prix to Valencia, Spain. The Official Formula 1 Website Circuits A typical circuit usually features a stretch of straight road on which the starting grid is situated. The pit lane, where the drivers stop for fuel and tyres during the race, and where the teams work on the cars before the race, is normally located next to the starting grid. The layout of the rest of the circuit varies widely, although in most cases the circuit runs in a clockwise direction. Those few circuits that run anticlockwise (and therefore have predominantly left-handed corners) can cause drivers neck problems due to the enormous lateral forces generated by F1 cars pulling their heads in the opposite direction to normal. Most of the circuits currently in use are specially constructed for competition. The current street circuits are Monaco, Melbourne, Valencia, and Singapore, although races in other urban locations come and go (Las Vegas and Detroit, for example) and proposals for such races are often discussed–most recently London and Paris. Several other circuits are also completely or partially laid out on public roads, such as Spa-Francorchamps. The glamour and history of the Monaco race are the primary reasons why the circuit is still in use, since it is thought not to meet the strict safety requirements imposed on other tracks. Three-time World champion Nelson Piquet famously described racing in Monaco as "like riding a bicycle around your living room". Circuit design to protect the safety of drivers is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as exemplified by the new Bahrain International Circuit, added in and designed – like most of F1's new circuits – by Hermann Tilke. Several of the new circuits in F1, especially those designed by Tilke, have been criticised as lacking the "flow" of such classics as Spa-Francorchamps and Imola. His redesign of the Hockenheim circuit in Germany for example, while providing more capacity for grandstands and eliminating extremely long and dangerous straights, has been frowned upon by many who argue that part of the character of the Hockenheim circuits was the long and blinding straights into dark forest sections. These newer circuits, however, are generally agreed to meet the safety standards of modern Formula One better than the older ones. The most recent additions to the F1 calendar are Valencia and Singapore. Singapore the big winner in first night Grand Prix:Guardian.co.uk Also Abu Dhabi will host the last race of the 2009 season The Official Formula 1 Website: FIA announces provisional 2009 Formula One calendar and a Formula 1 Grand Prix will be held in India for the first time in . The Official Formula 1 Website: India to host first Grand Prix in New Delhi in 2011 Cars and technology Modern Formula One cars are mid-engined open cockpit, open wheel single-seaters. The chassis is made largely of carbon fibre composites, rendering it light but extremely stiff and strong. The whole car, including engine, fluids and driver, weighs only 605 kg (1334 lb) — the minimum weight set by the regulations. The construction of the cars is typically lighter than the minimum and so they are ballasted up to the minimum weight. The race teams take advantage of this by placing this ballast at the extreme bottom of the chassis, thereby locating the centre of gravity as low as possible in order to improve handling and weight transfer. The cornering speed of Formula One cars is largely determined by the aerodynamic downforce that they generate, which pushes the car down onto the track. This is provided by 'wings' mounted at the front and rear of the vehicle, and by ground effect created by low pressure air under the flat bottom of the car. The aerodynamic design of the cars is very heavily constrained to limit performance and the current generation of cars sport a large number of small winglets, 'barge boards' and turning vanes designed to closely control the flow of the air over, under and around the car. The other major factor controlling the cornering speed of the cars is the design of the tyres. From to , the tyres in Formula One were not 'slicks' (tyres with no tread pattern) as in most other circuit racing series. Instead, each tyre had four large circumferential grooves on its surface designed to limit the cornering speed of the cars. Slick tyres returned to Formula One in the season. Suspension is double wishbone or multilink all round with pushrod operated springs and dampers on the chassis. The only exception being on that of the 2009 specification Red Bull Racing car (RB5) which uses pullrod suspension at the rear, the first car in over 20 years to do so. Carbon-Carbon disc brakes are used for reduced weight and increased frictional performance. These provide a very high level of braking performance and are usually the element which provokes the greatest reaction from drivers new to the formula. Engines must be 2.4 litre naturally aspirated V8s, with many other constraints on their design and the materials that may be used. Engines run on unleaded fuel closely resembling publicly available petrol. The oil which lubricates and protects the engine from overheating is very similar in viscosity to water. The 2006 generation of engines spun up to 20,000 RPM and produced up to . Renault F1 engine listing , Retrieved 1 June 2007 For engines were restricted to 19,000 RPM with limited development areas allowed, following the engine specification freeze from the end of . For the 2009 Formula One season the engines have been further restricted to 18,000 RPM. A wide variety of technologies – including active suspension, ground effect, and turbochargers – are banned under the current regulations. Despite this the current generation of cars can reach speeds up to at some circuits. Grand Prix of Italy www.fia.comRetrieved 12 October 2006 A Honda Formula One car, running with minimum downforce on a runway in the Mojave desert achieved a top speed of in 2006. According to Honda the car fully met the FIA Formula One regulations. Challenge Alan , Retrieved 20 January 2007 Even with the limitations on aerodynamics, at aerodynamically generated downforce is equal to the weight of the car, and the oft-repeated claim that Formula One cars create enough downforce to "drive on the ceiling", while possible in principle, has never been put to the test. Downforce of 2.5 times the car's weight can be achieved at full speed. The downforce means that the cars can achieve a lateral force with a magnitude of up to 5 times that of the force of gravity (5g) in cornering – a high-performance road car like the Ferrari Enzo only achieves around 1g. Ferrari Enzo www.fast-autos.net Retrieved 15 March 2007 Consequently the driver's head is pulled sideways with a force equivalent to the weight of 20kg in corners. Such high lateral forces are enough to make breathing difficult and the drivers need supreme concentration and fitness to maintain their focus for the one to two hours that it takes to complete the race. Revenue and profits Formula 1 is profitable for most parties involved - TV channels make profits from broadcasting the races, and teams get a slice of the money from the sale of broadcasting rights and from the sponsor's logos on their cars. The cost of building a brand new permanent circuit like that in Shanghai, China can be up to hundreds of millions of dollars, while the cost of converting a public road, such as Albert Park, into a temporary circuit is much less. Permanent circuits, however, can generate revenue all year round from leasing the track for private races and other races, such as MotoGP. The Shanghai circuit cost over $300 million. BBC SPORT | Motorsport | Formula One | High price takes shine off F1 The owners are hoping to break-even by 2014. The Istanbul Park circuit cost $150 million to build. ::Pioneer Investors Not all circuits make profits – Albert Park, for example, lost $32 million in 2007. F1 Preview: Australian organizers confident of GP future, but rule out night racing - International Herald Tribune In March, 2007 F1 Racing published its annual estimates of spending by Formula One teams. The total spending of all eleven teams in 2006 was estimated at $2.9 billion US. This was broken down as follows; Toyota $418.5 million, Ferrari $406.5 m, McLaren $402 m, Honda $380.5 m, BMW Sauber $355 m, Renault $324 m, Red Bull $252 m, Williams $195.5 m, Midland F1/Spyker-MF1 $120 m, Toro Rosso $75 m, and Super Aguri $57 million. Costs vary greatly from team to team. Honda, Toyota, McLaren-Mercedes, and Ferrari are estimated to have spent approximately $200 million on engines in 2006, Renault spent approximately $125 million and Cosworth's 2006 V8 was developed for $15 million. "The real cost of F1" F1 Racing (March 2007) Haymarket Publishing In contrast to the 2006 season on which these figures are based, the 2007 sporting regulations ban all performance related engine development. Future Formula One went through a difficult period in the early 2000s. Viewing figures dropped, and fans expressed their loss of interest due to the dominance of Michael Schumacher and Scuderia Ferrari. Viewing figures are seeing some signs of recovery due to the varied seasons since . Ferrari's and Schumacher's 5 year domination ended in 2005 as Renault became the top team in Formula One, with Fernando Alonso becoming the new (and youngest ever at the time) World Champion. There has since been a resurgence of interest in the sport, especially in Alonso's home country of Spain, and Lewis Hamilton's home country of Great Britain. In 2006, twenty-two teams applied for the final twelfth team spot available for the 2008 season. The spot was eventually awarded to former B.A.R. and Benetton team principal David Richards' Prodrive organization, but the team pulled out of the 2008 season in November 2007. The FIA is responsible for making rules to combat the spiralling costs of Formula One racing (which affects the smaller teams the most) and for ensuring the sport remains as safe as possible, especially in the wake of the deaths of Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna in . To this end the FIA have instituted a number of rule changes, including new tyre restrictions, multi-race engines, and reductions on downforce. Safety and cost have traditionally been paramount in all rule-change discussions. More recently the FIA has added efficiency to its priorities. Currently the FIA and manufacturers are discussing adding bio-fuel engines and regenerative braking for the 2011 season. FIA President Max Mosley believes F1 must focus on efficiency to stay technologically relevant in the automotive industry as well as keep the public excited about F1 technology. After being banned since 1998, slick tyres returned to Formula One racing in 2009. In the interest of making the sport truer to its role as a World Championship, FOM president Bernie Ecclestone has initiated and organised a number of Grands Prix in new countries and continues to discuss new future races. The sport's rapid expansion into new areas of the globe also leaves some question as to which races will be cut. Television Formula One can be seen live or tape delayed in almost every country and territory around the world and attracts one of the largest global television audiences. The 2006 Brazilian Grand Prix attracted an average live global TV audience of eighty-three million viewers, with a total of 154 million viewers tuning in to watch at least some part of the event. Official figures from FOM for 2006 that state Formula One television broadcasts were witnessed by 580 million unique viewers during the 2005 season and average viewing figures for 1995–1999 were 50 billion. It is a massive television event; the cumulative television audience was calculated to be 54 billion for 2001 season, broadcast to two hundred countries. BBC Sports, F1 viewing figures drop, 26 February 2002. Retrieved on 10 March 2007. The cumulative figure, which exceeds the total population of the planet by many times, counts all viewers who watch F1 on any programme at any time during the year. In 2005, the Canadian Grand Prix in Montréal was the most watched of the races, and the third most watched sporting event in the world. Most watched TV sporting events of 2005 - A special report from Initiative During the early 2000s, Formula One Administration created a number of trademarks, an official logo, and an official website for the sport in an attempt to give it a corporate identity. Ecclestone experimented with a digital television package (known colloquially as Bernievision), which was launched at the 1996 German Grand Prix in cooperation with German digital television service "DF1", thirty years after the first GP colour TV broadcast, the 1967 German Grand Prix. This service offered the viewer several simultaneous feeds (such as super signal, onboard, top of field, backfield, highlights, pit lane, timing), which were produced with cameras, technical equipment and staff different from those used for the conventional coverage. It was introduced in many countries over the years, but was shut down after the 2002 season for financial reasons. TV stations all take what is known as the 'World Feed', either produced by the FOM (Formula One Management) or the 'host broadcaster'. The only station that has any difference is 'Premiere'—a German channel that offers all sessions live and interactive, with features such as the onboard channel. This service was more widely available around Europe until the end of 2002, when the cost of a whole different feed for the digital interactive services was thought too much. This was in large part because of the failure of the 'F1 Digital +' Channel launched through Sky Digital in the United Kingdom. Prices were too high for viewers, considering they could watch both the qualifying and the races themselves free on ITV. Bernie Ecclestone had announced that F1 will adopt the HD format near the end of the 2007 season. However, details of the races to be covered and the means of showing the content have yet to be announced. Also it was announced early in 2008 that the BBC would be broadcasting F1 for five years starting in 2009, regaining the rights from ITV who had been broadcasting it since 1997. However, on 31 December 2008, Roger Mosey, Director of BBC Sport announced that F1 would not be broadcast on BBC HD because "no HD world feed is available". Distinction between Formula One and World Championship races Currently the terms "Formula One race" and "World Championship race" are effectively synonymous; since 1984, every Formula One race has counted towards the World Championship, and every World Championship race has been to Formula One regulations. But the two terms are not interchangeable. Consider that: the first Formula One race was held in 1947, whereas the World Championship did not start until 1950. in the 1950s and 1960s there were many Formula One races which did not count for the World Championship (e.g., in 1950, a total of twenty-two Formula One races were held, of which only six counted towards the World Championship). The number of non-championship Formula One events decreased throughout the 1970s and 1980s, to the point where the last non-championship Formula One race was held in 1983. the World Championship was not always exclusively composed of Formula One events: The World Championship was originally established as the "World Championship for Drivers", i.e., without the term "Formula One" in the title. It only officially became the Formula One World Championship in 1981. From 1950 to 1960, the Indianapolis 500 counted towards the World Championship. This race was run to AAA/USAC regulations, rather than to Formula One regulations. Only one of the world championship regulars, Alberto Ascari in 1952, competed at Indianapolis during this period. From 1952 to 1953, all races counting towards the World Championship (except the Indianapolis 500) were run to Formula Two regulations. Note that Formula One was not "changed to Formula Two" during this period; the Formula One regulations remained the same, and numerous Formula One races were staged during this time. The distinction is most relevant when considering career summaries and "all time lists". For example, in the List of Formula One drivers, Clemente Biondetti is shown with 1 race against his name. Biondetti actually competed in four Formula One races in 1950, but only one of these counted for the World Championship. Similarly, several Indy 500 winners technically won their first world championship race, though most record books choose to ignore this and instead only record regular participants. The most recent example of a "Formula One race" not being a "World Championship race" very nearly occured at the 2005 United States Grand Prix. 14 of the 20 drivers ended up not racing due to problems with their michelin tyres, and Max Mosley's refusal to find a suitable solution to the problem left 9 of the ten teams in agreement about hosting a non championship race. It was only because of Ferrari's refusal to go with these plans that this alternative failed to take place, although it was stated that Mosley had informed Mr Martin, the FIA's most senior representative in the USA, that if any kind of non-championship race was run, or any alteration made to the circuit, the US Grand Prix, and indeed, all FIA-regulated motorsport in the US, would be under threat".[6] On the same day that Stoddart's version of events was published, the FIA issued a statement denying that Mosley had made the reported threat, or that any such conversation had taken place. See also 2009 Formula One season 2008 Formula One season GP2 (F1's feeder series) A1 Grand Prix F1 Racing (magazine) Fantasy F1 Formula Two List of Formula One circuits Regenerative brake References Notes Bibliography Arron, Simon & Hughes, Mark (2003). The Complete Book of Formula One. Motorbooks International. ISBN 0-7603-1688-0. "FIA Archive". (2004). Federation Internationale de l'Automobile. Retrieved 25 October 2004. "Formula One Regulations". (2004). Federation Internationale de l'Automobile. Retrieved 23 October 2004. Gross, Nigel et al. (1999). "Grand Prix Motor Racing". In, 100 Years of Change: Speed and Power (pp. 55–84). Parragon. Hayhoe, David & Holland, David (2006). Grand Prix Data Book (4th edition). Haynes, Sparkford, UK. ISBN 1-84425-223-X. Higham, Peter (2003). The international motor racing guide. David Bull, Phoenix, AZ, USA. ISBN 1-893618-20-X. "Insight". (2004). The Official Formula 1 Website. Retrieved 25 October 2004. Jones, Bruce (1997). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Formula One. Hodder & Stoughton. Jones, Bruce (1998). Formula One: The Complete Stats and Records of Grand Prix Racing. Parragon. Jones, Bruce (2003). The Official ITV Sport Guide: Formula One Grand Prix 2003. Carlton. Includes foreword by Martin Brundle. ISBN 1-84222-813-7. Jones, Bruce (2005). The Guide to 2005 FIA Formula One World Championship : The World's Bestselling Grand Prix Guide]. Carlton. ISBN 1-84442-508-8. Lang, Mike (1981–1992). Grand Prix! volumes 1–4. Haynes, Sparkford, UK. Menard, Pierre (2006). The Great Encyclopedia of Formula 1, 5th edition. Chronosport, Switzerland. ISBN 2-84707-051-6 Miltner, Harry (2007). Race Travel Guide 2007. egoth: Vienna, Austria. ISBN 978-3-902480-34-7 Small, Steve (2000). Grand Prix Who's Who (3rd edition). Travel Publishing, UK. ISBN 1-902007-46-8. Tremayne, David & Hughes, Mark (1999). The Concise Encyclopedia of Formula One. Parragon External links Official sites Formula1.com—The official site of Formula One Management; contains schedules, race results, live timing during each race, the official F1 shop, and some news. Current regulations—from the FIA website Drivers Hall of Fame—A list of World Champions with links to short biographies from the official Formula 1 website. News and reference autosport.com—Motorsport news, articles and analysis. Formerly known as AtlasF1 F1 News from Planet F1 TotalF1.com — Formula 1 news portal GrandPrix.com — F1 news and a Grand Prix encyclopedia F1 at BBC Sport — News, pictures, and commentary from BBC, F1's British broadcasters 2008 F1 Spotters Guide — (PDF) History AutocourseGPA.com — historical results and statistics and images since 1950 F1DB—Results, statistics 4mula1—Results and statistics since 1950 | Formula_One |@lemmatized formula:147 one:133 also:16 know:8 currently:6 officially:3 refer:2 fia:30 world:73 championship:91 http:7 www:7 com:13 en:1 gb:1 sport:30 championships:1 page:1 seasonguide:1 aspx:2 high:16 class:2 auto:4 racing:16 sanction:2 fédération:2 internationale:4 de:3 l:3 automobile:4 name:7 refers:1 set:10 rule:14 participant:3 car:87 must:12 comply:1 dummy:1 content:2 discover:1 make:19 html:1 conceptcarz:1 view:3 race:131 racingclasscars:1 racingclassid:1 season:41 consist:1 series:19 grand:65 prix:64 hold:26 purpose:2 build:10 circuit:32 less:11 extent:1 former:4 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6,905 | Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic | The Dominican Republic has extensive mobile phone and land-line services. INDOTEL, Instituto Dominicano De Telecomunicaciones, regulates and supervises the development of the country telecommunications market. The Dominican Republic has Cable Internet, ADSL, WIMAX, EV-DO and UMTS/HSDPA in most parts of the country. Projects to extend Wi-Fi (wireless internet) hots spots have been undertaken in Santo Domingo. Numerous television channels are available. Tricom, Wind Telecom and Claro Codetel provide television services digitally, with channels from around Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Telephones - main lines in use: 985,711 (2008) Mobile phones: 7,210,483 (2008) VoIP Lines: 61,240 (2008) Telephone system: domestic: very efficient system based on island-wide microwave radio relay network and fiber optics lines that cover many of the main cities international: connected to the ARCOS (America's Region Caribbean Optical-ring System); 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1; Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 143, FM 247, shortwave 14 (2008) Radios: 1.44 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 46 (2008) Televisions: 770,000 (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 8 [Codetel, Claro(ADSL and wireless), Tricom(WIMAX, ADSL, and Cable), Aster (CABLE), VIVA (wireless), France Telecom (wireless), Onemax (WIMAX), Wind Telecom (WIMAX)] (2008) Internet Accounts: 340,322 (2008) Internet Users: 2,562,625 (2008) Country code: DO Broadband Internet access The Dominican Republic is considered one of the countries with the most advanced telecommunications infrastructures in Latin America, with over 7 million cell phones connected (on just about 10 million populants, with 3.5 million of them on extreme poverty conditions) and large companies like Codetel and Orange (FR) on the telecommunications market. Broadband Internet access is growing, with over 340,322 Internet accounts globally and 2,562,625 Internet users as of December, 2008 according to INDOTEL(DR Telecommunications Institute). Broadband DSL represents about 60% of the total Internet subscribers. There is access to regular ADSL, G.SHDSL, and services only on metropolitan areas, costs are high and service is decent. Cable Internet is offered by a couple of cable companies at lower costs than ADSL but the service is very deficient and unreliable. WiFi hotspots are almost non-existent, with just a few in university campuses and other not-so-public areas. The implementation of the Wimax technology by some of the Cell-phone service providers(Tricom) are resulting in the rapid investment by other providers in the market to match the new and faster platform of services. Also the ongoing installation of a Fiber-Optic network structure in the National District and the City of Santiago (second largest in the country) will force other competitors into upgrading theirs to be able to compete in the markets they now lead. Pricing information (Including taxes) October/2008 Codetel ADSL Internet Flash Basic 1 = 256 kB/s Downstream and 128 kB/s Upstream for 889 DOP (26 USD) Basic 2 = 384 kB/s Downstream and 128 kB/s Upstream for 1088 DOP (32 USD) Basic 3 = 768 kB/s Downstream and 128 kB/s Upstream for 1657 DOP (48 USD) Basic 4 = 1.5 MB/s Downstream and 128 kB/s Upstream for 2816 DOP (82 USD) Advanced 1 = 768 kB/s Downstream and 512 kB/s Upstream for 1785 DOP ( 52 USD) Advanced 2 = 1.5 MB/s Downstream and 768 kB/s Upstream for 3648 DOP (107 USD) Advanced 3 = 2.0 MB/s Downstream and 768 kB/s Upstream for 4217 DOP (124 USD) Advanced 4 = 3.0 MB/s Downstream and 1.0 MB/s Upstream for 4985 DOP (146 USD) Advanced 5 = 5.0 MB/s Downstream and 1.0 MB/s Upstream for 7673 DOP (225 USD) Claro EVDO/HSDPA Mobile Broadband 200MB = Up to 3.5 MB/s Downstream for 960 DOP (28 USD) 500MB = Up to 3.5 MB/s Downstream for 1273 DOP (37 USD) Unlimited = Up to 3.5 MB/s Downstream for 2041 DOP (60 USD) See also Dominican Postal Institute External links Indotel (Dominican Republic Communications Regulation Authority) Indotel .- Instituto Dominicano de las Telecomunicaciones - Downloads | INDOTEL Statistics | Statistics of Telephony Codetel, comunicación sin límites Wind Telecom VIVA Tricom Orange ONEMAX | Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized dominican:5 republic:4 extensive:1 mobile:3 phone:4 land:1 line:4 service:8 indotel:5 instituto:2 dominicano:2 de:2 telecomunicaciones:2 regulates:1 supervise:1 development:1 country:5 telecommunications:1 market:4 cable:6 internet:12 adsl:6 wimax:5 ev:1 umts:1 hsdpa:2 part:1 project:1 extend:1 wi:1 fi:1 wireless:4 hots:1 spot:1 undertake:1 santo:1 domingo:1 numerous:1 television:4 channel:2 available:1 tricom:4 wind:3 telecom:4 claro:3 codetel:5 provide:1 digitally:1 around:1 latin:2 america:3 elsewhere:1 world:1 telephone:2 main:2 use:1 voip:1 system:3 domestic:1 efficient:1 base:1 island:1 wide:1 microwave:1 radio:3 relay:1 network:2 fiber:2 optic:2 cover:1 many:1 city:2 international:1 connect:2 arcos:1 region:1 caribbean:1 optical:1 ring:1 coaxial:1 submarine:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 million:4 provider:3 isps:1 aster:1 viva:2 france:1 onemax:2 account:2 user:2 code:1 broadband:4 access:3 consider:1 one:1 advanced:1 telecommunication:3 infrastructure:1 cell:2 populants:1 extreme:1 poverty:1 condition:1 large:2 company:2 like:1 orange:2 fr:1 grow:1 globally:1 december:1 accord:1 dr:1 institute:2 dsl:1 represent:1 total:1 subscriber:1 regular:1 g:1 shdsl:1 metropolitan:1 area:2 cost:2 high:1 decent:1 offer:1 couple:1 low:1 deficient:1 unreliable:1 wifi:1 hotspot:1 almost:1 non:1 existent:1 university:1 campus:1 public:1 implementation:1 technology:1 result:1 rapid:1 investment:1 match:1 new:1 fast:1 platform:1 also:2 ongoing:1 installation:1 structure:1 national:1 district:1 santiago:1 second:1 force:1 competitor:1 upgrade:1 able:1 compete:1 lead:1 price:1 information:1 include:1 tax:1 october:1 flash:1 basic:4 kb:11 downstream:12 upstream:9 dop:12 usd:12 mb:10 advance:5 evdo:1 unlimited:1 see:1 postal:1 external:1 link:1 communication:1 regulation:1 authority:1 la:1 downloads:1 statistic:2 telephony:1 comunicación:1 sin:1 límites:1 |@bigram dominican_republic:4 mobile_phone:2 wi_fi:1 santo_domingo:1 fiber_optic:2 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 broadband_internet:2 non_existent:1 downstream_kb:7 kb_upstream:7 upstream_dop:9 dop_usd:12 mb_downstream:8 external_link:1 |
6,906 | Borneo | Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located at the centre of Maritime Southeast Asia. Administratively, this island is divided between Indonesia (Kalimantan, population 12,000,000), Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah, pop. 6,000,000) and Brunei (pop. 400,000). Indonesians refer to the island as "Kalimantan". However, for people outside of Indonesia, Kalimantan refers to the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Malaysia's region of Borneo is called East Malaysia or Malaysian Borneo. The independent nation of Brunei occupies the remainder of the island. Brunei is the wealthiest nation on the island of Borneo. Geography Borneo is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south. It has an area of 743,330 km² (287,000 square miles). To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south is Java. To the east is the island of Sulawesi (Celebes). To the northeast is the Philippines. Borneo's highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m (13,435 ft) above sea level. This makes it the world's third highest island. The largest river systems are the Kapuas River, with approximately the longest river in Indonesia, the Rajang River in Sarawak with some the longest river in Malaysia, the Barito River about long and the Mahakam River about long. Borneo is also known for its extensive cave systems. Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underwater rivers. Deer Cave, thought to be the largest cave passage in the world, is home to over three million bats and guano accumulated to over high. Largest cities in Borneo The following is a list of urban areas in Borneo by population based on 2008 calculations compiled by The World Gazetteer. Rank City/Town Population Country 1 Kuching, Sarawak 632,505 2 Banjarmasin 598,518 3 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah 543,765 4 Pontianak 466,090 5 Sandakan, Sabah 453,759 6 Balikpapan 453,575 7 Samarinda 356,034 8 Tawau, Sabah 354,243 9 Miri, Sarawak 257,305 10 Bintulu, Sarawak 180 000 Administration The Island of Borneo is divided administratively into 3 parts, the only island in the world that is a recognised part of 3 countries: The Indonesian provinces of East, South, West and Central Kalimantan The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak (the Federal Territory of Labuan is located on nearshore islands of Borneo, but not on the island of Borneo itself) The independent country of Brunei (main part and eastern exclave of Temburong) Federal Stateor Province Capital Part of country Areakm² Area% PopulationCensus of 2000 1) Population% Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan independent Sultanate57700.773328442.1 Sarawak Kuching Malaysia12445016.6201261612.4 Sabah Kota Kinabalu Malaysia736199.8244938915.1 Labuan 2) Victoria MalaysiaFederal territory920.01705170.4 Kalimantan Barat (West Borneo) Pontianak Indonesien14676019.5403419824.9 Kalimantan Tengah (Central Borneo) Palangkaraya Indonesien15260020.3298524018.4 Kalimantan Selatan (South Bborneo) Banjarmasin Indonesien376605,0185700011.5 Kalimantan Timur (East Borneo) Samarinda Indonesien21098528.1245512015.2 Borneo Kuching 3) 3 countries751936100.016196924100.0 1) Brunei: Census of Population 2001 2) strictly speaking not on Borneo, but on nearshore islands (2.5 km off the main island of Borneo) 3) largest city History Political divisions of Borneo According to ancient Chinese, Indian and Javanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo have become trading ports, part of their trade routes, since the first millennium. In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory, rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana, Dalbergia parviflora), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's nests and various spices were among the most valuable items from Borneo. The Indians named Borneo as Suvarnabhumi (the land of gold) and also Karpuradvipa (the Camphor Island), which includes the western part of the island shared with Sumatra island. The Javanese named Borneo as Puradvipa, or the Diamond Island. Archaeological findings in the delta river of Sarawak reveal that the area was once a thriving trade center between India and China from the sixth century until about 1300 AD. In the fourteenth century, part of Borneo were under the control of Majapahit kingdom as is written in Javanese Nagarakretagama document (circa 1365 AD). The name of a trading port city in Borneo is Tanjungpura in Nagarakretagama; the same name written in another Javanese Paraton document (circa 1355 AD). In the 15th century, the Majapahit rule exerted its influence in Borneo. Princess Junjung Buih, the queen of the Hindu kingdom of Negara Dipa (situated in Candi Agung area of Amuntai) married a Javanese prince, Prince Suryanata, and together they ruled the kingdom which is a tributary to the Majapahit Empire (1365). In this way, it became a part of Nusantara. Along the way, the power of Negara Dipa weakened and was replaced by the new court of Negara Daha. When Prince Samudra (Prince Suriansyah) of Negara Daha converted to Islam and formed the Islamic kingdom of Banjar, it inherited some of the areas previously ruled by the Hindu kingdom of Negara Daha. The Brunei Sultanate during its golden age from the 15th to 17th centuries ruled a large part of northern Borneo. In 1703 (other sources say 1658), the Sultanate of Sulu received North Borneo from the Sultan of Brunei, after Sulu sent aid against a rebellion in Brunei. During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor, arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he then renamed himself "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr". Subsequently HM Sultan Jamalul Ahlam Kiram (1863-1881) the 29th reigning Sultan of Sulu leased North Borneo in 1878 to Gustavus Baron de Overbeck & Alfred Dent representing the British North Borneo Company in what is now Sabah part of Malaysia. The company also exerted control on inland territories that were inhabited by numerous tribes. In the 19th Century coastal areas ruled by the Brunei Sultanate in the west of the island were gradually taken by the Brooke dynasty. By the 18th century, the area from Sambas to Berau were tributaries to the Banjar Kingdom, but this eventually shrunk to the size of what is now South Kalimantan as a result of agreements with the Dutch. In the Karang Intan Agreement during the reign of Prince Nata Dilaga (Susuhunan Nata Alam) (1808-1825), the Banjar Kingdom gave up its territories to the Dutch Indies which included Bulungan, Kutai, Pasir, Pagatan and Kotawaringin. Other territories given up to the Dutch Indies were Landak, Sambas, Sintang and Sukadana. In the early 19th century, British and Dutch governments signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports under their controls and assert spheres of influences, in which indirectly set apart the two parts of Borneo into British and Dutch controlled areas. China has had historical trading links with the inhabitants of the island. Some of the Chinese beads and wares found their way deep into the interior of Borneo. Moreover in the 19th century, the Dutch admitted the founding of district kingdoms with native leaders who were under the power of the Dutch (Indirect Bestuur). The Dutch assign a resident to head their rule over Kalimantan. List of the residents and governors of Kalimantan: C.A. Kroesen (1898), resident C.J. Van Kempen (1924), resident J. De Haan (1924-1929), resident R. Koppenel (1929-1931), resident W.G. Morggeustrom (1933-1937), resident Dr. A. Haga (1938-1942), governor Pangeran Musa Ardi Kesuma (1942-1945), Ridzie Ir. Pangeran Muhammad Noor (1945), governor Since 1938, Dutch-Borneo (Kalimantan) was one administrative territory under a governor (Governor Haga) whose seat was in Banjarmasin. In 1957 following the independence of Indonesia, Kalimantan was divided into 3 provinces which is South Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan. The province of Central Kalimantan separated from South Kalimantan to have their own territory in 1958. During the Second World War, Japanese forces gained control of Borneo (1941–45). They decimated many local populations and Malay intellectuals, including the elimination of the Malay Sultanate of Sambas in Kalimantan . Borneo was the main site of the confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia between 1962 and 1966, as well as the communist revolts to gain control of the whole area. Before the formation of Malaysian Federation, the Philippines claimed that the Malaysian state of Sabah in north Borneo is within their territorial rights based on historical facts of the Sultanate of Sulu's leasing agreement with the North Borneo Company, is presently an unresolved claim against Malaysia. Several other territorial claims such as Sipadan were resolved at The Hague international courts. Ecology Nepenthes villosa, a species of pitcher plant endemic to Kinabalu National Park, Borneo. Borneo is very rich in biodiversity compared to many other areas (MacKinnon et al. 1998). There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees (267 species are dipterocarps), 221 species of terrestrial mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo (MacKinnon et al. 1998). It is also the centre of evolution and radiation of many endemic species of plants and animals. The remaining Borneo rainforest is the only natural habitat for the endangered Bornean Orangutan. It is also an important refuge for many endemic forest species, as the Asian Elephant, the Sumatran Rhinoceros, the Bornean Clouded Leopard, and the Dayak Fruit Bat. It is the most biodiverse place on earth The World Wildlife Fund divides the island into seven distinct ecoregions. The Borneo lowland rain forests cover most of the island, with an area of . Other lowland ecoregions are the Borneo peat swamp forests, the Kerangas or Sundaland heath forests, the Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests, and the Sunda Shelf mangroves. The Borneo mountain rain forests lie in the central highlands of the island, above the elevation. The highest elevations of Mount Kinabalu are home to the Kinabalu mountain alpine meadow, an alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including many orchids. The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area shrank rapidly due to heavy logging for the needs of the Malaysian plywood industry. Two forestry researchers of Sepilok Research Centre, Sandakan, Sabah in the early 80's indentified four fast-growing hardwoods and a breakthrough on seed collection and handling of Acacia mangium and Gmelina arborea, a fast growing tropical trees were planted on huge track of formerly logged and deforested areas primarily in the northern part of Borneo Island. Half of the annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo. Furthermore, Palm oil plantations are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. The rainforest was also greatly destroyed from the forest fires of 1997 to 1998, which were started by the locals to clear the forests for crops and perpetuated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season during that period. During the great fire, hotspots could be seen on satellite images and the haze thus created affected the surrounding countries of Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. In Feb 2008, the Malaysian government announced the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy plan to harvest the virgin hinterlands of Northern Borneo. Further deforestation and destruction of the biodiversity are anticipated in the wake of logging commissions, hydroelectric dams and other mining of minerals and resources. In order to combat overpopulation and AIDS in Java, the Indonesian government started a massive transmigration (transmigrasi) of poor farmers and landless peasants into Borneo in the 70's and 80's, to farm the logged areas, albeit with little success as the fertility of the land has been removed with the trees and what soil remains is washed away in tropical downpours. Ethnic and biological diversity Satellite image of the island of Borneo on August 19, 2002, showing smoke from burning peat swamp forests. There are over 30 Dayak sub-ethnic groups living in Borneo, making the population of this island one of the most varied of human social groups. The native ethnic groups are Dayak Austronesians and their languages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language family. Some sub-ethnicities are now represented by only 30-100 individuals and are threatened with extinction. Much culture, language, ethnomusic and traditional knowledge has yet to be documented by anthropologists. Ancestral knowledge of ethnobotany and ethnozoology is useful in drug discovery (for example, bintangor plant for AIDS) or as future alternative food sources (such as sago starch for lactic acid production and sago maggots as a protein source).Mount Kinabalu, a major center of biodiversity in Borneo. Certain indigenous Dayak people (such as the Kayan, Kenyah, Punan Bah and Penan) living on the island have been struggling for decades for their right to preserve their environment from loggers and transmigrant settlers and colonists. Land reform is needed for future development in the face of rapid economic changes. The type of rainforests found in Borneo include the high diversity mixed dipterocarp forest, the rare peat swamp forests and heath forest. Researchers scouring swamps in the heart of Borneo island have discovered a venomous species of snake that can change its skin color. Scientists named their find the Kapuas mud snake, and speculated it might only occur in the Kapuas River drainage system. World Wildlife Fund has stated that 361 animal and plant species have been discovered in Borneo since 1996, underscoring its unparalleled biodiversity. In the 18 month period from July 2005 until December 2006, another 52 new species were found. Han Chinese are also present, including the Foochow people. See also Borneo peat swamp forests Endemic birds of Borneo Fauna of Borneo Hikayat Banjar Islands of Indonesia Mammals of Borneo List of islands by area Rainforest World Music Festival Survivor: Borneo References Further reading Bowen, M.R. and Eusebio, T.V. (1981) b): Acacia mangium. Updated information on seed collection, handling and germination testing. Occasional Tech. and Scientific Notes, Seed Series No.5, Forest Research Centre, Sepilok, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia Bowen, M.R. and Eusebio, T.V. (1982): Seed handling practices: four fast-growing hardwoods...Malaysian Forester Vol 45, No.4: 534-547 Ghazally Ismail et al. (eds.) Scientific Journey Through Borneo Series. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan. 1996-2001. Gudgeon, L. W. W. British North Borneo. Adam and Charles Black, London. (An early well-illustrated book on "British North Borneo", now known as Sabah.) 1913. MacKinnon K, Hatta G, Halim H, Mangalik A. The ecology of Kalimantan. Oxford University Press, London. 1998. K M Wong & C L Chan. "Mt Kinabalu: Borneo's Magic Mountain." Natural History Publications, Kota Kinabalu. 1998. David Macdonald. Expedition to Borneo. Dennis Lau. Borneo: A Photographic Journey. Stephen Holley. White Headhunter in Borneo. Robert Young Pelton Borneo. Mel White: " Borneo's moment of truth" National Geographic Magazine November 2008 Selected references Robert Young Pelton. Fielding's Borneo Eric Hansen. Stranger in the Forest: On Foot Across Borneo. John Wassner. Espresso with the Headhunters: A Journey Through the Jungles of Borneo. Redmond O'Hanlon. Into the Heart of Borneo: An Account of a Journey Made in 1983 to the Mountains of Batu Tiban with James Fenton. Charles M. Francis. A Photographic Guide to Mammals of South-east Asia. Abdullah, MT. "Biogeography and variation of Cynopterus brachyotis in Southeast Asia." PhD thesis. The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia. 2003. Corbet, GB, Hill JE. The mammals of the Indomalayan region: a systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1992. G.W.H. Davison, Chew Yen Fook. A Photographic Guide to Birds of Borneo. Hall LS, Gordon G. Grigg, Craig Moritz, Besar Ketol, Isa Sait, Wahab Marni and MT Abdullah. "Biogeography of fruit bats in Southeast Asia." Sarawak Museum Journal LX(81):191–284. 2004. Karim, C., A.A. Tuen and M.T. Abdullah. "Mammals." Sarawak Museum Journal Special Issue No. 6. 80: 221–234. 2004. Garbutt, Nick, and J. Cede Prudente. Wild Borneo: The Wildlife and Scenery of Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and Kalimantan. 2007. Mohd. Azlan J., Ibnu Maryanto, Agus P. Kartono, and MT Abdullah. "Diversity, Relative Abundance and Conservation of Chiropterans in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia." Sarawak Museum Journal 79: 251-265. 2003. Hall LS, Richards GC, Abdullah MT. "The bats of Niah National Park, Sarawak." Sarawak Museum Journal. 78: 255-282. 2002. External links Environmental Profile of Borneo - Background on Borneo, including natural and social history, deforestation statistics, and conservation news. Official Sarawak Tourism site offering news, travel notes and articles about Sarawak. Parachuting cats the story of WHO parachuting cats into Borneo. Sabah Tourism Board Official Website, the premiere information hub of the Sabah tourism industry. (Sabah Malaysian Borneo) WWF Heart of Borneo conservation initiative - Information about the Heart of Borneo - of upland montane tropical rainforest, where endangered species such as the orang-utan, rhinoceros and pygmy elephant cling for survival. 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6,907 | Camille_Pissarro | Camille Pissarro (July 10, 1830 – November 13, 1903) was a French Impressionist painter. His importance resides not only in his visual contributions to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, but also in his patriarchal standing among his colleagues, particularly Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin. Early life and work Jacob-Abraham-Camille Pissarro Wold Eiermann, "Camille Pissarro 1830 – 1903," in Christoph Becker, Camille Picasso (Hatje Cantz: Ostfildern-Ruit, 1999), 1. was born at Charlotte Amalie (St. Thomas), Virgin Islands, to Abraham Gabriel Pissarro, a Portuguese Sephardic Jew, and Rachel Manzano-Pomié, from the Dominican Republic. Pissarro lived in St. Thomas until age 12, when he went to a boarding school in Paris. He returned to St. Thomas where he drew in his free time. Pissarro was attracted to anarchism, an attraction that may have originated during his years in St. Thomas. In 1852, he traveled to Venezuela with the Danish artist Fritz Melbye. In 1855, Pissarro left for Paris, where he studied at various academic institutions (including the École des Beaux-Arts and Académie Suisse) and under a succession of masters such as Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet, and Charles-François Daubigny. Corot is sometimes considered Pissarro's most important early influence; Pissarro listed himself as Corot’s pupil in the catalogues to the 1864 and 1865 Paris Salons. Pissarro Exhibition PowerPoint with sound His finest early works (See Jalais Hill, Pontoise, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) are characterized by a broadly painted (sometimes with palette knife) naturalism derived from Courbet, but with an incipient Impressionist palette. Pissarro married Julie Vellay, a maid in his mother's household. Of their eight children, one died at birth and one daughter died aged nine. The surviving children all painted, and Lucien, the oldest son, became a follower of William Morris. The London years Norwood, National Gallery, London The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 compelled Pissarro to flee his home in Louveciennes in September 1870; he returned in June 1871 to find that the house, and along with it many of his early paintings, had been destroyed by Prussian soldiers. Pissarro, Joachim, Cézanne & Pissarro 1865–1885, page 233. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2005. Initially his family was taken in by a fellow artist in Montfoucault, but by December 1870 they had taken refuge in London and settled at Westow Hill in Upper Norwood (today better known as Crystal Palace). A Blue Plaque now marks the site of the house on the building at 77a Westow Hill. Through the paintings Pissarro completed at this time, he records Sydenham and the Norwoods at a time when they were just recently connected by railways, but prior to the expansion of suburbia. One of the largest of these paintings is a view of St. Bartholomew's Church at Lawrie Park Avenue, commonly known as The Avenue, Sydenham, in the collection of the London National Gallery. Twelve oil paintings date from his stay in Upper Norwood and are listed and illustrated in the catalogue raisonné prepared jointly by his fifth child Ludovic-Rodolphe Pissarro and Lionello Venturi and published in 1939. These paintings include Norwood Under the Snow, and Lordship Lane Station, artchive.com entry for Pissarro Lordship Lane views of The Crystal Palace relocated from Hyde Park, Dulwich College, Sydenham Hill, All Saints Church, and a lost painting of St. Stephen's Church. Unknown photographer, Camille Pissarro and his wife, Julie Vellay, 1877, Pontoise Whilst in Upper Norwood Pissarro was introduced to the art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, who bought two of his 'London' paintings. Durand-Ruel subsequently became the most important art dealer of the new school of French Impressionism. Returning to France, in 1890 Pissarro again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils of Bedford Park, Chiswick. For more details of his British visits, see Nicholas Reed, "Camille Pissarro at Crystal Palace" and "Pissarro in West London", published by Lilburne Press. Art and legacy Known as the "Father of Impressionism", The Radical Eye of Impressionism's Patriarch, New York Times. Pissarro painted rural and urban French life, particularly landscapes in and around Pontoise, as well as scenes from Montmartre. His mature work displays an empathy for peasants and laborers, and sometimes evidences his radical political leanings. He was a mentor to Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin and his example inspired many younger artists, including Californian Impressionist Lucy Bacon. Pissarro's influence on his fellow Impressionists is probably still underestimated; not only did he offer substantial contributions to Impressionist theory, but he also managed to remain on friendly, mutually respectful terms with such difficult personalities as Edgar Degas, Cézanne and Gauguin. Pissarro exhibited at all eight of the Impressionist exhibitions. Moreover, whereas Monet was the most prolific and emblematic practitioner of the Impressionist style, Pissarro was nonetheless a primary developer of Impressionist technique. Pissarro experimented with Neo-Impressionist ideas between 1885 and 1890. Discontented with what he referred to as "romantic Impressionism," he investigated Pointillism which he called "scientific Impressionism" before returning to a purer Impressionism in the last decade of his life. In March 1893, in Paris, Gallery Durand-Ruel organized a major exhibition of 46 of Pissarro's works along with 55 others by Antonio de La Gandara. But while the critics acclaimed Gandara, their appraisal of Pissarro's art was less enthusiastic. Pissarro died in Paris on November 13, 1903 and was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery. On his tomb it reads November 12, 1903. During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By 2005, however, some of his works were selling in the range of U.S. $2 to 4 million. Descendants and family Camille's great-grandson, Joachim Pissarro, is currently the Head Curator of Drawing and Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. His great-granddaughter, Lélia, is a successful painter and resides in London. From the only daughter of Camille, - Jeanne Pissarro, other painters include Henri Bonin-Pissarro also known as BOPI (1918–2003) and Claude Bonin-Pissarro (born 1921), who is the father of Frédéric Bonin-Pissarro (born 1964). Gallery Resources Notes Primary sources Rewald, John, ed., with the assistance of Lucien Pissarro: Camille Pissarro, Lettres à son fils Lucien, Editions Albin Michel, Paris 1950; previously published, translated to English: Camille Pissarro, Letters to his son Lucien, New York 1943 & London 1944; 3rd revised edition, Paul P Appel Publishers, 1972 ISBN 0-911-85822-9 Bailly-Herzberg, Janine, ed.: , 5 volumes, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1980 & Editions du Valhermeil, Paris, 1986–1991 ISBN 2-13-036694-5 - ISBN 2-905-684-05-4 - ISBN 2-905-684-09-7 - ISBN 2-905684-17-8 - ISBN 2-905684-35-6 Thorold, Anne, ed.: The letters of Lucien to Camille Pissarro 1883–1903, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York & Oakleigh, 1993 ISBN 0-521-39034-6 Further reading Clement, Russell T. and Houze, Annick, Neo-Impressionist Painters: A Sourcebook on Georges Seurat, Camille Pissarro, Paul Signac, Theo Van Rysselberghe, Henri Edmond Cross, Charles Angrand, Maximilien Luce, and Albert Dubois-Pillet (1999), Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-30382-7 Eitner, Lorenz, An Outline of 19th Century European Painting: From David through Cézanne (1992), HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN 0-064-30223-7 Nochlin, Linda, The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society (1991) Westview Press, ISBN 0-064-30187-7 Rewald, John, The History of Impressionism (1961), Museum of Modern Art, ISBN 0-810-96035-4 Stone, Irving, Depths of Glory (1987), Signet, ISBN 0-451-14602-6 Critical Catalogue of Paintings In June 2006 publishers Skira/Wildenstein released Pissarro: Critical Catalogue of Paintings, compiled by Joachim Pissarro (descendant of the painter) and Claire Durand-Ruel Snollaerts (descendant of the French art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel). The 1,500-page, three-volume work is the most comprehensive collection of Pissarro paintings to date, and contains accompanying images of drawings and studies, as well as photographs of Pissarro and his family that have not previously been published. ISBN 8-876-24525-1 See also Hay Harvest at Éragny Western painting History of painting External links www.camille-pissarro.org 1097 works by Camille Pissarro and more Profiles of Outstanding Virgin Islanders: Camille Pissarro (includes link to photograph of Pissarro) Photograph of Pissarro's Mausoleum at Cimitiere Pere Lachaise, Paris (JPG) Pissarro paintings, media & interactive timeline Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies. ULAN Full Record Display for Camille Pissarro. Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. 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6,908 | Digital_signal_processing | Digital signal processing (DSP) is concerned with the representation of the signals by a sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these signals. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. DSP includes subfields like: audio and speech signal processing, sonar and radar signal processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, signal processing for communications, biomedical signal processing, seismic data processing, etc. Since the goal of DSP is usually to measure or filter continuous real-world analog signals, the first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by using an analog to digital converter. Often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a digital to analog converter. Even if this process is more complex than analog processing and has a discrete value range, the stability of digital signal processing thanks to error detection and correction and being less vulnerable to noise makes it advantageous over analog signal processing for many, though not all, applications. DSP algorithms have long been run on standard computers, on specialized processors called digital signal processors (DSPs), or on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Today there are additional technologies used for digital signal processing including more powerful general purpose microprocessors, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial apps such as motor control), and stream processors, among others. DSP domains In DSP, engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain, autocorrelation domain, and wavelet domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an informed guess (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a time or spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency domain information, that is the frequency spectrum. Autocorrelation is defined as the cross-correlation of the signal with itself over varying intervals of time or space. Signal sampling With the increasing use of computers the usage of and need for digital signal processing has increased. In order to use an analog signal on a computer it must be digitized with an analog to digital converter (ADC). Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization. In the discretization stage, the space of signals is partitioned into equivalence classes and quantization is carried out by replacing the signal with representative signal of the corresponding equivalence class. In the quantization stage the representative signal values are approximated by values from a finite set. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency of the signal. In practice, the sampling frequency is often significantly more than twice the required bandwidth. A digital to analog converter (DAC) is used to convert the digital signal back to analog. The use of a digital computer is a key ingredient in digital control systems. Time and space domains The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering. Filtering generally consists of some transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. There are various ways to characterize filters; for example: A "linear" filter is a linear transformation of input samples; other filters are "non-linear." Linear filters satisfy the superposition condition, i.e. if an input is a weighted linear combination of different signals, the output is an equally weighted linear combination of the corresponding output signals. A "causal" filter uses only previous samples of the input or output signals; while a "non-causal" filter uses future input samples. A non-causal filter can usually be changed into a causal filter by adding a delay to it. A "time-invariant" filter has constant properties over time; other filters such as adaptive filters change in time. Some filters are "stable", others are "unstable". A stable filter produces an output that converges to a constant value with time, or remains bounded within a finite interval. An unstable filter can produce an output that grows without bounds, with bounded or even zero input. A "finite impulse response" (FIR) filter uses only the input signal, while an "infinite impulse response" filter (IIR) uses both the input signal and previous samples of the output signal. FIR filters are always stable, while IIR filters may be unstable. Most filters can be described in Z-domain (a superset of the frequency domain) by their transfer functions. A filter may also be described as a difference equation, a collection of zeroes and poles or, if it is an FIR filter, an impulse response or step response. The output of an FIR filter to any given input may be calculated by convolving the input signal with the impulse response. Filters can also be represented by block diagrams which can then be used to derive a sample processing algorithm to implement the filter using hardware instructions. Frequency domain Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts the signal information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. Often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared. The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing. Filtering, particularly in non realtime work can also be achieved by converting to the frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain. This is a fast, O(n log n) operation, and can give essentially any filter shape including excellent approximations to brickwall filters. There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the cepstrum converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the frequency components with smaller magnitude while retaining the order of magnitudes of frequency components. Frequency domain analysis is also called spectrum- or spectral analysis. Applications The main applications of DSP are audio signal processing, audio compression, digital image processing, video compression, speech processing, speech recognition, digital communications, RADAR, SONAR, seismology, and biomedicine. Specific examples are speech compression and transmission in digital mobile phones, room matching equalization of sound in Hifi and sound reinforcement applications, weather forecasting, economic forecasting, seismic data processing, analysis and control of industrial processes, computer-generated animations in movies, medical imaging such as CAT scans and MRI, MP3 compression, image manipulation, high fidelity loudspeaker crossovers and equalization, and audio effects for use with electric guitar amplifiers. Implementation Digital signal processing is often implemented using specialised microprocessors such as the DSP56000, the TMS320, or the SHARC. These often process data using fixed-point arithmetic, although some versions are available which use floating point arithmetic and are more powerful. For faster applications FPGAs might be used. Beginning in 2007, multicore implementations of DSPs have started to emerge from companies including Freescale and Stream Processors, Inc. For faster applications with vast usage, ASICs might be designed specifically. For slow applications, a traditional slower processor such as a microcontroller may be adequate. Techniques Bilinear transform Discrete Fourier transform Discrete-time Fourier transform Filter design LTI system theory Minimum phase Transfer function Z-transform Goertzel algorithm s-plane Related fields Analog signal processing Automatic control Computer Engineering Computer Science Data compression Electrical engineering Information theory Telecommunication References Further reading Alan V. Oppenheim, Ronald W. Schafer, John R. Buck : Discrete-Time Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-754920-2 Boaz Porat: A Course in Digital Signal Processing, Wiley, ISBN 0471149616 Richard G. Lyons: Understanding Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-108989-7 Jonathan Yaakov Stein, Digital Signal Processing, a Computer Science Perspective, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-29546-9 Sen M. Kuo, Woon-Seng Gan: Digital Signal Processors: Architectures, Implementations, and Applications, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-035214-4 Bernard Mulgrew, Peter Grant, John Thompson: Digital Signal Processing - Concepts and Applications, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-96356-3 Steven W. Smith: Digital Signal Processing - A Practical Guide for Engineers and Scientists, Newnes, ISBN 0-7506-7444-X Paul A. Lynn, Wolfgang Fuerst: Introductory Digital Signal Processing with Computer Applications, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-97984-8 James D. Broesch: Digital Signal Processing Demystified, Newnes, ISBN 1-878707-16-7 John G. Proakis, Dimitris Manolakis: Digital Signal Processing - Principles, Algorithms and Applications, Pearson, ISBN 0-13-394289-9 Hari Krishna Garg: Digital Signal Processing Algorithms, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-7178-3 P. Gaydecki: Foundations Of Digital Signal Processing: Theory, Algorithms And Hardware Design, Institution of Electrical Engineers, ISBN 0-85296-431-5 Paul M. Embree, Damon Danieli: C++ Algorithms for Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-179144-3 Anthony Zaknich: Neural Networks for Intelligent Signal Processing, World Scientific Pub Co Inc, ISBN 981-238-305-0 Vijay Madisetti, Douglas B. Williams: The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-8572-5 Stergios Stergiopoulos: Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar, and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-3691-0 Joyce Van De Vegte: Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-016077-6 Ashfaq Khan: Digital Signal Processing Fundamentals, Charles River Media, ISBN 1-58450-281-9 Jonathan M. Blackledge, Martin Turner: Digital Signal Processing: Mathematical and Computational Methods, Software Development and Applications, Horwood Publishing, ISBN 1-898563-48-9 Bimal Krishna, K. Y. Lin, Hari C. Krishna: Computational Number Theory & Digital Signal Processing, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-7177-5 Doug Smith: Digital Signal Processing Technology: Essentials of the Communications Revolution, American Radio Relay League, ISBN 0-87259-819-5 Henrique S. Malvar: Signal Processing with Lapped Transforms, Artech House Publishers, ISBN 0-89006-467-9 Charles A. Schuler: Digital Signal Processing: A Hands-On Approach, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-829744-3 James H. McClellan, Ronald W. Schafer, Mark A. Yoder: Signal Processing First, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-090999-8 Artur Krukowski, Izzet Kale: DSP System Design: Complexity Reduced Iir Filter Implementation for Practical Applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 1-4020-7558-8 John G. 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6,909 | Altruism | Altruism (from : the other) is the deliberate pursuit of the interests or welfare of others or the public interest. The notion of altruism The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought, and has more recently become a topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), sociologists, evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism. Scientific viewpoints Ethology In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. Researchers on alleged altruist behaviours among animals have been ideologically opposed to the social Darwinist concept of the "survival of the fittest", under the name of "survival of the nicest"—the latter not being globally compatible, however, with Darwin's theory of evolution. Insistence on such cooperative behaviours between animals was first exposed by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. Recent developments in game theory (see ultimatum game) have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are: Behavioural manipulation (for example, by certain parasites that can alter the behavior of the host) Bounded rationality (for example, Herbert Simon) Conscience Kin selection including eusociality (see also "selfish gene") Memes (by influencing behaviour to favour their own spread, for example, religion) Reciprocal altruism, mutual aid Selective investment theory Brown, S.L. & Brown, R.M. (2006). Selective investment theory: Recasting the functional significance of close relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 17, 1-29. - a theoretical proposal for the evolution of long-term, high-cost altruism Sexual selection, in particular, the Handicap principle Reciprocity (social psychology) Indirect reciprocity (for example, reputation) Strong reciprocity Pseudo-reciprocity The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds, such as Dictyostelium mucoroides. These protists live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similarities to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors. Neurology Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October, 2006, Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation, PNAS 2006:103(42);15623-15628) they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed their interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. Genetics A new study by Samuel Bowles at the Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico, US, is seen by some as breathing new life into the model of group selection for Altruism, known as "Survival of the nicest". Bowles conducted a genetic analysis of contemporary foraging groups, including Australian aboriginals, native Siberian Inuit populations and indigenous tribal groups in Africa. It was found that hunter-gatherer bands of up to 30 individuals were considerably more closely related than was previously thought. Under these conditions, thought to be similar to those of the middle and upper Paleolithic, altruism towards other group-members would improve the overall fitness of the group. If an individual defended the group but was killed, any genes that the individual shared with the overall group would still be passed on. Early customs such as food sharing or monogamy could have levelled out the “cost” of altruistic behaviour, in the same way that income taxes redistribute income in society. He assembled genetic, climactic, archaeological, ethnographic and experimental data to examine the cost-benefit relationship of human cooperation in ancient populations. In his model, members of a group bearing genes for altruistic behaviour pay a "tax" by limiting their reproductive opportunities to benefit from sharing food and information, thereby increasing the average fitness of the group as well as their inter-relatedness. Bands of altruistic humans would then act together to gain resources from other groups at this challenging time in history. Fisher, Richard (07 December 2006) "Why altruism paid off for our ancestors" (NewScientist.com news service) . Altruist theories in evolutionary biology were contested by Amotz Zahavi, the inventor of the signal theory and its correlative, the handicap principle, based mainly on his observations of the Arabian Babbler, a bird commonly known for its surprising (alleged) altruistic behaviours. Psychology Psychological egoism can be accused of using circular logic. For instance, an egoist would not disagree with the following syllogism: "If a person has willingly performed an act, then he/she has manifested such intent in the form of that act. Fulfillment of one's desires is the primary requisite of satisfaction. Ergo, a person can only willingly perform acts that result in his/her personal enjoyment." This logic is sometimes viewed as circular or presumptuous. Specifically, egoism leans on the assumption that satisfaction is synonymous with self-satisfaction. Such a precept automatically sidesteps counterpoint, however, and remains unfalsifiable. Thus, until empirical evidence favors one view or the other, egoism must acquiesce to uncertainty. Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet. For example, some humans donate to international charities and volunteer their time to help society's less fortunate. It can however be argued that an individual would contribute to a charity to gain respect or stature within his/her own community. Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place. Religious viewpoints Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Judaism, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Sikhism, etc, place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. Christianity Altruism was central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain. From biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love," as in the Pauline phrase "love seeks not its own interests." In his book Indoctrination and Self-deception, Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. If love, which confirms others in their freedom, shuns propagandas and masks, assurance of its presence is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love become validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the doing. Though it might seem obvious that altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus, one important and influential strand of Christianity would qualify this. St Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theologica, I:II Quaestion 26, Article 4 states that we should love ourselves more than our neighbour. His interpretation of the Pauline phrase is that we should seek the common good more than the private good but this is because the common good is a more desirable good for the individual. 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' from Leviticus 19 and Matthew 22 is interpreted by St Thomas as meaning that love for ourself is the exemplar of love for others. He does think though, that we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbour, taken as an entirety, more than our bodily life, since the ultimate purpose of love of our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude, a more desirable thing than bodily well being. Comte was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, now part of mainstream Catholicism, in coining the word Altruism, as stated above. Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. And altruistic action is not always loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the good of the other, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the demands of the other undermine overall well-being. Sikhism Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. In the late 1600s, Guru Gobind Singh Ji (the tenth guru in Sikhism), was in war with the Moghul rulers to protect the people of different faiths, when a fellow Sikh, Bhai Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same. Kabbalah Kabbalah defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The Kabbalist Rav Abraham Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the ‘purpose of creation’ and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force. Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to divinity. Sufism In Sufism, the concept of I’thar is the notion of ‘preferring others to oneself’. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those practicing i'thar as abiding by the highest degree of nobility. This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike the European concept there is a focus on attention to everything in existence. A constant concern for Allah results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world. This concept was emphasized by Sufi mystics like Rabia al-Adawiyya who paid attention to the difference in dedication to Allah and dedication to people. Buddhism In Buddhism, karma (Pāli kamma) is strictly distinguished from vipāka, meaning "fruit" or "result". Karma is categorized within the group or groups of cause (Pāli hetu) in the chain of cause and effect, where it comprises the elements of "volitional activities" (Pali sankhara) and "action" (Pali bhava). Any action is understood to create "seeds" in the mind that will sprout into the appropriate result (Pāli vipaka) when they meet with the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad results, will keep one within the wheel of samsāra; others will liberate one to nirvāna. Buddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation usually makes the difference between "good" and "bad", but included in the motivation is also the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from an ignorant mind can easily be "bad" in the sense that it creates unpleasant results for the "actor". In Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of everything that happens. The commentarial tradition classifed causal mechanisms governing the universe as taught in the early texts in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas: Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys Davids, Buddhism. Reprint by Read Books, 2007, . Padmasiri De Silva, Environmental philosophy and ethics in Buddhism. Macmillan, 1998, page 41. . Kamma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions Utu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate Biija Niyama — Laws of heredity Citta Niyama — Will of mind Dhamma Niyama — Nature's tendency to produce a perfect type Vedanta Vedanta disagree with the Buddhist views, Jain views and other Hindu views that karma is merely a law of cause and effect but instead additionally hold that karma is mediated by the will of a personal supreme God. Swami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the same views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as God. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment. Sivananda, Swami. Phaladhikaranam, Topic 8, Sutras 38-41. See also Altruism (ethics) Altruism in animals Altruria Charity (practice) Charitable organization Egoism Empathy-altruism Empathy Family economics Gene-centered view of evolution Justice (economics) Kin selection Misanthropy mutual aid Philanthropy Prosocial behavior Random acts of kindness Reciprocal altruism Selfishness Social psychology Solidarity (sociology) Tit for tat References Notes Bibliography Oord, Thomas Jay (2007). The Altruism Reader: Selections from Writings on Love, Religion, and Science (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press). ISBN 978-1599471273 Batson, C.D. (1991). The altruism question. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0805802450 Nowak MA (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science 314: 1560-1563. Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (23 October 2003). The nature of human altruism. In Nature, 425, 785 791. Comte, Auguste, Catechisme positiviste (1852) or Catechism of Positivism, tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) Knox, Trevor, The Volunteer's Folly and Socio-Economic Man: Some Thoughts On Altruism, Rationality, and Community, Journal of Socio-Economics 28 (1999), 475-492 Kropotkin, Peter, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902) Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love: The Wisdom of Well-Being. (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004). ISBN 978-1932031706 Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, The Philosophy of Poverty (1847) Lysander Spooner, Natural Law Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. The Evolution of Cooperation, Robert Axelrod, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-02121-2 The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins (1990), second edition—includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, ISBN 0-19-286092-5 Robert Wright, The moral animal, Vintage, 1995, ISBN 0-679-76399-6. Madsen, E.A., Tunney, R., Fieldman, G., Plotkin, H.C., Dunbar, R.I.M., Richardson, J.M., & McFarland, D. (2006) Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study. British Journal of Psychology Wedekind, C. and Milinski, M. Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat. Evolution, Vol. 93, pp. 2686–2689, April 1996. Monk-Turner, E., Blake, V., Chniel, F., Forbes, S., Lensey, L., Madzuma, J.: Gender Issues, Helping Hands: A Study of Altruistic Behavior, Fall 2002, pp. 65–70 External links Society What is Altruism? from Altruists International Philosophy and Religion "Giving and Receiving" from Kabbalah.info Selflessness: Toward a Buddhist Vision of Social Justice by Sungtaek Cho Organizes knowledge about empathy/altruism across disciplines The Sciences Altruism: Myth or Reality? Biological Altruism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University Greater Good magazine examines the roots of Altruism at the University of California, Berkeley BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Altruism (requires RealAudio) | Altruism |@lemmatized altruism:44 deliberate:1 pursuit:1 interest:4 welfare:1 others:9 public:1 notion:3 concept:5 long:2 history:2 philosophical:1 ethical:1 thought:2 recently:1 become:2 topic:2 psychologist:1 especially:2 evolutionary:4 psychology:5 researcher:2 sociologist:1 biologist:1 ethologist:1 idea:2 one:13 field:3 impact:1 different:3 method:1 focus:5 lead:2 perspective:1 scientific:1 viewpoint:2 ethology:2 science:6 study:7 animal:6 behaviour:8 generally:1 social:8 evolution:11 refers:1 individual:9 increase:2 fitness:4 another:3 decrease:1 actor:2 alleged:1 altruist:3 among:2 ideologically:1 oppose:2 darwinist:1 survival:4 fit:1 name:1 nice:2 latter:1 globally:1 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6,910 | FA_Cup | The Football Association Challenge Cup, commonly known as the FA Cup, is a knockout cup competition in English football, run by and named after The Football Association. The name "FA Cup" usually refers to the English men's tournament, although a women's tournament is also held. It is sponsored by E.ON, and is therefore officially known as the FA Cup sponsored by E.ON. The FA Cup was first held in 1871–72, and is the oldest association football competition in the world. Because it involves clubs of all standards playing against each other, there is the possibility for "minnows" from the lower divisions to become "giant-killers" by eliminating top clubs from the tournament, although lower division teams rarely reach the final. The holders of the FA Cup are Premier League side Chelsea, who beat Everton in the 2009 final on 30 May 2009. Format The competition is a knockout tournament with pairings for each round drawn at random - there are no seeds, and the draw for each round is not made until after the scheduled dates for the previous round. The draw also determines which teams will play at home. Each tie is played as a single leg. If a match is drawn, there is a replay, usually at the ground of the team who were away for the first game. Drawn replays are now settled with extra time and penalty shootouts, though until the 1990s further replays would be played until one team was victorious. Some ties took as many as six matches to settle; in their 1975 campaign, Fulham played a total of 12 games over six rounds, which remains the most games played by a team to reach a final. Replays were traditionally played three or four days after the original game, but from 1991–92 they were staged at least 10 days later on police advice. This led to penalty shoot-outs being introduced. Replays are no longer held for the semi-finals or final. There are a total of 14 rounds in the competition—six qualifying rounds, followed by six further rounds, semi-finals, and the final. The competition begins in August with the Extra Preliminary Round, followed by the Preliminary Round and First Qualifying Round, which are contested by the lowest-ranked clubs. Clubs playing in the Conference North and Conference South are given exemption to the Second Qualifying Round, and Conference National teams are given exemption to the Fourth Qualifying Round. The 32 winners from that round join the 48 clubs from League One and League Two in the First Round (often called the First Round Proper). Finally, teams from the Premier League and Football League Championship enter at the Third Round Proper, at which point there are 64 teams remaining in the competition. The qualifying rounds are regionalised to reduce the travel costs for smaller non-league sides. The First and Second Rounds were also previously split into Northern and Southern sections, but this practice was ended after the 1997–98 competition. The FA Cup has a set pattern for when each round is played. Normally the First Round is played in mid-November, with the Second Round on one of the first two Saturdays in December. The third round is played on the first weekend in January, with the Fourth Round later in the month and Fifth Round in mid-February. The Sixth Round (or quarter-finals) traditionally occurs in early or mid March, with the semi-finals a month later. The final is normally held the Saturday after the Premier League season finishes in May. The only season in recent times when this pattern was not followed was 1999–2000, when most rounds were played a few weeks earlier than normal as an experiment. As well as being presented with the trophy, the winning team also qualifies for the UEFA Cup (to be renamed the UEFA Europa League from the 2009-10 season onwards). Historically, if the winners have already qualified for the UEFA Champions League via the Premier League, the UEFA Cup place goes to the FA Cup runners-up. However, UEFA has changed the requirements for this runners-up rule. Beginning with the UEFA Europa League, the UEFA Cup place will be given to the highest finishing Premier League team that has not qualified for European competition if the winner of the FA Cup has already qualified. The draw The draw for each round, performed by drawing numbered balls from a bag, is a source of great interest to clubs and their supporters, and is broadcast live on television. Sometimes two top clubs may be drawn against each other in the early rounds, removing the possibility of them meeting in the final. Lower-ranked clubs with reputations as 'giant-killers' look forward to meeting a top team at home, although in some cases the expense of providing policing for a game can outweigh any financial windfall from larger crowds. Mid-ranked teams hope for a draw against a peer to improve their chances of reaching future rounds. Top-ranked teams look for easy opposition, but have to be on their guard against 'giant-killers' and lower teams with ambition. The draw was once broadcast from a television studio, and was done by officials of the Football Association. By 2007 it had become a public event. For the first round proper, it was broadcast live from Soho Square in London, the balls being drawn by famous players. Eligible teams All clubs in the Premier League and Football League are automatically eligible, and clubs in the next six levels of the English football league system are also eligible provided they have played in either the FA Cup, FA Trophy or FA Vase competitions in the previous season. Newly formed clubs that start playing in a high league, such as AFC Wimbledon or FC United of Manchester, may not therefore play in the FA Cup in their first season. All clubs entering the competition must also have a suitable stadium. It is very rare for top clubs to miss the competition, although it can happen in exceptional circumstances. Manchester United withdrew from the 1999-2000 competition due to their participation in the FIFA Club World Championship, although this was highly controversial at the time. Welsh sides that play in English leagues are eligible, although since the creation of the League of Wales there are only six such clubs remaining: Cardiff City, Swansea City, Wrexham, Merthyr Tydfil, Newport County and Colwyn Bay. In the early years other teams from Wales, Ireland and Scotland also took part in the competition, with Glasgow side Queen's Park reaching the final in 1884 and 1885 before being barred from entering by the Scottish Football Association. The number of entrants has increased greatly in recent years. In the 2004–05 season, 660 clubs entered the competition, beating the long-standing record of 656 from the 1921–22 season. In 2005–06 this increased to 674 entrants, in 2006–07 to 687, in 2007–08 to 731 clubs, and in the current 2008–09 competition it has reached 762. record number of entries for 2008/9 By comparison, the other major English domestic cup, the League Cup, involves only the 92 members of the Premier League and Football League. Venues Matches in the FA Cup are usually played at the home ground of one of the two teams. The team who plays at home is decided when the matches are drawn. There is no seeding system in place within rounds other than when teams enter the competition, therefore the home team is simply the first team drawn out for each fixture. Occasionally games may have to be moved to other grounds due to other events taking place, security reasons or a ground not being suitable to host popular teams. In the event of a draw, the replay is played at the ground of the team who originally played away from home. In the days when multiple replays were possible, the second replay (and any further replays) were played at neutral grounds. The clubs involved could alternatively agree to toss for home advantage in the second replay. Traditionally, the FA Cup Final was played at London's Wembley Stadium. Early finals were played in other locations and, due to extensive redevelopment of Wembley, finals between 2001 and 2006 were played at Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. The final returned to Wembley in May 2007. Early finals venues include Kennington Oval, in 1872 and 1874–92, the Racecourse Ground, Derby in 1886, Burnden Park for the 1901 replay, Bramall Lane in 1912, the Crystal Palace Park, 1895–1914, Stamford Bridge 1920–22, and Lillie Bridge, Fulham, London in 1873. The semi-finals are contested at neutral venues; in the past these have usually been the home grounds of teams not involved in that semi-final. The venues used since 1990 were Maine Road (demolished) in Manchester; Old Trafford nearby in Trafford; Hillsborough in Sheffield: Highbury (redeveloped as housing) and Wembley Stadium in London; Millennium Stadium in Cardiff; and Villa Park in Birmingham. Villa Park is the most used stadium, having been used for 55 semi-finals. The 1991 semi-final between Arsenal and Tottenham was the first to be played at Wembley. Two years later both semi-finals were held at Wembley, which was again used for both matches in 1994 and 2000. In 2005 they were both held at the Millennium Stadium. The decision to hold the semi-finals at the same location as the final can be controversial amongst fans However, starting with the 2008 cup, all semi-finals will be played at Wembley; the stadium was not ready for the 2007 semi-finals. For a list of semi-final results and the venues used, see FA Cup Semi-finals. Trophies The second FA Cup trophy, used between 1896 and 1910. At the end of the final, the winning team is presented with a trophy, also known as the "FA Cup", which they hold until the following year's final. Traditionally, at Wembley finals, the presentation is made at the Royal Box, with players, led by the captain, mounting a staircase to a gangway in front of the box and returning by a second staircase on the other side of the box. At Cardiff the presentation was made on a podium on the pitch. The cup is decorated with ribbons in the colours of the winning team; a common riddle asks, "What is always taken to the Cup Final, but never used?" (the answer is "the losing team's ribbons"). However this isn't entirely true, as during the game the cup actually has both teams sets of ribbons attached and the runners-up ribbons are removed before the presentation. Individual members of the teams playing in the final are presented with winners' and runners'-up medals. The present FA Cup trophy is the fourth. The first, the 'little tin idol', was used from the inception of the Cup in 1871–2 until it was stolen from a Birmingham shoe shop window belonging to William Shillcock while held by Aston Villa on 11 September 1895. It was never seen again. The FA fined Villa £25 to pay for a replacement. Almost 60 years later, the thief admitted that the cup had been melted down to make counterfeit half-crowns. The Sunday Times Illustrated History Of Football Reed International Books Limited. 1996. p11. ISBN 1-856-13341-9 The second trophy was a replica of the first, and was last used in 1910 before being presented to the FA's long-serving president Lord Kinnaird. It was sold at Christie's on 19 May 2005 for £420,000 (£478,400 including auction fees and taxes) to David Gold, the chairman of Birmingham City. David Gold has loaned this trophy to the National Football Museum which is housed in Preston North End's Deepdale Stadium and it is on permanent display to the public. A new, larger, trophy was bought by the FA in 1911 designed and manufactured by Fattorini's of Bradford and won by Bradford City in its first outing, the only time a team from Bradford has reached the final. This trophy still exists but is now too fragile to be used, so an exact replica was made by Toye, Kenning and Spencer and has been in use since the 1992 final. A "backup" trophy was made alongside the existing trophy in 1992, but it has not been used so far, and will only be used if the current trophy is lost, damaged or destroyed. (An otherwise identical, smaller replica was also made by Fattorini, the North Wales Coast F A Cup trophy, contested annually by members of that regional Association.) Though the FA Cup is the oldest domestic football competition in the world, its trophy is not the oldest; that title is claimed by the Youdan Cup. The oldest national trophy is the Scottish Cup. Sponsorship Since the start of the 1994–95 season, the FA Cup has been sponsored. However, to protect the identity of the famous competition, the name has never changed from "The FA Cup", unlike sponsorship deals for the League Cup. Instead, the competition has been known as "The FA Cup sponsored by ..." but during 1999–2002, the competition was known as "The AXA Sponsored FA Cup". The competition is formally named "The FA Cup sponsored by E.ON", owing to energy company E.ON sponsoring it for four years from 2006. FA announces new Cup sponsorship From August 2006 to 2014, Umbro will supply match balls for all FA Cup matches. 1995–1998 Littlewoods 1999–2002 AXA 2003–2006 Nationwide 2006–2010 E.ON Giant-killers Aside from the non-top-flight winners mentioned below, the FA Cup has a long tradition of lower-division and non-league teams becoming "giant-killers" by defeating much higher-ranked opponents during earlier rounds. There are various famous giant-killing feats, although it is comparatively rare to occur for a team to beat one more than two divisions above them. The last time a non-league team beat top-flight opposition was Sutton United's victory over Coventry City in 1988–89. Another notable result was in 1969 when in the fifth round Mansfield Town of the Third Division were drawn at home to West Ham United, who were standing sixth in the First Division and who had three World Cup winners in their side: Bobby Moore, Martin Peters and Geoff Hurst along with youngsters Billy Bonds and Trevor Brooking. The game was postponed five times before it finally went ahead on 26 February 1969, on what turned out to be one of the greatest nights in the club’s history. In front of 21,117 at Field Mill, Mansfield won 3–0 and became only the fourth team in cup history to knock out clubs from five different leagues in the same competition. Other giant killings include Hereford United shocking Newcastle United in 1972 with one of the most famous goals in the history of the cup coming from the boot of Ronnie Radford. In 1975, Wimbledon became nationally famous during a spectacular FA Cup run. They were the first non-league team that century to beat a First Division team at its own ground, when they defeated Burnley F.C. 1-0 at Turf Moor in the third round. In the fourth round they held the reigning First Division Champions, Leeds United F.C., to a 0–0 draw at Elland Road, with goalkeeper Dickie Guy saving a penalty from Peter Lorimer, before narrowly losing to an own goal in the replay at Selhurst Park, in front of over 40,000 spectators. Wimbledon went on to win the FA Cup as a First Division side in 1988. Blyth Spartans' 3–2 win at Second Division Stoke City in 1978 saw them progress to the fifth round, where they were beaten by Wrexham in front of over 40,000 fans at Newcastle United's St James' Park. Bristol City's giant killing replay win over Liverpool in 1994 was also notable as being the last game for Graeme Souness. Yeovil Town won more games against league opposition than any other non-league team before their promotion. TheFA.com - Twenty to tackle answers This includes a famous victory over top-flight Sunderland on a sloping pitch in 1949. Chasetown are the lowest ranked team to play in the third round, playing eventual runners-up Cardiff City in the 2007–08 competition. The game took place on 5 January 2008 whilst Chasetown were playing in the Southern League Division One Midlands, the eighth tier of the English football pyramid. Chasetown 1–3 Cardiff. Telford United are perhaps one of the most famous FA Cup giantkillers in recent decades, Defeating football league counterparts Wigan Athletic (1982–83), Stockport County, Northampton, Rochdale (all 1983–84), Lincoln City, Preston North End, Bradford City (all 1984–85), Burnley (1986–87), Stoke City (1991–92). 1984–85 was undoubtedly the club's peak as far as the FA Cup was concerned, the aforementioned victories over Lincoln, Preston and Bradford preceding a tie against Everton at Goodison Park in the fifth round. Telford eventually lost 3-0 to the side who would go on to win the league, after going in 0–0 at half time, but the crowd of 47,000 (swelled by a travelling contingent of around 13,000 from Telford) has not since been bettered at Goodison and the club's achievement of reaching round five has not since been surpassed by any non-league club to this day. Non league clubs reaching Round 5 since 1945 More recently for Telford in 2004 victories against Brentford and Crewe Alexandra led to a run to the fourth round before losing at home to eventual finalists Millwall. Notable events in the FA Cup FA Cup winners and finalists Three clubs have won consecutive FA Cups on more than one occasion: Wanderers (1872, 1873 and 1876, 1877, 1878), Blackburn Rovers (1884, 1885, 1886 and 1890, 1891), and Tottenham Hotspur (1961, 1962 and 1981, 1982). Six clubs have won the FA Cup as part of a League and Cup double, namely Preston North End (1889), Aston Villa (1897), Tottenham Hotspur F.C. (1961), Arsenal (1971, 1998, 2002), Liverpool (1986) and Manchester United (1994, 1996, 1999). Arsenal and Manchester United share the record of three doubles. Arsenal has won a double in each of three separate decades (70s, 90s, 00s). Manchester United's three doubles in the 1990s highlights their dominance of English football at the time. West Bromwich Albion are the only team to date to win the FA Cup and promotion in the same season—in 1930–31. In 1993, Arsenal became the first side to win both the FA Cup and League Cup in the same season, beating Sheffield Wednesday 2–1, in both finals. Liverpool repeated this feat in 2001, as did Chelsea in 2007. In 1998-99, Manchester United added the 1999 Champions League crown to their double, an accomplishment known as the European treble''. Two years later, in 2000-01, Liverpool won the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup to complete a cup treble. Portsmouth have the unusual accolade of holding the FA Cup for the longest unbroken period of time; having won the Cup in 1939, the next final was not contested until 1946, due to the outbreak of the Second World War. The FA Cup has only been won by a non-English team once in its history. Cardiff City were the club to achieve this in 1927 when they beat Arsenal in the final at Wembley. They had previously made it to the final only to lose to Sheffield United in 1925, and lost another final to Portsmouth in 2008. Winners from outside the top flight Since the foundation of the Football League, Tottenham Hotspur in 1901 have been the only non-league winners of the FA Cup. They were then playing in the Southern League and were only elected to the Football League in 1908. At that time the Football League consisted of only two 18-team divisions; Tottenham's victory would be comparable to a team playing at the third level of the English football pyramid (currently League One) winning today. In the history of the FA Cup, only eight teams who were playing outside of the top level of English football have gone on to win the whole competition, the most recent being West Ham United, who beat Arsenal in 1980. Except Tottenham in 1901, these clubs were all playing in the old Second Division, no other Third Division or lower side having so far reached the final. Arguably, one of the most famous of these 'upsets' was when Sunderland A.F.C. beat Leeds United 1–0 in 1973. Leeds were third in the First Division and Sunderland were in the Second. Three years later Second Division Southampton also achieved the same feat as Sunderland against First Division Manchester United by the same 1–0 scoreline. The only team to have won the FA Cup and promotion from the second flight is West Bromwich Albion in the 1930–31 season. The other non-top flight winners of the FA Cup were Barnsley in 1912, Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1908, and Notts County in 1894, who were the first non-top flight team to win the FA Cup since the inception of the league. Thus far the FA Cup final has never been contested by two teams from outside the top flight. Uniquely, in 2007–08, three of the four semi-finalists (Barnsley, Cardiff City and West Bromwich Albion), were from outside the top flight, although Portsmouth F.C. went on to win it. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/fa_cup/7286364.stm FA Cup semi-final draw 2008 Media coverage FA Cup matches are shown live by both ITV1 and Setanta Sports across England and Wales, with UTV and Setanta broadcasting to Northern Ireland and Setanta exclusively to Scotland and the Republic of Ireland. Setanta Sports shows three games and one replay in each round from round three to five, two quarter-finals and one quarter-final replay (if any are required) and one semi-final. ITV shows sixteen FA Cup games per season, including first pick live matches from each of the 1st to 6th rounds of the competition plus one semi-final exclusively live. The deal additionally includes highlights of all weekend and mid-week FA Cup matches. Both ITV and Setanta screen the final live. BBC Radio Five Live provide radio coverage including several full live commentaries. Until the 2008-2009 season the BBC and Sky Sports shared coverage, with the BBC showing three matches in the earlier rounds. The FA Cup 2008–09 early rounds were being covered for the first time by ITV's online property, ITV Local. The first match of the season, between Wantage Town and Brading Town, was broadcast live online. Highlights of eight games of each round were being broadcast as catch up on ITV Local. Since the end of the ITV Local service, it is unknown whether or not this coverage will continue. The FA sells overseas rights separately from the domestic contract. In Australia, FA Cup games are broadcast by Setanta Sports Australia, and the final is also shown on SBS. Meanwhile Setanta Sports North America and Fox Soccer Channel split the rights in the United States. GTV broadcast the tournament in Africa, and Sony Pix television in India. See also FA Cup Final FA Cup Semi-finals List of FA Cup winning managers References External links The FA Cup Archive - England's official Football Association site, all results with dates, including all qualifying rounds The FA Cup sponsored by E.ON Thomas Fattorini Ltd. makers of the 1911 FA Cup - manufacturers of the 1911 FA Cup and other sporting trophies FA Cup going under the hammer - BBC News story on the sale of the second trophy be-x-old:Кубак Ангельшчыны па футболе | FA_Cup |@lemmatized football:23 association:7 challenge:1 cup:84 commonly:1 know:6 fa:64 knockout:2 competition:25 english:10 run:3 name:4 usually:4 refer:1 men:1 tournament:5 although:8 woman:1 also:13 hold:11 sponsor:8 e:6 therefore:3 officially:1 first:28 old:7 world:5 involve:4 club:28 standard:1 play:32 possibility:2 minnow:1 low:8 division:17 become:6 giant:8 killer:5 eliminate:1 top:14 team:46 rarely:1 reach:9 final:51 holder:1 premier:7 league:44 side:10 chelsea:2 beat:10 everton:2 may:7 format:1 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6,911 | Alps | The Alps (; ; ; ; ; ) is the name for one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east; through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany; to France in the west. The highest mountain in the Alps is Mont Blanc, at , on the Italian–French border. All the main peaks of the Alps can be found in the list of mountains of the Alps and list of Alpine peaks by prominence. The English name "Alps" was taken via French from Latin Alpes, which may be ultimately cognate with Latin albus ("white"). The German Albe, Alpe or Alp (f., Old High German alpâ, plural alpûn) in the singular means "alpine pasture", and only in the plural may also refer to the mountain range as a whole. Jacob Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch, s.v. "Albe", "Alpe". The original meaning being "white" (in reference to the permanent snow. The term may be common Italo-Celtic, since Celtic languages also have terms for high mountains derived from alp. German Alpen is the accusative in origin, but was made the nominative in Modern German, whence also Alm. Geography Subdivision The west face of the Petit Dru above the Chamonix valley near the Mer de Glace. The Alps with international borders marked The Großglockner, south of Salzburg, Austria The Alps are generally divided into the Western Alps and the Eastern Alps. The division is along the line between Lake Constance and Lake Como, following the rivers Rhine, Liro and Mera. The Western Alps are higher, but their central chain is shorter and curved; they are located in Italy, France and Switzerland. The Eastern Alps (main ridge system elongated and broad) belong to Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Liechtenstein and Slovenia. The highest peak of the Western Alps is Mont Blanc, at . The highest peak of the Eastern Alps is Piz Bernina, at . The Dufourspitze, and Ortler, Excluding the Piz Zupò and Piz Roseg located in the Bernina range, close to Piz Bernina. , are the second-highest, respectively. The Eastern Alps are commonly subdivided according to the different lithology (rock composition) of the more central parts of the Alps and the groups at its northern and southern fringes: Northern Limestone Alps (from the Wienerwald to Bregenzerwald), including the Flyschzone; peaks up to Central Eastern Alps (Austria, Switzerland); peaks up to Southern Limestone Alps The border between the Central Alps and the Southern Limestone Alps is the Periadriatic Seam. The Northern Limestone Alps are separated from the Central Eastern Alps by the Graywacke Zone. The Western Alps are commonly subdivided with respect to geography: Ligurian Alps Maritime Alps Cottian Alps Dauphiné Alps Graian Alps Chablais Alps Pennine Alps Bernese Alps Lepontine Alps Glarus Alps Appenzell Alps. Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps. (See Alpine geography.) The geologic subdivision is different and makes no difference between the Western and Eastern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the center and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system and parts of the Dinarides (see Alpine geology). Geographically, the Jura Mountains do not belong to the Alps; geologically, however, they do. Main chain The European Alps from space in 2002. The main chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most famous peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna. Principal passes The Alps do not form an impassable barrier; they have been traversed for war and commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing places by road, train or foot are called passes. These are depressions in the mountains into which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones. Four-thousanders The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine 4,000-metre (13,123 ft) summits. The list contains many subpeaks with little prominence, but important for mountaineering. Here are the twelve four-thousanders with at least 1 km prominence. Name Height (metres, feet) Range Mont Blanc Graian Alps Monte Rosa Pennine Alps Dom Pennine Alps Weisshorn Pennine Alps Matterhorn Pennine Alps Grand Combin Pennine Alps Finsteraarhorn Bernese Alps Aletschhorn Bernese Alps Barre des Écrins Dauphiné Alps Gran Paradiso Graian Alps Piz Bernina Bernina Range Weissmies Pennine Alps Karl Blodig was the first person to climb all the major four-thousand metre peaks, circa 1900. Geology and orogeny The Alps form a part of a Tertiary orogenic belt of mountain chains, called the Alpide belt, that stretches through southern Europe and Asia from the Atlantic all the way to the Himalayas. This belt of mountain chains was formed during the Alpine orogeny. A gap in these mountain chains in central Europe separates the Alps from the Carpathians off to the east. Orogeny took place continuously and tectonic subsidence is to blame for the gaps in between. The Alps arose as a result of the collision of the African and European tectonic plates, in which the western part of the Tethys Ocean, which was formerly in between these continents, disappeared. Enormous stress was exerted on sediments of the Tethys Ocean basin and its Mesozoic and early Cenozoic strata were pushed against the stable Eurasian landmass by the northward-moving African landmass. Most of this occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs. The pressure formed great recumbent folds, or nappes, that rose out of what had become the Tethys Sea and pushed northward, often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic thrust faults. Crystalline basement rocks, which are exposed in the higher central regions, are the rocks forming Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps and Hohe Tauern. The formation of the Mediterranean Sea is a more recent development, and does not mark the northern shore of the African landmass. Climate Cloud formation on the Jungfraujoch, Bernese Alps The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world which have cold climates similar to those found in polar areas have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation in the form of snow or rain. Political and cultural history Sunset over the Alps at Telfs, west of Innsbruck Little is known of the early dwellers of the Alps, save from scanty accounts preserved by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus. Also, recent research into Mitochondrial DNA indicates that MtDNA Haplogroup K very likely originated in or near the southeastern Alps approximately 12–15,000 years ago. During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal successfully crossed the Alps along with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, p. 71 This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare. Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes (Langobards, Alemanni, Bavarii) from the 6th to the 13th centuries, the latest expansion corresponding to the Walser migrations. Not until after the final breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 10th and 11th century can the local history of the Alps be traced out. Exploration The higher regions of the Alps, were long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. The two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were H.B. de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833), most of whose ascents were made before 1806, in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. Travel and tourism The Alps are popular both in summer and in winter as a destination for sightseeing and sports. Winter sports (Alpine and Nordic skiing, snowboarding, tobogganing, snowshoeing, ski tours) can be practised in most regions from December to April. In summer, the Alps are popular with hikers, mountain bikers, paragliders, mountaineers, while many alpine lakes attract swimmers, sailors and surfers. The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well served by motorways and main roads, but higher passes and by-roads can be treacherous even in summer. Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad. The Alps typically see more than 100 million visitors a year. Flora A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to , sometimes even to . This region is not always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. Human interference has nearly exterminated them in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found. In many districts where such woods once existed, they have been replaced by the Scots pine and Norway spruce, which are less sensitive to the ravages of goats who are the worst enemies of such trees. Above the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils). Above this is the alpine meadow, and even higher, the vegetation becomes more and more sparse. At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above , including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. Fauna Species common to the Alps. See also Swiss Alps The Alps (film) List of national parks of the Alps References External links Satellite photo of the Alps, taken on 31 August 2005 by MODIS aboard Terra Artistic landscapes of the Western Alps Images from the Alps Many images from Alps, landscape, flowers and wildlife. 360° Panoramic Views in Alps A virtual visit of Western Alps with 360° panoramic images A online picture collection of the Alps More than 2000 pictures of climbing, backcountry skiing, hiking, landscape Photos - Italian Alps - Santa Catarina Photos of alpin swiss landscapes and wildlife (Valais) Discover wildlife of the Alps with 60 representative photos be-x-old:Альпы | Alps |@lemmatized alps:23 name:3 one:3 great:2 mountain:13 range:6 system:4 europe:3 stretch:2 austria:4 slovenia:2 east:3 italy:3 switzerland:4 liechtenstein:2 germany:2 france:2 west:3 high:15 alp:65 mont:4 blanc:4 italian:2 french:3 border:4 main:7 peak:9 find:4 list:5 alpine:15 prominence:3 english:1 take:3 via:1 latin:2 alpes:1 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6,912 | European_Space_Agency | The European Space Agency (ESA), established in 1975, is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 18 member states. Headquartered in Paris, ESA has a staff of close to 2,000 with an annual budget of about €3.6 billion in 2009. ESA's main spaceport is the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana. It is close to the equator, hence commercially important orbits are easier to access. ESA became the market leader in commercial space launches in the 1990s. In recent years, ESA has also established itself as a major player in space exploration. ESA science missions are based at ESTEC in Noordwijk, Netherlands, Earth Observation missions at ESRIN in Frascati, Italy, ESA Mission Control (ESOC) is in Darmstadt, Germany, the European Astronaut Centre (EAC) that trains astronauts for future missions is situated in Cologne, Germany and the European Space Astronomy Centre for space science ESAC is located in Villanueva de la Cañada, close to Madrid in Spain. History Foundation After World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work either in the United States or the Soviet Union. Although the 1950s boom made it possible for Western European countries to invest in research and specifically in space related activities, Western European scientists realised solely national projects would not be able to compete with the two main superpowers. In 1958, only months after the Sputnik shock, Edoardo Amaldi and Pierre Auger, two prominent members of the western European scientific community at that time, met to discuss the foundation of a common western European space agency. The meeting was attended by scientific representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey (UK). The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a launch system ELDO (European Launch Development Organisation) and the precursor of the European Space Agency, and ESRO (European Space Research Organisation) that was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962. From 1968 to 1972, ESRO celebrated its first successes. Seven research satellites were brought into orbit, all by US launch systems. Ariane didn't exist at that time. ESRO's successor organisation ESTEC (European Space Research and Technology Centre, based in Noordwijk, Netherlands) is still a part of ESA, though ESA itself is a much bigger organisation today. ESA in its current form was founded in 1975, when ESRO was merged with ELDO. ESA had 10 founding members: the United Kingdom, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland and Spain. ESA Portal - Press Releases - ESA turns 30! A successful track record for Europe in space ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe. End of space race Beginning in the 1970s, when the space race between the US and the Soviet Union had cooled down and space budgets were cut dramatically in both superpowers, ESA established itself as a forerunner in space exploration. ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the world's first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the Comets Halley and Grigg-Skejllerup. Hipparcos, a star-mapping mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses and the Hubble Space Telescope were all jointly carried out with NASA. Recent scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the Cassini-Huygens space probe, to which ESA contributed by building the Titan landing module Huygens. As the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for unmanned scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward. The next two developments of the Ariane rocket were intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch system, the Ariane 4, which operated between 1988 and 2003 and established ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches in the 1990s. Although the succeeding Ariane 5 experienced a failure on its first flight, it has since firmly established itself within the heavily competitive commercial space launch market with 40 successful launches as of 2009. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. While ESA had relied on cooperation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on information sharing by the United States military) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on cooperation with Russia. A recent press issue thus stated: Russia is ESA's first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. There is a framework agreement between ESA and the government of the Russian Federation on cooperation and partnership in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, and cooperation is already under way in two different areas of launcher activity that will bring benefits to both partners. ESA website article on cooperation (especially with Russia). Most notable for its new self-confidence are ESA's own recent successful missions Smart-1, a probe testing cutting-edge new space propulsion technology, the Mars Express mission as well as the development of the Ariane 5 rocket. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006, a milestone in the search for extrasolar planets. Goals and aims Columbus module docked to International Space Station in 2008 ESA has ambitious space plans that may be divided into three broad categories. First, ESA will maintain its scientific and research projects (e.g. tests and developments of new propulsion systems), try to find ways to reduce costs for its rocket fleet while enhancing its capacities, honour its commitments regarding the ISS and engage in further space exploration like the Venus Express mission that was launched in late 2005. The second category has many parallels to NASA's plans and consists of astronomy-space missions such as the Planck Surveyor studying the cosmic microwave background (2009), the Herschel space observatory (2009), and the Darwin interferometer. While the projects described above are more or less similar in their structure and aim as NASA's and other space agencies' plans, the ESA's Mars project is different. The Aurora Programme lays out a time table for future missions to Mars, however in contrast to NASA's plans there is no emphasis on manned or unmanned lunar missions, it rather includes several flagship missions designed to develop and test technology needed for a manned European Mars mission currently planned for 2030. Among these flagship missions is ExoMars, a mission involving a Mars rover. Until 2005 ExoMars was planned to be a joint mission between NASA and ESA, however obstacles such as American technology law that prohibits sharing of classified space technology information led to ESA deciding to go for it alone. The mission is currently planned to launch in 2013. An even more ambitious Mars project is the Mars Sample Return Mission, that is planned as a follow-up mission to ExoMars. It will involve the first time a probe will return of samples from another planet, making it necessary to construct an ascent module that is capable of starting into Mars orbit and dock with the original probe. Among the actions for returning the investment to society, they have developed the SCOS 2000 satellite control centre, and they allow the use of it free of charge to any European firm. To increase the human value of the participating countries, ESA also develops collaborative training programmes for students, young graduates and Post Doctorals. Some countries have their own bilateral agreements with ESA like the Portuguese trainees or the Spanish Trainees programmes. The return of the trainees to their respective country aims to stimulate their national space industry. In October 2007, ESA announced candidate projects for Cosmic Vision 2015-2025, blueprint of the future scientific program, including Laplace Jupiter probe, Tandem Saturn/Titan/Enceladus probe, Cross-Scale near-Earth space environment study, Marco Polo asteroid sample return mission, Dune and SPACE dark-energy study, Plato new planet finder, SPICA infrared telescope, and XEUS X-ray telescope. Mission Since the Cold War ended with the fall of the Soviet Union's "iron curtain," space agencies around the world had to refocus and revise their visions and goals. In an interview with JAXA, the Japanese national space agency, Jean-Jacques Dordain ESA's Director General (since 2003) outlined briefly the European Space Agency's mission: Interview with Jean-Jacques Dordain by Jaxa in 2005. Member countries and structure ESA is an intergovernmental organisation of 18 member states, that participate to varying degrees in the mandatory (23% of total expenditures or €667 million in 2005) and optional space programs (72% of total expenditures or €2138 million in 2005): ESA annual budget for 2005 Following its ratification of the ESA Convention, Luxembourg has become ESA's 17th Member State with effect from 30 June 2005. According to the Resolution 8, Annex 1, of the Convention for the establishment of the European Space Agency. CONVENTION for the establishment of a European Space Agency, Annex 1 Resolution 8 page 116 all meetings of the agency are held in English, French and German, with translation provided in these three languages. All official documents are available in English and French with all documents concerning the ESA-Council being available in German, as well. Membership esa Founding Members ESA Convention Signature RatificationNational Program 30 May 1975 6 April 1976 SNSB 30 May 1975 19 November 1976 SSO 30 May 1975 26 July 1977 DLR 30 May 1975 15 September 1977 DNSC 30 May 1975 20 February 1978 ASI 30 May 1975 28 March 1978 BNSC 30 May 1975 3 October 1978 BIRA 30 May 1975 6 February 1979 SRON 30 May 1975 7 February 1979 INTA 30 May 1975 30 October 1980 CNES Ireland is considered initial signatory, but since it was not member of neighter ESRO nor ELDO (the precursor organizations to ESA) the convention entered into force when the last of the other 10 founders ratified it. 31 December 1975 10 December 1980 SI Associate members Canada and ESA: Three Decades of Cooperation Signature Entry into force National Program 9 December 1978 Canada and ESA: 20 Years of Cooperation 1 January 1979 CSAESA Convention entry into force: 30 October 1980 Acceded members Enlargement of ESA First Cooperation Agreement ESA Membership National Program 1979 30 December 1986 ASA 1981 30 December 1986 NSC 1 January 1987 1 January 1995 1996 Portugal ESA membership 14 November 2000 CEP January 2001 9 March 2005 ISARS September 2000 30 June 2005 1996 Czech Republic ESA membership 8 July 2008 CSO Associate Members Currently the only associated member of ESA is Canada. Previously associated members were Austria, Norway and Finland, all of which later joined ESA as full members. Canada Since 1 January 1979, Canada has had the special status of a Cooperating State within ESA. By virtue of this accord, the Canadian Space Agency takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's programmes and activities. Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada. Esa Press release 21 June 2000 ESA and Canada long term partnership ESA to participate in Canadian programmes and vice-versa. Despite that the provisions in the ESA Convention do not show restrictions that only European states can join the ESA Council implements such rule de facto and that is why Canada has only the status of associate member. Nevertheless it is as tightly integrated with the ESA institutions as possible for a non-member state. Enlargement After the decision of the ESA Council of 21/22 March 2001 the procedure for accession of the European states was detailised as described here. The Plan for European Co-operating States (PECS) Nations who want to become a full member of ESA do so in three stages. First a Cooperation Agreement is signed between the country and ESA. In this stage the country has very limited financial responsibilities. If a country wants to cooperate more fully with ESA it signs a European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement. The ECS agreement makes companies based in the country eligible for participation in ESA procurements. The country can also participate in all ESA programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research Programme. While the financial contribution of the country concerned increases, it is still much lower that that of a full member state (see below). The agreement is normally followed by a Plan for European Cooperating states (or PECS Charter). This is a five year program of basic research and development activities aimed at improving the nations' space industry capacity. At the end of the five year period the country can either begin negotiations to become a full member state or an associated state or sign a new PECS Charter. PECS: General Overview ESA is likely to expand quite rapidly in the coming years. Many countries, most of which joined the EU in both 2004 and 2007, have started to cooperate with ESA on various levels: ECS countries has been an ECS state since April 2003. It signed the PECS Charter on 5 November 2003 and it got extended for another five years on 26 September 2008. ESA: Hungary and the Czech Republic sign ECS agreements with ESA. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. ESA: Hungary and ESA sign PECS Agreement for another five years. Retrieved on 2008-11-20. has been an ECS state since 17 February. 2006, ESA: Romania becomes third ESA European Cooperating State. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. It signed the PECS Charter on 16 February 2007. ESA: PECS Romania summary. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. has been an ECS state since 27 April 2007. ESA: Poland becomes the fourth ESA European Cooperating State. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. It signed the PECS Charter on 28 April 2008. ESA: Poland and ESA sign the Plan for European Cooperating State. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. Cooperating states signed a Cooperation Agreement with ESA on 15 July 2004. ESA signs Cooperation Agreement with Turkey. signed a Cooperation Agreement with ESA on 26 June 2007. ESA: Estonia signs Cooperation Agreement with ESA. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. signed a Cooperation Agreement with ESA on 25 January 2008. A cooperation agreement between the Government of Ukraine and the European Space Agency was signed in Paris. Retrieved on 2008-01-25. signed a Cooperation Agreement with ESA on 27 May 2008. Slovenian government communication office: Slovenian Government and ESA Sign Cooperation Agreement ESA: Slovenia signs Cooperation Agreement with ESA Applicant states Cooperation agreement ECS Agreement PECS Charters National Program 1996 24 November 2003 1st: 24 November 2004 ESA: 8 July 2008 CSO 1991 Hungary and ESA 7 April 2003 Agreements 2003 1st: 5 November 20032nd: 26 September 2008 HSO 1992 Romania and ESA 17 February 2006 1st: 16 February 2007 ROSA 28 January 1994 ESA-Poland cooperation agreement 27 April 2007 1st: 28 April 2008 CBK-PAN 15 July 2004 TÜBİTAK 26 June 2007 25 January 2008 NSAU 27 May 2008 Possible future cooperation has announced its intention to participate in the activity of ESA. http://www.tvnet.lv/zinas/tehnologijas/mistika/article.php?id=577743 has also announced its intention to participate in the activity of ESA. Lietuva stoja į Europos kosmoso agentūrą (Lithuanian) The rest of the EEA members are: Bulgaria (IKI-BAN), Slovakia, Cyprus, Malta, Iceland and Liechtenstein. 2005 Example budget Paris headquarters The ESA control room in Darmstadt, Germany The budget of ESA was announced as €2.977 billion for 2005 (a ten percent increase on 2004) and for 2006 is estimated at €2.904 billion. ESA Portal - ESA and the EU A large part of ESA's budget is invested in ESA's launch vehicles that are currently the most expensive part of ESA's activities (Twenty-two percent of the budget goes into launch vehicles; human space flight is second in budget expenditures). In 2005, the three largest contributors, together funding two thirds of ESA's budget, are France (29.3%), Germany (22.7%) and Italy (14.2%). Figures regarding the ESA budget and the three biggest contributors to it. An important ministerial conference approved nearly all of ESA's budget requests in December 2005. The budget for the mandatory ESA programme, parts of the optional programme (i.e. optional for ESA's member states such as the ISS involvement) as well as important projects such as Aurora or the EU-backed Galileo navigation system have been approved. No decision has been reached with regard to ESA's involvement in the Russian Kliper project, a feasibility study worth €50 million was not approved. ESA's budget will stay at about the same, however inflation-adjusted, level as 2005 throughout the next 5 years. Countries typically have their own space programs that differ in how they operate organizationally and financially with the ESA. For example, the French space agency CNES has budget of about $2.49 billion USD, while 779 million USD funded the ESA. Also, the ESA is not the only Euro space organization (for example European Union Satellite Centre). esa Members MandatoryContr.OptionalContr.Total(€ mill.)Total (%)National Program 15.63% 31.55% 778.8 26.38% CNES 23.41% 21.45% 614.8 20.83% DLR 12.88% 14.59% 397.9 13.48% ASI 16.93% 5.91% 239.3 8.11% BNSC 6.87% 5.76% 169.0 5.72% INTA 2.83% 7.37% 167.4 5.67% BIRA 3.40% 3.49% 97.3 3.30% SSO 4.43% 2.87% 90.9 3.08% SRON 2.61% 2.11% 62.5 2.11% SNSB 2.26% 0.87% 33.7 1.14% ASA 1.70% 1.02% 33.2 1.12% NSC 1.82% 0.78% 28.8 0.98% DNSC 1.37% 0.54% 20.7 0.70% 0.95% 0.30% 12.8 0.43% SI 1.40% 0.21% 12.7 0.43% CEP 1.50% 0.12% 12.5 0.42% ISARS 0.21% 0.13% 4.2 0.14% ???% ???% 5.1 0.17% CSO Total Member states 100% 99.06% - - Total ESA - 100% 2951.8 100% Note that 5% of ESA's budget comes from third party sources. E.g. Canada. Facilities Headquarters of ESA, Paris, France European Space Operations Centre (ESOC), Darmstadt, Germany Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, French Guiana European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands ESA Centre for Earth Observation (ESRIN), Frascati, Italy European Astronaut Centre (EAC), Cologne, Germany European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC), Madrid, Spain. ESA - ESAC - Contact ESAC ESTRACK European Space Tracking Network European Robotics and Climate Change Centre, Oxford, United Kingdom (Announced). Launch vehicle fleet ESA has made great progress towards its goal of having a complete fleet of launch vehicles in service, competing in all sectors of the launch market. ESA's fleet will soon consist of three major rocket designs, Ariane 5, Soyuz and Vega. Rocket launches are carried out by Arianespace, a CNES subsidiary (a minority share is held by EADS as well), at CNES's spaceport in French Guiana. Because many communication satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from other northern spaceports. In addition, equatorial launches give spacecrafts an extra 'push' of nearly 500 m/s due to the higher rotation velocity of someone standing on the equator than near the Earth's axis where rotation velocity approaches nil. Ariane 5 An Ariane 5 The Ariane 5 rocket is the primary launcher of the ESA. Its maximum estimated payload is 6–10 tons to GTO and up to 21 tons to LEO. The launch craft has been in service since 1997 and replaced the Ariane 4. The Ariane rocket exists in several specifications, the heaviest one of these is the Ariane 5 ECA that failed during its first test flight in 2002, but has since made fifteen consecutive successful flights. ESA's Ariane 1, 2, 3 and 4 launchers (the latter of which was ESA's long time workhorse) have been retired. Soyuz launch vehicle Soyuz is a Russian medium payload (ca. 3 metric tons to GTO) launcher to be brought into ESA service in 2009. Article by ESA on the launch date of Soyuz from French Guiana. ESA has entered into a €340 million joint venture with the Russian Federal Space Agency over the use of the Soyuz launcher. ESA information on the cooperation with Russia on the Soyuz spacecraft. . Under the agreement, the Russian agency manufactures Soyuz rocket parts for ESA, which are then shipped to French Guiana for assembly. ESA benefits because it gains a medium payloads launcher, complementing its fleet while saving on development costs. In addition, the Soyuz rocket—which has been the Russian's space launch workhorse for some 40 years—is proven technology with a good safety record, which ESA might eventually even use for launching humans into space. Russia also benefits in that it gets access to the Kourou launch site. Launching from Kourou rather than Baikonur will allow the Russians to almost double the Soyuz payload (3.0 tonnes vs. 1.7 tonnes), because of Kourou's closer proximity to the equator. Both agencies benefit from the long term strategic cooperation, which is also intended to enable future joint technology developments. Vega Vega is ESA's small payload (ca. 1.5 metric tons to 700 km orbit) launcher; its first launch is planned for 2009. The leading ESA's member state for the Vega Programme is Italy contributing 65% of the costs. Vega itself has been designed to be a body launcher with three solid propulsion stages and an additional liquid propulsion upper module to place the cargo into the exact orbit intended. For a small-cargo rocket it is remarkable that Vega will be able to place multiple payloads into orbit. Vega'''s first and main stage (P80) is a direct modification of Ariane 5 EAP (Solid boosters) developed by the CNES, the French space agency. Human space flight History Ulf Merbold became the first ESA astronaut to fly into space. At the time ESA was formed, its main goals did not encompass human space flight, rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft: It was Czechoslovak Vladimir Remek who in 1978 became the first non-Soviet European in space (the first European in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) — on a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft, followed by the Pole Mirosław Hermaszewski and East German Sigmund Jähn in the same year. This Soviet cooperation programme, known as Intercosmos, primarily involved the participation of Eastern bloc countries, however in 1982, Jean-Loup Chrétien became the first western European on a flight to the Soviet Salyut 7 space station. Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut, but rather as a member of the French CNES astronaut corps, the German Ulf Merbold is considered the first ESA astronaut to fly into space. He participated in the STS-9 Space Shuttle mission that included the first use of the European built Spacelab in 1983. STS-9 marked the beginning of an extensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space flights of ESA astronauts in the following years. Beside paying for seats on the Space Shuttle, ESA continued its human space flight cooperation with the Soviet Union and later Russia, including numerous visits to Mir. During the latter half of the 1980s, European human space flights changed from being the exception to routine and therefore, in 1990, the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany was established. It selects and trains prospective astronauts and is responsible for the coordination with international partners especially with regards to the International Space Station. As of 2006, the ESA astronaut corps officially includes 12 members, including nationals from all the large Western European countries except the United Kingdom. In summer 2008 ESA started to recruit new astronauts so that final selection would be due spring 2009. Almost 10 000 people registered as astronaut candidates till the registration ended 2008-06-18. 8413 fulfilled the initial application criteria. From these individuals 918 were chosen to take part in the first stage of psychological testing which lead to 192 candidates in 2008-09-24. After two stage psychological tests 80 candidates will continue to medical evaluation in January/February 2009. 40 or so candidates will head to a formal interviews to select the four new members to European Astronaut Corps. ESA - Human Spaceflight and Exploration - Closing in on new astronauts Astronaut Corps The astronauts of the European Space Agency are: <small>¹ retired now ² have visited Mir ³ have visited the International Space Station 4 2009 selection Manned launch vehicles In the 1980s France pressed for an independent European manned launch vehicle. Around 1978 it was decided to pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of Hermes was introduced. The craft itself was modelled comparable to the first proposals of the Space Shuttle and consisted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for scientific experiments. With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have been launched on the Ariane 5 rocket, which was being developed at that time. It was planned solely for use in Low-Earth orbit space flights. The planning and pre-development phase concluded in 1991; however, the production phase was never fully implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly. With the fall of the Soviet Union ESA looked forward to cooperation with Russia to build a next-generation human space vehicle. Thus the Hermes program was cancelled in 1995 after about 3 billion dollars had been spent. In the 21st century ESA started new programs in order to create its own manned spacecraft, most notable among its various projects and proposals is Hopper, whose prototype by EADS, called Phoenix, has already been tested. While projects such as Hopper are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, other possibilities for human spaceflight in cooperation with the Russian Space Agency have emerged. Following talks with the Russian Space Agency in 2004 and June 2005, Article in the Guardian from May 22, 2005 a cooperation between ESA and the Russian Space Agency was announced to jointly work on the Russian-designed Kliper, a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond LEO (e.g. the moon or even Mars). It was speculated that Europe would finance part of it. However, a €50 million participation study for Kliper, which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not approved by the ESA member states. The Russian state tender for the Kliper project was subsequently cancelled in the summer of 2006. In June 2006 ESA member states granted 15 million to the Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS) study, a two-year study to design a spacecraft capable of going beyond Low-Earth orbit based on the current Soyuz design. This project is pursued with Roskosmos instead of the previously cancelled Kliper proposal. A decision on the actual implementation and construction of the CSTS spacecraft is contemplated for 2008, with the major design decisions being made before the summer of 2007. Cooperation with other countries and organisations ESA has signed cooperation agreements with the following states that currently neither plan to integrate as tightly with ESA institutions as Canada, nor envision future membership of ESA (as the states listed in the enlargement section): Argentina, Brazil ESA and Brazil , China, India, and Russia. Additionally, ESA has joint projects with the European Union, NASA of the United States and is participating in the International Space Station together with the United States (NASA), Russia and Japan (JAXA). European Union ESA is not an agency or body of the European Union (EU), and has non-EU countries such as Switzerland and Norway as members. There are however ties between the two, with various agreements in place and being worked on, to define the legal status of ESA with regard to the EU. ESA information on its relationship to the EU. There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has an EU liaison office in Brussels. On certain projects, the EU and ESA cooperate, such as the upcoming Galileo satellite navigation system. The EU's new Treaty of Lisbon would make space policy an area for voting in the European Council. This might lead to a more united stance on space policy, and strengthen ties between the EU and ESA. Former Italian astronaut and now Member of the European Parliament Umberto Guidoni stressed the importance of the European Union as a driving force for space exploration, "since other players are coming up such as India and China it is becoming ever more important that Europeans can have an independent access to space. We have to invest more into space research and technology in order to have an industry capable of competing with other international players." Interview with former Italian astronaut Umberto Guidoni last retrieved 28 November 2008 National space organisations of member countries The Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government space agency (administratively, a "public establishment of industrial and commercial character"). Its headquarters are in central Paris. CNES is the main participant on the Ariane project. Indeed CNES designed and tested all Ariane family rockets (mainly from its centre in Evry near Paris) The British National Space Centre (BNSC) is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space. Through the BNSC the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies. Each partner funds its own programme. The Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana or ASI) was founded in 1988 to promote, coordinate and conduct space activities in Italy. Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the president of the Council of Ministers. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies. The German Aerospace Center (DLR) (German: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.'') is the national research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in the Helmholtz Association. Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international cooperative programmes. In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates. The Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA) (Spanish:National Technical Institute for Aerospace) is the spacial agency for Spain. China Since China has started to invest more money into space activities, the Chinese Space Agency has sought international partnerships. ESA is, beside the Russian Space Agency, one of its most important partners. Recently the two space agencies cooperated in the development of the Double Star Mission. Video Interview with David Southwood, Director of Science, ESA at the 2008 UK Space Conference Space.co.uk 29 March 2008 Russia ESA has entered into a major joint venture with Russia in the form of the CSTS, the preparation of French Guyana spaceport for launches of Soyuz rockets and other projects. India ESA sent instruments into space aboard the ISRO's Chandrayaan in 2008. Transcript: Space.co.uk Interview with David Southwood, Director of Science, ESA NASA The Hubble space telescope is a joint project of NASA and ESA JAXA For the BepiColombo mission to Mercury ESA is cooperation with JAXA. International Space Station ISS module Columbus at Kennedy Space Center With regard to the International Space Station (ISS) ESA is not represented by all of its member states Ten of Europe's member states are participating: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Austria, Finland, and Ireland chose not to participate, because of lack of interest or concerns about the expense of the project. The United Kingdom withdrew from the preliminary agreement because of concerns about the expense of the project. Portugal, Greece, Luxembourg and the Czech Republic joined ESA after the agreement had been signed. : 10 of the 18 ESA member countries currently participate in the project. ESA is taking part in the construction and operation of the ISS with contributions such as Columbus, a science laboratory module that was brought into orbit by NASA's STS-122 Space Shuttle mission and the Cupola observatory module that was completed in July 2005 by Alenia Spazio for ESA. The current estimates for the ISS are approaching €100 billion in total (development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of which ESA has committed to paying €8 billion. ESA website on the International Space Station and its share of the costs. About 90% of the costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41%), France (28%) and Italy (20%). German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter was the first long-term ISS crew member. As of 2008, the spacecraft establishing supply links to the ISS are the Progress, Soyuz and Space Shuttle. ESA has developed the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) for ISS resupply. Each ATV has a cargo capacity of . The first ATV, Jules Verne, was launched on 9 March 2008 and on 3 April 2008 successfully docked with the ISS. This manoeuvre, considered a major technical feat, involved using automated systems to allow the ATV to track the ISS, moving at 27,000 km/h, and attach itself with an accuracy of 2 cm. No other spacefaring nations or space agencies currently possess this automatic rendezvous and docking capability, considered key to future space exploration. With the Space Shuttle reaching its retirement age in 2010, until NASA has a replacement for it such as COTS (the CEV is not expected to make its first operational manned flight before 2012) the ATV together with Progress, Soyuz and the Japanese transporter HTV (which will be ready in 2009) will be the only links between Earth and the ISS. See also List of projects of the European Space Agency European Integration#Space European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) European Space Research Organisation (ESRO) References Further reading ESA Bulletin (archive) is a quarterly magazine about the work of ESA that can be subscribed free of charge. Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994). International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space Agency (Frontiers of Space). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-45835-4. Johnson, Nicholas (1993). Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European Space Agency. . Peeters, Walter (2000). Space Marketing: A European Perspective (Space Technology Library). ISBN 0-7923-6744-8. Zabusky, Stacia (1995 and 2001). Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space Science. ISBN B00005OBX2. Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. ISBN 1-85233-722-2. External links ESA Portal – official website European Space Agency – Encarta entry A European strategy for space – Europa European Space Agency – The Space Fellowship esa news category ESA's official YouTube page Space Ireland - Irish space activities MIRAVI - Envisat - Meris Image Rapid Visualization - ESA Satellite Images Earth Snapshot - Web Portal dedicated to Earth Observation. Includes commented satellite images, information on storms, hurricanes, fires and meteorological phenomena. SRRS - Satellite Rapid Response System. 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6,913 | Loch | View across Loch Lomond, towards Ben Lomond. A loch (usually Lough as a name element outside Scotland) is a body of water which is either: a lake or; a sea inlet, which may be also a firth, fjord, estuary or bay. Sea-inlet lochs are often called sea lochs. Background This name for a body of water is Gaelic The word has currency in the following languages: Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Manx and Lowland Scots; in addition to Scottish English, Irish English and Standard English. in origin and is applied to most lakes in Scotland and to many sea inlets in the west and north of Scotland. For a list, see List of lochs in Scotland. As a name element Loch has been anglicised to Lough for many bodies of water in Ireland and for some in the north of England. However, reference to the latter as lochs or loughs (lower case initial), rather than as lakes, inlets and so on, is unusual. For lists, see List of Irish loughs and List of English loughs. Although there is no strict size definition, a small loch is often known as a lochan (so spelled also in Scottish Gaelic; in Irish it is spelled lochán). Perhaps the most famous Scottish loch is Loch Ness, although there are other large examples such as Loch Awe, Loch Lomond and Loch Tay. Examples of sea lochs in Scotland include Loch Long, Loch Fyne, Loch Linnhe, Loch Eriboll, Loch Tristan, Trisloch. The uses of lochs Some new reservoirs for hydroelectric schemes have been given names faithful to the names for natural bodies of water - for example: the Loch Sloy scheme, and Lochs Laggan and Treig (which form part of the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme near Fort William). Other expanses are simply called reservoirs, eg: Blackwater Reservoir above Kinlochleven. Scottish lakes Scotland has very few natural water bodies actually called 'lakes'. The Lake of Menteith, an Anglicisation of the Scots Laich o Menteith meaning a "low-lying bit of land in Menteith", and applied to the loch there because of the similarity of the sounds of the words laich and lake. The Lake of the Hirsel, Pressmennan Lake and Lake Louise, (In the grounds of Skibo Castle), are other bodies of water in Scotland which are called lakes and all are man-made. Some Scots will correct anyone who refers to "lochs" as "lakes". The word "loch" is used as a shibboleth to identify natives of England, because the hard "ch" () sound is used in Scotland whereas most English people pronounce the word like "lock". Lochs beyond Scotland and Ireland As "loch" is a common Gaelic word, it is also found as the root of several Manx placenames. The United States naval port of Pearl Harbor, located on the south coast of the main Hawaiian island of Oahu, is one of a complex of sea inlets. Several of these are named as lochs, viz. South East Loch, Merry Loch, East Loch, Middle Loch and West Loch. Brenton Loch in the Falkland Islands is a sea loch, near Lafonia, East Falkland. See also Lough Firth Fjord Estuary Bay Ria References External links UKLakes Online Database | Loch |@lemmatized view:1 across:1 loch:32 lomond:3 towards:1 ben:1 usually:1 lough:6 name:6 element:2 outside:1 scotland:9 body:6 water:6 either:1 lake:11 sea:7 inlet:5 may:1 also:4 firth:2 fjord:2 estuary:2 bay:2 often:2 call:4 background:1 gaelic:4 word:5 currency:1 following:1 language:1 scottish:5 irish:4 manx:2 lowland:1 scot:3 addition:1 english:5 standard:1 origin:1 apply:2 many:2 west:2 north:2 list:5 see:3 anglicise:1 ireland:2 england:2 however:1 reference:2 latter:1 low:2 case:1 initial:1 rather:1 unusual:1 although:2 strict:1 size:1 definition:1 small:1 know:1 lochan:1 spell:2 lochán:1 perhaps:1 famous:1 ness:1 large:1 example:3 awe:1 tay:1 include:1 long:1 fyne:1 linnhe:1 eriboll:1 tristan:1 trisloch:1 us:1 new:1 reservoir:3 hydroelectric:2 scheme:3 give:1 faithful:1 natural:2 sloy:1 lochs:3 laggan:1 treig:1 form:1 part:1 lochaber:1 near:2 fort:1 william:1 expanse:1 simply:1 eg:1 blackwater:1 kinlochleven:1 actually:1 menteith:3 anglicisation:1 laich:2 mean:1 lie:1 bit:1 land:1 similarity:1 sound:2 hirsel:1 pressmennan:1 louise:1 ground:1 skibo:1 castle:1 man:1 make:1 correct:1 anyone:1 refer:1 lakes:1 use:2 shibboleth:1 identify:1 native:1 hard:1 ch:1 whereas:1 people:1 pronounce:1 like:1 lock:1 beyond:1 common:1 find:1 root:1 several:2 placenames:1 united:1 state:1 naval:1 port:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 locate:1 south:2 coast:1 main:1 hawaiian:1 island:1 oahu:1 one:1 complex:1 viz:1 east:3 merry:1 middle:1 brenton:1 falkland:2 islands:1 lafonia:1 ria:1 external:1 link:1 uklakes:1 online:1 database:1 |@bigram loch_lomond:2 scottish_gaelic:2 lowland_scot:1 loch_ness:1 loch_tay:1 pearl_harbor:1 falkland_islands:1 external_link:1 |
6,914 | Bézout's_identity | In number theory, Bézout's identity or Bézout's lemma is a linear diophantine equation. It states that if a and b are nonzero integers with greatest common divisor d, then there exist integers x and y (called Bézout numbers or Bézout coefficients) such that Additionally, d is the smallest positive integer for which there are integer solutions x and y for the preceding equation. History Bézout's identity is named after Étienne Bézout, who proved it for polynomials. However, this statement for integers can be found already in the work of French mathematician Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac. Algorithm The Bézout numbers x and y as above can be determined with the extended Euclidean algorithm. However, they are not unique. If one solution is given by (x, y), then there are infinitely many solutions. These are given by Example The greatest common divisor of 12 and 42 is 6. Bézout's identity states that there must exist an integer solution for x and y in the following equation: One of its solutions is x = −3 and y = 1: indeed, we have (−3)·12 + 1·42 = 6. Another solution is x = 4 and y = −1. Generalizations Bézout's identity can be extended to linear combinations of more than two numbers. For any numbers with greatest common divisor g there exist integers such that The greatest common divisor of is in fact the smallest positive integer that can be written as a linear combination of . Bézout's identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID). That is, if R is a PID, and a and b are elements of R, and d is a greatest common divisor of a and b, then there are elements x and y in R such that ax + by = d. The reason: the ideal Ra+Rb is principal and indeed is equal to Rd. An integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds is called a Bézout domain. Proof One proof The Euclidean algorithm of Bézout's identity makes use of the division algorithm and the fact that the set of positive integers is well ordered. We can assume WLOG that a and b are positive. Consider the set S of all positive integers of the form am + bn, where m and n are integers. This set is nonempty and so by the well-ordering principle there is a least member, d = ax + by. By the division algorithm, there are also integers q and r such that a = qd + r with 0 ≤ r < d. But r = a − qd = a − q(ax + by) = a(1 − qx) + b(−qy). It follows that r = 0, otherwise contradicting the fact that d is the least element in S. Hence a = qd, i.e. d divides a. Similarly (by applying the division algorithm to b in lieu of a) we find that d divides b. So d is a common divisor of a and b. If c is another common divisor of a and b, then c also divides ax + by = d. By definition, d is the greatest common divisor of a and b, and the proof is complete. See also Extended Euclidean algorithm AF+BG theorem, an analogue of Bézout's identity for polynomials References External links Online calculator of Bézout's identity. | Bézout's_identity |@lemmatized number:5 theory:1 bézout:15 identity:9 lemma:1 linear:3 diophantine:1 equation:3 state:2 b:10 nonzero:1 integer:13 great:6 common:8 divisor:8 exist:3 x:8 call:2 coefficient:1 additionally:1 small:2 positive:5 solution:6 preceding:1 history:1 name:1 étienne:1 prove:1 polynomial:2 however:2 statement:1 find:2 already:1 work:2 french:1 mathematician:1 claude:1 gaspard:1 bachet:1 de:1 méziriac:1 algorithm:7 determine:1 extended:1 euclidean:3 unique:1 one:3 give:2 infinitely:1 many:1 example:1 must:1 following:1 indeed:2 another:2 generalization:1 extend:2 combination:2 two:1 g:1 fact:3 write:1 ring:1 also:4 principal:2 ideal:2 domain:3 pid:2 r:8 element:3 ax:4 reason:1 ra:1 rb:1 equal:1 rd:1 integral:1 hold:1 proof:3 make:1 use:1 division:3 set:3 well:2 order:2 assume:1 wlog:1 consider:1 form:1 bn:1 n:1 nonempty:1 principle:1 least:2 member:1 q:2 qd:3 qx:1 qy:1 follow:1 otherwise:1 contradict:1 hence:1 e:1 divide:2 similarly:1 apply:1 lieu:1 c:2 divides:1 definition:1 complete:1 see:1 af:1 bg:1 theorem:1 analogue:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 calculator:1 |@bigram bézout_identity:9 linear_diophantine:1 diophantine_equation:1 nonzero_integer:1 common_divisor:8 extended_euclidean:1 euclidean_algorithm:3 external_link:1 |
6,915 | Gheorghe_Zamfir | Gheorghe Zamfir ( in Romanian; born April 6 1941) is a Romanian pan flute musician who has received 120 golden and platinum disc awards and sold over 200 million albums. Gheorghe Zamfir - Master of the Pan Pipe - Booking & Management Michow Concerts Hamburg Zamfir is known for playing an expanded version of the traditional Romanian-style pan flute (nai) of 20 pipes to 22, 25, 28 and 30 pipes to increase its range, and obtaining as many as nine tones from each pipe by changing the embouchure. He is widely known as "Zamfir, Master of the Pan Flute". Career Zamfir came to the public eye when he was "discovered" by Swiss ethnomusicologist Marcel Cellier who extensively researched Romanian folk music in the 1960s. Largely through television commercials where he was billed as "Zamfir, Master of the Pan Flute", he introduced the folk instrument to a modern audience and revived it from obscurity. In the United States his commercials were widely seen on CNN in the 1980s. Soundtracks One of his most notable contributions was to the soundtrack for the classic Australian film Picnic at Hanging Rock. His music has also been heard on the soundtracks of many Hollywood movies. He was asked by Ennio Morricone to perform the pieces "Childhood Memories" and "Cockeye's Song" for the soundtrack of Sergio Leone's 1984 gangster film Once Upon A Time In America, his music is heard throughout the 1984 film The Karate Kid, and his song "The Lonely Shepherd", penned by James Last and recorded with the James Last Orchestra, is featured in Quentin Tarantino's film Kill Bill Vol. 1. Bibliography Zamfir has written an instructional book, Traitė Du Naï Roumain: méthode de flûte de pan, Paris: Chappell S.A., 1975, ISBN 88-8291-286-8, and an autobiography Binecuvântare şi blestem ("Blessing & Curses"), Arad: Mirador, 2000, ISBN 973-9284-56-6. Personal life Zamfir was born April 6 1941, in Găeşti, Romania. Although initially interested in becoming an accordionist, at the age of 14 he began his pan flute studies. He continued his education at the Bucharest Academy of Music where he was a student of Fanica Luca at the Conservatory of Bucharest, Romania in (1968). He currently resides and teaches pan flute in Bucharest. He has a 22 year old son who currently resides in Montreal, Canada, also a musician. References See also List of honorific titles in popular music External links | Gheorghe_Zamfir |@lemmatized gheorghe:2 zamfir:8 romanian:4 bear:2 april:2 pan:8 flute:6 musician:2 receive:1 golden:1 platinum:1 disc:1 award:1 sell:1 million:1 album:1 master:3 pipe:4 booking:1 management:1 michow:1 concert:1 hamburg:1 know:2 play:1 expanded:1 version:1 traditional:1 style:1 nai:1 increase:1 range:1 obtain:1 many:2 nine:1 tone:1 change:1 embouchure:1 widely:2 career:1 come:1 public:1 eye:1 discover:1 swiss:1 ethnomusicologist:1 marcel:1 cellier:1 extensively:1 research:1 folk:2 music:5 largely:1 television:1 commercial:2 bill:2 introduce:1 instrument:1 modern:1 audience:1 revive:1 obscurity:1 united:1 state:1 see:2 cnn:1 soundtracks:1 one:1 notable:1 contribution:1 soundtrack:3 classic:1 australian:1 film:4 picnic:1 hang:1 rock:1 also:3 hear:2 hollywood:1 movie:1 ask:1 ennio:1 morricone:1 perform:1 piece:1 childhood:1 memory:1 cockeye:1 song:2 sergio:1 leone:1 gangster:1 upon:1 time:1 america:1 throughout:1 karate:1 kid:1 lonely:1 shepherd:1 pen:1 james:2 last:2 record:1 orchestra:1 feature:1 quentin:1 tarantino:1 kill:1 vol:1 bibliography:1 write:1 instructional:1 book:1 traitė:1 du:1 naï:1 roumain:1 méthode:1 de:2 flûte:1 paris:1 chappell:1 isbn:2 autobiography:1 binecuvântare:1 şi:1 blestem:1 blessing:1 curse:1 arad:1 mirador:1 personal:1 life:1 găeşti:1 romania:2 although:1 initially:1 interested:1 become:1 accordionist:1 age:1 begin:1 study:1 continue:1 education:1 bucharest:3 academy:1 student:1 fanica:1 luca:1 conservatory:1 currently:2 reside:2 teach:1 year:1 old:1 son:1 montreal:1 canada:1 reference:1 list:1 honorific:1 title:1 popular:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram pan_flute:6 ennio_morricone:1 sergio_leone:1 quentin_tarantino:1 blessing_curse:1 bucharest_romania:1 external_link:1 |
6,916 | Concordat_of_Worms | Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor entered into an agreement with Pope Calistus II in 1122 which was known as the Concordat of Worms. The Concordat of Worms, sometimes called the Pactum Calixtinum by papal historians, was an agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V on September 23, 1122 near the city of Worms. It brought to an end the first phase of the power struggle between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Emperors and has been interpreted Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, "Popes, Kings, and Endogenous Institutions: The Concordat of Worms and the Origins of Sovereignty", International Studies Review 2.2, Continuity and Change in the Westphalian Order (Summer 2000), pp. 93-118: his thesis briefly expressed at the outset, is that "the development of important institutions of the modern sovereign state are partially an endogenous product of strategic maneuvering between the Catholic Church and European kings over political control within their domains" (p. 93). as containing within itself the germ of nation-based sovereignty that would one day be confirmed in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648); in part this was an unforeseen result of strategic maneuvering between the Church and the European sovereigns over political control within their domains. The King was recognized as having the right to invest bishops with secular authority ("by the lance") in the territories they governed, but not with sacred authority ("by ring and staff"); the result was that bishops owed allegiance in worldly matters both to the pope and to the king, for they were obligated to affirm the right of the sovereign to call upon them for military support, under his oath of fealty. Previous Holy Roman Emperors had thought it their right, granted by God, to name the Pope, as well as other Church officials, such as bishops. One long-delayed result was an end to the belief in the divine right of kings. A more immediate result of the Investiture struggle identified a proprietary right that adhered to sovereign territory, recognizing the right of kings to income from the territory of a vacant diocese and a basis for justifiable taxation. These rights lay outside feudalism, which defined authority in a hierarchy of personal relations, with only a loose relation to territory. Bueno de Mesquita 2000, p. 95, The Pope emerged as a figure above and out of the direct control of the Holy Roman Emperor. Following efforts by Lamberto Scannabecchi (later Pope Honorius II) and the Diet of Würzburg (1121) in 1122, Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V entered into an agreement which effectively brought to an end the Investiture Controversy. By the terms of the agreement, the election of bishops and abbots in Germany was to take place in the emperor's presence as judge between potentially disputing parties, free of bribes, thus retaining to the emperor a crucial role in choosing these great territorial magnates of the Empire. Beyond the borders of the Empire, in Burgundy and Italy, the Emperor was to forward the symbols of authority within six months. Calixtus' reference to the feudal homage due the emperor on appointment is guarded: "shall do unto thee for these what he rightfully should" was the wording of the privilegium granted by Calixtus. The Emperor's right to a substantial imbursement on the election of a bishop or abbot was specifically denied. The Emperor renounced the right to invest ecclesiastics with ring and crosier, the symbols of their spiritual power, and guaranteed election by the canons of cathedral or abbey and free consecration. The two ended by granting one another peace. The Concordat was confirmed by the First Council of the Lateran in 1123. The Concordat of Worms was a part of the larger reforms put forth by many popes, most notably Pope Gregory VII. These included celibacy of the clergy, end of simony and autonomy of the Church from secular leaders, known as lay investiture. Inheritance and alienation The most prized and contested rights that attached to benefices were inheritance and security against confiscation. Benefices were lands granted by the Church to faithful lords. In exchange, the Church expected rent or other services, such as military protection. These lands would then be further divided between lesser lords and commoners. This was the nature of European feudalism. Inheritance was an important issue, since land could fall into the hands of those who did not have loyalty to the Church or the great lords. The usual grant was in precaria, the granting of a life tenure, whereby the tenant stayed on the land only at the pleasure of the lord. The tenant could be expelled from the land at any time. His tenancy was precarious. Counts’ benefices came to be inherited as counties were broken up and as counts assimilated their offices and ex-officio lands to their family property. In central Europe, kings and counts probably were willing to allow the inheritance of small parcels of land to the heirs of those who had offered military or other services in exchange for tenancy. This was contingent on the heirs being reasonably loyal and capable. Churches in Germany, as elsewhere, were willing to allow peasants to inherit their land. This was a source of profit to both churches and lords when the inheritors were charged a fee to inherit the land. Most bishops had a different attitude toward freemen and nobles. To these peasants, grants were made in precario or in beneficio, usually for a specified and limited number of life tenures. It was not impossible to recover land left to noble families for generations. But the longer the family held church land, the more difficult it was to oust them from the land. Some church officials came to view granting land to noble families amounted to outright alienation. Urkundenbuch mittelrhein. Terr., I. No. 168,; Dip. Hein. II, no, 433 Reg. Hist. Westfaliae, no. 198 Reynolds, Susan, p. 430 “Fiefs and Vassals”, Oxford, 1994 By the twelfth century great churches in Germany, like those elsewhere were finding it difficult to hold out against the accumulation of lay custom and lay objections to temporary inheritance. The Bishop of Worms issued a statement in 1120 indicating the poor and unfree should be allowed to inherit tenancy without payment of fees. It appears to have been something novel. Reynolds, S. p. 431, ibid. The growing masses of unfree and the marginal were needed for labor, and to bolster the military of both nobility and the church. By the time of Henry IV, bargaining by the peasants for the benefit of the group was the norm. Dip. Hein. IV, no. 125 Reynolds, S. p. 431 Gregorian Reform Pope Gregory VII began reforms which resulted in the Concordat of Worms. The Ottonian Dynasty which came to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire were of the opinion they should have the power to appoint the pope. They also believed they should appoint minor church officials as well. The result was that more often than not, bishops, abbots of monasteries and even the pope were not independent, but resembled lackeys or sycophants of the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. This attitude was bolstered by the general conception that the Holy Roman Emperor and all other European Kings were chosen by God to be leaders. For temporal secular reasons, the kings did nothing to dispel this attitude. It meant more power for them. This condition began to be directly challenged by a series of popes. The most vocal and strident was Pope Gregory VII. The time was ripe for reform, although it would take a century. It would mean greater autonomy for the papcy and the Church in general. In the period which immediately followed the year 1000 two figures appeared to be leading Christendom, the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. Antagonism between the two dominated the next century. After the death of Pope Silvester II in 1003, the papacy fell under the influence of the nobility in Latium, and then after 1046, under the influence of the German emperors. The reality for the west in the Middle Ages was not only the fact that government was split up into small particles but also the fact that vertical and horizontal powers were entangled. People in the Middle Ages did not always know to which of the many lords, the Church and the individual churches, the towns, princes, and kings, they were subordinate. This can be observed in the complexity even at the administrative and judicial level in the jurisdictional conflicts with which medieval history is filled. Le Goff “Medieval Civilization”, p. 96 The Church endeavored to become disengaged from the German control. An example of this secular politicization is seen when Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor supported Pope Benedict IX, the most corrupt of any of the popes of the era. It took more than a century to end this manipulation, and was never complete. In the process, the whole Church emerged freed from the grip of all lay lords. This was known as the Gregorian Reform, which takes its name from Pope Gregory VII, (1073-85) . It was merely the latest and most visible of reforms that tended to move the Church back to its roots. It was a question of restoring the autonomy and power of the priestly class in the face of increasing control by the warrior class. Le Goff, p. 96, ibid. The clergy was forced to renew and define itself. There was a battle against simony. The roadmap to celibacy was drawn, if not immediately enacted. Monarchs were excluded from selecting popes. This had been decreed by Pope Nicholas II in 1059. Afterward, only cardinals could elect the pope. Gregorian Reform reiterated this notion. There was to be no more lay interference in the selection of clergy. The aim was to deprive emperors and their under-lords the right to nominate and invest bishops. The effect was to deprive lay kings power over the Church and increase both spiritual and temporal power in the Vatican and the bishops. Le Goff, p. 96, ibid. Gregory VII appeared to have succeeded when the emperor Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor was humiliated at Canossa in 1077. There, Henry begged in the snow to be let back into the good graces of the Church, having been excommunicated the year before by Gregory. The penitent and humbled emperor did not remain in that state. Soon Henry IV took his revenge. He named his own pope Antipope Clement III in the old manner of the Holy Roman Emperors. Pope Urban II, more prudent than Gregory sidestepped the issue using a Crusade to gather Christian Europe together under his authority. The compromise was reached in Worms in 1122, by which the emperor abandoned investiture “by ring and staff” to the pope, and promised to respect the freedom of elections and consecrations, but kept for himself the right to invest bishops with the temporalities of their sees “by scepter”. Le Goff, p. 96, ibid Though the Emperor retained some power over the imperial churches, the factor which damaged his power irreparably was that he lost the religious authority which normally and formerly had belonged to the office of the king. In France, England and the Christian state in Spain, the king was able to overcome rebellions of his magnates and to establish the power of his royal demesne, because he could rely on the backing of the Church, which for several centuries had been more than willing to give him a mystical authority. From time to time, rebellious and recalcitrant monarchs might afoul of the Church. These could be excommunicated, and after an appropriate time and public penance, be received back into the communion and good graces of the Church. Davis, R. H. C., p. 256, “ A History of Medieval Europe”, Longmans, 1966 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV begging forgiveness of Pope Gregory VII at Canossa, the castle of the Countess Matilda, 1077. Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor was one of those monarchs who found himself excommunicated. After 1080, he never showed any indication of repentance, and therefore remained excommunicate for twenty-six years (1080-1106). He was unrepentant to the end. Davis, p. 256, ibid. The issue had revolved around the problem of investiture. The German Kings had been the worst offenders, naming not only bishops, but popes as well. Gregory VII condemned lay investiture. Henry in turn called a council of bishops who proclaimed Gregory illegitimate. Gregory excommunicated Henry in 1076. In the process, he released all subjects of Henry from obedience to him. It led to a great political struggle with many barons rising against Henry in open rebellion. Henry made his way to the Canossa where the Pope was staying in the castle of Countess Matilda. Henry wished to repent. The pope was suspicious of the king’s motives, and did not believe he was truly repentant. Henry did penance in the snow outside the castle for three days. Finally, Gregory gave absolution to him. The rebellious nobles in Germany who were interested in deposing Henry IV never forgave Pope Gregory VII for what they viewed as treachery. By 1080, Henry had shown enough of a recalcitrant attitude that Gregory excommunicated him for good. There was no going back after this point. Dahmus, Joseph, p. 228-229, “The Middle Ages, A Popular History”, Doubleday and Company, Inc. Garden City, New York, 1969 It was the consequence of this lengthy episode that a whole generation grew up in Germany and Northern Italy in an atmosphere of war, doubt and scepticism. The papal backers had been busy propounding arguments to show that royal power was not of divine origin. They had been so successful that the moral authority of the Emperor had been undermined in the minds of many of his subjects. Serious divisions existed from this battle over the Investiture controversy which served to fracture large portions of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany and Italy. Davis argues these rifts were so deep and lasting that neither Germany nor Italy were able to form a cohesive nation state until the nineteenth century. A similar situation arose from the French revolution which caused tears in France which exist to this day. Davis, p. 256, 257, ibid. The effect of Henry’s excommunication, and his subsequent reluctance to repent left a turbulence in central Europe which lasted throughout the Middle Ages. It may have been emblematic of certain German attitudes toward religion in general, and the perceived relevance of the German Emperor in the universal scheme of things. Henry IV became so filled with hubris over his position, that he renounced Gregory VII and named the bishop of Ravenna pope. Perhaps he was only following what had been thought to be the right of kings: to name the Pope. Henry had invested the Ravenna bishop, and now he referred to the new pope, Clement III, Antipope Clement III as “our pope”. Henry attacked Rome, and on the outskirts of the city gained thirteen cardinals who became loyal to his cause. On Palm Sunday, 1084, Henry IV solemnly enthroned Clement at St. Peter’s Basilica and on Easter Day, Clement returned the favor and crowned Henry IV as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Gregory VII was meanwhile still resisting a few hundred yards away from the basilica in the Castel San Angelo, then know as the house of Cencius. Davis, p. 252,253, ibid. Gregory appealed to the Normans Contemporary illustration of Henry IV (left) and Anti-pope Clement III (center). for help, and Robert Guiscard responded, entering Rome in May 27, 1084, rescuing him. In the process, Rome was pillaged and partially burned. Gregory VII died the next year on May 25, 1085 in exile. He felt all was lost. The last words he uttered were, ‘I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile.” Davis, p. 253, 254, ibid. Gregory VII must have felt he died in utter failure, and to many of his contemporaries it appeared Henry IV and Antipope Clement III have won. But the underlying current was that Henry had overreached, and his appointment of the antipope was beyond the pale. Upon the death of Gregory, the cardinals elected a new pope, Victor III. He owed his elevation to the influence of the Normans. Antipope Clement III still occupied St. Peter’s. When Victor III died, the cardinals elected Urban II (1088-99). He was one of three men Gregory VII had suggested to be his successor. Urban II preached the First Crusade which united Western Europe, and more importantly, reconciled the majority of bishops who had abandoned Gregory VII. In the end, Gregorian Reform won out over Henry IV. Davis, p. 253-254, ibid. Preaching the Crusade had one important consequence. The Pope was now viewed as the head of the Church. No longer would kings and emperors think themselves equals of the pope, or the head of the Church in their kingdom. This was the situation from 1122 until the Reformation. Davis, p.255, ibid. Several years later, Henry IV died in a deep gloom as had Gregory. It remained for his successor, Henry V to agree with Pope Calixtus II in 1122 to a compromise of the conflict over lay investitures known as the Concordat of Worms. Dahmus, p. 228- 229, ibid. The reign of Henry IV showed the weakness of the German monarchy. The ruler was dependent upon the good will of the great men, the nobility of his land. These were technically royal officials and hereditary princes. He was also dependent on the resources of the churches. Henry IV alienated the Church of Rome and many of the magnates in his own kingdom. Many of these spent years in open or subversive rebellion. Henry failed to create a proper bureaucracy which could take the place of his disobedient vassals. The magnates became increasingly independent, and the Church withdrew support. Henry IV spent the last years of his life desperately grasping to keep his throne. It was a greatly diminished kingdom. Strayer, Joseph, p. 215-216, “The Middle Ages, 395-1500, 4th Edition” Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. 1959 Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor The German Emperors flew this banner prior to 1300. The reign of Henry IV ended with a diminished kingdom and waning power. Many of his underlords had been in constant or desultory revolt for years. Henry IV’s insistence that Antipope Clement III was the real pope had initially been popular with some of the nobles, and even many of the bishops of Germany. But as years passed, this support was slowly withdrawn. The idea that the German king could and should name the pope was increasingly discredited and viewed as an anachronism from a by-gone era. The Empire of the Ottos was virtually lost because of Henry IV. Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor was cold-blooded, shrewd and utterly unscrupulous. He realized swift action and a change in his father's policy was necessary. Henry had extorted the throne from his weakened father, Henry IV. Pope Paschal II rebuked Henry V for appointing bishops in Germany. The king crossed the Alps with an army in 1111. The pope, who was weak and had few supporters was forced to suggest a compromise. Henry would be given greater control over the lands in his kingdom, especially those which had been in the hands of the church, but of contested title. Churchmen would avoid secular services. The church would be given autonomy and Henry V got large parts of his empire that his father had lost restored. Henry V was crowned by Pope Paschal II as the legitimate Holy Roman Emperor. When the concessions of land were read in St. Peters, the crowd revolted in anger. Henry took the pope and cardinals hostage until the pope granted Henry V the right of investiture. Then he returned to Germany - emperor and victor over the papacy. Strayer p. 215, ibid. The victory was as short lived as that of his father, Henry IV over Gregory VII. The clergy urged Paschal to rescind his agreement, which he did in 1112. The quarrel followed the predictable course: Henry V rebelled and was excommunicated. Riots broke out in Germany, a new Antipope Gregory VIII was appointed by the German king, nobles loyal to Rome seceded from Henry. The civil war continued, just as under Henry IV. It dragged on for another ten years. Like his father before him, Henry V was faced with waning power. He had no choice but to give up investiture and the old right of naming the pope. The Concordat of Worms was the result. After the Concordat, the German kings never had the same control over the Church as had existed in the time of the Ottonian Dynasty. Strayer, p. 215, 216, ibid. Henry V died without heirs in 1125, three years after the Concordat. He had designated his nephew, Frederick von Staufen duke of Swabia, also known as Frederick II, Duke of Swabia as his successor. Instead, churchmen elected Lothar III. A long civil war erupted between the Staufen also known as Hohenstaufen supporters and the heirs of Lothar III. The result was the Hohenstaufen Frederick I (Barbarossa) 1152-1190 who came to power. Jordan, William C., p. 146, "Europe in the High Middle Ages, Penguin History of Europe”, Viking, 2003 Charter of Liberties The agreement reached at Bec Abbey in 1107 was essentially the same as the Concordat of Worms. The Concordat of Worms was foreshadowed by the Charter of Liberties of Henry I of England. He was the youngest son of William the Conqueror. Through a series of political intrigues, Henry I gained the English throne in 1100. Henry had three problems: (1) Conflict with the Church and Anselm of Canterbury in particular. (2) The earls and barons of England did not accept Henry as their king. (3) The Anglo-Saxon populace did not accept him. Henry reconciled with the Church and Anselm. He married Edith, the daughter of the Scots King Malcolm III. The Anglo-Saxon population was ameliorated because they viewed Edith as one of their own. Henry signed and issued the Charter of Liberties in 1100 from the Norman Chapel in the Topwer of London. This gave concessions to the earls and barons, as well as the Church. The investiture issue was still contentious, but a compromise was made at Bec Abbey in 1107 which was essentially the same as that of the Concordat of Worms. Fawtier, Robert, “The Capetian Kings of France”, London (1964), p. 31 Dahmus, J., p. 290, ibid. Concordat of London, 1107 The Concordat of London in 1107 was a forerunner of the compromise that was taken up in the Concordat of Worms. In England, as in Germany, the conflict between Church and State was rife. A distinction was being made in the king's chancery between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates. Bowing to political reality, Henry I of England ceded his right to invest his bishops and abbots and reserved the custom of requiring them to come and do homage. The system of vassalage was not divided among great local lords in England as it was in France, for by right of the Conquest the king was in control. Henry I of England perceived a danger in placing monastic scholars in his chancery and turned increasingly to secular clerks, some of whom held minor positions in the Church. He often rewarded these men with the titles of bishop and abbot. Henry I expanded the system of scutage to reduce the monarchy's dependence on knights supplied from church lands. Unlike the situation in Germany, Henry I of England used the investiture controversy was to strengthen the secular power of the king. It would continue to boil under the surface. The controversy would surface in the Thomas Becket affair under Henry II of England, the Great Charter of 1217, the Statutes of Mortmain and the battles over Cestui que use of Henry VII of England, and finally come to a head under Henry VIII of England. Result of the Concordat of Worms The Cathedral of Worms was 10 years old when the Concordat was issued there in 1122. Of the three reforms Gregory VII and his predecessors and successor popes had attempted, they had been most successful in regard to celibacy of the clergy. Simony had been partially checked. Against lay investiture they won only a limited success, and one that seemed less impressive as the years passed. During the time following the Concordat of Worms, the Church gained in both stature and power. Thorndike, Lynn, pp. 293-294 “The History of Medieval Europe, Third Edition”, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1956 According to the terms of the compromise, the election of bishops and abbots was to follow proper procedure, that is, the canons of the cathedral were to elect the bishop. The monks were to choose the abbot. This was a minimum that the church had demanded. The compromise consisted in the pope’s agreeing that the king or his representative should have the right to be present at such elections in order to decide in case of any dispute between candidates. What this meant in effect was that the king would have the bishop he wanted, although some prelate would invest the new bishop with the insignia of the office. As William of Champeaux has assured Henry V, he had nothing to lose by surrendering the right of investiture. In the Concordat of Worms the church had accepted a face-saving concession. The king retained substantially what he already possessed, that is the power to fill bishoprics with men of his own choice. Nevertheless, Gregory VII’s dramatization of the issue did produce a significant improvement of the character of men raised to the episcopacy. Kings no longer interfered so frequently in their election, and when they did they generally nominated more worthy candidates for the office. Dahmus, J. P. 229, ibid. The writing in the document was ambiguous, skirted some issues and avoided others all together. This has caused some scholars to conclude that the settlement was one that turned its back on the genuine hopes for reform of Gregory VII and Urban II. The emperor’s influence in episcopal was preserved, and he could decide disputed elections. If the compromise was a rebuke to the most radical vision of the liberty of the Church, on at least one point its implication was firm and unmistakable: The king, even an emperor was a layman. Dispelled was the belief that the king was someone specially appointed by the grace of God. The divine right of kings was forever dealt a blow from which it never completely recover. Jordan, William C., p. 99 “Europe in the Middle Ages, Penguin History of Europe” Viking, 2003 There exists a misconception concerning the power of the pope in the Middle Ages. Tradition affords him more power and authority than he actually possessed. It is likely the Pope in modern ages is much more powerful than those in medieval times. The most powerful of all medieval popes was Innocent III. His pronouncements on doctrinal matters and the judgments of his court were considered definitive and final. Opposing the medieval pope was the primary and unyielding authority of the state. The struggle over investiture between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor had dramatized the clash between church and state. The Concordat of Worms had eased the situation for a generation. But in the end, it solved nothing. Practically speaking, the king retained a decisive voice in the selection of the hierarchy. All kings supported King John of England’s defiance of Pope Innocent III ninety years after the Concordat of Worms in the matter concerning Stephen Langton. In theory, the pope named his bishops and cardinals. In reality, more often than not, Rome consecrated the clergy once it was notified by the kings who the incumbent would be. Recalcitrance by Rome would lead to problems in the kingdom. For the most part it was a no-win situation for Rome. In this, the Concordat of Worms changed little. The growth of canon law in the Ecclesiastical Courts was based on the underlying Roman law and increased the strength of the Roman Pontiff. Dalmus, J., p. 320, ibid. The English Church was left more or less in the power of the English monarchy. This was the result of the Charter of Liberties, 1100, and the agreement at Bec in 1107. The effect of the Concordat of Worms was different. It ended a civil war that had been going on for more than fifty years. There was no going back to the situation that had preceded it. The political and social structure of Germany had forever been altered. The new generation of cardinals regarded German investiture with contempt and as an embarrassing vestige of the past. They were willing to make concessions with Henry V and his successors in order to get along. The belief after the Concordat was that investiture and the era of theocratic kingship was a discredited doctrine. The German kings had a different view of the matter. Henry V and his successors still believed they had the right and ability to name bishops. In practice, this was true, but only in the territories held by their families. Their domain in the religious sphere had been greatly diminished. Cantor, N., p. 301, “Medieval History”, Macmillan, 1969 The Avignon Papacy occurring several centuries after the Concordat indicated there was continued interference in the papacy by kings. The catastrophic political consequences of the struggle between pope and emperor also led to a cultural disaster. Germany lost intellectual leadership in western Europe. In 1050, German monasteries were great centers of learning and art and German schools of theology and canon law were unsurpassed and probably unmatched anywhere in Europe. The long civil war over investiture sapped the energy of both German churchmen and intellectuals. They fell behind advances in philosophy, law, literature and art taking place in France and Italy. In many ways, Germany never caught up during the rest of the Middle Ages. Cantor, N, p. 303, ibid. Universities were established in France, Italy and England by the early 1200s. Notable are University of Bologna, 1088, University of Paris, 1150, Oxford University, 1167 and Cambridge University, 1207. The first German university, the University of Heidelberg was not established until 1386. It was immediately steeped in medieval nominalism and early Protestantism. Kings continued to attempt to control either the direct leadership of the church, or indirectly through political means for centuries. This is seen most clearly in the Avignon Papacy when the popes moved from Rome to Avignon. The conflict in Germany and northern Italy arguably left the culture ripe for various Protestant sects, such as the Cathars, the Waldensians and ultimately Hus and Luther. Text of the Concordat Pope Calixtus was of the House of Burgundy. The following is an English translation of the Concordat of Worms. It consisted of two parts: Henry IV and Henry V were of the House of Franconia. Notes Biography Le Goff, Jacques Medieval Civilization 400-1500 Barnes and Noble, New York, 1964 Reynolds, Susan Fiefs and Vassals, The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted, Oxford University Press, 1994 Davis, R. H. C. “A History of Medieval Europe, From Constantine to Saint Louis”, Longmans, Ninth Printing, 1966 Dahmus, Joseph, The Middle Ages, A Popular History, Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York, 1968 Cantor, Norman F., Medieval History, The Life and Death of a Civilization, The Macmillan Company, Collier-Macmillian Limited, London, Second Printing, 1969 Strayer, Joseph R., The Middle Ages, 395-1500, Fourth Edition, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. 1959 Jordan, William Chester, Europe in the High Middle Ages, (Penguin History of Europe), Viking Press, 2001 Thorndike, Lynn The History of Medieval Europe, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1956 See also Investiture Controversy Charter of Liberties List of medieval universities Statutes of Mortmain Quia Emptores Cestui que First Council of the Lateran External links Concordat: text in English | Concordat_of_Worms |@lemmatized henry:73 v:17 holy:21 roman:23 emperor:38 enter:3 agreement:7 pope:59 calistus:1 ii:17 know:8 concordat:29 worm:23 sometimes:1 call:3 pactum:1 calixtinum:1 papal:2 historian:1 calixtus:6 september:1 near:1 city:4 bring:2 end:11 first:5 phase:1 power:22 struggle:5 papacy:6 interpret:1 bruce:1 bueno:2 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6,917 | B._F._Skinner | Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform, B. F. Skinner, (1948) Walden Two. The science of human behavior is used to eliminate poverty, sexual oppression, government as we know it, create a lifestyle without that such as war. and poet. B. F. Skinner, (1970) "On 'Having' A Poem" talks about the poem, its publication, and contains the poem and a reply to it as well. Real Audio mp3 Ogg He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/skinner.htm He invented the operant conditioning chamber, innovated his own philosophy of science called Radical Behaviorism, B. F. Skinner, About Behaviorism and founded his own school of experimental research psychology—the experimental analysis of behavior. His analysis of human behavior culminated in his work Verbal Behavior, which has recently seen enormous increase in interest experimentally and in applied settings. see Verbal Behavior for research citations. He discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological research. He invented the cumulative recorder to measure rate of responding as part of his highly influential work on schedules of reinforcement. B. F. Skinner, (1938) The Behavior of Organisms. C. B. Ferster & B. F. Skinner, (1957) Schedules of Reinforcement. In a recent survey, Skinner was listed as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century. Review of General Psychology, June, 2002, pp. 139-152. He was a prolific author who published 21 books and 180 articles. http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~allanr/biblio.html, accessed on 5-20-07. For another bibliography, see Biography B. F. Skinner was born on March 19, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania to Grace and William Skinner. His father was a lawyer. His brother Edward, two and a half years his junior, died at age sixteen of a cerebral hemorrhage. He attended Hamilton College in New York with the intention of becoming a writer. While attending, he joined Lambda Chi Alpha Fraternity. He wrote for the school paper, but as an atheist, he was critical of the religious school he attended. Paraphrased from He received his B.A in English literature in 1926. After graduation, he spent a year at his parents' home in Scranton, attempting to become a writer of fiction. He soon became disillusioned with his literary skills and concluded that he had little world experience and no strong personal perspective from which to write. During this time, which Skinner later called "the dark year," he chanced upon a copy of Bertrand Russell's recently published book An Outline of Philosophy, in which Russell discusses the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist John B. Watson. At the time, Skinner had begun to take more interest in the actions and behaviors of those around him, and some of his short stories had taken a "psychological" slant. He decided to abandon literature and seek admission as a graduate student in psychology at Harvard University. While a graduate student, he invented the operant conditioning chamber and cumulative recorder, developed the rate of response as a critical dependent variable in psychological research, and developed a powerful, inductive, data-driven method of experimental research. During this time Skinner was influenced by the physiologist Crozier. Skinner received a PhD from Harvard in 1931, and remained there as a researcher until 1936. He then taught at the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis and later at Indiana University, where he was chair of the psychology department from 1946–1947, before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained at Harvard for the rest of his career. In 1936 Skinner married Yvonne Blue (1911–1997); the couple had two daughters, Julie (m. Vargas) and Deborah (m. Buzan). He died of leukemia in 1990 and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Theory Skinner conducted pioneering and innovated his own school of Radical Behaviorism, which seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences. He is known as the inventor of the operant conditioning chamber (or Skinner box), a research tool used to examine the orderly relations of the behavior of organisms (such as rats, pigeons and humans) to their environment. He is the author of Walden Two, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Verbal Behavior, Science and Human Behavior and numerous other books and articles. He discovered what is now called operant conditioning and articulated the now widely accepted term reinforcement as a scientific principle of behavior. His position reflects the extension of the influence of physicist Ernst Mach's The Science of Mechanics to the subject of psychology. Mecca Chiesa, (1997) Radical Behaviorism: the philosophy and the science. Skinner's pioneering research reflected the dual influence of whole organism research in Ivan Pavlov and Jacques Loeb. Pauly, P. J. {187} ``Controlling Life: Jacques Loeb and the Engineering Ideal in Biology, OUP, New York`` Loeb might have influenced Skinner through J.B. Watson as he was Watson's adviser briefly, but more likely through Crozier who was the head of Physiology at Harvard when Skinner was . Inventions Air crib In an effort to help his wife cope with the day to day tasks of child rearing, Skinner – a consummate inventor – thought he might be able to improve upon the standard crib. He invented the 'air-crib' to meet this challenge. An 'air-crib' A photograph of one is in an archive here Picture taken from the LHJ article (also known as a 'baby tender' or humorously as an 'heir conditioner') is an easily-cleaned, temperature and humidity-controlled box Skinner designed to assist in the raising of babies. It was one of his more controversial inventions, and was popularly mischaracterized as cruel and experimental. Snopes.com "One Man and a Baby Box", accessed on 12-29-07. It was designed to make the early childcare more simple (by greatly reducing laundry, diaper rash, cradle cap, etc.), while encouraging the baby to be more confident, mobile, comfortable, healthy and therefore less prone to cry. Reportedly it had some success in these goals. Air-cribs were later commercially manufactured by several companies. Air-cribs of some fashion are still used to this day, and publications continue to dispel myths about, and tout the progressive advantages of Skinner's invention. A 2004 book by Lauren Slater Slater, L. (2004) Opening Skinner's Box; Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century, London, Bloomsbury caused much controversy by mentioning claims that Skinner had used his baby daughter in some of his experiments. Although the book itself said that the claims were groundless, this nuance was missed in some responses, including a vehement and public denial of the claims by his daughter Deborah Skinner-Buzan herself. Deborah claims that despite her father's view, the air crib had no effect on her in her later years. "I was not a lab rat" (Guardian) Cumulative recorder The cumulative recorder is an instrument used to automatically record behavior graphically. Initially, its graphing mechanism has consisted of a rotating drum of paper equipped with a marking needle. The needle would start at the bottom of the page and the drum would turn the roll of paper horizontally. Each response would result in the marking needle moving vertically along the paper one tick. This makes it possible for the rate of response to be calculated by finding the slope of the graph at a given point. For example, a regular rate of response would cause the needle to move vertically at a regular rate, resulting in a straight diagonal line rising towards the right. An accelerating or decelerating rate of response would lead to a curve. The cumulative recorder provided a powerful analytical tool for studying schedules of reinforcement. Operant conditioning chamber While at Harvard, B. F. Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber to measure organic responses and their orderly interactions with the environment. This device was an example of his lifelong ability to invent useful devices, which included whimsical devices in his childhood B. F. Skinner, (1984) Particulars of My Life. Devices included a potato shooting machine and a perpetual motion machine, as well as a device to separate ripe from unripe berries. to the cumulative recorder to measure the rate of response of organisms in an operant chamber. Even in old age, Skinner invented a Thinking Aid to assist in writing. B. F. Skinner, (1987) "A Thinking Aid," Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 379–380. Teaching machine The teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction The teaching machine was a mechanical device whose purpose was to administer a curriculum of programmed instruction. It housed a list of questions, and a mechanism through which the learner could respond to each question. Upon delivering a correct answer, the learner would be rewarded. Pigeon Guided Missile The US Navy required a weapon effective against the German Bismarck class battleships. Although missile and TV technology existed, the size of the primitive guidance systems available rendered any weapon ineffective. Project Pigeon Skinner, B. F. (1960). Pigeons in a pelican. American Psychologist, 15, 28-37. Reprinted in: Skinner, B. F. (1972). Cumulative record (3rd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,pp. 574-591. Described throughout Skinner, B. F. (1979). The shaping of a behaviorist: Part two of an autobiography. New York: Knopf. was potentially an extremely simple and effective solution, but despite an effective demonstration it was abandoned as soon as more conventional solutions were available. The project centered around dividing the nose cone of a missile into three compartments, and encasing a pigeon in each. The compartments for each had a video image of what was in front of them, and the pigeons would peck toward the object, thereby directing the missile. Skinner complained "our problem was no one would take us seriously." The point is perhaps best explained in terms of human psychology (i.e., few people would trust a pigeon to guide a missile no matter how reliable it proved). Radical behaviorism Finding the behaviorism of his time to be problematic, Skinner branched off his own version he called Radical Behaviorism which unlike methodological behaviorism did not require truth by consensus so it could accept private events such as thinking, perception and emotion in its account. Also, unlike all of the other behaviorists such as Tolman, Hull and Clark, Skinner's version radically rejected mediating constructs and the hypothetico-deductive method, B. F. Skinner, (1950) "Are Theories of Learning Necessary?" instead offering a strongly inductive, data driven approach that has proven to be successful in dozens of areas from behavioral pharmacology to language therapy in the developmentally delayed. Verbal Behavior Challenged by Alfred North Whitehead during a casual discussion while at Harvard to provide an account of a randomly provided piece of verbal behavior B. F. Skinner, (1957) Verbal Behavior. The account in the appendix is that he asked Skinner to explain why he said "No black scorpion is falling on this table." Skinner set about attempting to extend his then-new functional, inductive, approach to the complexity of human verbal behavior. Developed over two decades, his work appeared as the culmination of the William James lectures in the book, Verbal Behavior. Although Noam Chomsky was highly critical of Verbal Behavior, he conceded that it was the "most careful and thoroughgoing presentation of such speculations", even though he apparently never read it, confusing Skinner's stance with "S-R psychology" A. N. Chomsky, (1957) "A Review of BF Skinner's Verbal Behavior." in the preface, 2nd paragraph as a reason for giving it "a review." Verbal Behavior had an uncharacteristically slow reception, partly as a result of Chomsky's review, paired with Skinner's neglect to address or rebut any of Chomsky's condemnations. Richelle, M. (1993). B.F. Skinner: A reappraisal. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Skinner's peers may have been slow to adopt and consider the conventions within Verbal Behavior due to its lack of experimental evidence—unlike the empirical density that marked Skinner's previous work. J. Michael, (1984) "Verbal Behavior," Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 42, 363–376. However, Skinner's functional analysis of verbal behavior has seen a resurgence of interest in applied settings. Influence on education Skinner influenced education as well as psychology. He was quoted as saying "Teachers must learn how to teach ... they need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching." Skinner asserted that positive reinforcement is more effective at changing and establishing behavior than punishment, with obvious implications for the then widespread practice of rote learning and punitive discipline in education. Skinner also suggests that the main thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid punishment. Skinner says that there are five main obstacles in learning: People have a fear of failure. The task is not broken down into small enough steps. There is a lack of directions. There is also a lack of clarity in the directions. Positive reinforcement is lacking. Skinner suggests that any age-appropriate skill can be taught using five principles to remedy the above problems Give the learner immediate feedback. Break down the task into small steps. Repeat the directions as many times as possible. Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks. Give positive reinforcement. Skinner's views on education are extensively presented in his book the Technology of teaching. It is also reflected in Fred S. Keller's Personalized system of instruction and Ogden R. Lindsley's Precision Teaching. Walden Two and Beyond Freedom & Dignity Skinner is popularly known mainly for his books Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. The former describes a visit to an imaginary utopian commune in 1940s United States, where the productivity and happiness of the citizens is far in advance of that in the outside world because of their practice of scientific social planning and use of operant conditioning in the raising of children. Walden Two, like Thoreau's Walden, champions a lifestyle that does not support war or foster competition and social strife. It encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure. Ramsey, Richard David, Morning Star: The Values-Communication of Skinner's Walden Two, Ph.D. dissertation, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, December 1979, available from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Attempts to analyze Walden Two, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, and other Skinner works in the context of Skinner's life; lists over 500 sources. In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner suggests that a technology of behavior could help to make a better society. We would, however, have to accept that an autonomous agent is not the driving force of our actions. Skinner offers alternatives to punishment and challenges his readers to use modern technology for more than just war; science can be used, he holds, to better society. Schedules of reinforcement Part of Skinner's analysis of behavior involved not only the power of a single instance of reinforcement, but the effects of particular schedules of reinforcement over time. Skinner's types of schedules of reinforcement involved: interval (fixed or variable) and ratio (fixed or variable). Continuous reinforcement — constant delivery of reinforcement for an action; every time a specific action was performed the subject instantly and always received a reinforcement. This method is prone to extinction and is very hard to enforce. Interval (fixed/variable) reinforcement (Fixed) — reinforcement is set for certain times. (Variable) — times between reinforcement are not set, and often differ. Ratio (fixed or variable) reinforcement (Fixed) — deals with a set amount of work needed to be completed before there is reinforcement. (Variable) — amount of work needed for the reinforcement differs from the last. Political views Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control – a technology of human behavior – could help problems unsolved by earlier approaches or aggravated by advances in technology such as the atomic bomb. One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself. see Beyond Freedom and Dignity, 1974 for example He did not see the problems of political control as a battle of domination versus freedom, but as choices between what kinds of control were used for which purposes. Skinner opposed the use of coercion, punishment or fear, and supported the use of positive reinforcement. Skinner's book, Walden Two, presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society, which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems. Skinner's utopia, like every other utopia or dystopia, is both a thought experiment and a rhetorical piece. In his book, Skinner answers the problem that exists in many utopian novels – "What is the Good Life?" In Walden Two, the answer is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to one's society. This was to be achieved through behavioral technology, which could offer alternatives to coercion, as good science applied correctly would help society, and allow all people to cooperate with each other peacefully. Skinner described his novel as "my New Atlantis", in reference to Bacon's utopia. A matter of Consequences, p. 412. He opposed corporal punishment in the school, and wrote a letter to the California Senate that helped lead it to a ban on spanking. Superstition in the pigeon One of Skinner's experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the pigeon. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon "at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behavior." He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they subsequently continued to perform these same actions. ECON 252, Lecture 8 by Professor Robert Schiller at Yale University Skinner suggested that the pigeons behaved as if they were influencing the automatic mechanism with their "rituals" and that this experiment shed light on human behavior: Modern behavioral psychologists have disputed Skinner's "superstition" explanation for the behaviors he recorded. Subsequent research (for instance, by Staddon and Simmelhag in 1971) while finding similar behavior failed to find support for Skinner's "adventitious reinforcement" explanation for it. By looking at the timing of different behaviors within the interval, Staddon and Simmelhag were able to distinguish two classes of behavior: the terminal response, which occurred in anticipation of food, and interim responses, that occurred earlier in the interfood interval and were rarely contiguous with food. Terminal responses seem to reflect classical (rather than operant) conditioning, rather than adventitious reinforcement, guided by a process like that observed in 1968 by Brown and Jenkins in their "autoshaping" procedures. The causation of interim activities (such as the schedule-induced polydipsia seen in a similar situation with rats) also cannot be traced to adventitious reinforcement and its details are still obscure (Staddon, 1977). Timberlake & Lucas, (1985) "JEAB" Awards 1968 - National Medal of Science from President Lyndon B. Johnson 1971 - Gold Medal of the American Psychological Foundation 1972 - Humanist of the Year Award * Link to an audio recording of B. F. Skinner's address to the American Humanist Association upon receipt of the 1972 Humanist of the Year Award.http://www.archive.org/details/BehaviorismIsAHumanisticPsychology 1990 - Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Criticism J.E.R. Staddon As understood by Skinner, ascribing dignity to individuals involves giving them credit for their actions. To say "Skinner is brilliant" means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner's determinist theory is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did. Skinner's environment and genetics both allowed and compelled him to write his book. Similarly, the environment and genetic potentials of the advocates of freedom and dignity cause them to resist the reality that their own activities are deterministically grounded. J. E. R. Staddon (The New Behaviorism, 2001) has argued the compatibilist position, that Skinner's determinism is not in any way contradictory to traditional notions of reward and punishment, as he believed . Noam Chomsky Perhaps Skinner's best known critic, Noam Chomsky published a review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior two years after it was published. The review (1959) became better known than the book itself. It has been credited with launching the cognitive movement in psychology and other disciplines. Skinner, who rarely responded directly to critics, never formally replied to Chomsky's critique. Many years later, Kenneth MacCorquodale's reply On Chomsky's Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior was endorsed by Skinner, and was assessed an effective refutation of Chomsky's critique by Roddy Roediger, writing in defense of behaviorism in the 2004 Association for Psychological Science Observer. APS Observer: What Happened to Behaviorism Chomsky also reviewed Skinner's Beyond Freedom and Dignity, utilizing the same basic motifs as his Verbal Behavior review. Among Chomsky's critiques were that Skinner's laboratory work could not be extended to humans, that when it was extended to humans it represented 'scientistic' behavior attempting to emulate science but which was not scientific, that Skinner was not a scientist because he rejected the hypothetico-deductive model of theory testing, that Skinner had no science of behavior, and that Skinner's works were highly conducive to justifying or advancing totalitarianism. A. N. Chomsky, (1972) "The Case Against B. F. Skinner." Written works The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, 1938. ISBN 1-58390-007-1, ISBN 0-87411-487-X. Walden Two, 1948. ISBN 0-02-411510-X. Science and Human Behavior, 1953. ISBN 0-02-929040-6. Schedules of Reinforcement, with C. B. Ferster, 1957. ISBN 0-13-792309-0. Verbal Behavior, 1957. ISBN 1-58390-021-7. The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction, with James G. Holland, 1961. This self-instruction book is no longer in print, but the B.F. Skinner Foundation web site has an interactive version. ISBN 0-07-029565-4. The Technology of Teaching, 1968. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts Library of Congress Card Number 68-12340 E 81290 Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis, 1969. ISBN 0-390-81280-3. Beyond Freedom and Dignity, 1971. ISBN 0-394-42555-3. About Behaviorism, 1974. ISBN 0-394-49201-3, ISBN 0-394-71618-3. Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography, 1976. ISBN 0-394-40071-2. Reflections on Behaviorism and Society, 1978. ISBN 0-13-770057-1. The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography, 1979. ISBN 0-394-50581-6. Notebooks, edited by Robert Epstein, 1980. ISBN 0-13-624106-9. Skinner for the Classroom, edited by R. Epstein, 1982. ISBN 0-87822-261-8. Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management, with M. E. Vaughan, 1983. A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography, 1983. ISBN 0-394-53226-0, ISBN 0-8147-7845-3. Upon Further Reflection, 1987. ISBN 0-13-938986-5. Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior, 1989. ISBN 0-675-20674-X. Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers, 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition. This book includes a reprint of Skinner's October 1945 Ladies' Home Journal article, "Baby in a Box," Skinner's original, personal account of the much-misrepresented "Baby in a box" device. ISBN 0-87411-969-3 (paperback) Articles by B. F. Skinner Two Types of Conditioned Reflex and a Pseudo Type (1935), Journal of General Psychology, 12, 66-77. "Superstition" in the Pigeon (1947), Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172. Are Theories of Learning Necessary?, Psychological Review, 57, 193-216, 1950. See also Applied behavior analysis Experimental analysis of behavior Project Pigeon Shaping (psychology) Visual learning Authors on Skinner Bjork, D. W. (1993) B.F. Skinner: a life Dews, P. B. (Ed.)(1970) Festschrift For B. F. Skinner.New York : Appleton-Century-Crofts. Evans, R. I. (1968) B. F. Skinner: the man and his ideas Nye, Robert D. (1979) What Is B. F. Skinner Really Saying?. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall. Sagal, P. T. (1981) Skinner's Philosophy. Washington, D.C. : University Press of America. Skinner, B.F. (1976) Particulars of my life: Part 1 of an Autobiography Skinner, B.F. (1979) The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part 2 of an Autobiography Skinner, B.F. (1983) A Matter of Consequences: Part 3 of an Autobiography Smith, D.L. (2002). On Prediction and Control. B.F. Skinner and the Technological Ideal of Science. In W.E. Pickren & D.A. Dewsbury, (Eds.), Evolving Perspectives on the History of Psychology, Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Wiener, D. N. (1996) B.F. Skinner: benign anarchist References Notes Bibliography Chiesa, M. (2004).Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science ISBN Epstein, R. (1997) Skinner as self-manager. Journal of applied behavior analysis. 30, 545-569. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on: June 2, 2005 from http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/articles/1997/jaba-30-03-0545.pdf Pauly, P. J. {1987} Controlling Life: Jacques Loeb and the Engineering Ideal in Biology, OUP, New York ISBN Further reading Sundberg, M.L. (2008) The VB-MAPP:The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program Basil-Curzon, L. (2004) Teaching in Further Education : A outline of Principles and Practice Hardin, C.J. (2004) Effective Classroom Management Kaufhold, J. A. (2002) The Psychology of Learning and the Art of Teaching External links B. F. Skinner homepage Yale Psychology Video Lecture - B. F. Skinner National Academy of Sciences biography The B. F. Skinner Foundation B.F. Skinner profile, NNDB Los Horcones Walden Two Community I was not a lab rat, response by Skinner's daughter about the "baby box" Audio Recordings Society for Experimental Analysis of Behavior Youtube Video Skinner and Teaching Machine | B._F._Skinner |@lemmatized burrhus:1 frederic:1 skinner:114 march:2 august:1 american:5 psychologist:5 author:4 inventor:3 advocate:2 social:5 reform:1 b:39 f:32 walden:12 two:19 science:16 human:11 behavior:51 use:12 eliminate:1 poverty:1 sexual:1 oppression:1 government:1 know:6 create:1 lifestyle:3 without:1 war:3 poet:1 poem:3 talk:1 publication:2 contain:1 reply:3 well:4 real:1 audio:3 ogg:1 edgar:1 pierce:1 professor:3 psychology:17 harvard:8 university:7 retirement:1 http:4 www:2 muskingum:1 edu:3 psych:1 psycweb:1 history:3 htm:1 invent:7 operant:9 conditioning:7 chamber:6 innovate:2 philosophy:6 call:4 radical:6 behaviorism:14 found:1 school:5 experimental:11 research:9 analysis:14 culminate:1 work:13 verbal:19 recently:2 see:8 enormous:1 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6,918 | Leap_year | A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing one or more extra days (or, in the case of lunisolar calendars, an extra month) in order to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar, February in a leap year has 29 days instead of the usual 28 so the year lasts 366 days instead of the usual 365. Because seasons and astronomical events do not repeat in a whole number of days, a calendar that had the same number of days in each year would, over time, drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. A year that is not a leap year is called a common year. Gregorian calendar In the Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, most years that are divisible by 4 are leap years. In each leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28. Adding an extra day to the calendar every four years compensates for the fact that a period of 365 days is shorter than a solar year by almost 6 hours. However, some exceptions to this rule are required since the duration of a solar year is slightly less than 365.25 days. Years that are divisible by 100 are not leap years, unless they are also divisible by 400, in which case they are leap years. Royal Observatory, Greenwich: Leap years USNO (U.S. Naval Observatory): Leap Years For example, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. Similarly, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2500, 2600, 2700, 2900, and 3000 will not be leap years, but 2400 and 2800 will be. By this rule, the average number of days per year will be 365 + 1/4 − 1/100 + 1/400 = 365.2425, which is 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 seconds. The Gregorian calendar was designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon—i.e. a full moon—that falls on or after March 21) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox. E.G. Richards, Mapping time: The calendar and its history, p. 240, ISBN 0-19-282065-7 The vernal equinox year is about 365.242374 days long (and increasing). The marginal difference of 0.000125 days between the Gregorian calendar average year and the actual year means that, in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it is now. But in 8,000 years, the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount that cannot be accurately predicted (see below). Therefore, the current Gregorian calendar suffices for practical purposes, and the correction suggested by John Herschel of making 4000 a non-leap year will probably not be necessary. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.pngThis graph shows the variation between the seasonal year and the calendar year due to unequally spaced 'leap days' rules. See Iranian calendar to contrast with a calendar based on 8 leap days every 33 years. Algorithm This algorithm determines leap years on the proleptic Gregorian calendar, which includes leap years before the official inception in 1582. Pseudocode to determine whether a year is a leap year or not: if year modulo 16 is 0 then leap else if year modulo 100 is 0 then no_leap else if year modulo 4 is 0 then leap else no_leap A more direct algorithm (terms may be grouped either way): function isLeapYear (year): if ((year modulo 4 is 0) and (year modulo 100 is not 0)) or (year modulo 16 is 0) then true else false Leap day February 29 is a date that usually occurs every four years, and is called leap day. This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure, because the earth does not orbit around the sun in precisely 365 days. The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunisolar calendar and named many of its days after the syzygies of the moon: the new moon (Kalendae or calends, hence "calendar") and the full moon (Idus or ides). The Nonae or nones was not the first quarter moon but was exactly one nundinae or Roman market week of nine days before the ides, inclusively counting the ides as the first of those nine days. In 1825, Ideler believed that the lunisolar calendar was abandoned about 450 BC by the decemvirs, who implemented the Roman Republican calendar, used until 46 BC. The days of these calendars were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so February 24 was ante diem sextum Kalendas Martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March") often abbreviated a. d. VI Kal. Mar. The Romans counted days inclusively in their calendars, so this was actually the fifth day before March 1 when counted in the modern exclusive manner (not including the starting day). Thomas Hewitt Key, Calendarium (1875) The Republican calendar's intercalary month was inserted on the first or second day after the Terminalia (a. d. VII Kal. Mar., February 23). The remaining days of Februarius were dropped. This intercalary month, named Intercalaris or Mercedonius, contained 27 days. The religious festivals that were normally celebrated in the last five days of February were moved to the last five days of Intercalaris. Because only 22 or 23 days were effectively added, not a full lunation, the calends and ides of the Roman Republican calendar were no longer associated with the new moon and full moon. The Julian calendar, which was developed in 46 BC by Julius Caesar, and became effective in 45 BC, distributed an extra ten days among the months of the Roman Republican calendar. Caesar also replaced the intercalary month by a single intercalary day, located where the intercalary month used to be. To create the intercalary day, the existing ante diem sextum Kalendas Martii (February 24) was doubled, producing ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martii. Hence, the year containing the doubled day was a bissextile (bis sextum, "twice sixth") year. For legal purposes, the two days of the bis sextum were considered to be a single day, with the second half being intercalated, but common practice by 238, when Censorinus wrote, was that the intercalary day was followed by the last five days of February, a. d. VI, V, IV, III and pridie Kal. Mar. (which would be those days numbered 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28 from the beginning of February in a common year), i.e. the intercalated day was the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter), continued to state that the bissextum (bissextile day) occurred before the last five days of February. Until 1970, the Roman Catholic Church always celebrated the feast of Saint Matthias on a. d. VI Kal. Mar., so if the days were numbered from the beginning of the month, it was named February 24 in common years, but the presence of the bissextum in a bissextile year immediately before a. d. VI Kal. Mar. shifted the latter day to February 25 in leap years, with the Vigil of St. Matthias shifting from February 23 to the leap day of February 24. Other feasts normally falling on February 25–28 in common years are also shifted to the following day in a leap year (although they would be on the same day according to the Roman notation). The practice is still observed by those who use the older calendars. Julian, Coptic and Ethiopian calendars The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years evenly divisible by four. The Coptic calendar and Ethiopian calendar also add an extra day to the end of the year once every four years before a Julian 29-day February. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. However, it is 11 minutes longer than a real year. This means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 131 years. Revised Julian calendar The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by four, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to March 21. Chinese calendar The Chinese and Korean calendars are lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month (二月) then it is simply called "leap second month" (). Hebrew calendar The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolismic month. This extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Bet (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years (specifically, in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19). In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting days of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath. In particular, the first day of the Hebrew year can never be Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This rule is known in Hebrew as "lo adu rosh" (לא אד"ו ראש), i.e. "Rosh [ha-Shanah, first day of the year] is not Sunday, Wednesday or Friday" (as the Hebrew word adu is written by three Hebrew letters signifying Sunday, Wednesday and Friday). Accordingly, the first day of Pesah (Passover) is never Monday, Wednesday or Friday. This rule is known in Hebrew as "lo badu Pesah", which has a double meaning — "Pesah is not a legend", but also "Pesah is not Monday, Wednesday or Friday" (as the Hebrew word badu is written by three Hebrew letters signifying Monday, Wednesday and Friday). One reason for this rule is that Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Hebrew calendar, must never be adjacent to the weekly Sabbath (which is Saturday), i.e. it must never fall on Friday or Sunday, in order not to have two adjacent Sabbath days. However, Yom Kippur can be on Saturday. Years consisting of 12 months have between 353 and 355 days. In a k'sidra ("in order") 354-day year, months have alternating 30 and 29 day lengths. In a chaser ("lacking") year, the month of Kislev is reduced to 29 days. In a malei ("filled") year, the month of Cheshvan is increased to 30 days. 13-month years follow the same pattern, with the addition of the 30-day Adar Alef, giving them between 383 and 385 days. Islamic calendar In the Islamic calendar, leap days are not used. The Qur'an says: The months in the Islamic calendar have 29 or 30 days. Calendars with leap years synchronized with Gregorian The Indian National Calendar and the Revised Bangla Calendar of Bangladesh organise their leap years so that the leap day is always close to February 29 in the Gregorian calendar. This makes it easy to convert dates to or from Gregorian. The Bahá'í calendar is structured such that the leap day always falls within Ayyám-i-Há, a period of four or five days corresponding to Gregorian February 26 – March 1. Because of this, Baha'i dates consistently line up with exactly one Gregorian date. The Thai solar calendar uses the Buddhist Era (BE), but has been synchronized with the Gregorian since AD 1941. Hindu calendar In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maasa (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons. Adhika maasa occurs once every two or three years, compensating for the approximately eleven fewer days per year in twelve lunar months than the solar calendar. Thus, Hindu festivals tend to occur within a given span of the Gregorian calendar. For example: the No Moon during Diwali festival tends to occur between October 22 and November 15. Buddhist calendars in several related forms (each a simplified version of the Hindu calendar) are used on mainland Southeast Asia in the countries of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar (formerly Burma) and Sri Lanka. The calendar followed in some parts of South India (mainly in Tamil Nadu) is solar. It has a leap year every four years. Iranian calendar The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Tehran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years. Long term leap year rules The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap days in years evenly divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years evenly divisible by 4,000. Google search for 4000-year rule. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind. The Straight Dope with 4000-year rule ) A system of 128-year-based leap years has been proposed, Julian Date Calculator and it can be adopted directly without any modification to current leap year calculations until the year 2048 because no year between now and 2048 is divisible by 128. This rule gives a mean year of 365 + 1/4 − 1/128 = 365.2421875 days, which is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 45 seconds, or one second short of the mean tropical year. However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years. Folk traditions In the English speaking world, it is a tradition that women may propose marriage only on leap years. While it has been argued that the tradition was initiated by Saint Patrick or Brigid of Kildare in 5th century Ireland, it is dubious as the tradition has not been attested before the 19th century. The Privilege of Ladies by Barbara Mikkelson Supposedly, a 1288 law by Queen Margaret of Scotland (then age five and living in Norway), required that fines be levied if a marriage proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to £1 to a silk gown, in order to soften the blow. Virtually no laws of Margaret survive. Indeed, none concerning her subjects are recorded in the twelve volume Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland (1814–75) covering the period 1124–1707 (two laws concerning young Margaret herself are recorded on pages 424 & 441–2 of volume I). Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to the modern leap day, February 29, or to the medieval leap day, February 24. According to Felten: "A play from the turn of the 17th century, 'The Maydes Metamorphosis,' has it that 'this is leape year/women wear breeches.' A few hundred years later, breeches wouldn't do at all: Women looking to take advantage of their opportunity to pitch woo were expected to wear a scarlet petticoat -- fair warning, if you will." The Bissextile Beverage - WSJ.com In Denmark, the tradition is that women may propose on leap day February 24 and that refusal must be compensated with 12 pairs of gloves. In Greece, it is believed that getting married in a leap year is bad luck for the couple . Thus, mainly in the middle of the past century, couples avoided setting a marriage date in a leap year. Birthdays A person born on February 29 may be called a "leapling" or a "leaper" . In common years they usually celebrate their birthdays on February 28 or March 1. For legal purposes, their legal birthdays depend on how different laws count time intervals. In Taiwan, for example, the legal birthday of a leapling is February 28 in common years, so a Taiwanese leapling born on February 29, 1980 would have legally reached 18 years old on February 28, 1998. In some situations, March 1 is used as the birthday in a non-leap year since it then is the day just after February 28. Strictly speaking a leapling will have fewer actual birthdays than their age in years. That paradox is sometimes found in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out to be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. The same birthday paradox in Gilbert and Sullivan's 1879 comic opera The Pirates of Penzance comes as a shock to Frederic the pirate apprentice who finds that he is bound to serve the pirates until his 21st birthday instead of his 21st year. According to DC Comics editor Julius Schwartz, the birthday of Superman is February 29. This was chosen both as a way to keep the character young as well as account for the differences between Earth years and Kryptonian years. See also Century leap year Leap week calendar Leap second Zeller's congruence References External links Famous persons born on Leap Day Leap Day Campaign: Galileo Day be-x-old:Высакосны год | Leap_year |@lemmatized leap:55 year:132 intercalary:9 contain:5 one:7 extra:10 day:97 case:2 lunisolar:6 calendar:79 month:30 order:4 keep:4 synchronize:3 astronomical:2 seasonal:2 example:5 gregorian:22 february:30 instead:5 usual:2 last:5 season:1 event:2 repeat:1 whole:1 number:9 would:4 time:5 drift:2 respect:3 suppose:1 track:1 occasionally:1 insert:2 intercalate:2 additional:1 correct:2 call:7 common:8 current:3 standard:1 world:2 divisible:9 add:8 every:11 four:9 compensate:3 fact:1 period:4 short:2 solar:5 almost:1 hour:3 however:4 exception:1 rule:18 require:2 since:3 duration:1 slightly:2 less:1 unless:1 also:8 royal:1 observatory:2 greenwich:1 usno:1 u:1 naval:1 similarly:1 average:4 per:2 minute:3 second:10 design:1 vernal:10 equinox:9 close:3 march:9 date:8 easter:2 celebrate:4 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6,919 | Lamiaceae | Lamiaceae or Labiatae, also known as the mint family, is a family of plants. It has been considered closely related to Verbenaceae but several recent phylogenetic studies Cantino, P.D., Harley, R.M. & Wagstaff, S.J. 1992. Genera of Labiatae: status and classification. Pp. 511-522. In Harley, R.M. & Reynolds, T. (eds) Advances in Labiate Science. Richmond, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. have shown that numerous genera classified in Verbenaceae belong instead in Lamiaceae, whereas the core genera of Verbenaceae are not closely related to Lamiaceae and are more closely related to other members of the Lamiales. The enlarged Lamiaceae family contains 233 Heywood, V.H., Brummitt, R.K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. 2007: Flowering Plant Families of the World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. to 263 genera and 6900 to 7200 species. The plants are frequently aromatic in all parts and include many widely used culinary herbs, such as basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, thyme, lavender, and perilla. Some are shrubs or trees, rarely vines. Many members of the family are widely cultivated, owing not only to their aromatic qualities but also their ease of cultivation: these plants are among the easiest plants to propagate by stem cuttings. Besides those grown for their edible leaves, some are grown for decorative foliage, such as coleus. Others are grown for food purposes, but seeds are utilized instead of leaves, such as with chia. The original family name is Labiatae, so given because the flowers typically have petals fused into an upper lip and a lower lip. Although this is still considered an acceptable alternate name, most botanists now use the name "Lamiaceae" in referring to this family. The leaves emerge oppositely, each pair at right angles to the previous one (called decussate) or whorled. The stems are frequently square in cross section, but this is not found in all members of the family, and is sometimes found in other plant families. Lamium purpureum, showing the bilaterally symmetrical flower The flowers are bilaterally symmetrical with 5 united petals, 5 united sepals. They are usually bisexual and verticillastrate (a flower cluster that looks like a whorl of flowers but actually consists of two crowded clusters). Genera The genera in the enlarged family: Acanthomintha Achyrospermum Acinos Acrocephalus Acrotome Acrymia Adelosa Aegiphila Aeollanthus Agastache Ajuga Ajugoides Alajja Alvesia Amasonia Amethystea Anisochilus Anisomeles Archboldia Asterohyptis Ballota Basilicum Becium Benguellia Blephilia Bostrychanthera Bovonia Brazoria Bystropogon Calamintha Callicarpa Capitanopsis Capitanya Caryopteris Catoferia Cedronella Ceratanthus Chaiturus Chamaesphacos Chaunostoma Chelonopsis Chloanthes Cleonia Clerodendrum Clinopodium Colebrookea Collinsonia Colquhounia Comanthosphace Congea Conradina Coridothymus Cornutia CraniotomeCryphia Cuminia Cunila Cyanostegia Cyclotrichium Cymaria Dauphinea Dicerandra Dicrastylis Dorystaechas Dracocephalum Drepanocaryum Elsholtzia Endostemon Englerastrum Eremostachys Eriope Eriophyton Eriopidion Eriothymus Erythrochlamys Euhesperida Eurysolen Faradaya Fuerstia Galeopsis Garrettia Geniosporum Glechoma Glechon Glossocarya Gmelina Gomphostemma Gontscharovia Hanceola Haplostachys Haumaniastrum Hedeoma Hemiandra Hemigenia Hemiphora Hemizygia Hesperozygis Heterolamium Hoehnea Holmskioldia Holocheila Holostylon Horminum Hosea Hoslundia Hymenocrater HymenopyramisHypenia Hypogomphia Hyptidendron Hyptis Hyssopus Isodictyophorus Isodon Isoleucas Kalaharia Karomia Keiskea Kudrjaschevia Kurzamra Lachnostachys Lagochilus Lagopsis Lallemantia Lamiophlomis Lamium Lavandula Leocus Leonotis Leonurus Lepechinia Leucas Leucophae Leucosceptrum Limniboza Lophanthus Loxocalyx Lycopus Macbridea Mallophora Marmoritis Marrubium Marsypianthes Meehania Melissa Melittis Mentha Meriandra Mesona Metastachydium Microcorys Micromeria Microtoena Minthostachys Moluccella Monarda Monardella Monochilus Mosla NeoeplingiaNeohyptis Neorapinia Nepeta (Catnip) Newcastelia Nosema Notochaete Ocimum Octomeron Ombrocharis Oncinocalyx Origanum Orthosiphon Otostegia Oxera Panzerina Paralamium Paraphlomis Paravitex Peltodon Pentapleura Perilla Perillula Peronema Perovskia Perrierastrum Petitia Petraeovitex Phlomidoschema Phlomis Phyllostegia Physopsis Physostegia Piloblephis Pitardia Pityrodia Platostoma Plectranthus Pogogyne Pogostemon Poliomintha Prasium Premna Prostanthera Prunella Pseuderemostachys Pseudocarpidium Pseudomarrubium Puntia Pycnanthemum Pycnostachys Rabdosiella Renschia RhabdocaulonRaphidion Rhododon Rosmarinus Rostrinucula Rotheca Roylea Rubiteucris Sabaudia Saccocalyx Salazaria Salvia Satureja Schizonepeta Schnabelia Scutellaria Sideritis Solenostemon Spartothamnella Sphenodesme Stachydeoma Stachyopsis Stachys Stenogyne Sulaimania Suzukia Symphorema Symphostemon Synandra Syncolostemon Tectona Teijsmanniodendron Tetraclea Tetradenia Teucridium Teucrium Thorncroftia Thuspeinanta Thymbra Thymus Tinnea Trichostema Tsoongia Vitex Viticipremna Warnockia Wenchengia Westringia Wiedemannia Wrixonia Xenopoma Zataria Zhumeria Ziziphora Gallery of Leucas References Watson and Dallwitz External links Lamiaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. http://delta-intkey.com Lamiaceae images Family Lamiaceae Flowers in Israel Chilean Lamiaceae Chileflora Family Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Plant Life Forms be-x-old:Ясноткавыя | Lamiaceae |@lemmatized lamiaceae:10 labiatae:4 also:2 know:1 mint:2 family:13 plant:8 consider:2 closely:3 relate:3 verbenaceae:3 several:1 recent:1 phylogenetic:1 study:1 cantino:1 p:1 harley:2 r:3 wagstaff:1 j:2 genus:5 status:1 classification:1 pp:1 reynolds:1 ed:1 advance:1 labiate:1 science:1 richmond:1 royal:2 botanic:2 garden:2 kew:2 show:2 numerous:1 classify:1 belong:1 instead:2 whereas:1 core:1 member:3 lamiales:1 enlarged:2 contain:1 heywood:1 v:1 h:1 brummitt:1 k:1 culham:1 seberg:1 flowering:1 world:1 specie:1 frequently:2 aromatic:2 part:1 include:1 many:2 widely:2 use:2 culinary:1 herb:1 basil:1 rosemary:1 sage:1 savory:1 marjoram:1 oregano:1 thyme:1 lavender:1 perilla:2 shrubs:1 tree:1 rarely:1 vine:1 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6,920 | Merseburg | Merseburg in 1650. Merseburg is a town in the south of the German state of Saxony-Anhalt on the river Saale, approx. 14 km south of Halle (Saale). It is the capital of the Saalekreis district. It had a diocese founded by Archbishop Adalbert of Magdeburg. Merseburg is the seat of the Verwaltungsgemeinschaft ("collective municipality") of Merseburg. The University of Merseburg is located within the town. History Merseburg was first mentioned in 850. King Henry the Fowler built a royal palace at Merseburg; in the 933 Battle of Riade, he gained his great victory over the Hungarians in the vicinity. Thietmar of Merseburg became the first archbishop of the newly-created bishopric of Prague in Bohemia, appointed in 973. Prague had been part of the archbishopric of Mainz for a hundred years before that. From 968 until the Protestant Reformation, Merseburg was the seat of the bishop of Merseburg, and in addition to being for a time the residence of the margraves of Meissen, it was a favorite residence of the German kings during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. Fifteen diets were held here during the Middle Ages, when its fairs enjoyed the importance which was afterwards transferred to those of Leipzig. The town suffered severely during the Peasants' War and also during the Thirty Years' War. From 1657 to 1738 Merseburg was the residence of the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg, after which it fell to the Electorate of Saxony. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, the town became part of the Prussian Province of Saxony. Merseburg is the site where the Merseburg Incantations were rediscovered in 1841. Written down in Old High German, they are hitherto the only preserved German documents with a heathen theme. One of them is a charm to release warriors caught during battle, and the other one is a charm to heal a horse's sprained foot. At the beginning of the 20th century, Merseburg was transformed into an industrial site, which is largely due to the pioneering work done by people like Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius, who laid down the scientific fundamentals of the catalytic high-pressure ammonia synthesis from 1909 to 1913. Enterprises, too, blazed a trail in the course of the transformational process. Finally, a chemical park emerged which is one of the most modern sites of its kind in Europe with high ecological standards. Merseburg was badly damaged in World War II with nearly 65 percent of its population killed. Briefly part of Saxony-Anhalt after the war, it was then administered within Bezirk Halle in East Germany. It became part of Saxony-Anhalt again during the reunification of Germany. Main sights Among the notable buildings of Merseburg are the Merseburg cathedral of St. John the Baptist (founded 1015, rebuilt in the 13th and 16th centuries) and the episcopal palace (15th century). The Cathedral-and-Palace Ensemble with its fascinating palace garden (Schlossgarten), Merseburg House of Trades with a cultural stage and the German Museum of Chemistry, Merseburg, all bear witness to Merseburg’s history. The Merseburg Palace Festival with the Historical Pageant, the International Palace-Moat Concerts, Merseburg Organ Days and the Puppet Show Festival Week are highlights celebrated every year. Notable residents Thietmar, bishop and chronist Thilo of Trotha, bishop, known through the local legend of the raven Johannes Knolleisen, canon Ernst Haeckel, biologist Lucian Müller, classical scholar Klaus Tennstedt, conductor Elisabeth Schumann, singer Carl Adolph von Basedow, physician Jawed Karim, YouTube co-founder Twin towns Merseburg is twinned with: Châtillon, France, Genzano di Roma, Italy, Bottrop, Germany. References External links www.merseburg.de Official website | Merseburg |@lemmatized merseburg:25 town:5 south:2 german:5 state:1 saxony:5 anhalt:3 river:1 saale:2 approx:1 km:1 halle:2 capital:1 saalekreis:1 district:1 diocese:1 found:1 archbishop:2 adalbert:1 magdeburg:1 seat:2 verwaltungsgemeinschaft:1 collective:1 municipality:1 university:1 locate:1 within:2 history:2 first:2 mention:1 king:2 henry:1 fowler:1 build:1 royal:1 palace:6 battle:2 riade:1 gain:1 great:1 victory:1 hungarian:1 vicinity:1 thietmar:2 become:3 newly:1 create:1 bishopric:1 prague:2 bohemia:1 appoint:1 part:4 archbishopric:1 mainz:1 hundred:1 year:3 protestant:1 reformation:1 bishop:3 addition:1 time:1 residence:3 margrave:1 meissen:1 favorite:1 century:4 fifteen:1 diet:1 hold:1 middle:1 age:1 fair:1 enjoy:1 importance:1 afterwards:1 transfer:1 leipzig:1 suffer:1 severely:1 peasant:1 war:5 also:1 thirty:1 duke:1 saxe:1 fell:1 electorate:1 follow:1 napoleonic:1 prussian:1 province:1 site:3 incantation:1 rediscover:1 write:1 old:1 high:3 hitherto:1 preserved:1 document:1 heathen:1 theme:1 one:3 charm:2 release:1 warrior:1 catch:1 heal:1 horse:1 sprain:1 foot:1 beginning:1 transform:1 industrial:1 largely:1 due:1 pioneering:1 work:1 people:1 like:1 carl:2 bosch:1 friedrich:1 bergius:1 lay:1 scientific:1 fundamental:1 catalytic:1 pressure:1 ammonia:1 synthesis:1 enterprise:1 blaze:1 trail:1 course:1 transformational:1 process:1 finally:1 chemical:1 park:1 emerge:1 modern:1 kind:1 europe:1 ecological:1 standard:1 badly:1 damage:1 world:1 ii:1 nearly:1 percent:1 population:1 kill:1 briefly:1 administer:1 bezirk:1 east:1 germany:3 reunification:1 main:1 sight:1 among:1 notable:2 building:1 cathedral:2 st:1 john:1 baptist:1 founded:1 rebuild:1 episcopal:1 ensemble:1 fascinate:1 garden:1 schlossgarten:1 house:1 trade:1 cultural:1 stage:1 museum:1 chemistry:1 bear:1 witness:1 festival:2 historical:1 pageant:1 international:1 moat:1 concert:1 organ:1 day:1 puppet:1 show:1 week:1 highlight:1 celebrate:1 every:1 resident:1 chronist:1 thilo:1 trotha:1 know:1 local:1 legend:1 raven:1 johannes:1 knolleisen:1 canon:1 ernst:1 haeckel:1 biologist:1 lucian:1 müller:1 classical:1 scholar:1 klaus:1 tennstedt:1 conductor:1 elisabeth:1 schumann:1 singer:1 adolph:1 von:1 basedow:1 physician:1 jawed:1 karim:1 youtube:1 co:1 founder:1 twin:2 châtillon:1 france:1 genzano:1 di:1 rom:1 italy:1 bottrop:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 de:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram saxony_anhalt:3 halle_saale:1 adalbert_magdeburg:1 protestant_reformation:1 carl_bosch:1 badly_damage:1 ernst_haeckel:1 external_link:1 |
6,921 | Amu_Darya | The Amu Darya (archaic: Oxus River) is a major river in Central Asia. Its name is sometimes represented in a single word, Amudarya ( - Omudaryo or daryoi Omu; - Âmudaryâ; , , with darya (Pahlavi) meaning sea or a very large river). It is formed by the junction of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers. Names Pontoon Bridge on the Amu Darya near Urgench Amu is said to have come from the city of Āmul, now known as Türkmenabat. Many local people refer to the river as Jayhoun (جيحون) (Ceyhun in Turkish) which was thought to be a derivative of Gihon, the biblical name for one of the four rivers of the Garden of Eden or paradise. William C. Brice. 1981. Historical Atlas of Islam (Hardcover). Leiden with support and patronage from Encyclopaedia of Islam. ISBN 90-04-06116-9. The river is also known by this name to most of the medieval Islamic writers. In classical antiquity, the river was known as the Oxus in Greek--a clear derivative of Vakhsh—the name of the largest tributary of the Amu. It was known as Jayhun or Gihun in ancient Arabic sources. Jayhun was likely influenced by Dgihun, the traditional name given to it by the people who inhabited its surrounding region. Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Amu Darya In Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana, the Oxus is mentioned as the river Chakshu, flowing through the countries of Tusharas (Rishikas?), Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and Shakas etc. Description Map of area around the Aral Sea. Aral Sea boundaries are circa 1960. Countries at least partially in the Aral Sea watershed are in yellow. The river is navigable for over 1450 km (800 miles). Its total length is 2400 km (1500 miles) and its drainage basin totals in area, providing a mean discharge of around of water per year. All of the water comes from the high mountains in the south where annual precipitation can be over . Even before large-scale irrigation began, high summer evaporation meant that not all of this discharge reached the Aral Sea - though there is some evidence the large Pamir glaciers provided enough melt water for the Aral to overflow during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries A.D. One source of the Amu Darya is the Pamir River, which emerges from Lake Zorkul (once also known as Lake Victoria) in the Pamir Mountains (ancient Mount Imeon), and flows west to Qila-e Panja, where it joins the Wakhan River to form the Panj River. Another claimed source of the Amu Darya is an ice cave at the end of the Wakhjir valley, in the Wakhan Corridor, in the Pamir Mountains, near the border with Pakistan. A glacier turns into the Wakhan River and joins the Pamir River about downstream J. Mock and K. O'Neil (2004): Expedition Report ). The Panj River forms the border of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It flows west to Ishkashim where it turns north and then east north-west through the Hindu Kush passing the Tajik-Afghan Friendship Bridge. It subsequently forms the border of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan for about , passing Termez and the Afghanistan-Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge. It follows the border of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan for another before it flows into Turkmenistan at Atamyrat. As the Amudarya, it flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing Türkmenabat, and forms the border of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan from Halkabat. It is then split into many waterways that used to form the river delta joining the Aral Sea, passing Urgench, Daşoguz and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea anymore and is lost in the desert. Use of water from the Amu Darya for irrigation has been a major contributing factor to the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late 1950s. Historical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), the Caspian Sea (from the east) or both, similar to the Syr Darya (Jaxartes, in Ancient Greek). See also Syr Darya Transoxiana Mount Imeon References Curzon, George Nathaniel. 1896. The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus. Royal Geographical Society, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005. ISBN 1-4021-5983-8 (pbk; ISBN 1-4021-3090-2 (hbk). Gordon, T. E. 1876. The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971. Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. Between Oxus and Jumna. London. Oxford University Press. Wood, John, 1872. A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray. Notes | Amu_Darya |@lemmatized amu:8 darya:9 archaic:1 oxus:8 river:19 major:2 central:1 asia:1 name:6 sometimes:1 represent:1 single:1 word:1 amudarya:2 omudaryo:1 daryoi:1 omu:1 âmudaryâ:1 pahlavi:1 mean:3 sea:10 large:4 form:6 junction:1 vakhsh:2 panj:3 pontoon:1 bridge:3 near:2 urgench:2 say:1 come:2 city:2 āmul:1 know:5 türkmenabat:2 many:2 local:1 people:2 refer:1 jayhoun:1 جيحون:1 ceyhun:1 turkish:1 think:1 derivative:2 gihon:1 biblical:1 one:2 four:1 garden:1 eden:1 paradise:1 william:1 c:1 brice:1 historical:2 atlas:1 islam:2 hardcover:1 leiden:1 support:1 patronage:1 encyclopaedia:1 isbn:3 also:3 medieval:1 islamic:1 writer:1 classical:1 antiquity:1 greek:2 clear:1 tributary:1 jayhun:2 gihun:1 ancient:3 arabic:1 source:6 likely:1 influence:1 dgihun:1 traditional:1 give:1 inhabit:1 surrounding:1 region:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 online:1 vayu:1 purana:2 matsya:1 mention:1 chakshu:1 flow:6 country:2 tusharas:1 rishikas:1 lampakas:1 pahlavas:1 paradas:1 shakas:1 etc:1 description:1 map:1 area:2 around:2 aral:8 boundary:1 circa:1 least:1 partially:1 watershed:1 yellow:1 navigable:1 km:2 mile:2 total:2 length:1 drainage:1 basin:1 provide:2 discharge:2 water:4 per:1 year:1 high:3 mountain:3 south:3 annual:1 precipitation:1 even:1 scale:1 irrigation:2 begin:1 summer:1 evaporation:1 reach:2 though:1 evidence:1 pamir:6 glacier:2 enough:1 melt:1 overflow:1 thirteenth:1 fourteenth:1 century:1 emerge:1 lake:2 zorkul:1 victoria:1 mount:2 imeon:2 west:3 qila:1 e:2 panja:1 join:3 wakhan:3 another:2 claim:1 ice:1 cave:1 end:1 wakhjir:1 valley:2 corridor:1 border:5 pakistan:1 turn:2 downstream:1 j:2 mock:1 k:1 neil:1 expedition:1 report:1 afghanistan:4 tajikistan:1 ishkashim:1 north:3 east:2 hindu:1 kush:1 pass:4 tajik:1 afghan:1 friendship:2 subsequently:1 uzbekistan:3 termez:1 follow:1 turkmenistan:4 atamyrat:1 across:1 halkabat:1 split:1 waterway:1 use:2 delta:1 daşoguz:1 leave:1 anymore:1 lose:1 desert:1 contribute:1 factor:1 shrinking:1 since:1 late:1 record:1 state:1 different:1 period:1 caspian:1 similar:1 syr:2 jaxartes:1 see:1 transoxiana:1 reference:1 curzon:1 george:1 nathaniel:1 pamirs:1 royal:1 geographical:1 society:1 london:3 reprint:2 elibron:1 classic:1 series:1 adamant:1 medium:1 corporation:1 pbk:1 hbk:1 gordon:1 roof:1 world:1 narrative:1 journey:2 plateau:1 tibet:1 russian:1 frontier:1 edinburgh:1 edmonston:1 douglas:1 ch:1 eng:1 wen:1 publish:1 company:1 taipei:1 toynbee:1 arnold:1 jumna:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 wood:1 john:2 essay:1 geography:1 colonel:1 henry:1 yule:1 murray:1 note:1 |@bigram amu_darya:6 pontoon_bridge:1 garden_eden:1 encyclopaedia_islam:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 aral_sea:7 drainage_basin:1 annual_precipitation:1 thirteenth_fourteenth:1 pamir_mountain:2 mount_imeon:2 afghanistan_tajikistan:1 hindu_kush:1 turkmenistan_uzbekistan:1 caspian_sea:1 syr_darya:2 isbn_pbk:1 isbn_hbk:1 |
6,922 | Gosford | Gosford is a city located on the Central Coast of New South Wales, Australia, approximately 80 km north of the Sydney central business district. The city is situated at the northern extremity of Brisbane Water, an extensive northern branch of the Hawkesbury River estuary and Broken Bay. The city is the administrative centre of the Central Coast region, which is the third largest urban area in New South Wales after Sydney and Newcastle. Gosford is the 18th largest local government area in Australia with a total resident population of 158,157. History Until European settlement, the area around Gosford was occupied by two groups of Australian Aborigines, the Guringai and Darkinjung peoples, with the Guringai being principally coastal-dwellers and the Darkingung occupying land to the west. Along with the other land around the Hawkesbury River estuary, the Brisbane Water district was explored during the early stages of the settlement of Sydney. In the early 1800s some pioneering European settlers began occupying the land, for timber-cutting (mainly ironbark and Australian red cedar), lime production and grazing. Gosford itself was explored by Governor Phillip between 1788 and 1789. The area was of difficult access and settlement did not start before 1823. By the late 1800s the agriculture in the region was diversifying, with market gardens and citrus orchards occupying the rich soil left after the timber harvest. The first road between Hawkesbury, (near Pittwater) to Brisbane Water was only a cart wheel track even in 1850. History of Gosford Convicts once lived and worked in the Gosford area. In 1825, Gosford's population reached 100, of which 50% were convicts. East Gosford was the first centre of settlement. Gosford was named in 1839 after Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford - a friend of the then Governor George Gipps. In 1887, the rail link to Sydney was completed, requiring a bridge over the Hawkesbury River and a tunnel through the sandstone ridge west of Woy Woy. The introduction of this transport link, and then the Pacific Highway in 1930 accelerated the development of the region. Gosford became a town in 1885 and was declared a municipality in 1886. Gosford - Central Coast Australia Climate Gosford has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characteristic of central and northern New South Wales. City centre The north part of Gosford's CBD, looking down Mann Street towards the large yellow building which is the Imperial Shopping Centre. Gosford proper is located in a valley with President's Hill on the city's western border and Rumbalara Reserve on its eastern border, and Brisbane water to the city's south. Mann Street, Gosford's main street and part of the Pacific Highway, runs north-south contains the frontage for much of its commercial district. The Central Coast Highway runs past Gosford's waterfront area, while its predecessor the Pacific Highway takes on several names through the CBD itself. Mann Street contains the main public transport links for Gosford, with Gosford railway station (CityRail and CountryLink) and the termini for several bus routes. In the centre of Gosford is a shopping and community precinct, including Kibble Park, William Street Mall, Gosford City Library, the Imperial Shopping Centre, the Gosford Town Shopping Centre and a full range of shops, cafes, banks and services, especially along William Street Mall. More recently, the Gosford CBD has suffered a decline as more commercial activity has relocated to nearby Erina, particularly Erina Fair. To address this, there have been proposals to revitalise the city centre by more adequately connecting it to the waterfront, and provide more employment and entertainment areas. However, there has been little concerted effort at State or Local Government level. Facilities Gosford is also home to Gosford Hospital - the largest hospital on the Central Coast Gosford High School - the only selective high school on the Central Coast The Central Coast Conservatorium (in the original Gosford Courthouse) The Bluetongue Central Coast Stadium in Grahame Park, adjacent to the Central Coast Leagues Club. Originally built for the short-lived Northern Eagles team in the NRL rugby league competition, since 2005 it is now the home of the Central Coast Mariners A-League football (soccer) team and was the home venue of the Central Coast Rays rugby union Australian Rugby Championship team Gosford Racecourse Gosford showground The headquarters of the NSW State Government's workers compensation fund, WorkCover. Sister cities and twin towns Edogawa, Japan Nitra, Slovakia See also List of cities in Australia Electoral district of Gosford, a seat in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly References External links Gosford City Council Central Coast Tourism Gosford Chamber of Commerce | Gosford |@lemmatized gosford:32 city:11 locate:2 central:14 coast:12 new:4 south:6 wale:4 australia:4 approximately:1 km:1 north:3 sydney:4 business:1 district:4 situate:1 northern:4 extremity:1 brisbane:4 water:4 extensive:1 branch:1 hawkesbury:4 river:3 estuary:2 broken:1 bay:1 administrative:1 centre:8 region:3 third:1 large:4 urban:1 area:7 newcastle:1 local:2 government:3 total:1 resident:1 population:2 history:2 european:2 settlement:4 around:2 occupy:4 two:1 group:1 australian:3 aborigine:1 guringai:2 darkinjung:1 people:1 principally:1 coastal:1 dweller:1 darkingung:1 land:3 west:2 along:2 explore:2 early:2 stage:1 pioneering:1 settler:1 begin:1 timber:2 cutting:1 mainly:1 ironbark:1 red:1 cedar:1 lime:1 production:1 grazing:1 governor:2 phillip:1 difficult:1 access:1 start:1 late:1 agriculture:1 diversify:1 market:1 garden:1 citrus:1 orchard:1 rich:1 soil:1 leave:1 harvest:1 first:2 road:1 near:1 pittwater:1 cart:1 wheel:1 track:1 even:1 convict:2 live:2 work:1 reach:1 east:1 name:2 archibald:1 acheson:1 earl:1 friend:1 george:1 gipps:1 rail:1 link:4 complete:1 require:1 bridge:1 tunnel:1 sandstone:1 ridge:1 woy:2 introduction:1 transport:2 pacific:3 highway:4 accelerate:1 development:1 become:1 town:3 declare:1 municipality:1 climate:3 humid:1 subtropical:1 köppen:1 classification:1 cfa:1 characteristic:1 part:2 cbd:3 look:1 mann:3 street:6 towards:1 yellow:1 building:1 imperial:2 shopping:4 proper:1 valley:1 president:1 hill:1 western:1 border:2 rumbalara:1 reserve:1 eastern:1 main:2 run:2 contain:2 frontage:1 much:1 commercial:2 past:1 waterfront:2 predecessor:1 take:1 several:2 public:1 railway:1 station:1 cityrail:1 countrylink:1 terminus:1 bus:1 route:1 community:1 precinct:1 include:1 kibble:1 park:2 william:2 mall:2 library:1 full:1 range:1 shop:1 cafe:1 bank:1 service:1 especially:1 recently:1 suffer:1 decline:1 activity:1 relocate:1 nearby:1 erina:2 particularly:1 fair:1 address:1 proposal:1 revitalise:1 adequately:1 connect:1 provide:1 employment:1 entertainment:1 however:1 little:1 concerted:1 effort:1 state:2 level:1 facility:1 also:2 home:3 hospital:2 high:2 school:2 selective:1 conservatorium:1 original:1 courthouse:1 bluetongue:1 stadium:1 grahame:1 adjacent:1 league:3 club:1 originally:1 build:1 short:1 eagle:1 team:3 nrl:1 rugby:3 competition:1 since:1 mariner:1 football:1 soccer:1 venue:1 ray:1 union:1 championship:1 racecourse:1 showground:1 headquarters:1 nsw:1 worker:1 compensation:1 fund:1 workcover:1 sister:1 twin:1 edogawa:1 japan:1 nitra:1 slovakia:1 see:1 list:1 electoral:1 seat:1 legislative:1 assembly:1 reference:1 external:1 council:1 tourism:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 |@bigram humid_subtropical:1 subtropical_climate:1 climate_köppen:1 köppen_climate:1 shopping_centre:3 concerted_effort:1 football_soccer:1 rugby_union:1 legislative_assembly:1 external_link:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
6,923 | List_of_explosives_used_during_World_War_II | Almost all the common explosives listed here were mixtures of TNT, RDX or PETN. Please note that this is only a partial list; there were many others. Name Composition Amatol Ammonium nitrate and TNT Baronal Barium nitrate, TNT and powdered aluminium Baratol Barium nitrate and TNT Composition A 88.3% RDX and 11.7% plasticizer Composition B RDX, TNT and wax H-6 45% RDX, 30% TNT, 20% powdered aluminium and 5% wax Minol 40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate and 20% powdered aluminium (Minol-2) Octol 75% HMX (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine) and 25% TNT Pentolites 50% PETN and 50% TNT Picratol 52% Picric acid and 48% TNT PIPE 81% PETN and 19% Oil PTX-1 30% RDX, 50% tetryl and 20% TNT PTX-2 41-44% RDX, 26-28% PETN and 28-33% TNT PVA-4 90% RDX, 8% PVA and 2% dibutyl phthalate RIPE 85% RDX and 15% Oil Tetrytols 70% Tetryl and 30% TNT Torpex 42% RDX, 40% TNT and 18% powdered aluminium Trialen 105 15% RDX, 70% TNT and 15% powdered aluminium (Luftwaffe) See also List of Japanese World War II explosives Explosive material Little Boy Fat Man | List_of_explosives_used_during_World_War_II |@lemmatized almost:1 common:1 explosive:2 list:3 mixture:1 tnt:15 rdx:10 petn:4 please:1 note:1 partial:1 many:1 others:1 name:1 composition:3 amatol:1 ammonium:2 nitrate:4 baronal:1 barium:2 powder:1 aluminium:5 baratol:1 plasticizer:1 b:1 wax:2 h:1 powdered:4 minol:2 octol:1 hmx:1 cyclotetramethylene:1 tetranitramine:1 pentolites:1 picratol:1 picric:1 acid:1 pipe:1 oil:2 ptx:2 tetryl:2 pva:2 dibutyl:1 phthalate:1 ripe:1 tetrytols:1 torpex:1 trialen:1 luftwaffe:1 see:1 also:1 japanese:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 explosives:1 material:1 little:1 boy:1 fat:1 man:1 |@bigram rdx_petn:2 ammonium_nitrate:2 rdx_tnt:4 powdered_aluminium:4 |
6,924 | Eusebius_of_Alexandria | Eusebius of Alexandria is an author to whom certain extant homilies are attributed. These homilies enjoyed some renown in the Eastern Church in the sixth and seventh centuries. Their homiletical merit does not rise above mediocrity, and nothing is known of the author. In all events, he was not a patriarch of Alexandria, as is affirmed in an early biography (MPG, lxxxvi. 1, pp. 297-310), written by one Johannes, a notary, and stating that Eusebius was called by Cyril to be his successor in the episcopate. The discourses belong probably to the fifth or sixth century, and possibly originated in Alexandria. They deal with the life of the Lord and with questions of ecclesiastical life and practise, which they resolve in a monastic-ascetic way. Their literary character is not quite clear; while most of them are adapted for public delivery, not a few bear the character of ecclesiastical pronouncements. They are printed in MPG, lxxxvi. 1, pp. 287-482, 509-536, except four included among Chrysostom's works. The fragments preserved in the so-called Sacra parallela are to be found in Karl Holl's Fragmente vornicänischer Kirchenväter (T U, new series, v. 2, Leipzig, 1899), pp. 314-332. A homily concerning the observance of Sunday is attributed by Zahn to Eusebius of Emesa. Note that Eusebius of Alexandria is not the well-known historian of the Christian church, who is Eusebius of Caesarea. | Eusebius_of_Alexandria |@lemmatized eusebius:5 alexandria:4 author:2 certain:1 extant:1 homily:3 attribute:2 enjoy:1 renown:1 eastern:1 church:2 sixth:2 seventh:1 century:2 homiletical:1 merit:1 rise:1 mediocrity:1 nothing:1 know:2 event:1 patriarch:1 affirm:1 early:1 biography:1 mpg:2 lxxxvi:2 pp:3 write:1 one:1 johannes:1 notary:1 state:1 call:2 cyril:1 successor:1 episcopate:1 discourse:1 belong:1 probably:1 fifth:1 possibly:1 originate:1 deal:1 life:2 lord:1 question:1 ecclesiastical:2 practise:1 resolve:1 monastic:1 ascetic:1 way:1 literary:1 character:2 quite:1 clear:1 adapt:1 public:1 delivery:1 bear:1 pronouncement:1 print:1 except:1 four:1 include:1 among:1 chrysostom:1 work:1 fragment:1 preserve:1 sacrum:1 parallela:1 find:1 karl:1 holl:1 fragmente:1 vornicänischer:1 kirchenväter:1 u:1 new:1 series:1 v:1 leipzig:1 concern:1 observance:1 sunday:1 zahn:1 emesa:1 note:1 well:1 historian:1 christian:1 caesarea:1 |@bigram patriarch_alexandria:1 eusebius_caesarea:1 |
6,925 | Humvee | This article refers to the Military HMMWV, not the civilian Hummer sold by General Motors An HMMWV firing a TOW missile. An armored HMMWV and Marines. The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or Humvee) is a military 4WD motor vehicle created by AM General. It has largely supplanted the roles formerly served by the M151 1/4 ton MUTT, the M561 "Gama Goat", their M718A1 and M792 ambulance versions, the CUCV, and other light trucks with the United States military, as well as being used by a number of other countries and organizations. Features The HMMWV uses independent suspensions for high ground clearance, and has an axially delivered central tire inflation system. The vehicle also has disk brakes on all 4 wheels, and 4-wheel double-wishbone suspension. The brake disks are not mounted at the wheels as on conventional automobiles, but near the differentials to protect the brake lines. There are at least 17 variants of the HMMWV in service with the United States armed forces. HMMWVs serve as cargo/troop carriers, automatic weapons platforms, ambulances (four litter patients or eight ambulatory patients), M220 TOW missile carriers, M119 howitzer prime movers, M-1097 Avenger Pedestal Mounted Stinger platforms, MRQ-12 direct air support vehicles, S250 shelter carriers, and other roles. The HMMWV is capable of fording 2.5 ft (76 cm) normally, or 5 ft (1.5 m) with the deep-water fording kits installed. Optional equipment includes a winch (maximum load capacity 6000 lb (2700 kg)) and supplemental armor. The M1025 and M1043/M1044 armament carriers provide mounting and firing capabilities for the MK19 grenade launcher, the M2 heavy machine gun, the M240G/B machine gun and M249 SAW. The newly introduced M1114 "up-armored" HMMWV also features a similar weapons mount. In addition, some M1114 and M1116 up-armored and M1117 Armored Security Vehicle models feature a Common Remotely Operated Weapon System (CROWS), which allows the gunner to operate from inside the vehicle, and/or the Boomerang anti-sniper detection system. Recent improvements have also led to the development of the M1151 model, which is quickly relegating the previous models obsolete. By replacing the M1114, M1116, and earlier armored HMMVW types with a single model, the U.S. Army hopes to lower maintenance costs. History In the 1970s, the United States Army concluded that the militarized civilian trucks in use no longer satisfied their requirements. In 1977, Lamborghini developed the Cheetah model in attempt to meet the Army contract specifications. In 1979, the Army drafted final specifications for a High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle, or HMMWV. In July of that year, AM General (a subsidiary of American Motors Corporation) began preliminary design work, and less than a year later, the first prototype, the M998, was in testing. In June 1981, the Army awarded AM General a contract for development of several more prototype vehicles to be delivered to the U.S. government for another series of tests, and the company was later awarded the initial production contract for 55,000 HMMWVs to be delivered in 1985. HMMWVs first saw combat in Operation Just Cause, the US invasion of Panama in 1989. The HMMWV has become the vehicular backbone of U.S. forces around the world. Over 10,000 were employed by coalition forces during Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Usage in combat United States Army Humvee attacked by a car bomb, Baghdad, Iraq. The HMMWV was designed primarily for personnel and light cargo transport behind front lines. Like the previous Jeep, the basic HMMWV has no armor or protection against nuclear, biological, and chemical threats. Nevertheless, losses were relatively low in conventional operations, such as Desert Storm. Vehicles and crews suffered considerable damage and losses during the Battle of Mogadishu due to the nature of the urban engagement, however, the chassis survivability allowed the majority of those crews to return to safety, though the HMMWV was never designed to offer protection against intense small arms fire, much less machine guns and rocket propelled grenades. However, with the rise of asymmetric warfare and low intensity conflicts, the HMMWV has been pressed into service in urban combat roles for which it was not originally intended. After Somalia, the military recognized a need for a more protected HMMWV and AM General developed the M1114, an armored HMMWV to withstand small arms fire. The M1114 has been in limited production since 1996, seeing limited use in the Balkans before deployment to the Middle East. This design is superior to the M998 with a larger, more powerful turbocharged engine, air conditioning, and a strengthened suspension system. More importantly, it boasts a fully armored passenger area protected by hardened steel and bullet-resistant glass. With the increase in direct attacks and guerrilla warfare in Iraq, AM General has diverted the majority of its manufacturing power to producing these vehicles. Marines pushing an M1114 in a competition. Humvee with bolt-on MAK armor kit A Humvee with Mattrack snow treads |A Humvee of the Romanian Military Police Modifications In response to the vulnerability of HMMWVs operating in Iraq, "Up-Armor" kits were designed and installed on M998 HMMWVs. These kits, of which there are several types and iterations, include armored doors with bullet-resistant glass, side and rear armor plates, and a ballistic windshield which offer greater protection from ballistic threats and simple IEDs. Although some of these kits were available prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, they were not provided in great numbers to American forces in Iraq prior to the invasion. As a result of this, American soldiers and Marines often improvised extra armor with scrap materials, known as "hillbilly armor" or "farmer armor" to improve the safety of the HMMWV. While this may have made the vehicle somewhat safer from a ballistic attack, it also increased the weight and raised the center of gravity of the vehicle, reducing its acceleration, handling, braking, reliability, and service life due to its overstressed suspension and drivetrain. RESET of the U.S. Army's Vehicle Fleet Continues - Defense Industry Daily $67M for HMMWV Recap Program - Defense Industry Daily In December 2004, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld came under criticism from U.S. soldiers and their families for not providing better-equipped HMMWVs. NBC: Boost for armored Humvee output - Conflict in Iraq - MSNBC.com Rumsfeld pointed out that, prior to the war, armor kits were produced only in small numbers per year. As the role of American forces in Iraq changed from fighting the Iraqi Army to suppressing the guerrilla insurgency, more armor kits were being manufactured, though perhaps not as fast as production facilities were capable of bringing them online. Even more advanced kits were also being developed. However, while these kits are much more effective against all types of attacks, they weigh between and have some of the same drawbacks as the improvised armor. Up-Armored Humvee M1114 Unlike similar-size civilian cargo and tow trucks, which typically have dual rear wheels to reduce sway, the HMMWV has single rear wheels due to its independent rear suspension coupled with the body design. The armor on most up-armored HMMWVs holds up well against lateral attacks, when the blast is distributed in all different directions, but offers little protection from a mine blast below the truck, such as buried IEDs and land mines. Explosively formed penetrators (EFPs) can also defeat the armor kits, causing casualties. The armor kits fielded include the Armor Survivability Kit (ASK), the FRAG 5, FRAG 6, as well as upgrade kits to the M1151. Up-Armored HUVMEE (UAH) $595.8M Contract for M1151 Hummers & Up-Armor Price Limits - Defense Industry Daily The ASK was the first fielded, in October 2003, adding about to the weight of the vehicle. Armor Survivability Kit (ASK) for soft vehicles Armor Holdings fielded an even lighter kit, adding only to the vehicle's weight. HMMWV Armor Kit - Battelle The Marine Armor Kit (MAK), fielded in January 2005, offers more protection than the M1114, but also increases weight. Marine Armor Kit [MAK ] The FRAG 5, the latest fielded armor kit, offers the greatest protection but may still be inadequate to stop EFP attacks. Thousands of Army Humvees Lack Armor Upgrade - washingtonpost.com The FRAG 6 kit, designed to do just that, is still in development, however its increased protection comes at a hefty price. Over 1,000 lb is added to the vehicle over the FRAG 5 kit, and the width of the vehicle is increased by . In addition, the doors may require a mechanical assist device to open and close. Humvee May Get Armor, Performance Boost Another drawback of the up-armored HMMWVs occurs during an accident or attack, when the heavily armored doors tend to jam shut, trapping the troops inside. Field Life-saver: 10th Mountain Division Invents “The Rat Claw” - Defense Industry Daily As a result, HMMWVs are being fitted with hooks on their doors, so that another vehicle can rip the door off, freeing the troops inside. Humvee Doors Trap Troops In addition, Vehicle Emergency Escape (VEE) windows, developed by BAE Systems are currently being fielded for use on the M1114 uparmored HMMWV, with 1,000 kits ordered. BAE Invents VEE Quick-Escape Bulletproof Windows - Defense Industry Daily The soldier manning the crew-served weapon on top of the vehicle is extremely vulnerable; however, many HMMWVs have been fitted with basic gun shields, as was the case with M113 APCs after they were first deployed in Vietnam. The U.S. military is currently evaluating a new form of protection, developed by BAE Systems as well as systems designed by the Army, which are already in theater. Now That's a Gunshield: The Chavis Turret - Defense Industry Daily The new gunner's seat is protected by high steel plates with bullet-proof glass windows. Additionally, some HMMWVs use CROWS, which slaves the machine gun to controls in the back seat to allow remote operation. The Boomerang anti-sniper system is also being fielded by some HMMWVs in Iraq to immediately give troops the location of insurgents firing on them. Humvee equipped with Raytheon surface-to-air missiles in display at Paris Air Show 2007 Alternatives Other countries in Europe and South Africa employ a number of different light armored vehicles, both tracked and wheeled, and some even built in the U.S. by Cadillac Gage, that are designed more specifically for low intensity combat situations, and are more resistant to small arms; some trucks even have high v-hull bottoms to deflect mine blasts. In 2007, the Marine Corps announced an intention to replace all HMMWVs in Iraq with MRAP (Mine Resistant Ambush Protected) armored trucks because of high loss rates, and has issued contracts for the purchase of several thousand of these vehicles, which include the International MaxxPro, the BAE OMC RG-31, the BAE RG-33 and Caiman, and the Force Protection Cougar, MRAP Advance Purchase #2: Oshkosh, PVI & GD MRAP: Survivable Rides, Start Rolling Cougar Armored Trucks to Stalk Mines on the Battlefield which have been deployed with the Army and Marines primarily for mine clearing duties. Heavier models of Infantry Mobility Vehicles (IMV) can also be used for patrol vehicles. Unfortunately, some MRAP vehicles have been known to become stuck or roll over much more readily due to their high center of gravity and overall larger size compared to the HMMWV. Another weakness for the hummvee has proven to be its size, which has limited its deployment in Afghanistan because it is too large for many forms of air transport. This size also limits the ability for the vehicle to be manhandled out of situations. Additionally, troops in Bosnia found the vehicle's wide track to be a liability, since two Humvees could not pass each other on narrow mountain roads. One vehicle had to drive with two wheels on the unpaved berm, exposing it to land mine danger. A HMMWV on the road. Replacement International FTTS UV Concept The HMMWV replacement process, now being undertaken by the U.S. military, is an effort to replace the current AM General HMMWV. The HMMWV has evolved several times since its introduction, and is now used in tactical roles for which it was never originally intended. The U.S. military is currently pursuing several initiatives to replace it, both in the short and long terms. The short term replacement efforts utilize Commercial off-the-shelf vehicles as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) program. Long term efforts include the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle and Future Tactical Truck Systems programs, which are currently focused on building requirements for the HMMWV replacement and technology research and evaluation. Various prototype vehicles such as the MillenWorks Light Utility Vehicle, International FTTS and the ULTRA AP have been constructed as part of these efforts. Versions HMMWV upgrade process Humvee with a communications dish. Major HMMWV versions M56 Coyote Smoke Generator Carrier M707 HMMWV M966 HMMWV TOW Armored M996 Mini-Ambulance, Armored M997 Maxi-Ambulance, Armored M998 Cargo/Troop M998 HMMWV Avenger M1025 Armament Carrier, Armored M1026 Armament Carrier, Armored W/W M1035 Soft-Top Ambulance M1036 TOW Armored W/W M1037 S-250 Shelter Carrier M1038 Cargo/Troop Carrier W/W M1042 S-250 Shelter Carrier W/W M1043 Armament Carrier, Up-Armored M1044 Armament Carrier, Up-Armored W/W M1045 TOW Up-Armored Armor M1046 TOW Up-Armored Armor W/W M1069 Tractor for M119 105-mm Gun M1097 Heavy M1097 Heavy HMMWV Avenger M1109 Up-Armored Armament Carrier ZEUS-HLONS Expanded capacity M1113 The M1113 has been selected by the Army as its A2 chassis for HMMWV purchases. Currently, the ECV is used for special operations vehicles and communications shelter carriers. During 1995, production of the M1114 based on the improved ECV chassis began. The M1114 meets Army requirements for a scout, military police, and explosive ordnance disposal vehicle with improved ballistic protection levels. The M1114 provides protection against 7.62 mm armor-piercing projectiles, 155 mm artillery air bursts and 12 lb. anti-tank mine blasts. The U.S. Air Force has a number of vehicles under the designation M1116, specifically designed to meet the requirements of the Air Force. The M1116 features an expanded cargo area, armored housing for the turret gunner and increased interior heating and air conditioning system. The M1114 and M1116 receive armor at O'Gara-Hess & Eisenhardt Armoring Company of Fairfield, Ohio. M1114 Up-Armored Armament Carrier M1116 Up-Armored HMMWV M1123 Heavy M1121 TOW Armored M1145 Up-Armored HMMWV M1151 Up-Armored Capable HMMWV M1152 Up-Armored Capable HMMWV Packhorse - Attachment to convert an M1097 to tractor version for semi-trailers. Scorpion - Version fitted with 2B9 Vasilek 82 mm automatic mortar. This is a heavy chassis Humvee equipped with a 2B9 Vasilyek 82 mm automatic mortar and intended to provide more protection for US troops in combat zones. This was developed in 2004 by engineers at the US Army's Picatinny Arsenal. The mortar itself can fire on single shots or on automatic using 4 round clips. Range for direct fire is 1,000m and indirect fire is 4,000m. It is also intended to provide another means of destroying roadside bombs but at a safer standoff range. Composite HMMWV - A prototype developed by TPI Composites of Rhode Island and AM General. TPI Composites and Armor Holdings Unveil Army's First All-Composite Military Vehicle The purpose of the concept vehicle is to reduce the vehicle's weight so that it may more easily carry an up armor kit. TPI Composites engineers, fabricates and builds large scale composite structures and composite components for the wind energy, military, and transportation markets TPI's all-composite HMMWV saves approximately 900 pounds when compared to a current steel and aluminum HMMWV. TPI Composites and Armor Holdings Unveil Army's First All-Composite Military Vehicle Defense Update Newscast - 200707 International versions An Eastwind EQ2050 at the China People's Revolution Military Museum during the "Our troops towards the sky" exhibition. Greek Army M1114GR HMMWV have the ability to mount the 9M133 Kornet on top. EQ2050/SQF2040 - Chinese versions of the HMMWV. There are at least two Chinese automobile manufacturers building HMMWV copies, possibly with the assistance of General Motors. Both HMMWV copies rely heavily on imported U.S.-made parts including chassis, gear box, and diesel engine. It appears that at least one company, Dongfeng Motor Corporation (DFM), has the full consent and cooperation of the General Motors Corporation. Both manufacturers claimed that they will be able to gradually increase the percentage of indigenously made content on the vehicles in the future, since the PLA is unlikely willing to accept any equipment that relies largely on foreign made parts. Bulgaria - Bulgarian HMMWVs have been fitted with PKS heavy machine guns. Bulgaria usually replaces western machine guns on its vehicles to simplify maintenance, since the country produces mostly Soviet/Russian-type ammunitions. Greece - Greek unarmored M1114, built entirely by ELBO in Greece, equipped to fire the Russian 9M133 Kornet ATGM. It has storage room for 10 missiles. Israel's Plasan has developed armored versions of the HMMWV, assembled by ELBO in Greece as the M1114GR and M1118GR. 25th March Independence Day parade Plasan has also designed and supplied an HMMWV Armored Protection Kit for the Portuguese Army ASDNews - Aerospace & Defence News - Plasan Sasa Completes Delivery of Unique HMMWV Armor Suites to Portuguese Army and a different version assembled by Automotive Industries in Nazareth for the Israel Defense Forces. Poland - Polish Land Forces currently operate 222 different variants of HMMWVes (5 unknown variants are operated by special forces). Over 200 are used by the 18th Airborne Battalion which is a part of the 6th Air Assault Brigade. The used variants are designated as follows: Tumak-2 - M1043A2, Tumak-3 - M1025A2, Tumak-4 - M1097A2, Tumak-5 - M1045A2, Tumak-6 - M1097A2 (variant used for transport of special containers), Tumak-7 - M1035A2. All vehicles are modified to meet Polish rules of the road and are equipped with Polish communication devices. 140 HMMWVes are equipped with Fonet digital internal communication device. 120 M1025A2s and M1043A2s have a rotatable mount which can be fitted with either the UKM-2000P 7.62 mm general purpose machine gun or the NSW-B 12.7 mm heavy machine gun. M1045A2s are used by anti-tank subunits and are armed with Spike-LR which can be dismounted in field conditions. MILITARIUM - Samochód terenowy HMMWV Additionally Polish forces of ISAF operate 120 HMMWVes on loan from the US forces. The Swiss MOWAG Eagle light armored vehicle, designed for reconnaissance surveillance, liaison, escort, border patrol and police missions. Early versions of the Eagle utilize the HMMWV chassis, although the latest uses a Duro III chassis. It is an NBC-tight, air conditioned and armor protected vehicle. Eagle is in service and available in several configurations with varying levels of armor protection. The Eagle can be fitted with a wide assortment of armaments which can be manually or remotely operated turrets. The Turkish Otokar Cobra light armored vehicle is the base of a family of vehicles. It provides full armor protection for a crew of 4 to 11 depending on configuration. Cobra is available in seven different configurations from Personnel to Weapons Carrier. In addition, Cobra is available with either a manually or remotely operated turret and can be fitted with a wide assortment of armaments. An optional swim kit is available. Egypt - AOI has a project of fitting HMMWVs with anti armor weaponry, options include: TOW, Milan, or HOT missiles. Humvee replicas Due to the popularity of the Humvee, kits have been produced for the general market to build a Humvee-lookalike at home. While the kits do not allow you to build a Humvee from scratch (kitcar), they do allow you to turn a sedan into a Humvee lookalike. An alternative is to buy a preconstructed (or "turnkey") wombat. Various kits exist, but one of the most famous names is the "Wombat" (previously called a HummBug). The former vehicle can be purchased for $18,000.00; this puts it considerably cheaper than the actual Humvee ($56,400.00), or Hummer. Some local vehicle assemblers in the Philippines even make small and full-sized replicas of the Humvee. They are usually mounted on chassis intended for jeeps, jeepneys, or (in case of the full-sized replica) small trucks, and is powered by surplus gasoline or diesel engines. It looks like a real Humvee, but it is smaller in size, and is priced the same as an ordinary "owner-type" jeep (Php80,000 upwards). Similar vehicles GAZ-2975 "Tigr" on rehearsal of Moscow Victory Parade Toyota Mega Cruiser Tiuna - Venezuelan Military HMMWV GAZ-2975 "Tigr" - Russian Military HMMWV currently in service Toyota built a vehicle largely derived from the HMMWV design with a similar design and layout called the Mega Cruiser. Toyota produced a military version of the Mega Cruiser, named the Koukidousya, that is in service with the Japan Self Defense Forces. Mahindra is planning to manufacture the Mahindra Axe, an HMMWV type vehicle designed in Israel. חדשות nrg - ה"חיה הרעה" של היחידות המיוחדות Development cost has been reported to be US$10 million. Axe Photographs Iveco LMV Tata Motors has just released its LSV (Light Specialist Vehicle) which is now undergoing trials for the Indian Army Uro of Spain builds the VAMTAC. Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau of the Ukraine builds the Dozor-A. MOWAG Eagle Marine Multi-Purpose Vehicle (MMPV) ELBO/Plasan Sasa HMMWV M1114GR Operators HMMWV operator map - dark blue shows original Humvee operators, light blue shows PRC HMMWV operators Slovenian HMMWV M1114. In addition to the United States, the HMMWV is used by the following countries: - 4,150 new M1152 and M1151 versions by the Afghan National Army. - 20 vehicles - Unknown number used in special forces units such as JTF2 and CSOR) - 200+ vehicles Argentina - EA: 34 vehicles; FAA: 6; Gendarmeria: approx. 12 vehicles and IMARA: 140 vehicles - ordered a small number of vehicles for de-mining units stationed in Iraq) - 27 - 52 vehicles, 50 are the up-armored M1114 variant, and two are ambulances. Dnevnik.bg Купуваме 50 Хамъра за Сухопътни войски (in Bulgarian) - Army 200+ vehicles, Marines 20+ vehicles - see PRC HMMWVs - 400+ vehicles Croatia - 42 units used in Afghanistan UN mission - Mainly 601st Special Forces Group Denmark - 100+ vehicles, 30 of which are armed with TOW Dominican Republic 16 to 20 - approx. 30 vehicles in the Ecuadorian marines Egypt - 3890+ - 10 - 500+ vehicles built by ELBO in Greece under license from AM General) - 27 vehicles for units in Afghanistan - 3961+ vehicles. Used by the New Iraqi Army, Iraqi Security Forces and Kurdish Peshmerga. Israel - 2000+ vehicles, formerly assembled by AIL from knockdown kits. - 397 vehicles , 200 more to be delivered in 2009. Some were locally modified to carry TOW guided anti-tank missiles. Lithuania - about 200 vehicles bought from USA - 43 vehicles Republic of Macedonia - 56 vehicles Mexico Morocco - 6500+ vehicles Panama - 7 vehicles Oman - 300 vehicles - 217 vehicles - approx. 100 vehicles - (8 vehicles were seized by Russian forces during 2008 South Ossetia War, Occupation of Poti) - 50 specially upgraded vehicles - used by PTJ (Counter-terrorist Unit) - 30 vehicles - 150+ vehicles only by the Infanteria de Marina; Spanish Police of the Basque Region 20 BBT (Berrozi Berezi Taldea); the Army uses the URO VAMTAC in that role) Thailand - under license by MKEK - 10 vehicles, all donated by the United States to the Polish–Ukrainian Peace Force Battalion (UKRPOLBAT) Venezuela (M1097A1) (EQ2050) See also List of "M" series military vehicles. Dongfeng Motor Corporation EQ2050, a Chinese derivative. GAZ GAZ-2975, a Russian derivative. Lamborghini Cheetah, an Italian contender for the original HMMWV contract. Otokar Cobra, a light armoured vehicle utilizing HMMWV parts. Sandstorm, an HMMWV modified into an autonomous vehicle. Notes External links AM General HMMWV page; models, history, and specs Army fact file Plasan Sasa variant M1114 Up-Armored Humvee HMMWV variants, specs, and pictures captured HMMWV on display in Belgrade Danish HMMWV armed with TOW | Humvee |@lemmatized article:1 refer:1 military:17 hmmwv:66 civilian:3 hummer:3 sell:1 general:14 motor:8 fire:9 tow:12 missile:6 armored:26 marine:10 high:7 mobility:3 multipurpose:2 wheel:9 vehicle:87 humvee:24 create:1 largely:3 supplant:1 role:6 formerly:2 serve:3 ton:1 mutt:1 gama:1 goat:1 ambulance:6 version:12 cucv:1 light:11 truck:9 united:6 state:6 well:5 use:19 number:7 country:4 organization:1 feature:4 us:1 independent:2 suspension:5 ground:1 clearance:1 axially:1 delivered:1 central:1 tire:1 inflation:1 system:10 also:13 disk:2 brake:4 double:1 wishbone:1 mount:7 conventional:2 automobile:2 near:1 differential:1 protect:6 line:2 least:3 variant:8 service:6 arm:7 force:19 hmmwvs:16 cargo:6 troop:9 carrier:16 automatic:4 weapon:5 platform:2 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facility:1 bring:1 online:1 even:5 advanced:1 effective:1 weigh:1 drawback:2 improvised:1 unlike:1 size:6 typically:1 dual:1 sway:1 couple:1 body:1 hold:1 lateral:1 blast:4 distribute:1 different:5 direction:1 little:1 mine:10 buried:1 land:3 explosively:1 formed:1 penetrator:1 efps:1 defeat:1 casualty:1 field:8 ask:3 frag:5 upgrade:3 huvmee:1 uah:1 price:3 october:1 add:3 soft:2 holding:3 battelle:1 january:1 late:2 fielded:1 still:2 inadequate:1 stop:1 efp:1 thousand:2 lack:1 washingtonpost:1 increased:1 hefty:1 width:1 require:1 mechanical:1 assist:1 device:3 open:1 close:1 get:1 performance:1 occur:1 accident:1 heavily:2 tend:1 jam:1 shut:1 trap:2 saver:1 mountain:2 division:1 invents:2 rat:1 claw:1 fit:8 hook:1 rip:1 free:1 emergency:1 escape:2 vee:2 windows:2 bae:5 currently:7 uparmored:1 order:2 quick:1 bulletproof:1 man:1 top:3 extremely:1 vulnerable:1 many:2 shield:1 case:2 apc:1 deploy:2 vietnam:1 evaluate:1 new:4 form:2 already:1 theater:1 gunshield:1 chavis:1 turret:4 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6,926 | Herman_Boerhaave | Oud Poelgeest Castle, Herman Boerhaave's home in Oegstgeest, near Leiden. This was the site of his outdoor botanical garden that was renowned during his lifetime and rivaled Hortus Cliffortianus, the garden of his friend and sponsor to Linnaeus. He traveled back and forth to his friend's garden and to the Leiden University by trekschuit. Herman Boerhaave (Voorhout, December 31, 1668 – Leiden, September 23, 1738) was a Dutch botanist, humanist and physician of European fame. He is regarded as the founder of clinical teaching and of the modern academic hospital. His main achievement was to demonstrate the relation of symptoms to lesions. Life He was born at Voorhout near Leiden. Entering the University of Leiden he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation De distinctione mentis a corpore (on the difference of the mind from the body), in which he attacked the doctrines of Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwijk in present-day Gelderland. In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, De commendando Hippocratis studio, he recommended to his pupils that great physician as their model. In 1709 he became professor of botany and medicine, and in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university, but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the botanic garden of Leiden, and by the publication of numerous works descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed rector of the university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo in the chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he introduced the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later he was appointed to the chair of chemistry also. In 1728 he was elected into the French Academy of Sciences, and two years later into the Royal Society of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and painful illness, at Leiden. His reputation so increased the fame of the University of Leiden, especially as a school of medicine, that it became popular with visitors from every part of Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him pupils, who found in this skillful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1715, to instruct himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. Linnaeus traveled to see him, as did Voltaire. His reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin sent him a letter addressed to "the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and it reached him in due course. The operating theatre of the University of Leiden in which he once worked as an anatomist is now at the center of a museum named after him; the Boerhaave Museum. Boerhaave first described Boerhaave's Syndrome, which involves tearing of the esophagus, usually a consequence of vigorous vomiting. He notoriously described in 1724 the case of Baron Jan von Wassenaer, a Dutch admiral who died of this condition following a gluttonous feast and subsequent regurgitation Boerhaave H. Atrocis, nec descripti prius, morbii historia: secundum medicae artis leges conscripta. Leiden, the Netherlands: Lugduni Batavorum Boutesteniana, 1724 . This condition was uniformly fatal prior to modern surgical techniques allowing repair of the esophagus. Boerhaave was critical of his Netherlands contemporary, Baruch Spinoza, attacking him in his dissertation in 1689. Personal life On September 14 1710, Boerhaave married Maria Drolenvaux, the daughter of the rich merchant, Alderman Abraham Drolenvaux. They had four children, of whom one daughter, Maria Joanna, lived to adulthood . In 1722, he began to suffer from an extreme case of gout, recovering the next year. Publications Het Nut der Mechanistische Methode in de Geneeskunde (Leiden, 1703) Institutiones medicae (Leiden, 1708) Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis (Leiden, 1709), on which his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772) published a commentary in 5 vols. Elementa chemiae (Paris, 1724). See also Boerhaave syndrome External links Samuel Johnson's 1739 biography of him online: Life of Herman Boerhaave Museum Boerhaave in Leiden, National Museum of the History of Science and Medicine A recent discussion of Boerhaave's Syndrome in the New England Journal of Medicine (subscription required) "Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis" (1709; “Aphorisms on the Recognition and Treatment of Diseases”) "Elementa Chemiae" (1733) (Elements of Chemistry) "A New Method of Chemistry" (1741 & 1753) (English Translation of "Elementa Chemiae" by Peter Shaw) References | Herman_Boerhaave |@lemmatized oud:1 poelgeest:1 castle:1 herman:3 boerhaave:14 home:1 oegstgeest:1 near:2 leiden:15 site:1 outdoor:1 botanical:2 garden:4 renowned:1 lifetime:1 rival:1 hortus:1 cliffortianus:1 friend:2 sponsor:1 linnaeus:2 travel:2 back:1 forth:1 university:6 trekschuit:1 voorhout:2 december:1 september:2 dutch:2 botanist:1 humanist:1 physician:3 european:1 fame:2 regard:1 founder:1 clinical:2 teaching:1 modern:3 academic:1 hospital:1 main:1 achievement:1 demonstrate:1 relation:1 symptom:1 lesion:1 life:3 bear:1 enter:1 take:2 degree:1 philosophy:1 dissertation:2 de:5 distinctione:1 mentis:1 corpore:1 difference:1 mind:1 body:1 attack:2 doctrine:1 epicurus:1 thomas:1 hobbes:1 spinoza:2 turn:1 study:1 medicine:7 graduate:1 harderwijk:1 present:1 day:1 gelderland:1 appoint:3 lecturer:1 institute:1 inaugural:1 discourse:1 commendando:1 hippocratis:1 studio:1 recommend:1 pupil:3 great:2 model:1 become:2 professor:2 botany:2 capacity:2 good:1 service:1 also:4 science:3 improvement:1 addition:1 botanic:1 publication:2 numerous:1 work:2 descriptive:1 new:3 specie:1 plant:1 rector:1 succeed:1 govert:1 bidloo:1 chair:3 practical:1 introduce:1 system:1 instruction:1 four:2 year:3 later:2 chemistry:4 elect:1 french:1 academy:1 two:1 royal:1 society:1 london:1 decline:1 health:1 oblige:1 resign:1 die:2 lingering:1 painful:1 illness:1 reputation:2 increase:1 especially:1 school:1 popular:1 visitor:1 every:1 part:1 europe:4 prince:1 send:2 find:1 skillful:1 indefatigable:1 teacher:1 affectionate:1 guardian:1 peter:2 go:1 holland:1 instruct:1 maritime:1 affair:1 lesson:1 see:2 voltaire:1 confine:1 chinese:1 mandarin:1 letter:1 address:1 illustrious:1 reach:1 due:1 course:1 operating:1 theatre:1 anatomist:1 center:1 museum:4 name:1 first:1 describe:2 syndrome:3 involve:1 tearing:1 esophagus:2 usually:1 consequence:1 vigorous:1 vomit:1 notoriously:1 case:2 baron:1 jan:1 von:1 wassenaer:1 admiral:1 condition:2 follow:1 gluttonous:1 feast:1 subsequent:1 regurgitation:1 h:1 atrocis:1 nec:1 descripti:1 prius:1 morbii:1 historia:1 secundum:1 medicae:2 artis:1 leges:1 conscripta:1 netherlands:2 lugduni:1 batavorum:1 boutesteniana:1 uniformly:1 fatal:1 prior:1 surgical:1 technique:1 allow:1 repair:1 critical:1 contemporary:1 baruch:1 personal:1 marry:1 maria:2 drolenvaux:2 daughter:2 rich:1 merchant:1 alderman:1 abraham:1 child:1 one:1 joanna:1 live:1 adulthood:1 begin:1 suffer:1 extreme:1 gout:1 recover:1 next:1 het:1 nut:1 der:1 mechanistische:1 methode:1 geneeskunde:1 institutiones:1 aphorismi:2 cognoscendis:2 et:2 curandis:2 morbis:2 assistant:1 gerard:1 van:1 swieten:1 publish:1 commentary:1 vols:1 elementa:3 chemiae:3 paris:1 external:1 link:1 samuel:1 johnson:1 biography:1 online:1 national:1 history:1 recent:1 discussion:1 england:1 journal:1 subscription:1 require:1 aphorisms:1 recognition:1 treatment:1 disease:1 element:1 method:1 english:1 translation:1 shaw:1 reference:1 |@bigram botanical_garden:1 thomas_hobbes:1 botanic_garden:1 leiden_netherlands:1 baruch_spinoza:1 van_swieten:1 external_link:1 |
6,927 | Geography_of_Nigeria | Nigeria is a country in West Africa. Nigeria shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the northeast. Noted geographical features in Nigeria include the Adamawa and Jos Plateaus, and the Niger River and Niger Delta. The country's geographic coordinates are Area and boundaries Map of Nigeria The total area of Nigeria is 923,768 km². 910,768 km² of that is land, while water takes up 13 000 km². Nigeria's total boundaries are 4 047 km in length. The countries it borders account for most of this. The border with Benin is 773 km, that with Cameroon is 1,690 km, Chad's is 87 km, and Niger's is 1,497 km. Nigeria's coastline is 853 km. Nigeria makes the following maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 M territorial sea: 12 M Climate When dividing Nigeria by climatic regions, three regions, the far south, the far north, and the rest of the country emerge. The far south is defined by its tropical rainforest climate, where annual rainfall is 60 to 80 inches a year. The far north is defined by its almost desert-like climate, where rain is less than 20 inches per year. The rest of the country, everything in between the far south and the far north, is savannah, and rainfall is between 20 and 60 inches per year. Topography Topography of Nigeria Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue River valleys (which merge into each other and form a "y" shape). Plains rise to the north of the valleys. To the southwest of the Niger there is "rugged" highland, and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon. Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast. Vegetation Vegetation map of Nigeria. Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannah (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land. (The latter is the least common, and is mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroonian border.) Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts. The forest zone's most southerly portion is defined as salt water swamp, also known as a mangrove swamp due to the large amount of mangroves in the area. North of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water swamp, and north of that is rain forest. The savannah zone's three categories are divided into "guinea savannah," the most common across the country, "Sudan savannah," and "sahel savannah." Guinea savannah is made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees; Sudan savannah is similar but with "shorter grasses and shorter trees." Sahel savannah is comprised patches of grass and sand, and is found in the northeast. States in Each Zones 1. Sokoto 2. Kano 3. Maiduguri 4. Kaduna 5. Bauchi 6. Jos 7. Minna 8. Yola 9. Ilorin 10. Makurdi 11. Ibadan 12. Akure 13. Benin City 14. Enugu 15. Owerri 16. Abeokuta 17. Calabar 18. Port harcourt Natural resources and land use Nigeria's natural resources include but are not limited to petroleum (see petroleum in Nigeria), tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas, hydropower, and arable land. References | Geography_of_Nigeria |@lemmatized nigeria:15 country:6 west:2 africa:1 share:1 land:5 border:6 republic:1 benin:3 chad:3 cameroon:3 east:1 niger:6 north:7 coast:1 lie:1 gulf:1 guinea:3 south:4 lake:1 northeast:2 note:1 geographical:1 feature:1 include:2 adamawa:1 jos:2 plateau:1 river:2 delta:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 area:3 boundary:2 map:2 total:2 water:4 take:1 km:6 length:1 account:1 coastline:1 make:2 following:1 maritime:1 claim:1 continental:1 shelf:1 depth:2 exploitation:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:6 territorial:1 sea:1 climate:3 divide:3 climatic:1 region:3 three:4 far:6 rest:2 emerge:1 define:3 tropical:1 rainforest:1 annual:1 rainfall:2 inch:3 year:3 almost:1 desert:1 like:1 rain:2 less:1 per:2 everything:1 savannah:10 topography:2 expansive:1 topographical:1 valley:3 benue:2 merge:1 form:1 shape:1 plain:3 rise:1 southwest:2 rugged:1 highland:1 southeast:2 hill:1 mountain:2 find:4 way:1 coastal:1 vegetation:4 cover:3 type:1 forest:4 significant:1 tree:5 insignificant:1 grass:4 flower:1 locate:1 montane:1 latter:1 least:1 common:2 mainly:1 near:1 cameroonian:1 part:1 southerly:1 portion:1 salt:2 swamp:4 also:1 know:1 mangrove:2 due:1 large:1 amount:1 fresh:1 contain:1 different:1 category:1 across:1 sudan:2 sahel:2 tall:1 interrupt:1 similar:1 shorter:1 short:1 comprised:1 patch:1 sand:1 state:1 sokoto:1 kano:1 maiduguri:1 kaduna:1 bauchi:1 minna:1 yola:1 ilorin:1 makurdi:1 ibadan:1 akure:1 city:1 enugu:1 owerri:1 abeokuta:1 calabar:1 port:1 harcourt:1 natural:3 resource:2 use:1 limit:1 petroleum:2 see:1 tin:1 columbite:1 iron:1 ore:1 coal:1 limestone:1 lead:1 zinc:1 gas:1 hydropower:1 arable:1 reference:1 |@bigram chad_cameroon:1 niger_delta:1 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 continental_shelf:1 exploitation_exclusive:1 tropical_rainforest:1 annual_rainfall:1 coastal_plain:1 mangrove_swamp:1 rain_forest:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:1 |
6,928 | Mieszko_II_Lambert | This article is about a Polish king. See also Duke Mieszko II the Fat. <font size="+1">Mieszko II LambertMieszko and duchess Matilda of Swabia. Earliest known contemporary depiction of a Polish ruler.Reign 1025–1034.Coronation December 25, 1025, in Gniezno Cathedral, Poland.Royal House Piast.Coat of Arms The Piast Eagle.Parents Bolesław I the Brave,Enmilda.Consorts Richensa.Children With Richensa:Casimir I,Gertruda.Date of Birth 990.Place of Birth ?Date of Death May 10, 1034.Place of Death ?Place of Burial Cathedral Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul, Poznań, Poland. Mieszko II Lambert (990-10 May 1034) ruled from 1025-1034 as duke and short-term king of Poland. He was the son of Bolesław I the Brave and Enmilda, daughter of Dobromir, possible Duke of Lusatia. Mieszko II was married to Richensa of Lotharingia (Rixa), the granddaughter of Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor. Their children were Casimir I of Poland, Gertrude of Poland and unknown daughter. Mieszko II was very well educated for the period. He was able to read and write, and knew both Greek and Latin. He is unjustly known as Mieszko Gnuśny (the "Lazy," "Stagnant" or "Slothful"). He received that epithet due to the unfortunate way his reign ended; but at the beginning he acted as a skillful and talented ruler. He sought to rule as king in 1025, he probably served as his father's governor in Kraków, most likely from 1013, and reputedly built many churches. Beginning in 1028, he successfully waged war against the Holy Roman Empire: he was able to repel the its invading army, and later even invaded Saxony. He allied Poland with Hungary, resulting in a temporary Hungarian occupation of Vienna. This war was probably prompted by family connections of Mieszko's in Germany who opposed Emperor Conrad II. 19th century portrait by Jan MatejkoAn understanding of what happened later requires an understanding of Mieszko's family. His older brother Bezprym was the son of an unknown Hungarian wife of Bolesław's and was later expelled by Mieszko. He also had a younger brother, Otton. By Slavic custom, a father should divide his legacy among all his sons. However, since a kingdom cannot be divided, Mieszko's brothers received nothing from their father's legacy. As Bezprym was the oldest son, many probably felt that he should have succeeded his father as king. Bezprym had, however, always been disliked by his father, as indicated by his name (the Piasts tended to give names such as Bolesław, Mieszko and later Kazimierz, Władysław and emperors' names such as Otto, Conrad and Heinrich: Bezprym was a commoner's name, which implied that Bolesław did not wish Bezprym to succeed him). He was packed off to a monastery. Mieszko's two brothers escaped abroad: Otton to HRE, Bezprym to Kievan Rus. Soon after, the HRE emperor and the grand duke of Kiev, Yaroslav I the Wise, made alliance and simultaneously invaded Poland. Facing two enemies, HRE on the west and Rus on the east, Mieszko escaped to Bohemia.Bezprym began his reign by sending his crown and regalia to HRE. Mieszko soon returned, but was forced to pledge fealty to the German Emperor, and Poland was divided among him, his brothers Otton and Bezprym, and a certain Thiedric (cousin, grandson of Mieszko I and Oda). Otton was killed by one of his own men, and Mieszko was able to reunite Poland. What happened next is a mystery. Historians now think that Mieszko was killed (1034) in a plot hatched by the aristocracy. After Mieszko's death, Poland's peasants revolted in a "pagan reaction." The exact reasons and date are unknown. Mieszko's son, Casimir I, was either expelled by this insurrection, or the insurrection was caused by the aristocracy's expulsion of him. Some modern historians argue that the insurrection was caused more by economic than by religious issues, such as new taxes for the Church and the militarization of the early Polish polity. Priests, monks and knights were killed; cities, churches and monasteries were burned. The chaos became still greater when unexpectedly the Czechs invaded from the south. The land became divided among local rulers, one of whom is known by name: Masław, ruler of Masovia. Greater Poland was so devastated that it ceased to be the core of Polish Kingdom. The capital was moved to Kraków in Lesser Poland. See also History of Poland (966-1385) | Mieszko_II_Lambert |@lemmatized article:1 polish:4 king:4 see:2 also:3 duke:4 mieszko:19 ii:7 fat:1 font:1 size:1 lambertmieszko:1 duchess:1 matilda:1 swabia:1 early:2 known:1 contemporary:1 depiction:1 ruler:4 reign:3 coronation:1 december:1 gniezno:1 cathedral:2 poland:13 royal:1 house:1 piast:2 coat:1 arm:1 eagle:1 parent:1 bolesław:5 brave:2 enmilda:2 consort:1 richensa:3 child:2 casimir:3 gertruda:1 date:3 birth:2 place:3 death:3 may:2 burial:1 basilica:1 st:2 peter:1 paul:1 poznań:1 lambert:1 rule:2 short:1 term:1 son:5 daughter:2 dobromir:1 possible:1 lusatia:1 marry:1 lotharingia:1 rixa:1 granddaughter:1 otto:2 holy:2 roman:2 emperor:5 gertrude:1 unknown:3 well:1 educate:1 period:1 able:3 read:1 write:1 know:3 greek:1 latin:1 unjustly:1 gnuśny:1 lazy:1 stagnant:1 slothful:1 receive:2 epithet:1 due:1 unfortunate:1 way:1 end:1 beginning:1 act:1 skillful:1 talented:1 seek:1 probably:3 serve:1 father:5 governor:1 kraków:2 likely:1 reputedly:1 build:1 many:2 church:3 begin:2 successfully:1 wag:1 war:2 empire:1 repel:1 invading:1 army:1 later:4 even:1 invade:2 saxony:1 ally:1 hungary:1 result:1 temporary:1 hungarian:2 occupation:1 vienna:1 prompt:1 family:2 connection:1 germany:1 oppose:1 conrad:2 century:1 portrait:1 jan:1 matejkoan:1 understanding:2 happen:2 require:1 old:2 brother:5 bezprym:8 wife:1 expel:2 young:1 otton:4 slavic:1 custom:1 divide:4 legacy:2 among:3 however:2 since:1 kingdom:2 cannot:1 nothing:1 felt:1 succeed:2 always:1 dislike:1 indicate:1 name:5 piasts:1 tend:1 give:1 kazimierz:1 władysław:1 heinrich:1 commoner:1 imply:1 wish:1 pack:1 monastery:2 two:2 escape:2 abroad:1 hre:4 kievan:1 ru:2 soon:2 grand:1 kiev:1 yaroslav:1 wise:1 make:1 alliance:1 simultaneously:1 invaded:1 face:1 enemy:1 west:1 east:1 bohemia:1 send:1 crown:1 regalia:1 return:1 force:1 pledge:1 fealty:1 german:1 certain:1 thiedric:1 cousin:1 grandson:1 oda:1 kill:3 one:2 men:1 reunite:1 next:1 mystery:1 historian:2 think:1 plot:1 hatch:1 aristocracy:2 peasant:1 revolt:1 pagan:1 reaction:1 exact:1 reason:1 either:1 insurrection:3 cause:2 expulsion:1 modern:1 argue:1 economic:1 religious:1 issue:1 new:1 tax:1 militarization:1 polity:1 priest:1 monk:1 knight:1 city:1 burn:1 chaos:1 become:2 still:1 great:2 unexpectedly:1 czech:1 south:1 land:1 local:1 masław:1 masovia:1 devastated:1 cease:1 core:1 capital:1 move:1 less:1 history:1 |@bigram coat_arm:1 bolesław_brave:2 cathedral_basilica:1 kievan_ru:1 |
6,929 | Nichiren | A statue of Nichiren outside Honnoji in the Teramachi District of Kyoto. Nichiren () (February 16, 1222 – October 13, 1282) was a Buddhist monk who lived during the Kamakura period (1185-1333) in Japan. Nichiren taught devotion to the Lotus Sutra, Namu-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō, as the exclusive means to attain enlightenment and the chanting of "Nam Myo ho Renge Kyo" as the essential practice of the teaching. He is credited with founding what has come to be known as Nichiren Buddhism, a major school of Japanese Buddhism encompassing numerous sects espousing diverse doctrines. Lifetime Nichiren (portrait) Birth, education, initial teaching Nichiren was born on February 16, 1222 in the village of Kominato, Nagase District, Awa Province (located within present day Chiba Prefecture). Nichiren's father's name was Mikuni-no-Tayu Shigetada, also known as Nukina Shigetada Jiro (d. 1258) and his mother's name was Umegiku-nyo (d. 1267). On his birth, his parents named him which has variously been translated into English as "Splendid Sun" and "Virtuous Sun Boy" among others. The exact site of Nichiren's birth is believed to be submerged off the shore from the present location of Kominato-zan Tanjo-ji (小湊山 誕生寺), a temple in Kominato memorializing Nichiren's birth. Some traditions suggest that Nichiren's family was associated with the Fujiwara clan. However, Nichiren himself never made such a claim and historians are skeptical. Nichiren himself wrote proudly that he was "the son of a chandala family who lived near the sea in Tojo in Awa Province, in the remote countryside of the eastern part of Japan."1 This has been interpreted to mean that Nichiren's family made their living in the fish trade, an occupation viewed with disdain by idealistic Buddhists of the time.2 Another suggestion is that Mikuni-no-Tayu Shigetada, Nichiren's father, had been a samurai, but had grown disillusioned with violence and retired to Kominato to make a living as a fisherman.3 Nichiren makes no such claim in his authenticated writings. Nichiren began his Buddhist study at a nearby Tendai temple, Seichoji (清澄寺, also called Kiyosumi-dera), at age 11. He was formally ordained at 16 and took the Buddhist name Zeshō-bō Renchō. He left Seichoji shortly thereafter to study in Kamakura and several years later traveled to western Japan for more in-depth study in the Kyoto–Nara area, where Japan's major centers of Buddhist learning were located. During this time, he became convinced of the pre-eminence of the Lotus Sutra and in 1253, returned to Seichoji. On April 28, 1253, he expounded Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō for the first time, marking his Sho Tempōrin (初転法輪: "first turning the wheel of the Law"). With this, he proclaimed that devotion to and practice of the Lotus Sutra was the only correct form of Buddhism for the present time period. At the same time he changed his name to Nichiren, wherein the kanji character for nichi (日) means "sun" and that for ren (蓮) means "lotus". The significance of this choice, as Nichiren himself explained it, is manifold and rooted, among other things, in passages from the Lotus Sutra. Simple explanations—such as "nichi stands for the sun"—though not wrong, should therefore not be taken by themselves or regarded as representing the whole story. After making his declaration, which all schools of Nichiren Buddhism regard as marking their foundation (立宗: risshū), Nichiren began propagating his teachings in Kamakura, then Japan's de facto capital since it was where the shikken (regent for the shogun) and shogun lived and the apparatus of government were seated. He gained a fairly large following there, consisting of both priests and laity, and many of his lay believers came from among the samurai class. First remonstration with authorities and early years of teaching Nichiren was an extremely controversial figure in his own time, and many of the schools stemming from his teachings continue to inspire controversy today (see Nichiren Buddhism). One common source of such controversy is the perception that Nichiren Buddhists insist that only the school they follow is the correct form of Buddhism, a conviction that started with Nichiren himself. Some groups today characterize Nichiren's efforts as an attempt to reform contemporary Buddhism; Nichiren, however, was not trying to reform other sects. Rather, his intent was to have government patronage for them ceased and to dissuade people from practicing them because he was convinced that the other schools were leading people down the wrong path, away from the "truth of the Lotus Sutra," away from their potential enlightenment, and towards more suffering. Nichiren stated this purpose clearly, outlining it in the : "Treatise on securing the peace of the land through the establishment of the correct" Also translated as "On establishing the correct teaching for the peace of the land" (The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin), "Establishment of the legitimate teaching for the protection of the country" (Selected Writings of Nichiren), and others. ), his first major treatise and the first of three remonstrations with the authorities. He felt that it was imperative for the sovereign to recognize and accept the singly true and correct form of Buddhism (i.e., 立正: risshō) as the only way to achieve peace and prosperity for the land and its people and end their suffering (i.e., 安国: ankoku). This "true and correct form of Buddhism," as Nichiren saw it, entailed regarding the Lotus Sutra as the ultimate Buddhist teaching and practicing it as he taught. Based on prophecies made in several of Sakyamuni Buddha's sutras, Nichiren attributed the occurrence of the famines, disease, and natural disasters (especially drought, typhoons, and earthquakes) of his day to the sovereign's and the people's adherence to all other forms of Buddhism. He considered these to be heretical or, while perhaps fit for a previous day, unfit for contemporary times, according to a Buddhist view of time that divided history after Sakyamuni Buddha's passing into three periods. In his treatise, he also noted that, according to the same prophecies, failure to adopt the correct form of Buddhism would leave the country open to more and some as-yet unexperienced disasters, including armed conflict and specifically internal rebellion and foreign invasion. Nichiren (second from right) depicted as pacifying the spirit of a cormorant fisherman in print of 1885 by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi Nichiren submitted his treatise in July 1260. Though it drew no official response, it obviously had not fallen on deaf ears inasmuch as it prompted a severe backlash, especially from among priests of other Buddhist sects. Nichiren was harassed frequently, several times with force, and often had to change dwellings; for example, he was exiled to the Izu peninsula in 1261 and nearly assassinated in November 1264. Failed execution attempt—viewed by Nichiren as a critical turning point in his life The following several years were marked by successful propagation activities in eastern Japan that generated more resentment among priests of other sects and the authorities. After one exchange with an influential priest called Ryōkan (良観), Nichiren was called in for questioning by the authorities in September 1271. He used this as an opportunity to address his second government remonstration to Hei no Saemon (平の左衛門, also called 平頼綱: Taira no Yoritsuna), a powerful police and military figure. Two days later, on September 12, Hei no Saemon and a group of soldiers abducted Nichiren from his hut at Matsubagayatsu, Kamakura. Their intent was to arrest and summarily behead him; but, according to legend, some sort of astronomical phenomenon — a great flash of light—over the seaside Tatsunokuchi execution grounds terrified Nichiren's executioners into inaction. The incident is known by Nichiren Buddhists as the Tatsunokuchi Persecution and regarded by many of them as a turning point in Nichiren's lifetime called Hosshaku kenpon (発迹顕本). Hosshaku kenpon means "discarding the provisional and revealing the true": Nichiren, at this point, discarded his "provisional" identity as a mortal priest and began to reveal his "true" identity as the reincarnation of the Bodhisattva Jōgyō (上行菩薩) or as the True Buddha (本仏: hombutsu), depending on which school's interpretation you accept. Unsure of what to do with Nichiren, Hei no Saemon eventually decided to banish him to Sado, an island in the Japan Sea known for its particularly severe winters and a place from which few returned. This exile, Nichiren's second, lasted about three years and, though harsh and in the long term detrimental to his health, represents one of the most important and productive segments of his lifetime of teaching. While on Sado, he won numerous staunch converts and wrote two of his most important doctrinal treatises, the Kaimoku Shō (開目抄: "On the opening of the eyes") and the Kanjin no Honzon Shō (観心本尊抄: "The object of devotion for observing the mind in the fifth five-hundred year period"), as well as numerous letters and minor treatises whose content contains critical components of his whole teaching. It was also during his exile on Sado, in 1272, that he inscribed the first Gohonzon (御本尊), the mandala that he intended as a graphic representation (or, in some schools, as the very embodiment) of the essence of the Lotus Sutra—Myōhō-Renge-Kyō, or the "Mystic Law" of cause and effect that underlies all phenomena in the universe (see Nam Myoho Renge Kyo). Nichiren was pardoned in February 1274 and returned to Kamakura in late March. He was again interviewed by Hei no Saemon, who now was interested in extracting information from him about a feared invasion by the Mongols: The appearance of several Mongol messengers demanding Japan's fealty had spooked the authorities into believing that Nichiren's prophecy of foreign invasion was about to materialize (which it did in October; see Mongol Invasions of Japan). Nichiren, however, used the audience as yet another opportunity to remonstrate with the government. Retirement to Mt. Minobu His third remonstration also unheeded, Nichiren—following an old Chinese adage to the effect that if a wise man remonstrates three times but is ignored, he should leave the country—decided to go into voluntary exile on Mt. Minobu (身延山) in May 1274. With the exception of a few short journeys, Nichiren spent the rest of his life at Minobu, where he and his disciples erected a temple, Kuonji (久遠寺) and he continued writing and training his disciples. Two of his works from this period are the Senji Shō (撰時抄: "On the selection of time") and the Hōon Shō (報恩抄: "Recompense of Indebtedness"), which, along with his Risshō Ankoku Ron, Kaimoku Shō, and Kanjin no Honzon Shō, constitute his Five Major Writings.He also inscribed numerous Gohonzon for bestowal upon specific disciples and lay believers. Many of these survive today in the repositories of Nichiren temples such as Taisekiji (大石寺) in Fujinomiya, Shizuoka Prefecture, which has a particularly large collection that is publicly aired once a year in April. Passing Nichiren spent his final years writing, inscribing Gohonzon for his disciples and believers, and delivering sermons. But his health began to fail, and several people encouraged him to travel to hot springs for their medicinal benefits. He left Minobu in the company of several disciples on September 8, 1282. Upon arrival ten days later at the residence of Ikegami Munenaka, a lay believer who lived in what is now Ikegami, Tokyo, Nichiren sensed that his end was near and he began to make preparations. On September 25 he delivered his last sermon on the Risshō Ankoku Ron, and on October 8 he appointed six senior disciples—Nisshō (日昭), Nichirō (日朗), Nikkō (日興), Nikō (日向), Nichiji (日持), and Nicchō (日頂)—to continue leading propagation of his teachings after he was gone. On October 13, 1282, at the hour of the dragon (around 8:00am), Nichiren "passed into nirvana" in the presence of many disciples and lay believers. His funeral and cremation took place the following day. His disciple Nikkō left Ikegami with Nichiren's ashes on October 21, reaching Minobu on October 25. Nichiren's original tomb is sited, as per his request, at Kuonji. Writings Some Nichiren schools refer to the entirety of Nichiren's Buddhism as his "lifetime of teaching," quite an apt description in light of the number of writings he left behind. Many are still extant in his original hand, some in full and some in fragments, and yet more survive as copies made by his immediate disciples. Today, students of Nichiren—whether as faithful or as academic—have access to well over 700 of his works, including transcriptions of orally delivered lectures, letters of remonstration, and even graphic illustrations. In addition to treatises written in kanbun (漢文), a formal writing style modeled on classical Chinese that was the language of government and learning in contemporary Japan, Nichiren also wrote expositories and letters to disciples and lay followers in mixed-kanji–kana vernacular as well as letters in simple kana for believers who could not read the more-formal styles, particularly children. Some of Nichiren's kanbun works, especially the Risshō Ankoku Ron, are considered exemplary masterworks of the style, while many of his letters show unusual empathy and understanding for the down-trodden of his day. Many of his most famous letters were to woman believers, whom he often complimented for their in-depth questions about Buddhism while encouraging them in their efforts to attain enlightenment in this lifetime. Several modern observers also read a political message into a number of his works, and during the pre-World War II period the government even insisted that passages and even whole documents be deleted from published collections of his works because they were considered insulting to the emperor. Nichiren's writings are known collectively as go-ibun or gosho and are available in a number of compilations, some more comprehensive than others. Several appear in Iwanami Shoten's 102-volume anthology of classical Japanese literature published in the late 1950s and early 60s, as well as other similar collections of classical literature. The most famous of the dedicated compilations is the Nichiren Daishonin Gosho Zenshu (日蓮大聖人御書全集: "The complete works of Nichiren Daishonin") compiled by 59th Nichiren Shoshu High Priest Hori Nichiko and first published in 1952 and revised and reprinted several times subsequently by Soka Gakkai. Taisekiji also issued a new compilation in 1994 called Heisei Shimpen Nichiren Daishonin Gosho (平成新編 日蓮大聖人御書). This book presents Nichiren's writings in chronological order starting with an essay authored in 1242 (around the time Nichiren was studying at Mt. Hiei in Kyoto) and including 81 works not published in the aforementioned Gosho Zenshu, excluding 32 that had been previously published in another compilation but since judged by this compilation's editors as unauthentic, and identifying 17 whose authenticity its editors could not confirm. See the references and external links below for access to English translations. Nichiren's teachings after his passing After Nichiren's death, his teachings were interpreted in different ways by several of his disciples, in particular the six senior priests (or elders) whom he named shortly before his passing. As a result, Nichiren Buddhism encompasses several major branches and minor schools, each with its own set of interpretations of Nichiren's teachings. Some of these schools are more, and some less, similar to the others depending on the detail, but the most significant differences focus on schools' positioning of Nichiren in the development of Buddhist history and their objects of veneration. See Nichiren Buddhism: Schools and Nichiren Buddhism: Doctrine and practices for more information. Nichiren and the game of Go Nichiren is considered by some to have been a master of the game of Go in his day. Greg Schneider, a University scholar, writes: Nichiren, the founder of Nichiren Buddhism, was reputedly the greatest player of his day. He introduced the method of documenting games for study, and thus one of his own games is said to be the first recorded go game in history. However many scholars believe this to be a 19th century forgery. Nichiren's views on women Nichiren, along with other well-known East Asian Buddhist teachers like Dogen, also declared that women could attain enlightenment. Posthumous titles of respect Since his passing, Nichiren has been known by several posthumous names intended to express respect toward him or to represent his position in the history of Buddhism. Most common among these are Nichiren Shōnin 日蓮聖人 "St. Nichiren" or "Sage Nichiren" (also spelled, outside the Nichiren schools, 日蓮上人 "Rev. Nichiren" or "Priest Nichiren"), and Nichiren Daishōnin 日蓮大聖人 "Great Sage Nichiren". Preference for these titles generally depends on the school to which a person belongs, with "Nichiren Shōnin" being most commonly used, while "Nichiren Daishōnin" is preferred by followers of schools derived from the Nikkō lineages. Japanese Nichiren Buddhists always refer to Nichiren using one of these respectful forms of address, or by a title of respect alone (e.g., "the Daishōnin"), and may be offended if the title is omitted. The Japanese imperial court also awarded Nichiren the honorific designations Nichiren Daibosatsu 日蓮大菩薩 "Great Bodhisattva Nichiren", and Risshō Daishi 立正大師 "Great Teacher Risshō; the former title was granted in 1358, and the latter in 1922. Addenda See also Dai Gohonzon Nichiren Buddhism Nichiren Shōshū Nichiren Shu Soka Gakkai Nichiren - a Man of Many Miracles (日蓮と蒙古大襲来 Nichiren to mōko daishūrai) - 1958 film by Kunio Watanabe. Sources The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, Soka Gakkai, 1999.) Nichiren Daishōnin Shōden (日蓮大聖人正伝: "Orthodox biography of Nichiren Daishonin"), Taisekiji, 1981 A Dictionary of Buddhist Terms and Concepts, Nichiren Shoshu International Center (NSIC), Tokyo, 1983. ISBN 4-88872-014-2. Kirimura, Yasuji: The Life of Nichiren Daishonin. NSIC, 1980Note: NSIC, publisher of the foregoing two works, is no longer connected with Nichiren Shoshu. Heisei Shimpen Nichiren Daishonin Gosho (平成新編 日蓮大聖人御書: "Heisei new compilation of Nichiren Daishonin's writings"), Taisekiji, 1994 References Letters of Nichiren. Burton Watson et al., trans.; Philip B. Yampolsky, ed. Columbia University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-231-10384-0 Selected Writings of Nichiren. Burton Watson et al., trans.; Philip B. Yampolsky, ed. Columbia University Press, 1990 ISBN 0-231-07260-0Full disclosure statement: Soka Gakkai retains the copyrights on the foregoing two works and financed their publication; nonetheless, they show some deviation from similar works currently published under Soka Gakkai's own name. The Record of the Orally Transmitted Teachings, hard cover, Burton Watson, Translator, Soka Gakkai, 2005, ISBN 4-412-01286-7 The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism (Seikyo Press), Tokyo, 2002. External links Official SGI Website Official Nichiren Shoshu Website Official Nichiren Shu Website Official Nichiren Shoshu overseas bureau website An English biography of Nichiren on the website of the Myokanko, a Japanese group associated with Nichiren Shoshu Nichiren Shu Europa The Major Writings of Nichiren Daishonin Notes | Nichiren |@lemmatized statue:1 nichiren:117 outside:2 honnoji:1 teramachi:1 district:2 kyoto:3 february:3 october:6 buddhist:14 monk:1 live:4 kamakura:5 period:6 japan:10 teach:7 devotion:3 lotus:8 sutra:8 namu:2 myōhō:3 renge:5 kyō:3 exclusive:1 mean:5 attain:3 enlightenment:4 chanting:1 nam:2 myo:1 ho:1 kyo:2 essential:1 practice:5 teaching:11 credit:1 found:1 come:2 know:7 buddhism:20 major:6 school:15 japanese:5 encompass:2 numerous:4 sect:4 espouse:1 diverse:1 doctrine:2 lifetime:5 portrait:1 birth:4 education:1 initial:1 bear:1 village:1 kominato:4 nagase:1 awa:2 province:2 locate:2 within:1 present:4 day:9 chiba:1 prefecture:2 father:2 name:8 mikuni:2 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6,930 | Gene_Kelly | Eugene Curran "Gene" Kelly (August 23, 1912 – February 2, 1996) was an American dancer, actor, singer, director, producer, and choreographer. A major exponent of 20th century filmed dance, Kelly was known for his energetic and athletic dancing style, his good looks and the likeable characters that he played on screen. Although he is probably best known today for his performance in Singin' in the Rain, he was a dominant force in Hollywood musical films from the mid 1940s until their demise in the late 1950s. His many innovations transformed the Hollywood musical film, and he is credited with almost singlehandedly making the ballet form commercially acceptable to film audiences. Kelly was the recipient of an Academy Honorary Award in for his career achievements. He later received lifetime achievement awards in the Kennedy Center Honors, and from the Screen Actors Guild and American Film Institute; in , the American Film Institute also numbered him 15th in their Greatest Male Stars of All Time list. Early life He was the third son of James Kelly, a phonograph salesman, and Harriet Curran, who were both children of Irish Roman Catholic immigrants. He was born in the Highland Park neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. and, at the age of eight, was enrolled by his mother in dance classes, along with his older brother James. They both rebelled, and, according to Kelly: "We didn't like it much and were continually involved in fistfights with the neighborhood boys who called us sissies...I didn't dance again until I was fifteen." He thought it would be a good way to get girls. Kelly returned to dance on his own initiative and by then was an accomplished sportsman and well able to take care of himself. He graduated from Peabody High School in 1929. He enrolled in Pennsylvania State College to study journalism but the economic crash obliged him to seek employment to help with the family's finances. At this time, he worked up dance routines with his younger brother Fred in order to earn prize money in local talent contests, and they also performed in local nightclubs. In 1931, Kelly enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh to study economics where he joined the Phi Kappa Theta fraternity and earned a Bachelor of Arts in Economics in 1933. In 1930, his family started a dance studio on Munhall Road in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh. In 1932, it was renamed The Gene Kelly Studio of the Dance. A second location was opened in Johnstown, Pennsylvania in 1933. While still an undergraduate student and later as a student at Pitt's School of Law, Gene was a teacher at the dance studio. In 1931, he was approached by the Beth Shalom synagogue in Pittsburgh to teach dance and stage the annual Kermess and was so successful that his services were retained for seven years until his departure for New York. cf. Hirschhorn, p.33. Eventually, though, he decided to pursue his career as a dance teacher and entertainer full-time and so dropped out of law school after two months. He began to focus increasingly on performing, later claiming: "With time I became disenchanted with teaching because the ratio of girls to boys was more than ten to one, and once the girls reached sixteen the dropout rate was very high." In 1937, having successfully managed and developed the family's dance school business, he moved to New York City in search of work as a choreographer. Stage career After a fruitless search, Kelly returned to Pittsburgh, to his first position as a choreographer with the Charles Gaynor musical revue Hold Your Hats at the Pittsburgh Playhouse in April, 1938. Kelly appeared in six of the sketches, one of which, "La Cumparsita", became the basis of an extended Spanish number in Anchors Aweigh eight years later. His first Broadway assignment, in November 1938, was as a dancer in Cole Porter's Leave It to Me! as the American ambassador's secretary who supports Mary Martin while she sings "My Heart Belongs to Daddy". He had been hired by Robert Alton who had staged a show at the Pittsburgh Playhouse and been impressed by Kelly's teaching skills. When Alton moved on to choreograph One for the Money he hired Kelly to act, sing and dance in a total of eight routines. His first career breakthrough was in the Pulitzer Prize-winning The Time of Your Life, which opened on November 11, 1939, where for the first time on Broadway he danced to his own choreography. In the same year he received his first assignment as a Broadway choreographer, for Billy Rose's Diamond Horseshoe. His future wife, Betsy Blair, was a member of the cast. They began dating and married on October 16, 1941. In 1940, he was given the leading role in Rodgers and Hart's Pal Joey, again choreographed by Robert Alton, and this role propelled him to stardom. During its run he told reporters: "I don't believe in conformity to any school of dancing. I create what the drama and the music demand. While I am a hundred percent for ballet technique, I use only what I can adapt to my own use. I never let technique get in the way of mood or continuity." It was at this time also, that his phenomenal commitment to rehearsal and hard work was noticed by his colleagues. Van Johnson who also appeared in Pal Joey recalled: "I watched him rehearsing, and it seemed to me that there was no possible room for improvement. Yet he wasn't satisfied. It was midnight and we had been rehearsing since eight in the morning. I was making my way sleepily down the long flight of stairs when I heard staccato steps coming from the stage...I could see just a single lamp burning. Under it, a figure was dancing...Gene." Offers from Hollywood began to arrive but Kelly was in no particular hurry to leave New York. Eventually, he signed with David O. Selznick, agreeing to go to Hollywood at the end of his commitment to Pal Joey, in October 1941. Prior to his contract, he also managed to fit in choreographing the stage production of Best Foot Forward. Kelly did not return to stage work until his MGM contract ended in 1957, when in 1958 he directed Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical play Flower Drum Song. In an episode foreshadowing his later conflicts with the studio, Elia Kazan in the late 1940s offered Kelly the role of Biff in Death of a Salesman on Broadway, but MGM refused to release him. cf. Blair, p.112 Early in 1960 Kelly, an ardent Francophile and fluent French speaker, was invited by A. M. Julien, the general administrator of the Paris Opéra and Opéra-Comique, to select his own material and create a modern ballet for the company, the first time an American received such an assignment. The result was Pas de Dieux, based on Greek mythology combined with the music of George Gershwin's Concerto in F. It was a major success, and led to his being honored with the Chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur by the French Government. Film career 1941–1944: Becoming established in Hollywood Gene Kelly dancing with Jerry in Anchors Aweigh (1945) Selznick sold half of Kelly's contract to MGM and loaned him out to MGM for his first motion picture: For Me and My Gal (1942) with Judy Garland. Kelly was "appalled at the sight of myself blown up twenty times. I had an awful feeling that I was a tremendous flop" but the picture did well and, in the face of much internal resistance, Arthur Freed of MGM picked up the other half of Kelly's contract. After appearing in the B-movie drama Pilot #5 he took the male lead in Cole Porter's Du Barry Was a Lady opposite Lucille Ball. His first opportunity to dance to his own choreography came in his next picture Thousands Cheer, where he performed a mock-love dance with a mop. He achieved his breakthrough as a dancer on film, when MGM loaned him out to Columbia to work with Rita Hayworth in Cover Girl (1944), where he created a memorable routine dancing to his own reflection. In his next film Anchors Aweigh (1945), MGM virtually gave him a free hand to devise a range of dance routines, including the celebrated and much imitated animated dances with Jerry Mouse, and his duets with co-star Frank Sinatra. Later examples of this human/animated character pas de deux include Paula Abdul opposite an animated cat in her "Opposites Attract" video, and Kelly dancing with Stewie Griffin in the episode "Road to Rupert" from the Family Guy series. Anchors Aweigh became one of the most successful films of 1945 and it garnered Kelly his first and only Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. In Ziegfeld Follies (1946) – which was produced in 1944 but not released until 1946 – Kelly collaborated with Fred Astaire – for whom he had the greatest admiration – in the famous "The Babbitt and the Bromide" challenge dance routine before leaving the studio for wartime service. Throughout this period Kelly was obliged to appear in straight acting roles in a series of cheap B-movies, now largely forgotten. At the end of 1944, Kelly enlisted in the United States Naval Air Service and was commissioned as lieutenant, junior grade. He was stationed in the Photographic Section, Washington D.C., where he was involved in writing and directing a range of documentaries, and this stimulated his interest in the production side of film-making. According to Blair, p.111, he directed Jocelyn Brando in a semi-documentary about war-wounded veterans. 1946–1952: MGM An American in Paris () On his return to Hollywood in the spring of 1946, MGM had nothing lined up and used him in yet another B-movie: Living in a Big Way. The film was considered so weak that Kelly was asked to design and insert a series of dance routines, and his ability to carry off such assignments was noticed. This led to his next picture with Judy Garland and director Vincente Minnelli, the film version of Cole Porter's The Pirate, in which Kelly plays the eponymous swashbuckler. Now regarded as a classic, the film was ahead of its time and was not well received. The Pirate gave full rein to Kelly's athleticism and is probably best remembered for Kelly's work with The Nicholas Brothers – the leading African-American dancers of their day – in a virtuoso dance routine. Although MGM wanted Kelly to return to safer and more commercial vehicles, he ceaselessly fought for an opportunity to direct his own musical film. In the interim, he capitalised on his swashbuckling image as one of The Three Musketeers and appeared with Vera-Ellen in the Slaughter on Tenth Avenue ballet from Words and Music (1948). He was due to play the male lead opposite Garland in Easter Parade (1948), but broke his ankle playing volleyball. He withdrew from the film and encouraged Fred Astaire to come out of retirement to replace him. There followed Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949), his second film with Sinatra, where Kelly paid tribute to his Irish heritage in The Hat My Father Wore on St. Patrick's Day routine. It was this musical film which persuaded Arthur Freed to allow Kelly to make On the Town, where he partnered with Frank Sinatra for the third and final time, creating a breakthrough in the musical film genre which has been described as "the most inventive and effervescent musical thus far produced in Hollywood." Stanley Donen, brought to Hollywood by Kelly to be his assistant choreographer, received co-director credit for On the Town. According to Kelly: "...when you are involved in doing choreography for film you must have expert assistants. I needed one to watch my performance, and one to work with the cameraman on the timing..without such people as Stanley, Carol Haney and Jeanne Coyne I could never have done these things. When we came to do On the Town, I knew it was time for Stanley to get screen credit because we weren't boss-assistant anymore but co-creators." Blair, p.104: "Gene was the central creative force in this initial collaboration, but he was always generous about Stanley's contribution...Unfortunately, and mysteriously for me, Stanley, over the years, had been less than gracious about Gene" Together, they opened up the musical form, taking the film musical out of the studio and into real locations, with Donen taking responsibility for the staging and Kelly handling the choreography. Kelly went much further than before in introducing modern ballet into his dance sequences, going so far in the "Day in New York" routine as to substitute four leading ballet specialists for Sinatra, Munshin, Garrett and Miller. Singin' in the Rain () It was now Kelly's turn to ask the studio for a straight acting role and he took the lead role in the early mafia melodrama: The Black Hand (1949). There followed Summer Stock (1950) – Judy Garland's last musical film for MGM – in which Kelly performed the celebrated "You, You Wonderful You" solo routine with a newspaper and a squeaky floorboard. In his book "Easy the Hard Way", Joe Pasternak, head of one of the other musical units within MGM, singled out Kelly for his patience and willingness to spend as much time as necessary to enable the ailing Garland to complete her part. There followed in quick succession two musicals which have secured Kelly's reputation as a major force in the American musical film, An American in Paris (1951) and – probably the most popular and admired of all film musicals – Singin' in the Rain (1952). As co-director, lead star and choreographer, Kelly was the central driving force. Johnny Green, head of music at MGM at the time, described him as follows:"Gene is easygoing as long as you know exactly what you are doing when you're working with him. He's a hard taskmaster and he loves hard work. If you want to play on his team you'd better like hard work too. He isn't cruel but he is tough, and if Gene believed in something he didn't care who he was talking to, whether it was Louis B. Mayer or the gatekeeper. He wasn't awed by anybody and he had a good record of getting what he wanted". An American in Paris won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture and, in the same year, Kelly was presented with an honorary Academy Award for his contribution to film musicals and the art of choreography. The film also marked the debut of Leslie Caron, who Kelly had spotted in Paris and brought to Hollywood. Its dream ballet sequence, lasting an unprecedented thirteen minutes, was the most expensive production number ever filmed up to that point and was described by Bosley Crowther as, "whoop-de-doo ... one of the finest ever put on the screen." Singin' in the Rain featured Kelly's celebrated and much imitated solo dance routine to the title song, along with the "Moses Supposes" routine with Donald O'Connor and the "Broadway Melody" finale with Cyd Charisse, and while it did not initially generate the same enthusiasm as An American in Paris, it subsequently overtook the earlier film to occupy its current pre-eminent place among critics and filmgoers alike. In 1994, Kurt Browning, in an ice skating interpretation of "Singin' in the Rain" on his television special You Must Remember This. In 2005, Kelly's widow gave permission for Volkswagen to use his likeness to promote the Golf GTi car. The advertisement, shown only outside the US, used CGI to mix footage of Gene Kelly, from Singin' in the Rain, with footage of professional breakdancer David Elsewhere. 1953–1957: The decline of the Hollywood musical Kelly, at the very peak of his creative powers, now made what in retrospect is seen as a serious mistake. In December 1951 he signed a contract with MGM which sent him to Europe for nineteen months so that Kelly could use MGM funds frozen in Europe to make three pictures while personally benefiting from tax exemptions. Only one of these pictures was a musical, Invitation to the Dance, a pet project of Kelly's to bring modern ballet to mainstream film audiences. It was beset with delays and technical problems, and flopped when finally released in 1956. When Kelly returned to Hollywood in 1953, the film musical was already beginning to feel the pressures from television, and MGM cut the budget for his next picture Brigadoon (1954), with Cyd Charisse, forcing the film to be made on studio backlots instead of on location in Scotland. This year also saw him appear as guest star with his brother Fred in the celebrated "I Love To Go Swimmin' with Wimmen" routine in Deep in My Heart. MGM's refusal to loan him out for Guys and Dolls and Pal Joey put further strains on his relationship with the studio. He negotiated an exit to his contract which involved making three further pictures for MGM. The first of these, It's Always Fair Weather (1956) co-directed with Donen, was a musical satire on television and advertising, and includes his famous roller skate dance routine to "I Like Myself", and a dance trio with Michael Kidd and Dan Dailey which allowed Kelly to experiment with the widescreen possibilities of Cinemascope. A modest success, it was followed by Kelly's last musical film for MGM, Les Girls (1957), in which he partnered a trio of leading ladies, Mitzi Gaynor, Kay Kendall and Taina Elg, fittingly ending, as he had begun, with a Cole Porter musical. The third picture he completed was a co-production between MGM and himself, the B-movie The Happy Road, set in his beloved France, his first foray in his new role as producer-director-actor. 1958–1996: Years of perseverance Kelly continued to make some film appearances, such as Hornbeck in the 1960 Hollywood production of Inherit the Wind. However, most of his efforts were now concentrated on film production and directing. He directed Jackie Gleason in Gigot in Paris, but the film was subsequently drastically re-cut by Seven Arts Productions and flopped. Another French effort, Jacques Demy's homage to the MGM musical: Les Demoiselles de Rochefort (1967) in which Kelly appeared, also performed poorly. He appeared as himself in George Cukor's Let's Make Love (1960). His first foray into television was a documentary for NBC's Omnibus, Dancing is a Man's Game (1958) where he assembled a group of America's greatest sportsmen – including Mickey Mantle, Sugar Ray Robinson and Bob Cousy – and reinterpreted their moves choreographically, as part of his lifelong quest to remove the effeminate stereotype of the art of dance, while articulating the philosophy behind his dance style. It gained an Emmy nomination for choreography and now stands as the key document explaining Kelly's approach to modern dance. Kelly also frequently appeared on television shows during the 1960s, but his one effort at television series, as Father Chuck O'Malley in Going My Way (1962–1963), based on the Best Picture of 1944 starring Bing Crosby, was dropped after thirty episodes, although it enjoyed great popularity in Roman Catholic countries outside of the United States. He also appeared in two major TV specials: New York, New York (1966) and produced and directed Jack and the Beanstalk (1967) which returned to a combination of cartoon animation with live dance, winning him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program. In 1963, Kelly joined Universal Pictures for a two-year stint which proved to be the most unproductive of his career so far. He joined 20th Century Fox in 1965, but had little to do – partly due to his decision to decline assignments away from Los Angeles for family reasons. His perseverance finally paid off with the major box-office hit A Guide for the Married Man (1967) where he directed Walter Matthau and a major opportunity arose when Fox – buoyed by the returns from The Sound of Music (1965) – commissioned Kelly to direct Hello, Dolly! (1969), again directing Matthau along with Barbra Streisand, but which unfortunately failed to recoup the enormous production expenses. In 1970, he made another TV special: Gene Kelly and 50 Girls and was invited to bring the show to Las Vegas, which he duly did for an eight-week stint – on condition he be paid more than any artist had hitherto been paid there. He directed veteran actors James Stewart and Henry Fonda in the comedy western The Cheyenne Social Club (1970) which performed very well at the box-office. In 1973 he would work again with Frank Sinatra as part of Sinatra's Emmy nominated TV special Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back then, in 1974, he appeared as one of many special narrators in the surprise hit of the year That's Entertainment! and subsequently directed and co-starred with his friend Fred Astaire in the sequel That's Entertainment, Part II (1976). It was a measure of his powers of persuasion that he managed to coax the seventy-seven year old Astaire – who had insisted that his contract rule out any dancing, having long since retired – into performing a series of song and dance duets, evoking a powerful nostalgia for the glory days of the American musical film. Kelly continued to make frequent TV appearances and in 1980, appeared in an acting and dancing role opposite Olivia Newton John in Xanadu (1980), a bizarre and expensive flop which has since attained a cult following. In Kelly's opinion "The concept was marvelous but it just didn't come off." In the same year, he was invited by Francis Ford Coppola to recruit a production staff for American Zoetrope's One from the Heart (1982). Although Coppola's ambition was for him to establish a production unit to rival the Freed Unit at MGM, the film's failure put an end to this idea. In 1985, Kelly served as executive producer and co-host of That's Dancing! – a celebration of the history of dance in the American musical. After his final on-screen appearance introducing That's Entertainment! III in 1994, his final film project was the animated movie Cats Don't Dance, released in 1997 and dedicated to him, on which Kelly acted as uncredited choreographic consultant. Working methods and influence on filmed dance When he began his collaborative film work, he was heavily influenced by Robert Alton and John Murray Anderson, striving to create moods and character insight with his dances. He choreographed his own movement, along with that of the ensemble, with the assistance of Jeanne Coyne, Stanley Donen, Carol Haney, and Alex Romero. He experimented with lighting, camera techniques and special effects in order to achieve true integration of dance with film, and was one of the first to use split screens, double images, live action with animation and is credited as the person who made the ballet form commercially acceptable to film audiences. There was a clear progression in his development, from an early concentration on tap and musical comedy style to greater complexity using ballet and modern dance forms. Kelly himself refused to categorize his style: "I don't have a name for my style of dancing...It's certainly hybrid...I've borrowed from the modern dance, from the classical, and certainly from the American folk dance - tap-dancing, jitterbugging...But I have tried to develop a style which is indigenous to the environment in which I was reared." He especially acknowledged the influence of George M. Cohan: "I have a lot of Cohan in me. It's an Irish quality, a jaw-jutting, up-on-the-toes cockiness - which is a good quality for a male dancer to have." He was also heavily influenced by an African-American dancer Dancing Dotson, who he saw at Loew's Penn. Theatre around 1929, and was briefly taught by Frank Harrington, an African-American tap specialist from New York. cf. Hirschhorn, p.25,26: "What impressed Gene was the originality of the man's [Dotson's] dancing, as it was quite unlike anything he'd seen before. The tricks Dotson was doing were absolutely fresh. He went back to see that act a couple of times, and admitted pinching several steps for his own use...Just as he had done with Dotson, Gene made up his mind to 'steal' as much as he could from numerous touring shows...both he and Fred were absolutely shameless when it came to pilfering, and very good at it." However, his main interest was in ballet, which he studied under Kotchetovsky in the early thirties. As biographer Clive Hirschhorn explains: "As a child he used to run for miles through parks and streets and woods - anywhere, just as long as he could feel the wind against his body and through his hair. Ballet gave him the same feeling of exhilaration, and in 1933 he was convinced it was the most satisfying form of self-expression." He also studied Spanish dancing under Angel Cansino, Rita Hayworth's uncle. Generally speaking, he tended to use tap and other popular dance idioms to express joy and exuberance – as in the title song from Singin' in the Rain or "I Got Rhythm" from An American in Paris, whereas pensive or romantic feelings were more often expressed via ballet or modern dance, as in "Heather on the Hill" from Brigadoon or "Our Love Is Here to Stay" from An American in Paris. According to Delamater, Kelly's work "seems to represent the fulfillment of dance-film integration in the 1940s and 1950s". While Fred Astaire had revolutionized the filming of dance in the 1930s by insisting on full-figure photography of dancers while allowing only a modest degree of camera movement, Kelly freed up the camera, making greater use of space, camera movement, camera angles and editing, creating a partnership between dance movement and camera movement without sacrificing full-figure framing. Kelly's reasoning behind this was that he felt the kinetic force of live dance often evaporated when brought to film, and he sought to partially overcome this by involving the camera in movement and giving the dancer a greater number of directions in which to move. Examples of this abound in Kelly's work and are well illustrated in the "Prehistoric Man" sequence from On the Town and "The Hat My Father Wore on St. Patrick's Day" from Take Me Out to the Ball Game. In 1951, he summed up his vision as follows: "If the camera is to make a contribution at all to dance, this must be the focal point of its contribution; the fluid background, giving each spectator an undistorted and altogether similar view of dancer and background. To accomplish this, the camera is made fluid, moving with the dancer, so that the lens becomes the eye of the spectator, your eye". Kelly in rehearsal with Sugar Ray Robinson and assistant Jeanne Coyne in the NBC Omnibus television special Dancing is a Man's Game () Kelly's athleticism gave his moves a distinctive broad, muscular quality, and this was a very deliberate choice on his part, as he explained: "There's a strong link between sports and dancing, and my own dancing springs from my early days as an athlete...I think dancing is a man's game and if he does it well he does it better than a woman." He railed against what he saw as the widespread effeminacy in male dancing which, in his opinion, "tragically" stigmatised the genre, alienating boys from entering the field: "dancing does attract effeminate young men. I don't object to that as long as they don't dance effeminately. I just say that if a man dances effeminately he dances badly - just as if a woman comes out on stage and starts to sing bass. Unfortunately people confuse gracefulness with softness. John Wayne is a graceful man and so are some of the great ball players...but, of course, they don't run the risk of being called sissies." In his view, "one of our problems is that so much dancing is taught by women. You can spot many male dancers who have this tuition by their arm movements - they are soft, limp and feminine." He acknowledged that, in spite of his efforts – in TV programs such as Dancing: A Man's Game (1958) for example – the situation changed little over the years. He also sought to break from the class-conscious conventions of the 1930s and early 40s, when top hat and tails or tuxedos were the norm, by dancing in casual or everyday work clothes, so as to make his dancing more relevant to the cinema-going public. As his first wife, actress and dancer Betsy Blair explained: "A sailor suit or his white socks and loafers, or the T-shirts on his muscular torso, gave everyone the feeling that he was a regular guy, and perhaps they too could express love and joy by dancing in the street or stomping through puddles...he democratized the dance in movies." Blair, p.176 In particular, he wanted to create a completely different image from that associated with Fred Astaire, not least because he believed his physique didn't suit such refined elegance: "I used to envy his cool aristocratic style, so intimate and contained. Fred wears top hat and tails to the manner born - I put them on and look like a truck driver." Personal life Kelly was married to Betsy Blair for 15 years (1941–1957) and they had one child, Kerry. Blair divorced Kelly in 1957. In 1960, Kelly married his choreographic assistant Jeanne Coyne, who had divorced Stanley Donen in 1949 after a brief marriage. He remained married to Coyne from 1960 until her death in 1973 and they had two children, Bridget and Tim. He was married to Patricia Ward from 1990 until his death in 1996. Gene Kelly was a lifelong Democratic Party supporter with strong progressive convictions, which occasionally created difficulty for him as his period of greatest prominence coincided with the McCarthy era in the US. In 1947, he was part of the Committee for the First Amendment, the Hollywood delegation which flew to Washington to protest at the first official hearings by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. His first wife, Betsy Blair, was suspected of being a Communist sympathizer and when MGM, who had offered Blair a part in Marty (1955), were considering withdrawing her under pressure from the American Legion, Kelly successfully threatened MGM with a pullout from It's Always Fair Weather unless his wife was restored to the part. He used his position on the board of directors of the Writers Guild of America, West on a number of occasions to mediate disputes between unions and the Hollywood studios, and although he was frequently accused by the Right of championing the unions, he was valued by the studios as an effective mediator. A gregarious and highly articulate individual, he retained a lifelong passion for sports and relished competition. He was known as a big fan of the New York Yankees. With his first wife, he organized weekly parties at their Beverly Hills home which were renowned for an intensely competitive and physical version of charades, known as "The Game". Kelly died in his sleep at 8.15 a.m. on February 2, 1996, in Beverly Hills, California at the age of 83, after a stroke – he had also suffered a stroke the year before. His body was cremated the same day and he had left instructions that there was to be no funeral and no memorial services. cf. Blair, p.8: "Kerry later told me that they all felt as if she [Patricia Ward, Kelly's wife at the time of his death] 'threw him away - as if he were garbage to be incinerated and thrown away. There aren't even any ashes'. His children, who loved him, never even got to say goodbye to their father. It would have saddened and, I imagine, enraged him because he loved his children deeply." Kelly's papers are currently housed at the Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University. Awards and honors Plaque honoring Gene Kelly at his alma mater, the University of Pittsburgh 1946 – Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in Anchors Aweigh (1945). 1952 – Honorary Academy Award "in appreciation of his versatility as an actor, singer, director and dancer, and specifically for his brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on film." This Oscar was lost in a fire in 1983 and replaced at the 1984 Academy Awards. 1956 – Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival for Invitation to the Dance. 1958 – Nomination for Golden Laurel Award for Best Male Musical Performance in Les Girls. 1958 – Dance Magazine'''s annual TV Award for Dancing: A Man's Game from the Omnibus television series. It was also nominated for an Emmy for best choreography. 1960 – In France, Kelly was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. 1962 – Gene Kelly Dance Film Festival staged by the Museum of Modern Art. 1964 – Silver Sail Best Actor for What a Way to Go! (1964) at the Locarno International Film Festival. 1967 – Emmy for Outstanding Children's Program for Jack and the Beanstalk. 1970 – Nomination for Golden Globe, Best Director for Hello, Dolly!, 1969. 1981 – Cecil B. DeMille Award at Golden Globes. 1981 – Gene Kelly was the subject of a two-week film festival in France. 1982 – Lifetime Achievement Award in the fifth annual Kennedy Center Honors. 1985 – Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute. 1989 – Life Achievement Award from Screen Actors Guild. 1991 – University of Pittsburgh inaugurates The Gene Kelly Awards, given annually to high school musicals in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. 1992 – Induction into the Theater Hall of Fame. 1994 – National Medal of Arts awarded by United States President Bill Clinton. 1994 – The Three Tenors performed Singin' in the Rain in his presence during a concert at Dodgers Stadium in Los Angeles. 1996 – Honorary César Award The César is the main national film award in France. 1996 – At the Academy Awards ceremony, director Quincy Jones organised a tribute to the just-deceased Kelly, in which Savion Glover performed the dance to "Singin' in the Rain". 1997 – Ranked #26 in Empire (UK) magazine's "The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time" list. 1999 – Ranked #15 in the American Film Institute's "Greatest Legends" list. Work Filmography Musical films Gene Kelly appeared as actor and dancer in the following musical films. He always choreographed his own dance routines, and often the dance routines of others, and often used assistants. As was the practice at the time, he was rarely formally credited in the film titles:For Me and My Gal (1942) Du Barry Was a Lady (1943) Thousands Cheer (1943) Cover Girl (1944) Anchors Aweigh (1945) as Gunner's Mate Second Class Joseph Brady Ziegfeld Follies (1946) Living in a Big Way (1947) The Pirate (1948) Words and Music (1948) Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949) On the Town (1949) Summer Stock (1950) An American in Paris (1951) Singin' in the Rain (1952) Brigadoon (1954) Deep in My Heart (1954) It's Always Fair Weather (1955) Invitation to the Dance (1956) Les Girls (1957) Let's Make Love (1960) What a Way to Go! (1964) Les Demoiselles de Rochefort(1966) That's Entertainment, Part II (1976) Xanadu (1980) StageLeave It to Me! (1938)One for the Money (1939)The Time of Your Life (1939)The Time of Your Life (1940)Pal Joey (1940)Best Foot Forward (1941)Flower Drum Song (1958)Coquelico (1979) TelevisionDancing: A Man's Game, aired 21 December 1958 on Omnibus Going My Way (1962–1963)Gene Kelly: New York, New York (1965)Jack and the Beanstalk (1967)The Funny Side (1971)Frank Sinatra: Ol' Blue Eyes is Back (1973)Gene Kelly: An American in Pasadena (1978)Muppet Show (1980)North and South (1985)Sins (1986)Family Guy'' (2006) (posthumous) Notes External links The Gene Kelly Awards - University of Pittsburgh Obituary, NY Times, February 3, 1996 Naval Intelligence File on Gene Kelly Gene Kelly - An American Life - PBS Gene Kelly: Creative Genius French Website - A "S'Wonderful" Gene Kelly | Gene_Kelly |@lemmatized eugene:1 curran:2 gene:26 kelly:92 august:1 february:3 american:26 dancer:14 actor:10 singer:2 director:9 producer:3 choreographer:6 major:6 exponent:1 century:2 film:55 dance:68 know:6 energetic:1 athletic:1 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6,931 | La_Jetée | La jetée ( and The Pier) (1962) is a 28-minute black and white science fiction film by Chris Marker. Constructed almost entirely from still photos, it tells the story of a post-nuclear war experiment in time travel. . Plot Davos Hanich. The survivors of a destroyed Paris in the aftermath of World War III live underground in the Palais de Chaillot galleries. They research time travel, hoping to send test subjects to different time periods "to call past and future to the rescue of the present." They have difficulty finding subjects who can mentally withstand the shock of time travel, but eventually settle upon a male prisoner who is up to the task; his vague but obsessive childhood memory of witnessing a woman (Hélène Chatelain) during a violent incident on the boarding platform ("The Jetty") at Orly Airport is the key to his journey back in time. He is thrown back to the past again and again to a time prior to the war, when he had been a child. He repeatedly meets and speaks to the woman from his memory, who was present at the terminal. After his successful passages to the past, the experimenters attempt to send him into the far future. In a brief meeting with the technologically advanced people of the future, he is given a power unit sufficient to regenerate his own destroyed society. Upon his return, with his mission accomplished, he discerns that he is to be executed by his jailers. He is contacted by the people of the future, who offer to help him escape to their time, but he asks to be instead returned to the pre-war time of his childhood, hoping to again find the woman. He is returned and does find her, but an agent of his jailers has followed. The man finds that the violent incident he partially witnessed as a child was his own death as an adult at the hands of the agent. Production La jetée has no dialogue aside from small sections of muttering in German. The story is told by a voice-over narrator. It is constructed almost entirely from optically printed photographs playing out as a photomontage of varying pace. It contains only one brief shot originating on a motion-picture camera. The stills were taken with a Pentax 24x36 and the motion-picture segment was shot with a 35mm Arriflex. La jetée revue & dvd et site internet. Last accessed: January 8, 2008. . The film score was composed by Trevor Duncan. Due to its brevity, La jetée is often screened in theatres alongside other films; Jean-Luc Godard's Alphaville (1965) was the film with which it was first released. In Region 2, the film is available with English subtitles in the La jetée/Sans soleil digipack released by Arte Video. In Region 1, the Criterion Collection has released a La jetée/Sans soleil combination DVD, which features the option of hearing the English or French narration. Influences The scene in which the hero and the woman look at a cut-away trunk of a tree is a reference to Alfred Hitchcock's 1958 film Vertigo, which Marker also references in Sans soleil. "On Vertigo", special feature on the Criterion Collection DVD of La jetée and Sans soleil. The 2003 short film, La puppé, is both an homage and a spoof of La jetée. Independent Lens La puppé, backgrounder, 2008. Last accessed: January 12, 2008. . Adaptations Terry Gilliam's Twelve Monkeys (1995) was inspired by, and takes several concepts directly from, La jetée. In 1996, Zone Books released a book version of La jetée. It reproduced the film's original images along with the script in both English and French and is now out of print, La jetée at the MIT Press though it was re-released in 2008 by Zone Books. In January 2009, the Czech label Ground Floor Records share for free an EP inspired by the Chris Marker movie realized by two of their artists, Son of a Bricklayer and Shitao. Cast Jean Négroni as narrator Hélène Chatelain as the Woman Davos Hanich as the Man Jacques Ledoux as The Experimenter Ligia Branice as a woman from the future Janine Kleina as a woman from the future William Klein as a man from the future References External links La jetée at Criterion Collection La jetée at Senses of Cinema: Platonic Themes in Chris Marker's La jetée by Sander Lee. 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6,932 | J._R._R._Tolkien | John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, CBE ( See J. R. R. Tolkien's own phonetic transcription published on the illustration in The Return of the Shadow: The History of The Lord of the Rings, Part One. [Edited by] Christopher Tolkien. London: Unwin Hyman, [25 August] 1988. (The History of Middle-earth; 6) ISBN 0-04-440162-0. The position of the stress is not entirely fixed: stress on the second syllable (tol rather than kien) has been used by some members of the Tolkien family. ) (3 January 1892 – 2 September 1973) was an English writer, poet, philologist, and university professor, best known as the author of the classic high fantasy works The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion. Tolkien was Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford from 1925 to 1945, and Merton Professor of English Language and Literature from 1945 to 1959. Biography, page 111, 200, 266. He was a close friend of C. S. Lewis—they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972. After his death, Tolkien's son, Christopher, published a series of works based on his father's extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including The Silmarillion. These, together with The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, form a connected body of tales, poems, fictional histories, invented languages, and literary essays about an imagined world called Arda, and Middle-earth Middle-earth" is derived from an Anglicized form of Old Norse Miðgarðr, the land inhabited by humans in Norse mythology within it. Between 1951 and 1955 Tolkien applied the word legendarium to the larger part of these writings. Letters, nos. 131, 153, 154, 163. While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien, The author emphasizes the impact of not only Tolkien but also of William Morris, George MacDonald, Robert E. Howard and E. R. Eddison. the great success of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings when they were published in paperback in the United States led directly to a popular resurgence of the genre. This has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the "father" of modern fantasy literature —or more precisely, high fantasy. Tolkien's writings have inspired many other works of fantasy and have had a lasting effect on the entire field. In 2008, The Times ranked him sixth on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945". (5 January 2008). The 50 greatest British writers since 1945. The Times. Retrieved on 2008-04-17. Biography Tolkien family origins Most of Tolkien's paternal ancestors were craftsmen. The Tolkien family had its roots in the German Kingdom of Saxony, but had been living in England since the 18th century, becoming "quickly and intensely English". Letters, no. 165. The surname Tolkien is said to be an Anglicized form of Tollkiehn (i.e. German tollkühn, "foolhardy", etymologically corresponding to English dull-keen, literally oxymoron), and the surname Rashbold, given to two characters in Tolkien's The Notion Club Papers, is similarly a compound word composed of two words with contrasting meanings. undergraduate John Jethro Rashbold, and "old Professor Rashbold at Pembroke"; ; Letters, no. 165. German writers have suggested that in reality, the name is more likely to derive from the village Tolkynen in Rastenburg in East Prussia (after WWII Tołkiny, Poland). The name of that place is ultimately of Baltic origin. Georg Gerullis: Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen, o.V., Berlin/Leipzig 1922, S. 184 Max Mechow: Deutsche Familiennamen prussischer Herkunft, Tolkemita, Dieburg 1994, S. 99 Tolkien's maternal grandparents, John and Edith Jane Suffield, were Baptists who lived in Birmingham and owned a shop in the city centre. The Suffield family had run various businesses out of the same building, called Lamb House, since the early 1800s. From 1810 Tolkien's great-great grandfather William Suffield had a book and stationery shop there; Tolkien's great-grandfather, also John Suffield, was there from 1826 with a drapery and hosiery business. Old Lamb House, Bull Street, Archives and Heritage Service, Birmingham City Council. Updated 12 January 2009. Retrieved on 27 April 2009. Childhood John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on 3 January 1892, in Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State (now Free State Province, part of South Africa) to Arthur Reuel Tolkien (1857–1896), an English bank manager, and his wife Mabel, née Suffield (1870–1904). The couple had left England when Arthur was promoted to head the Bloemfontein office of the British bank he worked for. Tolkien had one sibling, his younger brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel, who was born on 17 February 1894. Biography, page 14. As a child, Tolkien was bitten by a large baboon spider (a type of tarantula) in the garden, an event which would have later echoes in his stories. In another incident, a family house-boy, who thought Tolkien a beautiful child, took the baby to his kraal to show him off, returning him the next morning. Biography, page 13. Both the spider incident and the visit to a kraal are covered here. When he was three, Tolkien went to England with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a lengthy family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of rheumatic fever before he could join them. Biography, page 24. This left the family without an income, so Tolkien's mother took him to live with her parents in Stirling Road, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to Sarehole (now in Hall Green), then a Worcestershire village, later annexed to Birmingham. Biography, page 27. He enjoyed exploring Sarehole Mill and Moseley Bog and the Clent Hills and Malvern Hills, which would later inspire scenes in his books, along with other Worcestershire towns and villages such as Bromsgrove, Alcester, and Alvechurch and places such as his aunt's farm of Bag End, the name of which would be used in his fiction. Biography, page 113. Mabel tutored her two sons, and Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil. Biography, page 29. She taught him a great deal of botany, and awakened in her son the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees, but his favourite lessons were those concerning languages, and his mother taught him the rudiments of Latin very early. He could read by the age of four, and could write fluently soon afterwards. His mother allowed him to read many books. He disliked Treasure Island and The Pied Piper, and thought Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll was amusing but disturbing. He liked stories about "Red Indians" and the fantasy works by George MacDonald. Biography, page 22. In addition, the "Fairy Books" of Andrew Lang were particularly important to him and their influence is apparent in some of his later writings. Biography, page 30. Tolkien attended King Edward's School, Birmingham and, while a student there, helped "line the route" for the coronation parade of King George V, being posted just outside the gates of Buckingham Palace. Letters, no. 306. He later attended St. Philip's School, before winning a Foundation Scholarship and returning to King Edward's School. Mabel Tolkien was received into the Roman Catholic Church in 1900 despite vehement protests by her Baptist family, Biography, page 31. who then stopped all financial assistance to her. She died of acute complications of diabetes in 1904, when Tolkien was 12, at Fern Cottage in Rednal, which they were then renting. Mabel Tolkien was then about 34 years of age, about as long as a person with diabetes mellitus type 1 could live with no treatment—insulin would not be discovered until two decades later. For the rest of his own life Tolkien felt that his mother had become a martyr for her faith. This feeling had a profound effect on his own Catholic beliefs. Biography, page 39. Prior to her death, Mabel Tolkien had assigned the guardianship of her sons to Fr. Francis Xavier Morgan of the Birmingham Oratory, who was assigned to bring them up as good Catholics. Tolkien grew up in the Edgbaston area of Birmingham. He lived there in the shadow of Perrott's Folly and the Victorian tower of Edgbaston Waterworks, which may have influenced the images of the dark towers within his works. J.R.R. Tolkien, Birmingham Heritage Forum. Retrieved on 27 April 2009. J. R. R. Tolkien, Archives and Heritage Service, Birmingham City Council. Updated 7 January 2009. Retrieved on 28 April 2009. Another strong influence was the romantic medievalist paintings of Edward Burne-Jones and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood ; the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery has a large and world-renowned collection of works and had put it on free public display from around 1908. Youth In 1911, while they were at King Edward's School, Birmingham, Tolkien and three friends, Rob Gilson, Geoffrey Smith and Christopher Wiseman, formed a semi-secret society which they called "the T.C.B.S.", the initials standing for "Tea Club and Barrovian Society", alluding to their fondness for drinking tea in Barrow's Stores near the school and, illicitly, in the school library. Biography, pages 53–54. After leaving school, the members stayed in touch, and in December 1914, they held a "Council" in London, at Wiseman's home. For Tolkien, the result of this meeting was a strong dedication to writing poetry. In the summer of 1911, Tolkien went on holiday in Switzerland, a trip that he recollects vividly in a 1968 letter, nothing that Bilbo's journey across the Misty Mountains ("including the glissade down the slithering stones into the pine woods") is directly based on his adventures as their party of 12 hiked from Interlaken to Lauterbrunnen, and on to camp in the moraines beyond Mürren. Fifty-seven years later, Tolkien remembered his regret at leaving the view of the eternal snows of Jungfrau and Silberhorn ("the Silvertine (Celebdil) of my dreams"). They went across the Kleine Scheidegg on to Grindelwald and across the Grosse Scheidegg to Meiringen. They continued across the Grimsel Pass and through the upper Valais to Brig, and on to the Aletsch glacier and Zermatt. dab, Roots of Romance (zoomed in on 1911 trail), hosted on Google Maps. Retrieved 28 April 2009. In October of the same year, Tolkien began studying at Exeter College, Oxford. He initially studied Classics but changed to English Language, graduating in 1915. Courtship and marriage At the age of 16, Tolkien met Edith Mary Bratt, who was three years older, when J. R. R. and Hilary Tolkien moved into the same boarding house. According to Humphrey Carpenter: His guardian, Father Francis Morgan, viewing Edith as a distraction from Tolkien's school work and horrified that his young charge was seriously involved with a Protestant girl, prohibited him from meeting, talking, or even corresponding with her until he was twenty-one. He obeyed this prohibition to the letter, with one notable early exception which made Father Morgan threaten to cut short his University career if he did not stop. Biography, page 43. On the evening of his twenty-first birthday, Tolkien wrote to Edith a declaration of his love and asked her to marry him. Edith replied saying that she had already agreed to marry another man, but that she had done so because she had believed Tolkien had forgotten her. The two met up and beneath a railway viaduct renewed their love; Edith returned her engagement ring and announced that she was marrying Tolkien instead. Biography, pp. 67–69. Following their engagement Edith converted to Catholicism at Tolkien's insistence. Biography, page 73. They were formally engaged in Birmingham, in January 1913, and married in Warwick, England, at Saint Mary Immaculate Catholic Church on 22 March 1916. Biography, page 86. World War I The United Kingdom was then engaged in fighting World War I, and Tolkien volunteered for military service and was commissioned in the British Army as a Second Lieutenant in the Lancashire Fusiliers. Biography, page 85. He trained with the 13th (Reserve) Battalion on Cannock Chase, Staffordshire, for eleven months. He was then transferred to the 11th (Service) Battalion with the British Expeditionary Force, arriving in France on 4 June 1916. Garth, John Tolkien and the Great War, Boston, Houghton Mifflin 2003, pp.89, 138, 147. He later wrote: Junior officers were being killed off, a dozen a minute. Parting from my wife then ... it was like a death. Quoted in John Garth, "Tolkien and the Great War," page 138. Tolkien served as a signals officer at the Somme, participating in the Battle of Thiepval Ridge and the subsequent assault on the Schwaben Redoubt. On 27 October 1916 he came down with trench fever, a disease carried by the lice which were common in no man's land. According to the memoirs of the Reverend Mervyn S. Evers, Anglican chaplain to the Lancashire Fusilliers: Tolkien was invalided to England on 8 November 1916. Biography, page 93. Many of his dearest school friends, including Gilson and Smith of the T.C.B.S., were killed in the war. In later years, Tolkien indignantly declared that those who searched his works for parallels to the Second World War were entirely mistaken: A weak and emaciated Tolkien spent the remainder of the war alternating between hospitals and garrison duties, being deemed medically unfit for general service. Garth, John Tolkien and the Great War, Boston, Houghton Mifflin 2003, pp. 207 et seq. Tolkien's Webley .455 service revolver was put on display in 2006 as part of a Battle of the Somme exhibition in the Imperial War Museum, London. (See ) Several of his service records, mostly dealing with his health problems, can be seen at the National Archives. () Homefront During his recovery in a cottage in Great Haywood, Staffordshire, England, he began to work on what he called The Book of Lost Tales, beginning with The Fall of Gondolin. Throughout 1917 and 1918 his illness kept recurring, but he had recovered enough to do home service at various camps, and was promoted to First Lieutenant. However, it was at this time Edith bore their first child, John Francis Reuel Tolkien. When he was stationed at Kingston upon Hull, he and Edith went walking in the woods at nearby Roos, and Edith began to dance for him in a clearing among the flowering hemlock: We walked in a wood where hemlock was growing, a sea of white flowers. Following rural English usage, Tolkien used the name "hemlock" for various plants with white flowers in umbels, resembling the poison hemlock; the flowers among which Edith danced were more probably cow parsley (Anthriscus sylvestris) or Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota). See John Garth Tolkien and the Great War (Harper Collins/Houghton Mifflin 2003) and Peter Gilliver, Jeremy Marshall, & Edmund Weiner The Ring of Words (OUP 2006). This incident inspired the account of the meeting of Beren and Lúthien, and Tolkien often referred to Edith as "my Lúthien." Academic and writing career Tolkien's first civilian job after World War I was at the Oxford English Dictionary, where he worked mainly on the history and etymology of words of Germanic origin beginning with the letter W. In 1920 he took up a post as Reader in English language at the University of Leeds, and in 1924 was made a professor there. While at Leeds he produced A Middle English Vocabulary and, (with E. V. Gordon), a definitive edition of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, both becoming academic standard works for many decades. He also translated Pearl and Sir Orfeo. In 1925 he returned to Oxford as Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, with a fellowship at Pembroke College. 20 Northmoor Road, the former home of J. R. R. Tolkien in North Oxford During his time at Pembroke, Tolkien wrote The Hobbit and the first two volumes of The Lord of the Rings, largely at 20 Northmoor Road in North Oxford, where a blue plaque was placed in 2002. He also published a philological essay in 1932 on the name "Nodens", following Sir Mortimer Wheeler's unearthing of a Roman Asclepieion at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire, in 1928. See The Name Nodens (1932) in the bibliographical listing. For the etymology, see Nodens#Etymology. Of Tolkien's academic publications, the 1936 lecture "Beowulf: the Monsters and the Critics" had a lasting influence on Beowulf research. Biography, page 143. Lewis E. Nicholson said that the article Tolkien wrote about Beowulf is "widely recognized as a turning point in Beowulfian criticism", noting that Tolkien established the primacy of the poetic nature of the work as opposed to the purely linguistic elements. At the time, the consensus of scholarship deprecated Beowulf for dealing with childish battles with monsters rather than realistic tribal warfare; Tolkien argued that the author of Beowulf was addressing human destiny in general, not as limited by particular tribal politics, and therefore the monsters were essential to the poem. Tolkien: Finn and Hengest. Chiefly, p.4 in the Introduction by Alan Bliss Where Beowulf does deal with specific tribal struggles, as at Finnsburg, Tolkien argued firmly against reading in fantastic elements. Tolkien: Finn and Hengest, the discussion of Eotena, passim. In the essay, Tolkien also revealed how highly he regarded Beowulf: "Beowulf is among my most valued sources," and this influence can be seen in The Lord of the Rings. In 1945, Tolkien moved to Merton College, Oxford, becoming the Merton Professor of English Language and Literature, in which post he remained until his retirement in 1959. Tolkien completed The Lord of the Rings in 1948, close to a decade after the first sketches. Tolkien also helped to translate the Jerusalem Bible, which was published in 1966. Rogerson, John. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Bible, 2001. Family The Tolkiens had four children: John Francis Reuel Tolkien (17 November 1917 – 22 January 2003), Michael Hilary Reuel Tolkien (22 October 1920 – 27 February 1984), Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (born 21 November 1924) and Priscilla Mary Anne Reuel Tolkien (born 18 June 1929). Tolkien was very devoted to his children and sent them illustrated letters from Father Christmas when they were young. There were more characters added each year, such as the Polar Bear, Father Christmas's helper, the Snow Man, the gardener, Ilbereth the elf, his secretary, and various other minor characters. The major characters would relate tales of Father Christmas's battles against goblins who rode on bats and the various pranks committed by the Polar Bear. J. R. R. Tolkien, The Father Christmas Letters (1976) Friendships C. S. Lewis C. S. Lewis, whom Tolkien first met at Oxford, was perhaps his closest friend and colleague, although their relationship cooled later in their lives. They had a shared affection for good talk, laughter, and beer, and in May 1927 Tolkien enrolled Lewis in the Coalbiters club, which read Icelandic sagas in the original Old Norse, and, as Carpenter notes, "a long and complex friendship had begun." It was Tolkien (and Hugo Dyson) who helped C. S. Lewis return to Christianity, and Tolkien was accustomed to read aloud passages from The Silmarillion, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings to Lewis' strong approval and encouragement at the Inklings—often meeting in Lewis' big Magdalen sitting-room—and in private. It was the arrival of Charles Williams, who worked for the Oxford University Press, that changed the relationship between Tolkien and Lewis. Lewis' enthusiasm shifted almost imperceptibly from Tolkien to Williams, especially during the writing of Lewis' third novel That Hideous Strength. Tolkien had for a long time been extremely bothered by what he perceived as Lewis's Anti-Catholicism. In a letter to his son Christopher, he declared: Lewis' growing reputation as a Christian apologist and his return to the Anglican fold also annoyed Tolkien, who had a deep resentment of the Church of England. By the mid-forties, Tolkien felt that Lewis was receiving a good deal "too much [publicity] for his or any of our tastes". Biography, page 151. Tolkien and Lewis might have grown closer during their days at Headington, but this was prevented by Lewis' marriage to Joy Davidman. Tolkien felt that Lewis expected his friends to visit and socialise with both him and his wife, even though as a bachelor in the thirties when the Inklings had met, Lewis had often ignored the fact that his friends, including Tolkien, had wives to go home to. In his biography of Tolkien, Carpenter suggests that Tolkien may have felt betrayed by the marriage and resented a woman's intrusion into their close friendship, just as Edith Tolkien had felt jealous of Lewis' intrusion into her marriage. Biography, page 237. It did not help matters that Lewis did not initially tell Tolkien about his marriage to Davidman or that when Tolkien finally did find out, he also discovered that Lewis had married a divorcee, which was offensive to Tolkien's Catholic beliefs. Tolkien described the marriage as "very strange". Humphrey Carpenter: The Inklings, Unwin Paperbacks, 1981, p. 242. The cessation of Tolkien's frequent meetings with Lewis in the 1950s marked the end of the "clubbable" chapter in Tolkien's life, which started with the T.C.B.S. at school and ended with the Inklings at Oxford. His friendship with Lewis was nevertheless renewed to some degree in later years. As Tolkien was to comment in a letter to Priscilla after Lewis' death in November, 1963: So far I have felt the normal feelings of a man of my age – like an old tree that is losing all its leaves one by one: this feels like an axe-blow near the roots. Biography, page 241. The relationship between Tolkien, Lewis, and Williams, fictionalized, is at the center of James A. Owens' Here, There be Dragons (). W. H. Auden W. H. Auden, who attended Tolkien's lectures as an undergraduate, was also an occasional correspondent and was on friendly terms with Tolkien from the mid-1950s until Tolkien's death, initiated by Auden's fascination with The Lord of the Rings: Auden was among the most prominent early critics to praise the work. Tolkien wrote in a 1971 letter: Retirement and old age During his life in retirement, from 1959 up to his death in 1973, Tolkien received steadily increasing public attention and literary fame. The sale of his books was so profitable that he regretted he had not chosen early retirement. While at first he wrote enthusiastic answers to readers' enquiries, he became more and more suspicious of emerging Tolkien fandom, especially among the hippie movement in the United States. In a 1972 letter he deplores having become a cult-figure, but admits that: ... even the nose of a very modest idol [...] cannot remain entirely untickled by the sweet smell of incense! Letters, no. 336. Fan attention became so intense that Tolkien had to take his phone number out of the public directory Letters, no. 332. and eventually he and Edith moved to Bournemouth on the south coast. Tolkien was appointed by Queen Elizabeth II a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year's Honours List of 1 January 1972 and received the insignia of the Order at Buckingham Palace on 28 March 1972. Letters, no. 334 (editorial note). Death The grave of J. R. R. and Edith Tolkien, Wolvercote Cemetery, Oxford Tolkien's wife, Edith, died on 29 November 1971, at the age of 82. Tolkien had the name Lúthien engraved on the stone at Wolvercote Cemetery, Oxford. When Tolkien died 21 months later on 2 September 1973, at the age of 81, he was buried in the same grave, with Beren added to his name. The engravings read: Views Tolkien was a devout Roman Catholic, and in his religious and political views he was mostly conservative, in the sense of favouring established conventions and orthodoxies over innovation and modernization; in 1943 he wrote, "My political opinions lean more and more to Anarchy (philosophically understood to mean abolition of control, not whiskered men with bombs)—or to "unconstitutional" Monarchy." Letters, no. 52, to Christopher Tolkien on 29 November 1943 Tolkien had an intense dislike for the side effects of industrialization, which he considered to be devouring the English countryside. For most of his adult life, he was disdainful of automobiles, preferring to ride a bicycle. Letters, no. 64, 131, etc. This attitude can be seen in his work, most famously in the portrayal of the forced "industrialization" of The Shire in The Lord of the Rings. Many have commented on a number of potential parallels between the Middle-earth saga and events in Tolkien's lifetime. The Lord of the Rings is often thought to represent England during and immediately after World War II. Tolkien ardently rejected this opinion in the foreword to the second edition of the novel, stating he preferred applicability to allegory. This theme is taken up in greater length in his essay "On Fairy-Stories", where he argues fairy-stories are so apt because they are consistent with themselves and some truths about reality. He concludes that Christianity itself follows this pattern of inner consistency and external truth. His belief in the fundamental truths of Christianity and their place in mythology leads commentators to find Christian themes in The Lord of the Rings, despite its noticeable lack of overt religious references, religious ceremony or appeals to God. Tolkien objected strongly to C. S. Lewis's use of religious references in his stories, which were often overtly allegorical. Longenecker, Dwight. Why Tolkien said No to Narnia, Spero News, November 12, 2008. Accessed 4 April 2009. However, Tolkien wrote that the Mount Doom scene exemplified lines from the Lord's Prayer. Pearce, Joseph (2003). Why Tolkien Says The Lord of the Rings Is Catholic, National Catholic Register, January 12–19, 2003. Accessed 1 December 2008. His love of myths and devout faith came together in his assertion that he believed that mythology is the divine echo of "the Truth". Wood, Ralph C. Biography of J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973). Addison,Texas; Leadership University. Updated 13 July 2002. Retrieved 28 April 2009. This view was expressed in his poem Mythopoeia, "Tolkien, Mythopoiea (the poem), circa 1931. and his idea that myths held "fundamental truths" became a central theme of the Inklings in general. Religion Tolkien's devout faith was a significant factor in the conversion of C. S. Lewis from atheism to Christianity, although Tolkien was dismayed that Lewis chose to join the Church of England, Lewis was brought up in the Church of Ireland. which Tolkien objected to as "a pathetic and shadowing medley of half remembered traditions and mutilated beliefs", instead of the Roman Catholic Church. In the last years of his life, Tolkien became greatly disappointed by the reforms and changes implemented after the Second Vatican Council, Reprinted from True West. "Tolkien himself — as did Evelyn Waugh — abhorred the changes in the Mass and the prevailing Catholic mind." as his grandson Simon Tolkien recalls: I vividly remember going to church with him in Bournemouth. He was a devout Roman Catholic and it was soon after the Church had changed the liturgy from Latin to English. My grandfather obviously didn't agree with this and made all the responses very loudly in Latin while the rest of the congregation answered in English. I found the whole experience quite excruciating, but my grandfather was oblivious. He simply had to do what he believed to be right. Politics Tolkien's views were guided by his strict Catholicism. He voiced support for Francisco Franco's regime during the Spanish Civil War upon learning that Republican death squads were destroying churches and killing large numbers of priests and nuns. Letters, no. 83. He also expressed admiration for the South African poet and fellow Catholic Roy Campbell after a 1944 meeting. Since Campbell had allegedly served with Franco's armies in Spain, Tolkien regarded him as a defender of the Catholic faith, while C. S. Lewis composed poetry openly satirising Campbell's "mixture of Catholicism and Fascism". The question of racist or racialist elements in Tolkien's views and works has been the matter of some scholarly debate. Jensen, Steuard Was Tolkien a racist? Were his works?, Tolkien Meta-FAQ, III. A. 7. Retrieved on 27 April 2009. Christine Chism J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia (2006), s.v. "Racism, Charge of", p. 557. distinguishes accusations as falling into three categories: intentional racism, John Yatt, The Guardian (December 2, 2002) writes: "White men are good, 'dark' men are bad, orcs are worst of all." (Other critics such as Tom Shippey and Michael D.C. Drout disagree with such clear-cut generalizations of Tolkien's "white" and "dark" men into good and bad.) Tolkien's works have also been embraced by self-admitted racists such as the British National Party. unconscious Eurocentric bias, and an evolution from latent racism in Tolkien's early work to a conscious rejection of racist tendencies in his late work. Tolkien is known to have condemned Nazi "race-doctrine" and anti-Semitism as "wholly pernicious and unscientific". Letters, no. 29, to Stanley Unwin 25 July 1938. When German publishers enquired whether he was of Aryan origin, he declined to answer, instead stating, "I regret that I appear to have no ancestors of that gifted [Jewish] people." He gave his publishers a choice of two letters to send; these quotations are from the less tactful draft, which was not sent—Letters, no. 30. He also said of racial segregation in South Africa, The treatment of colour nearly always horrifies anyone going out from Britain. Letters, no. 61, to Christopher 18 April 1944. In 1968, he objected to a description of Middle-earth as "Nordic", a term he said he disliked because of its association with racialist theories. Letters, no. 294. Tolkien had nothing but contempt for Adolf Hitler, whom he accused of "Ruining, perverting, misapplying, and making for ever accursed, that noble northern spirit, a supreme contribution to Europe, which I have ever loved, and tried to present in its true light." Letters, no. 45. He was also disgusted by the anti-German propaganda which was used to further the British war effort. In 1944, he wrote in a letter to his son Christopher: He was horrified by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, referring to the scientists of the Manhattan Project as "these lunatic physicists" and "Babel-builders". Letters, no. 102. Writing Beginning with The Book of Lost Tales, written while recuperating from illnesses contracted during The Battle of the Somme, Tolkien devised several themes that were reused in successive drafts of his legendarium. The two most prominent stories, the tale of Beren and Lúthien and that of Túrin, were carried forward into long narrative poems (published in The Lays of Beleriand). Influences British adventure stories One of the greatest influences on Tolkien was the Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris. Tolkien wished to imitate Morris's prose and poetry romances, Letters, no. 1. from which, along with some general aspects of approach, he took hints for the names of features such as the Dead Marshes in The Lord of the Rings Letters, no. 226. and Mirkwood. The Annotated Hobbit, p. 183, note 10 Edward Wyke-Smith's Marvellous Land of the Snergs, with its "table-high" title characters, strongly influenced the incidents, themes, and depiction of Bilbo's race in The Hobbit. Anderson, The Annotated Hobbit (1988), 6-7 Tolkien also cited H. Rider Haggard's novel She in a telephone interview: "I suppose as a boy She interested me as much as anything—like the Greek shard of Amyntas [Amenartas], which was the kind of machine by which everything got moving." A supposed facsimile of this potsherd appeared in Haggard's first edition, and the ancient inscription it bore, once translated, led the English characters to She's ancient kingdom. Critics have compared this device to the Testament of Isildur in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien's efforts to produce as an illustration a realistic page from the Book of Mazarbul. Critics starting with Edwin Muir have found resemblances between Haggard's romances and Tolkien's. Tolkien wrote of being impressed as a boy by S. R. Crockett's historical novel The Black Douglas and of basing the Necromancer (Sauron) on its villain, Gilles de Retz. Letters, p. 391, quoted by Lobdell, 6. Incidents in both The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings are similar in narrative and style to the novel, Anderson, The Annotated Hobbit (1988), 150 and its overall style and imagery have been suggested as an influence on Tolkien. Lobdell, 6–7. European mythology Tolkien was much inspired by early Germanic, especially Anglo-Saxon literature, poetry and mythology, which were his chosen and much-loved areas of expertise. These sources of inspiration included Anglo-Saxon literature such as Beowulf, Norse sagas such as the Volsunga saga and the Hervarar saga, As described by Christopher Tolkien in Hervarar Saga ok Heidreks Konung (Oxford University, Trinity College). B. Litt. thesis. 1953/4. [Year uncertain], The Battle of the Goths and the Huns, in: Saga-Book (University College, London, for the Viking Society for Northern Research) 14, part 3 (1955–6) the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Nibelungenlied and numerous other culturally related works. Despite the similarities of his work to the Volsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied, which were the basis for Richard Wagner's opera series,Tolkien dismissed critics' direct comparisons to Wagner, telling his publisher, "Both rings were round, and there the resemblance ceases." However, some critics The Two Rings Spengler, The 'Ring' and the remnants of the West, Asia Times, 11 January 2003. Retrieved on 27 April 2009. Spengler, Tolkien's Christianity and the pagan tragedy, Asia Times, 11 January 2003. Retrieved on 27 April 2009. believe that Tolkien was, in fact, indebted to Wagner for elements such as the "concept of the Ring as giving the owner mastery of the world..." Tolkien's Ring and Der Ring des Nibelungen, Chapter 5 in Harvey, David (1995). One Ring to Rule them All. Updated 20 October 1995. Retrieved on 27 April 2009. Two of the characteristics possessed by the One Ring, its inherent malevolence and corrupting power upon minds and wills, were not present in the mythical sources but have a central role in Wagner's opera. Tolkien did acknowledge Homer, Sophocles, and the Finnish and Karelian Kalevala as influences or sources for some of his stories and ideas. Dimitra Fimi, along with Douglas Anderson, John Garth and many other prominent Tolkien scholars show that Tolkien also drew influence from a variety of Celtic (Scottish, Welsh and Gaelic) history and legends, though after the Silmarillion manuscript was rejected, in part for its "eye-splitting" Celtic names, Tolkien rejected their Celtic origin: Catholicism Catholic theology and imagery played a part in fashioning Tolkien's creative imagination, suffused as it was by his deeply religious spirit. Tolkien acknowledged this himself: Specifically, Paul H. Kocher argues that Tolkien describes evil in the orthodox Christian way as the absence of good. He cites many examples in The Lord of the Rings, such as Sauron's "Lidless Eye": "the black slit of its pupil opened on a pit, a window into nothing." Kocher sees Tolkien's source as Thomas Aquinas, "whom it is reasonable to suppose that Tolkien, as a medievalist and a Catholic, knows well." Tom Shippey makes the same point, but instead of referring to Aquinas, says Tolkien was very familiar with Alfred the Great's Anglo-Saxon translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, known as the Lays of Boethius. Shippey contends that this Christian view of evil is most clearly stated by Boethius: "evil is nothing". He says Tolkien used the corollary that evil cannot create as the basis of Frodo's remark, "the Shadow... can only mock, it cannot make: not real new things of its own," and related remarks by Treebeard and Elrond. He goes on to argue that in the trilogy evil does sometimes seem to be an independent force, more than merely the absence of good (though not independent to the point of the Manichaean heresy), and suggests that Alfred's additions to his translation of Boethius may have inspired that view. Road, pages 141–145. Publications Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics As well as his fiction, Tolkien was also a leading author of academic literary criticism. His seminal 1936 lecture, later published as an article, revolutionised the treatment of the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf by literary critics. The essay remains highly influential in the study of Old English Literature to this day. Beowulf is one of the most significant influences upon Tolkien's later fiction, with major details of both The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings being adapted from the poem. The piece reveals many of the aspects of Beowulf which Tolkien found most inspiring, most prominently the role of monsters in literature, particularly the dragon which appears in the final third of the poem: As for the poem, one dragon, however hot, does not make a summer, or a host; and a man might well exchange for one good dragon what he would not sell for a wilderness. And dragons, real dragons, essential both to the machinery and the ideas of a poem or tale, are actually rare. Tolkien, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (Oxford, 1963) pp10-11 The Silmarillion Tolkien wrote a brief "Sketch of the Mythology" of which the tales of Beren and Lúthien and of Túrin were part, and that sketch eventually evolved into the Quenta Silmarillion, an epic history that Tolkien started three times but never published. Tolkien hoped to publish it along with The Lord of the Rings, but publishers (both Allen & Unwin and Collins) got cold feet; moreover printing costs were very high in the post-war years, leading to The Lord of the Rings being published in three books. Hammond, Wayne G. J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography, London: January 1993, Saint Paul's Biographies, ISBN 1-873040-11-3, American edition ISBN 0-938768-42-5 The story of this continuous redrafting is told in the posthumous series The History of Middle-earth, which was edited by Tolkien's son, Christopher Tolkien. From around 1936, he began to extend this framework to include the tale of The Fall of Númenor, which was inspired by the legend of Atlantis. Published in 1977, the final work, finally entitled The Silmarillion, received the Locus Award for Best Fantasy novel in 1978. Children's books and other short works In addition to his mythopoetic compositions, Tolkien enjoyed inventing fantasy stories to entertain his children. He wrote annual Christmas letters from Father Christmas for them, building up a series of short stories (later compiled and published as The Father Christmas Letters). Other stories included Mr. Bliss and Roverandom (for children), and Leaf by Niggle (part of Tree and Leaf), The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, On Fairy-Stories, Smith of Wootton Major and Farmer Giles of Ham. Roverandom and Smith of Wootton Major, like The Hobbit, borrowed ideas from his legendarium. The Hobbit Tolkien never expected his stories to become popular, but by sheer accident a book he had written some years before for his own children, called The Hobbit, came in 1936 to the attention of Susan Dagnall, an employee of the London publishing firm George Allen & Unwin, who persuaded him to submit it for publication. However, the book attracted adult readers as well, and it became popular enough for the publishers to ask Tolkien to work on a sequel. The Lord of the Rings Even though he felt uninspired on the topic, this request prompted Tolkien to begin what would become his most famous work: the epic three-volume novel The Lord of the Rings (published 1954–55). Tolkien spent more than ten years writing the primary narrative and appendices for The Lord of the Rings, during which time he received the constant support of the Inklings, in particular his closest friend Lewis, the author of The Chronicles of Narnia. Both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings are set against the background of The Silmarillion, but in a time long after it. Tolkien at first intended The Lord of the Rings to be a children's tale in the style of The Hobbit, but it quickly grew darker and more serious in the writing. Though a direct sequel to The Hobbit, it addressed an older audience, drawing on the immense back story of Beleriand that Tolkien had constructed in previous years, and which eventually saw posthumous publication in The Silmarillion and other volumes. Tolkien's influence weighs heavily on the fantasy genre that grew up after the success of The Lord of the Rings. The Lord of the Rings became immensely popular in the 1960s and has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the 20th century, judged by both sales and reader surveys. In the 2003 "Big Read" survey conducted by the BBC, The Lord of the Rings was found to be the "Nation's Best-loved Book". Australians voted The Lord of the Rings "My Favourite Book" in a 2004 survey conducted by the Australian ABC. In a 1999 poll of Amazon.com customers, The Lord of the Rings was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium". In 2002 Tolkien was voted the 92nd "greatest Briton" in a poll conducted by the BBC, and in 2004 he was voted 35th in the SABC3's Great South Africans, the only person to appear in both lists. His popularity is not limited to the English-speaking world: in a 2004 poll inspired by the UK's "Big Read" survey, about 250,000 Germans found The Lord of the Rings to be their favourite work of literature. Posthumous publications Tolkien's monogram, and Tolkien Estate trademark The Silmarillion Tolkien had appointed his son Christopher to be his literary executor, and he (with assistance from Guy Gavriel Kay, later a well-known fantasy author in his own right) organized some of the unpublished material into a single coherent volume, published as The Silmarillion in —his father had previously attempted to get a collection of "Silmarillion" material published in 1937 before writing The Lord of the Rings see "The History Of Middle-Earth" . Unfinished Tales and the History of Middle Earth In Christopher Tolkien followed The Silmarillion with a collection of more fragmentary material under the title Unfinished Tales. In subsequent years (–) he published a large amount of the remaining unpublished materials together with notes and extensive commentary in a series of twelve volumes called The History of Middle-earth. They contain unfinished, abandoned, alternative and outright contradictory accounts, since they were always a work in progress, and Tolkien only rarely settled on a definitive version for any of the stories. There is not complete consistency between The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit, the two most closely related works, because Tolkien never fully integrated all their traditions into each other. He commented in 1965, while editing The Hobbit for a third edition, that he would have preferred to completely rewrite the entire book because of the style of its prose. The Children of Húrin More recently, in , the collection was completed with the publication of The Children of Húrin by HarperCollins (in the UK and Canada) and Houghton Mifflin in the US. The novel tells the story of Túrin Turambar and his sister Nienor, children of Húrin Thalion. The material was compiled by Christopher Tolkien from The Silmarillion, Unfinished Tales, The History of Middle-earth and unpublished manuscripts. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún In February 2009, Publishers Weekly announced that Houghton Mifflin Harcourt had acquired the U.S. rights to Tolkien's unpublished work The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún. The book was released worldwide on 5 May 2009 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt and HarperCollins. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún, which was written by Tolkien during the 1920s and the 1930s, retells the Norse legend of Sigurd and the fall of the Niflungs. It is an epic poem and is composed in a form of alliterative verse inspired by the Skaldic poetry of the Elder Edda. Christopher Tolkien has added copious notes and commentary upon his father's work. Manuscript locations The Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Marquette University's John P. Raynor, S.J., Library in Milwaukee, Wisconsin preserves many of Tolkien's manuscripts; other original material is in Oxford University's Bodleian Library. Marquette has the manuscripts and proofs of The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit and other works, including Farmer Giles of Ham, while the Bodleian holds the Silmarillion papers and Tolkien's academic work. Languages and philology Linguistic career Both Tolkien's academic career and his literary production are inseparable from his love of language and philology. He specialized in English philology at university, and in 1915 graduated with Old Norse as special subject. He worked for the Oxford English Dictionary from 1918, and is credited with having worked on a number of words starting with the letter W, including walrus, over which he struggled mightily. Winchester, Simon (2003). The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860702-4; and Gilliver, Peter, Jeremy Marshall and Edmund Weiner (2006). The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-861069-6 In 1920, he went to Leeds as Reader in English language, where he claimed credit for raising the number of students of linguistics from five to twenty. He gave courses in Old English heroic verse, history of English, various Old English and Middle English texts, Old and Middle English philology, introductory Germanic philology, Gothic, Old Icelandic, and Medieval Welsh. When in 1925, aged thirty-three, Tolkien applied for the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon, he boasted that his students of Germanic philology in Leeds had even formed a "Viking Club". (Letter dated 27 June 1925 to the Electors of the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon, University of Oxford), Letters, no. 7. He also had a certain, if imperfect, knowledge of Finnish. Grotta, Daniel (2001) J.R.R. Tolkien Architect of Middle Earth. Running Press Book Publishers. ISBN 0762409568 Privately, Tolkien was attracted to "things of racial and linguistic significance", and he entertained notions of an inherited taste of language, which he termed the "native tongue" as opposed to "cradle tongue" in his 1955 lecture English and Welsh, which is crucial to his understanding of race and language. He considered West Midlands dialect of Middle English to be his own "native tongue", and, as he wrote to W. H. Auden in 1955, "I am a West-midlander by blood (and took to early west-midland Middle English as a known tongue as soon as I set eyes on it)". Letters, no. 163. Tolkien learned Latin, French and German from his mother, and while at school he learned Middle English, Old English, Finnish, Gothic, Greek, Italian, Old Norse, Spanish, Welsh, and Medieval Welsh. He was also familiar with Danish, Dutch, Lombardic, Norwegian, Russian, Swedish, Middle Dutch, Middle High German, Middle Low German, Old High German, Old Slavonic, and Lithuanian. Language construction See also: Languages of Middle-earth Parallel to Tolkien's professional work as a philologist, and sometimes overshadowing this work, to the effect that his academic output remained rather thin, was his affection for the construction of artificial languages. The best developed of these are Quenya and Sindarin, the etymological connection between which formed the core of much of Tolkien's legendarium. Language and grammar for Tolkien was a matter of aesthetics and euphony, and Quenya in particular was designed from "phonaesthetic" considerations; it was intended as an "Elvenlatin", and was phonologically based on Latin, with ingredients from Finnish, Welsh, English, and Greek. Letters, no. 144. A notable addition came in late 1945 with Adûnaic or Númenórean, a language of a "faintly Semitic flavour", connected with Tolkien's Atlantis legend, which by The Notion Club Papers ties directly into his ideas about inability of language to be inherited, and via the "Second Age" and the story of Eärendil was grounded in the legendarium, thereby providing a link of Tolkien's twentieth-century "real primary world" with the legendary past of his Middle-earth. Tolkien considered languages inseparable from the mythology associated with them, and he consequently took a dim view of auxiliary languages: in 1930 a congress of Esperantists were told as much by him, in his lecture A Secret Vice, "Your language construction will breed a mythology", but by 1956 he had concluded that "Volapük, Esperanto, Ido, Novial, &c, &c, are dead, far deader than ancient unused languages, because their authors never invented any Esperanto legends". Letters, no. 180. The popularity of Tolkien's books has had a small but lasting effect on the use of language in fantasy literature in particular, and even on mainstream dictionaries, which today commonly accept Tolkien's idiosyncratic spellings dwarves and dwarvish (alongside dwarfs and dwarfish), which had been little used since the mid-1800s and earlier. (In fact, according to Tolkien, had the Old English plural survived, it would have been dwerrows.) He also coined the term eucatastrophe, though it remains mainly used in connection with his own work. Legacy Adaptations In a 1951 letter to Milton Waldman, Tolkien writes about his intentions to create a "body of more or less connected legend", of which The hands and minds of many artists have indeed been inspired by Tolkien's legends. Personally known to him were Pauline Baynes (Tolkien's favourite illustrator of The Adventures of Tom Bombadil and Farmer Giles of Ham) and Donald Swann (who set the music to The Road Goes Ever On). Queen Margrethe II of Denmark created illustrations to The Lord of the Rings in the early 1970s. She sent them to Tolkien, who was struck by the similarity they bore in style to his own drawings. However, Tolkien was not fond of all the artistic representation of his works that were produced in his lifetime, and was sometimes harshly disapproving. In 1946, he rejected suggestions for illustrations by Horus Engels for the German edition of The Hobbit as "too Disnified", Tolkien was sceptical of the emerging Tolkien fandom in the United States, and in 1954 he returned proposals for the dust jackets of the American edition of The Lord of the Rings: He had dismissed dramatic representations of fantasy in his essay "On Fairy-Stories", first presented in 1939: On receiving a screenplay for a proposed movie adaptation of The Lord of the Rings by Morton Grady Zimmerman, Tolkien wrote: Tolkien went on to criticize the script scene by scene ("yet one more scene of screams and rather meaningless slashings"). He was not implacably opposed to the idea of a dramatic adaptation, however, and sold the film, stage and merchandise rights of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings to United Artists in 1968. United Artists never made a film, although director John Boorman was planning a live-action film in the early 1970s. In 1976 the rights were sold to Tolkien Enterprises, a division of the Saul Zaentz Company, and the first movie adaptation of The Lord of the Rings appeared in 1978, an animated rotoscoping film directed by Ralph Bakshi with screenplay by the fantasy writer Peter S. Beagle. It covered only the first half of the story of The Lord of the Rings. In 1977 an animated TV production of The Hobbit was made by Rankin-Bass, and in 1980 they produced an animated The Return of the King, which covered some of the portions of The Lord of the Rings that Bakshi was unable to complete. From 2001 to 2003, New Line Cinema released The Lord of the Rings as a trilogy of live-action films that were filmed in New Zealand and directed by Peter Jackson. The series was successful, performing extremely well commercially and winning numerous Oscars. Memorials Posthumously named after Tolkien are the Tolkien Road in Eastbourne, East Sussex, and the asteroid 2675 Tolkien discovered in 1982. Tolkien Way in Stoke-on-Trent is named after Tolkien's eldest son, Fr. John Francis Tolkien, who was the priest in charge at the nearby Roman Catholic Church of Our Lady of the Angels and St. Peter in Chains. There is also a professorship in Tolkien's name at Oxford, the J.R.R. Tolkien Professor of English Literature and Language. Schedule of Statutory Professorships in Statutes and Regulations of the University of Oxford online at http://ox.ac.uk/statutes (accessed 27 November 2007) In the Dutch town of Geldrop, near Eindhoven, the streets of an entire new neighbourhood are named after Tolkien himself ("Laan van Tolkien") and some of the best-known characters from his books. In the Hall Green and Moseley areas of Birmingham there are a number of parks and walkways dedicated to J. R. R. Tolkien—most notably, the Millstream Way and Moseley Bog. Collectively the parks are known as the Shire Country Parks. Every year at Sarehole Mill the Tolkien Weekend is held in memory of the author; the fiftieth anniversary of the release of The Lord of the Rings was commemorated in 2005. Commemorative plaques Sarehole Mill's blue plaque [[Image:Tolkien's Plough and Harrow blue plaque.jpg|thumb|right|The Plough and Harrow'''s blue plaque]] There are five blue plaques that commemorate places associated with Tolkien: one in Oxford, and four in Birmingham. One of the Birmingham plaques commemorates the inspiration provided by Sarehole Mill, near which he lived between the ages of four and eight, while two others mark childhood homes up to the time he left to attend Oxford University. The third one marks a hotel he stayed at while on leave from World War I. The Oxford plaque commemorates the residence where Tolkien wrote The Hobbit and most of The Lord of the Rings. Address Commemoration Date unveiled Issued by Sarehole MillHall Green, Birmingham "Inspired" 1896–1900(i. e. lived nearby) 15 August 2002 Birmingham Civic Society andThe Tolkien Society 1 Duchess PlaceLadywood, Birmingham Lived near here 1902–1910 Unknown Birmingham Civic Society 4 Highfield RoadEdgbaston, Birmingham Lived here 1910–1911 Unknown Birmingham Civic Society andThe Tolkien Society Plough and HarrowHagley Road, Birmingham Stayed here June 1916 June 1997 The Tolkien Society 20 Northmoor Road North Oxford Lived here 1930–1947 3 December 2002 Oxfordshire Blue Plaques Board Another two plaques marking buildings associated with Tolkien are found in Oxford and Harrogate. The Harrogate plaque commemorates a residence where Tolkien convalesced from trench fever in 1917, while the Oxford plaque marks his home from 1953–1968 at 76 Sandfield Road, Headington. Bibliography References General references Biography: Letters'': Notes Further reading A small selection of books about Tolkien and his works: External links HarperCollins Tolkien Website Tolkien Biography (The Tolkien Society) Tolkien Archives at the Raynor Library, Marquette University The Tolkien Library The Tolkien Collector's Guide J.R.R. Tolkien: An Imaginative Life Three illustrated on-line lectures examining the life and work of Tolkien (at The Gnosis Archive) be-x-old:Джон Рональд Руэл Толкін | J._R._R._Tolkien |@lemmatized john:18 ronald:3 reuel:9 tolkien:256 cbe:1 see:11 j:15 r:30 phonetic:1 transcription:1 publish:17 illustration:4 return:9 shadow:4 history:13 lord:45 ring:55 part:10 one:17 edit:3 christopher:14 london:6 unwin:5 hyman:1 august:2 middle:22 earth:13 isbn:6 position:1 stress:2 entirely:3 fix:1 second:6 syllable:1 tol:1 rather:4 kien:1 use:8 member:3 family:10 january:12 september:2 english:35 writer:5 poet:2 philologist:2 university:17 professor:8 best:5 know:10 author:9 classic:2 high:6 fantasy:13 work:44 hobbit:24 silmarillion:15 rawlinson:4 bosworth:4 anglo:8 saxon:8 oxford:30 merton:3 language:23 literature:10 biography:28 page:24 close:4 friend:7 c:14 lewis:32 informal:1 literary:7 discussion:2 group:1 inkling:7 appoint:3 commander:2 order:3 british:10 empire:2 queen:4 elizabeth:2 ii:4 march:3 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6,933 | La_Tène_culture | Overview of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. The core Hallstatt territory (800 BC) is shown in solid yellow, the area of influence by 500 BC (HaD) in light yellow. The core territory of the La Tène culture (450 BC) is shown in solid green, the eventual area of La Tène influence by 50 BC in light green. The territories of some major Celtic tribes are labelled. The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a rich trove of artifacts was discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857. La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BCE) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. To the north extended the contemporary Jastorf culture of Northern Germany. The Jastorf culture is the southern part of the Pre-Roman Iron Age of the north. La Tène culture developed out of the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek, and later Etruscan civilizations. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area, including parts of Ireland and Great Britain (the lake dwellings at Glastonbury, England, are a well known example of La Tène culture), northern Spain, Burgundy, and Austria. Elaborate burials also reveal a wide network of trade. In Vix, France, an elite woman of the 6th century BCE was buried with a bronze cauldron made in Greece. Exports from La Tène cultural areas to the Mediterranean cultures were based on salt, tin and copper, amber, wool and leather, furs and gold. A disputed La Tène "homeland" A 1st century BC mirror found in Desborough, Northants, showing the spiral and trumpet theme. Though there is no agreement on the precise region in which La Tène culture first developed, there is a broad consensus that the center of the culture lay on the northwest edges of Hallstatt culture, north of the Alps, within the region between the valleys of the Marne and Moselle in the west and modern Bavaria and Austria in the east. In 1994 a prototypical ensemble of elite grave sites of the early 5th century BCE was excavated at Glauberg in Hesse, northeast of Frankfurt-am-Main, in a region that had formerly been considered peripheral to the La Tène sphere. Mystery of the Celts. From their homeland, La Tène groups expanded in the 4th century to Hispania, the Po Valley, the Balkans, and even as far as Asia Minor, in the course of several major migrations. In the 4th century, a Gallic army led by Brennus reached Rome and took the city. In the 3rd century, Gallic bands entered Greece and threatened the oracle of Delphi, while another band settled Galatia in Asia Minor. Periodization Extensive contacts through trade are recognized in foreign objects deposited in elite burials; stylistic influences on La Tène material culture can be recognized in Etruscan, Italic, Greek and Scythian sources. Dateable Greek pottery at La Tène sites and dendrochronology and thermoluminescence help provide date ranges in an absolute chronology at some La Tène sites. As with many archaeological periods, La Tène history was originally divided into "early" (6th century BCE), "middle" (ca 450-100 BCE), and "late" (1st century BCE) stages, with the Roman occupation effectively driving the culture underground and ending its development. A broad cultural unity was not paralleled by overarching social-political unifying structures, and the extent to which the material culture can be linguistically linked is debated. Ethnology Our knowledge of this cultural area derives from three sources: from archaeological evidence, from Greek and Latin literary evidence, and more controversially, from ethnographical evidence suggesting some La Tène artistic and cultural survivals in traditionally Celtic regions of far western Europe. Some of the societies that are archaeologically identified with La Tène material culture were identified by Greek and Roman authors from the 5th century onwards as keltoi ("Celts") and galli ("Gauls"). Herodotus placed keltoi at the source of the Danube, in the heartland of La Tène material culture. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political affiliation do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes (Frey 2004) that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions". In some cases where La Tène archaeological sites are overlain by Slavic culture, any identification of La Tène material culture with Celts may become a sensitive local issue. Material culture La Tène metalwork in bronze, iron and gold, developing technologically out of Halstatt culture, is stylistically characterized by inscribed and inlaid intricate spirals and interlace, on fine bronze vessels, helmets and shields, horse trappings and elite jewelry, especially the neck rings called torcs and elaborate clasps called fibulae. It is characterized by elegant, stylized curvilinear animal and vegetal forms, allied with the Hallstatt traditions of geometric patterning. The Hallstatt and La Tène Cultures Initially La Tène folk lived in open settlements that were dominated by the chieftains’ towering hill forts. frankfurt,kultur,highlights,mystery of the kelts The development of towns— oppida— appears in mid-La Tène culture. La Tène dwellings were carpenter-built rather than of masonry. La Tène peoples also dug ritual shafts, in which votive offerings and even human sacrifices were cast. Severed heads appear to have held great power and were often represented in carvings. Burial sites included weapons, carts, and both elite and household goods, evoking a strong continuity with an afterlife. Discovery La Tène is a village on the northern shore of Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland. It is both an archaeological site and the eponymous site for the late Iron Age La Tène culture, also spelt "Latène" or "La-Tène". In 1857, prolonged drought lowered the waters of the lake by about 2 m. On the northernmost tip of the lake, between the river Thièle and a point south of the village of Marin-Epagnier, Hansli Kopp, looking for antiquities for Colonel Frédéric Schwab, discovered several rows of wooden piles that still reached about 50 cm into the water. From among these, Kopp collected about forty iron swords. The Swiss archaeologist Ferdinand Keller published his findings in 1868 in his influential first report on the Swiss pile dwellings (Pfahlbaubericht). In 1863 he interpreted the remains as a Celtic village built on piles. Eduard Desor, a geologist from Neuchâtel, started excavations on the lakeshore soon afterwards. He interpreted the site as an armory, erected on piles over the lake and later destroyed by enemy action. Another interpretation accounting for the presence of cast iron swords that had not been sharpened, was of a site of sacrifices. With the first systematic lowering of the Swiss lakes from 1868 to 1883, the site fell completely dry. In 1880, Emile Vouga, a teacher from Marin-Epagnier, uncovered the wooden remains of two bridges (designated "Pont Desor" and "Pont Vouga") originally over 100 m long, that crossed the little Thièle River (today a nature reserve) and the remains of five houses on the shore. After Vouga had finished, F. Borel, curator of the Marin museum, began to excavate as well. In 1885 the canton asked the Société d'Histoire of Neuchâtel to continue the excavations, the results of which were published by Vouga in the same year. All in all, over 2500 objects, mainly made from metal, have been excavated in La Tène. Weapons predominate, there being 166 swords (most without traces of wear), 270 lanceheads, and 22 shield bosses, along with 385 brooches, tools, and parts of chariots. Numerous human and animal bones were found as well. Interpretations of the site vary. Some scholars believe the bridge was destroyed by high water, while others see it as a place of sacrifice after a successful battle (there are almost no female ornaments). An exhibition marking the 150th anniversary of the discovery of the La Tène site was launched in June 2007 at the Musée Schwab in Bienne, Switzerland. It is scheduled to move to Zürich in 2008 and the Mont Beuvray in Burgundy in 2009. Sites Some sites are: La Tène Bern, Engehalbinsel: oppidum Manching: oppidum Münsingen, burial field Basel: oppidum Bibracte, oppidum of the Aedui at Mont Beuvray in Burgundy Erstfeld hoard Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave Bopfingen: Viereckschanze, a characteristic rectangular enclosure Fellbach-Schmiden, near Stuttgart: Viereckschanze; ritual objects recovered from a well Kleinaspergle: elite graves of La Tène I Waldalgesheim: an elite chariot burial, 4th century Glauberg, oppidum and elite graves Dürrnberg near Hallein: Burial field and earthworks of late Hallstatt–early La Tène Donnersberg: oppidum Vill near Innsbruck: remains of dwellings Sandberg Celtic city near Platt and Roseldorf in Lower Austria Vix/Mont Lassois: oppidum and elaborate graves Titelberg: oppidum in Luxembourg Reinheim: Tomb of a princess/priestess with burial gifts Artifacts Vix krater Some outstanding La Tène artifacts are: "Strettweg Cart" (7th century BCE), found in southeast Austria, a four-wheeled cart with a goddess, riders with axes and shields, attendants and stags. (Landesmuseum Johanneum, Graz, Austria) A woman in Vix (Châtillon-sur-Seine, Burgundy) buried with a 1,100 litre (290 gallon) bronze Greek vase, the largest ever found. The silver "Gundestrup cauldron" (3rd or 2nd century BCE), found ritually broken in a peat bog near Gundestrup, Denmark, but probably made near the Black Sea, perhaps in Romania. (National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen) "Battersea Shield" (350-50 BCE), found in the Thames, made of bronze with red enamel. (British Museum, London) "Witham Shield" (4th century BCE). (British Museum, London) "Chertsey Shield (400-200 BCE). (British Museum, London) "Turoe stone" in Galway, Ireland Chariot burial found at Waldalgesheim, Bad Kreuznach, Germany, late 4th century BCE. (Bonn: Rheinisches Landesmuseum) Chariot burial found at La Gorge Meillet (St-Germain-en-Laye: Musée des Antiquités Nationales). A life-sized sculpture of a warrior that accompanied the Glauberg burials. A gold-and-bronze model of an oak tree (3rd century BCE) found at the Oppidum of Manching. Noric steel Notes Further reading Cunliffe, Barry. The Ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1997 Collis, John. The Celts: Origins, Myths, Invention. London: Tempus, 2003. James, Simon. The Atlantic Celts. London: British Museum Press, 1999. James, Simon, and Valerie Rig. Britain and the Celtic Iron Age. London: British Museum Press, 1997. See Also Golasecca culture External links Excellent and detailed summary of excavations and interpretations (in German) La Tène site: brief text, illustrations (in French) Images from World History: Iron Age Western Europe Charles Bergengren, Cleveland Institute of Art, 1999: illustrations of La Tène artifacts Otto Hermann Frey, "A new approach to early Celtic art". Setting the Glauberg finds in context of shifting iconography. 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6,934 | Alfred_Lawson | Alfred William Lawson (March 24, 1869 - November 29, 1954) was a professional baseball player, manager and league promoter from 1887 through 1916 and went on to play a pioneering role in the U.S. aircraft industry, publishing two early aviation trade journals. In 1904, he also wrote a novel, Born Again, clearly inspired by the popular Utopian fantasy Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy, an early harbinger of the metaphysical turn his career would take with the theory of Lawsonomy. He is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner His wasn't the first, but only by a few months. http://www.koolhoven.com/history/fk26/#statement and was awarded several of the first air mail contracts, which he ultimately could not fulfill. He founded the Lawson Aircraft Company in Green Bay, Wisconsin to build military training aircraft and later the Lawson Airplane Company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to build airliners. Aviation Hall of Fame, Wisconsin - Alfred W. Lawson The crash of his ambitious "Midnight Liner" during its trial flight takeoff on May 8, 1921 ended his best chance for commercial aviation success. Lawsonomy In the 1920s, he promoted health practices including vegetarianism and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as "penetrability", "suction and pressure" and "zig-zag-and-swirl" were discoveries on par with Einstein's Theory of Relativity. He published numerous books on these concepts, all set in a distinctive typography. Lawson repeatedly predicted the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles by the year 2000. Leading Lawsonomy researcher Mark Carroll is reportedly close to a unified theory of Lawsonomy. Carroll quoted as saying, "combining the trinity of Lawsonomy concepts: penetrability, suction and pressure and zig-zag-and-swirl, into a single concept has the potential to return Lawsonomy to a level of intellectual and scientific acceptance on par with Intelligent Design." He later propounded his own philosophy—Lawsonomy—and the Lawsonian religion. He also developed, during the Great Depression, the populist economic theory of "Direct Credits", according to which banks are the cause of all economic woe, the oppressors of both capital and labour. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 30s, mainly in the upper Midwest, but by the late 30s the crowds had dwindled. In 1943, he founded the unaccredited University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines to spread his teachings and offer the degree of "Knowledgian," but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson's death. Lawson's financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day, and in later years he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his farflung acolytes. A 1952 attempt to haul him before a Senate investigative committee and get to the bottom of his operation ended with the old man leaving the senators baffled and unimpressed. Zigzag & Swirl A farm near Racine, Wisconsin is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas. The large sign, formerly reading "University of Lawsonomy", was a familiar landmark for motorists in the region for many years and was visible from I-94 about 13 miles north of the Illinois state line. Although the sign still exists, the "of" has now been replaced by the URL of their website photo of Lawsonomy sign . Quotation References Further reading Kossy, Donna. Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief, Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001 (2nd ed. exp. from 1994). (ISBN 978-0-922915-67-5) External links (an article about Lawson in a Milwaukee-area magazine) The three volumes of Lawsonomy, written by Lawson A short video of a visit to the University of Lawsonomy campus. Campus tour by Larry, a University alumnus , first full study of Lawson published by the University of Iowa Press Aviation Hall of Fame, Wisconsin - Alfred W. 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6,935 | Context-free_language | In formal language theory, a context-free language is a language generated by some context-free grammar. The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata. Examples An archetypical context-free language is , the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are 's, and the entire second halves of which are 's. is generated by the grammar , and is accepted by the pushdown automaton where is defined as follows: where z is initial stack symbol and x means pop action. Context-free languages have many applications in programming languages; for example, the language of all properly matched parentheses is generated by the grammar . Also, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars. Closure properties Context-free languages are closed under the following operations. That is, if L and P are context-free languages and D is a regular language, the following languages are context-free as well: the Kleene star of L the image φ(L) of L under a homomorphism φ the concatenation of L and P the union of L and P the intersection (with a regular language) of L and D Context-free languages are not closed under complement, intersection, or difference. Nonclosure under intersection The context-free languages are not closed under intersection. This can be seen by taking the languages and , which are both context-free. Their intersection is , which can be shown to be non-context-free by the pumping lemma for context-free languages. Decidability properties The following problems are undecidable for arbitrary context-free grammars A and B: Equivalence: is ? is ? is ? is ? The following problems are decidable for arbitrary context-free languages: is ? is finite? Membership: given any word w, does ? (membership problem is even polynomially decidable - see CYK algorithm) Properties of context-free languages The reverse of a context-free language is context-free, but the complement need not be. Every regular language is context-free because it can be described by a regular grammar. The intersection of a context-free language and a regular language is always context-free. There exist context-sensitive languages which are not context-free. To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the pumping lemma for context-free languages. References Chapter 2: Context-Free Languages, pp.91–122. | Context-free_language |@lemmatized formal:1 language:28 theory:1 context:27 free:26 generate:4 grammar:6 set:2 identical:1 accept:2 pushdown:2 automaton:2 example:2 archetypical:1 non:2 empty:1 even:2 length:1 string:1 entire:2 first:1 half:2 second:1 define:1 follow:1 z:1 initial:1 stack:1 symbol:1 x:1 mean:1 pop:1 action:1 many:1 application:1 program:1 properly:1 match:1 parenthesis:1 also:1 arithmetic:1 expression:1 closure:1 property:3 close:3 following:4 operation:1 l:7 p:3 regular:5 well:1 kleene:1 star:1 image:1 φ:2 homomorphism:1 concatenation:1 union:1 intersection:6 complement:2 difference:1 nonclosure:1 see:2 take:1 show:1 pumping:2 lemma:2 decidability:1 problem:3 undecidable:1 arbitrary:2 b:1 equivalence:1 decidable:2 finite:1 membership:2 give:2 word:1 w:1 polynomially:1 cyk:1 algorithm:1 languages:1 reverse:1 need:1 every:1 describe:1 always:1 exist:1 sensitive:1 prove:1 one:1 may:1 employ:1 reference:1 chapter:1 pp:1 |@bigram pushdown_automaton:2 context_sensitive:1 |
6,936 | Diana_(mythology) | In Roman mythology, Diana Akopyan was the goddess of the hunt, being associated with wild animals and woodland, and also of the moon. In literature she was the equivalent of the Greek goddess Artemis, though in cult beliefs she was Italic, not Greek, in origin. Diana was worshipped in ancient Roman religion and is currently revered in the religions of Religio Romana Neopaganism and Stregheria. Along with her main attributes, Diana was an emblem of chastity. Oak groves were especially sacred to her. According to mythology, Diana was born with her twin brother Apollo on the island of Delos, daughter of Jupiter and Latona. Diana made up a triad with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god. Worship Diana huntress, by Houdon. Louvre Diana was initially just the hunting goddess, associated with wild animals and woodlands. She also later became a moon goddess, supplanting Luna. Diana was worshipped at a festival on August 13, The date coincides with the founding dates celebrated ar Aricium. Arthur E. Gordon, "On the Origin of Diana", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 63 (1932, pp. 177-192) p 178. when King Servius Tullius, himself born a slave, dedicated her shrine on the Aventine Hill in the mid-sixth century BC. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the pomerium, meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a 'foreign' one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially 'transferred' to Rome as Juno was after the sack of Veii. It seems that her cult originated in Aricia, Her cult at Aricia was first attested in Latin literature by Cato the Elder, in a surviving quote by the late grammarian Priscian. Supposed Greek origins for the Aricia cult are strictly a literary topos. (Gordon 1932:178 note, and p. 181). where her priest, the Rex Nemorensis remained. There the simple open-air fane was held in common by the Latin tribes, commune Latinorum Dianae temple in Varro, Lingua Latina v.43; the cult there was of antique religione in Pliny's Natural History, xliv. 91, 242. which Rome aspired to weld into a league and direct. Diana of the wood was soon thoroughly Hellenized, The Potnia Theron aspect of Hellenic Artemis is represented in Capua and Signia, Greek cities of Magna Graecia, in the fifth century BCE. "a process which culminated with the appearance of Diana beside Apollo in the first lectisternium at Rome". Gordon 1932:179. Diana was regarded with great reverence by lower-class citizens and slaves; slaves could receive asylum in her temples. Though some Roman patrons ordered marble replicas of the specifically Anatolian "Diana" of Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis stood, Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she is accompanied by a deer, as in the Diana of Versailles (illustration, above right) this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him. Worship of Diana is mentioned in the Bible. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul’s preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “Great is Diana of the Ephesians!” (Acts 19:28, New English Bible). Legacy Diana (1892 - 93), Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Bronze, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City In religion Diana's cult has been related in Early Modern Europe to the cult of Nicevenn (aka Dame Habond, Perchta, Herodiana, etc.). She was related to myths of a female Wild Hunt, close to the Benandantis' struggles against evil witches. Wicca Today there is a branch of Wicca named for her, which is characterized by an exclusive focus on the feminine aspect of the Divine. Falcon River (2004) The Dianic Wiccan Tradition. From The Witches Voice. Retrieved 2007-05-23. In some wiccan texts Lucifer is a name used interchangably (in the story lines) for Diana's brother/husband Apollo. (See To Ride A Silver Broom stick and/or http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/aradia/ara05.htm) Stregheria In Italy the old religion of Stregheria embraced goddess Diana as Queen of the Witches; witches being the wise women healers of the time. Goddess Diana created the world of her own being having in herself the seeds of all creation yet to come. It is said that out of herself she divided into the darkness and the light, keeping for herself the darkness of creation and creating her brother Apollo, the light. Goddess Diana loved and ruled with her brother Apollo, the god of the Sun. Since the Renaissance the mythic Diana has often been expressed in the visual and dramatic arts, including the opera L'arbore di Diana. In the sixteenth century, Diana's image figured prominently at the Château de Fontainebleau, in deference to Diane de Poitiers, mistress of two French kings. At Versailles she was incorporated into the Olympian iconography with which Louis XIV, the Apollo-like "Sun King" liked to surround himself. There are also references to her in common literature. In Shakespeare's play, Romeo and Juliet, many references are made to Diana. Rosaline, a beautiful woman who has sworn to chastity, is said to have "Dian's wit". Later on in the play, Romeo says, "It is the East, and Juliet is the sun. Arise fair sun, and kill the envious moon." He is saying that Juliet is better than Diana and Rosaline for not swearing chastity. Diana is also a character in the 1876 Leo Delibe ballet 'Sylvia'. The plot deals with Sylvia, one of Diana's nymphs and sworn to chastity and Diana's assault on Sylvia's affections for the shepherd Amyntas. In Jean Cocteau's 1946 film La Belle et la Bête it is Diana's power which has transformed and imprisoned the beast. In literature In comic book lore, the character of Wonder Woman who hails from Paradise Island which is rich in Greek mythology is written to be a descendant of the Gods, and named after the moon goddess, Diana. Diana, like many aspects of mythology, is depicted in the comic books Asterix. In the Roman temples, many times a statue of Diana can be seen in the background, depicted as a well rounded lady, usually sitting on a stag, who appears to be suffering. She is also used by shakespeare in the famous play 'Romeo and Juliet' to describe how Rosaline feels about marriage. There is also a reference to Dian in Shakespeare's play Much Ado About Nothing where Hero is said to seem like 'Dian in her orb', in terms of her chastity. In language Pomona (left, symbolizing agriculture), and Diana (symbolizing commerce) as building decoration Both the Romanian word for "fairy", zânǎ zână in DEX '98 and NODEX. and the Leonese word for "water nymph", xana, seem to come from the name of Diana. Other In the funeral oration of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, her brother drew an ironic analogy between the ancient goddess of hunting and his sister - 'the most hunted person of the modern age'. Notes See also Diana Nemorensis Wild Hunt External links Landscape with Diana and Callisto painting Diana and her Nymphs painting | Diana_(mythology) |@lemmatized roman:6 mythology:4 diana:44 akopyan:1 goddess:9 hunt:5 associate:2 wild:4 animal:2 woodland:3 also:8 moon:4 literature:4 equivalent:1 greek:6 artemis:3 though:2 cult:8 belief:1 italic:1 origin:3 worship:4 ancient:2 religion:4 currently:1 revere:1 religio:1 romana:1 neopaganism:1 stregheria:3 along:1 main:1 attribute:1 emblem:1 chastity:5 oak:1 grove:1 especially:1 sacred:2 accord:1 bear:2 twin:1 brother:5 apollo:6 island:2 delos:1 daughter:1 jupiter:1 latona:1 make:2 triad:1 two:2 deity:1 egeria:1 water:2 nymph:3 servant:1 assistant:1 midwife:1 virbius:1 god:3 huntress:1 houdon:1 louvre:1 initially:1 hunting:2 later:2 become:1 supplant:1 luna:1 festival:1 august:1 date:2 coincides:1 found:1 celebrate:1 ar:1 aricium:1 arthur:1 e:1 gordon:3 transaction:1 proceeding:1 american:1 philological:1 association:1 pp:1 p:2 king:3 servius:1 tullius:1 slave:3 dedicate:1 shrine:1 aventine:2 hill:1 mid:1 sixth:1 century:3 bc:1 place:1 thus:1 outside:1 pomerium:1 mean:1 essentially:1 remain:2 foreign:1 one:2 like:5 bacchus:1 never:1 officially:1 transfer:1 rome:3 juno:1 sack:1 veii:1 seem:3 originate:1 aricia:3 first:2 attest:1 latin:2 cato:1 elder:1 survive:1 quote:1 late:1 grammarian:1 priscian:1 suppose:1 strictly:1 literary:1 topos:1 note:2 priest:1 rex:1 nemorensis:2 simple:1 open:1 air:1 fane:1 hold:1 common:2 tribe:1 commune:1 latinorum:1 dianae:1 temple:4 varro:1 lingua:1 latina:1 v:1 antique:1 religione:1 pliny:1 natural:1 history:1 xliv:1 aspire:1 weld:1 league:1 direct:1 wood:1 soon:1 thoroughly:1 hellenized:1 potnia:1 theron:1 aspect:3 hellenic:1 represent:1 capua:1 signia:1 city:2 magna:1 graecia:1 fifth:1 bce:1 process:1 culminate:1 appearance:1 beside:1 lectisternium:1 regard:1 great:2 reverence:1 low:1 class:1 citizen:1 could:1 receive:1 asylum:1 patron:1 order:1 marble:1 replica:1 specifically:1 anatolian:1 ephesus:1 stood:1 usually:2 depict:3 educated:1 guise:1 accompany:1 deer:2 versailles:2 illustration:1 right:1 patroness:1 may:1 offer:1 covert:1 reference:4 myth:2 acteon:2 actaeon:1 saw:1 bathing:1 naked:1 transform:2 stag:2 set:1 dog:1 kill:2 mention:1 bible:2 act:2 apostle:1 ephesian:2 metalsmiths:1 felt:1 threaten:1 saint:2 paul:1 preaching:1 christianity:1 jealously:1 riot:1 defense:1 shout:1 new:2 english:1 legacy:1 augustus:1 gaudens:1 bronze:1 metropolitan:1 museum:1 art:2 york:1 relate:2 early:1 modern:2 europe:1 nicevenn:1 aka:1 dame:1 habond:1 perchta:1 herodiana:1 etc:1 female:1 close:1 benandantis:1 struggle:1 evil:1 witch:4 wicca:2 today:1 branch:1 name:4 characterize:1 exclusive:1 focus:1 feminine:1 divine:1 falcon:1 river:1 dianic:1 wiccan:2 tradition:1 voice:1 retrieved:1 text:2 lucifer:1 use:2 interchangably:1 story:1 line:1 husband:1 see:3 ride:1 silver:1 broom:1 stick:1 http:1 www:1 com:1 pag:1 aradia:1 htm:1 italy:1 old:1 embrace:1 queen:1 wise:1 woman:3 healer:1 time:2 create:2 world:1 seed:1 creation:2 yet:1 come:2 say:5 divide:1 darkness:2 light:2 keep:1 love:1 rule:1 sun:4 since:1 renaissance:1 mythic:1 often:1 express:1 visual:1 dramatic:1 include:1 opera:1 l:1 arbore:1 di:1 sixteenth:1 image:1 figure:1 prominently:1 château:1 de:2 fontainebleau:1 deference:1 diane:1 poitier:1 mistress:1 french:1 incorporate:1 olympian:1 iconography:1 louis:1 xiv:1 surround:1 shakespeare:3 play:4 romeo:3 juliet:4 many:3 rosaline:3 beautiful:1 swear:3 dian:3 wit:1 east:1 arise:1 fair:1 envious:1 good:1 character:2 leo:1 delibe:1 ballet:1 sylvia:3 plot:1 deal:1 assault:1 affection:1 shepherd:1 amyntas:1 jean:1 cocteau:1 film:1 la:2 belle:1 et:1 bête:1 power:1 imprison:1 beast:1 comic:2 book:2 lore:1 wonder:1 hail:1 paradise:1 rich:1 write:1 descendant:1 asterix:1 statue:1 background:1 well:1 round:1 lady:1 sit:1 appear:1 suffer:1 famous:1 describe:1 feel:1 marriage:1 much:1 ado:1 nothing:1 hero:1 orb:1 term:1 language:1 pomona:1 leave:1 symbolize:2 agriculture:1 commerce:1 building:1 decoration:1 romanian:1 word:2 fairy:1 zânǎ:1 zână:1 dex:1 nodex:1 leonese:1 xana:1 funeral:1 oration:1 princess:1 wale:1 draw:1 ironic:1 analogy:1 sister:1 hunted:1 person:1 age:1 external:1 link:1 landscape:1 callisto:1 painting:2 nymphs:1 |@bigram oak_grove:1 philological_association:1 servius_tullius:1 cato_elder:1 lingua_latina:1 potnia_theron:1 magna_graecia:1 temple_artemis:1 dianic_wiccan:1 http_www:1 louis_xiv:1 romeo_juliet:2 jean_cocteau:1 la_bête:1 ado_nothing:1 funeral_oration:1 diana_princess:1 external_link:1 |
6,937 | Gia_Carangi | Gia Marie Carangi (January 29, 1960 – November 18, 1986) was an American fashion model during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Carangi was considered by some to be the first supermodel, although that title has also been given to others, including Janice Dickinson and Dorian Leigh. Cindy Crawford, who also appeared on the covers of fashion publications during her time, was later referred to as "Baby Gia" due to her resemblance to Carangi. Carangi was also the first to present unusual poses, facial expressions and gestures. Carangi was featured on the cover of fashion magazines, including Vogue, April 1, 1979; Vogue Paris, April 1979; American Vogue, August 1980; Vogue Paris, August 1980; Italian Vogue, January 1981; and several issues of Cosmopolitan between 1979 and 1982. After she became addicted to heroin, Carangi's modeling career rapidly declined. She later became infected with HIV and died at the age of 26. Her death was not widely publicized and few people in the fashion industry knew of it. Carangi is thought to be one of the first famous women to die of AIDS. A biographical film starring Angelina Jolie, Gia, debuted on HBO in 1998. Her father is Italian American, and her mother is American of Irish and Welsh ancestry. Early life Growing up, Carangi had a tempestuous childhood. Those who knew her blamed her "fractured childhood" for the instability and drug-dependence that stilted her adult life. She was described as "needy and manipulative" by relatives who recalled her as spoiled and shy as a child and a "Mommy’s girl" who did not receive as much of her mother's attention as she wanted. In her teens, Carangi found the attention she sought; the attention came from other teenage girls. At 13, Carangi would send girls flowers and they would develop crushes on her, no matter their sexual orientation. In high school, Carangi bonded with "the Bowie kids" – a group of obsessive David Bowie fans, like herself. They emulated the star's "defiantly weird, high-glam" style. Carangi was drawn to Bowie not only due to his fashion preferences but also due to his ambiguous gender play and outspoken bisexuality. A friend of Carangi's described her "tomboy persona" and relaxed openness about her sexuality as reminiscent of the character Cay in the 1985 film Desert Hearts. Carangi and her "bi-try Bowie-mad" friends hung out in Philadelphia’s gay clubs and bars. She was beginning to settle into a lesbian identity, but did not want to take up "the accepted lesbian style". Rise Carangi was known in modeling circles just by her first name. After being featured in Philadelphia newspaper ads, Carangi moved to New York City at the age of 17, where she quickly rose to prominence. She was a favorite model of various fashion photographers, including Francesco Scavullo, Arthur Elgort, Richard Avedon, and Chris von Wangenheim. Well-integrated within the fashion world, Carangi had the selection of several photographers, most notably Scavullo. By the end of 1978, Carangi was already a well-established model. In a 20/20 interview, she said her rise was "awfully" fast: "I started working with well-known people in the industry, very quickly. I didn't build into a model. I just sort of became one." Carangi was a regular at Studio 54 and the Mudd Club. She usually used cocaine in clubs, but later began to develop a heroin addiction. In October 1978, Carangi did her first major shoot with top fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim. Wangenheim had her pose nude behind a chain-link fence with makeup assistant Sandy Linter. Carangi immediately became infatuated with Linter and started to pursue her, though the relationship never became stable. Fall On March 1, 1980, Carangi's agent, Wilhelmina Cooper, died of lung cancer. Devastated, Carangi started abusing drugs. Scavullo recalled a fashion shoot in the Caribbean when "She was crying, she couldn't find her drugs. I literally had to lay her down on her bed until she fell asleep."By 1980, Carangi began having violent temper tantrums, walking out of photo shoots, and even falling asleep in front of the camera. In the November 1980 issue of Vogue, Carangi's track marks from shooting heroin were visible even after airbrushing. For three weeks, she was signed with Eileen Ford, who soon dropped her. Her attempt to quit drugs was shattered when she learned that her good friend and fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim died in a car accident. According to the Stephen Fried book Thing of Beauty, Carangi locked herself in a bathroom for hours, shooting heroin. Thing of Beauty, Stephen Fried In the fall of 1981, she looked far different from the top model she once had been. However, she was still determined to make a comeback in the fashion industry. She contacted Monique Pillard (who was largely responsible for Janice Dickinson's career), who was hesitant to sign her. In rehab, she told staff that she had done sexual favors for drug money and had been raped by a dealer. Once heavily pursuing modeling again, Carangi received the harsh treatment she had been able to avoid last time. Nobody would book her. Desperate, she turned to Scavullo. She landed a Cosmopolitan cover, a gift from Scavullo. Shot in the winter of 1982, it would be her last cover. Death Carangi was diagnosed with AIDS, which was a newly recognized disease at the time. As her condition worsened, she was transferred to Philadelphia's Hahnemann University Hospital. Her mother stayed with her day and night, allowing virtually no visitors. Stated by creators of the film Gia On November 18, 1986 at 10 a.m., Carangi died of AIDS-related complications. She was 26 years old. Her closed-casket funeral (recommended by the funeral director due to the ravages of AIDS) was held on November 21 at a small funeral home in Philadelphia. Nobody from the fashion world attended. However, weeks later, Scavullo sent a Mass card when he heard the news. Aftermath and legacy A biography of Carangi by Stephen Fried called Thing of Beauty (a title omitting the second half of John Keats' famous quote "A thing of beauty is a joy forever") was published in 1993. A biographical film, Gia, debuted on HBO in 1998. Angelina Jolie starred in the title role, garnering a Golden Globe award for the role. In 1996, actress-screenwriter Zoë Tamerlis, herself a heroin addict who died of drug-related causes in 1999, was commissioned to write a screenplay based upon Carangi's life. This version of Gia was not produced, but after Tamerlis' death, footage of Carangi, Tamerlis, photographers, Carangi's family, and Sandy Linter discussing her life was incorporated into a 2003 documentary entitled The Self-Destruction of Gia. Carangi's sexual orientation has been disputed; LGBT outlets label her lesbian, and other times as bisexual due to her sexual relationships with men. In the film Gia, Jolie also portrayed her as being sexually intimate with men and women. Since Carangi's death, she has been considered a lesbian supermodel and icon and is said to have epitomized "lesbian chic" more than a decade before the term was coined. Actress Jiah Khan (born Nafisa Ali) changed her name to "Jiah" after watching the Gia. http://chakpak.com/celebrity/jiah-khan/biography/37445 Designers and cosmetic firms represented Body Basics Christian Dior Cutex Diane von Fürstenberg Giorgio Armani Lancetti Levi's Maybelline Perry Ellis Versace Vidal Sassoon Yves Saint Laurent References External links | Gia_Carangi |@lemmatized gia:9 marie:1 carangi:35 january:2 november:4 american:4 fashion:12 model:8 late:1 early:2 consider:2 first:5 supermodel:2 although:1 title:3 also:5 give:1 others:1 include:3 janice:2 dickinson:2 dorian:1 leigh:1 cindy:1 crawford:1 appear:1 cover:4 publication:1 time:4 later:4 refer:1 baby:1 due:5 resemblance:1 present:1 unusual:1 pose:2 facial:1 expression:1 gesture:1 feature:2 magazine:1 vogue:6 april:2 paris:2 august:2 italian:2 several:2 issue:2 cosmopolitan:2 become:5 addicted:1 heroin:5 career:2 rapidly:1 decline:1 infect:1 hiv:1 die:6 age:2 death:4 widely:1 publicize:1 people:2 industry:3 know:4 think:1 one:2 famous:2 woman:2 aid:4 biographical:2 film:5 star:3 angelina:2 jolie:3 debut:2 hbo:2 father:1 mother:3 irish:1 welsh:1 ancestry:1 life:4 grow:1 tempestuous:1 childhood:2 blame:1 fracture:1 instability:1 drug:6 dependence:1 stilted:1 adult:1 describe:2 needy:1 manipulative:1 relative:1 recall:2 spoil:1 shy:1 child:1 mommy:1 girl:2 receive:2 much:1 attention:3 want:2 teen:1 find:2 seek:1 come:1 teenage:1 would:4 send:2 girls:1 flower:1 develop:2 crush:1 matter:1 sexual:4 orientation:2 high:2 school:1 bond:1 bowie:4 kid:1 group:1 obsessive:1 david:1 fan:1 like:1 emulate:1 defiantly:1 weird:1 glam:1 style:2 draw:1 preference:1 ambiguous:1 gender:1 play:1 outspoken:1 bisexuality:1 friend:3 tomboy:1 persona:1 relax:1 openness:1 sexuality:1 reminiscent:1 character:1 cay:1 desert:1 heart:1 bi:1 try:1 mad:1 hang:1 philadelphia:4 gay:1 club:3 bar:1 begin:3 settle:1 lesbian:5 identity:1 take:1 accepted:1 rise:3 circle:1 name:2 newspaper:1 ad:1 move:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 quickly:2 prominence:1 favorite:1 various:1 photographer:5 francesco:1 scavullo:6 arthur:1 elgort:1 richard:1 avedon:1 chris:3 von:4 wangenheim:4 well:3 integrate:1 within:1 world:2 selection:1 notably:1 end:1 already:1 establish:1 interview:1 say:2 awfully:1 fast:1 start:3 work:1 build:1 sort:1 regular:1 studio:1 mudd:1 usually:1 use:1 cocaine:1 addiction:1 october:1 major:1 shoot:5 top:2 nude:1 behind:1 chain:1 link:2 fence:1 makeup:1 assistant:1 sandy:2 linter:3 immediately:1 infatuated:1 pursue:2 though:1 relationship:2 never:1 stable:1 fall:3 march:1 agent:1 wilhelmina:1 cooper:1 lung:1 cancer:1 devastate:1 abuse:1 caribbean:1 cry:1 literally:1 lay:1 bed:1 fell:1 asleep:2 violent:1 temper:1 tantrum:1 walk:1 photo:1 even:2 front:1 camera:1 track:1 mark:1 visible:1 airbrush:1 three:1 week:2 sign:2 eileen:1 ford:1 soon:1 drop:1 attempt:1 quit:1 shatter:1 learn:1 good:1 car:1 accident:1 accord:1 stephen:3 fry:3 book:2 thing:4 beauty:4 lock:1 bathroom:1 hour:1 look:1 far:1 different:1 however:2 still:1 determine:1 make:1 comeback:1 contact:1 monique:1 pillard:1 largely:1 responsible:1 hesitant:1 rehab:1 tell:1 staff:1 favor:1 money:1 rap:1 dealer:1 heavily:1 harsh:1 treatment:1 able:1 avoid:1 last:2 nobody:2 desperate:1 turn:1 land:1 gift:1 shot:1 winter:1 diagnose:1 newly:1 recognize:1 disease:1 condition:1 worsen:1 transfer:1 hahnemann:1 university:1 hospital:1 stayed:1 day:1 night:1 allow:1 virtually:1 visitor:1 state:1 creator:1 relate:1 complication:1 year:1 old:1 closed:1 casket:1 funeral:3 recommend:1 director:1 ravage:1 hold:1 small:1 home:1 attend:1 mass:1 card:1 hear:1 news:1 aftermath:1 legacy:1 biography:2 call:1 omit:1 second:1 half:1 john:1 keats:1 quote:1 joy:1 forever:1 publish:1 role:2 garner:1 golden:1 globe:1 award:1 actress:2 screenwriter:1 zoë:1 tamerlis:3 addict:1 related:1 cause:1 commission:1 write:1 screenplay:1 base:1 upon:1 version:1 produce:1 footage:1 family:1 discuss:1 incorporate:1 documentary:1 entitle:1 self:1 destruction:1 dispute:1 lgbt:1 outlet:1 label:1 bisexual:1 men:2 portray:1 sexually:1 intimate:1 since:1 icon:1 epitomize:1 chic:1 decade:1 term:1 coin:1 jiah:3 khan:2 born:1 nafisa:1 ali:1 change:1 watch:1 http:1 chakpak:1 com:1 celebrity:1 designer:1 cosmetic:1 firm:1 represent:1 body:1 basic:1 christian:1 dior:1 cutex:1 diane:1 fürstenberg:1 giorgio:1 armani:1 lancetti:1 levi:1 maybelline:1 perry:1 ellis:1 versace:1 vidal:1 sassoon:1 yves:1 saint:1 laurent:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram facial_expression:1 infect_hiv:1 angelina_jolie:2 teenage_girl:1 sexual_orientation:2 david_bowie:1 heroin_addiction:1 pose_nude:1 lung_cancer:1 fell_asleep:1 fall_asleep:1 stephen_fry:3 golden_globe:1 heroin_addict:1 external_link:1 |
6,938 | Paul_Robeson | Paul LeRoy Bustill Robeson (April 9, 1898–January 23, 1976) was an African-American actor of film and stage, All-American and professional athlete, writer, multi-lingual orator, lawyer, and Bass (voice type) concert singer who was also noted for his wide-ranging social justice activism. A forerunner of the civil rights movement, Robeson was a trades union activist, peace activist, Phi Beta Kappa Society laureate, and a recipient of the Spingarn Medal and Stalin Peace Prize. Robeson achieved worldwide fame and recognition during his life for his artistic accomplishments, and his outspoken, radical beliefs which largely clashed with the colonial powers of Western Europe and the Jim Crow climate of pre-civil rights America. Robeson, Susan. Paul Robeson: The Whole World in His Hands, a Pictorial Biography, 1980, pg 13, prologue Boyle, Shelia Tully. Paul Robeson: The Years of Promise and Achievement, 2001, pg 11 notes on sources Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, preface Seton, Marie. Paul Robeson, 1958, pg 57. Paul Robeson was the first major concert star to popularize the performance of Negro spirituals and was the first black actor of the 20th century to portray William Shakespeare's Othello on Broadway. His run in the 1943-45 Othello production still holds the record for the longest running Shakespeare play on Broadway. In line with Robeson's vocal dissatisfaction with movie stereotypes, his roles in both the American and British film industry were some of the first parts ever created that displayed dignity and respect for the African American film actor, paving the way for the likes of Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 90. At the height of his fame, Paul Robeson decided to become a primarily political artist, speaking out against fascism and racism in the US and abroad as white America failed post-World War II to stand up for the rights of people of color. Robeson thus became a prime target of the Red Scare during the late 1940s through to the late 1950s. His passport was revoked from 1950 to 1958 under the McCarran Act and he was under surveillance by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation and Central Intelligence Agency and by British MI5 for well over three decades until his death in 1976. The reasoning behind his persecution centered not only on his beliefs in socialism and friendship with the peoples of the Soviet Union but also his tireless work towards the liberation of the colonial peoples of Africa, the Caribbean and Asia, his support of the International Brigades, his ardent efforts to push for anti-lynching legislation and the integration of major league baseball among many other causes that challenged worldwide white supremacy. Condemnation of Robeson and his beliefs came swiftly, from both the white establishment of the US, including the United States Congress, and many mainstream black organizations including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). This mass vilification by the American establishment blacklisted and isolated Robeson for the latter part of his career. Despite the fact that Paul Robeson was one of the most internationally famous cultural figures of his era, the persecution virtually erased him from mainstream culture and subsequent interpretations of 20th century history, including civil rights and black history. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 400. To this day, Paul Robeson's FBI file is one of the largest of any entertainer ever investigated by the United States Intelligence Community, requiring its own internal index and unique status of health file. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 563, notes on sources There is also documented evidence from the files released under the Freedom of Information Act that Paul Robeson was drugged and neutralized under the CIA's clandestine MKULTRA mind control program and subsequently subjected to unnecessary and abusive levels of electroconvulsive therapy while under private care in Great Britain as a means to keep him from influencing the U.S. civil rights movement and worldwide anti-imperialist movements during the 1960s. Despite persecution and limited activity resulting from ailing health in his later years, Paul Robeson remained, throughout his life, committed to world peace and anti-fascism and was unapologetic about his political views.<ref>Brown, Lloyd. The Young Paul Robeson 1997.pg 161</ref> Present day advocates and historians of Paul Robeson's legacy have worked successfully to restore his name to history books and sports records, while honoring his memory globally with celebrations, festivals and posthumous awards and recognitions. Turner, Charlotte. Paul Robeson's Last Days in Philadelphia, 1986, pg 150. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 543. Early life and education Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey. His father, William Drew Robeson I, a descendant of the Igbo people, escaped from a North Carolina plantation where he had been born a slave; he earned a degree from Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) and became a church minister. Paul Robeson Centennial Celebration, A Brief Biography From 1880 until 1901, he was minister of the Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church in Princeton. Rev. Robeson was ousted from the Princeton Pastorate after more than twenty years of service, with no clear explanation given. Rev. Robeson's own congregation had been a contributing factor to his dismissal at Witherspoon Church. Testimony would later reveal that he had aligned himself "on the wrong side of a church fight," having apparently refused to bow to pressure from the "white residents of Princeton" that he cease his tendency to "speak out against social injustice." After his dismissal, Rev. William Drew Robeson bypassed any need "to recriminate and rebuke." He said, "As I review the past and think upon many scenes, my heart is filled with love." In closing his last address to his Princeton congregation, he implored them, "Do not be discouraged, do not think your past work is in vain." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pgs 6-7Boyhood Paul Robeson's mother, Maria Louisa Bustill, came from an abolitionist Quaker family. Nearly blind, she died in a tragic fire in 1904 when Paul Robeson was six years old. Brown, Lloyd. The Young Paul Robeson, 1997. Paul's four siblings included: William Drew Robeson II, a physician who practiced in Washington, D.C.; Benjamin Robeson, a minister; Reeve Robeson (called Reed); and Marian Robeson, who lived in Philadelphia. William Drew Robeson was a stern disciplinarian when it came to Paul's studies and citizenship. In 1910, when the family relocated to Somerville, New Jersey, he continued to impress upon Paul that he could achieve anything that whites could. Brown, Lloyd. The Young Paul Robeson 1997, pg 37. In 1915, Paul graduated with honors from Somerville High School, where he excelled academically and participated in singing, acting, and athletics. He went on to win a full academic scholarship to Rutgers University. Brown, Lloyd. The Young Paul Robeson, 1997, pg 57. Rutgers University Paul Robeson was only the third African-American student accepted at Rutgers University, and he was the only black student during his time on campus. Robeson was one of three classmates at Rutgers accepted into Phi Beta Kappa and one of four students selected in 1919 to Cap and Skull, Rutgers' honor society. "Robeson in Depth", Amanda Casabianca, Bay Area Paul Robeson Centennial Committee He was honored with the Phi Beta Kappa Key in his third year. Paul Robeson Campus Center The class valedictorian, he exhorted his classmates to "catch a new vision", while the "class prophecy" envisioned that he would become a governor of New Jersey by 1940 and "leader of the colored race in America." Corliss, Richard. "Ol' Man Charisma: PAUL ROBESON: 1898-1976", Time, 20 April 1998. A noted athlete, Robeson earned altogether fifteen varsity letters in football, baseball, basketball, and track and field. For his accomplishments as an end in football, he was named a first-team All-American in 1917 and 1918. During scrimmages while Robeson initially tried out for the football team, he faced savage physical punishment, for instance, when a senior member of the team crushed Robeson's hand with a cleated foot, tearing off fingernails. He bore the abuse to prove his worth, eventually becoming the greatest football player of his era. The football coach, Walter Camp, later described him as "the greatest to ever trot the gridiron." College Football News, Top 100 Players. Later in his life, however, when the United States government stopped him from traveling outside the country, his name was retroactively struck from the roster of the 1918 college All-America football team. Eventually Robeson's name was fully restored to the Rutgers University sports records and in 1995, he was also officially inducted into The College Football Hall of Fame. Brown, Lloyd. The Young Paul Robeson, 1997, pg 162 AppendixB last interview Rutgers-Newark also honored him posthumously by naming their student-life campus center, Rutgers-Newark: The State University of New Jersey Paul Robeson Campus Center and art gallery after him. Paul Robeson Galleries Columbia Law School After graduation from Rutgers, Robeson moved to Harlem and entered Columbia Law School, Between 1920 and 1923, Robeson helped pay his way through law school by working as an athlete and a performer. He played professional football in the American Professional Football Association (later called the National Football League) with the Akron Pros and Milwaukee Badgers. He served as assistant football coach at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, where he was initiated into the Nu Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha, the oldest intercollegiate Greek-letter fraternity for African Americans.32 He also played for the St. Christopher Club traveling basketball team during their 1918–19 season, alongside future Basketball Hall of Fame members Clarence "Fats" Jenkins and James “Pappy” Ricks, and former Hampton Institute star center Charles Bradford. The St. Christopher Club (also knonw as the Red and Black Machine, the St. C's) Harlem, New York City In 1922, he starred in the play Taboo, written by Mary Hoyt Wiborg, in New York and in London. Paul Robeson Honored On New Black Heritage Series Commemorative Postage Stamp He graduated from Columbia in 1923, in the same law school class as William O. Douglas—later a United States Supreme Court Justice—and was hired at the law firm of Stotesbury and Miner in New York City; Robeson quit after a white secretary refused to take dictation from him because of the color of his skin. Robeson later studied at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. Personal life Robeson married Eslanda Cardozo Goode in August 1921. She headed the pathology laboratory at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in New York City and came from a distinguished family of a mixed race background. Her father Cardozo Goode was related to the U.S. Supreme Court Justice Benjamin Cardozo. Essie encouraged Robeson in his career and became his business manager. Early in their marriage, she understood that her husband was not cut out for monogamy and domesticity. Wanting to remain Mrs. Robeson, she made her peace with his extramarital affairs. Paul Robeson and Eslanda seriously considered divorce in the 1930s when Robeson fell deeply in love with a British woman, Yolande Jackson. However, the relationship with Jackson ended abruptly and Eslanda and Robeson stayed together, agreeing to an open marriage until her death on December 23, 1965. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pgs 162-163The Discovery of Africa The Robesons had one child, Paul Robeson Jr, born November 2, 1927. Paul Robeson Jr., who is multi-lingual like his father, lives in New York and has spent much of his life safeguarding his father's memory and restoring his father's legacy by founding The Robeson Family Archives and The Paul Robeson Foundation. Paul Robeson had two grandchildren, David Robeson (1951-1998†) and Susan Robeson (born in 1953). In 1980 Susan Robeson published a pictorial biography of her grandfather titled The Whole World in His Hands. Susan Robeson is a longtime community activist and documentary filmmaker. Career in entertainment In the 1920s, Robeson found fame as an actor and singing star of both stage and radio with his bass voice and commanding presence. He was one of the few true basses in American music, with his beautiful and powerful voice descending as low as C below the bass clef. In addition to his stage performances, his renditions of old spirituals were acclaimed; Robeson and his accompanist and arranger Lawrence Brown were the first to bring them to the concert stage. Paul Robeson also recorded over a hundred songs, making him the first black actor to act in roles that both had dignity and emphasized pride in African heritage. Paul Robeson with Uta Hagen in the Theatre Guild production of Othello. Early stage work and Eugene O'Neil His first roles were in 1922 playing Simon in Simon the Cyrenian at the Harlem YMCA and Jim in Taboo at the Sam Harris Theater in Harlem. Taboo was later re-named Vodoo. Robeson was acclaimed for his 1924 performance in the title role of Eugene O'Neill's The Emperor Jones—originally performed, also with great success, by Charles Gilpin in 1920. Robeson gained fame in his early career for his performance in All God's Chillun Got Wings in which he portrayed the black husband of an abusive white woman who, resenting her husband's skin color, destroys his promising career as a lawyer. He next played Crown in the stage version of DuBose Heyward's novel Porgy, which provided the basis for George and Ira Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess. Othello and Show Boat In 1930 Robeson starred in the title role in William Shakespeare's Othello in England, when no U.S. company would employ him for the part. Peggy Ashcroft co-starred as Desdemona. He would reprise the role in New York in 1943, and tour the U.S. with it until 1945. His Broadway run of Othello is still, as of 2009, the longest of any Shakespeare play. He won the Spingarn Medal in 1945 for his portrayal of Othello. For the Broadway production Uta Hagen played Desdemona, and José Ferrer played Iago. Robeson's final portrayal of Othello in 1959 at The Royal Shakespeare Company in Stratford-upon-Avon was directed by Tony Richardson and also proved to be his theatrical swan song. Robeson also played the role of Joe, which was written for him, in the 1928 London production of Show Boat, and repeated his performance in the 1932 Broadway revival of the show, the 1936 film version, and a 1940 Los Angeles stage production. His rendition of "Ol' Man River" is widely considered the definitive version of the song. Robeson sang the song as written whenever he appeared in a production of Show Boat, but in later recitals he made alterations to the lyrics to transform it from a song of black lament to one of defiance and perseverance. Robeson, Susan. A Pictorial Biography of Paul Robeson: The Whole World in His Hands, 1981, pg 37 While Show Boat was immensely popular with white audiences, black theater reviewers were less than impressed. J.A Rodgers of The Amsterdam News wrote in 1928 that he had spoken to "fully some thirty Negros of intelligence and self respect" who urged "their disapprobation of the play" and he had "heard many harsh things said against Robeson... if anyone had called him (Robeson) a 'nigger', he'd be the first to get offended and there he is singing 'nigger, nigger' before all these white people." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 114. He also played the role of Toussaint L'Ouverture in a 1936 play by C.L.R. James alongside the actor Robert Adams. Spirituals and concert singing During his days at Columbia Law School during the Harlem Renaissance Paul Robeson sang professionally but with little thought of pursuing a career in song. In 1922 Eubie Blake heard Robeson sing casually and encouraged him to appear in Blake's production of Shuffle Along. In 1924 when Robeson was unable to whistle for a performance in Taboo, he sang a spiritual instead pleasing both the cast and audiences. Robeson, Susan,The Whole World in His Hands: Paul Robeson a Pictorial Biography, 1981, pg 35. After briefly meeting accompanist and arranger Lawrence Brown in England during 1922, the two reconnected in 1924 and rapidly established a successful musical partnership. Robeson would credit Brown guiding him "...to the beauty of my own folk music and to the music of all other Peoples so like our own." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pgs 78-79 The Harlem Renaissance and the Spirituals Lawrence Brown, who had previously worked with the Gospel singer Roland Hayes, had an extensive repertoire of African-American folk songs. Both he and Robeson helped bring these to much wider attention both inside the U.S. and abroad. With Robeson's wife Eslanda arranging concert venues, Paul Robeson became a hugely popular concert draw in New York City with Carl Sandburg drawing a distinction between his interpretations of spirituals and Roland Hayes' stating that "Hayes imitates white culture... Robeson is the real thing... ." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pgs 80-81. Robeson also became interested in the folk music of the world; he came to be conversant with 20 languages, fluent or near fluent in 12. His standard repertoire after the 1920s included songs in many languages including languages as diverse as Chinese, Russian, Yiddish and German.) Through his renowned singing and his work with Lawrence Brown, Alan Booth and other accompanists, arrangers and producers, Paul Robeson went on to a lucrative concert, radio and recording career. But The Red Scare in 1949 brought his career to a halt. He was unable to perform in the U.S.; and his passport was revoked from 1950 to 1958 under the McCarran Act, which left him unable to travel overseas to perform. His 1958 concert at Carnegie Hall would prove his comeback. And, despite very ill heath, he sang the spiritual "We Are Climbing Jacob's Ladder" during his last major public appearance, which took place in April 1965, for a Freedomways Quarterly birthday celebration in his honor. From 1961 to 1985, a period of massive social change for African Americans, Freedomways Quarterly published the leaders and artists of the black freedom movement. Figures of towering historical stature wrote for Freedomways Quarterly, and Robeson was among them. Hollywood and international film career Robeson's earliest surviving film is 1924's Body and Soul a silent film directed by Oscar Micheaux in which Robeson played a preacher with a split personality. Between 1925 and 1942 Robeson appeared in eleven films—all but four of them British productions—after he and his wife moved to England in the late 1920s. For a total of nearly eleven years, he lived in England and paid taxes, with long periods away on singing tours, until the outbreak of World War II. Robeson's second film was the experimental classic Borderline. Shot in Switzerland in 1930 by a trio of avant garde artists known as the Pool Group, and co-starring his wife, Eslanda, the film chronicles race relations in a small European village. At the height of his popularity in the 1930s, Robeson became a major box office attraction in British films such as Song of Freedom and The Proud Valley. In 1933, he returned briefly to the U.S. where he reprised his title role in Dudley Murphy's film version of Eugene O'Neill's The Emperor Jones. The American version of The Emperor Jones was censored to leave out a dramatic scene featuring Robeson killing a white prison guard who had ordered his character to beat a fellow prisoner who had been caught escaping. It was the first time a black man was shown killing a white man on the big screen—and audiences in the U.S. were not permitted to see it. The 1936 Universal Pictures film Show Boat was a box office hit for Robeson, and the most frequently shown and highly acclaimed of all his films. His performance of "Ol' Man River" for this film was particularly notable. He was also King Umbopa in the 1937 version of King Solomon's Mines. In films such as Jericho and Proud Valley, he portrayed strong black American male leading roles. Robeson left Britain during the Second World War. It was later discovered that his name was in The Black Book, a Nazi document listing thousands of people living in Britain who were to be arrested following the successful completion of Operation Sealion. Ballad for Americans After a return from Europe in 1939, Robeson quickly became the voice of the nation when he performed American patriotic cantata with lyrics by John La Touche and music by Earl Robinson. Originally titled The Ballad for Uncle Sam, it was written for a Works Progress Administration theatre project called Sing for Your Supper. Online notes from 2005 Paul Robeson Conference at Lafayette College. Accessed 31 January 2006. Robeson performed "Ballad" on the CBS radio network in 1943, accompanied by chorus and orchestra. Bing Crosby would also record a commercially successful recording of the piece but the song is almost always associated with Robeson as it represents the pinnacle of his music and radio career prior to the Cold War. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 241. He sang Ballad for Americans at The Hollywood Bowl to the largest sold-out crowd in its history. International activism Paul Robeson spent many years abroad during his early career on stage and in concert. Eager to understand their struggle against poverty and harsh working conditions, he met with Welsh coal miners in the late 1920s. This led him to a greater political awareness transcending race and showing him that, ultimately, the struggles of oppressed people are due to inequities in the class structure of capitalism rather than any unwavering enmity of white for black people. In London, he became aware of the large body of knowledge on African history and culture that was not available in the United States. He became an unwavering supporter of the International Brigades and their struggle to liberate Spain from the fascist government of General Francisco Franco. The Welsh coal miners Robeson's association with Wales began in 1928 while he was performing in London in the musical Show Boat. There, he met a group of unemployed miners who had taken part in a "hunger march" from South Wales to protest their situation. During the 1930s, Robeson made several visits to Welsh coal mining regions to perform in Cardiff, Neath and Aberdare. Paul Robeson In 1934, he performed in Caernarfon to benefit the victims of a major disaster at Gresford Colliery, near Wrexham, where 264 miners died. http://www.caernarfononline.co.uk/wyddech_chi/pavilion2eng/index.htm Robeson remains a celebrated figure in Wales. The exhibit Let Paul Robeson Sing! was unveiled in Cardiff in 2001, then toured several Welsh towns and cities. Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru—National Library of Wales : Error A number of Welsh artists have celebrated Robeson's life: the Manic Street Preachers' song "Let Robeson Sing" appears on the album Know Your Enemy. The band also covered "Didn't My Lord Deliver Daniel?"— the spiritual sung by Robeson as part of his 1957 telephone performance to the Miners' Eisteddfod in Porthcawl during the eight year period from 1950 through 1958 when the U.S. government revoked his passport, which stopped him from traveling or performing overseas. The play Paul Robeson Knew My Father by Greg Cullen, set in the Rhondda during the 1950s, features a character with a childhood obsession for Robeson's music and films. Greg Cullen Web site Martyn Joseph's song "Proud Valley Boy" on his 2005 album Deep Blue is also based on Robeson's Welsh connections. In 1940, Robeson appeared in The Proud Valley, playing a black laborer who arrives in the Rhondda and wins the hearts of the local people. The Spanish Civil War Robeson toured Republican Spain during the Spanish Civil War and was photographed with members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, including its black commander Oliver Law. His repertoire included "Peat Bog Soldiers," which was popular with International Brigade volunteers and veterans alike. Robeson was among the first performers to sing in concert to U.S. troops during World War II. In 1938, he performed in front of an audience of 7,000 at the Welsh International Brigades National Memorial in Mountain Ash, to commemorate the 33 men from Wales killed while fighting on the side of the Republic in the Spanish Civil War. Paul Robeson's image is featured prominently in the only national historical monument dedicated to the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. The monument was unveiled on The Embarcadero in San Francisco in 2008. Anti-colonialist activism In London during the 1930s he met with African students who urged him to travel to the Soviet Union. Paul and Eslanda Robeson Eslanda were named honorary members of the West African Students' Union in London where they became acquainted with African students Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta, future presidents of Ghana and Kenya, respectively. In 1934 Robeson wrote of his desire to "be Africa" Foner, Phillip. Paul Robeson Speaks, 1978, pg 88. and continued to draw comparisons between oppressed peoples exploited in the colonial possessions of Western Europe and blacks in the United States abused by segregation and lynching. He was a prolific writer for leftist and progressive periodicals such as Freedomways Quaraterly for whom Nkrumah, Kenyatta, W. E. B. Du Bois and Martin Luther King Jr. also contributed. The Council on African Affairs A large aspect of Robeson's persecution by J. Edgar Hoover's FBI and the political right in the U.S. was, in part, due to his support for the Soviet Union, which was a cause célèbre among well-known artists and scientists during the 1930s and 1940s when the U.S. and the then Soviet Union were Allies. As soon as the war ended, the U.S. and Soviet Union became fierce competitors and the period of the Cold War between the two superpowers began. In the 1950s, McCarthyism and the Red Scare dominated the headlines, and any artist, scientist or academic who failed to denounce communism became unemployable. Robeson's support for the anti-racist qualities of the Soviet Union plus his dedication to freeing Africa from colonialism angered his critics, and in the long term, he paid with his career for his principles. In 1937, with Max Yergan, Paul Robeson founded the Council on African Affairs (CAA), the first major U.S. organization whose focus was on providing pertinent and up-to-date information about Africa across the United States, particularly to African Americans. During World War II, the Council functioned as a broad-based coalition that included a variety of activists, some of whom were associated with the Communist Party. Probably the most successful campaign of the Council was for South African famine relief in 1946. Members of the CAA were hopeful that following World War II, when Western Powers adopted new resolutions on the issue of colonialism, there would be a move towards Third World independence under the trusteeship of the United Nations. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 296-297. To the CAA's dismay, the United States introduced a series of proposals at the April-May 1945 conference that set no clear limits on the length of colonialist occupation and no motions towards allowing territorial possessions to move towards self government. Liberal supporters abandoned the CAA, and the Federal government of the United States cracked down on its operations. In 1953 the CAA was charged with subversion under the McCarran Act. Its principal leaders, including Robeson, Du Bois, and Hunton, were subjected to harassment, indictments, and in the case of Hunton, imprisonment. Under the weight of internal disputes, government repression, and financial hardships, the Council on African Affairs disbanded in 1955. Ardent involvement in the liberation of colonialist Africa was considered a threat to the US government. NAACP response The vilification of Robeson's work for African liberation reached its zenith when J. Edgar Hoover, with the help of the NAACP (and Roy Wilkins, editor of The Crisis, the official magazine of the NAACP), arranged for a ghost-written leaflet to be printed and distributed in Africa; it was called Paul Robeson: Lost Shepherd, Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 395. , and was penned under the false name of "Robert Alan", whom the NAACP claimed was a "well known New York journalist." Another article by Roy Wilkins, called "Stalin's Greatest Defeat", denounced Robeson as well as the Communist Party of the USA in terms consistent with the FBI's information. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 396. At the time of Robeson's widely misquoted Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 358. declaration at The Paris Peace Conference in 1946, that African Americans would not support the United States in a war with the Soviet Union because of their continued lynchings and second-class citizen status under law following World War II, Foner, Phillip. Paul Robeson Speaks, 1978, pg 197. Roy Wilkins stated that regardless of the number of lynchings that were occurring or would occur, Black America would always serve in the armed forces. Wilkins, Roy. Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins, pg 200-205. Response to apartheid in South Africa In 1952 Robeson wrote of "... the Union of South Africa and the savage racist oppression." Referencing the "... eight and a half million African victims, a million Cape Coloured, and a third of a million Indians who have solemnly determined that only by establishing a common front of united and resolute resistance can they escape enslavement by the fascist Malan regime." Foner, Phillip. Paul Robeson Speaks, 1978, pg 307. In July 1953, the Council on African Affairs drew up and forwarded a memorandum as an appeal to the UN Commission on Racial Discrimination in South Africa which had been set up in 1952 by the UN General Assembly. The long detailed memo attacked a spate of Malan-sponsored apartheid legislation including The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, The Bantu Authorities Act which created the legal basis for the deportation of blacks into designated homeland reserve areas, and The Asiatic Laws which repealed the already limited ability for Indians to own franchises, among many other acts that suppressed or eliminated minority rights. Robeson drew a comparison between apartheid in South Africa and Jim Crow in the southern United States. Foner, Phillip. Paul Robeson Speaks, 1978, pg 353. Ho Chi Minh and Vietnam In 1954, Paul Robeson contributed an article about Ho Chi Minh to the progressive journal Freedom, a periodical that first appeared in 1950 and which was promptly labeled a "Communist Front organization" by The FBI. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 392. In the piece entitled "Ho Chi Minh is the Toussaint Louverture of Indo-China", Robeson wrote that "Vast quantities of U.S. bombers, tanks and guns have been sent against Ho Chi Minh and his freedom-fighters; and now we are told that soon it will be 'advisable' to send America GI's into Indo-China in order that the tin, rubber and tungsten of Southeast Asia be kept by the "free world"-meaning white Imperialism." Foner, Phillip. Paul Robeson Speaks, 1978, pg 378. Robeson also accused the black community's leaders of staying "too silent", and urged that blacks had a specific need to understand the crucial parallels between the previous French colonial empire domination of Haiti, and France's current inability to retain colonial domination over Vietnam. One of his last public statements in the mid-1970s would congratulate the peoples of Vietnam for once again "turning back an Imperialist aggressor." Labor movement and trade union activism From 1927 to 1939, while continuing his professional singing and acting career, Robeson was active in the British Labor Movement, and was involved with the struggles of the workers of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. He performed for them on numerous occasions, going down into the pits with the miners to see their working conditions and breaking bread with them and their families. Returning to England in 1949, he stated that his earlier time there had a profound influence on his political development Wright, Charles. Paul Robeson: Labors' Forgotten Champion, 1984, pgs 50-51. : "I learned my militancy and my politics, from your Labor Movement here in Britain.... That was how I realized that the fight of my Negro people in America and the fight of oppressed workers everywhere was the same struggle." In the United States as in England, Robeson would enjoy long friendship and honorary status with many unions, for his tireless devotion to their causes and his unwavering ability to be on the picket lines showing support. He was given honorary memberships in United Auto Workers Local 453, Fur and Leather Workers Union, and the Transport Workers Union. His belief that the Labor Movement and trade unionism were crucial to the civil rights of oppressed people everywhere was challenged by some discouraging realities Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 249-250. : many unions at the time were still characterized by racism. Robeson's close friend, the union activist Revels Cayton, would play a central role in pressing for "black caucuses" within in each union, with Robeson's encouragement and involvement. Congressional statement by Jackie Robinson At an international student peace conference held in Paris on April 20, 1949, Robeson made widely-referenced and controversial comments to the effect that American blacks would not support the United States in a post-World War II Cold War with the Soviet Union, due to continued second-class citizen status under United States law. page 197, "Address to The Paris Peace Conference" This subsequent controversy caused the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) to investigate Robeson and his alleged Communist sympathies. page 358, "The Paris Speech and After." HUAC sought Jackie Robinson's testimony on the subject. Robinson was reluctant to testify to HUAC on these matters, in part because of Robeson's prior advocacy on behalf of integration in professional baseball. Among other things, at the annual winter meeting of baseball owners in December 1943, Robeson became the first black man to address baseball owners on the subject of integration. At this meeting, Robeson argued that baseball, as a national game, had an obligation to ensure segregation did not become a national pattern. The owners gave Robeson a round of applause and, after the meeting, Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis remarked that there was no rule on the books denying blacks entry into the league. Tygiel. As such, Robeson had done much to pave the way for Jackie Robinson's entry into major league baseball just over four years later. Robinson. "Breaking The Color Barrier." I Never Had It Made. p. 53. In July 1949, Robinson eventually agreed to testify before HUAC, fearing that declining to do so might negatively and permanently damage his career. pages 361-62, "The Right to Travel." His testimony was a major media event, with Robinson's carefully-worded statement appearing on the front page of The New York Times the following day. In the statement – prepared with the help of Branch Rickey, who in order to facilitate the testimony, released Robinson from a prior agreement not to make any political statements during his baseball career page 194. – Robinson said that Robeson “has a right to his personal views, and if he wants to sound silly when he expresses them in public, that is his business and not mine . . . . He’s still a famous ex-athlete and a great singer and actor.” Robinson also stated that "the fact that it is a Communist who denounces injustice in the courts, police brutality, and lynching when it happens doesn't change the truth of his charges," and that racial discrimination is not "a creation of Communist imagination." Robinson left the capital immediately after his testimony to avoid, as the black newspaper New Age, pointed out, "being Jim Crowed by Washington's infamous lily-white hotels." While Robeson considered Robinson's testimony a "disservice" to the black community, he declined to comment on Robinson personally: "I am not going to permit the issue to boil down to a personal feud between me and Jackie. To do that, would be to do exactly what the other group wants us to do." page 219, "Let's Not Be Divided" Jackie Robinson appreciated Robeson's restraint, and eventually grew in greater admiration for Robeson. Near the end of his life, Robinson wrote in his autobiography about the incident: However, in those days I had much more faith in the ultimate justice of the American white man than I have today. I would reject such an invitation if offered now . . . . I have grown wiser and closer to the painful truths about America’s destructiveness. And I do have increased respect for Paul Robeson who, over the span of twenty years, sacrificed himself, his career, and the wealth and comfort he once enjoyed because, I believe, he was sincerely trying to help his people. Robinson In general, Robinson's testimony placated Americans worried about the threat of Communism, and reaction in the mainstream press was positive, including an article by Eleanor Roosevelt in which she wrote, "Mr. Robeson does his people great harm in trying to line them up on the Communist side of political picture. Jackie Robinson helped them greatly by his forthright statements." Reaction in the black press was mixed. The New York Amsterdam News was supportive, saying that "Jackie Robinson had batted 1,000 percent in this game," but the black newspaper Afro-American ran a disparaging cartoon depicting Jackie Robinson as a frightened little boy with a gun vainly attempting to "hunt" Robeson. Come 1963, Black Muslim Minister Malcolm X would allude harshly to Jackie Robinson's potentially damning testimony on the matter of Paul Robeson, after Robinson himself had issued public rebukes of various Black Muslim doctrinal practices & political activities. The Soviet Union and the Communist Party Following Paul Robeson's first trip to Russia in late 1934, he became an ardent lover of not just the Soviet Union's socialist experiment and its culture and history, but of the Russian peoples. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 190. Robeson became fluent in Russian, studied Russian history in depth, learned about the many national minorities (eg: Yakuts, Uzbeks and Tartars) and wrote numerous essays and articles demonstrating his deeply held beliefs that the US should seek peace and understanding with Soviet Russia. He also felt African-Americans showed many similarities to the Russian peoples. White supremacist and anti-civil rights members of the US Government (e.g., Martin Dies and Theodore Bilbo) and anti-Communist members of the US intelligence community, especially J. Edgar Hoover, were able to take Robeson's unwavering devotion to the people of the Soviet Union and Russian culture and attach it to his other causes. Anti-lynching legislation and African independence were already being given a Pinko label. The US government was able to attach Robeson's socialist views to these civil rights causes, effectively frightening many of the trade unions and mainstream African American political community, including the NAACP, away from him. Tenney and House Un-American Activities Committees On October 7, 1946, Robeson testified before the Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities in California (Tenney Committee) that he was not a Communist Party member. Contrary to popular belief, he has never been identified as a card-carrying or official member of any Communist organization, despite his unwavering support of socialism, domestically and internationally. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 307. Ten years later, in 1956, Robeson was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) after he refused to sign an affidavit affirming that he was not a Communist. In response to questions concerning his alleged Communist Party membership, Robeson reminded the Committee that the Communist Party was a legal party and invited its members to join him in the voting booth before he invoked the Fifth Amendment and refused to respond. Robeson lambasted Committee members on civil rights issues concerning African-Americans. When one senator asked him why he hadn't remained in the Soviet Union, he replied, "Because my father was a slave, and my people died to build this country, and I am going to stay here, and have a part of it just like you. And no Fascist-minded people will drive me from it. Is that clear? I am for peace with the Soviet Union, and I am for peace with China, and I am not for peace or friendship with the Fascist Franco, and I am not for peace with Fascist Nazi Germans. I am for peace with decent people." Stalin Robeson is often criticized for accepting the Stalin Peace Prize and continuing to support the Soviet Union and not formally denouncing Stalin, despite conflicting accounts that show his awareness of state-sponsored intimidation and murder. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pgs 354</ref> In his testimony to HUAC, he stated that, "I have told you, mister, that I would not discuss anything with the people who have murdered sixty million of my people, and I will not discuss Stalin with you." And "I will discuss Stalin when I may be among the Russian people some day, singing for them, I will discuss it there. It is their problem." Asked if he had praised Stalin during his previous trip to the Soviet Union, Robeson replied, "I do not know." When asked outright if he had changed his mind about Stalin he implored, "Whatever has happened to Stalin, gentlemen, is a question for the Soviet Union, and I would not argue with a representative of the people who, in building America, wasted sixty to a hundred million lives of my people, black people drawn from Africa on the plantations. You are responsible, and your forebears, for sixty million to one hundred million black people dying in the slave ships and on the plantations, and don’t ask me about anybody, please." http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6440/"You Are the Un-Americans, and You Ought to be Ashamed of Yourselves": Paul Robeson Appears Before HUACretrieved March 2nd 2009" Robeson's defense of socialism Having experienced firsthand during the 1930s a climate in Russia that he perceived as free from racial prejudice and then to see no western country or superpower actively attempt any comparable commitment to the rights of minorities or blacks, Robeson indefatigably refused any pressure to publicly censure the Soviet experiment. In his opinion, the existence of the USSR was the guarantee of political balance in the world.<ref>Foner,Phillip.Paul Robeson Speaks:The Negro and The Soviet Union, 1978,pgs 237 A large number of Robeson biographers, including Martin Duberman, Philip S Foner, Marie Seton, Paul Robeson Jr and Lloyd Brown also concur with Robeson's own words, that he felt that criticism of the Soviet Union by someone of his immense international popularity would only serve to shore up reactionary elements in the U.S., the same elements that had lifted his passport, blocked anti-lynching legislation, and maintained a racial climate in the United States that also allowed Jim Crow, impoverished living conditions for all races and a white supremacist domination of the US government to continue. Robeson is on record many times as stating that he felt the existence of a major socialist power like the USSR was a bulwark against Western European capitalist domination of Africa, Asia and the Caribbean. At no time during his retirement (or his life) is Paul Robeson on record of mentioning any unhappiness or regrets about his beliefs in socialism or his unwavering devotion for the Soviet Union Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, chapters "Broken Health" and "Attempted Renewal". Paul Robeson's experiences in the USSR continue to cause controversy among historians and scholars as well as fans and journalists. U.S. civil rights stances and reactions Robeson spoke out against racist conditions experienced by Asian and Black Americans; he condemned segregation in both the North and the South. In particular, Robeson spoke out against Lynching in the United States and, in 1946, he founded the American Crusade Against Lynching. "We Charge Genocide" Robeson worked tirelessly for civil rights within the confines of the US despite being barred from traveling internationally, including the bringing to the United Nations in 1951 the document "We Charge Genocide". The document asserted that the U.S. federal government, by its failure to act against lynching in the United States, was guilty of genocide under Article II of the UN Genocide Convention. Hundreds of executions were documented in the petition in the section Evidence. (Although the petition states that there were at least 10,000 African Americans who had been executed, the real number will never be known because these incidents were never properly documented or recorded.) The petition also describes conspiracy against African Americans by inhibiting their ability to vote through poll taxes and literacy tests. The Progressive Party In 1948, Robeson was active in the presidential campaign to elect Progressive Party candidate Henry A. Wallace, who had served as Secretary of Agriculture, Vice President, and Secretary of Commerce in the administrations of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. On the campaign trail in June of that year, Robeson went to Georgia, where he sang before "overflow audiences... in Negro churches in Atlanta and Macon." The Atlanta Journal 6/21/48 Trotskyists Paul Robeson's staunch support of communist Russia also saw him on one occasion speak out harshly against the civil liberties of international socialists at odds with the Soviet Union. At a Bill of Rights Conference in New York City in July 1949, a resolution was introduced calling for the freeing all 19 Trotskyists convicted in 1941 under the provisions of the Smith Act, being used at that time against the leaders of the CPUSA. Robeson gave a speech denouncing this idea, saying that the imprisoned Socialist Workers Party members were “the allies of Fascism who want to destroy the new democracies of the world. Let’s not get confused, they are the enemies of the working class. Would you give civil rights to the Ku Klux Klan?" Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, "The Paris Speech and After" Peekskill Riots In 1949, a popular concert by Robeson in Peekskill, New York to benefit the Civil Rights Congress resulted in the Peekskill Riots caused by anti-Communist and anti-civil rights members of local Veterans of Foreign Wars and American Legion chapters and also by local residents. Robeson, Susan. Paul Robeson:The whole World in His HandsChapter 5,The Politics of Persecution,pg.181 The concert, organized as a benefit for the Civil Rights Congress, was scheduled to take place on August 27 in Lakeland Acres, just north of Peekskill. Before Robeson arrived, a mob of locals attacked concert-goers with baseball bats and rocks. Thirteen people were seriously injured before the police intervened. The concert was postponed until September 4. Ford, Carin T. Paul Robeson:I Want to Make Freedom Ring, pgs.97-98 Chapter 9, 2008. Robeson drove with longtime friend and Peekskill resident, Rosen and two others to the concert site and saw marauding groups of protesters, a burning cross on a nearby hill and a jeering crowd throwing rocks chanting "Dirty Commie" and "Dirty Kikes." Duberman, Martin. Paul RobesonPeekskill,pg.365 Paul Robeson made more than one attempt to get out of the car and confront the mob but was restrained by his friends. Ford, Carin T. Paul Robeson:I Want to Make Freedom Ring,pgs.97-98 Chapter9 2008. Following a very large meeting of local citizens, union members and Robeson supporters who formed "The Westchester Committee for Law and Order", it was unanimously determined that Robeson should be invited back to perform at Peekskill. Representatives from various left wing unions-the Fur and leather workers, the Longshoremen and the United Electrical Workers- all agreed to converge and serve as a wall of defense around the concert grounds. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, Peekskill, pg. 366 The rescheduled event on September 4, 1949 was attended by 20,000 people and went off without incident but after the concert, a violent mob (all caught on film by the press) chanting "Go back to Russia you white Niggers" and "Dirty Kikes", threw rocks through the windshields of cars and buses, injuring 140 people. Standing off the angry mob of rioters, some of the concertgoers, and union members, along with writer Howard Fast and others assembled a non-violent line of resistance, locked arms, and sang the song "We Shall Not Be Moved." Some people were reportedly dragged from their vehicles and beaten. Over 140 people were injured and numerous vehicles were severely damaged as police stood by. Seeger, Pete. in Brave Nation video "Police inaction, at 10:00 minutes in." Following the riots, more than 300 Robeson supporters went to Albany to voice their indignation to Governor Thomas Dewey, who refused to meet with them, blaming "Communists for provoking the violence." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, Peekskill, pgs.371-372 Twenty-seven plaintiffs filed a civil suit against Westchester County and two veterans groups. The charges were dismissed three years later. Paul Robeson called the actions of the New York state troopers, who were caught on film beating concert goers, including World War I veteran and first decorated Black aviator, Eugene Bullard, as "Fascist stormtroopers who will knock down and club anyone who disagrees with them" Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, Notes on Sources pgs.695 Graphic photos of Eugene Bullard being beaten by two policeman, a state trooper and concert goer, were later published in Susan Robeson's pictorial biography of her grandfather, "The Whole World in His Hands: a Pictorial Biography of Paul Robeson. Robeson, Susan. Paul Robeson:The whole World in His Hands, Chapter 5, The Politics of Persecution, pg.182-183 Passport ban and media isolation In March 1950, NBC canceled Robeson’s scheduled appearance on former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt’s television program, Today with Mrs. Roosevelt. A spokesman for NBC declared that Robeson would "never appear on NBC." Press releases of the Civil Rights Congress objected that "censorship of Mr. Robeson's appearance on TV is a crude attempt to silence the outstanding spokesman for the Negro people in their fight for civil and human rights" and that our "basic democratic rights are under attack under the smoke-screen of anti-Communism." Protesters picketed NBC offices and protests arrived from numerous public figures, organizations and others. /Chronology_6.htm#March,%201950 Paul Robeson Chronology In 1976, following Robeson's death, NBC approched Paul Robeson, Jr. asking permission to create a three hour documentary on his father, an offer which was swiftly turned down. Robeson, Jr. felt that it was an offensive request given their previous treatment of his father during his lifetime. Editors of Freedomways. Paul Robeson:The Great Forerunner, Bibliography, Magazine and newspaper articles, pg.377, pg.182-183 Because of the controversy surrounding him, Paul Robeson's recordings and films lost mainstream distribution. During the height of the Cold War it became increasingly difficult in the United States to hear Robeson sing on commercial radio, or to see any of his films, including the acclaimed 1936 version of Show Boat. Passport ban In 1950 the State Department denied Robeson a passport and issued a "stop notice" at all ports, effectively confining him to the United States. When Robeson and his lawyers met with officials at the State Department on August 23, 1950 and asked why it was "detrimental to the interests of the United States Government" for him to travel abroad, they were told that "his frequent criticism of the treatment of blacks in the United States should not be aired in foreign countries"—it was a "family affair." Duberman, p. 389 When Robeson inquired about being re-issued a passport, the State Department declined, citing Robeson’s refusal to sign a statement guaranteeing not to give any speeches while outside the U.S. Robeson's passport revocation was similar to that of other individuals that the State Department deemed pro-Soviet, including the writers Howard Fast and Albert E. Kahn, W. E. B. Du Bois and Richard Morford, who headed the National Council of America-Soviet Friendship. In a symbolic act of defiance against the travel ban, labor unions in the U.S. and Canada organized a concert at the International Peace Arch on the border between Washington state and the Canadian province of British Columbia on May 18, 1952. Duberman, p. 400 Paul Robeson stood on the back of a flat bed truck on the American side of the U.S.-Canada border and performed a concert for a crowd on the Canadian side, variously estimated at between 20,000 and 40,000 people. Robeson returned to perform a second concert at the Peace Arch in 1953, Duberman p. 411 and over the next two years two further concerts were scheduled. (Officially, the travel ban did not prevent Robeson from entering Canada, as travel across the Canada-United States border did not require a passport, but the State Department directly intervened to block Robeson from traveling to Canada.) In 1956, Robeson left the United States for the first time since the travel ban was imposed, performing concerts in two Canadian cities, Sudbury and Toronto, in March of that year. The travel ban ended in 1958 when Robeson’s passport was returned to him. Stamp issued by East Germany in 1983 to honor Paul Robeson. Return to Europe Robeson's only book, Here I Stand, was published by a British publishing company in 1958. Later, in May 1958, his passport was finally restored and he was able to travel again, after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled, in Kent vs. Dulles, that the Secretary of State had no right to deny a passport or require any citizen to sign an affidavit because of his political beliefs. Duberman, p. 463 Also that year, Robeson's 60th birthday was celebrated in several US cities and twenty-seven countries across Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa, as well as in the Soviet Union. Paul Robeson Chronology. In particular, in the USSR he visited Young Pioneer camp Artek with his wife Eslanda and performed in concert there on September 6, 1958. The International Children Center Artek Timeline - the 1950s As part of his "comeback", he gave two sold-out recitals that month in Carnegie Hall, which were released on LP and later on CD. They would be his only stereo recordings. Final performance of Othello In the late 1950s, Robeson moved to the United Kingdom and traveled extensively. He spent five years touring the world, playing Othello again in Tony Richardson's 1959 production at Stratford-upon-Avon, and singing throughout Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. On his visit to England he befriended actor Andrew Faulds and inspired him to take up a career in politics. He had health problems during his travels, and spent some time in Russian and East German hospitals. Health breakdown and CIA neutralizing claims Paul Robeson's severe health problems in later life has been a subject of much controversy and rumor. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 500-501Broken Health. In 1955 at the age of fifty-eight years old, during the height of his troubles with the passport ban, Robeson was hospitalized for a difficult prostate operation. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 438-439. Prior to the operation he expressed to Paul Robeson Jr fear of what might "be done" to him by the US Government. Robeson's recovery would be a lengthy one and coupled with other setbacks. Robeson first became manic with energy, obsessing daily over the pentatonic scale and the connectedness of universal music theory lapsing eventually into a withdrawn depressive state where he saw virtually no one. Robeson's doctor felt there were deep psychological issues brought on by the combined stress of his prostate surgery and government harassment but also that there may have been the early onset of arteriosclerosis, a disease that would a contributing factor to his retirement in 1963. In regards to the rumors that the United States Intelligence Community was a contributing factor to his father's decline in health, Paul Robeson Jr, has worked vociferously for over four decades to prove that his father was neutralized by the CIA and MI5 during his last stay in Europe from 1961 to 1963. Martin Duberman, one of Robeson's premier biographers, has not wholly discounted his claims but was not as a biographer, able to obtain enough evidence in his own voluminous research to either prove or disprove Paul Robeson Jr's theory. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 498-499. And that the issue must remain unexplained until the release of all pertinent material. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 564. However, this may never be possible as the FBI lawyers told Martin Duberman's attorney in the 1980s, in an alleged mocking tone, that "some 56 volumes (out of a probable 103) in the Robeson file of the New York Field Office had "unaccountably disappeared." Moscow hospitalization In spring of 1961, Robeson attempted suicide in a Moscow hotel room during an uncharacteristically wild party that was spontaneously thrown for him by what turned out to be anonymous strangers and anti-Soviets. His son claims the suicide attempt was precipitated by a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agent who placed some synthetic hallucinogens into his drink under a covert program called MK Ultra. Rhodes, Tom. "US Poisoned Paul Robeson with Mind-Bending Drug", The Times of London, 1998. Paul Robeson Jr. visited his father in the Moscow hospital three days after the suicide attempt. Robeson told his son that he felt extreme paranoia and thought that the walls of the room were moving. He said he had locked himself in his bedroom and was overcome by a powerful sense of emptiness and depression before he tried to take his own life. Paul Robeson Jr then hounded Soviet Officials to find out who had been present at the party, how near was Robeson to death and if the doctors had found any hallucinogenic drugs in his father's blood. Most of his questions would never be answered and nearly two weeks later Paul Robeson Jr found himself also feeling similar horrific hallucinogenic suicidal symptoms which he says have never repeated themselves before or since, leading him to believe that he too was drugged. Paul Robeson and his son recovered, with Paul Robeson staying at the Barvikha Sanatorium for a prolonged period of rest. Paul Robeson Jr recalled the incident 38 years later: My father manifested no depressive symptoms at the time, and when my mother and I spoke to him in the hospital soon after his “suicide” attempt, he was lucid and able to recount his experience clearly. The party in his suite had been imposed on him under false pretenses, by people he knew but without the knowledge of his official hosts. By the time he realized this, his suite had been invaded by a variety of anti-Soviet people whose behavior had become so raucous that he locked himself in his bedroom. His description of that setting, I later came to learn, matched the conditions prescribed by the CIA for drugging an unsuspecting victim, and the physical psychological symptoms he experienced matched those of an LSD trip." Robeson, Paul Jr. The Paul Robeson Files, The Nation, 1999. Electro-convulsive treatment at The Priory Robeson recovered and left Moscow for London early September 1961, where he again became rapidly depressed and suicidal. He was immediately admitted to The Priory Hospital. There he was turned over to psychiatrists who started him on a course of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) 36 hours after his arrival without consulting his previous physicians in the USSR and without offering any combined psychotherapy or antidepressant drug therapy. The electro-shock treatments would eventually reach 54 rounds, a number his son called "criminal by any standards then or now." Doctors at the time felt his condition was too acute to risk waiting for treatment. According to The Priory doctors and close friends, the ECT treatments that Robeson was given did help in the short term but yielded no cumulative effects to his mental health. FBI, MI5 and MI6 surveillance in Britain Both the United States Intelligence Community and British Intelligence were well aware of Robeson's suicidal state of mind. In an FBI memo dated "April 7th, 1961", agents described Robeson's debilitated condition, remarking that his "death would be much publicized" and that his name would be "useful in propagandizing the on behalf of the Intentional Communist community." They agreed to continue to their ceaseless surveillance. They also stated in numerous memos that Robeson should be denied a passport renewal which would ostensibly jeopardize his fragile health and the recovery process he was engaged in overseas. Duberman writes, "No evidence has come to light suggesting that the agencies of the US government were complicitous-as his son (Paul Robeson Jr) has long maintained was probable-in the breakdown of Robeson's health but once it did deteriorate, they proved perfectly willing to assist in its further decline." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 509. Following World War II, MI5 set up a special department to "study negro political movements" in the British Empire near the end of the war, according to Colonial Office files released on March 6, 2003. The file shows that the security services were alarmed by growing links between the then embryonic American civil rights movement and black anti-colonial politicians in the British Caribbean and West Africa. Travis, Alan. "Paul Robeson Was Tracked by MI5", The Guardian, 7 March 2003. The files in 2003 and additional material released in March 2, 2005 revealed MI6 tracked Robeson, as a key figure in the movement especially in May 1945 he appealed for $40,000 as chairman of the American Council on African Affairs. Colonel Valentine Vivian, the head of MI6, complained that the Council on African Affairs had Communist links and was constantly making ill-informed complaints about British administration. The additional files also stated that Robeson was being monitored during his years in London including during his treatment at The Priory. Devine, David. "MI5 tracked Robeson amid communist fears", Wales Online, 7 March, 2003. FBI status of health files and CIA theory Robeson's frequent trips to the Soviet Union led to his being investigated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) under J. Edgar Hoover. Robeson was under surveillance by the FBI from 1941 to 1974, when the Bureau decided that "no further investigation [of Robeson] was warranted." FBI File on Paul Robeson At the time of his hospitalization in 1961, electro-shock, in combination with psycho-active drugs, was a favored technique of CIA behavior modification. It eventually became public record that the doctors treating Robeson in London and, later, in New York were CIA contractors. "Did the U.S. Government Drug Paul Robeson?" Democracy Now, July 6, 1999 Furthermore, Freedom of Information documents show that the FBI and the CIA knew of his planned visits to China, India and Cuba. His embrace of Fidel Castro in Havana would have seriously undermined U.S. efforts to overthrow the new Cuban government. FBI New York "100-25857-4531" Paul Robeson FBI Files, April 3, 1961 Another pressing concern for the U.S. government at the time was Robeson's announced intentions to return to the United States and assume a leading role in the emerging civil rights movement. Like the family of Martin Luther King, Robeson had been under official surveillance for decades. As early as 1935, British intelligence had been looking at Robeson's activities. In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services, the World War II predecessor to the CIA, opened a file on him. Robeson, Jr. has been attempting for over thirty years to have the U.S., Russia and Great Britain release classified documents regarding his father. He feels his most illuminating discovery is an FBI "status of health" report on Robeson created in April 1961. "The fact that such a file was opened at all is sinister in itself," Robeson told the London Sunday Times in 1998. "It indicates a degree of prior knowledge that something was about to happen to him." Martin Duberman's theory Robeson biographer Martin Duberman posits that given the most available evidence, Paul Robeson's health breakdown was brought on most likely by a combination of factors including but not limited to: extreme emotional and physical stress from being under intense surveillance for over twenty years. Bipolar depression from being blacklisted and isolated from his friends and livelihood. Extreme exhaustion and the beginning of circulatory and heart problems. Duberman writes: "...even without an organic predisposition and accumulated pressures of government harassment he might have been susceptible to a breakdown..." But also that, after initiating a lawsuit against the FBI for further information on Robeson's physical and emotional collapse and receiving little more than "inked out reports" and a unique and still unexplained, according to his attorney Ed Greer, FBI] "Status of Health" file on Robeson, "the issue must be considered unresolved." Recovery in East Germany Disturbed over his treatment at The Priory friends of Robeson had him transferred to The Buch Clinic in East Berlin. The physicians found him "completely without initiative" and they expressed "doubt and anger" about the "high level of barbiturates and ECT that had been administered during his stay at The Priory. They also discovered that he had heart and liver problems consistent with his age and stopped the heavy doses of the sedatives prescribed at The Priory. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 516. Robeson rapidly improved and was given intensive psychotherapy Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 517. ,though his doctor stressed that "what little is left of Paul's health must be quietly conserved." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 518. With the blessing of his doctors Paul Robeson eventually returned to the United States in 1963 to retire, but for the remainder of his life he would be plagued by ill health nearly dying from double pneumonia and a kidney blockage in 1965. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 537. Final years After a few scattered public appearances, including a brief tour that saw him fall seriously ill from exhaustion and an attempt in 1965 to live with his son and daughter in-law in New York City, Robeson settled at his sister Marian Robeson's home in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Turner, Charlotte. Paul Robeson: His Last Days in Philadelphia, 1986. He saw few visitors aside from very close friends and gave few statements apart from very brief messages to support current civil rights and international movements feeling that his record "spoke for itself." Contrary to many mainstream media rumors, numerous friends and biographers have reported that Robeson was not a "bitter recluse", he had simply decided to lead a very quiet life. Turner, Charlotte. Paul Robeson: His Last Days in Philadelphia, 1986, pg 100. Foner, Phillip S. Paul Robeson Speaks 1978, pg 246 Despite Robeson's retirement from public life there were many accolades and celebrations for Robeson both in the U.S. and internationally. Many of awards and honors transpired in public arenas that had previously shunned him during the Cold War including Rutgers University which held a symposium on his life in 1975 and the Black Sports Hall of Fame cited him for his athletic record. Paul Robeson also finally received praise from the next generation of civil rights activists via a dinner in his honor given by Freedomways, a progressive journal, in April 1965. It would be his last major public appearance. In 1974 Robeson was the first recipient of the Paul Robeson Award established by the Actors' Equity Association. Robeson was unable to attend and his message accepting the award was his final public statement. Foner, Phillip S. Paul Robeson Speaks 1978, pg 46 70th birthday celebration Elaborate events were held all over the world in honor of Paul Robeson's 70th birthday including a three day celebration in East Germany. There was also an evening of music and poetry in London at the Royal Festival Hall featuring Mary Ure, Peggy Ashcroft, Peter O'Toole and Michael Redgrave. In Moscow speakers included the writer Boris Nikolaevich Polevoy and the poet Mikhail Kotov. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 542. The black commission of CPUSA celebration remarked that "The white power structure has generated a conspiracy of silence around Paul Robeson. It wants to blot out all knowledge of this pioneering Black American warrior...' 75th birthday celebration Over 3,000 people gathered in Carnegie Hall to salute Robeson's 75th birthday in 1973, including Attorney General Ramsey Clark, Pete Seeger, Angela Davis, Dolores Huerta, Dizzy Gillespie, Odetta, Leon Bibb, Sidney Poitier, Harry Belafonte (who also produced the show), James Earl Jones, Zero Mostel, Roscoe Lee Browne, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, and Coretta Scott King; birthday greetings arrived from President Julius K. Nyerere of Tanzania, Prime Minister Michael Manley of Jamaica, President Cheddi Jagan of Guyana, President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Indira Gandhi, Arthur Ashe, Linus Pauling, Judge George W. Crockett, Leonard Bernstein and the African National Congress. Robeson was unable to attend because of illness, but a taped message from him was played which said in part, "Though I have not been able to be active for several years, I want you to know that I am the same Paul, dedicated as ever to the worldwide cause of humanity for freedom, peace and brotherhood." Death and funeral service On January 23, 1976, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the age of 77, Paul Robeson died of a stroke following "complications from a "severe cerebral vascular disorder." Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 548. He lay in state for a viewing at Benta's Funeral Home in Harlem for two days. His granddaughter, Susan Robeson, recalled "...watching this parade of humanity who came to pay their respects...from the numbers runner on the corner to Gustaf VI Adolf King of Sweden." Robeson, Susan. A Pictorial Biography of Paul Robeson: The Whole World in His Hands, 1981, pg 236-237. Condolences came from around the world including Coretta Scott King who deplored "America's inexcusable treatment" of a man who had had "the courage to point out her injustices." The white press, after decades of isolating and harassing Robeson carefully paid their respects while playing down the racist component central to his persecution during the Cold War. The black press, who at times had also been nearly as harsh as the mainstream white press, universally celebrated Robeson with The Amsterdam News eulogizing him as "Gulliver among the Lilliputians," his life that would "always be a challenge and a reproach to white and Black America." On January 27, 1976, two thousand five hundred people attended Paul Robeson's funeral at Mother AME Zion Church in Harlem where Robeson's brother Ben had been pastor for 27 years. Duberman, Martin. Paul Robeson, 1989, pg 549. Thousands more, mostly African Americans, stood outside, in freezing rain, throughout the service, listening on the public address system, as speaker after speaker including Harry Belafonte paid tribute to Robeson for his integrity and tremendous courage in the face of extreme adversity. Also in attendance were Uta Hagen, Betty Shabazz, Henry Winston of the CPUSA, Eubie Blake and Paul Robeson Jr who described his father as "great and gentle warrior." Robeson was cremated and his ashes were interred in the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York with a grave marker that states "The Artist Must Fight For Freedom Or Slavery. I Made My Choice. I Had No Alternative". Legacy and selected posthumous honors After his, death Paul Robeson has continued to be revered and celebrated throughout the world especially during his centennial year of 1998. Listings of Robeson posthumous recognitions and events from 1976 until the present day number in the thousands. Paul Robeson Chronology The most recent major event was the January 2009, "50th Anniversary of Othello" at The Royal Shakespeare Company in Stratford-upon-Avon which featured a revival of Othello set in the 1950s, "A Slave's Son at Stratford", an exhibit on Robeson's work at RSC and "I have done the state some service: Othello, Robeson and the FBI", a panel discussion. The first memorial following Robeson's 1976 funeral was a tribute held in US House of Representatives January 28, 1976. Throughout 1976 memorials were held at Rutgers; The World Peace Council in Athens, Greece; Columbia University, New York City; Toronto; Shiloh Baptist Church in Washington, D.C.; and by Actor's Equity in Los Angeles. On October 8, 1976, Artist's Tribute to the Life of Paul Robeson, was held at Carnegie Hall, as a benefit for the Paul Robeson Archive. Sidney Poitier proclaimed, "When Paul Robeson died, it marked the passing of a magnificent giant whose presence among us conferred nobility upon us all..." Beginning in 1978, Paul Robeson's films were finally shown again on American television, with Show Boat making its cable television debut in 1983. In recent years, all of Robeson's films have appeared on Turner Classic Movies. In the 1970s and 1980s three buildings on the Rutgers University campus were named in his honor, including the library at Rutgers Camden Campus Paul Robeson Library at the Camden Campus of Rutgers University. and the West Philadelphia house that he resided in for the last ten years of his life is now a museum and historical monument. Paul Robeson House :: gophila.com - The Official Visitor Site for Greater Philadelphia On January 18, 1995 after five decades of exclusion for political reasons, Paul Robeson was finally inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, in a step taken by the National Football Foundation which many called "long-overdue". During the centenary of Paul Robeson's birth in 1998, around the world, over four hundred celebrations took place with over twenty Robeson centennial events held in the Bay Area alone. In the mass media there was broad recognition of Paul Robeson, through numerous film showings, musical and educational programs, art exhibitions, a two-hour PBS documentary, as well as the presentation of the Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Paul Robeson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8. And in 2004, after nearly a decade of intense lobbying and petitioning of the United States Postal Services' citizens stamp advisory board, Paul Robeson was finally featured on a US postage stamp.The Paul Robeson Commemorative Postage Stamp is the 27th stamp in the Black Heritage Series.The national Stamp Unveiling Ceremony was held on January 20, 2004 at Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, Robeson’s birthplace, with Paul Robeson, Jr. participating. Paul Robeson Postage Stamp ::retrieved February 19 2009 Filmography Body and Soul (1924) Camille (1926) Borderline (1930) The Emperor Jones (1933) Sanders of the River (1935) Show Boat (1936) Song of Freedom (1936) Big Fella (1937) My Song Goes Forth (1937) King Solomon's Mines (1937) Jericho/Dark Sands (1937) The Proud Valley (1940) Native Land (1942) Tales of Manhattan (1942) The Song of the Rivers (1954) The Tallest Tree in Our Forest (1977) Paul Robeson: Tribute to an Artist (1979) Paul Robeson: Speak of Me As I Am (1998) Paul Robeson: Here I Stand PBS American Masters (1999) Writings by Paul Robeson Robeson, Paul. Here I Stand. Beacon Press (1958), (1971 edition with Preface by Lloyd L. Brown), (January 1, 1998). 160 pages. ISBN 0-8070-6445-9. There is also Paul Robeson: Here I Stand a 1999 documentary by director St. Clair Bourne. Winstar Home Entertainment. DVD. (August 24, 1999). Run Time: 117 minutes. (Contributor) Paul Robeson: "The Great Forerunner", Freedomways, 1971, new edition, Dodd, 1978, enlarged, 1985. Paul Robeson: Tributes, Selected Writings, compiled and edited by Roberta Yancy Dent with the assistance of Marilyn Robeson and Paul Robeson, Jr., The Archives, 1976. Paul Robeson Speaks: Writings, Speeches, Interviews, 1918-1974, edited with an introduction by Philip S. Foner, Brunner, 1978. See also Paul Robeson High School, a 4 year (9th -12th grades) business and technology high school in Brooklyn's Crown Heights neighborhood References Further reading Balaji, Murali. The Professor and the Pupil: The Politics and Friendship of W. E. B. Du Bois and Paul Robeson (Nation Books, 2007) ISBN 1568583559 Boyle, Sheila Tully, and Andrew Bunie. Paul Robeson: The Years of Promise and Achievement ISBN 1-55849-149-X Du Bois, Shirley Graham. Paul Robeson, Citizen of the World. (Julian Messner, June 1, 1971) ISBN 0-671-32464-0; (Greenwood Pub Group, January 1, 1972) ISBN 0-86543-468-9; (Africa World Pr, January 1, 1998), ISBN 0-86543-469-7; (Africa World Pr, April 1, 1998), ISBN 0-8371-6055-3 Duberman, Martin Bauml. Paul Robeson (Alfred A. Knopf, 1988). 804 pages. New Press; Reissue edition (May 1, 1995). ISBN 1-56584-288-X. Dorinson, Joseph and William Pencak with foreword by Henry Foner. Paul Robeson: Essays on His Life and Legacy (Oct 15, 2004) ISBN 0-7864-1153-8; Foner, Philip S. Paul Robeson Speaks: Writings, Speeches, and Interviews, a Centennial Celebration. Citadel Press; Reprint edition (September 1, 1982). 644 pages. ISBN 0-8065-0815-9. Holmes, Burnham. Paul Robeson: A Voice of Struggle (Heinemann Library, September 1, 1994) ISBN 0-8114-2381-6 Larsen, Rebecca. Paul Robeson: Hero Before His Time (Franklin Watts, September 1, 1989), ISBN 0-531-10779-5 McKissack, Pat, Fredrick McKissack and Michael David Biegel (illustrator). Paul Robeson: A Voice to Remember. Library (Enslow Pub Inc, May 1, 2001), ISBN 0-89490-310-1 Nazel, Joseph. Paul Robeson: Biography of a Proud Man. (Holloway House Pub Co, August 1, 1980), ISBN 0-87067-652-0 Robeson Jr., Paul. The Undiscovered Paul Robeson , An Artist's Journey, 1898-1939. Reiner, Carl. How Paul Robeson Saved My Life and Other Mostly Happy Stories (Cliff Street Books, October 1, 1999), Cassette/Spoken Word (Dove Entertainment Inc, October 1, 1999). ISBN 0-06-019451-0 Stewart, Jeffrey C. (editor); Paul Robeson Cultural Center; Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum (corporate author). Paul Robeson: Artist and Citizen. Hardcover (Rutgers Univ Pr, April 1, 1998) ISBN 0-8135-2510-1, Paperback (Rutgers Univ Pr, April 1, 1998) ISBN 0-8135-2511-X Stuckey, Sterling. I Want to Be African: Paul Robeson and the Ends of Nationalist Theory and Practice, 1919-1945 (Univ of California Center for Afro, June 1, 1976) ISBN 0-934934-15-0 Wright, David K. Paul Robeson: Actor, Singer, Political Activist (Enslow Pub Inc, September 1, 1998) ISBN 0-89490-944-4 Robeson Jr., Paul. "How My Father Last Met Itzik Feffer." Jewish Currents, November 1981. Rappaport, Louis. Stalin's War Against the Jews: The Doctors Plot & The Soviet Solution, Free Press (October 1, 1990) ISBN 0-02-925821-9 External links The Paul Robeson Foundation, Inc. Paul Robeson digital archive at Rutgers University Rutgers Celebrates the Paul Robeson Stamp The Bay Area Paul Robeson Centennial Committee The Robeson Centennial Celebration "I Am at Home", at a Reception in the Soviet Union Paul Robeson Awards The Paul Robeson Collection Testimony of Paul Robeson before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, June 12, 1956 The Freedom Archives American Masters: Paul Robeson "Did the CIA Drug Paul Robeson? - a Look at the Secret Program Mk Ultra" Part 1. 23:16 minutes. Amy Goodman interviews Paul Robeson, Jr., Dr. Eric Olson, Martin Lee. Democracy Now!. Thursday, July 1, 1999. Retrieved May 12, 2005. "Robeson/Hollywood Star", NBC Evening News, 9 April 1979, David Brinkley reporting (2 min segment)] (from the Vanderbilt Television News Archives) Findagrave: Paul Robeson Paul Robeson Cultural Center at Rutgers University Paul Robeson Cultural Center The FBI Files of Paul Robeson Discography Paul Robeson singing the English version of the U.S.S.R. anthem BBC site celebrating Robeson with contributions by Tony Benn | Paul_Robeson |@lemmatized paul:214 leroy:1 bustill:2 robeson:423 april:13 january:11 african:34 american:47 actor:11 film:24 stage:8 professional:5 athlete:4 writer:5 multi:2 lingual:2 orator:1 lawyer:4 bass:4 voice:7 type:1 concert:25 singer:4 also:40 note:5 wide:2 range:1 social:3 justice:4 activism:4 forerunner:3 civil:25 right:29 movement:13 trade:4 union:38 activist:7 peace:18 phi:4 beta:3 kappa:3 society:2 laureate:1 recipient:2 spingarn:2 medal:2 stalin:11 prize:2 achieve:2 worldwide:4 fame:8 recognition:4 life:22 artistic:1 accomplishment:2 outspoken:1 radical:1 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6,939 | European_Commission | The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union. The Commission operates in the method of cabinet government, with 27 Commissioners. There is one Commissioner per member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 27 is the Commission President (currently José Manuel Durão Barroso) appointed by the European Council. The Council then appoints the other 26 Commissioners in agreement with the nominated President, and then the 27 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament. Treaties of the European Union: Article 214 The present Barroso Commission took office in late 2004 and should serve a five-year term. The term "Commission" can mean either the 27 Commissioners themselves (known as the College of Commissioners), or the larger institution that also includes the administrative body of about 25,000 European civil servants who are split into departments called Directorates-General and Services. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs_en.htm The internal working languages are English, French and German. The Commissioners and their immediate teams are based in the Berlaymont building of Brussels. History The European Commission derives from one of the five key institutions created in the supranational European Community system, following the proposal of Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister, on 9 May 1950. Originating in 1951 as the High Authority in the European Coal and Steel Community, the Commission has undergone numerous changes in power and composition under various Presidents, involving three Communities. Establishment The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member "High Authority" under President Jean Monnet (see Monnet Authority). The High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg. In 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC: the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). However their executives were called "Commissions" rather than "High Authorities". The reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executive and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority and wished to limit it giving more power to the Council rather than the new executives. Louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Castle of the Valley of the Duchess. It achieved agreement on a contentious cereal price accord as well as making a positive impression upon third countries when it made its international debut at the Kennedy Round of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations. Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. Little heed was taken of his administration at first but, with help from the European Court of Justice, his Commission stamped its authority solidly enough to allow future Commissions to be taken more seriously. However, in 1965 accumulating differences between the French government of Charles de Gaulle and the other member states (over British entry, direct elections to Parliament, the Fouchet Plan and the budget) triggered the "empty chair" crisis ostensibly over proposals for the Common Agricultural Policy. Although the institutional crisis was solved the following year, it cost Etienne Hirsch his presidency of Euratom and later Walter Hallstein the EEC presidency despite otherwise being viewed as the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors. Early development The three bodies co-existed until 1 July 1967 where, by means of the Merger Treaty, they were combined into a single administration under President Jean Rey. Due to the merger the Rey Commission saw a temporary increase to fourteen members, although all future Commissions were reduced back down to nine following the formula of one member for small states and two for larger states. The Rey Commission completed the Community's customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the combined communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation and the first enlargement to the north in 1973. With that enlargement the Commission's membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission (the United Kingdom as a large member was granted two Commissioners), which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. The external representation of the Community took a step forward when President Roy Jenkins became the first President to attend a G8 summit on behalf of the Community. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorn's Commission oversaw the Community's enlargement to the south, in addition to beginning work on the Single European Act. Delors and Santer One of the most notable Commissions was that headed by Jacques Delors (the Delors Commission), with later Presidents failing to achieve the same degree of personal recognition. Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are also considered as the "founding fathers of the euro". The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his second term in 1992: "Mr. Delors rescued the European Community from the doldrums. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst. Although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. In his first term, from 1985 to 1988, he rallied Europe to the call of the single market, and when appointed to a second term he began urging Europeans toward the far more ambitious goals of economic, monetary and political union." The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer. However the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament following allegations of fraud. That was the first time a Commission had been forced to resign en masse and represented a shift towards the Parliament. However the Santer Commission did carry out work on the Amsterdam Treaty and the euro. Prodi and Barroso commissions Following Santer, Romano Prodi took office. The Amsterdam Treaty had increased the Commission's powers and Prodi was dubbed by the press as something akin to a Prime Minister. Powers were strengthened again with the Nice Treaty in 2001 giving the President more power over the composition of their Commission. In 2004 José Manuel Barroso became President, however the Parliament once again asserted itself in objecting to the proposed membership of the Barroso Commission. Due to the opposition Barroso was forced to reshuffle his team before taking office. The Barroso Commission was also the first full Commission since the enlargement in 2004 to 25 members and hence the number of Commissioners at the end of the Prodi Commission had reached 30. As a result of the increase in states, the Amsterdam Treaty triggered a reduction in Commissioners to one Commissioner per state, rather than two for the larger states. Powers and functions Incumbent President Barroso The Commission was set up from the start to act as an independent supranational authority separate from governments; it has been described as "the only body paid to think European". The members are proposed by their member state governments, one from each, however they are bound to act independently neutral from other influences such as those governments which appointed them. This is in contrast to the Council, which represents governments, and the Parliament, which represents citizens and the Economic and Social Committee, which represents organised civil society. Executive power Executive power of the Union is held by the Council: it confers on the Commission such powers for it to exercise. However, the Council may withdraw these powers, exercise them directly, or impose conditions on their use. Powers are outlined in Articles 211–219 of the EC treaty and are more restricted than most national executives, in part due to the Commission's lack of power over areas like foreign policy that power is held by the European Council, which some analyses have described as another executive. Considering that under the Lisbon Treaty the European Council would become a formal institution with the power of appointing the Commission, it could be said that the two bodies hold the executive power of the Union (the European Council also holds individual national executive powers). However, it is the Commission which currently holds executive powers over the European Community. The governmental powers of the Commission have been such that some such as former Belgian Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt have suggested changing its name to the "European Government", calling the present name of commission: "ridiculous". Legislative initiative The Commission differs from the other institutions in that it alone has legislative initiative in the 'pillars' of the European Union, meaning only the Commission can make formal proposals for legislation legislative proposals cannot originate in the legislative branches. It shares this right with the Council over the CFSP pillar, but has no right over Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters. In the Community however, Council and Parliament are able to request legislation; in most cases the Commission initiates the basis of these proposals, this monopoly is designed to ensure coordinated and coherent drafting of Union law. This monopoly has been challenged by some who claim the Parliament should also have the right, with most national parliaments holding the right in some respects. Under the Lisbon Treaty, EU citizens would also be able to request the Commission to legislate in an area via a petition carrying one million signatures, but it would not be binding. The Commission's powers in proposing law have usually centred on economic regulation. It has put forward a large number of regulations based on a "precautionary principle". This means that pre-emptive regulation takes place if there is a credible hazard to the environment or human health: for example on tackling climate change and restricting genetically modified organisms. This is opposed to weighting regulations for their effect on the effect on the economy. Thus, the Commission often proposes stricter legislation than other countries. Due to the size of the European market this has made EU legislation an important influence in the global market. Recently the Commission has moved into creating European criminal law. In 2006, a toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the Commission to look into legislation against toxic waste. Some EU states at that time did not even have a crime against shipping toxic waste leading to the Commissioners Franco Frattini and Stavros Dimas to put forward the idea of "ecological crimes". Their right to propose criminal law was challenged in the European Court of Justice but upheld. As of 2007, the only other criminal law proposals which have been brought forward are on the intellectual property rights directive, . and on an amendment to the 2002 counter-terrorism framework decision, outlawing terrorism‑related incitement, recruitment (especially via the internet) and training. Enforcement Once legislation is passed by the Council and Parliament, it is the Commission's responsibility to ensure it is implemented. It does this through the member states or through its agencies. In adopting the necessary technical measures, the Commission is assisted by committees made up of representatives of member states (a process known in jargon as "comitology"). Furthermore, the Commission is responsible for the implementation of the EU budget; ensuring, along with the Court of Auditors, that EU funds are correctly spent. In particular the Commission has a duty to ensure the treaties and law are upheld, potentially by taking member states or other institutions to the Court of Justice in a dispute. In this role it is known informally as the "guardian of the treaties". Finally, the Commission provides some external representation for the Union, alongside the member states and the Common Foreign and Security Policy, representing the Union in bodies such as the World Trade Organisation. It is also usual for the President to attend meetings of the G8. College The Commission is composed of a college of "Commissioners", 27 members in all, including the President and vice-presidents. Even though each member is appointed by a national government, one per state, they do not represent their state in the Commission (however in practice they do occasionally press for their national interest ). Once proposed, the President delegates portfolios between each of the members. The power of a Commissioner largely depends upon their portfolio, and can vary over time. For example, the Education Commissioner has been growing in importance, in line with the rise in the importance of education and culture in European policy-making See paragraphs 7, 8 & 13 of the Presidency conclusions of the European Council on 13/14 March 2008, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/99410.pdf . Another example is the Competition Commissioner, who holds a highly-visible position with global reach. Before the Commission can assume office, the college as a whole must be approved by the Parliament. Commissioners are supported by their personal cabinet who give them political guidance, while the Civil Service (the DGs, see below) deal with technical preparation. Appointment Floor 13 of the Berlaymont, Commission's meeting room The President of the Commission is first nominated by the European Council; that nominee is then officially elected by the European Parliament. The candidate selected by the Council has often been a leading national politician but this is not a requirement. In 2004, the proposed Constitution had included a provision that the choice of President must take into account the latest Parliamentary elections. That provision was not in force in the nomination in 2004, but the centre-right parties of the EU pressured for a candidate from their own ranks. In the end, a centre-right candidate was chosen: José Manuel Barroso of the European People's Party. There are further criteria influencing the choice of the Council, these include: which area of Europe the candidate comes from, favoured as Southern Europe in 2004; the candidate's political influence, credible yet not overpowering members; language, proficiency in French considered necessary by France; and degree of integration, their state being a member of both the eurozone and the Schengen Agreement. In 2004, this system produced a number of candidates and was thus criticised by some MEPs: following the drawn-out selection, the ALDE group leader Graham Watson described the procedure as a "Justus Lipsius carpet market" producing only the "lowest common denominator"; while Green-EFA co-leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit asked Barroso after his first speech "If you are the best candidate, why were you not the first?" Following their appointment, the President appoints a number of Vice-Presidents among the Commissioners. At present there are five, with Margot Wallström as the current "First" Vice President. For the most part, the position grants little extra power to Vice-Presidents, except the first Vice-President who stands in for the President when he is away. Political styles The present Commission, the Barroso Commission, took office in late 2004 after being delayed by objections from the Parliament which forced a reshuffle. In 2007 the Commission increased from 25 to 27 members with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria who each appointed their own Commissioners. With the increasing size of the Commission, President Barroso has adopted a more Presidential style of control over the college, which has earned him some criticism. However, despite Barroso being a more presidential and high profile figure than his predecessors, the Commission has begun to lose ground to the larger member states as countries such as France, the UK and Germany seek to sideline its role. This might have increased with the creation of the President of the European Council under the Treaty of Lisbon, which has not been ratified. There has also been a greater degree of politicisation within the Commission. Organisation The Commission is primarily based in Brussels, with the President's office and the Commission's meeting room based on the 13th floor of the Berlaymont building. The Commission also operates out of numerous other buildings in Brussels and Luxembourg. When the Parliament is meeting in Strasbourg, the Commissioners also meet there in the Winston Churchill building to attend the Parliament's debates. The Commission is divided into departments known as Directorates-General (DGs) that can be likened to departments or ministries. Each covers a specific policy area or service such as External relations or Translation and is headed by Director-General who is responsible to a Commissioner. A Commissioner's portfolio can be supported by numerous DGs, they prepare proposals for them and if approved by a majority of Commissioners it goes forward to Parliament and Council for consideration. There has been criticism from a number of people that the highly fragmented DG structure wastes a considerable amount of time in turf wars as the different departments and Commissioners compete with each other. Furthermore the DGs can exercise considerable control over a Commissioner with the Commissioner having little time to learn to assert control over their staff. According to figures published by the Commission, 23,043 persons were employed by the Commission as officials and temporary agents in April 2007. In addition to these, 9019 "external staff" (e.g. Contractual agents, detached national experts, young experts etc) were employed. The single largest DG is the Directorate-General for Translation, with a 2186-strong staff, while the largest group by nationality is Belgian (21.4%), probably due to a majority (16,626) of staff being based in the country. The Commission's civil service is headed by a Secretary General, currently Catherine Day. Press Press Room in the Berlaymont Communication with the press is handled by the Directorate-General Communication. The Commission's chief spokesperson is Johannes Laitenberger who takes the midday press briefings, commonly known as the "Midday Presser". It takes place every weekday in the Commission's press room at the Berlaymont where journalists may ask questions of Commission officials on any topic and legitimately expect to get an "on the record" answer for live TV. Such a situation is unique in the world. There is a larger press corps in Brussels than Washington D.C.; media outlets in every Union member-state have a Brussels correspondent. It has been noted by one researcher that the press releases issued by the Commission are uniquely political. A release often goes through several stages of drafting which emphasises the role of the Commission and is used "for justifying the EU and the commission" increasing their length and complexity. Where there are multiple departments involved a press release can also be a source of competition between areas of the Commission and Commissioners themselves. This also leads to an unusually high number of press releases, 1907 for 2006, and is seen as a unique product of the EU's political set-up. Legitimacy It is argued that the method of appointment for the Commission increases the democratic deficit in the European Union. While the Commission is the executive branch, the candidates are chosen primarily by the 27 national governments, meaning it is hard for the Commission to be thrown out directly by the voters. The legitimacy of the Commission is mainly drawn from the vote of approval that is required from the Parliament along with Parliament's power to sack the body, however there has been less than 50% turnout in the Parliament's elections since 1999. While that figure may be higher than that of some national elections, including those of the United States Congress, the fact that there are no elections for the position Commission President, unlike in the United States, makes the post less legitimate in the eyes of the public. A further problem is the lack of a coherent electorate, even though democratic structures and methods are developing there is not such a mirror in creating a European civil society. The new Treaty of Lisbon might have gone some way to resolving the deficit in creating greater democratic controls on the Commission, including enshrining the procedure of linking elections to the selection of the Commission president, but at present it cannot be implemented because of the Irish No-Vote. The alternative viewpoint on the Commission states that the policy areas in which it has power to initiate legislation are ill suited to an institution accountable to electoral pressures. In this respect the Commission has been compared with institutions such as independent Central Banks which deal with technical areas of policy that are of little electoral salience. This argument is by no means universally accepted, because many areas of EU policy affect the lives and livelihoods of ordinary people throughout member nations of the EU and it is a principle of democratic government that citizens of voting age have the right to express an opinion on government policies through the ballot box. In addition some defenders of the Commission point out that legislation must be approved by the Council in all areas (the ministers of member states) and the European Parliament in some areas before it can be adopted, thus the amount of legislation which is adopted in any one country without the approval of its government is limited. Research funded by the European Commission The European Commission funds or sponsors a number of researches in the European Union, via a variety of research programmes and instruments . For instance, the Seventh Framework Programme for research and technological development (FP7) is the European Union's chief instrument for funding research over the period 2007 to 2013. Future Under the Treaty of Nice, the first Commission to be appointed after the number of member states reaches 27 will be reduced to "less than the number of Member States". The exact number of Commissioners is to be decided by a unanimous vote of the European Council and membership will rotate equally between member states. Following the accession of Romania and Bulgaria in January 2007, this clause will now take effect from the end of the current commission, which is expected to be following the European Parliament election, 2009. See the attached Protocol, Article 4 The Czech Presidency in January 2009 proposed that the country of the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy would lose its Commissioner and all other countries keep theirs. Czechs prepare for possible second Irish No, EUObserver, 2009-01-08 The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, signed in 2004, provided that the number of Commissioners would instead be reduced to two thirds of member-states from 2014; membership would rotate equally and no member state would have more than one Commissioner. The post of European Commissioner for External Relations Commission would also be combined with the European Council's High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy and be styled the "Union Foreign Minister". The Union Foreign Minister would be a Vice-President of the Commission and would chair the Council of the European Union when Foreign Ministers were meeting. The Treaty provides that the most recent European elections should be "taken into account" when appointing of the Commission, although the President would still be proposed by the European Council; the European Parliament would "elect" Commission rather than "approve" it as under the Treaty of Nice. Following the rejection of the Treaty in the Dutch and French referendums, the above provisions were incorporated into the Treaty of Lisbon, which was signed in 2007, except that the Union Foreign Minister was renamed the "High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy". Results of the Irish Referendum on The Lisbon Treaty Following the Irish referendum which rejected the Treaty, the future is in doubt. If ratified by all member states, the Lisbon Treaty would come into effect one month following the last ratification. See also European Commission diplomatic missions Institutions of the European Union Brussels and the European Union President of the European Union List of European Commissioners by nationality EFTA Surveillance Authority Footnotes External links European Commission ec.europa.eu – official website Barroso Commission Representation in the Member States Margot Wallström's Blog Photo archive of past Commissions European NAvigator ena.lu – Multimedia website with historical information on the European Commission Welcome Europe welcomeurope.com – information on the EU funding from the Commission | European_Commission |@lemmatized european:59 commission:105 formally:1 community:18 executive:13 branch:3 union:24 body:8 responsible:3 propose:10 legislation:11 implement:3 decision:2 uphold:1 treaty:24 general:8 day:3 run:1 operate:2 method:3 cabinet:2 government:12 commissioner:34 one:13 per:3 member:30 state:31 though:3 bind:3 represent:7 interest:2 eu:15 whole:2 rather:5 home:1 president:33 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6,940 | Boeing_747 | The Boeing 747 is a widebody commercial airliner, often referred to by the nickname "Jumbo Jet". "Woman to build house out of 747", BBC News, 20 April 2006. Retrieved: 11 December 2007. Creating Worlds: Adventures Aviation (review) Amazon.com. Retrieved: 11 December 2007. It is among the world's most recognizable aircraft, and was the first widebody ever produced. Manufactured by Boeing's Commercial Airplane unit in the US, the original version of the 747 was two and a half times the size of the Boeing 707, Branson, Richard. "Pilot of the Jet Age", Time, 7 December 1998. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. one of the common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s. First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 years. The four-engine 747 uses a double deck configuration for part of its length. It is available in passenger, freighter and other versions. Boeing designed the 747's hump-like upper deck to serve as a first class lounge or (as is the general rule today) extra seating, and to allow the aircraft to be easily converted to a cargo carrier by removing seats and installing a front cargo door. Boeing did so because the company expected supersonic airliners, whose development was announced in the early 1960s, to render the 747 and other subsonic airliners obsolete, but that the demand for subsonic cargo aircraft would be robust into the future. Orlebar, Christopher, The Concorde Story, fifth edition. Osprey Publishing, Northants, UK, 2002, p. 50. The 747 in particular was expected to become obsolete after 400 were sold Wald, Matthew L. 747 "Fleet's Age at Issue During Flight 800 Hearing", New York Times, 12 December 1997. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. but it exceeded its critics' expectations with production passing the 1,000 mark in 1993. Sutter 2006, p. 259. As of April 2009, 1,415 aircraft have been built, with 108 more in various configurations remaining on order. 747 Model Orders and Deliveries data, The Boeing Company, April 2009. Retrieved: May 20, 2009. The 747-400, the latest version in service, is among the fastest airliners in service with a high-subsonic cruise speed of Mach 0.85 (567 mph or 913 km/h). It has an intercontinental range of 7,260 nautical miles (8,350 mi or 13,450 km). "Technical Characteristics – Boeing 747-400", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 29 April 2006. The 747-400 passenger version can accommodate 416 passengers in a typical three-class layout or 524 passengers in a typical two-class layout. The next version of the aircraft, the 747-8, is in production and scheduled to enter service in 2010. Orders and Deliveries, The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 25 November 2006. The 747 is to be replaced by the Boeing Y3 (part of the Boeing Yellowstone Project) in the future. "Airbus A350 XWB puts pressure on Boeing 777". Flight International. November 27, 2007. Development Background In 1963, the US Air Force started a series of study projects on a very large "strategic" transport aircraft. Although the C-141 Starlifter was in the process of being introduced, they felt that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed, especially the capability to carry "outsized" cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft. These studies led to initial requirements for the CX-Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) in March 1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of and a speed of Mach 0.75 (), and an unrefueled range of with a payload of . The payload bay had to be wide by high and long with access through doors at the front and rear. Norton, Bill. Lockheed Martin C-5 Galaxy, pp. 5–12. Specialty Press, 2003. ISBN 1-58007-061-2. Featuring only four engines, the design also required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel economy. On 18 May 1964, airframe proposals arrived from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed and Martin Marietta; while engine proposals were submitted by General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney. After a downselect, Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines. C-5 History. Globalsecurity.org All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features, but one in particular would become iconic on the 747. As the CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. All of the companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit to above the cargo area; Douglas had a small "pod" just forward and above the wing, Lockheed used a long "spine" running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it, while Boeing blended the two, with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing. "Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, Partners in Freedom". NASA, 2000, see images in "Langley Contributions to the C-5". Retrieved: 17 December 2007. In 1965 Lockheed's aircraft design and General Electric's engine design were selected for the new transport, the C-5 Galaxy. Airliner proposal The 747 was conceived while air travel was increasing in the 1960s. The era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, had revolutionized long-distance travel. "Boeing Multimedia Image Gallery 707", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 8 December 2007. Even before it lost the CX-HLS contract, Boeing was pressed by Juan Trippe, president of Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), one of its most important airline customers, to build a passenger aircraft more than twice the size of the 707. During this time, airport congestion, worsened by increasing numbers of passengers carried on relatively small planes, became a problem that Trippe thought could be addressed by a large new aircraft. "Innovators: Juan Trippe". PBS. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. In 1965, Joe Sutter was transferred from Boeing's 737 development team to manage the studies for a new airliner, already assigned the model number 747. Sutter 2006, p. 80-84. Sutter initiated a design study with Pan Am and other airlines, in order to better understand their requirements. At the time, it was widely thought that the 747 would eventually be superseded by supersonic transport aircraft. "Air travel, a supersonic future?", BBC News, 17 July 2001. Retrieved: 9 December 2007. Boeing responded by designing the 747 so that it could be adapted easily to carry freight and remain in production even if sales of the passenger version declined. In the freighter role, the clear need was to support the containerized shipping methodologies that were being widely introduced at about the same time. Standard containers are square at the front (slightly higher due to attachment points) and either 20 or long. This meant that it would be possible to support a 2-wide 2-high stack of containers two or three ranks deep with a fuselage size similar to the earlier CX-HLS project. An early-production 747 cockpit, located on the upper deck In April 1966, Pan Am ordered twenty-five 747-100 aircraft for US$525 million. During the ceremonial 747 contract-signing banquet in Seattle on Boeing's 50th Anniversary, Juan Trippe predicted that the 747 would be "... a great weapon for peace, competing with intercontinental missiles for mankind's destiny", according to Malcolm T. Stamper, one of the senior management for the 747 program at the time. "Great Planes-Boeing 747". Discovery Channel. Retrieved: 28 October 2007. As launch customer, Noland, David. "Passenger Planes: Boeing 747". "Info please." (Pearson Education). Retrieved: 30 April 2006. and because of its early involvement before placing a formal order, Pan Am was able to influence the design and development of the 747 to an extent unmatched by a single airline before or since. Irving 1994, p. 359. Design effort Ultimately, the high-winged CX-HLS Boeing design was not used for the 747, although technologies developed for their bid had an influence. "Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, Partners in Freedom". NASA, 2000. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The original design included a full-length double-deck fuselage with rows of eight-across seating and two aisles on the lower deck and seven-across seating and two aisles on the upper deck. Irving 1994, p. 282. However, concern over evacuation routes and limited cargo-carrying capability caused this idea to be scrapped in early 1966 in favor of a wider single deck design. The cockpit was, therefore, placed on a shortened upper deck so that a freight-loading door could be included in the nose cone; this design feature produced the 747's distinctive "bulge". In early models it was not clear what to do with the small space in the pod behind the cockpit, and this was initially specified as a "lounge" area with no permanent seating. One of the principal technologies that enabled an aircraft as large as the 747 to be conceived was the high-bypass turbofan engine. Mecham, M. "In review: 747, Creating the World's First Jumbo Jet and Other Adventures from a Life in Aviation." Aviation Week and Space Technology, Vol. 165, No. 9, 4 September 2006, p. 53. The engine technology was thought to be capable of delivering double the power of the earlier turbojets while consuming a third less fuel. General Electric had pioneered the concept but was committed to developing the engine for the C-5 Galaxy and did not enter the commercial market until later. "GE Aviation: CF6", GE Aviation. Retrieved: 9 December 2007. Colson, Michael S. "Mechanical Engineering 100 Years of Flight." Retrieved: 9 December 2007. Pratt & Whitney was also working on the same principle and, by late 1966, Boeing, Pan-Am and Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop a new engine, designated JT9D, to power the 747. The project was designed with a new methodology called fault tree analysis, which allowed the effects of a failure of a single part to be studied to determine its impact on other systems. To address concerns about safety and flyability, the 747's design included structural redundancy, redundant hydraulic systems, quadruple main landing gear and dual control surfaces. Sutter 2006, p. 121, 128-131. Additionally, some of the most advanced high-lift devices used in the industry were included in the new design, in order to allow it to operate from existing airports. These included leading-edge slats running almost the entire length of the wing, as well as complex three-part slotted flaps along the rear. The wing's low mounting allows the flaps to capture airflow under them, increasing ground effects. Boeing agreed to deliver the first 747 to Pan Am by the end of 1969. The delivery date left 28 months to design the aircraft, which was two-thirds the normal time. Sutter 2006, p. 96–97. The schedule was so fast that the people who worked on it were given the nickname "The Incredibles". Airliners.net, 747 Developing the aircraft was such a technical and financial challenge that management was said to have "bet the company" when it started the project. The prototype 747, City of Everett, at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington Production plant Because Boeing did not have a plant large enough to assemble the giant airliner, they chose to build a new plant. The company considered locations in about 50 cities, Pascall, Glenn R. "Everett and Renton react differently to Boeing". Puget Sound Business Journal, 26 September 2003. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. and eventually decided to build the new plant some 30 miles (48 km) north of Seattle on a site adjoining a military base at Paine Field near Everett, Washington. "Major Production Facilities - Everett, Washington". The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 28 April 2007. It bought the 780 acre (316 hectare) site in June 1966. Developing the 747 had been a major challenge, and building its assembly plant was also a huge undertaking. Boeing president William M. Allen asked Malcolm T. Stamper, then head of the company's turbine division, to oversee construction of the Everett factory and to start production of the 747. Boyer, Tom. "Boeing legend Malcolm Stamper dies". Seattle Times. 17 June 2005. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. To level the site, more than 4 million cubic yards (3.1 million m³) of earth had to be moved. Irving 1994, p. 310. Time was so short that the 747's full-scale mock-up was built before the factory roof above it was finished. Irving 1994, p. 365. The plant is the largest building by volume ever built, and has been substantially expanded several times to permit construction of other models of Boeing widebody commercial jets. Development and testing Before the first 747 was fully assembled, testing began on many components and systems. One important test involved evacuation of 560 volunteers from a cabin mock-up via the plane's emergency chutes. The first full-scale evacuation took two and a half minutes instead of the maximum of 90 seconds mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration, and several volunteers were injured. Subsequent test evacuations achieved the 90-second goal but caused more injuries. Most problematic was evacuation from the aircraft's upper deck; volunteer passengers, instead of using a conventional slide, escaped by using a harness attached to a reel. Irving 1994, p. 383. Boeing built an unusual training device known as "Waddell's Wagon" (named for a 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) that consisted of a mock-up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck. While the first 747s were still being built, the device allowed pilots to practice taxi maneuvers from a high upper-deck position. "History - "747 Commercial Transport", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 29 April 2006. Uniformed flight attendants representing each of the 747's initial 26 airline customers during rollout ceremony On 30 September 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the Everett assembly building before the world's press and representatives of the 26 airlines that had ordered the plane. "All but off the Ground". Time, 4 October 1968. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Over the following months, preparations were made for the first flight, which took place on 9 February 1969, with test pilots Jack Waddell and Brien Wygle at the controls "The Giant Takes Off", Time. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. "Boeing 747, the "Queen of the Skies," and "Celebrates 35th Anniversary", The Boeing Company, 9 February 2004. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. and Jess Wallick at the flight engineer's station. Despite a minor problem with one of the flaps, the flight confirmed that the 747 handled extremely well. The plane was found to be largely immune to "Dutch roll", a phenomenon that had been a major hazard to the early swept-wing jets. Irving 1994, pp. 417–418. During later stages of the flight test program, flutter testing showed that the wings suffered oscillation under certain conditions. This difficulty was partly solved by reducing the stiffness of some wing components. However, a particularly severe high-speed flutter problem was solved only by inserting depleted uranium counterweights as ballast in the outboard engine nacelles of the early 747s. Irving 1994, p. 428. This measure caused anxiety when these aircraft crashed, as did China Airlines Flight 358 at Wanli in 1991 and El Al Flight 1862 at Amsterdam in 1992. Uijt de Haag, P.A., Smetsers, R.C., Witlox, H.W., Krus H.W. and Eisenga, A.H. "Evaluating the risk from depleted uranium after the Boeing 747-258F crash in Amsterdam, 1992." Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 76, issue 1, 28 August 2000, p. 39-58. "Boeing 747-258F crash, Amsterdam, 1992 (PDF)." Retrieved: 16 May 2007. van der Keur, Henk. "Uranium Pollution from the Amsterdam 1992 Plane Crash". Laka Foundation, May 1999. Retrieved: 16 May 2007. The flight test program was hampered by problems with the plane's JT9D engines. Difficulties included engine stalls caused by rapid movements of the throttles and distortion of the turbine casings after a short period of service. Irving 1994, p. 441-446. The problems delayed 747 deliveries for several months and stranded up to 20 planes at the Everett plant while they awaited engine installation. "The Trouble with Jumbo". Time, 26 September 1969. The program was further delayed when one of the five test aircraft suffered serious damage during a landing attempt at Renton Municipal Airport, site of Boeing's Renton plant. The test aircraft was being taken to have its test equipment removed and a cabin installed when pilot Ralph C. Cokely undershot the short runway and sheared off the 747's landing gear. Irving 1994, p. 436. However, these difficulties did not prevent Boeing from taking one of the test aircraft to the 28th Paris Air Show in mid-1969, where it was displayed to the general public for the first time. "The Paris Air Show in facts and figures", Reuters, 14 June 2007. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The 747 achieved its FAA airworthiness certificate in December 1969, making it ready for introduction into service. "Boeing 747-400", Jane's All the World's Aircraft, 31 October 2000. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. First Lady Pat Nixon visits the cockpit of the first commercial 747 during the christening ceremony, 15 January 1970 The huge cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had to borrow heavily from a banking syndicate. During the final months before delivery of the first aircraft, the company had to repeatedly request additional funding to complete the project. Had this been refused, Boeing's survival would have been threatened. Irving 1994, p. 437–438. Ultimately, the gamble succeeded, and Boeing held a monopoly in very large passenger aircraft production for many years. "First A380 Flight on 25-26 October". Singapore Airlines, 16 August 2007. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Entry into service On 15 January 1970, First Lady of the United States Pat Nixon christened Pan Am's first 747 at Dulles International Airport (later renamed Washington Dulles International Airport) in the presence of Pan Am chairman Najeeb Halaby. Instead of champagne, red, white and blue water was sprayed on the plane. The 747 entered service on 22 January 1970, on Pan Am's New York–London route; Norris 1997, p. 48. the flight had been planned for the evening of 21 January, but engine overheating made the original aircraft unusable. Finding a substitute delayed the flight by more than six hours to the following day. "Jumbo and the Gremlins", Time, 2 February 1970. Retrieved: 20 December 2007. On the 747-100 and 747-200, a spiral staircase connected the main and upper decks The 747 enjoyed a fairly smooth introduction into service, overcoming concerns that some airports would not be able to accommodate an aircraft that large. "Breaking the Ground Barrier". Time, 8 September 1967. Retrieved: 19 December 2007. Although technical problems occurred, they were relatively minor and quickly solved. "Jumbo Beats the Gremlins". Time, 13 July 1970. Retrieved: 20 December 2007. After the aircraft's introduction with Pan Am, other airlines that had bought the 747 in order to stay competitive began to put their own planes into service. "Ready or Not, Here Comes Jumbo", Time, 19 January 1970. Retrieved: 19 December 2007. Continental Airlines was the first carrier to introduce the 747 into domestic service on 18 May 1970. Boeing estimated that half of the early 747 sales were to airlines requiring the aircraft's long range rather than its payload capacity. Smith, Bruce A. "Boeing Shuns Very Large Jets While Aiming for Longer Range." Aviation Week and Space Technology, 1 January 2001, p. 28–29. See also 747X vs A380 "How to Reduce Congestion"(PDF), Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia Tech. Retrieved: 10 December 2007. But though the 747 had the lowest potential operating cost per seat, this could only be achieved when the aircraft was fully loaded; costs per seat increased rapidly as occupancy declined. A moderately loaded 747, one with only 70 percent of its seats occupied, used more than 95 percent of the fuel needed by a fully occupied 747. "Airline reporting on fuel consumption", Miljominsteriet (Danish Environmental Protection Agency). Retrieved: 13 December 2007. When economic problems in the United States and other countries after the 1973 oil crisis led to reduced passenger traffic, several airlines found they did not have enough passengers to fly the 747 economically, and they replaced them with the smaller and recently introduced McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar trijet wide bodies "Planes for Rough Weather", Time, 3 August 1970. Retrieved: 20 December 2007. (and later the 767 and A300 twinjets). Having tried replacing coach seats on its 747s with piano bars in an attempt to attract more customers, American Airlines eventually relegated its 747s to cargo service and in 1983 exchanged them with Pan Am for smaller aircraft; "American Airlines History", American Airlines. Retrieved: 22 December 2007. Delta Air Lines also removed its 747s from service after several years. "Delta Boeing 747-100 1/200 Scale", Airspotters. Retrieved: 19 December 2007. International flights that bypassed traditional hub airports and landed at smaller cities became more common throughout the 1980s, and this eroded the 747's original market. "Turning Today's Challenges into Opportunities for Tomorrow", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 10 December 2007. However, many international carriers continued to use the 747 on Pacific routes. Aboulafia, Richard. "Commercial Transport Market Still in Rough Shape". Aviation Week and Space Technology, 1 March 2004. Retrieved: 10 December 2007. In Japan, 747s on domestic routes are configured to carry close to the maximum passenger capacity. Wallace, James. "A380 buyer keeps mum about possible luxuries aboard cruise ship of the skies". Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 24 January 2005. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Later 747 models featured a stretched upper deck The 747 rapidly achieved iconic status, appearing in various film productions such as the Airport series of disaster films, Air Force One and Executive Decision. "Executive Decision". Movie Ramblings. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. "Air Force One". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved :17 December 2007. Improved 747 versions After the initial 747-100 model, Boeing developed the higher Maximum Takeoff Weight variant and higher passenger capacity (Short Range) variant. "Boeing 747 Classics", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. Increased maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) can allow an aircraft to carry more fuel and have longer range. "Solutions Center", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. The model followed, entering service in 1971. It featured more powerful engines and higher takeoff weight. Passenger, freighter and combination passenger-freighter versions were produced. The shortened 747SP (special performance) with a longer range was also developed in the mid-1970s. "Boeing 747SP". Airliners.net. Retrieved: 23 November 2007. The 747 line was further developed with the launching of the 747-300 in 1980. The resulted from Boeing studies to increase the seating capacity of the 747. Solutions such as fuselage plugs and extending the upper deck over the entire length of the fuselage were rejected. The early designation of the -300 was 747SUD for "stretched upper deck" then 747-200 SUD, "Aircraft Owner's and Operator's Guide: 747-200/300" (PDF). Aircraft Commerce. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. followed by 747EUD, before the 747-300 designation was used. "Boeing 747-300", Airliners.net. Retrieved: 25 November 2007. The 300 model was first produced in 1983. It included a stretched upper deck (SUD), increased cruise speed and increased seating capacity. Passenger, short range and combination freighter-passenger versions were produced. In 1985, development of the longer range 747-400 was begun. Lawrence and Thornton 2005, p. 54. The new variant had a new glass cockpit, which allowed for a cockpit crew of two instead of three. Salpukas, Agis. "J.A.L. Orders 15 More of Boeing's 747-400's", Time, 1 July 1988. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Development cost soared, and production delays occurred as new technologies were incorporated at the request of airlines. Insufficient workforce experience and reliance on overtime contributed to early production problems on the 747-400. The -400 entered service in 1989. Norris 1997, p. 88. A size comparison of four large aircraft: the Spruce Goose (gold), the Antonov An-225 (green), an Airbus A380 (pink), and a 747-8 (blue). In 1991, a record-breaking 1,087 passengers were airlifted aboard a 747 to Israel as part of Operation Solomon. "El Al History page", El Al Airlines. Retrieved: 18 October 2007. The 747 was the heaviest airliner in regular service until the use of the Antonov An-124 Ruslan in 1982. The 747-400ER model regained that distinction in 2000. The Antonov An-225 cargo transport remains the world's largest aircraft by several measures (including the most accepted measures of maximum gross takeoff weight and length). The Hughes H-4 Hercules is the largest aircraft by wingspan, but it only flew once. "Ask Us - Largest Plane in the World", Aerospaceweb.org, 11 November 2005. Retrieved: 29 April 2006. Only two An-225 aircraft have been produced, and only one is still flying as of 2007. Some 747 aircraft have been converted for special uses. A 747-100 owned by General Electric is used as a testbed for their engines "Goleta Air and Space Museum - Boeing Jetliner Prototypes and Testbeds", Smithsonian. Retrieved: 12 December 2007. "GE-Aviation: GE90-115B Prepares For Flight Aboard GE's 747 Flying Testbed", General Electric. Retrieved: 12 December 2007. such as General Electric GEnx. "GEnx Engine Completes Flight Tests on 747 Testbed". Deagel. Retrieved: 12 December 2007. A firefighting prototype has been constructed by Evergreen International. Future developments Since the arrival of the 747-400, several stretching schemes for the 747 have been proposed. Boeing announced the larger 747-500X and designs in 1996. "Boeing Outlines the "Value" of Its 747 Plans", The Boeing Company, 2 September 1996. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The new variants would have cost more than $5 billion to develop, and interest was not sufficient to launch the program. "BA warms to A3XX plan", Flight International, 19 March 1997. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Boeing offered the more modest 747X and 747X stretch derivatives in 2000 as alternatives to the Airbus A3XX. However, the 747X family was unable to attract enough interest to enter production. Boeing switched from the 747X studies to pursue the Sonic Cruiser in 2001 "Boeing Shelves 747X to Focus on Faster Jet". People's Daily, 30 March 2001. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. and, after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold, the 787. Taylor, Alex III. "Boeing's Amazing Sonic Cruiser ...", Fortune, 9 December 2002. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Some of the ideas developed for the 747X were used on the 747-400ER. "Boeing Launches New, Longer-Range 747-400". The Boeing Company, 28 November 2000. Retrieved 17 December 2007. After several variants were proposed but later abandoned, some industry observers became skeptical of new aircraft proposals from Boeing. Holmes, Stanley. "Boeing's Reborn 747". Business Week. 16 November 2005. However, in early 2004, Boeing announced tentative plans for the 747 Advanced that were eventually adopted. Similar in nature to the 747-X, the stretched 747 Advanced used technology from the 787 to modernize the design and its systems. The 747 remained the largest passenger airliner in service until the Airbus A380 began airline service in 2007. "A380 superjumbo lands in Sydney", BBC News. Retrieved: 10 December 2007. On 14 November 2005, Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the Boeing 747-8. "Boeing Launches New 747-8 Family". The Boeing Company, 14 November 2005. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The last 747-400s were completed in 2009. By 2009, most orders for the 747-8 were for the freighter version, with Lufthansa the sole customer to order the 747-8 Intercontinental. As of February 2009, Boeing was reassessing the 747-8 project. Eventually, the 747 may be replaced in Boeing's lineup by a new design dubbed "Y3". Boeing 747 main deck economy class seating in 3-4-3 layout Design The Boeing 747 is a large, wide-body (two-aisle) airliner with four wing-mounted engines. The wings have a high sweep angle of 37.5 degrees for a fast, efficient cruise Sutter 2006, p. 93. of Mach 0.84 to 0.88, depending on the variant. The sweep also allows the 747 to use existing hangars. Bowers 1989, p. 508. Seating capacity is more than 366 with a 3-4-3 seat arrangement (a cross section of 3 seats, an aisle, 4 seats, another aisle, and 3 seats) in economy class and a 2-3-2 arrangement in first class on the main deck. The upper deck has a 3-3 seat arrangement in economy class and a 2-2 arrangement in first class. "Boeing 747-400 Airport Planning report, section 2.0, Boeing, December 2002 (PDF)", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. Cargolux 747-400F with the nose loading door open Raised above the main deck, the cockpit creates a hump. The raised cockpit is to allow front loading of cargo on freight variants. The upper deck behind the cockpit provides space for a lounge or extra seating. The "stretched upper deck" became available as an option on the 747-100B variant and later as standard on the 747-300. The 747's maximum takeoff weight ranges from 735,000 pounds (333,400 kg) for the -100 to 970,000 lb (439,985 kg) for the -8. Its range has increased from 5,300 nautical miles (6,100 mi, 9,800 km) on the -100 to 8,000 nmi (9,200 mi, 14,815 km) on the -8I. Boeing 747-100/200/300 "Technical Specifications", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. "Boeing 747-8 Technical Specifications", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. The planform of a JAL Cargo Boeing 747-400 The 747 has multiple structural redundancy including four redundant hydraulic systems and four main landing gears with 16 wheels, which provide a good spread of support on the ground and safety in case of tire blow-outs. The redundant main gear allows for landing on two opposing landing gears if the others do not function properly. Sutter 2006, p. 128–131. In addition, the 747 has split control surfaces and sophisticated triple-slotted flaps that minimize landing speeds and allow the plane to use standard-length runways. Sutter 2006, p. 121–122. For transportation of spare engines, early 747s could accommodate a non-functioning fifth-pod engine under the port wing of the aircraft between the nearest functioning engine and the fuselage. "Special Report:Air India Flight 182", airdisaster.com. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. "Her Majesty the Queen Against Ripudaman Singh Malik and Ajaib Singh Bagri", Supreme Court of British Columbia. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. Variants The 747-100 was the original variant launched in 1966. The 747-200 soon followed, with an order in 1968. The 747-300 was launched in 1980 and was followed in 1985 by the 747-400. Lastly, the 747-8 was announced in 2005. Several versions of each variant have been produced. Many of the early variants were in production simultaneously. 747-100 United 747-100 illustrating the original size of the upper deck design and window layout The first 747-100s were built with six upper-deck windows (three per side) to accommodate upstairs lounge areas. Later, as airlines began to use the upper-deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space, Boeing offered a 10-window upper deck as an option. Some -100s were retrofitted with the new configuration. "Boeing 747", Aircraft Spotting. Retrieved: 7 December 2007. No freighter version of this model was developed by Boeing. However, 747-100s have been converted to freighters. "FAA Regulatory and Guidance Library" (PDF), FAA. Retrieved: 12 December 2007. See reference to Supplementary Type Certificates for freighter conversion. A total of 167 747-100s were built. 747-100B A 747-100B version, which has a stronger airframe and undercarriage design as well as an increased maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of was offered. The 747-100B was delivered only to Iran Air and Saudia (now Saudi Arabian Airlines). "Saudia Orders 4 Boeing 747's", New York Times. Retrieved: 12 December 2007. Optional engine models were offered by Rolls-Royce (RB211) and GE (CF6), but only Saudia ordered the Rolls-Royce option. Norris 1997, p. 53. A total of 9 747-100Bs were built. 747-100SR A Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a modified 747-100SR Responding to requests from Japanese airlines, Boeing developed the 747-100SR as a "short range" variant of the 747-100. The SR has a lower fuel capacity but can carry more passengers, up to 498 in early versions and more than 550 in later models, because of increased economy class seating. The 747SR has a modified body structure to accommodate the added stress accumulated from a greater number of takeoffs and landings. Kane, Robert M. "Air Transportation", p. 534, Google Books, 2003. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The -100SR entered service with Japan Airlines (then Japan Air Lines) on 7 October 1973. "747 Milestones", The Boeing Company. Retrieved 17 December 2007 Specifically, the SR has extra structural support at the wings, fuselage, and the landing gear along with a 20% reduction in fuel capacity. Later, short range versions of the -100B and the -300 were also developed. The SRs are used primarily on domestic flights in Japan. Bowers 1989, p. 516–517. Two 747-100SRs were delivered to Japan Airlines with a stretched upper deck to accommodate more passengers. This modification is known as the "SUD" (stretched upper deck). "Boeing 747-146B/SR/SUD aircraft", Airliners.net. "JAL Aircraft Collection", Japan Airlines. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. All Nippon Airways (ANA) operated 747-100SRs on domestic Japanese routes with 455 or 456 seats but retired the last aircraft on 10 March 2006. "Truth of NANJING must be known", Japan Corporate News Network. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. JAL operated the 747-100B/SR/SUD variant with 563 seats on domestic routes, and retired these planes in the third quarter of 2006. JAL and JALways have operated the 747-300SRs on domestic leisure routes and to other parts of Asia. A total of 29 747-100SRs were built. . 747SP Bahrain Royal Flight 747SP climbing. The undercarriages have not yet fully retracted. The idea for The 747SP came from a joint request between Pan American World Airways and Iran Air who were looking for a high capacity airliner with enough range to cover Pan Am's New York-Middle Eastern routes and Iran Air's planned Tehran-New York route. The Tehran-New York route when launched was the longest non-stop commercial flight in the world. The 747SP is shorter than the 747-100. Except for the planned 747-8, the SP is the only 747 with a fuselage of modified length. Fuselage sections were eliminated fore and aft of the wing, and the center section of the fuselage was redesigned. Single-slotted flaps replaced the complex triple-slotted Fowler flaps of the 100 series. "747-200 Classic by AETI", Flight Simulators. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. The under-wing "canoes", which housed the flap mechanisms on full-size 747s, were eliminated entirely on the SP. "The Story of the Baby 747", 747sp.com. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. The 747SP, compared to earlier variants, had a tapering of the aft upper fuselage into the empennage, a double-hinged rudder, and longer vertical and horizontal stabilizers. Kane 2003, p. 546. The 747SP was granted a supplemental certificate on 4 February 1976 and entered service with Pan Am, the launch customer and Iran Air, that same year. The aircraft was chosen by airlines wishing to serve major airports with short runways. A total of 45 747SPs were built. The 44th 747SP was delivered on 30 August 1982. Boeing re-opened the 747SP production line to build one last 747SP five years later in 1987 for an order by the United Arab Emirates government. As of August 2007, 17 Boeing 747SP aircraft were in service with Iran Air (3), Saudi Arabian Airlines (1), Syrian Arab Airlines (2) and as executive versions. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has one modified for the SOFIA experiment. "747 SP", 747sp.com. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. 747-200 The 747-200 has more powerful engines, higher takeoff weights (MTOW) and range than the -100. A few early -200s retained the three-window configuration of the -100 on the upper deck, but most were built with a 10-window configuration on each side. "747 windows", Plexoft. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. Air France 747-200 in landing configuration Several versions in addition to the -200 were produced. The 747-200B is an improved version of the 747-200, with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines; it first entered service in February 1971. "Aircraft Owner's and Operator's Guide" (PDF), Aircraft-Commerce.com. Retrieved: 5 December 2007. The -200B aircraft has a full load range of about 6,857 nmi (12,700 km). The 747-200F is the freighter version of the -200 model. It could be fitted with or without a side cargo door. It has a capacity of 105 tons (95.3 tonnes) and an MTOW of up to 833,000 lb (378,000 kg). It entered first service in 1972 with Lufthansa. "Boeing 747 - About the 747 Family", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 6 December 2007. The 747-200C Convertible is a version that can be converted between a passenger and a freighter or used in mixed configurations. The seats are removable, and the model has a nose cargo door. The -200C could be fitted with an optional side cargo door on the main deck. "Boeing 747-200", CivilAviation.eu. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. The 747-200M is a combination version that has a side cargo door on the main deck and can carry freight in the rear section of the main deck. A removable partition on the main deck separates the cargo area at the rear from the passengers at the front. This model can carry up to 238 passengers in a 3-class configuration if cargo is carried on the main deck. The model is also known as the 747-200 Combi. As on the -100, a stretched upper deck (SUD) modification was later offered. A total of 10 converted 747-200s were operated by KLM. Union des Transports Aériens (UTA) also had two of these aircraft converted. "Air France F-BTDG Airfleets", Airfleets. Retrieved: 6 December 2007. "747-2B3BM(SUD) Aircraft Pictures", Airliners.net. Retrieved: 6 December 2007. A total of 393 of the 747-200 versions had been built when production ended in 1991. "747 background", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 13 December 2007. Of these, 225 were 747-200s, 73 were 747-200F, 13 were 747-200C, 78 were 747-200M, and 4 were military. "747 Classics Technical Specifications", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 6 December 2007. Many 747-200s are still in operation, although most large carriers have retired them from their fleets and sold them to smaller operators. Large carriers have sped up fleet retirement following the September 11th attacks and the subsequent drop in demand for air travel, scrapping some or turning others into freighters. "British Airways. (will accelerate the retirement of five 747-200s)", Air Transport World, 10 October 2001, p. 14. "Qantas (will retire its fleet of five Boeing 747-200 aircraft)".Taipei Times, 16 November 2001. Retrieved: 4 June 2008. 747-300 Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) 747-300 on final approach to London Heathrow Airport The most visible difference between the -300 and previous models was a stretched upper deck with two new emergency exit doors and an optional flight-crew rest area immediately aft of the flight deck as standard. (The stretched upper deck had previously been offered as a retrofit and first appeared on two Japanese 747-100 SR models.) Compared to the -200, the upper deck is longer than the -200. "Boeing 747-300", airliners.net. A new straight stairway to the upper deck instead of a spiral staircase is another difference between the -300 and earlier variants. The staircase creates room below and above for more seats. With minor aerodynamic changes, Boeing increased the cruise speed of the -300 to Mach 0.85 from Mach 0.84 on the -100/-200. The -300 features the same takeoff weight. Two of the three engine choices from the -200 were unchanged in the -300, but the General Electric CF6-80C2B1 was offered instead of the CF6-50E2 offered on the -200. The 747-300 name, which was proposed for a variant that was never launched, was revived for this new version, which was introduced in 1980. Swissair ordered the first 747-300 on 11 June 1980. "Seven Series", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. The 747-300 first flew on 5 October 1982. Swissair was the first customer to accept delivery on 23 March 1983. JALways 747-300 at Osaka-Kansai Airport In addition to the passenger version, other versions were available. The 747-300M has cargo capacity in the rear portion of the main deck similar to the -200M, but with the stretched upper deck it can carry more passengers. "747-300", Zap16.com. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The 747-300SR is a short range version to meet the need for a high-capacity domestic model. Japan Airlines operated such aircraft with more than 600 seats on the Okinawa–Tokyo route and elsewhere. Boeing never launched a newly built freighter version of the 747-300, but it modified used passenger -300 models into freighters starting in 2000. "Boeing Delivers First 747-300 Special Freighter To Atlas Air", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. A total of 81 aircraft were delivered, 56 for passenger use, 21 -300M and 4 -300SR versions. "Technical Specifications -- 747 Classics", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 11 July 2008 The 747-300 was soon superseded by the launch of the more advanced 747-400 in 1985, just two years after the -300 entered service. Lawrence and Thornton 2005 The last 747-300 was delivered in September 1990 to Sabena. "Seven series", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Today, many -300 aircraft are still active, despite a significant loss of interest in the series among large carriers who replaced the 747-300 with the 747-400. Air France, Air India and Qantas were some of the last major carriers to operate the 747-300. On 29 December 2008, Qantas flew its last scheduled 747-300 service, operating from Melbourne to Los Angeles via Auckland. On 20 January 2009, Qantas' last 747-300 was flown to the United States for storage. Carriers still using the -300 include Japan Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines and Saudi Arabian Airlines. Although none were constructed as dedicated freighters, a few -300s have been converted to cargo operations. 747-400 British Airways operates the largest fleet of 747s in the world. The addition of winglets is a noticeable difference between most -400s and earlier variants. The 747-400 is an improved model with increased range. It has wing-tip extensions of , winglets of , which improve the 747-400's fuel efficiency by 4% compared to previous 747 versions. Assessment of Wingtip Modifications to Increase the Fuel Efficiency of Air Force Aircraft, National Academies Press, 2007, p.33. It has a new glass cockpit designed for a flight crew of two instead of three. The use of electronics reduced the number of dials, gauges and knobs from 971 to 365. It has tail fuel tanks, revised engines and a new interior. The longer range was used by some airlines to bypass traditional fuel stops, such as Anchorage. "JAL 2007", Japan Airlines. Retrieved: 14 December 2007. The was offered in passenger (400), freighter (400F), combi (400C), domestic (400D), extended range passenger (400ER) and extended range freighter (400ERF) versions. The freighter version does not have an extended upper deck. "Boeing 747-400 Freighter Family", The Boeing Company. Retrieved 17 December 2007. The 747-400D was built for short range operations and does not include winglets, but these can be retrofitted. "Japan Airlines To Receive 100th Boeing 747 Aircraft", Japan Airlines, 19 November 1998. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Air New Zealand 747-400 The passenger version first entered service in February 1989 with Northwest Airlines on the Minneapolis to Phoenix route. The combi version entered service in September 1989 with KLM. The freighter version entered service in November 1993 with Cargolux. The 747-400ERF entered service in October 2002 and the 747-400ER entered service the following month with Qantas, "Boeing 747-400ER Family", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 16 October 2007. the only airline ever to order the passenger version. Some of the last built Boeing 747-400s were delivered with Dreamliner livery along with the modern interior from the Boeing 777. In January 2004 Boeing and Cathay Pacific launched the Boeing 747-400 Special Freighter program, "News Release", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 10 December 2008. later referred to as the Boeing Converted Freighter (BCF). The first 747-400BCF was redelivered in December 2005. "First 747-400 Boeing Converted Freighter Redelivered to Cathay Pacific", The Boeing Company, December 19, 2005. Retrieved: 10 December 2008. The last passenger version of the 747-400 was delivered in April 2005. Boeing announced in March 2007 that it had no plans to produce further passenger versions of the -400. Wallace, James. "747-400 passenger is no more". Seattlepi.com, 17 March 2007. However, orders for 36 -400F and -400ERF freighters were already in place at the time of the announcement. As of March 2009, 690 of the 747-400 series aircraft had been delivered with four -400s to be delivered (one -400F and three -400ERFs). At various times, the largest operator of the 747-400 has been Singapore Airlines, "Singapore Airlines Boeing 747-400 Fleet World's Largest". The Boeing Company. 13 October 1994. Retrieved: 14 December 2007. Japan Airlines, or British Airways. "British Airways set for fleet revamp". The Boeing Company, August 2005. Retrieved: 14 December 2007. 747 LCF Dreamlifter Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter, also called Dreamlifter, is modified from 747s previously in airline use. The 747-400 Dreamlifter "Cargo freighter", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 19 December 2007. (originally called the 747 Large Cargo Freighter or LCF "Evergreen Aviation press releases", Evergreen Aviation, 20 July 2007. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. ) is a Boeing-designed modification of existing 747-400s to a larger configuration to ferry Boeing 787 sub-assemblies to the Boeing plant in Everett, Washington, for final assembly. Evergreen Aviation Technologies Corporation is completing modifications of 747-400s into Dreamlifters in Taiwan. The aircraft flew for the first time on 9 September 2006. "Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter Completes First Flight", The Boeing Company, 9 September 2006. The Dreamlifter's only intended purpose is to transport sub-assemblies for the Boeing 787. McCue, Dan. "Dreamlifter to become fixture in Lowcountry sky", Charleston Regional Business Journal, 28 May 2007. Retrieved: 18 December 2007. The aircraft is certified to carry only essential crew and not passengers. "Boeing 747 Dreamlifter Achieves FAA Certification", The Boeing Company, 4 June 2007. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Three aircraft have been built, and one on order. 747-8 Boeing announced a new 747 variant, the 747-8 (referred to as the 747 Advanced prior to launch) on 14 November 2005, which will use the same engine and cockpit technology as the 787, hence the use of the "8". Plans call for the new design to be quieter, more economical and more environmentally friendly. The 747-8 is stretched to add more payload capacity. This involves lengthening from 232 to 251 feet (70.8 to 76.4 m), surpassing the Airbus A340-600 to become the world's longest airliner. Steinke, Sebastian. "Boeing launches 747-8", Flug Revue, January 2006. Retrieved: 8 December 2007. Artist's impression of a Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental in the colors of Lufthansa, the launch customer The passenger version, dubbed 747-8 Intercontinental or 747-8I, will be able to carry up to 467 passengers in a 3-class configuration and fly more than at Mach 0.855. As a derivative of the already common 747-400, the 747-8 has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts. Norris, G. "Boeing freezes the 747-8I design",Aviation Week, 2007. Retrieved: 8 December 2007. The 747-8I is scheduled to enter service in 2010. "Lufthansa launches 747-8I". Air Transport World. Retrieved: 8 December 2007. Also offered is the 747-8 Freighter or 747-8F, which derives from the 747-400ERF. The 747-8F can accommodate 154 tons (140 tonnes) of cargo. To aid loading and unloading, it features an overhead nose-door. It has 16 percent more payload capacity than the 747-400F and can hold seven additional standard air cargo containers. The 747-8F is scheduled to enter service in 2009. "Boeing 747-8 Freighter", Deagel. Retrieved: 8 December 2007. Several units are under construction at Boeing's Everett facility. The 747-8 has received a total of 106 orders with 78 for the -8F and 27 for the -8I as of April 2009. Government, military and other variants VC-25A 29000, one of the two customized Boeing 747-200Bs that have been part of the U.S. presidential fleet since 1990 20-1101 Japanese Air Force One, one of the two customized Boeing 747-400s that have been part of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force since 1993 C-19 – The U.S. Air Force gave this designation to the 747-100s used by some U.S. airlines and modified for use in the Civil Reserve Airlift Fleet. "Boeing C-19", Global Security. Retrieved: 16 December 2007. VC-25 – This aircraft is the U.S. Air Force Very Important Person (VIP) version of the 747-200B. The U.S. Air Force operates two of them in VIP configuration as the VC-25A. Tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are popularly known as Air Force One, which is technically the air-traffic call sign for any United States Air Force aircraft carrying the U.S. President. Although based on the 747-200B design, they include several innovations introduced on the 747-400. Partially completed aircraft from Everett, Washington, were flown to Wichita, Kansas, for final outfitting. E-4B – Formerly known as the National Emergency Airborne Command Post (referred to colloquially as "Kneecap"), this aircraft is now referred to as the National Airborne Operations Center (NAOC). YAL-1 – This is the experimental Airborne Laser, a component of the National Missile Defense plan. Shuttle Carrier Aircraft – Two 747s were modified to carry the Space Shuttle. One is a 747-100 (N905NA) and the other is a 747-100SR (N911NA). A SCA carried the Space Shuttle Enterprise in the late 1970s, and has since carried all Space Shuttles. A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport, including Bahrain, Brunei, India, Iran, Japan, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. Several new Boeing 747-8s have been ordered by Boeing Business Jet for conversion to VIP transport for several unidentified customers. "Boeing nets 57 new orders, including big VIP planes", Seattle Times. Retrieved: 14 December 2007. C-33 – This aircraft was a proposed U.S. military version of the 747-400 intended to augment the C-17 fleet. The plan was canceled in favor of additional C-17 military transports. KC-33A – A proposed 747 was also adapted as an aerial refueling tanker and was bid against the DC-10-30 during the 1970s Advanced Cargo Transport Aircraft (ACTA) program that produced the KC-10A Extender. Before the Khomeini-led revolution, Iran bought four 747-100 aircraft with air-refueling boom conversions to support a fleet of F-4 Phantoms. "KC-33A: Closing the Aerial Refuelling and Strategic Air Mobility Gaps" (PDF), Air Power Australia Analysis APA-2005-02, 16 April 2005. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Hamilton, S. . "Boeing advanced 747 as tanker." (PDF), Leeham Company, 11 September 2007. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. It is unknown whether these aircraft remain usable as tankers. Since then, other proposals have emerged for adaptation of later 747-400 aircraft for this role. 747 CMCA – This variant was considered by the U.S. Air Force as a Cruise Missile Carrier Aircraft during the development of the B-1 Lancer strategic bomber. It would have been equipped with 50 to 100 AGM-86 ALCM cruise missiles on rotary launchers. This plan was abandoned in favor of more conventional strategic bombers. Jenkins, Dennis R. B-1 Lancer, The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0-07-134694-5. Evergreen Supertanker - A Boeing 747-200 modified as an aerial application platform for fire fighting using 20,000 gallons of firefighting chemicals. Evergreen International Airlines were issued with a supplementary type certificate for the Boeing 747-200C (ST0192LA) in October 2006 for the installation and removal of internal tanks, associated systems and support structure for the aerial despersant of liquids. Federal Aviation Authority Supplementary Type Certificate ST01912LA Installation and removal of internal tanks, associated systems and support structure for the aerial dispersant of liquids Undeveloped variants Boeing has studied a number of 747 variants that have not gone beyond the concept stage. 747-300 trijet During the 1970s, Boeing studied the development of a shorter body, three-engined 747 to compete with the smaller L-1011 TriStar and DC-10, which had lower trip costs than the 747SP. The 747-300 trijet would have had more payload, range and passenger capacity. The center engine would have been fitted in the tail with an S-duct intake similar to the L-1011's. However, engineering studies showed that a time-consuming and costly redesign of the 747 wing would be necessary. "The Story of the Baby 747", Boeing 747SP website. Retrieved: 16 December 2007. 747-500X, -600X and -700X Boeing announced the 747-500X and -600X at the 1996 Farnborough Airshow. The proposed models would have combined the 747's fuselage with a new 251 ft (77 m) span wing derived from the 777. Other changes included adding more powerful engines and increasing the number of tires from two to four on the nose landing gear and from 16 to 20 on the main landing gear. Patterson, James W. "Impact of New Large Aircraft on Airport Design" (PDF), Federal Aviation Administration, March 1998. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. The 747-500X concept featured an 18 ft (5.5 m) stretch to 250 ft (76.2 m) long, and the aircraft was to carry 462 passengers over a range up to 8,700 nautical miles (10,000 mi, 16,100 km), with a gross weight of over 1.0 Mlb (450 Mg). The 747-600X concept featured a greater stretch to 279 ft (85 m) with seating for 548 passengers, a range of up to 7,700 nmi (8,900 mi, 14,300 km), and a gross weight of 1.2 Mlb (540 Mg). A third study concept, the 747-700X, would have combined the wing of the 747-600X with a widened fuselage, allowing it to carry 650 passengers over the same range as a 747-400. The cost of the changes from previous 747 models, in particular the new wing for the 747-500X and -600X, was estimated to be more than $5 billion. Boeing was not able to attract enough interest to launch the aircraft. 747X and 747X Stretch As Airbus progressed with its A3XX study, Boeing in 2000 offered the market a 747 derivative as an alternative. This was a more modest proposal than the previous -500X and -600X that would retain the 747's overall wing design and add a segment at the root, increasing the span to . "Boeing 747 Celebrates 30 Years In Service", The Boeing Company, 2 September 1996. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Power would have been supplied by either the Engine Alliance GP7172 or the Rolls-Royce Trent 600, which were also proposed for the 767-400ERX. "Boeing Commits To Produce New Longer-Range 767-400ER", The Boeing Company, 13 September 2000. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. A new flight deck based on the 777's would be used. The 747X aircraft was to carry 430 passengers over ranges of up to 8,700 nmi (10,000 mi, 16,100 km). The 747X Stretch would be extended to long, allowing it to carry 500 passengers over ranges of up to 7,800 nmi (9,000 mi, 14,500 km). Both would feature an interior based on the 777's signature architecture. "Customer Symposium Highlights Future Boeing 747 Models", The Boeing Company, 29 June 2000. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Freighter versions of the 747X and 747X Stretch were also studied. Morris, J. "Boeing In No Hurry to Launch 747X", Aviation Week, 24 July 2000. Retrieved: 18 December 2007. Like its predecessor, the 747X familyXXX in March 2001, when Boeing announced the Sonic Cruiser concept. Though the 747X design was less costly than the 747-500X and -600X, it was criticized for not offering a sufficient advance from the existing 747-400. The 747X did not make it beyond the drawing board, but the 747-400X being developed concurrently moved into production to become the 747-400ER. "Boeing Launches New, Longer-Range 747-400", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. 747-400XQLR After the end of the 747X program, Boeing continued to study improvements that could be made to the 747. The 747-400XQLR (Quiet Long Range) was meant to have an increased range of 7,980 nmi (9,200 mi, 14,800 km), with improvements to improve efficiency and reduce noise. "Boeing Offers New 747-400X Quiet Longer Range Jetliner", The Boeing Company, 26 February 2002. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. "GE's CF6 Engine Models Tailored For Boeing's 747-400XQLR Wide-Body", GE Aviation, 25 March 2002. Improvements studied included raked wingtips similar to those used on the 767-400ER and a sawtooth engine nacelle for noise reduction. Steinke, Sebastian. "Boeing Proposes 747-400X Quiet Longer Range", Flug Revue Online, May 2002. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. Although the 747-400XQLR did not move to production, many of its features were used for the 747 Advanced, which has now been launched as the 747-8. Accidents and incidents As of October 2008, the 747 has been involved in 122 incidents, Boeing 747 incidents, Aviation-Safety.net, 17 October 2008. Retrieved: 19 October 2008. including 48 hull-loss accidents, Boeing 747 hull-loss occurrences, Aviation-Safety.net, 17 October 2008. Retrieved: 19 October 2008. resulting in 2,850 fatalities. The 747 has been in 35 hijackings which caused 882 fatalities. Boeing 747 Accident Statistics, Aviation-Safety.net, 5 December 2007. Retrieved: 19 October 2008. Few crashes have been attributed to design flaws of the 747. The Tenerife disaster resulted from pilot error, air traffic control (ATC) error and communications failure, while the Japan Airlines Flight 123 and China Airlines Flight 611 crashes stemmed from improper aircraft repair. United Airlines Flight 811, which suffered an explosive decompression mid-flight on 24 February 1989, led the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to issue a recommendation that 747-200 cargo doors similar to those on the Flight 811 aircraft be modified. Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down by the Soviets in 1983 after it had strayed into Soviet territory, causing U.S. President Ronald Reagan to authorize the then strictly military Global Positioning System (GPS) for civilian use. TWA Flight 800, a 747-100 that exploded in midair on 17 July 1996, led the Federal Aviation Administration to propose a rule requiring installation of an inerting system in the center fuel tank of most large aircraft that was adopted in July 2008, after years of research into solutions. It is expected that the new safety system will cost $100,000 to $450,000 per aircraft and weigh approximately 200 pounds. "Airlines Ordered to Cut Fuel-Tank Explosion Risk", Wall Street Journal, 17 July 2008, p. B5. Note: Cargo aircraft and smaller regional jets and commuter planes are not subject to this rule. Aircraft on display As increasing numbers of "classic" 747-100 and 747-200 series aircraft have been retired, some have found their way into museums or other uses. The City of Everett, the first 747 and prototype is at the Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington, USA where it is sometimes leased to Boeing for test purposes. "Aircraft and Space Craft, Boeing 747-121", Museum of Flight. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. Other 747s in museums include those at the National Aviation Theme Park Aviodrome, Lelystad, Netherlands; the Qantas Founders Outback Museum, Longreach, Queensland, Australia; Rand Airport, Johannesburg, South Africa; Technik Museum Speyer, Speyer, Germany; Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Paris, France; Tehran Aerospace Exhibition, Tehran, Iran; Jeongseok Aviation Center, Jeju, South Korea, "The Blue Sky", thebluesky.info. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. and the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. "Historic Aircraft Lands at Air and Space Museum", WTOP News, 16 January 2007. Upon its retirement from service, the first 747 flown commercially was dis-assembled and shipped to Mokpo, South Korea where it was re-assembled and converted into a restaurant. It was originally flown commercially by Pan Am. While it was the first 747 flown commercially, it was actually the second to be built. As of April 2009, the 747 restaurant is closed and abandoned. Dark Roasted Blend: Abandoned Boeing 747 Restaurant (and Other Plane Conversions) - April 21, 2009 - Accessed: April 22, 2009 Specifications Measurement 747-100 747-200B 747-300 747-400747-400ER 747-8ICockpit Crew Three TwoTypical seating capacity 452 (2-class) 366 (3-class) 496 (2-class) 412 (3-class) 524 (2-class) 416 (3-class) 467 (3-class)Length 231 ft 10 in (70.6 m) 250 ft 8 in (76.4 m)Wingspan 195 ft 8 in (59.6 m) 211 ft 5 in (64.4 m) 224 ft 9 in (68.5 m)Height 63 ft 5 in (19.3 m) 63 ft 8 in (19.4 m) 63 ft 6 in (19.4 m)Weight empty 358,000 lb (162,400 kg) 383,000 lb (174,000 kg) 392,800 lb (178,100 kg) 393,263 lb (178,756 kg) ER: 406,900 lb (184,600 kg) 410,000 lb (185,972 kg)Maximum takeoff weight 735,000 lb (333,390 kg) 833,000 lb (377,842 kg) 875,000 lb (396,890 kg) ER: 910,000 lb (412,775 kg) 970,000 lb (439,985 kg)Cruising speed (at 35,000 ft altitude) Mach 0.84 (555 mph, 893 km/h, 481 knots ) Mach 0.85 (567 mph, 913 km/h, 493 kn) ER: Mach 0.855 (570 mph, 918 km/h, 495 kn) Mach 0.855 (570 mph, 918 km/h, 495 kn)Maximum speed Mach 0.89 (594 mph, 955 km/h, 516 kn) Mach 0.92 (614 mph, 988 km/h, 533 kn) Required runway at MTOW* 10,466 ft (3,190 m) 10,893 ft (3,320 m) 9,902 ft (3,018 m) ER: 10,138 ft (3,090 m) 10,138 ft (3,090 m)Maximum range at MTOW 5,300 nmi (9,800 km) 6,850 nmi (12,700 km) 6,700 nmi (12,400 km) 7,260 nmi (13,450 km) ER: 7,670 nmi (14,205 km) 8,000 nmi (14,815 km)Max. fuel capacity 48,445 U.S. gal (40,339 imp gal/183,380 L) 52,410 U.S. gal (43,640 imp gal/199,158 L) 57,285 U.S. gal (47,700 imp gal/216,840 L) ER: 63,705 U.S. gal (53,045 imp gal/241,140 L) 64,225 U.S. gal (53,478 imp gal/243,120 L)Engine models (x 4) PW JT9D-7A RR RB211-524B2 PW JT9D-7R4G2 GE CF6-50E2 RR RB211-524D4 PW JT9D-7R4G2 GE CF6-80C2B1 RR RB211-524D4 PW 4062 GE CF6-80C2B5F RR RB211-524G/H ER: GE CF6-80C2B5F GEnx-2B67Engine thrust (per engine) PW 46,500 lbf (207 kN) RR 50,100 lbf (223 kN) PW 54,750 lbf (244 kN) GE 52,500 lbf (234 kN) RR 53,000 lbf (236 kN) PW 54,750 lbf (244 kN) GE 55,640 lbf (247 kN) RR 53,000 lbf (236 kN) PW 63,300 lbf (282 kN) GE 62,100 lbf (276 kN) RR 59,500/60,600 lbf (265/270 kN) ER: GE 62,100 lbf (276 kN) 66,500 lbf (296 kN) Sources: 747 specifications, "747 specifications", The Boeing Company. Retrieved 16 December 2007. 747 airport report "747 Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning", The Boeing Company. Retrieved: 15 December 2007. The 747 parasitic drag, CDP, is 0.022, and the wing area is , so that f equals about 121 sq ft or 11.2 m². The parasitic drag is given by ½ f ρair v² in which f is the product of drag coefficient CDp and the wing area. "Calculating and Plotting Parasite Drag", Aerodynamics Text. Retrieved: 17 December 2007. "Required runway" length allows for emergency factors. Actual takeoff distances will normally be considerably shorter than those listed here. See Balanced field takeoff. Deliveries {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 |- |14 |16 |14 |13 |15 |19 |27 |31 |25 |47 |53 |39 |26 |25 |40 |56 |61 |64 |70 |45 |- |----- 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 <th style="color:#fff;font-weight:bold;background-color:#069;padding:0.3em">1972 <th style="color:#fff;font-weight:bold;background-color:#069;padding:0.3em">1971 <th style="color:#fff;font-weight:bold;background-color:#069;padding:0.3em">1970 <th style="color:#fff;font-weight:bold;background-color:#069;padding:0.3em">1969 |- |24 |23 |35 |24 |16 |22 |26 |53 |73 |67 |32 |20 |27 |21 |22 |30 |30 |69 |92 |4 |- |} Data through December 2008, table updated 9 February 2009. Orders and Deliveries search page, The Boeing Company. Retrieved 9 February 2009. See also References Notes Bibliography Bowers, Peter M. Boeing aircraft since 1916. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1989. ISBN 0-85177-804-6. Irving, Clive. Wide Body: The Making of the Boeing 747. Philadelphia: Coronet, 1994. ISBN 0-340-59983-9. Kane, Robert M. Air Transportation. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, 2003. ISBN 0-75753-180-6. Lawrence, Philip K. and David Weldon Thornton. Deep Stall: The Turbulent Story of Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2005, ISBN 0-75464-626-2. Norris, Guy and Mark Wagner. Boeing 747: Design and Development since 1969. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Co., 1997. ISBN 0-7603-0280-4. Orlebar, Christopher. The Concorde Story. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, Fifth edition, 2002, ISBN 1-85532-667-1 Shaw, Robbie. Boeing 747 (Osprey Civil Aircraft series). London: Osprey, 1994. ISBN 1-85532-420-2. Sutter, Joe. 747: Creating the World's First Jumbo Jet and Other Adventures from a Life in Aviation. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-06-088241-9. Wilson, Stewart. Airliners of the World. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 1999. ISBN 1-875671-44-7. External links Boeing 747 product page Boeing 747-8 e-brochure – Flash animation Boeing 747 profile on FlightGlobal.com Boeing 747 specifications | Boeing_747 |@lemmatized boeing:190 widebody:3 commercial:11 airliner:19 often:1 refer:5 nickname:2 jumbo:7 jet:11 woman:1 build:23 house:2 bbc:3 news:6 april:15 retrieve:127 december:117 create:5 world:17 adventure:3 aviation:24 review:2 amazon:1 com:8 among:3 recognizable:1 aircraft:91 first:38 ever:4 produce:11 manufacture:1 airplane:3 unit:2 u:18 original:6 version:41 two:24 half:3 time:28 size:7 branson:1 richard:2 pilot:6 age:2 one:22 common:3 large:29 fly:14 commercially:4 hold:4 passenger:47 capacity:20 record:2 year:9 four:9 engine:35 use:34 double:4 deck:43 configuration:11 part:9 length:10 available:3 freighter:32 design:33 hump:2 like:2 upper:29 serve:2 class:18 lounge:5 general:11 rule:3 today:3 extra:3 seating:8 allow:14 easily:2 convert:10 cargo:27 carrier:11 remove:3 seat:20 instal:2 front:6 door:12 company:49 expect:3 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6,941 | Demographics_of_Jordan | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Jordan, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Jordanians are mostly Arabs, except for a few small communities of Circassians, Chechens, Armenians, and Kurds which have adapted to Arab culture. Jordan's ruling class is made up of people of Bedouin Arab descent, but another big portion of the population are Palestinians (60 - 80%). The official language is Arabic, but English is used widely in commerce and government. About 70% of Jordan's population is urban; less than 6% of the rural population is nomadic or semi-nomadic. Most people live where the rainfall supports agriculture. Most of the immigrant population is Palestinian in origin, having fled the former Mandate of Palestine in the wake of the 1948 and 1967 Arab-Israeli wars. Education The era of King Hussein saw increased school enrollment rates, which resulted in a rapid rise in the literacy rate in Jordan. At the beginning of his reign in 1952 the literacy rate was 33% and grew to 85% in 1996; according to the 2005 estimate, it is now 91.3% of the total population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 6,198,677 (July 2008 est.) Population growth rate: 2.338% (2008 est.) Birth rate: 20.13 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate: 2.72 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate: 5.97 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 32.2% (male 1,017,233/female 976,284) 15-64 years: 62.4% (male 2,110,293/female 1,840,531) 65 years and over: 4.1% (male 122,975/female 131,361) (2008 est.) The population of Jordan since 1960. Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.15 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.95 male(s)/female total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2008 est.) Infant mortality rate: 15.57 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 78.71 years male: 76.19 years female: 81.39 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate: 2.63 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality: noun: Jordanian(s) adjective: Jordanian non-Jordanians: 349.933 (7%) at the 2004 Census Ethnic groups: Arab 98%, Circassian 1%, Armenian 1% Religions: Muslim (Sunni) 89%, Christian 10% (majority Greek Orthodox, but some Greek and Roman Catholics, Syrian Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Protestant denominations), other 1% (several small Shi'a Muslim and Druze populations) (2001 est.) Languages: Arabic (official), English widely understood among the educated and the upper and middle classes Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 91.3% male: 95.9% female: 86.3% (2003 est.) See also Jordan Religion in Jordan | Demographics_of_Jordan |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:18 jordan:7 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:2 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 jordanian:4 mostly:1 arabs:1 except:1 small:2 community:1 circassian:2 chechen:1 armenian:3 kurd:1 adapt:1 arab:4 culture:1 ruling:1 class:2 make:1 people:2 bedouin:1 descent:1 another:1 big:1 portion:1 palestinian:2 official:2 language:2 arabic:2 english:2 use:1 widely:2 commerce:1 government:1 urban:1 less:1 rural:1 nomadic:2 semi:1 live:2 rainfall:1 support:1 agriculture:1 immigrant:1 origin:1 flee:1 former:1 mandate:1 palestine:1 wake:1 israeli:1 war:1 era:1 king:1 hussein:1 saw:1 increased:1 school:1 enrollment:1 rate:9 result:1 rapid:1 rise:1 literacy:3 beginning:1 reign:1 grow:1 accord:1 estimate:1 total:5 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:12 growth:1 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 since:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 non:1 census:1 ethnic:1 group:1 religion:2 muslim:2 sunni:1 christian:1 majority:1 greek:2 orthodox:4 roman:1 catholic:1 syrian:1 coptic:1 protestant:1 denomination:1 several:1 shi:1 druze:1 understood:1 among:1 educate:1 upper:1 middle:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 semi_nomadic:1 mandate_palestine:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 male_female:9 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 coptic_orthodox:1 protestant_denomination:1 shi_muslim:1 literacy_definition:1 |
6,942 | Demographics_of_Poland | Demographics of Poland, Data of FAO, 1961-2008 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The Demographics of Poland is about the demographic features of the population of Poland, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. According to the estimates of Polish Central Statistical Office (GUS), at the end of 2007 Poland had a population of 38,115.000, which translates into population density of 122 people/km² (urban 1105, rural 50). 61.5% of Polish population lives in the urban areas, a number which is slowly diminishing. Poland is the 33rd most populous country in the world (9th in Europe, with 5.4% of European population). Total population of Poland is decreasing (population growth was -0,04%). Average life expectancy was 70.5 for men and 78.9 for women. Population distribution is uneven. From ethnic perspective, Poland is very homogeneous, with 96.7% of population being Polish. A number of censuses have assessed this data, including a national census in 2002, and a survey by the Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights (HFHR), which confirmed there are numerous autochthonous ethnic groups in Poland. Estimates by INTEREG and Eurominority present a similar demographics picture of Poland but they provide estimates only for the most numerous of the autochthonous ethnic groups. Historical For many centuries, until the end of Second World War, the Polish population was composed of many significant ethnic minorities. The population of Poland decreased due to the losses sustained during World War II, and became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world as a result of the radically altered borders after the war and the subsequent migrations. This homogeneity is a result of post-World War II deportations ordered by the Soviet authorities, who wished to remove the sizable Polish minorities from Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine and deportations of Ukrainians from Poland. Nationalities 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, and 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002). Largest metropolitan and urban areas AreaESPON European Spatial Planning Observation Network, Study on Urban Functions (Project 1.4.3), Final Report, Chapter 3, (ESPON, 2007) Eurostat LUZ Eurostat, Urban Audit database, accessed on 2009-03-12. Data for 2004. Ministry of Regional Development "Koncepcja przestrzennego zagospodarowania kraju" - Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego, 2003 Demographia.com Demographia.com - World Urban Areas Citypopulation.de Thomas Brinkoff, Principal Agglomerations of the World, accessed on 2009-03-12. Data for 2009-01-01. Scientific description by Markowski Funkcje Metropolitalne Pięciu Stolic Województw Wschodnich Scientific description by Swianiewicz, Klimska "Społeczne i polityczne zróżnicowanie aglomeracji w Polsce" - Paweł Swianiewicz, Urszula Klimska; University of Warsaw 2005 Katowice (Katowice urban area)3,029,000 (5,294,000) Data of polycentric Silesian metropolitan area 2,710,3973,239,2002,450,0002,775,0002,746,0002,733,000Warsaw 2,785,0002,660,4062,680,6002,000,0002,375,0002,631,9002,504,000Kraków1,236,000 1,264,3221,227,200 700,000Not listed1,257,5001,367,000Łódź1,165,000 1,163,5161,061,600 950,0001,060,0001,178,0001,129,000Gdańsk 993,000 1,105,2031,220,800 775,000No data1,098,4001,210,000Poznań 919,000 1,018,5111,227,200 600,000No data1,011,200 846,000Wrocław 861,000 1,031,4391,136,900 600,000No data1,029,800 956,000 Demographics by voivodeship City Voivodeship InhabitantsMay 20 2002 InhabitantsDecember 31 2004 InhabitantsDecember 31 2006 1 Warsaw (Warszawa) Masovia 1,671,670 1,692,854 1,702,139 2 Łódź Łódź 789,318 774,004 760,251 3 Kraków Lesser Poland 758,544 757,430 756,267 4 Wrocław Lower Silesia 640,367 636,268 634,630 5 Poznań Greater Poland 578,886 570,778 564,951 6 Gdańsk Pomerania 461,334 459,072 456,658 7 Szczecin Western Pomerania 415,399 411,900 409,068 8 Bydgoszcz Kuyavia-Pomerania 373,804 368,235 363,468 9 Lublin Lublin 357,110 355,998 353,483 10 Katowice Silesia 327,222 319,904 314,500 11 Białystok Podlaskie 291,383 292,150 294,830 12 Gdynia Pomerania 253,458 253,324 251,844 13 Częstochowa Silesia 251,436 248,032 245,030 14 Radom Masovia 229,699 227,613 225,810 15 Sosnowiec Silesia 232,622 228,192 245,030 16 Toruń Kuyavia-Pomerania 211,243 208,278 207,190 17 Kielce Świętokrzyskie 212,429 209,455 207,188 18 Gliwice Silesia 203,814 200,361 198,499 19 Zabrze Silesia 195,293 192,546 190,110 20 Bytom Silesia 193,546 189,535 186,540 21 Bielsko-Biała Silesia 178,028 176,987 176,453 22 Olsztyn Warmia-Masuria 173,102 174,550 174,941 23 Rzeszów Subcarpathia 160,376 159,020 165,578 24 Ruda Śląska Silesia 150,595 147,403 145,471 25 Rybnik Silesia 142,731 141,755 141,388 26 Tychy Silesia 132,816 131,547 130,492 27 Dąbrowa Górnicza Silesia 132,236 130,789 129,559 28 Opole Opole 129,946 128,864 127,602 29 Płock Masovia 128,361 127,841 127,224 30 Elbląg Warmia-Masuria 128,134 127,655 126,985 31 Gorzów Wielkopolski Lubusz 125,914 125,578 125,504 32 Wałbrzych Lower Silesia 130,268 127,566 124,988 33 Włocławek Kuyavia-Pomerania 121,229 120,369 119,256 34 Zielona Góra Lubusz 118,293 118,516 118,115 35 Tarnów Lesser Poland 119,913 118,267 116,967 36 Chorzów Silesia 117,430 115,241 113,978 37 Kalisz Greater Poland 109,498 108,792 108,477 38 Koszalin Western Pomerania 108,709 107,773 107,693 39 Legnica Lower Silesia 107,100 106,143 105,186 40 Grudziądz Kuyavia-Pomerania 99,943 98,757 99,244 41 Słupsk Pomerania 100,376 99,827 98,092 Statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 38,500,696 (July 2008 est.) Population growth rate -0.045% (2008 est.) Birth rate 10.01 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) There were 389,000 births in 2007 compared to 374,244 in 2006. Death rate 9.99 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) There were 372,000 deaths in 2007 compared to 369,000 in 2006. Net migration rate -0.46 migrants/1,000 population (2008 est.) Total asylum seekers admitted 94,500 (2006) Age structure 0-14 years: 15.2% 15-64 years: 71.4% 65 years and over: 13.4% (2008 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.62 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.) Infant mortality rate 6.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) Life expectancy at birth male: 73.42 years female: 77.85 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 1.27 children born/woman (2008 est.) TFR was 1.267 in 2006. Ethnic groups Polish 96.7%, German 0.4%, Byelorussian 0.1%, Ukrainian 0.1%, other 0.7%, not declared 2.0% (Census 2002) Religions Roman Catholic 89.8%, Eastern Orthodox 1.3%, Protestant and other 0.6%, unspecified 8.3% (2002 census) see Religion in Poland and Catholic Church in Poland Languages Polish 99.9% (Census 2002) Literacy definition: age 7 and over can read and write total population: 99.8% male: 99.8% female: 99.7% (2003 est.) Notes See also Health in Poland External links Central Statistical Office for the Republic of Poland Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage CIA World Factbook 2004 Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights Poland - Population and ethnic composition Armenians in Poland Poland's president expresses regret over 1947 Akcja Wisla INTEREG | Demographics_of_Poland |@lemmatized demographic:6 poland:24 data:5 fao:1 number:3 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 feature:1 population:21 include:2 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 accord:1 estimate:3 polish:9 central:2 statistical:2 office:2 gus:1 end:2 translate:1 people:2 urban:7 rural:1 life:3 area:5 slowly:1 diminish:1 populous:1 country:1 world:9 europe:1 european:2 total:5 decrease:2 growth:2 average:1 expectancy:2 men:1 woman:2 distribution:1 uneven:1 ethnic:6 perspective:1 homogeneous:2 census:6 assess:1 national:1 survey:1 helsinki:2 foundation:2 human:2 right:2 hfhr:1 confirm:1 numerous:2 autochthonous:2 group:3 intereg:2 eurominority:1 present:1 similar:1 picture:1 provide:1 historical:1 many:2 century:1 second:1 war:4 compose:1 significant:1 minority:2 due:1 loss:1 sustain:1 ii:2 become:1 one:1 ethnically:1 result:2 radically:1 alter:1 border:1 subsequent:1 migration:2 homogeneity:1 post:1 deportation:2 order:1 soviet:1 authority:1 wish:1 remove:1 sizable:1 lithuania:1 belarus:1 ukraine:1 ukrainian:2 nationality:2 claim:1 declare:2 speak:1 home:1 large:1 metropolitan:2 areaespon:1 spatial:1 planning:1 observation:1 network:1 study:1 function:1 project:1 final:1 report:1 chapter:1 espon:1 eurostat:2 luz:1 audit:1 database:1 access:2 ministry:1 regional:1 development:1 koncepcja:1 przestrzennego:1 zagospodarowania:1 kraju:1 ministerstwo:1 rozwoju:1 regionalnego:1 demographia:2 com:2 citypopulation:1 de:1 thomas:1 brinkoff:1 principal:1 agglomeration:1 scientific:2 description:2 markowski:1 funkcje:1 metropolitalne:1 pięciu:1 stolic:1 województw:1 wschodnich:1 swianiewicz:2 klimska:2 społeczne:1 polityczne:1 zróżnicowanie:1 aglomeracji:1 w:1 polsce:1 paweł:1 urszula:1 university:1 warsaw:2 katowice:3 polycentric:1 silesian:1 voivodeship:2 city:1 inhabitantsmay:1 inhabitantsdecember:2 warszawa:1 masovia:3 łódź:2 kraków:1 less:2 wrocław:1 low:3 silesia:15 poznań:1 great:2 gdańsk:1 pomerania:9 szczecin:1 western:2 bydgoszcz:1 kuyavia:4 lublin:2 białystok:1 podlaskie:1 gdynia:1 częstochowa:1 radom:1 sosnowiec:1 toruń:1 kielce:1 świętokrzyskie:1 gliwice:1 zabrze:1 bytom:1 bielsko:1 biała:1 olsztyn:1 warmia:2 masuria:2 rzeszów:1 subcarpathia:1 ruda:1 śląska:1 rybnik:1 tychy:1 dąbrowa:1 górnicza:1 opole:2 płock:1 elbląg:1 gorzów:1 wielkopolski:1 lubusz:2 wałbrzych:1 włocławek:1 zielona:1 góra:1 tarnów:1 chorzów:1 kalisz:1 koszalin:1 legnica:1 grudziądz:1 słupsk:1 statistic:2 following:1 cia:2 factbook:2 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 rate:6 birth:6 compare:2 death:4 net:1 migrant:1 asylum:1 seeker:1 admit:1 age:2 structure:1 year:8 sex:1 ratio:1 male:7 female:7 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 tfr:1 german:1 byelorussian:1 religion:2 roman:1 catholic:2 eastern:1 orthodox:1 protestant:1 unspecified:1 see:2 church:1 language:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 note:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 republic:1 commonwealth:1 diverse:1 culture:1 heritage:1 composition:1 armenian:1 president:1 express:1 regret:1 akcja:1 wisla:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 life_expectancy:2 ethnically_homogeneous:1 radically_alter:1 belarus_ukraine:1 gdańsk_pomerania:1 kuyavia_pomerania:4 demographic_statistic:1 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 asylum_seeker:1 male_female:6 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 eastern_orthodox:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1 |
6,943 | Comet_Haleâ%80%93Bopp | Comet Hale-Bopp (formally designated C/1995 O1) was arguably the most widely observed comet of the twentieth century, and one of the brightest seen for many decades. It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months, twice as long as the previous record holder, the Great Comet of 1811. Hale-Bopp was discovered on July 23, 1995 at a great distance from the Sun, raising expectations that the comet would brighten considerably by the time it passed close to Earth. Although predicting the brightness of comets with any degree of accuracy is very difficult, Hale-Bopp met or exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997. The comet was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997. The passage of Hale-Bopp was notable also for inciting a degree of comet-related panic not seen for decades. Rumours that an alien spacecraft was following the comet gained remarkable currency, and inspired a mass suicide among followers of the Heaven's Gate cult. Discovery The comet was discovered by two independent observers, Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp, both in the United States. Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon Hale-Bopp just after midnight. The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10.5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius. Hale first established that there was no other deep-sky object near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky. Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, the clearing house for astronomical discoveries. Bopp did not own a telescope. He was out with friends near Stanfield, Arizona observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend's telescope. He realized he might have spotted something new when, like Hale, he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep-sky objects were known to be near M70, and found that there were none. He telegraphed the Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams, and, the following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was named Comet Hale-Bopp, with the designation C/1995 O1. The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187. it is the brightest comet since Comet West in 1976. Early observation Hale-Bopp's orbital position was calculated as 7.2 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered. Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernible activity, but Hale-Bopp already had an observable coma. An image taken at the Anglo-Australian Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then-unnoticed comet some 13 AU from the sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable. (Halley's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun.) Analysis indicated later that its nucleus was 60±20 kilometres in diameter, approximately six times the size of Halley. Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that Comet Hale-Bopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997. However, comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later. Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a 'comet of the century' and turned out to be unspectacular. Perihelion Hale-Bopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year, scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright. It was too close to the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with light-polluted skies. The comet became a spectacular sight in early 1997. The internet was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular. The internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet Hale-Bopp. As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at 2nd magnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit. On March 9, a solar eclipse in China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime. Hale-Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22, 1997 at a distance of 1.315 AU. As it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997, the comet developed into a spectacular sight. It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius, and its dust tail stretched 40–45 degrees across the sky. The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, Comet Hale-Bopp was visible all night to northern hemisphere observers. As impressive as the comet was, it could have been much more so. Had it passed as close to Earth as Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2) did in 1996 (0.1 AU), the comet's tail would have spanned the entire sky and it would have been brighter than the full moon. After perihelion After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere, and its show was over as far as most of the northern hemisphere public were concerned. The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997. The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about 18 and a half months. The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811, which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months. The comet continued to fade as it receded, but is still being tracked by astronomers. In October 2007, 11 years after the perihelion and at distance of 25.7 AU from Sun, the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO-driven coma. Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020, by which time it will be nearing 30th magnitude. By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness. Orbital changes Hale-Bopp at perihelion in April 1, 1997 The comet likely made its last perihelion 4,200 years ago. Its orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, which ensures that close approaches to planets are rare. However, in April 1996 the comet passed within 0.77 AU of Jupiter, close enough for its orbit to be affected by the planet's gravity. The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2,533 years, and it will next return to the inner solar system around the year 4530. Its greatest distance from the sun (aphelion) will be about 370 AU, reduced from about 525 AU. (pre-perturbation orbit: semi-major axis 250AU; period 4000yr) Over many orbits, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values. Hale-Bopp has about a 15% chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process. It has been calculated that the previous visit by Hale-Bopp occurred in July 2215 BC. The comet may have presented a similar sight to people then, as the estimated closest approach to Earth was 1.4 AU, but no records of it have survived. Hale-Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215 BC, which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit, and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner solar system. Scientific results Comet Hale-Bopp's neutral sodium tail (the straight tail extending up to the left from the nucleus) Comet Hale-Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations. The dust production rate of the comet was very high (up to 2.0 kg/s), which may have made the inner coma optically thick. Based on the properties of the dust grains—high temperature, high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission feature—the astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet. It is also to be noted that the comet Hale-Bopp showed highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet. Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains. It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale-Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet. Sodium Tail One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail. In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, Hale-Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters. Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail. Hale-Bopp's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms, and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length. The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma, although not necessarily the nucleus. There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and 'sputtering' of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light. It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale-Bopp's sodium tail, and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins. While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two. This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by radiation pressure. Deuterium abundance The abundance of deuterium in Comet Hale-Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth's oceans. If Hale-Bopp's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets, this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they cannot be the only source. Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet. The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds, rather than in the solar nebula. Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that Comet Hale-Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25–45 kelvin. Organics Spectroscopic observations of Hale-Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals, several of which had never been detected in comets before. These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet. Detection of argon Hale-Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected. Noble gases are chemically inert and highly volatile, and since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures, they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices. Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16–20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance, while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance. Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale-Bopp has always been colder than 35–40 K, but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed, this suggests that the comet was formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud. Rotation Comet Hale-Bopp over Zabriskie Point, Death Valley, USA Comet Hale-Bopp's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several specific jets. Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes. Superimposed on this rotation were several periodic variations over several days, implying that the comet was rotating about more than one axis. Satellite dispute In 1999 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of Comet Hale-Bopp's dust emission. The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30 km, with the main nucleus being about 70 km across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180 km. The findings of this paper were disputed by observational astronomers, as even with the Hubble Space Telescope images of the comet revealed no trace of a double nucleus. Also, while comets have been observed to break up before, no case has previously been found of a stable binary nucleus. Given the very small mass of cometary nuclei, the orbit of a binary nucleus would be easily disrupted by the gravity of the Sun and planets. Observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 were claimed to show a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus. However, controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus. UFO claims In November 1996 amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston, Texas took a CCD image of the comet, which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby. When his computer sky-viewing program did not identify the star, Shramek called the Art Bell radio program to announce that he had discovered a "Saturn-like object" following Hale-Bopp. UFO enthusiasts, such as remote viewing proponent Courtney Brown, soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet. Several astronomers, including Alan Hale, claimed the object was simply an 8.5-magnitude star, SAO141894, which did not appear on Shramek's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly. Later, Art Bell even claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery. However, astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David J. Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images. A few months later, in March 1997, the Heaven's Gate cult chose the appearance of the comet as a signal for their mass cult suicide. They claimed they were leaving their earthly bodies to travel to the spaceship following the comet. Legacy Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale-Bopp was probably the most-observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley's Comet in 1986, and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley's previous appearances. For instance, 69% of Americans had seen Hale-Bopp by April 9, 1997. It was a record-breaking comet—the furthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs, with the largest well-measured cometary nucleus known after 95P/Chiron, and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record-holder. It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks, longer than any other recorded comet. Notes References Newcott, William R. (December 1997). "The age of comets". National Geographic, p. 100. External links Cometography.com: Comet Hale-Bopp NASA Hale-Bopp page Shadow and Substance.com: Static orbital diagram Comet Nucleus Animation | Comet_Haleâ%80%93Bopp |@lemmatized comet:98 hale:43 bopp:40 formally:1 designate:1 c:3 arguably:1 widely:1 observed:3 twentieth:1 century:2 one:4 bright:8 see:7 many:7 decade:2 visible:8 naked:5 eye:5 record:7 month:4 twice:3 long:3 previous:5 holder:2 great:11 discover:5 july:2 distance:13 sun:13 raise:1 expectation:1 would:7 brighten:3 considerably:3 time:7 pass:6 close:8 earth:7 although:4 predict:1 brightness:4 degree:3 accuracy:1 difficult:2 meet:1 exceed:1 prediction:1 perihelion:13 april:5 dub:1 passage:4 notable:1 also:6 incite:1 relate:1 panic:1 rumour:1 alien:2 spacecraft:2 follow:5 gain:1 remarkable:2 currency:1 inspire:1 mass:3 suicide:2 among:1 follower:1 heaven:2 gate:2 cult:3 discovery:5 two:2 independent:1 observer:4 alan:2 thomas:1 united:1 state:2 spend:1 hundred:1 hour:2 search:1 without:2 success:1 track:3 know:5 driveway:1 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6,944 | Malmö | Malmöhus Castle, now housing Malmö Museum. is the third most populous city in Sweden, situated in its southernmost province of Scania. Malmö is the seat of Malmö Municipality and the capital of Skåne County. The administrative entity for most of the city is Malmö Municipality which has 286,500 inhabitants in eight different localities. Malmö is also a bimunicipal locality, as part of it is Burlöv Municipality. The total population of the urban area was 258,020 by the end of 2005, of which 9,108 were in Burlöv. Greater Malmö is one of Sweden's three officially recognized Metropolitan areas and since 2005 is defined by the municipality of Malmö and 11 other municipalities in the southwestern corner of Scania. (Statistics Sweden) Storstadsområden (excel-file, in Swedish) Definitions of Metropolitan Areas in Sweden. Retrieved on 2008-10-12. On June 30, 2008 its population was recorded to be 628,388. (Statistics Sweden) Folkmängd i riket, län och kommuner 30 juni 2008 och befolkningsförändringar första halvåret 2008 (in Swedish) Retrieved on 2008-10-12. The region covers an area of 2,535.76 km2. The municipalities included, apart from Malmö, are Burlöv, Eslöv, Höör, Kävlinge, Lomma, Lund, Skurup, Staffanstorp, Svedala, Trelleborg and Vellinge. Lund, with a municipal population of over 100,000 and home to one of Scandinavia's major universities, is together with Malmö the region's economical and educational hub. Malmö was one of the earliest and most industrialized towns of Scandinavia, but until the turn of the millennium had been struggling with the adaptation to post-industrialism. Since then, Malmö has become a new city, with impressive architectural developments, attracting new biotech and IT companies, and particularly students through Malmö University. The city contains many historic buildings and parks, and is also a commercial center for the western part of Scania. During the last few years a university college (University College of Malmö) has been established and the city is now trying to focus on education, arts and culture. Malmö was ranked #4 in Grist Magazine'''s "15 Green Cities" list in 2007. 15 Green Cities | Grist | Main Dish | 19 July 2007 History Malmö is thought to have been founded in the year 1275, as a fortified quay or ferry berth of the Archbishop of Lund, some 20 km to the north-east. It was, for centuries, Denmark's second biggest city. Its original name was Malmhaug (with alternate spellings), meaning "Gravel pile". Malmö in 1580 in a German map book. The citadel Malmöhus is to the far left. The church tower is that of Saint Peter's Church. Malmö illustration by Erik Dahlberg from 1658. In the 15th century, Malmö became one of Denmark's largest and most frequented cities, reaching a population of approximately 5,000 inhabitants. It became the most important city around the Sound, with the German Hanseatic League frequenting it as a marketplace, notable for its flourishing herring fishing. During that time, the city arms were granted in 1437 by King Eric of Pomerania. It was based on Eric's own arms from Pomerania: an argent with a griffin gules. It gave the griffin's head to Malmö, eventually this extended to the entire province of Scania. In 1434, a new citadel was constructed at the beach south of the town. This fortress, known today as Malmöhus, did not get its current appearance until the mid-16th century. Several other fortifications were constructed, making Malmö Sweden's most fortified city, but only Malmöhus remains. Lutheran teachings became popular during the 16th century, and Malmö was one of the first cities in Scandinavia to fully convert (1527-29). In the 17th century, Malmö and the Scanian region (Skåneland) came into Swedish possession. This happened following the Treaty of Roskilde, signed in 1658. Fighting was not yet over, however; in June 1677, 14,000 Danish troops laid siege to Malmö for a month, but were unable to conquer the Swedish troops holding it. By the dawn of the 18th century, Malmö had about 2,300 inhabitants. However, due to the wars of Charles XII of Sweden and plague epidemics, the population dropped to 1,500 by 1728. The population did not grow much until the modern harbour was constructed by the late 18th century. The city started to expand, and in the year 1800 had 38,054 inhabitants. Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911), article Malmö Malmö would greatly benefit from the Swedish southern railway line, constructed 1850-70, as it gave a significant boost to industry. In 1840, the Kockums shipyard was founded. The industry dominated Malmö for the next 150 years. In 1870, Malmö overtook Norrköping to become Sweden's third most populated city. By 1900, Malmö had strengthened this position with 60,000 inhabitants. A now closed down Kockums building: the old foundry and machine workshop. Malmö continued to expand through the first half of the 20th century. The population had swiftly increased to 100,000 by 1915 and to 200,000 by 1952. Kockums shipyard was Malmö's largest employer, and one of the largest shipyards in the world. By 1971, Malmö reached 265,000 inhabitants, but this was the peak which would stand for more than 30 years. Not long after, Sweden experienced a recession that struck especially hard on the industrial sector; shipyards and manufacturing industries were hard hit, which led to high unemployment in many cities of Scania. Kockums shipyard closed down in the mid-eighties, depriving the city of its greatest employer as well as a major factor in Malmö's image of itself (the old shipyard area is now used by Malmö Högskola). In addition, many middle class families moved into one-family houses in surrounding municipalities such as Vellinge Municipality, Lomma Municipality and Staffanstorp Municipality which profiled themselves as the suburbs of the upper middle class. To counter this, at the end of the 1990s Malmö undertook a program of redeveloping attractive seafront quarters in the now largely disused south-western harbour; a city architecture exposition (Bo01) was held in 2001. The new apartment buildings and villas created for it have become the core of a new city district, aimed at the urban middle-class and with attractive waterfront vistas. By 1985, Malmö had lost 35,000 inhabitants and was down to 229,000. However, the toughest difficulties were yet to emerge. Between 1990-95, Malmö lost about 27,000 jobs, and its economy was seriously strained. However, thanks to several government-funded projects, Malmö started to emerge as its current modern incarnation by 1995. Malmö has the highest proportion of individuals of non-Scandinavian extraction of any Swedish city. It remains a city of sharp social divide and high unemployment. Nordisk familjebok article Malmö. Runeberg, NF, History, start . Nationalencyklopedin article Malmö; Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911). Malmö and the Öresund strait. Geography Malmö is located at 13°00' east and 55°35' north. Its location in southernmost Sweden makes it closer to the Italian city of Milan than to the northernmost Swedish town Kiruna. Malmö is part of the transnational Oresund Region and since 2000 the Oresund Bridge crosses the Sound to Copenhagen, Denmark. The bridge was inaugurated July 1, 2000, and measures 8 kilometres (the whole link totalling 16 km), with pylons reaching 204.5 metres vertically. Apart from the Helsingborg-Helsingør ferry links further north, most ferry connections have been discontinued. Malmo seen from Spot satellite Climate Malmö, and the rest of southern Sweden have an oceanic climate. Despite its northern location, the climate is relatively mild compared to other locations in similar latitude, or even somewhat further south, mainly because of the Gulf Stream. Because of its northern latitude, daylight extends 17 hours in midsummer, to only around 7 hours in midwinter. Summers are warm and pleasant with average high temperatures of 22°C (72°F) and lows of around 14°C (57°F), but temperatures do sometimes exceed 35°C (95°F+) and occasional heat waves are common during the summer. Winters are cold, with temperatures steady between -1 to 3°C (30 - 37°F), and it rarely drops below −10 °C (14 °F). Rainfall is light to moderate throughout the year with 169 wet days. Snowfall occurs mainly in December through March, but snow covers do not remain for a long time, and some winters tends to be virtually free of snow. Transport Oresundtrains cross Øresund Bridge every 20 minutes connecting Malmö to Copenhagen, and the Copenhagen Airport. Also some of the X2000 and Intercity trains to Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Kalmar cross the bridge, stopping at Copenhagen Airport. In March 2005, digging began on a new railway connection called the City Tunnel. The tunnel will run from under Malmö Central Station to Triangeln continuing to Hyllievång (Hyllie Meadow), where it will emerge to connect with the Oresund Bridge, effectively changing Malmö Central from being a terminus to being a transit station. Beside the Copenhagen Airport, Malmö has an airport of its own, Malmö Airport, today chiefly used for low-cost carriers, charter flight routes, and domestic Swedish destinations. The motorway system has been incorporated with the Oresund Bridge; the European route E20 goes over the bridge and then, together with the European route E6 follows the Swedish west coast from Malmö–Helsingborg to Gothenburg. E6 goes further north along the west coast and through Norway to the Norwegian town Kirkenes at Barents Sea. The European route to Jönköping–Stockholm (E4) starts at Helsingborg. Main roads in direction of Växjö–Kalmar, Kristianstad–Karlskrona, Ystad, and Trelleborg start as freeways. Municipality The municipality's location in Scania, southernmost Sweden. Malmö Municipality is an administrative unit defined by geographical borders, consisting of the City of Malmö In all official contexts, the town Malmö calls itself "Malmö stad" (or City of Malmö), as does a small number of other Swedish municipalities, and especially the other two metropolitans of Sweden: Stockholm and Gothenburg. However, the term city has administratively been discontinued in Sweden. and its immediate surroundings. The Malmö urban area, Malmö tätort with 258,020 inhabitants (2005), consists of the urban part of the municipality together with the small town of Arlöv in the municipality of Burlöv. Both municipalities also include smaller urban areas and rural areas, such as the suburbs of Oxie and Åkarp. Malmö tätort is to be distinguished from Malmö stad (The city of Malmö), which is a semi-official name of Malmö Municipality, although this terminology appears counter-intuitive to many locals. Demographics After 1971, Malmö had 265,000 inhabitants, the population then dropped to 229 000 by 1985. Nationalencyklopedin, Article Malmö It then began to rise again, and had passed the previous record by the January 1, 2003 census, when it had 265,481 inhabitants. "Malmö stad folkmängd" – City of Malmö website According to models, the population will continue to increase to an estimated 301,600 inhabitants by 2013. As of 2007, a large proportion of the population had been born abroad, 75,156 in total, or 27% of the municipal population. The largest groups of immigrants have arrived from: Denmark (8,857) Former Yugoslavia (8,658) Iraq (7,975) Bosnia-Herzegovina (5,725) Lebanon (3,392) Iran (3,041) Poland (2 965) Hungary (1,856) Germany (1,822) Finland (1,694) Afghanistan (1,673) Romania (1,640) Turkey (1,589) Chile (1,329) Vietnam (1,167) Somalia (1,037) Republic of Macedonia (947) Norway (906) Pakistan (806) Croatia (754) As of 2005, Malmö had the third-highest proportion of foreign-born residents of any municipality in Sweden. 1: Haparanda Municipality (40%), 2: Botkyrka Municipality (33%) 3: Malmö Municipality (25%), 4:Södertälje Municipality (25%), 5: Huddinge Municipality (22%) MALMÖBOR MED UTLÄNDSK BAKGRUND 1 January 2006. All figures as of 2006. There were 171 different nationalities represented in Malmö in 2007. Economy The economy of Malmö was traditionally based on shipbuilding (Kockums) and construction related industries, such as concrete factories. The region's leading university, along with its associated hi-tech and pharmaceutical industries, is located in Lund about 16 km to the north-east. As a result, Malmö had a troubled economic situation following the mid-1970s. Between 1990-1995, 27,000 jobs were lost, and the budget deficit was more than one billion Swedish krona. In 1995, Malmö had Sweden's highest unemployment rate. City of Malmö website, However, during the last few years there has been a revival. The main contributing factor has been the economic integration with Denmark brought about by the Oresund Bridge. Almost 10% of the population in Malmö works in Copenhagen, Denmark. Also the university college (Malmö Högskola) founded in 1998 and the effects of integration into the European Union have contributed. Malmö still has comparatively high unemployment figures, particularly among the ethnically and socially diverse areas in the eastern and southern parts (See Malmö's suburbs). In 2004, the rate of wage-earners was 63%, compared to 74% in Stockholm and 71% in Gothenburg. City of Malmö website , in turned based on material from Statistics Sweden As of 2005, the largest companies were: Source: City of Malmö website – "Malmös största företag" Skanska – house construction: 3,025 employees ISS Facility Service AB – hospital service, cleaning, etc: 1,725 employees E.ON Sverige – electricity: 1,025 employees Sydsvenskan – newspaper: 1,025 employees Pågen – bakery: 975 employees Education Malmö has the country's eighth largest school of higher education with the university college Malmö Högskola established in 1998. It has 1,300 employees and 21,000 students (as of 2003). In addition, the venerable Lund University (established in 1668) has some education located in Malmö: Malmö Art Academy (Konsthögskolan i Malmö) Malmö Academy of Music (Musikhögskolan i Malmö) Malmö Theatre Academy (Teaterhögskolan i Malmö) The Faculty of Medicine, which is located in both Malmö and Lund. The UN World Maritime University is also located in Malmö. The World Maritime University (WMU) http://www.wmu.se operates under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a specialized agency of the United Nations. WMU thus enjoys the status, privileges and immunities of a UN institution in Sweden. Culture A striking depiction of Malmö was made by Bo Widerberg in his engaging debut film Kvarteret Korpen (Raven's End) (1963), largely shot to the shabby Korpen working-class district in Malmö. With humour and tenderness it depicts the tensions between classes and generations. The movie was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Foreign Language Movie in 1965. In 1944, one of the city's most enduring cultural hubs was inaugurated, namely the Municipal Theatre, with several stages (the main stage is the most expansive theatre room in Sweden) and a repertory, then as now embracing both stage theatre, opera, musical, ballet, musical recitals and theatrical experiments. In the 1950s, Ingmar Bergman was the Director and Chief Stage Director of the place and made it one of the most vital scenes of the nation; many of the people he would bring to stardom in his sixties movies he encountered here (for example Max von Sydow and Ingrid Thulin). Later stage directors include Staffan Valdemar Holm and Göran Stangertz. Since the 1970s the city has also been home to a rich, if fluctuating, array of independent theatre groups and some show/musical companies. It also hosts a rich rock/dance/dub culture; in the 1960s The Rolling Stones played the Klubb Bongo, and in recent years stars like Morrissey, Nick Cave, B. B. King and Pat Metheny have made repeated visits. The Cardigans made their start in Malmö and recorded their albums there. On 7 January 2009 CNN Travel broadcasted a segment called "MyCity_MyLife" featuring Nina Persson taking the camera to some of the sites in Malmö that she enjoys. The Rooseum Center for Contemporary Art, founded in 1988 by the Swedish art collector and financier Fredrik Roos and housed in a former power station which had been built in 1900, was one of the foremost centers for contemporary art in Europe during the 1980s and 1990s. By 2006, most of the collection had been sold off and the museum was on a time-out; the future of the museum foundation and the house are still undetermined. The Opera of Malmö (Malmö Opera och Musikteater) is well-known in Sweden and a wide range of operas, musicals and plays have been performed there. Architecture The oldest parts of Malmö were built between 1300-1600 during its first major period of expansion. The central city's layout as well as some of its oldest buildings are from this time. Many of the smaller buildings from this time are typical Scanian two story urban houses that show a strong Danish influence. Recession followed in the ensuing centuries. The next expansion period was in the mid 19th century and led to the modern stone and brick city. This expansion lasted into the 20th century and can be seen by a number Jugendstil buildings for which the city is known. Malmö was one of the first cities in Sweden to be influenced by modern ideas of functionalist tenement architecture in the 1930s. Around 1965, the government initiated the so called Million Programme, intending to offer affordable apartments in the outskirts of major Swedish cities. But this period also saw the reconstruction (and razing) of much of the historical city center. Recent years have seen a bolder more cosmopolitan architecture. Västra Hamnen (The Western Harbour), like most of the harbour to the north of the city center, was industrial. In 2001, however, its reconstruction began as an exclusive, albeit secluded, urban residential neighborhood. The 500 dwelling units are extremely unique and inventive and most were part of the exhibition Bo01. The exhibition had two main objectives: develop self-sufficient housing units in terms of energy and greatly diminish the phosphorus emissions. Among the new buildings towers the Turning Torso, a spectacular twisting skyscraper, tall, the majority of which is residential. It quickly became Malmö's new landmark within Sweden. Arkitekterna som formade Malmö, Tyke Tykesson (1996), ISBN 9172031131 Web site Malmö Arkitekturhistoria Arkitekturhistoria, a brief compilation made by Malmö Public Library website. Accessed 19/05 -06. Has a substantial reference section. Other sights The beach Ribersborg in the western harbour, is a man-made shallow beach, stretching along Malmö's coastline. Despite Malmö's chilly climate, it is sometimes referred to as the "Riviera of the North" or the "Swedish Riviera". It is the site of Ribersborgs Kallbadhus, an open air bath opened in the 1890s, where people go swimming all year round, braving the icy waters after a hot sauna in wintertime. The long boardwalk at The Western Harbour has become a new favourite summer hang-out for the people of Malmö and is a popular place for bathing. Events In the third week of August each year a festival, Malmöfestivalen, fills the streets of Malmö with different kinds of cuisines and events. BUFF, the International Children and Young People's Film Festival in Malmö, takes place every year in March. Malmö was also the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 1992, after Sweden won it the previous year. Nordic Games Conference, one of the most important events in game development industry, takes place in Malmö every May The event consists of conference itself, recruitment expo and game expo and attracts hundreds of gamedev professionals every year. Media Sydsvenska Dagbladet, founded in 1870, is since 2000 Malmö's only full-size daily newspaper, and also one of its larger employers (see section #Economy). It has an average circulation of 130,000. Apart from Sydsvenskan, there are few media companies in the city, though a number of free-of-charge papers, generally dealing with entertainment, music and fashion have local editions (for instance City, .SE, Rodeo, Metro and Nöjesguiden''). There are regional Scanian TV and radio broadcasts; these do however serve most of Scania, and are also attained on the other side of the strait. Sports Malmö Stadion. The most popular football team in Malmö is Malmö FF, in the top-level Allsvenskan. They had their period of glamour in the 1970s and 1980s, when they won the league several times. In 1979, they advanced to the finals of the European Cup, now the UEFA Champions League. Then followed some meager years, until they in 2004 won the Allsvenskan again. This is also where Zlatan Ibrahimović started his professional football-career. Malmo is also one of the four cities to host the Uefa U21 Championships that are being held in Sweden, The second most notable team is Malmö Redhawks, in ice hockey. They were the creation of a millionaire and quickly rose to the highest rank in the 1990s. Malmö also got an American football team Limhamn Griffins they have won the Swedish national championship in American football three times 1993,1994 and 2007. Twinning cities As of 2006, Malmö has town twinning treaties or treaties of co-operation signed with 11 cities. Of these, cooperation is closest with Newcastle, Tallinn, the province of Chieti and with Vaasa. The complete list of cities is the following: Malmö city website: Malmö stads vänortssamarbete" Province of Chieti, Italy, co-operation treaty signed in 2001. Florence, Italy, twin towns since 1989. Kaliningrad, Russia, co-operation treaty Newcastle, United Kingdom, co-operation treaty signed in 2003. Port Adelaide, Australia, twin towns since 1988. Stralsund, Germany, twin towns since 1991. Szczecin, Poland, twin towns since 1990. Tallinn, Estonia, twin towns since 1989. Tangshan, China, twin towns since 1987. Vaasa, Finland, twin towns since 1940. Varna, Bulgaria, twin towns since 1987. See also Oresund Region Ports of the Baltic Sea List of people connected to Malmö Governors of Malmö References – in English. From the municipal webpage, PDF format. The 2006 demographics from the city's website: External links Malmö City Council - Official Municipal website Malmö - Official municipal site [http://www.malmotown.com/en - The official visitors site of Malmö Mitt Malmö - Malmö city guide with local news, weather forecast, cinemas, TV-guide and current events. 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6,945 | Herculaneum | Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) is an ancient Roman town, located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano. Its ruins can be found at the co-ordinates , in the Italian region of Campania. It is most famous for having been lost, along with Pompeii, Stabiae and Oplontis, in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius beginning on August 24, 79 AD, which buried them in superheated pyroclastic material that has solidified into volcanic tuff. Since the discovery of bones in 1981, some 150 skeletons have been found. Herculaneum was a smaller town with a wealthier population than Pompeii at the time of its destruction. History Plan of Herculaneum|Plan of the excavations of Herculaneum Ancient tradition connected Herculaneum with the name of the Greek hero Herakles (Hercules in Latin and consequently Roman Mythology), The founding myth asserted that Hercules built Herculaneum at the location where he killed Cacus, a son of Vulcan who had stolen some of Hercules' cattle. an indication that the city was of Greek origin. In fact, it seems that some forefathers of the Samnite tribes of the Italian mainland founded the first civilization on the site of Herculaneum at the end of the 6th century BC. Soon after, the town came under Greek control and was used as a trading post because of its proximity to the Gulf of Naples. The Greeks named the city Herculaneum. In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum again came under the domination of the Samnites. The city remained under Samnite control until it became a Roman municipium in 89 BC, when, having participated in the Social War ("war of the allies" against Rome), it was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of Sulla. After the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the town of Herculaneum was buried under approximately 20 meters (50-60 feet) of lava, mud and ash. It lay hidden and nearly intact for more than 1600 years until it was accidentally discovered by some workers digging a well in 1709. From there, the excavation process began but is still incomplete. Today, the Italian towns of Ercolano and Portici lie on the approximate site of Herculaneum. Until 1969 the town of Ercolano was called Resina, and it changed its name to Ercolano, the Italian modernization of the ancient name in honour of the old city. The inhabitants worshipped above all Hercules, who was believed to be the founder of both the town and Mount Vesuvius. Other important deities worshiped include Venus, who was believed to be Hercules' lover, and Apollo. Herculaneum and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown. The eruption of 79 AD The catastrophic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius occurred on the afternoon of August 24, 79 AD. Because Vesuvius had been dormant for approximately 800 years, it was no longer even recognized as a volcano. Based on the archaeological excavations on the one hand and two letters of Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian Tacitus on the other hand, the course of the eruption can be reconstructed. At around 1pm on August 27, Vesuvius began spewing ash and volcanic stone thousands of meters into the sky. When it reached the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere, the top of the cloud flattened, prompting leading Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as a stone pine tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay to the west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimeters of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage but nonetheless prompting many inhabitants to flee. Because initial excavations revealed only a few skeletons, it was long thought that nearly all of the inhabitants had managed to escape. It wasn't until 1982, when the excavations reached boat houses on the beach area, that this view changed. In 12 boat houses archaeologists discovered 250 skeletons huddled close together. Boat houses where skeletons were found|Boat houses where skeletons were found During the night, the column of volcanic debris which had risen into the stratosphere began falling back down onto Vesuvius. A pyroclastic flow formed that sent a mixture of 400°C (750°F) gas, ash, and rock racing down at toward Herculaneum. At about 1am it reached the boat houses, where those waiting for rescue were killed instantly by the intense heat. This flow and several more following it slowly filled the city's buildings from the bottom up, causing them little damage. The surprisingly good state of preservation of the structures and their contents is due to three factors: By the time the wind changed and ash began to fall on Herculaneum, the structures were already filled with volcanic debris. Thus the roofs did not collapse. The intense heat of the first pyroclastic flow carbonized the surface of organic materials and extracted the water from them. The deep (up to 25 meters), dense tuff formed an airtight seal over Herculaneum for 1,700 years Excavation The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum. Excavation began at modern Ercolano in 1738. The elaborate publication of Le Antichità di Ercolano ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum") under the patronage of the King of the Two Sicilies had an effect on incipient European Neoclassicism out of all proportion to its limited circulation; in the later 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on stylish furnishings from decorative wall-paintings and tripod tables to perfume burners and teacups. However, excavation ceased once the nearby town of Pompeii was discovered, which was significantly easier to excavate due to the reduced amount of debris covering the site (four meters as opposed to Herculaneum's twenty meters). In the twentieth century, excavation once again resumed in the town. However, many public and private buildings, including the forum complex, are yet to be excavated. Skeletal remains The pyroclastic flow instantly killed all residents who had not escaped before it struck. In contrast to Pompeii, the remains of those killed at Herculaneum were not preserved in plaster casts. In 1981, Italian public works employees, under the direction of Dr. Giuseppe Maggi, found bones at the Herculanium site while digging a drainage trench. Italian officials, at Dr. Maggi's urging, called in Sara C. Bisel, a physical anthropologist from the United States, to oversee the excavation and study the bones. This research was funded with a grant from the National Geographic Society. Until this discovery, there were few Roman skeletal remains available for academic study, as Ancient Romans regularly practiced cremation. Excavations in the port area of Herculaneum initially turned up more than 55 skeletons: 30 adult males, 13 adult females and 12 children. The skeletons were found on the seafront, where it is believed they had fled in an attempt to escape the volcanic eruption. This group includes the 'Ring Lady' (image at right, by National Geographic photographer Lou Mazzatenta), named for the rings on her fingers. Through the chemical analysis of those remains, Dr. Bisel was able to gain greater insight into the health and nutrition of the Herculaneum population. Quantities of lead were found in some of the skeletons, which led to speculation of lead poisoning. The physical examination of the bones yielded additional information. The presence of scarring on the pelvis, for instance, gave some indication of the number of children a woman had borne. Specific buildings To expand this section, translate :it:Scavi archeologici di Ercolano. Open excavation The buildings at the site are grouped in blocks (insulae), defined by the intersection of the east-west (cardi) and north-south (decumani) streets. Hence we have Insula II - Insula VII running anti-clockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as the 'Suburban District' (SD). Individual buildings having their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3). The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1) The first building in insula II is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the remainder of the house is not particularly well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage. The House of Argus (Ins II, 2) The second house in insula II got its name from a fresco of Argus and Io which once adorned a reception room off the large peristyle. The fresco is now sadly lost, but its name lives on. This building must have been one of the finer villas in Herculaneum. The discovery of the house in the late 1820s was notable because it was the first time a second floor had been unearthed in such detail. The excavation revealed a second floor balcony overlooking Cardo III. Also wooden shelving and cupboards. Sadly with the passing of time, these elements have now been lost. The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3) To the north of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius. It has only been partially excavated but it appears to have been a spacious building. The house derives its name from the statue of a cupid that formed part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin. The House of the Alcove (Ins IV) The house is actually two buildings joined together. As a consequence of this it is a mixture of plain and simple rooms combined with some highly decorated ones. The atrium is covered, so lacks the usual impluvium. It retains its original flooring of opus tesselatum and opus sectile. Off the atrium is a biclinium richly decorated with frescoes in the fourth style and a large triclinium which originally had a marble floor. A number of other rooms, one of which is the apsed alcove after which the house was named, can be reached via a hall which gets its light from a small courtyard. College of the Augustales Fresco from the college, depicting the myth of Hercules. Temple of the augustales or priests of the imperial cult Villa of the Papyri The most famous of the luxurious villas at Herculaneum is the "Villa of the Papyri" now identified as the magnificent seafront retreat for Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Julius Caesar's father-in-law. It stretches down towards the sea in four terraces. Piso, a literate man who patronized poets and philosophers, built there a fine library, the only one to survive intact from antiquity. Scrolls from the villa are stored at the National Library, Naples. The scrolls are badly carbonized, but a large number have been unrolled, with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral imaging, in the infra-red range, helps make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened scrolls using X-rays. The same techniques could be applied to the scrolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, removing the need for potentially damaging the unrolled scrolls. Issues of conservation The volcanic water, ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was not helped by the methods of archaeology used earlier in the town's excavation, which generally centered around recovering valuable artifacts rather than ensuring the survival of all artifacts. In the early 1980s and under the direction of Dr. Sara C. Bisel, preservation of the skeletal remains became a high priority. The carbonised remains of organic materials, when exposed to the air, deteriorated over a matter of days, and destroyed many of the remains until a way of preserving them was formed. Today, tourism and vandalism has damaged many of the areas open to the public, and water damage coming from the modern Ercolano has undermined many of the foundations of the buildings. Reconstruction efforts have often proved counterproductive, however in modern times conservation efforts have been more successful. Today excavations have been temporarily discontinued, in order to direct all funding to help save the city. A large number of artifacts come from Herculaneum are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. Photos Documentaries A 1987 National Geographic special In the Shadow of Vesuvius explored the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviewed archaeologists, and examined the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius. An hour-long drama produced for the BBC entitled Pompeii: The Last Day portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption. Pompeii Live, Channel 5, 28 June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered a PBS show covering the archaeological discoveries at Herculaneum. References National Geographic, Vol 162, No 6. Buried Roman Town Give Up Its Dead, (December, 1982) National Geographic, Vol 165, No 5. The Dead Do Tell Tales, (May, 1984) Discover, magazine, Vol 5, No 10. The Bone Lady (October, 1984) The Mayo Alumnus, Vol 19, No2. An Archaeologist's Preliminary Report: Time Warp at Herculaneum, (April, 1983) Carnegie Mellon Magazine, Vol 4, No 2. Bone Lady Reconstructs People at Herculaneum, Winter, 1985 In the Shadow of Vesuvius National Geographic Special, (February 11, 1987) 30 years of National Geographic Special, (January 25, 1995) External links Area Vesuvio The Friends of Herculaneum Society Herculaneum: Destruction and Re-discovery The local archaeological authorities AD 79: Year of Destruction The Philodemus Project will publish Philodemus' works on poetry and on rhetoric. 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6,946 | BearShare | BearShare is a peer-to-peer file sharing application originally created by Free Peers, Inc. for Microsoft Windows, and is now sold by MusicLab, LLC (iMesh). History Bearshare was a Gnutella-based peer-to-peer file sharing application, with a support forum. Following the June 27, 2005 United States Supreme Court decision on the MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. case the BearShare support forums were closed. On May 4, 2006, Free Peers agreed to pay $30 million in a settlement with the RIAA and transfer all their BearShare-related assets to MusicLab, LLC. (an iMesh subsidiary). On August 17, 2006, MusicLab released BearShare v6, a new application unrelated to the original, which does not use the Gnutella protocol at all, but instead operates on the same network as the iMesh client. In August 2006, MusicLab released another version optimized for video download called BearFlix. The first release was version 1.2.1. Soft82 release history On October 27, 2008, Bearshare v7 with iPod support was released. Versions Three variations of BearShare were distributed by Free Peers: Free, Lite and Pro. The Free version had more features than the Lite version, but also contained some malware such as a trojan horse. The Lite version was malware-free, but had fewer features than the Free version. The Pro version had more features than both the Free and Lite versions, but cost US$24. BearShare offers paid music downloads in the DRMed WMA format as well as free content in various formats, mostly MP3. The free content is shared by users and is automatically verified by BearShare not to infringe. This verification is done using acoustic fingerprinting. Also, video files more than 50mb in size and 15 minutes in length cannot be shared, guaranteeing feature-length releases cannot be transferred across the network. No other content than music and video files can be shared, which excludes executable files and zip archives amongst others. BearShare 6 and later also includes social networking features, somewhat similar to MySpace. References External links BearShare Official Website McAfee's Bearshare Analysis BearShare forums (at GnutellaForums.com) BearShare (original) V5 or before community | BearShare |@lemmatized bearshare:14 peer:7 file:5 share:5 application:3 originally:1 create:1 free:10 inc:2 microsoft:1 window:1 sell:1 musiclab:4 llc:2 imesh:3 history:2 gnutella:2 base:1 support:3 forum:3 follow:1 june:1 united:1 state:1 supreme:1 court:1 decision:1 mgm:1 studio:1 v:1 grokster:1 ltd:1 case:1 close:1 may:1 agree:1 pay:2 million:1 settlement:1 riaa:1 transfer:2 related:1 asset:1 subsidiary:1 august:2 release:6 new:1 unrelated:1 original:2 use:2 protocol:1 instead:1 operate:1 network:2 client:1 another:1 version:9 optimize:1 video:3 download:1 call:1 bearflix:1 first:1 october:1 ipod:1 three:1 variation:1 distribute:1 lite:4 pro:2 feature:5 also:3 contain:1 malware:2 trojan:1 horse:1 cost:1 u:1 offer:1 music:2 downloads:1 drmed:1 wma:1 format:2 well:1 content:3 various:1 mostly:1 user:1 automatically:1 verify:1 infringe:1 verification:1 acoustic:1 fingerprinting:1 size:1 minute:1 length:2 cannot:2 guarantee:1 across:1 exclude:1 executable:1 zip:1 archive:1 amongst:1 others:1 later:1 include:1 social:1 networking:1 somewhat:1 similar:1 myspace:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 mcafee:1 analysis:1 gnutellaforums:1 com:1 community:1 |@bigram peer_peer:2 microsoft_window:1 supreme_court:1 gnutella_protocol:1 trojan_horse:1 external_link:1 |
6,947 | Nationalism | Nationalism refers to an ideology, a sentiment, a form of culture, or a social movement that focuses on the nation. It is a type of collectivism emphasizing the collective of a specific nation. While there is significant debate over the historical origins of nations, nearly all specialists accept that nationalism, at least as an ideology and social movement, is a modern phenomenon originating in Europe. Precisely where and when it emerged is difficult to determine, but its development is closely related to that of the modern state and the push for popular sovereignty that came to a head with the French Revolution in the late 18th century. Since that time, nationalism has become one of the most significant political and social forces in history, perhaps most notably as a major influence or cause of World War I and especially World War II with the rise of fascism, a radical and authoritarian nationalist ideology. Laqueuer, Walter." Comparative Study of Fascism" by Juan J. Linz. Fascism, A Reader's Guide: Analyses, interpretations, Bibliography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976. Pp. 15 "Fascism is above all a nationalist movement and therefore wherever the nation and the state are strongly identified." Laqueur, Walter. Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press, 1997. Pp. 90. "the common belief in nationalism, hierarchical structures, and the leader principle." "Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17-19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state "It enables us to see at once why democracy and Bolshevism, which in the eyes of the world are irrevocably opposed to one another, meet again and again on common ground in their joint hatred of and attacks on authoritarian nationalist concepts of State and State systems. For the authoritarian nationalist conception of the State represents something essentially new. In it the French Revolution is superseded.". Koln, Hans; Calhoun, Craig. The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background. Transaction Publishers. Pp 20.University of California. 1942. Journal of Central European Affairs. Volume 2. As an ideology, nationalism holds that 'the people' in the doctrine of popular sovereignty is the nation, and that as a result only nation-states founded on the principle of national self-determination are legitimate. Since most states are multinational, or at least home to more than one group claiming national status, in many cases nationalist pursuit of self-determination has caused conflict between people and states including http://www.maknews.com/html/articles/savich/nationalism.pdf (both external and domestic), secession; and in extreme cases, genocide. Nationalism is a strong social phenomenon in the world as national flags, national anthems and national divisions are examples of 'banal' nationalism that is often mentally unconscious. Moreover, some scholars argue that nationalism as a sentiment or form of culture, sometimes described as 'nationality' to avoid the ideology's tarnished reputation, is the social foundation of modern society. Industrialization, democratization, and support for economic redistribution have all been at least partly attributed to the shared social context and solidarity that nationalism provides. Nevertheless, nationalism remains a hotly contested subject on which there is little general consensus. The clearest example of opposition to nationalism is cosmopolitanism, with adherents as diverse as liberals, Marxists, and anarchists, but even nationalism's defenders often disagree on its virtues, and it is common for nationalists of one persuasion to disparage the aspirations of others for both principled and strategic reasons. Indeed, the only fact about nationalism that is not in dispute may be that few other social phenomena have had a more enduring impact on the modern world. Theory Background and problems People define nationalism on the basis of their local experience. Theory (and media coverage) may overemphasize conflicting nationalist movements, and - diverting attention from many general theoretical issues; for instance, the characteristics of nation-states. Issues The first studies of nationalism were generally historical accounts of nationalist movements. At the end of the 19th century, Marxists and other socialists (such as Rosa Luxemburg) produced political analyses that were critical of the nationalist movements then active in central and eastern Europe (though a variety of other contemporary socialists and communists, from Lenin (a communist) to Józef Piłsudski (a socialist), were more sympathetic to national self-determination) . Most sociological theories of nationalism date from after the Second World War. Some nationalism theory is about issues which concern nationalists themselves, such as who belongs to the nation and who does not, as well as the precise meaning of 'belonging'. Origins Liberty Leading the People (Eugène Delacroix, 1830) is a famous example of nationalist art Recent general theory has looked at underlying issues, and above all the question of which came first, nations or nationalism. Nationalist activists see themselves as representing a pre-existing nation, and the primordialist theory of nationalism agrees. It sees nations, or at least ethnic groups, as a social reality dating back twenty thousand years. The modernist theories imply that until around 1800, almost no-one had more than local loyalties. National identity and unity were originally imposed from above, by European states, because they were necessary to modernize economy and society. In this theory, nationalist conflicts are an unintended side-effect. For example, Ernest Gellner argued that nations are a by-product of industrialization. Modernization theorists see such things as the printing press and capitalism as necessary conditions for nationalism. Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities. ISBN 0-86091-329-5, p. 6. Unfortunately, this theory falls short of addressing all nationalist efforts, including the Flemings repulsion of the French in the 14th century, or any nationalist efforts against empires before 1800 . Anthony D. Smith proposed a synthesis of primordialist and modernist views now commonly referred to as an ethno-symbolist approach. According to Smith, the preconditions for the formation of a nation are as follows: A fixed homeland (current or historical) High autonomy Hostile surroundings Memories of battles Sacred centers Languages and scripts Special customs Historical records and thinking Those preconditions may create powerful common mythology. Therefore, the mythic homeland is in reality more important for the national identity than the actual territory occupied by the nation. Smith, Anthony D. 1986. The Ethnic Origins of Nations London: Basil Blackwell. pp 6–18. ISBN 0-631-15205-9. Smith also posits that nations are formed through the inclusion of the whole populace (not just elites), constitution of legal and political institutions, nationalist ideology, international recognition and drawing up of borders. Types of nationalism Nationalism may manifest itself as part of official state ideology or as a popular (non-state) movement and may be expressed along civic, ethnic, cultural, religious or ideological lines. These self-definitions of the nation are used to classify types of nationalism. However, such categories are not mutually exclusive and many nationalist movements combine some or all of these elements to varying degrees. Nationalist movements can also be classified by other criteria, such as scale and location. Some political theorists make the case that any distinction between forms of nationalism is false. In all forms of nationalism, the populations believe that they share some kind of common culture. A main reason why such typology can be considered false is that it attempts to bend the fairly simple concept of nationalism to explain its many manifestations or interpretations. Arguably, all "types" of nationalism merely refer to different ways academics throughout the years have tried to define nationalism. This school of thought accepts that nationalism is simply the desire of a nation to self-determine. Civic nationalism Civic or cultural nationalism is focused on cultural rather than hereditary connections between people. Civic nationalism promotes common cultural values and allows people of different origins to assimilate into the nation. Ethnic nationalism Ethnic nationalism is based on the hereditary connections of people. Ethnic nationalism specifically seeks to unite all people of a certain ethnicity heritage together. Ethnic nationalism does not seek to include people of other ethnicities. Irredentism Irredentism is a form of nationalism promoting the annexation of territories, which have or previously had members of the nation residing within them, to a state which composes most or all of the nation's members. Expansionist nationalism Expansionist nationalism promoted spreading the nation's members to new territories, usually on the claimed basis that existing territory which the nation has resided in is too small or is not able to physically or economically sustain the nation's population. Radical or revolutionary nationalism Liberation nationalism Many nationalist movements in the world are dedicated to national liberation, in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise self-determination by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors. Anti-revisionist Marxist-Leninism is closely tied with this ideology, and practical examples include Stalin's early work Marxism and the National Question and his Socialism in One Country edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context i.e. fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions. Fascism Fascism is an authoritarian nationalist ideology Laqueuer, Walter." Comparative Study of Fascism" by Juan J. Linz. Fascism, A Reader's Guide: Analyses, interpretations, Bibliography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976. Pp. 15 "Fascism is above all a nationalist movement and therefore wherever the nation and the state are strongly identified." Laqueur, Walter. Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press, 1997. Pp. 90. "the common belief in nationalism, hierarchical structures, and the leader principle." "Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17-19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state "It enables us to see at once why democracy and Bolshevism, which in the eyes of the world are irrevocably opposed to one another, meet again and again on common ground in their joint hatred of and attacks on authoritarian nationalist concepts of State and State systems. For the authoritarian nationalist conception of the State represents something essentially new. In it the French Revolution is superseded.". Koln, Hans; Calhoun, Craig. The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background. Transaction Publishers. Pp 20.University of California. 1942. Journal of Central European Affairs. Volume 2. which promotes national revolution, national collectivism, a totalitarian state, and irredentism or expansionism to unify and allow the growth of a nation. Fascists often promote ethnic nationalism but also have promoted cultural nationalism including cultural assimilation of people outside a specific ethnic group. Stateless Nationalism With the establishment of a nation-state, the primary goal of any nationalist movement has been achieved. However, nationalism does not disappear but remains a political force within the nation, and inspires political parties and movements. The development of state nationalism leads to the development of stateless nationalism movements that feel oppressed by the mainstream nationalistic conception of the nation — such as the "eternal Spain", "La Grande France" - and aspire at setting up their own state either within the nation state or a state of its own. Stateless Nationalists in this sense typically campaign for: Defending from strengthening national unity, including campaigns for national salvation in times of crisis Confronting nation state policies that attempt to impose a model of political behaviour from the top Unlike state nationalism is more open to foreign influences, influenced by civic liberalism they reject the extreme xenophobia of state nationalist parties. Attempting to make borders flexible so as to collaborate with neighbouring territories sharing common interests. Redefining the national territory which is considered part of the national homeland. This is called irredentism, from the Italian movement Italia irredenta. Small nations cannot survive unless they are opened to foreign trade so that they reject economic nationalism of nation states. Catalan independentist mural in Republican district in Belfast Nationalist parties and nationalist politicians, in this sense, usually place great emphasis on national symbols, such as the national flag. The term 'nationalism' is also used by extension, or as a metaphor, to describe movements which promote a group identity of some kind. This use is especially common in the United States, and includes black nationalism and white nationalism in a cultural sense. They may overlap with nationalism in the classic sense, including black secessionist movements and pan-Africanism. The emotions can be purely negative: a shared sense of threat can unify the nation. However, dramatic events, such as defeat in war, can qualitatively affect national identity and attitudes to non-national groups. The defeat of Germany in World War I, and the perceived humiliation by the Treaty of Versailles, economic crisis and hyperinflation, created a climate for xenophobia, revanchism, and the rise of Nazism. The solid bourgeois patriotism of the pre-1914 years, with the Kaiser as national father-figure, was no longer relevant. Ethnocentrism Nationalism does not necessarily imply a belief in the superiority of one ethnicity over others, but some people believe that some so-called nationalists support ethnocentric protectionism or ethnocentric supremacy. Studies have yielded evidence that such behaviour may be derived from innate preferences in humans from infancy . In the USA for example, non-indigenous ethnocentric nationalist movements exist for both so-called "black" and "white" peoples. These forms of "nationalism" often promote or glorify foreign nations that they believe can serve as an example for their own nation, see Anglophilia or Afrocentrism. Explicit biological race theory was influential from the end of the 19th century. Nationalist and Fascist movements in the first half of the 20th century often appealed to these theories. The National Socialist ideology was amongst the most comprehensively "racial" ideologies: the concept of "race" influenced aspects of policy in Nazi Germany. In the 21st century the term "race" is no longer regarded by many people as a meaningful term to describe the range of human phenotype clusters; the term ethnocentrism is a more accurate and meaningful term ISBN 0805848576, ISBN 9780805848571 . Ethnic cleansing is often seen as both a nationalist and ethnocentrist phenomenon. It is part of nationalist logic that the state is reserved for one nation, but not all nationalist nation-states expel their minorities. Opposition and critique Nationalism is sometimes an extremely assertive ideology, making far-reaching, if sometimes justified, demands, including the disappearance of entire states. It has attracted vehement opposition. Much of the early opposition to nationalism was related to its geopolitical ideal of a separate state for every nation. The classic nationalist movements of the 19th century rejected the very existence of the multi-ethnic empires in Europe. This resulted in severe repression by the (generally autocratic) governments of those empires. That tradition of secessionism, repression, and violence continues, although by now a large nation typically confronts a smaller nation. Even in that early stage, however, there was an ideological critique of nationalism. That has developed into several forms of anti-nationalism in the western world. The Islamic revival of the 20th century also produced an Islamic critique of the nation-state. In the liberal political tradition there is widespread criticism of ‘nationalism’ as a dangerous force and a cause of conflict and between nation-states. Nationalism has often been exploited to encourage citizens to partake in the nations conflicts. Such examples include The Great War and World War Two, where nationalism was a key component of propaganda material. Liberals do not generally dispute the existence of the nation-states. The liberal critique also emphasizes individual freedom as opposed to national identity, which is by definition collective (see collectivism). The pacifist critique of nationalism also concentrates on the violence of nationalist movements, the associated militarism, and on conflicts between nations inspired by jingoism or chauvinism. National symbols and patriotic assertiveness are in some countries discredited by their historical link with past wars, especially in Germany. Famous pacifist Bertrand Russell criticizes nationalism of diminishing individual's capacity to judge his or hers fatherland's foreign policy. Russell Speaks His Mind, 1960. Fletcher and son Ltd., Norwich, United Kingdom William Blum has said this in other words: "If love is blind, patriotism has lost all five senses" Blum in his book Rogue State The anti-racist critique of nationalism concentrates on the attitudes to other nations, and especially on the doctrine that the nation-state exists for one national group, to the exclusion of others. It emphasizes the chauvinism and xenophobia that have often resulted from nationalist sentiment Political movements of the left have often been suspicious of nationalism, again without necessarily seeking the disappearance of the existing nation-states. Marxism has been ambiguous towards the nation-state, and in the late 19th century some Marxist theorists rejected it completely. For some Marxists the world revolution implied a global state (or global absence of state); for others it meant that each nation-state had its own revolution. A significant event in this context was the failure of the social-democratic and socialist movements in Europe to mobilize a cross-border workers' opposition to World War I. At present most, but certainly not all, left-wing groups accept the nation-state, and see it as the political arena for their activities. In the Western world the most comprehensive current ideological alternative to nationalism is cosmopolitanism. Ethical cosmopolitanism rejects one of the basic ethical principles of nationalism: that humans owe more duties to a fellow member of the nation, than to a non-member. It rejects such important nationalist values as national identity and national loyalty. However, there is also a political cosmopolitanism, which has a geopolitical program to match that of nationalism: it seeks some form of world state, with a world government. Very few people openly and explicitly support the establishment of a global state, but political cosmopolitanism has influenced the development of international criminal law, and the erosion of the status of national sovereignty. In turn, nationalists are deeply suspicious of cosmopolitan attitudes, which they equate with eradication of diverse national cultures. While internationalism in the cosmopolitanist context by definition implies cooperation among nations and states, and therefore the existence of nations, proletarian internationalism is different, in that it calls for the international working class to follow its brethren in other countries irrespective of the activities or pressures of the national government of a particular sector of that class. Meanwhile, most (but not all) anarchists reject nation-states on the basis of self-determination of the majority social class, and thus reject nationalism. Instead of nations, anarchists usually advocate the creation of cooperative societies based on free association and mutual aid without regard to ethnicity or race. See also Historiography and nationalism Jingoism Nationalism and sport Patriotism Related lists List of active autonomist and secessionist movements List of historical autonomist and secessionist movements List of nationalist conflicts and organizations List of prominent figures in nationalism Notes Further reading General Breuilly, John. 1994. Nationalism and the State. 2nd ed. Chicago: Chicago University Press. ISBN 0-226-07414-5 . Brubaker, Rogers. 1996. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57224-X . Greenfeld, Liah. 1992. Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-60319-2 Hobsbawm, Eric J. 1992. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43961-2 . Reference works External links The Nationalism Project Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Nationalism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Nationalism Nations & Nationalism: What is a Nation be-x-old:Нацыяналізм | Nationalism |@lemmatized nationalism:86 refers:1 ideology:14 sentiment:3 form:9 culture:4 social:10 movement:25 focus:2 nation:62 type:4 collectivism:3 emphasize:3 collective:2 specific:2 significant:3 debate:1 historical:6 origin:6 nearly:1 specialist:1 accept:2 least:4 modern:5 phenomenon:4 originate:1 europe:5 precisely:1 emerge:1 difficult:1 determine:2 development:4 closely:2 relate:3 state:50 push:1 popular:3 sovereignty:3 come:2 head:1 french:4 revolution:6 late:2 century:9 since:3 time:2 become:1 one:11 political:12 force:3 history:2 perhaps:1 notably:1 major:1 influence:5 cause:3 world:16 war:9 especially:4 ii:3 rise:2 fascism:11 radical:2 authoritarian:8 nationalist:41 laqueuer:2 walter:4 comparative:2 study:6 juan:2 j:3 linz:2 reader:2 guide:2 analysis:3 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6,948 | Kludge | A kludge (or kluge) is a workaround, an ad hoc engineering solution, a clumsy or inelegant solution to a problem, typically using parts that are cobbled together. Kludges are particularly widespread in computer programs, where processing speed is such that they may not make a big difference in performance. Etymology The etymology of kludge is itself a kludge, since there are many overlapping reports as to the word's origin, spelling and pronunciation. Although the term may have been in use as early as the 1940s in the United Kingdom, the first printed usage given in the Oxford English Dictionary is from an article by Jackson Granholm titled “How to Design a Kludge,” which appeared in the American computer magazine Datamation in February 1962: An ill-assorted collection of poorly matching parts, forming a distressing whole. Mr. Granholm goes on to say: "The word ‘kludge’ is...derived from the same root as the German Klug..., originally meaning ‘smart’ or ‘witty ’... ‘kludge’ eventually came to mean ‘not so smart’ or ‘pretty ridiculous’." It seems probable, however, that negative associations were intended from the beginning, since the words "fudge" and "botch" sound similar and have similar connotations. Granholm himself alluded to this less noble dimension in eulogistic terms: "The building of a kludge ... is not work for amateurs. There is a certain, indefinable, masochistic finesse that must go into true kludge building." The Jargon File dictionary of computer slang (a.k.a. The New Hacker's Dictionary) derives the word from Scottish Gaelic, via British military slang: kludge or kludgie meaning a common toilet. Another etymology which has been suggested derives from klumsy, lame, ugly, dumb, but good enough. This appears to be a folk etymology, or backronym. Spelling and pronunciation Most dictionaries have the spelling kludge as the headword (pronounced to rhyme with fudge), with kluge (rhymes with stooge) listed as an alternate spelling. The Jargon File however, claims that kluge was the original spelling, and kludge is in fact a variant. The German word klug is pronounced approximately like clook. Naval use In naval slang of the World War II era, a kludge is "any piece of electronics that works well on shore but consistently fails at sea". A shaggy dog story told in the US Navy in the 1940s tells of Murgatroyd the Kluge Maker, who, when enlisted into the navy, gives "kluge maker" as his occupation. Because none of the officers knows what a kluge is, Murgatroyd ascends through the ranks, eventually becoming "kluge maker, first class". When an admiral demands that Murgatroyd build him a kluge, he constructs a strange object with springs in all directions. He then drops it over the side of the ship into the ocean, where it goes "kkluuge". The punchline suggests that the intended pronunciation within the story was clug, which is closer to the sound of an object hitting the water than clooge or cludge. The idea of a jury rig, also marine, is close. Many of Rube Goldberg's or Heath Robinson's machines were kludgey jury rigs and evoked considerable amusement from newspaper and magazine readers worldwide. Aerospace engineering use In aerospace design a kluge was a temporary design using separate commonly available components that were not flight worthy to proof the design and enable concurrent software development while the integrated components were developed and manufactured. The term was in common enough use to appear in a fictional movie about the US space program. Marooned (film). 1969. Dialog between space crew and Ted approximately 30 minutes into the movie, following capsule power down. Ted says, "I'm in Huntsville kludging up a simulator of the XRV." The film was based on the 1964 novel of the same name. Perhaps the ultimate kludge was the first US space station, Skylab. Its two major components, the Saturn Workshop and the Apollo Telescope Mount, began their development as separate projects (the SWS was kludged from the S-IVB stage of the Saturn 1B and Saturn V launch vehicles, the ATM was kludged from an early design for the descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module). Later the SWS and ATM were folded into the Apollo Applications Program, but the components were to have been launched separately, then docked together in orbit. In the final design, the SWS and ATM were launched together, but for the single-launch concept to work, the ATM had to pivot 90 degrees on a truss structure from its launch position to its on-orbit orientation, clearing the way for the crew to dock its Apollo Command/Service Module at the axial docking port of the Multiple Docking Adapter. The Airlock Module's manufacturer, McDonnell Douglas, even recycled the hatch design from its Gemini spacecraft and kludged what was originally designed for the conical Gemini Command Module onto the cylindrical Skylab Airlock Module. The Skylab project, managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Marshall Space Flight Center, was seen by the Manned Spacecraft Center (later Johnson Space Center) as an invasion of its historical role as the NASA center for manned spaceflight. Thus, MSC personnel missed no opportunity to disparage the Skylab project, calling it "the kludge." Computer science use In modern computing terminology, a kludge (or often a "hack") is a 'solution' to a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system (whether hardware or software) that is inefficient, inelegant, or even unfathomable, but which nevertheless (more or less) works. It has been suggested, as a folk etymology, or backronym, that it means klumsy, lame, ugly, dumb, but good enough; which rather captures the point. To kludge around something is to avoid a bug or some difficult condition by building a kludge, perhaps relying on properties of the bug itself to assure proper operation. It is somewhat similar in spirit to a workaround, only without the grace. A kludge is often used to change the behavior of a system after it is finished, without having to make fundamental changes. Sometimes to keep backwards compatibility, but often simply because it is easier. That something was often originally a crock, which is why it must now be hacked to make it work. Note that a hack might be a kludge, but that 'hack' could be, at least in computing, ironic praise, for a quick fix solution to a frustrating problem. A kludge is often used to fix an unanticipated problem in an earlier kludge; this is essentially a kind of cruft. Something might be a kludge if it fails in corner cases, but this is a less common sense as such situations are not expected to come up in typical usage. More commonly, a kludge is a poorly working heuristic which was expected to work well. An intimate knowledge of the context (ie, problem domain and/or the kludge's execution environment) is typically required to build a corner case kludge. As a consequence, they are sometimes ironically praised. An anecdotal example of a kludge involved a computer part supposedly manufactured in the Soviet Union during the 1960s. The part needed slightly delayed receipt of a signal to work. Rather than setting up a timing system, the kludge was to make the internal wires extra-long, increasing the distance and thus increasing the time the electrical signal took to reach its destination. A variation on this use of kludge is evasion of an unknown problem or bug in a computer program. Rather than continue to struggle to find out exactly what is causing the bug and how to fix it, the programmer may hack the problem by the simple kludge of writing new code which compensates. For example, if a variable keeps ending up doubled in a certain code area, add code which divides by two when it is used, after the original code has been executed. In computer networking, use of NAT (Network Address Translation) (RFC 1918) or PAT (Port Address Translation) to cope with the shortage of IPv4 addresses is an example of a kludge, in this case an awkward fix for a fundamental design flaw. Another common example are TSRs like the OpenOffice.org quickstarter, Real Player quickstarter, and Adobe quickstarter. Other uses In the science fiction television series Andromeda'', genetically engineered human beings called Nietzscheans use the term disparagingly to refer to genetically unmodified humans. In Scotland, "kludge" refers to an outside toilet. See also Quick-and-dirty Unintended consequence References External links First Usage of "Kludge" on UseNET (26 May 1981) First Usage of "Kluge" on UseNET (14 December 1981) Vista's Network throttling when multimedia playback is slow The Jargon File: Kluge The Jargon File: Kludge World Wide Words: Kludge | Kludge |@lemmatized kludge:35 kluge:11 workaround:2 ad:1 hoc:1 engineering:2 solution:4 clumsy:1 inelegant:2 problem:7 typically:2 use:13 part:4 cobble:1 together:3 particularly:1 widespread:1 computer:7 program:4 process:1 speed:1 may:4 make:4 big:1 difference:1 performance:1 etymology:5 since:2 many:2 overlap:1 report:1 word:6 origin:1 spell:1 pronunciation:3 although:1 term:4 early:3 united:1 kingdom:1 first:5 printed:1 usage:4 give:2 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:4 article:1 jackson:1 granholm:3 title:1 design:9 appear:3 american:1 magazine:2 datamation:1 february:1 ill:1 assorted:1 collection:1 poorly:2 match:1 form:1 distressing:1 whole:1 mr:1 go:3 say:2 derive:2 root:1 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6,949 | Bundaberg_Rum | Bottle of Bundaberg Rum in Australia Bundaberg Rum is a dark rum produced in Bundaberg, Australia, often referred to as "Bundy". Bundaberg Rum originated because the local Sugar Mills had a problem with what to do with the waste Molasses after the Sugar was extracted (it was heavy, difficult to transport and the costs of converting it to Stock Feed was rarely worth the effort). Sugar men first began to think wistfully of the profits that could be made from distilling. The vital meeting was held at the Royal Hotel on 1 August 1885, W M C Hickson being the Chairman, other notable to attend included all the big Sugar Mill owners of that time, W G Farquhar, F L Nott, J C S McDougall, T Penny, S H Bravo and A H Young, they were to become the first directors of the Company. They started with a capital of 5,000 Pounds ... Information from 'Bundy A Centenary History' by Keith Dunstan. Bundaberg rum was first produced 1888, production ceased from 1907 to 1914 and from 1936 to 1939 after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby Burnett River. This company does not produce Bundaberg Ginger Beer. In 1961, the company introduced the polar bear as its unusual choice of mascot, to imply that the rum could ward off the coldest chill. The Bundaberg Distilling Company owns its own cola producing facility, which supplies the cola for its ready-to-drink Bundaberg Rum & Cola products. In 2000, the Bundaberg Rum company and distillery were sold to British company Diageo. Diago Press Release - Diageo acquires Bundaberg Rum from Bundaberg Sugar Group Ltd via Diageo website 6 December 2000 Products There are currently a number of products available which are distributed by Diageo: Bottles Bundaberg Rum UP - the original underproof, 37.0% ALC/VOL, 74 proof Bundaberg Rum OP - an overproof version of Bundaberg UP at 57.7% ALC/VOL, 115.4 proof Bundaberg Rum Royal Liqueur - with coffee and chocolate, only available from the distillery 20.0% or 28.0% ALC/VOL depending on year of release Bundaberg Rum Distiller's No3 - a triple filtered blend 43.0% ALC/VOL Bundaberg Rum Black 1985 - VAT 100, Aged 10 years, distilled from molasses, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release) Bundaberg Rum Black 1986 - VAT 14, Aged 10 years, distilled from molasses, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release) Bundaberg Rum Black 1987 - Vat 105 , Aged 10 years, distilled from molasses, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release) Bundaberg Rum Centenary Rum - VAT 100, Specially selected and matured to celebrate 100 years of Bundaberg Rum, wooden case, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release), 750mL Bundaberg Rum Black 1989 - VAT 70, Aged 10 years, distilled from molasses, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release) Bundaberg Rum Black 1990 - VAT 79, Aged 10 years, distilled from molasses, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release) Bundaberg Rum Black 1994 - VAT 166, Aged 8 years, distilled from molasses, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release) Bundaberg Rum 18 Year Old - an extremely limited release, matured in small oak barrels - only 5,142 bottles ever made, 37.0% ALC/VOL, 700mL Bundaberg Rum Aged 8 Years 2007 - Matured in oak over time to create a richer, smoother character, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release), 700mL Bundaberg Rum Aged 8 Years 2008 - Matured in oak over time to create a richer, smoother character, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release), 700mL Bundaberg Rum 101 - Rich, dark and with a hint of smoke. Released to commemorate the 1907 fire at the Bundaberg Distillery, 40.0% ALC/VOL (Limited Release), 700mL Bundaberg Rum Red - Bundy Extra Smooth Rum, is the first rum to be filtered with Red Gum, 37.0% ALC/VOL Pre-mix (RTD) Bundaberg Rum & Cola - can (375ml), stubby bottle (345ml and 250ml). Bundaberg Dark and Stormy RTD (Bundaberg Ginger Beer and Rum) - Can or stubby. Bundaberg Rum OP & Cola RTD - Can or stubby. Bundaberg Rum Dry and Lime - with dry ginger ale and lime. Can or stubby. Bundaberg Rum & Cola Mid 3.5 - Can or stubby. Bundaberg Rum & Cola Super Dry - 3.5% ABV & 25% less sugar for a crisper cleaner taste Bundaberg Rum Premium & Cola - This is a 6.9% RTD, made from Bundaberg UP. Bundaberg Rum Red & Cola - 4.8% ALC/VOL - Extra Smooth Rum - filtered with Australian Red Gum On-tap/Keg Bundaberg Rum and Cola Draught Bundaberg Rum and Cola Super Dry Draught Distillery The Bundaberg Rum distillery is open to visitors for tours of the facility. There is also a museum and offers free samples of Bundaberg Rum products for visitors. Sponsorship Bundaberg Rum is a major sponsor of the Australian "Wallabies" rugby union team and also sponsors the Bundaberg Rum Rugby Series. Bundaberg is also a sponsor of the NSW Waratahs Sponsors & Partners - NSW Rugby . Bundaberg Rum also sponsors the rugby league ANZAC Test (also known as the Bundaberg Rum Test) till 2009. Bundaberg Rum signed a 5 year deal with the NRL to be the "Official Spirit of the NRL". They are also the naming-rights sponsor of NRL Monday Night Football. Previously Bundaberg Rum had sponsored a stadium in Cairns, Australia which was formally known as Bundaberg Rum Stadium but has been renamed to Cazaly's Stadium. Criticism and controversy Bundaberg Rum has also been criticised for targeting its advertising towards young people and boys, through television commercials during NRL broadcasts, and other promotions. ABC Radio National, 3 Nov, 2002 Program: Background briefing Community Alcohol Action Network (CAAN) 'Grogwatch' The Bundaberg Rum Bear advertisements have been cited as one of the favourite ads among Australia's youth. B&T Magazine, 20 December, 2004 Story: "Young adults are a paradox for marketers" The National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre in Australia criticised the sponsorship of sport by alcohol companies, quoted "it's a message that young people get, that sports and alcohol go together." The Sydney Morning Herald, 12 July, 2003 Story: "Alcohol ads wet whistle of youth sport clubs" Bundaberg Rum has been labelled the drink for yobbos Bundaberg denies rum jungle claim - The Age, 8 March 2005 , after some bars reported that "bundy drinkers are a lot louder, and more disruptive than other patrons." In 2005, four bars in Brisbane banned the rum products, claiming it makes drinkers aggressive and attracts the wrong crowd. "They will abuse bar staff, half a dozen a night, normally gangs of blokes, the marketing is directed at yobbos," one bar owner told The Age newspaper. Bundy drinkers 'not yobs' - The Age, 7 March 2005 The Bundaberg Rum Distillery admitted it was aware its brand had a reputation of being associated with aggression, and said it may change its advertising to dispel its "yobbo" image. On 19 October, 2007, Australian Rugby Union (ARU) chairman Peter McGrath stood aside from the chairmanship after Bundaberg Rum reportedly accused him of being in an intoxicated state at the Rugby World Cup in Marseille, France. McGrath refuted the claims. Pop Culture Bundaberg Rum revitalised a fascination with Drop Bears for the Australian public. It started with an TV advertising campaign that featured, what can assumed to be, three young Swedish tourists in Australia camping. The young Australian males then proceed to warn them about 'drop bears' saying that they're "like a koala, only bigger and meaner" and "they drop from the trees". The Bundy Bear then drops out of the trees and this results in the ladies being convinced to camp with them. YouTube - Drop Bear Gallery See also Bundaberg, Queensland Beenleigh Rum List of rum producers Alcohol Advertising ANZAC Test References External links Bundaberg Rum - official website Diageo - parent company | Bundaberg_Rum |@lemmatized bottle:4 bundaberg:61 rum:61 australia:6 dark:3 produce:3 often:1 refer:1 bundy:6 originate:1 local:1 sugar:6 mill:2 problem:1 waste:1 molasses:7 extract:1 heavy:1 difficult:1 transport:1 cost:1 convert:1 stock:1 feed:1 rarely:1 worth:1 effort:1 men:1 first:4 begin:1 think:1 wistfully:1 profit:1 could:2 make:4 distil:8 vital:1 meeting:1 hold:1 royal:2 hotel:1 august:1 w:2 c:2 hickson:1 chairman:2 notable:1 attend:1 include:1 big:2 owner:2 time:3 g:1 farquhar:1 f:1 l:1 nott:1 j:1 mcdougall:1 penny:1 h:2 bravo:1 young:6 become:1 director:1 company:8 start:2 capital:1 pound:1 information:1 centenary:2 history:1 keith:1 dunstan:1 produced:1 production:1 cease:1 fire:2 second:1 cause:1 factory:1 spill:1 nearby:1 burnett:1 river:1 ginger:3 beer:2 introduce:1 polar:1 bear:6 unusual:1 choice:1 mascot:1 imply:1 ward:1 coldest:1 chill:1 cola:11 facility:2 supply:1 ready:1 drink:2 product:5 distillery:6 sell:1 british:1 diageo:5 diago:1 press:1 release:14 acquire:1 group:1 ltd:1 via:1 website:2 december:2 currently:1 number:1 available:2 distribute:1 original:1 underproof:1 alc:17 vol:17 proof:2 op:2 overproof:1 version:1 liqueur:1 coffee:1 chocolate:1 depend:1 year:12 distiller:1 triple:1 filtered:1 blend:1 black:6 vat:7 age:11 limited:11 specially:1 select:1 mature:4 celebrate:1 wooden:1 case:1 old:1 extremely:1 small:1 oak:3 barrel:1 ever:1 create:2 rich:3 smooth:4 character:2 hint:1 smoke:1 commemorate:1 red:4 extra:2 filter:2 gum:2 pre:1 mix:1 rtd:4 stubby:5 stormy:1 dry:4 lime:2 ale:1 mid:1 super:2 abv:1 less:1 crisper:1 clean:1 taste:1 premium:1 australian:5 tap:1 keg:1 draught:2 open:1 visitor:2 tour:1 also:8 museum:1 offer:1 free:1 sample:1 sponsorship:2 major:1 sponsor:7 wallaby:1 rugby:6 union:2 team:1 series:1 nsw:2 waratah:1 partner:1 league:1 anzac:2 test:3 know:2 till:1 sign:1 deal:1 nrl:4 official:2 spirit:1 name:1 right:1 monday:1 night:2 football:1 previously:1 stadium:3 cairn:1 formally:1 rename:1 cazaly:1 criticism:1 controversy:1 criticise:2 target:1 advertising:3 towards:1 people:2 boy:1 television:1 commercial:1 broadcast:1 promotion:1 abc:1 radio:1 national:2 nov:1 program:1 background:1 brief:1 community:1 alcohol:6 action:1 network:1 caan:1 grogwatch:1 advertisement:1 cite:1 one:2 favourite:1 ad:2 among:1 youth:2 b:1 magazine:1 story:2 adult:1 paradox:1 marketer:1 drug:1 research:1 centre:1 sport:3 quote:1 message:1 get:1 go:1 together:1 sydney:1 morning:1 herald:1 july:1 wet:1 whistle:1 club:1 label:1 yobbo:3 deny:1 jungle:1 claim:3 march:2 bar:4 report:1 drinker:3 lot:1 louder:1 disruptive:1 patron:1 four:1 brisbane:1 ban:1 aggressive:1 attract:1 wrong:1 crowd:1 abuse:1 staff:1 half:1 dozen:1 normally:1 gang:1 bloke:1 marketing:1 direct:1 tell:1 newspaper:1 yob:1 admit:1 aware:1 brand:1 reputation:1 associate:1 aggression:1 say:2 may:1 change:1 dispel:1 image:1 october:1 aru:1 peter:1 mcgrath:2 stand:1 aside:1 chairmanship:1 reportedly:1 accuse:1 intoxicated:1 state:1 world:1 cup:1 marseille:1 france:1 refute:1 pop:1 culture:1 revitalise:1 fascination:1 drop:5 public:1 tv:1 campaign:1 feature:1 assume:1 three:1 swedish:1 tourist:1 camping:1 male:1 proceed:1 warn:1 like:1 koala:1 mean:1 tree:2 result:1 lady:1 convince:1 camp:1 youtube:1 gallery:1 see:1 queensland:1 beenleigh:1 list:1 producer:1 advertise:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 parent:1 |@bigram bundaberg_rum:49 rum_cola:6 alc_vol:17 distil_molasses:6 molasses_alc:6 dark_stormy:1 rum_distillery:2 rugby_union:2 sydney_morning:1 morning_herald:1 external_link:1 |
6,950 | Nostradamus | Michel de Nostredame (14 December or 21 December 1503 Guinard, Dr Patrice, Cura Forum – 2 July 1566), usually Latinized to Nostradamus, was a French apothecary and reputed seer who published collections of prophecies that have since become famous worldwide. He is best known for his book Les Propheties ("The Prophecies"), the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Since the publication of this book, which has rarely been out of print since his death, Nostradamus has attracted an enthusiastic following that, along with the popular press, credits him with predicting many major world events. By contrast, most academic sources maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus's quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power. Moreover, none of the sources listed offers any evidence that anyone has ever interpreted any of Nostradamus's quatrains specifically enough to allow a clear identification of any event in advance. Lemesurier, Peter, The Unknown Nostradamus, 2003 Nevertheless, interest in the work of this prominent figure of the French Renaissance is still considerable, especially in popular culture, and the prophecies have in some cases been assimilated to the results of applying the alleged Bible code, as well as to other purported prophetic works. Biography Nostredame's claimed birthplace before its recent renovation. Childhood Born on 14 or 21 December 1503 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence in the south of France, where his claimed birthplace still exists, Michel de Nostredame was one of at least nine children of Reynière de St-Rémy and grain dealer and notary Jaume de Nostredame. The latter's family had originally been Jewish, but Jaume's father, Guy Gassonet, had converted to Catholicism around 1455, taking the Christian name "Pierre" and the surname "Nostredame" (the latter apparently from the saint's day on which his conversion was solemnized). Leroy, Dr Edgar, Nostradamus, ses origines, sa vie, son oeuvre, 1972, ISBN 2-86276-231-8 Michel's known siblings included Delphine, Jehan (c. 1507–77), Pierre, Hector, Louis (born in 1522), Bertrand, Jean (born 1522) and Antoine (born in 1523).<ref name = "ref3"> Lemesurier, Peter, The Nostradamus Encyclopedia, 1997 ISBN 0-312-17093-9</ref> Little else is known about his childhood, although there is a persistent tradition that he was educated by his maternal great-grandfather Jean de St. Rémy Chavigny, J.A. de: La première face du Janus françois... (Lyon, 1594) — a tradition which is somewhat vitiated by the fact that the latter disappears from the historical record after 1504, when the child was only one year old. Brind'Amour, Pierre, Nostradamus astrophile, 1993 Student years At the age of fifteen the young Nostredame entered the University of Avignon to study for his baccalaureate. After little more than a year (when he would have studied the regular trivium of grammar, rhetoric and logic, rather than the later quadrivium of geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy/astrology), he was forced to leave Avignon when the university closed its doors in the face of an outbreak of the plague. After leaving Avignon, Nostredame (according to his own account) traveled the countryside for eight years from 1521 researching herbal remedies. In 1529, after some years as an apothecary, he entered the University of Montpellier to study for a doctorate in medicine. He was expelled shortly afterward when it was discovered that he had been an apothecary, a "manual trade" expressly banned by the university statutes. Benazra, R, Espace Nostradamus The expulsion document (BIU Montpellier, Register S 2 folio 87) still exists in the faculty library. However, some of his publishers and correspondents would later call him "Doctor". After his expulsion, Nostredame continued working, presumably still as an apothecary, and became famous for creating a "rose pill" that supposedly protected against the plague. Nostradamus, Michel, Traite des fardemens et des confitures, 1555, 1556, 1557 Marriage and healing work In 1531 Nostredame was invited by Jules-César Scaliger, a leading Renaissance scholar, to come to Agen. There he married a woman of uncertain name (possibly Henriette d'Encausse), who bore him two children. Maison de Nostradamus at Salon In 1534 his wife and children died, presumably from the Plague. After their deaths, he continued to travel, passing through France and possibly Italy. Nostradamus's house at Salon-de-Provence. On his return in 1545, he assisted the prominent physician Louis Serre in his fight against a major plague outbreak in Marseille, and then tackled further outbreaks of disease on his own in Salon-de-Provence and in the regional capital, Aix-en-Provence. Finally, in 1547, he settled in Salon-de-Provence in the house which exists today, where he married a rich widow named Anne Ponsarde, with whom he had six children — three daughters and three sons. Between 1556 and 1567 he and his wife acquired a one-thirteenth share in a huge canal project organized by Adam de Craponne to irrigate largely waterless Salon-de-Provence and the nearby Désert de la Crau from the river Durance. Seer After another visit to Italy, Nostredame began to move away from medicine and toward the occult. Following popular trends, he wrote an almanac for 1550, for the first time Latinizing his name from Nostredame to Nostradamus. He was so encouraged by the almanac's success that he decided to write one or more annually. Taken together, they are known to have contained at least 6,338 prophecies, Chevignard, Bernard, Présages de Nostradamus 1999 as well as at least eleven annual calendars, all of them starting on 1 January and not, as is sometimes supposed, in March. It was mainly in response to the almanacs that the nobility and other prominent persons from far away soon started asking for horoscopes and "psychic" advice from him, though he generally expected his clients to supply the birth charts on which these would be based, rather than calculating them himself as a professional astrologer would have done. When obliged to attempt this himself on the basis of the published tables of the day, he always made numerous errors, and never adjusted the figures for his clients' place or time of birth. (Refer to the analysis of these charts by Brind'Amour, 1993, and compare Gruber's comprehensive critique of Nostradamus’ horoscope for Crown Prince Rudolph Maximilian.) Gruber, Dr Elmar, Nostradamus: sein Leben, sein Werk und die wahre Bedeutung seiner Prophezeiungen, 2003 He then began his project of writing a book of one thousand mainly French quatrains Centuries of Nostradamus , which constitute the largely undated prophecies for which he is most famous today. Feeling vulnerable to religious fanatics, however, he devised a method of obscuring his meaning by using "Virgilianized" syntax, word games and a mixture of other languages such as Greek, Italian, Latin, and Provençal. For technical reasons connected with their publication in three installments (the publisher of the third and last installment seems to have been unwilling to start it in the middle of a "Century," or book of 100 verses), the last fifty-eight quatrains of the seventh "Century" have not survived into any extant edition. The quatrains, published in a book titled Les Propheties (The Prophecies), received a mixed reaction when they were published. Some people thought Nostradamus was a servant of evil, a fake, or insane, while many of the elite thought his quatrains were spiritually inspired prophecies — as, in the light of their post-Biblical sources (see under Nostradamus's sources below), Nostradamus himself was indeed prone to claim. Catherine de Médicis, the queen consort of King Henri II of France, was one of Nostradamus's greatest admirers. After reading his almanacs for 1555, which hinted at unnamed threats to the royal family, she summoned him to Paris to explain them and to draw up horoscopes for her children. At the time, he feared that he would be beheaded, but by the time of his death in 1566, Catherine had made him Counselor and Physician-in-Ordinary to the King. Some accounts of Nostradamus's life state that he was afraid of being persecuted for heresy by the Inquisition, but neither prophecy nor astrology fell in this bracket, and he would have been in danger only if he had practiced magic to support them. In fact, his relationship with the Church as a prophet and healer was excellent. His brief imprisonment at Marignane in late 1561 came about purely because he had published his 1562 almanac without the prior permission of a bishop, contrary to a recent royal decree. Lemesurier, P., The Unknown Nostradamus (O Books, 2003) Final years and death Nostradamus's tomb in the Collégiale St-Laurent, Salon. By 1566, Nostradamus's gout, which had plagued him painfully for many years and made movement very difficult, turned into oedema, or dropsy. In late June he summoned his lawyer to draw up an extensive will bequeathing his property plus 3,444 crowns (around $300,000 US today) — minus a few debts — to his wife pending her remarriage, in trust for her sons pending their twenty-fifth birthdays and her daughters pending their marriages. This was followed by a much shorter codicil. On the evening of 1 July, he is alleged to have told his secretary Jean de Chavigny, "You will not find me alive at sunrise." The next morning he was reportedly found dead, lying on the floor next to his bed and a bench (Presage 141 [originally 152] for November 1567, as posthumously edited by Chavigny to fit). He was buried in the local Franciscan chapel (part of it now incorporated into the restaurant La Brocherie) but re-interred in the Collégiale St-Laurent at the French Revolution, where his tomb remains to this day. Works Copy of Garencières' 1672 English translation of the Propheties, located in The P.I. Nixon Medical History Library of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. In The Prophecies he compiled his collection of major, long-term predictions. The first installment was published in 1555. The second, with 289 further prophetic verses, was printed in 1557. The third edition, with three hundred new quatrains, was reportedly printed in 1558, but now only survives as part of the omnibus edition that was published after his death in 1568. This version contains one unrhymed and 941 rhymed quatrains, grouped into nine sets of 100 and one of 42, called "Centuries". Given printing practices at the time (which included type-setting from dictation), no two editions turned out to be identical, and it is relatively rare to find even two copies that are exactly the same. Certainly there is no warrant for assuming – as would-be "code-breakers" are prone to do – that either the spellings or the punctuation of any edition are Nostradamus' originals. The Almanacs'''. By far the most popular of his works, these were published annually from 1550 until his death. He often published two or three in a year, entitled either Almanachs (detailed predictions), Prognostications or Presages (more generalized predictions). Nostradamus was not only a diviner, but a professional healer, too. It is known that he wrote at least two books on medical science. One was an alleged "translation" of Galen, and in his Traité des fardemens (basically a medical cookbook containing, once again, materials borrowed mainly from others), he included a description of the methods he used to treat the plague — none of which, not even the bloodletting, apparently worked. The same book also describes the preparation of cosmetics. A manuscript normally known as the Orus Apollo also exists in the Lyon municipal library, where upwards of 2,000 original documents relating to Nostradamus are stored under the aegis of Michel Chomarat. It is a purported translation of an ancient Greek work on Egyptian hieroglyphs based on later Latin versions, all of them unfortunately ignorant of the true meanings of the ancient Egyptian script, which was not correctly deciphered until the advent of Champollion in the 19th century. Since his death only the Prophecies have continued to be popular, but in this case they have been quite extraordinarily so. Over two hundred editions of them have appeared in that time, together with over 2000 commentaries. Their popularity seems to be partly due to the fact that their vagueness and lack of dating make it easy to quote them selectively after every major dramatic event and retrospectively claim them as "hits" (see Nostradamus in popular culture). Nostradamus's sources Nostradamus claimed to base his published predictions on judicial astrology — the astrological assessment of the quality of expected future developments —- but was heavily criticized by professional astrologers of the day such as Laurens Videl for incompetence and for assuming that "comparative horoscopy" (the comparison of future planetary configurations with those accompanying known past events) could predict what would happen in the future. Recent research suggests that much of his prophetic work paraphrases collections of ancient end-of-the-world prophecies (mainly Bible-based), supplemented with references to historical events and anthologies of omen reports, and then projects those into the future in part with the aid of comparative horoscopy. Hence the many predictions involving ancient figures such as Sulla, Gaius Marius, Nero, and others, as well as his descriptions of "battles in the clouds" and "frogs falling from the sky." Astrology itself is mentioned only twice in Nostradamus's Preface and 41 times in the Centuries themselves, but more frequently in his dedicatory Letter to King Henri II. In the last quatrain of his sixth centurie he specifically attacks astrologers. His historical sources include easily identifiable passages from Livy, Suetonius, Plutarch and other classical historians, as well as from medieval chroniclers such as Villehardouin and Froissart. Many of his astrological references are taken almost word for word from Richard Roussat's of 1549–50. One of his major prophetic sources was evidently the Mirabilis liber of 1522, which contained a range of prophecies by Pseudo-Methodius, the Tiburtine Sibyl, Joachim of Fiore, Savonarola and others. (His Preface contains 24 biblical quotations, all but two in the order used by Savonarola.) See Savonarola and Nostradamus text comparison This book had enjoyed considerable success in the 1520s, when it went through half a dozen editions (see External links below for facsimiles and translations) but did not sustain its influence, perhaps owing to its mostly Latin text, Gothic script and many difficult abbreviations. Nostradamus was one of the first to re-paraphrase these prophecies in French, which may explain why they are credited to him. It should be noted that modern views of plagiarism did not apply in the 16th century. Authors frequently copied and paraphrased passages without acknowledgement, especially from the classics. Further material was gleaned from the De honesta disciplina of 1504 by Petrus Crinitus, which included extracts from Michael Psellus's De daemonibus, and the De Mysteriis Aegyptiorum (Concerning the mysteries of Egypt...), a book on Chaldean and Assyrian magic by Iamblichus, a 4th century Neo-Platonist. Latin versions of both had recently been published in Lyon, and extracts from both are paraphrased (in the second case almost literally) in his first two verses, the first of which is appended to this article. While it is true that Nostradamus claimed in 1555 to have burned all of the occult works in his library, no one can say exactly what books were destroyed in this fire. The fact that they reportedly burned with an unnaturally brilliant flame suggests, however, that some of them were manuscripts on vellum, which was routinely treated with saltpeter. Only in the 17th century did people start to notice his reliance on earlier, mainly classical sources. Anonymous letters to the Mercure de France in August and November 1724 drew specific public attention to the fact(Anonyme) Lettre critique sur la personne et sur les écrits de Michel Nostradamus, Mercure de France, août et novembre 1724 (Comment in the French Wikipedia article on Nostradamus : ) This may help explain the fact that, during the same period, The Prophecies reportedly came into use in France as a classroom reader. Garencières, Théophile de: The true prophecies or prognostications of Michel Nostradamus, 1672. Nostradamus's reliance on historical precedent is reflected in the fact that he explicitly rejected the label prophet (i.e. a person having prophetic powers of his own) on several occasions: Although, my son, I have used the word prophet, I would not attribute to myself a title of such lofty sublimity — Preface to César, 1555 (see caption to illustration above) Preface to César Not that I would attribute to myself either the name or the role of a prophet — Preface to César, 1555 [S]ome of [the prophets] predicted great and marvelous things to come: [though] for me, I in no way attribute to myself such a title here. — Letter to King Henri II, 1558 Letter To Henri Ii - Part I I do but make bold to predict (not that I guarantee the slightest thing at all), thanks to my researches and the consideration of what judicial Astrology promises me and sometimes gives me to know, principally in the form of warnings, so that folk may know that with which the celestial stars do threaten them. Not that I am foolish enough to pretend to be a prophet. — Open letter to Privy Councillor (later Chancellor) Birague, 15 June 1566 His rejection of the title prophet also squares with the fact that he entitled his book Detail from title-page of the original 1555 (Albi) edition of Nostradamus's Les Propheties (a title that, in French, as easily means "The Prophecies, by M. Michel Nostradamus", which is precisely what they were; as "The Prophecies of M. Michel Nostradamus", which, except in a few cases, they were not, other than in the manner of their editing, expression and reapplication to the future.) Any criticism of Nostradamus for claiming to be a prophet, in other words, would have been for doing what he never claimed to be doing in the first place. Given this reliance on literary sources, it is doubtful whether Nostradamus used any particular methods for entering a trance state, other than contemplation, meditation and incubation (i.e., ritually "sleeping on it"). His sole description of this process is contained in letter 41 See facsimile of letter of his collected Latin correspondence. The popular legend that he attempted the ancient methods of flame gazing, water gazing or both simultaneously is based on a naive reading of his first two verses, which merely liken his efforts to those of the Delphic and Branchidic oracles. The first of these is reproduced at the bottom of this article: the second can be seen by visiting the relevant facsimile site (see External Links). In his dedication to King Henri II, Nostradamus describes "emptying my soul, mind and heart of all care, worry and unease through mental calm and tranquility", but his frequent references to the "bronze tripod" of the Delphic rite are usually preceded by the words "as though" (compare, once again, External References to the original texts). Interpretations Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles — all undated and based on foreshadowings by the Mirabilis Liber. Some quatrains cover these disasters in overall terms; others concern a single person or small group of persons. Some cover a single town, others several towns in several countries. A major, underlying theme is an impending invasion of Europe by Muslim forces from further east and south headed by the expected Antichrist, directly reflecting the then-current Ottoman invasions and the earlier Saracen (that is, Arab) equivalents, as well as the prior expectations of the Mirabilis Liber. All of this is presented in the context of the supposedly imminent end of the world -- even though this is not in fact mentioned Nostradamus, M., Les Propheties, 1568 omnibus edition -- a conviction that sparked numerous collections of end-time prophecies at the time, not least an unpublished collection by Christopher Columbus. Watts, P.M., Prophecy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus' 'Enterprise of the Indies' in: American Historical Review, February 1985, pp. 73–102 Nostradamus enthusiasts have credited him with predicting numerous events in world history, from the Great Fire of London, by way of the rise of Napoleon I of France and Adolf Hitler, to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, but only ever in hindsight. It is not only skeptics such as James Randi who suggest that his reputation as a prophet is largely manufactured by modern-day supporters who fit his words to events that have either already occurred or are so imminent as to be inevitable, a process sometimes known as "retroactive clairvoyance." There is no evidence in the academic literature to suggest that any Nostradamus quatrain has ever been interpreted as predicting a specific event before it occurred, other than in vague, general terms that could equally apply to any number of other events. Alternative views A range of quite different views are expressed in printed literature and on the Internet. At one end of the spectrum, there are extreme academic views such as those of Jacques Halbronn, suggesting at great length and with great complexity that Nostradamus's Prophecies are antedated forgeries written by later hands with a political axe to grind. See and Although Halbronn possibly knows more about the texts and associated archives than almost anybody else alive (he helped dig out and research many of them), most other specialists in the field reject this view. At the other end of the spectrum, there are numerous fairly recent popular books, and thousands of private websites, suggesting not only that the Prophecies are genuine but that Nostradamus was a true prophet. Thanks to the vagaries of interpretation, no two of them agree on exactly what he predicted, whether for our past or for our future. There is a consensus among these works, however, that he predicted the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte, Adolf Hitler, It is true that in several quatrains he mentions the name Hister (somewhat resembling Hitler), but this is merely the classical name for the Lower Danube, as he himself explains in his Presage for 1554. Similarly, the expression Pau, Nay, Loron — often interpreted as an anagram of "Napaulon Roy" — simply refers to three towns in southwestern France near his one-time home. both world wars, and the nuclear destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. There is also a consensus that he predicted whatever major event had just happened at the time of each book's publication, from the Apollo moon landings, through the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, and the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, CI, Q81 to the events of 9/11: this 'movable feast' aspect appears to be characteristic of the genre. Possibly the first of these books to become truly popular in English was Henry C. Roberts' The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus of 1947, reprinted at least seven times during the next 40 years, which contained both transcriptions and translations, with brief commentaries. This was followed in 1961 (reprinted in 1982) by Edgar Leoni's comprehensive and remarkably dispassionate Nostradamus and His Prophecies. After that came Erika Cheetham's The Prophecies of Nostradamus, incorporating a reprint of the posthumous 1568 edition, which was reprinted, revised and republished several times from 1973 onwards, latterly as The Final Prophecies of Nostradamus. This went on to serve as the basis for Orson Welles' celebrated film The Man Who Saw Tomorrow. Apart from a two-part translation of Jean-Charles de Fontbrune's Nostradamus: historien et prophète of 1980, the series could be said to have culminated in John Hogue's well-known books on the seer from about 1994 onwards, including Nostradamus: The Complete Prophecies (1999) and, most recently, Nostradamus: A Life and Myth (2003). With the exception of Roberts, these books and their many popular imitators were almost unanimous not merely about Nostradamus's powers of prophecy, but also about various aspects of his biography. He had been a descendant of the Israelite tribe of Issachar; he had been educated by his grandfathers, who had both been physicians to the court of Good King René of Provence; he had attended Montpellier University in 1525 to gain his first degree: after returning there in 1529 he had successfully taken his medical doctorate; he had gone on to lecture in the Medical Faculty there until his views became too unpopular; he had supported the heliocentric view of the universe; he had travelled to the north-east of France, where he had composed prophecies at the abbey of Orval; in the course of his travels he had performed a variety of prodigies, including identifying a future Pope; he had successfully cured the Plague at Aix-en-Provence and elsewhere; he had engaged in scrying using either a magic mirror or a bowl of water; he had been joined by his secretary Chavigny at Easter 1554; having published the first installment of his Propheties, he had been summoned by Queen Catherine de' Medici to Paris in 1556 to discuss with her his prophecy at quatrain I.35 that her husband King Henri II would be killed in a duel; he had examined the royal children at Blois; he had bequeathed to his son a 'lost book' of his own prophetic paintings Actually the 13th-14th century Vaticinia de Summis Pontificibus in a misascribed version sometimes referred to as the Vaticinia Nostradami ; he had been buried standing up; and he had been found, when dug up at the French Revolution, to be wearing a medallion bearing the exact date of his disinterment. From the 1980s onwards, however, an academic reaction set in, especially in France. The publication in 1983 of Nostradamus's private correspondence Dupèbe, Jean, Nostradamus: Lettres inédites, 1983 and, during succeeding years, of the original editions of 1555 and 1557 discovered by Chomarat and Benazra, together with the unearthing of much original archival material revealed that much that was claimed about Nostradamus simply did not fit the documented facts. The academics Randi, James, The Mask of Nostradamus, 1993 made it clear that "not one" of the claims just listed was backed up by any known contemporary documentary evidence. Most of them had evidently been based on unsourced rumours retailed as fact by much later commentators such as Jaubert (1656), Guynaud (1693) and Bareste (1840), on modern misunderstandings of the 16th century French texts, or on pure invention. Even the often-advanced suggestion that quatrain I.35 had successfully prophesied King Henri II's death did not actually appear in print for the first time until 1614, 55 years after the event. On top of that, the academics, Wilson, Ian, Nostradamus: The Evidence, 2002 who themselves tend to eschew any attempt at interpretation, complained that the English translations were usually of poor quality, seemed to display little or no knowledge of 16th century French, were tendentious and, at worst, were sometimes twisted to fit the events to which they were supposed to refer (or vice versa). None of them, certainly, were based on the original editions: Roberts had based himself on that of 1672, Cheetham and Hogue on the posthumous edition of 1568. Even the relatively respectable Leoni accepted on his page 115 that he had never seen an original edition, and on earlier pages indicated that much of his biographical material was unsourced. However, none of this research and criticism was originally known to most of the English-language commentators, by function of the dates when they were writing and, to some extent, of the language it was written in. Hogue, admittedly, was in a position to take advantage of it, but it was only in 2003 that he accepted that some of his earlier biographical material had in fact been apocryphal. Meanwhile various of the more recent sources listed (Lemesurier, Gruber, Wilson) have been particularly scathing about later attempts by some lesser-known authors and Internet enthusiasts to extract alleged hidden meanings from the texts, whether with the aid of anagrams, numerical codes, graphs or otherwise. Popular culture The prophecies retold and expanded by Nostradamus have figured largely in popular culture in the 20th and 21st centuries. As well as being the subject of hundreds of books (both fiction and nonfiction), Nostradamus's life has been depicted in several films and videos, and his life and writings continue to be a subject of media interest. There have also been several well-known internet hoaxes, where quatrains in the style of Nostradamus have been circulated by e-mail as the real thing. The best-known examples concern the collapse of the World Trade Center in the attacks of September 11, 2001, which led both to hoaxes and to reinterpretations by enthusiasts of several quatrains as supposed prophecies. Snopes.com, False prophesy The September 11, 2001 attacks on New York City led to immediate speculation as to whether Nostradamus had predicted the events. Nostradamus enthusiasts pointed to Quatrains VI.97 and I.87 as possible predictions, but none of the listed sources supported this suggestion (compare the relevant sections of the Lemesurier and Snopes websites listed under External Links). Wilson, Ian, Nostradamus: The Evidence, 2002 See also For comparison with another predictive protoscience see Alchemy. List of astrologers Divination Mysticism Vaticinia Nostradami Postdiction Sources Nostradamus, Michel:Orus Apollo, 1545 (?), unpublished ms; Almanachs, Presages and Pronostications, 1550–1567; Ein Erschrecklich und Wunderbarlich Zeychen..., Nuremberg, 1554; Les Propheties, Lyon, 1555, 1557, 1568; Traite des fardemens et des confitures, 1555, 1556, 1557; Paraphrase de C. Galen sus l'exhortation de Menodote, 1557; Lettre de Maistre Michel Nostradamus, de Salon de Craux en Provence, A la Royne mere du Roy, 1566 Leroy, Dr Edgar, Nostradamus, ses origines, sa vie, son oeuvre, 1972 (the seminal biographical study) Dupèbe, Jean, Nostradamus: Lettres inédites, 1983 Chomarat, Michel, and Laroche, Jean-Paul: Bibliographie Nostradamus (1989) Benazra, Robert: Répertoire chronologique nostradamique (1990) Randi, James, The Mask of Nostradamus, 1993 ISBN 0879758309 Rollet, Pierre, Nostradamus: Interprétation des hiéroglyphes de Horapollo, 1993 Brind'Amour, Pierre: Nostradamus astrophile, 1993; Nostradamus. Les premières Centuries ou Prophéties, 1996 Lemesurier, Peter, The Nostradamus Encyclopedia, 1997; The Unknown Nostradamus, 2003; Nostradamus: The Illustrated Prophecies, 2003 Prévost, Roger, Nostradamus, le mythe et la réalité, 1999 Chevignard, Bernard, Présages de Nostradamus 1999 Wilson, Ian, Nostradamus: The Evidence, 2002 Clébert, Jean-Paul, Prophéties de Nostradamus, 2003 Gruber, Dr Elmar, Nostradamus: sein Leben, sein Werk und die wahre Bedeutung seiner Prophezeiungen'', 2003 Notes Century I, Quatrain 1: 1555 Lyon Bonhomme edition. External links This section is dedicated to links with sites that are consistent with the established facts reported in the article only, not with the thousands of others that are, for the most part, highly speculative and/or purely fictional in character and thus in no way complementary to it. Timeline Texts, FAQs, translations, quatrain search engine, general information and illustrated tour of Nostradamus's Provence Basic translations of the Prophecies, with source-indications Facsimiles of original editions with translations Facsimiles of many contemporary texts Facsimiles, reprints and some translations of a huge range of Nostradamus texts, info etc. Facsimiles of the first four editions of the Propheties compared (downloadable) Snopes.com: False claims of Nostradamus predicting the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001 Historical origins of the Propheties ESPACE NOSTRADAMUS Benazra's French website and major academic forum CURA's major international academic forum Nostradamus Research Group World's largest online library of Nostradamus facsimiles LOGODAEDALIA Scientific and Medical French website (Dr. Lucien de Luca) Anna Carlstedt (La poésie oraculaire de Nostradamus, 2005) Selected English translations from the Mirabilis liber. 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6,951 | Diplodocus | Diplodocus (, , or ) is a genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaur whose fossils were first discovered in 1877 by S. W. Williston. The generic name, coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878, is a Neo-Latin term derived from Greek (diploos) "double" and (dokos) "beam", in reference to its double-beamed chevron bones located in the underside of the tail. These bones were initially believed to be unique to Diplodocus; however, they have since then been discovered in other members of the diplodocid family and in non-diplodocid sauropods such as Mamenchisaurus. It lived in what is now western North America at the end of the Jurassic Period. Diplodocus is one of the more common dinosaur fossils found in the Upper Morrison Formation, a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments deposited about 150 to 147 million years ago, in what is now termed the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian stages. The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs such as Camarasaurus, Barosaurus, Apatosaurus and Brachiosaurus. Christine C.E. & Peterson, F. (2004). "Reconstruction of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation extinct ecosystem—a synthesis". Sedimentary Geology 167, 309–355 Diplodocus is among the most easily identifiable dinosaurs, with its classic dinosaur shape, long neck and tail and four sturdy legs. For many years, it was the longest dinosaur known. Its great size may have been a deterrent to the predators Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus: their remains have been found in the same strata, which suggests they coexisted with Diplodocus. Description One of the best-known sauropods, Diplodocus was a very large long-necked quadrupedal animal, with a long, whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hind limbs, resulting in a largely horizontal posture. The long-necked, long-tailed animal with four sturdy legs has been mechanically compared with a suspension bridge. Lambert D. (1993)The Ultimate Dinosaur Book ISBN 0-86438-417-3 In fact, Diplodocus is the longest dinosaur known from a complete skeleton. The partial remains of D. hallorum have increased the estimated length, though not as much as previously thought; when first described in 1991, discoverer David Gillete calculated it may have been up to 54 m (177.05 ft) long, making it the longest known dinosaur (excluding those known from especially poor remains, such as Amphicoelias). Some weight estimates ranged as high as 113 (rather only 50) tonnes (125 US short tons). This review was based on recent findings that show that the giant tail vertebrae were actually placed further forward on the tail than Gillete originally calculated. The study shows that the complete Diplodocus skeleton at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on which estimates of Seismosaurus were based had its 13th tail vertebra come from another dinosaur, throwing size estimates for Seismosaurus off by up to 30%. While dinosaurs such as Supersaurus were probably longer, fossil remains of these animals are only fragmentary. Wedel, M.J. and Cifelli, R.L. Sauroposeidon: Oklahoma's Native Giant. 2005. Oklahoma Geology Notes 65:2. Diplodocus skull from Bone-Cabin Quarry. The skull of Diplodocus was very small, compared with the size of the animal, which could reach up to , of which over was neck. Diplodocus had small, 'peg'-like teeth that pointed forward and were only present in the anterior sections of the jaws. Its braincase was small. The neck was composed of at least fifteen vertebrae and is now believed to have been generally held parallel to the ground and unable to have been elevated much past horizontal. Stevens, K.A. & Parrish, M. (1999). "Neck Posture and Feeding Habits of Two Jurassic Sauropod Dinosaurs". Science 284, 798–800 Modern mass estimates have tended to be in the 10 to 16 tonne (11–17.6 ton) range: 10 tonnes (11 tons); Dodson, P., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Bakker, R.T., and McIntosh, J.S. (1980). Taphonomy and paleoecology of the dinosaur beds of the Jurassic Morrison Formation. Paleobiology 6:208–232. 11.5 tonnes (12.7 tons); Paul, G.S. (1994). Big sauropods - really, really big sauropods. The Dinosaur Report, The Dinosaur Society Fall:12–13. 12.7 tonnes (14 tons); Foster, J.R. (2003). Paleoecological Analysis of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic), Rocky Mountain Region, U.S.A. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science:Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bulletin 23. and 16 tonnes (17.6 tons). Coe, M.J., Dilcher, D.L., Farlow, J.O., Jarzen, D.M., and Russell, D.A. (1987). Dinosaurs and land plants. In: Friis, E.M., Chaloner, W.G., and Crane, P.R. (eds.). The Origins of Angiosperms and Their Biological Consequences. Cambridge University Press:New York, 225–258. ISBN 0521323576. Caudal vertebrae of Diplodocus carnegii, Natural History Museum, London. Diplodocus had an extremely long tail, composed of about 80 caudal vertebrae, which is almost double the number some of the earlier sauropods had in their tails (such as Shunosaurus with 43), and far more than contemporaneous macronarians had (such as Camarasaurus with 53). There has been speculation as to whether it may have had a defensive or noisemaking (by cracking it like a coachwhip) function. The tail may have served as a counterbalance for the neck. The middle part of the tail had 'double beams' (oddly shaped bones on the underside, which gave Diplodocus its name). They may have provided support for the vertebrae, or perhaps prevented the blood vessels from being crushed if the animal's heavy tail pressed against the ground. These 'double beams' are also seen in some related dinosaurs. Like other sauropods, the manus (front "feet") of Diplodocus were highly modified, with the finger and hand bones arranged into a vertical column, horseshoe-shaped in cross section. Diplodocus lacked claws on all but one digit of the front limb, and this claw was unusually large relative to other sauropods, flattened from side to side, and detached from the bones of the hand. The function of this unusually specialized claw is unknown. Bonnan, M. F. (2003). "The evolution of manus shape in sauropod dinosaurs: implications for functional morphology, forelimb orientation, and phylogeny." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 23: 595-613. Discovery and species Several species of Diplodocus were described between 1878 and 1924. The first skeleton was found at Como Bluff, Wyoming by Benjamin Mudge and Samuel Wendell Williston in 1878, and was named Diplodocus longus ('long double-beam'), by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878. Marsh OC. Principal characters of American Jurassic dinosaurs. Part I. American Journal of Science 3; 411–416 (1878). Diplodocus remains have since been found in the Morrison Formation of the western U.S. States of Colorado, Utah, Montana and Wyoming. Fossils of this animal are common, except for the skull, which is often missing from otherwise complete skeletons. Although not the type species, D. carnegii is the most completely known and most famous due to the large number of casts of its skeleton in museums around the world. The two Morrison Formation sauropod genera Diplodocus and Barosaurus had very similar limb bones. In the past, many isolated limb bones were automatically attributed to Diplodocus but may, in fact, have belonged to Barosaurus. Valid species Restoration of Diplodocus carnegii Diplodocus hallorum (formerly known as Seismosaurus) D. longus, the type species, is known from two skulls and a caudal series from the Morrison Formation of Colorado and Utah. D. carnegii (also spelled D. carnegiei), named after Andrew Carnegie, is the best known, mainly due to a near-complete skeleton collected by Jacob Wortman, of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and described and named by John Bell Hatcher in 1901. D. hayi, known from a partial skeleton discovered by William H. Utterback in 1902 near Sheridan, Wyoming, was described in 1924. Holland WJ. The skull of Diplodocus. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum IX; 379–403 (1924). D. hallorum, first described in 1991 by Gillette as Seismosaurus halli from a partial skeleton comprising vertebrae, pelvis and ribs. George Olshevsky later attempted to emend the name as S. hallorum, citing incorrect grammar on the part of the original authors, a recommendation that has been followed by others, including Carpenter (2006). Carpenter, K. (2006). "Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod Amphicoelias fragillimus." In Foster, J.R. and Lucas, S.G., eds., 2006, Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 36: 131-138. In 2004, a presentation at the annual conference of the Geological Society of America made a case for Seismosaurus being a junior synonym of Diplodocus. Lucas S, Herne M, Heckert A, Hunt A, and Sullivan R. Reappraisal of Seismosaurus, A Late Jurassic Sauropod Dinosaur from New Mexico. The Geological Society of America, 2004 Denver Annual Meeting (November 7–10, 2004). Retrieved on 2007-05-24. This was followed by a much more detailed publication in 2006, which not only renamed the species Diplodocus hallorum, but also speculated that it could prove to be the same as D. longus. The position that D. hallorum should be regarded as a specimen of D. longus was also taken by the authors of a redescription of Supersaurus, refuting a previous hypothesis that Seismosaurus and Supersaurus were the same. Nomina dubia (doubtful species) D. lacustris is a nomen dubium, named by Marsh in 1884, from remains of a smaller animal from Morrison, Colorado. These remains are now believed to have been from an immature animal, rather than from a separate species. Upchurch, P., Barrett, P.M., and Dodson, P. (2004). "Sauropoda." In D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmólska (eds.), The Dinosauria (2nd edition). University of California Press, Berkeley 259–322. Paleobiology Due to a wealth of skeletal remains, Diplodocus is one of the best-studied dinosaurs. Many aspects of its lifestyle have been subjects of various theories over the years. Habitat Marsh and then Hatcher Hatcher JB. "Diplodocus (Marsh): Its osteology, taxonomy, and probable habits, with a restoration of the skeleton,". Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, vol. 1 (1901), pp. 1–63 assumed the animal was aquatic, because of the position of its nasal openings at the apex of the cranium. Similar aquatic behavior was commonly depicted for other large sauropods such as Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus. However, a 1951 study by Kenneth A. Kermack indicates that sauropods probably could not have breathed through their nostrils when the rest of the body was submerged, as the water pressure on the chest wall would be too great. Since the 1970s, general consensus has the sauropods as firmly terrestrial animals, browsing on trees. However, a more recent theory suggests a likely riparian habitat for Diplodocus. Posture An outmoded depiction of Diplodocus by Oliver P. Hay (1910), with sprawled limbs Hay, O. P., 1910, Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 12,, pp. 1–25 The depiction of Diplodocus posture has changed considerably over the years. For instance, a classic 1908 reconstruction by Oliver P. Hay depicts two Diplodocus with splayed lizard-like limbs on the banks of a river. Hay argued that Diplodocus had a sprawling, lizard-like gait with widely splayed legs, Hay, Dr. Oliver P., "On the Habits and Pose of the Sauropod Dinosaurs, especially of Diplodocus." The American Naturalist, Vol. XLII, Oct. 1908 and was supported by Gustav Tornier. However, this hypothesis was contested by W. J. Holland, who demonstrated that a sprawling Diplodocus would have needed a trench to pull its belly through. Holland, Dr. W. J., "A Review of Some Recent Criticisms of the Restorations of Sauropod Dinosaurs Existing in the Museums of the United States, with Special Reference to that of Diplodocus carnegii in the Carnegie Museum", The American Naturalist, 44:259–283. 1910. Finds of sauropod footprints in the 1930s eventually put Hay's theory to rest. A classic depiction of Diplodocus by Mary Woodward (1905), with neck high up in the air and tail on the ground. This tail posture is believed to be incorrect Later, diplodocids were often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to graze from tall trees. Studies using computer models have shown that neutral posture of the neck was horizontal, rather than vertical, and scientists such as Kent Stephens have used this to argue that sauropods including Diplodocus did not raise their heads much above shoulder level. However, subsequent studies demonstrated that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal, alert posture, and argued that the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown, unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from other animals. One of the sauropod models in this study was Diplodocus, which they found would have held its neck at about a 45 degree angle with the head pointed downwards in a resting posture. Taylor, M.P., Wedel, M.J., and Naish, D. (2009). "Head and neck posture in sauropod dinosaurs inferred from extant animals". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 54 (2), 2009: 213-220abstract As with the related genus Barosaurus, the very long neck of Diplodocus is the source of much controversy among scientists. A 1992 Columbia University study of Diplodocid neck structure indicated that the longest necks would have required a 1.6 ton heart — a tenth of the animal's body weight. The study proposed that animals like these would have had rudimentary auxiliary 'hearts' in their necks, whose only purpose was to pump blood up to the next 'heart'. A depiction of two Diplodocus longus with horizontal necks, flexible whip tails, keratinous spines and nostrils low on the snouts. While the long neck has traditionally been interpreted as a feeding adaptation, a recent study Senter, P. "Necks for Sex: Sexual Selection as an Explanation for Sauropod Neck Elongation". Journal of Zoology, 2006 suggests that the oversized neck of Diplodocus and its relatives may have been primarily a sexual display, with any other feeding benefits coming second. Diet Diplodocus has highly unusual teeth compared to other sauropods. The crowns are long and slender, elliptical in cross-section, while the apex forms a blunt triangular point. Upchurch, P. & Barrett, P.M. (2000). Chapter 4: The evolution of sauropod feeding mechanism. IN: Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates ISBN 0-521-59449-9 The most prominent wear facet is on the apex, though unlike all other wear patterns observed within sauropods, Diplodocus wear patterns are on the labial (cheek) side of both the upper and lower teeth. What this means is Diplodocus and other diplodocids had a radically different feeding mechanism than other sauropods. Unilateral branch-stripping is the most likely feeding behavior of Diplodocus, Norman, D.B. (1985). "The illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs". London: Salamander Books Ltd Dodson, P. (1990). Sauropod paleoecology. IN: "The Dinosauria" 1st Edition, (Eds. Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P. & Osmólska, H.) Barrett, P.M. & Upchurch, P. (1994). Feeding mechanisms of Diplodocus. Gaia 10, 195–204 as it explains the unusual wear patterns of the teeth (coming from tooth-food contact). In unilateral branch stripping, one tooth row would have been used to strip foliage from the stem, while the other would act as a guide and stabilizer. With the elongated preorbital (in front of the eyes) region of the skull, longer portions of stems could be stripped in a single action. Also the palinal (backwards) motion of the lower jaws could have contributed two significant roles to feeding behaviour: 1) an increased gape, and 2) allowed fine adjustments of the relative positions of the tooth rows, creating a smooth stripping action. With a laterally and dorsoventrally flexible neck, and the possibility of using its tail and rearing up on its hind limbs (tripodal ability), Diplodocus would have had the ability to browse at many levels (low, medium, and high), up to approximately 10 metres (33 ft) from the ground. Barrett, P.M. & Upchurch, P. (2005). Sauropodomorph Diversity through Time, Paleoecological and Macroevolutionary Implications. IN: "The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology" (Eds. Curry, K. C.) The neck's range of movement would have also allowed the head to graze below the level of the body, leading some scientists to speculate on whether Diplodocus grazed on submerged water plants, from riverbanks. This concept of the feeding posture is supported by the relative lengths of front and hind limbs. Furthermore, its peglike teeth may have been used for eating soft water plants. Other anatomical aspects a) skull, b) classic rendering of the head with nostrils on top, c) Bakker's theory of a trunk, d) modern depiction with nostrils low on the snout and a possible resonating chamber The head of Diplodocus has been widely depicted with the nostrils on top due to the position of the nasal openings at the apex of the skull. There has been speculation over whether such a configuration meant that Diplodocus may have had a trunk. Bakker, Robert T. (1986) The Dinosaur Heresies: New Theories Unlocking the Mystery of the Dinosaurs and their Extinction. New York: Morrow. A recent study Knoll, F., Galton, P.M., López-Antoñanzas, R. (2006). "Paleoneurological evidence against a proboscis in the sauropod dinosaur Diplodocus." Geobios, 39: 215–221 surmised there was no paleoneuroanatomical evidence for a trunk. It noted that the facial nerve in an animal with a trunk, such as an elephant, is large as it innervates the trunk. The evidence suggests that the facial nerve is very small in Diplodocus. Studies by Lawrence Witmer (2001) indicated that, while the nasal openings were high on the head, the actual, fleshy nostrils were situated much lower down on the snout. Lawrence M. Witmer et al., "Nostril Position in Dinosaurs and other Vertebrates and its Significance for Nasal Function." Science 293, 850 (2001) Recent discoveries have suggested that Diplodocus and other diplodocids may have had narrow, pointed keratinous spines lining their back, much like those on an iguana. Czerkas, S. A. (1993). "Discovery of dermal spines reveals a new look for sauropod dinosaurs." Geology 20, 1068–1070 Czerkas, S. A. (1994). "The history and interpretation of sauropod skin impressions." In Aspects of Sauropod Paleobiology (M. G. Lockley, V. F. dos Santos, C. A. Meyer, and A. P. Hunt, Eds.), Gaia No. 10. (Lisbon, Portugal). This radically different look has been incorporated into recent reconstructions, notably Walking with Dinosaurs. It is unknown exactly how many diplodocids had this trait, and whether it was present in other sauropods. Reproduction and growth While there is no evidence for Diplodocus nesting habits, other sauropods such as the titanosaurian Saltasaurus have been associated with nesting sites. Walking on Eggs: The Astonishing Discovery of Thousands of Dinosaur Eggs in the Badlands of Patagonia, by Luis Chiappe and Lowell Dingus. 19 June 2001, Scribner Grellet-Tinner, Chiappe, & Coria, "Eggs of titanosaurid sauropods from the Upper Cretaceous of Auca Mahuevo (Argentina)", Can. J. Earth Sci. 41(8): 949–960 (2004) The titanosaurian nesting sites indicate that may have laid their eggs communally over a large area in many shallow pits, each covered with vegetation. It is possible that Diplodocus may have done the same. The documentary Walking with Dinosaurs portrayed a mother Diplodocus using an ovipositor to lay eggs, but it was pure speculation on the part of the documentary. Following a number of bone histology studies, Diplodocus, along with other sauropods, grew at a very fast rate, reaching sexual maturity at just over a decade, though continuing to grow throughout their lives. Sander, P. M. (2000). "Long bone histology of the Tendaguru sauropods: Implications for growth and biology". Paleobiology 26, 466–488 Sander, P. M., N. Klein, E. Buffetaut, G. Cuny, V. Suteethorn, and J. Le Loeuff (2004). "Adaptive radiation in sauropod dinosaurs: Bone histology indicates rapid evolution of giant body size through acceleration". Organisms, Diversity & Evolution 4, 165–173 Sander, P. M., and N. Klein (2005). "Developmental plasticity in the life history of a prosauropod dinosaur". Science 310 1800–1802 Previous thinking held that sauropods would keep growing slowly throughout their lifetime, taking decades to reach maturity. Classification Diplodocus is both the type genus of, and gives its name to Diplodocidae, the family to which it belongs. Marsh, O.C. 1884. Principal characters of American Jurassic dinosaurs. Part VII. On the Diplodocidae, a new family of the Sauropoda. American Journal of Science 3: 160–168. Members of this family, while still massive, are of a markedly more slender build when compared with other sauropods, such as the titanosaurs and brachiosaurs. All are characterised by long necks and tails and a horizontal posture, with forelimbs shorter than hindlimbs. Diplodocids flourished in the Late Jurassic of North America and possibly Africa and appear to have been replaced ecologically by titanosaurs during the Cretaceous. A subfamily, Diplodocinae, was erected to include Diplodocus and its closest relatives, including Barosaurus. More distantly related is the contemporaneous Apatosaurus, which is still considered a diplodocid although not a diplodocine, as it is a member of the subfamily Apatosaurinae. Taylor, M.P. & Naish, D. 2005. The phylogenetic taxonomy of Diplodocoidea (Dinosauria: Sauropoda). PaleoBios 25(2): 1–7. (download here) Harris, J.D. 2006. The significance of Suuwassea emiliae (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) for flagellicaudatan intrarelationships and evolution. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 4(2): 185–198. The Portuguese Dinheirosaurus and the African Tornieria have also been identified as close relatives of Diplodocus by some authors. Bonaparte, J.F. & Mateus, O. 1999. A new diplodocid, Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis gen. et sp. nov., from the Late Jurassic beds of Portugal. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales. 5(2):13–29. (download here) Rauhut, O.W.M., Remes, K., Fechner, R., Cladera, G., & Puerta, P. 2005. Discovery of a short-necked sauropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period of Patagonia. Nature 435: 670–672. The Diplodocoidea comprises the diplodocids, as well as dicraeosaurids, rebbachisaurids, Suuwassea, Amphicoelias and possibly Haplocanthosaurus, Wilson, J. A., 2002, "Sauropod dinosaur phylogeny: critique and cladistica analysis". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 136: 217–276. and/or the nemegtosaurids. This clade is the sister group to, Camarasaurus, brachiosaurids and titanosaurians; the Macronaria. Together they comprise Neosauropoda; the largest, most diverse and successful group of sauropodomorph dinosaurs. In popular culture Presentation of the first replica of Diplodocus carnegii to the trustees of the British Museum of Natural History, 12 May, 1905. Lord Avebury speaking Diplodocus has been a famous and much-depicted dinosaur as it has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur. "Diplodocus." In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B. The Age of Dinosaurs. Publications International, LTD. p. 58-59. ISBN 0-7853-0443-6. Much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and former status as the longest dinosaur. However, the donation of many mounted skeletal casts by industrialist Andrew Carnegie to potentates around the world at the beginning of the twentieth century did much to familiarize it to people worldwide. Casts of Diplodocus skeletons are still displayed in many museums worldwide, including an unusual D. hayi in the Houston Museum of Natural Science, and D. carnegii in a number of institutions. This includes donations by Carnegie or his trust to: The Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh (original, first mounted in 1904, and unveiled in 1907) The Natural History Museum in London (replica, unveiled on 12 May, 1905) The Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Germany (replica, unveiled in early May, 1908) The National Natural History Museum in Paris, France (replica, unveiled on 15 June, 1908) The Natural History Museum in Vienna, Austria (replica, unveiled in 1909) The Museum for Paleontology and Geology in Bologna, Italy (replica, unveiled in 1909). Skulls from this cast (i.e., 'second-generation') are on display in museums in Milan and Naples. The Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, Russia (replica, unveiled in 1910) The National Natural History Museum in Madrid, Spain (replica, unveiled in 1911) The Museo de la Plata in Buenos Aires, Argentina (replica, unveiled in 1912) The Museo de Paleontología in Mexico City (replica, unveiled in 1929) The Paleontological Museum in Munich, Germany (replica, donated in 1932 and still unmounted) Holland's Diplodocus replica in the Paris Musée d'histoire naturelle, much as it was in 1908 This project, along with its association with 'big science', philanthropism and capitalism, drew much public attention in Europe. The German satirical weekly Kladderadatsch devoted a poem to the dinosaur: [...]
Auch ein viel älterer Herr noch muß Den Wanderburschen spielen Er ist genannt Diplodocus‚
und zählt zu den Fossilen Herr Carnegie verpackt ihn froh In riesengroße Archen Und schickt als Geschenk ihn so An mehrere Monarchen
[...] (Translation: [...]
But even a much older gent • Sees itself forced to wander • Goes by the name Diplodocus • And belongs among the fossils • Mr. Carnegie packs him joyfully • In giant arcs • And sends him as gift this way • To multiple monarchs [...]) "Die Wanderbursche", in: Kladderadatsch, 7 May 1908 Model Diplodocus standing on its hind legs in Bałtów, Poland A further D. carnegii is on display at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Additionally, D. longus is displayed the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt (a skeleton made up of several specimens, donated in 1907 by the American Museum of Natural History), Germany. A mounted and more complete skeleton of D. longus is at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., while a mounted skeleton of D. hallorum (formerly Seismosaurus), which may be the same as D. longus, can be found at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. Diplodocus has been a frequent subject in dinosaur films, both factual and fictional, beginning with Winsor McKay's 1914 classic Gertie the Dinosaur. It was featured in the second episode of the award-winning BBC television series Walking with Dinosaurs. The episode "Time of the Titans" follows the life of a simulated Diplodocus 152 million years ago. The animated feature Fantasia features many sauropods in the Rite of Spring sequence, some narrower-headed ones of which may be Diplodocus. In literature, James A. Michener's book Centennial has a chapter devoted to Diplodocus, narrating the life and death of one individual. Diplodocus is a commonly seen figure in dinosaur toy and scale model lines. It has had two separate figures in the Carnegie Collection. References External links Diplodocus in the Dino Directory Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid Diplodocus Marsh, by J.B. Hatcher 1901 - Its Osteology, Taxonomy, and Probable Habits, with a Restoration of the Skeleton. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, Volume 1, Number 1, 1901. Full text, Free to read. Carnegie Museum of Natural History - History Skeletal restorations of diplodocids including D. carnegii, D. longus, and D. hallorum, from Scott Hartman's Skeletal Drawing website. Chapter 5: The Amphibious Dinosaurs - Brontosaurus, Diplodocusw, Etc. Sub-Order Opisthocœlia (Cetiosauria or Sauropoda by W. D. 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6,952 | MOS_Technology_6502 | The MOS Technology 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by Chuck Peddle and Bill Mensch for MOS Technology in 1975. When it was introduced, it was the least expensive full-featured CPU on the market by a considerable margin, costing less than one-sixth the price of competing designs from larger companies such as Motorola and Intel. It was nevertheless fully comparable with them, and, along with the Zilog Z80, sparked a series of computer projects that would eventually result in the home computer revolution of the 1980s. The 6502 design, with about 4000 transistors, was originally second-sourced by Rockwell and Synertek and later licensed to a number of companies; it is still made for embedded systems. A MOS 6502 processor in a DIP-40 plastic package. History and use The 6502 was designed primarily by the same engineering team that had designed the Motorola 6800. After resigning from Motorola en masse, the team went looking for another company that would be interested in hosting a design team, and found MOS Technology, then a small chipmaking company whose main product was a single-chip implementation of the popular Pong video game. At MOS, they quickly designed the 6501, a completely new processor that was pin-compatible with the 6800 (that is, it could be plugged into motherboards designed for the Motorola processor, although its instruction set was different). Motorola sued immediately, and MOS agreed to stop producing the 6501 and went back to the drawing board. The result was the "lawsuit-compatible" 6502, which was by design unusable in a 6800 motherboard but otherwise identical to the 6501. Motorola had no objection. However, this left MOS with the problem of getting developers to try their processor, so engineer Peddle designed the KIM-1 simple single-board computer. Much to their surprise, the KIM-1 sold well to hobbyists and tinkerers as well as to the engineers it was intended for. The related Rockwell AIM 65 control/training/development system also did well. Another roughly similar product was the Synertek SYM-1. Apple IIe Atari 800XL The 6502 was introduced at $25 at the Wescon show in September 1975. The company had an off-floor suite with a big jar full of the chips, although this early run meant only the ones at the top of the jar worked Brian Bagnall, On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore (Variant Press, 2005), p. 24 At the same show the 6800 and Intel 8080 were selling for $179. James is now Jameco Electronics. The 8080 CPU was $149.95, the 8008 CPU was 29.95. A 2102 1K bit static RAM was $4.95. Their price for a 8080A CPU was 37.95 in the June 1976 issue. At first many people thought the new chip's price was a hoax or a mistake, but while the show was still ongoing both Motorola and Intel had dropped their chips to $79. The 8080A CPU was $69.50. A 2102 1K bit static RAM was $3.50. Digi-Key's price for a 8080A was $34.95 in the June 1976 issue. These price reductions legitimized the 6502, which started selling by the hundreds. Brian Bagnall, "On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore", Variant Press, 2005, ISBN 0973864907 One of the first "public" uses for the design was the Apple I computer, introduced in 1976. The 6502 was next used in the Commodore PET and the Apple II. It was later used in the Atari home computers, the BBC Micro family, the Commodore VIC-20 and a large number of other designs both for home computers and business, such as Ohio Scientific. Commodore 64 The 6510, a direct successor of the 6502 with a digital I/O port and a three-state address bus, was the CPU utilized in the Commodore 64 home computer. (Commodore's disk drive, the 1541, had a processor of its own—it too was a 6502.) Atari 2600 Another important use of the 6500 family was in video games. The first to make use was the Atari 2600 videogame console. The 2600 used an offshoot of the 6502 called the 6507, which had fewer pins and, as a result, could address only 8 KB of memory. Millions of the Atari consoles would be sold, each with a MOS processor. Another significant use was by the Nintendo Famicom, a Japanese video game console. Its international equivalent, the Nintendo Entertainment System, also used the processor. The 6502 used in the NES was a second source version by Ricoh, a partial system-on-a-chip, that lacked a binary-coded decimal mode but added 22 memory-mapped registers for sound generation, joypad reading, and sprite list DMA. Called 2A03 in NTSC consoles and 2A07 in PAL consoles (the difference being the memory divider ratio and a lookup table for audio sample rates), this processor was produced exclusively for Nintendo. Even as of 2006, some universities, including the Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands, University of Tasmania, the University of Applied Sciences in Cologne, Germany, University of Exeter in Devon, England, Carleton College, Hull University, Matthew Boulton College, University of Brescia in Italy and Universidad APEC in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic still use the processor to teach assembly language, computer architecture and digital integrated systems. Technical description The 6502 is an 8-bit processor with a 16-bit address bus. The internal logic runs at the same speed as the external clock rate, but despite the slow clock speeds (typically in the neighborhood of 1 or 2 MHz), the 6502's performance was actually competitive with other CPUs using significantly faster clocks. This is partly due to a simplistic state machine implemented by combinatorial (clockless) logic to a greater extent than in many other designs; the two phase clock (supplying two synchronizations per cycle) can thereby control the whole machine-cycle directly. Like most simple CPUs of the era, the dynamic NMOS 6502 chip was not sequenced by a microcode ROM but used a PLA (which occupied about 15% of the chip area) for instruction decoding and sequencing. Like most typical eight-bit microprocessors, the chip does some limited overlapping of fetching and execution. The low clock frequency moderated the speed requirement of memory and peripherals attached to the CPU, as only about 50% of the clock cycle was available for memory access (due to the asynchronous design, this percentage varied strongly among chip versions). This was critical at a time when affordable memory had access times in the range 450-250ns. The original NMOS 6502 was minimalistically engineered and efficiently manufactured and therefore cheap—an important factor in getting design wins in the very price-sensitive game console and home computer markets.6502 Pin configuration (40-Pin DIP) Like its precursor, the Motorola 6800 (but unlike Intel 8080 and similar microprocessors) the 6502 has very few registers. At the time the processor was designed, small bipolar memories were relatively fast, so it made sense to rely on RAM instead of wasting expensive NMOS chip area on CPU-registers. The 6502's registers included one 8-bit accumulator register (A), two 8-bit index registers (X and Y), an 8-bit processor status register (P), an 8-bit stack pointer (S), and a 16-bit program counter (PC). The subroutine call/scratchpad stack's address space was hardwired to memory page $01, i.e. the address range $0100–$01FF (256–511). Software access to the stack was done via four implied addressing mode instructions whose functions were to push or pop (pull) the accumulator or the processor status register. The same stack was also used for subroutine calls via the JSR (Jump to Subroutine) and RTS (Return from Subroutine) instructions, and for interrupt handling. The chip used the index and stack registers effectively with several addressing modes, including a fast "direct page" or "zero page" mode, similar to that found on the PDP-8, that accessed memory locations from address 0 to 255 with a single 8-bit address (saving the cycle normally required to fetch the high-order byte of the address)—code for the 6502 used the zero page much as code for other processors would have used registers. On some 6502-based microcomputers with an operating system, the OS would use most of zero page, leaving only a handful of locations for the user. Addressing modes also included implied (1 byte instructions); absolute (3 bytes); indexed absolute (3 bytes); indexed zero-page (2 bytes); relative (2 bytes); accumulator (1); indirect,x and indirect,y (2); and immediate (2). Absolute mode was a general-purpose mode. Branch instructions used a signed 8-bit offset relative to the instruction after the branch; the numerical range -128..127 therefore translates to 128 bytes backward and 127 bytes forward from the instruction following the branch (which is 126 bytes backward and 129 bytes forward from the start of the branch instruction). Accumulator mode used the accumulator as an effective address, and did not need any operand data. Immediate mode used an 8-bit literal operand. The indirect modes were useful for array processing and other looping. With the 5/6 cycle "(indirect),y" mode, the 8-bit Y register was added to a 16-bit base address in zero page, located by a single byte following the opcode. As the resulting address could be anywhere in the 16-bit memory range, the Y register was a true index register, as opposed to the 6800, which had one 16-bit address register. Incrementing the index register to walk the array byte-wise took only two additional cycles. With the less frequently used "(indirect,x)" mode the effective address for the operation was found at the zero page address formed by adding the second byte of the instruction to the contents of the X register. Using the indexed modes, the zero page effectively acted as a set of 128 additional (though very slow) address registers. The 6502 also included a set of binary coded decimal (BCD) instructions, a feature normally implemented in software. Placing the CPU into BCD allowed numbers to be manipulated in base-10, with a set of conversion instructions to convert between base-10 and binary (base-2). For instance, with the "D" flag set, 99+1 would result in 00 and the carry flag being set. These instructions made implementing a BASIC programming language easier, removing the need to convert numbers for display in the BASIC interpreter itself. However, this feature meant other useful instructions could not be implemented due to a lack of CPU real estate, and was sometimes removed to make room for custom instructions. A Byte magazine article once referred to the 6502 as "the original RISC processor," due to its efficient, simplistic, and nearly orthogonal instruction set (most instructions work with most addressing modes), as well as its 256 zero-page "registers". The 6502 is technically not a RISC design however, as arithmetic operations can read any memory cell (not only zero-page), and some instructions (inc, rol etc.) even modify memory contrary to the basic load/store philosophy of RISC. Furthermore, orthogonality is equally often associated with "CISC". However the 6502 performed reasonably well compared to other contemporaneous processors such as the Z80, which used a much faster clock rate, and the 6502 has been credited as being inspirational to RISC processors such as the ARM. Risc Vs Cisc See the Hello world! article for a simple but characteristic example of 6502 assembly language. Detailed behavior The processor's non-maskable interrupt input is edge sensitive, which means that if the source of an NMI holds the line low NMI's are effectively disabled. The simultaneous assertion of the NMI (non-maskable) and IRQ (maskable) hardware interrupt lines causes IRQ to be ignored. However, if the IRQ line remains asserted after the servicing of the NMI, the processor will immediately respond to IRQ, as IRQ is level-sensitive. Thus a sort of built-in interrupt priority was established in the 6502 design. The "Break" flag of the processor is very different from the other flag bits. It has no flag setting, resetting, and testing instructions of its own, and is not handled by the PHP and PLP instructions either. It exists only on the stack, where BRK and PHP write a 1, while IRQ and NMI write a 0. Bugs & Quirks The original 6502 and its NMOS derivatives are noted for having a variety of undocumented instructions, which vary from one chip manufacturer to the next. The 6502's instruction decoding is implemented in a hardwired logic array (similar to a programmable logic array) which is only defined for 151 of the 256 available opcodes. The remaining 105 trigger strange and hard-to-predict actions (e.g., immediately crashing the processor, performing several valid instructions at once, or simply doing nothing at all). Eastern House Software developed the "Trap65", a device that plugged between the processor and its socket to convert (trap) unimplemented opcodes into BRK (software interrupt) instructions. Some programmers utilized this feature to extend the 6502's instruction set by providing functionality for the unimplemented opcodes with specially written software intercepted at the BRK instruction's 0xFFFE vector. All of the undefined opcodes have been replaced by NOP instructions in the 65C02 CMOS version (although with varying byte sizes and execution times). The 6502's memory indirect jump instruction, JMP (<address low-word>), is partially broken. If <address low-word> was hex xxFF (i.e. any word ending in FF), the processor would not jump to the address stored in xxFF and xxFF+1, but rather the one in xxFF and xx00, an effect referred to as "address wrapping." This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was fixed in the CMOS derivatives. The 6502's Indirect-Indexed-Y ((Ind),Y) addressing mode is also partially broken. If the zero-page address was hex FF (i.e. last address of zero-page FF), the processor would not fetch data from the address pointed to by xxFF and xxFF+1 + Y, but rather the one in FF and 00 +Y. This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was fixed in some of the CMOS derivatives. The 6502's Indirect-Indexed-X ((Ind,X)) addressing mode is also partially broken if the zero-page address was hex FF (i.e. last address of zero-page FF), again a case of address wrap. The NMOS 6502's indexed addressing across page boundaries will do an extra read of invalid address. This can cause issues by accessing hardware that acts on a read (e.g., clearing timer or IRQ flags, sending an I/O handshake, etc.). This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was fixed in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor does an extra read of the last instruction byte. The 6502's Read/Modify/Write instruction at effective address does one read and two write cycles. This can cause issues by twice accessing hardware that acts on a write. This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was fixed in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor will do two reads and one write cycle. The N (result negative), V (sign bit overflow) and Z (result zero) status flags are not valid when performing arithmetic operations while the processor is in BCD mode, as these flags reflect the binary, not BCD, result. This limitation was removed in the CMOS derivatives. Therefore, this feature may be used to cleanly distinguish CMOS from NMOS CPU versions without using any illegal opcodes ( http://www.s-direktnet.de/homepages/k_nadj/cputest.html ). If the processor happens to be in BCD mode when a hardware interrupt occurs it will not revert to binary mode. This quirk could result in hard-to-solve bugs in the interrupt service routine if it failed to clear BCD mode before performing any arithmetic operations. For example, the Commodore 64's kernel did not correctly handle this processor characteristic, requiring that IRQs be disabled or revectored during BCD math operations. This issue was addressed in the CMOS derivatives as well. The SO pin (Set Overflow) was intended for use in high-speed device drivers. Asserting it would immediately set the processor's Overflow (V) status register bit. Successful use of this feature could eliminate a load instruction from a high-speed device driver, reducing the number of instructions in a data transfer loop by 25 percent, but obviously great care was required in the system design in order not to corrupt general computation. In practice, the SO feature was seldom used. The 6502 instruction set includes BRK (opcode $00), which is technically a software interrupt (similar in spirit to the SWI mnemonic of the 6800). BRK is most often used to interrupt program execution and start a machine code monitor for testing and debugging during software development. It could also be used to route program execution using a simple jump table (analogous to the manner in which the 8088 and derivatives handle software interrupts by number). Unfortunately, if a hardware interrupt occurs at the same time the processor is fetching a BRK instruction, the NMOS version of the processor will fail to execute BRK and instead proceed as if only a hardware interrupt had occurred. This fault was corrected in the CMOS implementation of the processor. The JSR (call subroutine) instruction pushes the address of the last byte of the call instruction on to the stack (the program counter would have been increased after execution has been completed). The RTS (return) instruction pulls the return address off the stack and increments it before placing it into the program counter, resulting in automatic compensation for this design quirk( Atari Roots - Chapter 6 ). This characteristic would go unnoticed unless you pulled the return address to pick up parameters in the code stream (a common 6502 programming idiom). It remains a characteristic of 6502 derivatives to this day. 16-bit derivatives The Western Design Center designed and produced the 65C816 processor, a 16-bit successor to the 65C02, as well as a hybrid offshoot called the 65C802 which was a 65C816 core with a 64 KB address space in a 65(C)02 pin-compatible package—it could be plugged into a 6502 board and would function as a 65C02, or it could be configured via software to expose its 16 bit accumulator and index registers. Few 65C802 parts were sold, and the chip is no longer produced. The 65C816 was the core of the widely popular Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and the Apple IIGS. The 65C816 is still widely used, both as a discrete processor and as the core of a microcontroller. Mitsubishi (now Renesas Technology) made a line of 16-bit microcontrollers with an architecture very similar to the 65816, though it was not 100% compatible. Synertek published a data sheet and application notes on the SY6516, a 16-bit derivative of the 6502, but the part was never introduced. 32-bit derivatives The Western Design Center at one time claimed to be developing a W65T32 Terbium, a compatible 32-bit follow-up to the W65C816. The Terbium was named after the 65th element as 65 is the prefix to all of WDC's microprocessor number identifiers. The chip would have had a 32-bit address bus, a 16-bit data bus, and a variable length instruction set. Acceleration Many users of 1 MHz 6502-based systems soon wished their computers could go faster. A number of companies sold replacement hardware to speed up those systems. Generally, 6502 system accelerators were based on: 6502 or 65C02 chips running at a faster clock rate 65C816 chips in 6502 emulation mode, running at a much faster clock rate (up to 20 MHz) 4 MHz and 8 MHz Zip Chip processors, made by Zip Technology, and 10 MHz Rocket Chips, made by Bits and Pieces, all using onboard cache RAM and proprietary glue logic to speed up processing while remaining compatible with a 1 MHz motherboard. Zip Technology's patent #4,794,523 eventually forced Bits and Pieces to cease manufacturing of the Rocket Chip. 6502 in popular culture In the science fiction movie The Terminator (1984), starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, the audience at one point is treated to a view through the T-800 Model-101 robot character's eye/camera display with some 6502 assembly/machine code program fragments scrolling down the screen. The program was listing the Apple DOS 3.3 disassembled program listing. Also shown is the output from a run of an Apple ][ checksum program called KEY PERFECT 4.0, published in Nibble magazine. Bender, a fictional android "industrial robot" manufactured in 2998 CE, and a main character in the animated TV series Futurama created by David X. Cohen, was revealed to have a 6502 as his "brain", in the episode "Fry and the Slurm Factory". Cohen has confirmed that he and friends David Borden and David Schiminovich wrote an assembly language compiler ("FLEET") for the Apple II Plus, that uses the 6502, while at high school, which led to the reference in the show. The Truth About Bender's Brain: David X. Cohen, of "Futurama," reveals how MOS Technology's 6502 processor ended up in the robot's head, IEEE spectrum magazine, May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-02 See also Lisa assembler MOS Technology 6502-based home computers Interrupts in 65xx processors References Leventhal, Lance A. (1986). 6502 Assembly Language Programming 2nd Edition. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-881216-X. Leventhal, Lance A. (1982). 6502 Assembly Language Subroutines. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-931988-59-4. Mansfield, Richard (1983). Machine Language For Beginners. Personal Computer Machine Language Programming For The Atari, VIC, Apple, Commodore 64, And PET/CBM Computers (or, Machine Language Programming For BASIC Language Programmers). Greensboro, North Carolina: Compute! Publications, Inc. Copyright © 1983, Small System Services, Inc. ISBN 0-942386-11-6. Zaks, Rodnay (1983). Programming the 6502 (Fourth Edition). Sybex, Inc. ISBN 0-89588-135-7. Zaks, Rodnay (1982). Advanced 6502 Programming. Sybex, Inc. ISBN 0-89588-089-X. A comparison of the Motorola M6800 and the MOS Technology MCS6501/MCS6502 microprocessors. It was written in August 1975, about a month before the 6500 family was introduced at the WESCON trade show in San Francisco CA., (September 16-19, 1975) External links General information: 6502.org - the 6502 microprocessor resource – Repository and portal (Mike Naberezny) 650x information – Concise description, photos of MOS and second source chips; at cpu-collection.de (Dirk Oppelt) a2DMAMagic – The secret, transparent, high-throughput 6502 DMA channel (by Jorge Chamorro Bieling) mdfs.net – 6502 instruction set Instruction set features: 6502 - the first RISC µP – With link to concise 6502 programming chart in PDF (Eric Clever) "The 6502 Gets Microprogrammable Instructions" – By Dennette A. Harrod, in BYTE, Volume 5, Number 10 (October 1980), pp.282–5 Emulators and simulators: List of 6502 software emulators – At Zophar's Domain (Sam Michaels) 6502 simulator for Windows – At Dan Boris' homepage hosted by The Atari Gaming Headquarters Web-based 6502 compatible compiler and emulator written in JavaScript – by Stian Søreng Early 6502 computers: Apple I Owners Club – Hosted by the Applefritter site (Tom Owad) KIM-1 schematics – At The Obsolete Technology Website (anonymous collector) Rockwell AIM 65 – The Old Computer Hut Hardware accelerators: 6502 accelerator information – At the Apple II History website (Steven Weyhrich) "Underneath the Hood of the SuperCPU" – By Jim Brain, in C=Hacking, Issue #12, Version 1.3, March 1996 (search for "@(#)cmdcpu") Hardware: The Western Design Center, Inc. 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6,953 | Comet_Shoemakerâ%80%93Levy_9 | Shoemaker-Levy redirects here. For other Shoemaker-Levy comets see List of periodic comets. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9, formally designated D/1993 F2) was a comet that collided with Jupiter in 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and SL9 was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its role in reducing space debris in the inner solar system. The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker and David Levy. Shoemaker-Levy 9 was located on the night of , in a photograph taken with the Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California. It was the first comet observed to be orbiting a planet. In July 1992 the orbit of Shoemaker-Levy 9 passed within Jupiter's Roche limit, and Jupiter's tidal forces acted to pull the comet apart. SL9 was later observed as a series of fragments ranging up to in diameter. These fragments collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere between July 16 and , at a speed of approximately . The prominent scars from the impacts were more easily visible than the Great Red Spot and persisted for many months. Discovery While conducting a program of observations designed to uncover near-Earth objects, the Shoemakers and Levy discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) on the night of in a photograph taken with the Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California. The comet was thus a serendipitous discovery, but one that quickly overshadowed the results from their main observing program. SL9 was the ninth periodic comet (a comet whose orbital period is 200 years or less) discovered by the Shoemakers and Levy, hence its name. It was their eleventh comet discovery overall including their discovery of two non-periodic comets, which use a different nomenclature. The discovery was announced in IAU Circular 5725 on . The discovery image gave the first hint that SL9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50 arcseconds long and 10 arcseconds wide. Brian Marsden of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 degrees from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that while this could of course be a line of sight effect, its apparent motion suggested that it was physically close to the giant planet. Because of this, he suggested that the Shoemakers and David Levy had discovered the fragments of a comet that had been disrupted by Jupiter's gravity. Jupiter-orbiting comet Orbital studies of the new comet soon revealed that it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the Sun, unlike all other comets known at the time. Its orbit around Jupiter was very loosely bound, with a period of about 2 years and an apojove (furthest distance from Jupiter) of . Its orbit around the planet was highly eccentric (e = 0.9986). Tracing back the comet's orbital motion revealed that it had been orbiting Jupiter for some time. It seems most likely that it was captured from a solar orbit in the early 1970s, although the capture may have occurred as early as the mid-1960s. Several other observers found images of the comet in precovery images obtained before March 24, including Kin Endate from a photograph exposed on March 15, S. Otomo on March 17, and a team led by Eleanor Helin from images on March 19. No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt. The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere (also called the Roche sphere). When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere. Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it. Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight toward Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jupiter-centric orbit of very high eccentricity that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out. The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on July 7, 1992, just over above the planet's cloud tops a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of , and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon Metis and the planet's Roche limit, inside which tidal forces are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity. Although the comet had approached Jupiter closely before, the July 7 encounter seemed to be by far the closest, and the fragmentation of the comet is thought to have occurred at this time. Each fragment of the comet was denoted by a letter of the alphabet, from "fragment A" through to "fragment W", a practice already established from previously observed broken-up comets. More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital solutions suggested that the comet would pass within of the center of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994. Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plow into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days. Predictions for the collision The discovery that the comet was likely to collide with Jupiter caused great excitement within the astronomical community and beyond, as astronomers had never before seen two significant solar system bodies collide. Intense studies of the comet were undertaken, and as its orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty. The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds. Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres to at most a couple of kilometres across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to across somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant meteors. Other suggested effects of the impacts were seismic waves travelling across the planet, an increase in stratospheric haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the Jovian ring system. However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal. Impacts Jupiter in Ultraviolet (about 2.5 hours after R's impact) Anticipation grew as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained terrestrial telescopes on Jupiter. Several space observatories did the same, including the Hubble Space Telescope, the ROSAT X-ray observing satellite, and significantly the Galileo spacecraft, then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1995. While the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of 1.6 AU from the planet, was able to see the impacts as they occurred. Jupiter's rapid rotation brought the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions. Two other satellites made observations at the time of the impact: the Ulysses spacecraft, primarily designed for solar observations, was pointed towards Jupiter from its location 2.6 AU away, and the distant Voyager 2 probe, some 44 AU from Jupiter and on its way out of the solar system following its encounter with Neptune in 1989, was programmed to look for radio emission in the 1–390 kHz range. HST images of a fireball from the first impact appearing over the limb of the planet The first impact occurred at 20:13 UTC on , when fragment A of the nucleus slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at a speed of about 60 km/s. Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball which reached a peak temperature of about 24,000 K, compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130 K, before expanding and cooling rapidly to about 1500 K after 40 s. The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over 3,000 km. A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, Galileo measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet. Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the limb of the planet shortly after the initial impact. Astronomers had expected to see the fireballs from the impacts, but did not have any idea in advance how visible the atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth. Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact. The spot was visible even in very small telescopes, and was about (one Earth radius) across. This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact. Over the next 6 days, 21 distinct impacts were observed, with the largest coming on July 18 at 07:33 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter. This impact created a giant dark spot over 12,000 km across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000 megatons of TNT (600 times the world's nuclear arsenal). Two impacts 12 hours apart on July 19 created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until July 22, when fragment W struck the planet. Observations and discoveries Chemical studies Brown spots mark impact sites on Jupiter's southern hemisphere. Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere. Spectroscopic studies revealed absorption lines in the Jovian spectrum due to diatomic sulfur (S2) and carbon disulfide (CS2), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object. Other molecules detected included ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed. Oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers. As well as these molecules, emission from heavy atoms such as iron, magnesium and silicon was detected, with abundances consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus. While substantial water was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted beforehand, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough. Seismic waves As predicted beforehand, the collisions generated enormous seismic waves which swept across the planet at speeds of and were observed for over two hours after the largest impacts. The waves were thought to be travelling within a stable layer acting as a waveguide, and some scientists believed the stable layer must lie within the hypothesised tropospheric water cloud. However, other evidence seemed to indicate that the cometary fragments had not reached the water layer, and the waves were instead propagating within the stratosphere. Other observations A sequence of Galileo images, taken several seconds apart, showing the appearance of the fireball of fragment G on the dark side of Jupiter Radio observations revealed a sharp increase in continuum emission at a wavelength of 21 cm after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet. This was thought to be due to synchrotron radiation, caused by the injection of relativistic electrons electrons with velocities near the speed of light into the Jovian magnetosphere by the impacts. About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded auroral emission near the impact region, as well as at the antipode of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong magnetic field. The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal magnetic field and of the geometry of the impact sites. One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating shock waves from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving solar wind particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a magnetic pole. Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the Io torus, a torus of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly volcanic moon Io. High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion density, rotational velocity, and temperatures at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits. Post-impact analysis A reddish, asymmetric ejecta pattern One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to prior predictions. Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 30 kilopascals to a few tens of megapascals (from 0.3 to a few hundred bar), with some predictions that the comet would penetrate a layer of water and create a bluish shroud over that region of Jupiter. Astronomers did not observe large amounts of water following the collisions, and later impact studies found that fragmentation and destruction of the cometary fragments in an 'airburst' probably occurred at much higher altitudes than previously expected, with even the largest fragments being destroyed when the pressure reached , well above the expected depth of the water layer. The smaller fragments were probably destroyed before they even reached the cloud layer. Longer-term effects The visible scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months. They were extremely prominent, and observers described them as more easily visible even than the Great Red Spot. A search of historical observations revealed that the spots were probably the most prominent transient features ever seen on the planet, and that while the Great Red Spot is notable for its striking colour, no spots of the size and darkness of those caused by the SL9 impacts have ever been recorded before. Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon sulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere. Counterintuitively, the atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact. At smaller sites, temperatures 10 K higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks. Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2–3 weeks afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures. Frequency of impacts A chain of craters on Ganymede, probably caused by a similar impact event. The picture covers an area approximately across. SL9 is not unique in having orbited Jupiter for a time; at least two other comets (82P/Gehrels and 111P/Helin-Roman-Crockett) are known to have been temporarily captured by the planet. Cometary orbits around Jupiter are unstable, as they will be highly elliptical and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at apojove (the furthest point on the orbit from the planet). By far the most massive planet in the solar system, Jupiter can capture objects relatively frequently, but the size of SL9 makes it a rarity: one post-impact study estimated that comets 0.3 km in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those in diameter do so just once in every 6000 years. There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites. During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 crater chains on Callisto and three on Ganymede, the origin of which was initially a mystery. Crater chains seen on the Moon often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the Jovian moons did not lead back to a larger crater. The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites. Jupiter as a "cosmic vacuum cleaner" The impact of SL9 highlighted Jupiter's role as a kind of "cosmic vacuum cleaner" for the inner solar system. The planet's strong gravitational influence leads to many small comets and asteroids colliding with the planet, and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between two thousand and eight thousand times higher than the rate on Earth. If Jupiter were not present, the probability of asteroid impacts with the Solar System's inner planets would be greater. The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period is generally believed to have been caused by the impact event which created the Chicxulub crater, demonstrating that impacts are a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter to mop up potential impactors, extinction events might have been more frequent on Earth, and complex life might not have been able to develop. This is part of the argument used in the Rare Earth hypothesis. References See also Atmosphere of Jupiter Juno probe to Jupiter External links Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 FAQ Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 Photo Gallery Downloadable gif Animation showing time course of impact and size relative to earthsize http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~pmurphy/patsl9.html Jupiter Swallows Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 Comet Shoemaker-Levy Collision with Jupiter National Space Science Data Center information Simulation of the orbit of SL-9 showing the passage that fragmented the comet and the collision 2 years later YouTube video animation of impact Interactive space simulator that includes accurate 3D simulation of the Shoemaker Levy 9 collision | Comet_Shoemakerâ%80%93Levy_9 |@lemmatized shoemaker:15 levy:15 redirects:1 comet:46 see:9 list:1 periodic:3 formally:1 designate:1 collide:7 jupiter:65 provide:3 first:8 direct:1 observation:8 extraterrestrial:1 collision:15 solar:10 system:8 object:5 generate:2 large:12 amount:6 coverage:1 popular:1 medium:1 closely:2 observe:9 astronomer:12 worldwide:1 new:2 information:2 highlight:2 role:2 reduce:1 space:6 debris:2 inner:3 discover:4 carolyn:1 eugene:1 david:2 locate:1 night:2 photograph:3 take:4 schmidt:2 telescope:5 palomar:2 observatory:3 california:2 orbit:17 planet:24 july:8 pass:5 within:12 roche:3 limit:3 tidal:2 force:2 act:2 pull:1 apart:4 later:3 series:1 fragment:23 range:3 diameter:3 southern:3 hemisphere:3 speed:4 approximately:3 prominent:3 scar:2 impact:60 easily:2 visible:6 great:7 red:3 spot:10 persist:3 many:3 month:3 discovery:8 conduct:1 program:3 design:2 uncover:1 near:5 earth:12 thus:1 serendipitous:1 one:6 quickly:3 overshadow:1 result:1 main:1 observing:1 ninth:1 whose:1 orbital:4 period:5 year:5 less:1 hence:1 name:1 eleventh:1 overall:1 include:5 two:8 non:1 use:2 different:1 nomenclature:1 announce:1 iau:1 circular:1 image:7 give:3 hint:1 unusual:1 appear:2 show:5 multiple:1 nucleus:6 elongated:1 region:4 arcsecond:2 long:2 wide:2 brian:1 marsden:1 central:1 bureau:1 astronomical:3 telegram:1 note:1 lay:1 degree:1 could:2 course:2 line:2 sight:1 effect:6 apparent:1 motion:3 suggest:6 physically:1 close:4 giant:3 disrupt:2 gravity:4 study:8 soon:2 reveal:8 rather:1 sun:2 unlike:1 know:2 time:9 around:3 loosely:1 bound:1 apojove:2 furthest:2 distance:4 highly:3 eccentric:1 e:1 trace:1 back:5 seem:3 likely:3 capture:5 early:4 although:2 may:2 occur:6 mid:1 several:3 observer:8 find:7 precovery:2 obtain:1 march:5 kin:1 endate:1 expose:2 otomo:1 team:1 lead:3 eleanor:1 helin:2 date:2 probably:6 short:1 aphelion:2 inside:3 perihelion:1 interior:1 asteroid:3 belt:1 volume:1 say:2 define:1 hill:2 sphere:3 also:2 call:1 late:1 happen:1 slightly:1 nudge:1 towards:2 respect:2 small:11 fell:2 almost:2 straight:1 toward:1 end:2 centric:1 high:7 eccentricity:1 ellipse:1 nearly:1 flatten:1 apparently:1 extremely:3 cloud:6 top:2 radius:3 well:4 innermost:1 moon:4 metis:1 strong:4 enough:3 body:3 hold:1 together:1 approach:2 encounter:2 far:2 fragmentation:2 think:7 denote:1 letter:1 alphabet:1 w:2 practice:1 already:1 establish:3 previously:3 broken:1 exciting:1 planetary:3 best:1 solution:1 would:12 center:2 mean:2 probability:2 train:3 plow:1 atmosphere:7 five:1 day:2 prediction:4 cause:11 excitement:1 community:1 beyond:1 never:1 significant:1 intense:1 undertake:1 become:3 accurately:1 possibility:1 certainty:1 unique:2 opportunity:1 scientist:3 look:2 expect:4 eruption:1 material:4 layer:8 normally:1 hide:2 beneath:2 estimate:3 size:5 hundred:2 metre:1 couple:1 kilometre:1 across:7 original:2 somewhat:1 hyakutake:1 bright:1 debate:1 advance:2 whether:1 noticeable:2 flash:1 disintegrate:1 like:1 meteor:1 suggested:1 seismic:3 wave:6 travel:2 increase:3 stratospheric:2 haze:1 due:6 dust:1 mass:1 jovian:5 ring:1 however:2 completely:1 unprecedented:1 cautious:1 event:4 might:4 ultraviolet:1 hour:4 r:1 anticipation:1 grow:1 predicted:3 terrestrial:2 hubble:1 rosat:1 x:1 ray:1 satellite:4 significantly:1 galileo:5 spacecraft:2 way:2 rendezvous:1 schedule:1 place:1 side:2 au:3 able:2 rapid:1 rotation:1 bring:1 sit:2 view:1 minute:2 make:2 ulysses:1 primarily:1 point:2 location:2 away:1 distant:1 voyager:2 probe:2 follow:2 neptune:1 radio:2 emission:7 khz:1 hst:1 fireball:7 limb:2 utc:2 slam:1 km:4 instrument:1 detect:7 reach:5 peak:2 temperature:7 k:5 compare:2 typical:1 cloudtop:1 expand:1 cool:1 rapidly:1 plume:1 height:1 measure:1 renew:1 heating:1 eject:1 fall:1 onto:1 base:1 rising:1 shortly:1 initial:1 idea:1 atmospheric:3 saw:1 huge:1 dark:4 even:4 subsequent:1 markedly:1 asymmetric:2 forming:1 crescent:1 shape:1 front:1 direction:1 next:1 distinct:1 come:1 g:3 strike:3 create:4 release:1 energy:2 equivalent:1 megaton:1 tnt:1 world:1 nuclear:1 arsenal:1 mark:2 similar:2 continue:1 chemical:1 brown:1 site:6 hop:1 glimpse:1 low:1 punch:1 upper:1 spectroscopic:3 absorption:1 spectrum:1 diatomic:1 sulfur:3 carbon:2 disulfide:1 detection:2 either:2 second:2 molecule:3 ammonia:3 hydrogen:1 sulfide:2 imply:2 quantity:1 compound:1 much:4 cometary:8 oxygen:1 bearing:1 dioxide:1 surprise:2 heavy:1 atom:1 iron:1 magnesium:1 silicon:1 abundance:1 consistent:1 substantial:1 water:8 spectroscopically:1 beforehand:2 exist:1 thin:1 predict:1 penetrate:2 deeply:1 enormous:1 sweep:1 stable:2 waveguide:1 believe:2 must:1 lie:1 hypothesised:1 tropospheric:1 evidence:2 indicate:2 instead:1 propagate:1 stratosphere:2 sequence:1 appearance:1 sharp:1 continuum:1 wavelength:1 cm:1 normal:6 synchrotron:1 radiation:1 injection:1 relativistic:1 electron:2 velocity:2 light:1 magnetosphere:1 enter:1 record:2 auroral:2 antipode:1 magnetic:3 field:2 difficult:1 lack:1 knowledge:1 internal:1 geometry:1 possible:1 explanation:1 upwardly:1 accelerate:2 shock:1 charged:1 particle:3 phenomenon:1 typically:1 associate:1 fast:1 move:1 wind:1 pole:1 io:2 torus:2 connect:1 volcanic:1 resolution:1 variation:1 ion:1 density:1 rotational:1 afterwards:2 post:2 analysis:1 reddish:1 ejecta:2 pattern:1 prior:1 model:1 break:1 pressure:2 anywhere:1 kilopascals:1 ten:1 megapascals:1 bar:1 bluish:1 shroud:1 destruction:1 airburst:1 altitude:1 destroy:2 expected:1 depth:1 term:1 describe:1 search:1 historical:1 transient:1 feature:1 ever:2 notable:1 striking:1 colour:1 darkness:1 least:2 fourteen:1 considerable:1 present:2 oppose:1 troposphere:1 counterintuitively:1 drop:2 level:2 elevate:1 week:3 temperatures:2 surroundings:1 global:1 rise:2 immediately:1 pre:1 slowly:1 frequency:1 chain:5 crater:6 ganymede:2 picture:1 cover:1 area:1 gehrels:1 roman:1 crockett:1 temporarily:1 unstable:1 elliptical:1 strongly:2 perturb:1 massive:1 relatively:1 frequently:1 rarity:1 comets:1 every:1 mission:1 identify:1 callisto:1 three:1 origin:1 initially:1 mystery:1 often:1 radiate:1 secondary:1 disrupted:1 crash:1 cosmic:2 vacuum:2 clean:2 kind:1 gravitational:1 influence:1 rate:2 thousand:2 eight:1 extinction:2 dinosaur:1 cretaceous:1 generally:1 chicxulub:1 demonstrate:1 serious:1 threat:1 life:2 speculate:1 without:1 mop:1 potential:1 impactors:1 frequent:1 complex:1 develop:1 part:1 argument:1 rare:1 hypothesis:1 reference:1 juno:1 external:1 link:1 faq:1 photo:1 gallery:1 downloadable:1 gif:1 animation:2 relative:1 earthsize:1 http:1 www:1 cv:1 nrao:1 edu:1 pmurphy:1 html:1 swallow:1 national:1 science:1 data:1 simulation:2 sl:1 passage:1 youtube:1 video:1 interactive:1 simulator:1 accurate:1 |@bigram shoemaker_levy:13 periodic_comet:3 comet_shoemaker:6 collide_jupiter:5 southern_hemisphere:3 astronomical_telegram:1 asteroid_belt:1 comet_hyakutake:1 seismic_wave:3 voyager_probe:1 carbon_disulfide:1 hydrogen_sulfide:1 cometary_nucleus:2 sulfur_dioxide:1 synchrotron_radiation:1 magnetic_field:2 shock_wave:1 charged_particle:1 rotational_velocity:1 atmospheric_pressure:1 jovian_moon:1 chicxulub_crater:1 jupiter_juno:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 gif_animation:1 http_www:1 |
6,954 | Baptism | Representation of baptism in early Christian art. In Christianity, baptism (from Greek baptizo: "immersing", "performing ablutions") is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which one is admitted to membership of the Christian Church and, in the view of some, as a member of the particular Church in which the baptism is administered. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate (or "baptizand") to be immersed totally or partially. While John the Baptist's use of a deep river for his baptism suggests immersion, pictorial and archaeological evidence of Christian baptism from the 3rd century onwards indicates that the normal form was to have the candidate stand in water while water was poured over the upper body. While in some places and in certain circumstances total immersion very likely was practiced, all the evidence (and there is much more!) points to baptism in most cases by partial immersion or affusion (dunking of the head or pouring water over the head, typically when the baptizand was standing in the baptismal pool). Here the words of St. John Chrysostom might be noted: "It is as in a tomb that we immerse our heads in the water... then when we lift our heads back the new man comes forth" (On John 25.2, PG 59:151). In a word, while early Christians were very attentive to symbolism relating to baptism (cf. the funerary shape of the baptistry building; the steps, typically three, for descending and rising from the font; the iconography relating to regeneration, etc.), they show few signs of preoccupation with total immersion. (Father John Erickson in St Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 41, 77 (1997), quoted in The Byzantine Forum) Other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead. Baptism was seen as in some sense necessary for salvation, until Huldrych Zwingli in the sixteenth century denied its necessity. Martyrdom was identified early in church history as baptism by blood, enabling martyrs who had not been baptized by water to be saved. Later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Some Christians, particularly Quakers and the Salvation Army, do not see baptism as necessary. Among those that do, differences can be found in the manner of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most baptize "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (following the Great Commission), but some baptize in Jesus' name only. Most baptize infants, others do not. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water is sufficient. The English word "baptism" has been used in reference to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which one is initiated, purified, or given a name. See Other initiation ceremonies below. Meaning of the word in the New Testament Catacombs of San Callisto: baptism in a third-century painting As Christians of different traditions dispute whether total immersion (submersion) is necessary for baptism, the precise meaning of the Greek word has become important for exegesis. The Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell and Scott gives the primary meaning of the word (transliterated as "baptizô"), from which the English word baptism is derived, as dip, plunge, but indicates, giving Luke 11:38 as an example, that another meaning is perform ablutions. Standard meaning of the verb βαπτίζω Although the Greek word βαπτίζω does not mean exclusively dip, plunge or immerse, lexical sources note that this is the standard meaning of the word as it is used in both the Septuagint, 'In the Sept.: 2 Kgs. 5:13, 14 we have loúō (3068), to bathe and baptízomai. See also Lev. 11:25, 28, 40, where plúnō (4150), to wash clothes by dipping, and loúō (3068), to bathe are used. In Num. 19:18, 19, báphō, to dip, and plúnō, to wash by dipping are used', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers. 'In the LXX βάπτειν (βαπτίζειν occurs only at 4 Βασ. 5:14) as a rendering of טָבַל, “to dip,” is used for the dipping of the morsel in wine at Ju. 2:14, of feet in the river at Jos. 3:15, of the finger in blood in the Torah of sacrifices at Lv. 4:6, 17 etc., of the dipping of unsanctified vessels in water in the laws of purification at Lv. 11:32 (בא hiph)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:535). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 'Ex 12,22; Lv 4,6.17; 9,9; 11,32 to immerse sth in sth [τι εἴς τι] Lv 9,9; id. [τι ἔν τινι] Dt 33,24; id. [τι ἀπό τινος] Ex 12,22; to plunge or to dip sb in sth [τινα ἔν τινι] Jb 9,31', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart. and the New Testament. 'In Mark 7:3, the phrase “wash their hands” is the translation of níptō (3538), to wash part of the body such as the hands. In Mark 7:4 the verb wash in “except they wash” is baptízomai, to immerse. This indicates that the washing of the hands was done by immersing them in collected water. See Luke 11:38 which refers to washing one’s hands before the meal, with the use of baptízomai, to have the hands baptized.', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G907). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers. A related word βαπτω, also used in the New Testament, is used only with the sense 'dip' or 'dye'. 'The NT uses βάπτω only in the literal sense, in Lk. 16:24; Jn. 13:26 for “to dip in,” and in Rev. 19:13 for “to dye”.', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:530). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ' to dip someth. in a liquid, dip, dip in J 13:26', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The complete word study dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G907). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers. 'βάπτω fut. βάψω; 1aor. ἔβαψα; pf. pass. ptc. βεβαμμένος; (1) dip in or under, immerse in a liquid (LU 16.24); (2) as coloring cloth dip into dye, dye (RV 19.13)', Friberg, T., Friberg, B., & Miller, N. F. (2000). Vol. 4: Analytical lexicon of the Greek New Testament. Baker's Greek New Testament library (87). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books. '970 βάπτω (baptō): vb.; ≡ DBLHebr 3188; Str 911; TDNT 1.529—LN 47.11 dip in (Lk 16:24; Jn 13:26(2×); Rev 19:13+)', Swanson, J. (1997). Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Semantic Domains : Greek (New Testament) (electronic ed.) (DBLG 970). Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, Inc. Alleged deviations from the standard meaning Two passages in the New Testament have been claimed to indicate that the word βαπτίζω, when applied to a person, did not always indicate submersion. The first is Luke 11:38 , which tells how a Pharisee, at whose house Jesus ate, "was astonished to see that he did not first wash (ἐβαπτίσθη, aorist passive of βαπτίζω literally, "be baptized") before dinner." This is the passage that Liddell and Scott cites as an instance of the use of to mean perform ablutions. Jesus' omission of this action is similar to that of his disciples, mentioned in Matthew 15:1-2</ref>: "Then Pharisees and scribes came to Jesus from Jerusalem and said, 'Why do your disciples transgress the tradition of the elders? For they do not wash () their hands when they eat.'" The other New Testament passage pointed to is Mark 7:3-4 : "The Pharisees… do not eat unless they wash (, the ordinary word for washing) their hands thoroughly, observing the tradition of the elders; and when they come from the market place, they do not eat unless they wash themselves (literally, "baptize themselves" βαπτίσωνται, passive or middle voice of βαπτίζω)". Scholars of various denominations A. A. Hodge,Outlines of Theology 1992 ISBN 0851511600, 9780851511603 quoted in claim that these two passages show that invited guests, or people returning from market, would not be expected to immerse themselves ("baptize themselves") totally in water but only to practise the partial immersion of dipping their hands in water or to pour water over them, as is the only form admitted by present Jewish custom. The lexicographical works of Zodhiates and Balz & Schneider also say that in the second of these two cases (Mark 7:4) the word βαπτίζω means that, after coming from the market, the Pharisees only immersed their hands in collected water, and so did not immerse themselves totally. 'Washing or ablution was frequently by immersion, indicated by either baptízō or níptō (3538), to wash. In Mark 7:3, the phrase “wash their hands” is the translation of níptō (3538), to wash part of the body such as the hands. In Mark 7:4 the verb wash in “except they wash” is baptízomai, to immerse. This indicates that the washing of the hands was done by immersing them in collected water.', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers. and that the meaning of βαπτίζω in Mark 7:4 is the same as βάπτω, to dip or immerse, 'Mark 7:4 [v.l. in v. 8]; here βαπτίσωνται appears in place of ῥαντίσωνται in Koine D Θ pl, giving βαπτίζω the meaning of βάπτω', Balz, H. R., & Schneider, G. (1990-c1993). Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament. Translation of: Exegetisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament. (1:195). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. 'Βάπτω dip, immerse', Balz, H. R., & Schneider, G. (1990-c1993). Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament. Translation of: Exegetisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament. (1:195). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. 'βάπτω; ἐμβάπτω: to dip an object in a liquid—‘to dip in.’', Louw, J. P., & Nida, E. A. (1996, c1989). Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament : Based on semantic domains (electronic ed. of the 2nd edition.) (1:522). New York: United Bible societies. a word used of the partial dipping of a morsel held in the hand into wine or of a finger into spilled blood. "In the LXX βάπτειν … is used for the dipping of the morsel in wine at Ju. 2:14, … of the finger in blood in the Torah of sacrifices at Lv. 4:6, 17 etc.", Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:535). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Meanings of the derived nouns Two other related words used in the New Testament are βαπτισμός and βάπτισμα. Βαπτισμός referred to purification or washing by dipping or immersion, and was used of both Jewish and Christian practices. Ιn the New Testament it is used of a range of Jewish washings, 'water-rite for purpose of purification, washing, cleansing, of dishes Mk 7:4, 8 v.l.', Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., & Bauer, W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature, (3rd ed.) (165). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 'βαπτισμοί are Levitical “cleansings” of vessels or of the body at Mk. 7:4 (8 vl.); Hb. 9:10', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:545). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. and perhaps also of baptism. 'βαπτισμός, οῦ, ὁ as a religious technical term related to ceremonial rites of purification by the use of water act of dipping, immersion; (1) of an inanimate object washing (MK 7.4; possibly HE 6.2); (2) of a person baptism (possibly HE 6.2)', Friberg, T., Friberg, B., & Miller, N. F. (2000). Vol. 4: Analytical lexicon of the Greek New Testament. Baker's Greek New Testament library (87). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books. Βάπτισμα is found only in writings by Christians, 'βάπτισμα, ατος, τό (s. βαπτίζω; found only in Christian writers', Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., & Bauer, W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature, (3rd ed.) (165). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. indicates the result of the act, not the act itself, and in the New Testament is not used of Jewish ceremonial or ritual washings. 'Báptisma must not be confused with baptismós (909), ceremonial washing', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The complete word study dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers. In the New Testament, only βαπτισμός is associated with these rituals, not βάπτισμα. 'Baptismós as mere cleansing of instruments was equated with rhantismós (4473), sprinkling (found only in Heb. 12:24; 1 Pet. 1:2), because this word was used to indicate the cleansing in symbolism done by the priest of the OT.', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The complete word study dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G907). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers. In the New Testament βάπτισμα appears 13 times with regard to the dipping (partial or complete) practised by John the Baptist (Matthew 3:7, 21:25; Mark 1:4, 11:30; Luke 3:3, 7:29, 20:4; Acts 1:22, 10:37, 13:24, 18:25, 19:3-4), 3 times with reference to the specific Christian ritual (Romans 6:4, Ephesians 4:5, 1 Peter 3:21) or 4 times if Colossians 2:12 is counted, and 5 times in a metaphorical sense (Matthew 20:22-23, Mark 10:38-39, Luke 12:50). In the New Testament, βάπτισμα appears at least 21 times , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and βαπτισμός 4 times. , , , In Colossians 2:12 , while inferior manuscripts have βάπτισμα, the best have βαπτισμός, and this is the reading given in modern critical editions of the New Testament. See http://www.bibelwissenschaft.de/online-bibeln/novum-testamentum-graece-na-27/lesen-im-bibeltext/bibelstelle/Kol%202/cache/d3cb350c68/#v12 Nestle-Aland 27th (latest) edition. This is the only New Testament instance in which βαπτισμός is clearly used of Christian baptism, rather than of a generic washing as in the other four appearances of the word in this form (except Hebrews 6:2, where the interpretation as a reference to baptism is possible). All instances in the New Testament of the other word refer to the baptism of John, Christian baptism or baptism in a metaphorical sense. History Baptism has been part of Christianity from the start, as shown by the many mentions in the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline epistles. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism. How explicit Jesus' intentions were and whether he envisioned a continuing, organized Church is a matter of dispute among scholars. Background in Jewish ritual Although the term "baptism" is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or mikvah - ritual immersion) in Jewish laws and tradition have some similarity to baptism, and the two have been linked In the Jewish Bible and other Jewish texts, immersion in water for ritual purification was established for restoration to a condition of "ritual purity" in specific circumstances. For example, Jews who (according to the Law of Moses) became ritually defiled by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the Holy Temple. Immersion is required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion. Immersion in the mikvah represents a change in status in regards to purification, restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community, ensuring that the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners (see Numbers Chapter , and Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Chagigah, p. 12). This change of status by the mikvah could be obtained repeatedly, while Christian baptism is, like circumcision, unique and not repeatable. John the Baptist adopted baptismal immersion as the central sacrament in his messianic movement. sacrament. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/515366/sacrament Baptism of Jesus John the Baptist was a 1st-century mission preacher on the banks of the Jordan. According to Christian theology, he was selected by God to proclaim the first coming of the Christ. He baptized Jews for repentance in the River Jordan. . At the start of his ministry, Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist. Many of the earliest followers of Jesus were other people who, like him, were baptized in the Jordan by John the Baptist. Scholars broadly agree that the baptism of Jesus is one of the most authentic, or historically likely, events in the life of the historical Jesus. Jesus and his earliest disciples accepted the validity of John's baptism, though Jesus himself detached the notion of repentance from baptism and promoted purity ethic in tension with rituals. Early Christianity practiced a baptism of repentance which conferred the remission of sins. Christian baptism has its origin in the baptism of Jesus, in both a direct and historical sense. The event raised the issue of Jesus' potential submission to John the Baptist and seemed contradictory to the Christian belief in the sinless nature of Jesus Christ. Attempts to address this theological difficulty are apparent in the earliest Christian writings, including the Gospels. For Mark, the baptism by John is the setting for the theophany, the revelation of Jesus' divine identity as the Son of God (). Matthew shows John objecting to baptizing Jesus, an obvious superior, and only agreeing when overruled by Jesus () and omits Mark's reference to baptism for the forgiveness of sins. Luke emphasizes the subservience of John to Jesus while both are still in the womb () and omits the role of John in the baptism of Jesus (). The non-synoptic Gospel of John omits the episode. Early explanations for Jesus' baptism that have remained popular include Ignatius of Antioch's assertion that Jesus was baptized to purify the waters of baptism and Justin Martyr's explanation that Jesus was baptized in his role as the ideal example for everyone. Baptism by Jesus The Gospel of John (, ) states that Jesus at an early stage led a mission of baptism that drew crowds. Verse , considered by many scholars to be a later editorial insertion, See, e.g., the summary of such opinions by Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel according to John (i-xii): Introduction, translation, and notes (2nd ed.), in The Anchor Bible, Volume 29 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966), pp. 164-165, 188-189. denies that Jesus himself baptized and states that he did so only through his disciples. Prominent scholars conclude that Jesus didn't baptize. Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz assert that Jesus did not baptize, detached the notion of repentance from baptism, recognized John's baptism, and put forward a purity ethic in tension with baptism. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions also states that Jesus did not baptize as part of his ministry. E. P. Sanders omits John's account of Jesus' baptizing mission from his portrait of Jesus as a historical figure. Robert W. Funk, et al, consider the account of Jesus' baptism ministry in John to have internal difficulties: that, for instance, it reports Jesus coming to Judea even though he's already in Jerusalem and Judea. actually speaks of Jesus and his disciples coming, not "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν" (into Judea), but "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν γῆν", which some interpret as "into the Judean countryside", Colin G. Kruse, The Gospel according to John: an Introduction and Commentary (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004), p. 119 in contrast to the encounter with Nicodemus in the city of Jerusalem described immediately before. Daniel S. Dapaah, The Relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth: A Critical Study (University Press of America, 2005), p. 98 The passage of Jesus coming to Judea (or the Judean countryside) to lead a mission of baptism, according to the Jesus Seminar, probably preserves no historical information (a "black" rating). The Jesus Seminar, based on Josephus's accounts, further concludes that John the Baptist likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus. Likewise John's Gospel itself, in verse , remarked that, though Jesus drew many people to his baptism, they still did not accept his testimony. Daniel S. Dapaah, The Relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth: A Critical Study (University Press of America, 2005), p. 97 According to Peter Tomson, the passage in John confirms the central place of baptism in Jesus' message. Tomson further states that the initiatory baptism of Jesus and the requirement to "repent and accept baptism" in earliest Christianity were further evidence of baptism's central place in the "good news". It is the opinion of some scholars that Jesus and his disciples probably did baptize; Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, by Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, I. Howard Marshall (InterVarsity Press, 1992), p. 375: "Simply because information is found only in John is no reason to discard it as of no historical value ... Scholars consider it probable, for example, that Jesus' ministry lasted two to three years (as John implies), that he was in and out of Jerusalem (as the other Gospels hint - e.g., Luke 13:34), that some of his disciples were first disciples of John the Baptist (1:35-37), and that Jesus and his disciples conducted a ministry of baptism." and that there is "no a priori reason to reject the report of Jesus and his disciples' conducting a ministry of baptism for a time", a report given as one of the items in John's account "that are likely to be historical and ought to be given due weight". Exploring the Gospel of John: In Honor of D. Moody Smith, by Dwight Moody Smith, R. Alan Culpepper, C. Clifton Black (Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), p. 28: "There are items only in John that are likely to be historical and ought to be given due weight. Jesus' first disciples may once have been followers of the Baptist (cf. John 1:35-42). There is no a priori reason to reject the report of Jesus and his disciples' conducting a ministry of baptism for a time (3:22-26). That Jesus regularly visited Jerusalem, rather than merely at the time of his death, is often accepted as more realistic for a pious, first-century Jewish male (and is hinted at in the other Gospels as well: Mark 11:2; Luke 13:34; 22:8-13, 53)." In his book on the relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth, Daniel S. Dapaah defends the historicity of the account, saying that the silence of the Synoptic Gospels does not mean that the information in John was invented, and that Mark's account too suggests that Jesus worked with John at first, before moving to Galilee. Daniel S. Dapaah, The Relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth: A Critical Study (University Press of America, 2005): "We propose to defend the historicity of this piece of Johannine material. We shall argue that the Johannine evidence of Jesus' baptizing activity may be a snippet of historical tradition, as there is no discernible theological agenda behind that piece of information. Moreover, the synoptists' silence may be explained, among others, by the supposition that the Evangelists were embarrassed by the event and that reference to the rite was unnecessary in a baptizing church" (p. 7). "The absence of Jesus' baptizing ministry in the synoptic Gospels does not mean that the Johannine detail is not authentic, neither does it suggest that the synoptists invented the story that John was out of action when Jesus arived on the scene (Mark 1:14 and par). The Marcan tradition, for example, which is chronologically earlier than the Fourth Gospel, suggests that Jesus was so close to John that Jesus moved to Galilee to embark on an independent ministry when John was imprisoned. It appears that John and Jesus initially worked together, an event which the Fourth Evangelist makes explicit" (p. 98). This is the view also of Frederick J. Cwiekowski in his study of the beginnings of the Church. The Beginnings of the Church (Paulist Press 1988), pp. 55: "This text from the fourth gospel gives the impression that when John was no longer at Bethany (Jn 3:23; cf. 1:28) Jesus - accompanied by former disciples of John - was himself in the Jordan area conducting a ministry of baptism. When Jesus left the area of Judea and began his ministry in Galilee he evidently abandoned his baptizing ministry and concentrated on preaching and teaching." New Testament The New Testament includes several references to baptism as an important practice among early Christians and, while giving no actual account of its institution by Jesus, portrays him as giving instructions, after his resurrection, for his followers to perform the rite (see Great Commission). Baptism. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 21, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/52311/Baptism It also gives interpretations by the Apostle Paul and in the First Epistle of Peter of the significance of baptism. Paul's epistles The Apostle Paul wrote several influential letters in the AD 50s, later accepted as canonical. For Paul, baptism effects and represents the believer's union with Christ, Christ's death, and his resurrection; cleanses one of sin; incorporates one into the Body of Christ, and makes one "drink of the Spirit" (). On the basis of Paul's writings, baptism was interpreted in the terms of the mystery religions. sacrament. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 21, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/515366/sacrament Gospel of Mark This gospel, generally believed to be the first and to have been used as a basis for Matthew and Luke, begins with Jesus' baptism by John, who preached a baptism of repentance for forgiveness of sins. John says of Jesus that he will baptize not with water but with the Holy Spirit. At Jesus' baptism, he hears God's voice proclaiming him to be his Son, and he sees the spirit like a dove descend on him. During Jesus' ministry, when James and John ask Jesus for seats of honor in the coming kingdom, Jesus likens his fate to a baptism and to a cup, the very baptism and cup in store for John and James (that is, martyrdom). Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" pp. 302-310. Gospel of Matthew Matthew includes the most famous version of the Great Commission. Here, the resurrected Jesus appears to the apostles and commissions them to make disciples, baptize, and teach. This commission reflects the program adopted by the infant Christian movement. Acts Acts of the Apostles, written , states that about 3,000 people in Jerusalem were baptized in one day on Pentecost (). It further relates baptisms of men and women in Samaria (), of an Ethiopian eunuch (), of Saul of Tarsus ( and ), of the household of Cornelius (), of Lydia's household () of the Philippi jailer's household (), of many Corinthians () and of certain Corinthians baptized by Paul personally (). In Acts, the prerequisites of baptism are faith and repentance. Acts associates baptism with receiving the Spirit, but the exact connection is not always the same. Also in Acts, twelve individuals who had undergone John's baptism, and who consequently had yet to receive the Holy Spirit, were directed by Paul to be rebaptized, whereupon they received the Holy Spirit (). , and speak of baptism "in the name of Jesus" or "in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ", but whether this was a formula that was used has been questioned. Mark 16:9-20 The traditional ending of Mark thought to have been compiled early in the second century and first appended to the gospel by the middle of that century, says that those who believe and are baptized will be saved. Infant baptism The New Testament nowhere specifically authorizes or forbids infant baptism. The absence of positive evidence of infant baptism in the New Testament has sometimes been attributed to its concentration on the spread of Christianity among non-Christians, not on the Church's growth from those brought up by Christian parents. Apostolic period The Apostolic Age is the period from Jesus' life to the death of the last apostle (see Beloved Disciple). Most of the New Testament was written during this period, and the primary sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist were established. Protestants in particular value the church of the Apostolic Age as a witness to Jesus' true message, which they believe was subsequently corrupted during the Great Apostasy. Along with fasting, the practice of baptism may have entered Christian practice under the influence of former followers of John's. The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, an anonymous book of 16 short chapters, is probably the earliest known written instructions, outside of the Bible, for administering baptism. The first edition was written . The second, with insertions and additions, was written . This work, rediscovered in the 19th century, provides a unique look at Christianity in the Apostolic Age. In particular, it describes the two foundational sacraments of Christianity: the Eucharist and baptism. It indicates a preference for baptizing by immersion in "living water" (i.e. running water seen as symbolic of life) or, if that is unavailable, in still water, preferably at its natural temperature, but considers that, when there is not enough water for immersion, it is sufficient to pour water on the head. "(7:1) Concerning baptism, baptize this way: Having first said all these things, baptize into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. (7:2) But if you have no living water, baptize into other water; and if you cannot do so in cold water, do so in warm. (7:3) But if you have neither, pour out water three times upon the head into the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit." Didache, chapter 7. In Matthew's ( Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" pp. 266-268. ) Great Commission, Christians are to baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Baptism has been in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit since at least the end of the 1st century. In Acts (), Christians baptize "in the name of Jesus" (Acts 19:5), though whether that meant a spoken formula has been questioned. There is general agreement that the New Testament contains no positive evidence for infant baptism, and the requirements made by the Didache on baptismal candidates are typically understood as precluding infant baptism. However, the evidence from the Didache has been disputed. Early Christianity Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism were variable. In the most usual form of early Christian baptism, the candidate stood in water and water was poured over the upper body. Baptism of the sick or dying usually used means other than even partial immersion and was still considered valid. The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries. While instruction was at first given after baptism, believers were given increasingly specific instructions before being baptized, especially in the face of heresies in the fourth century. By then, postponement of baptism had become general, and a large proportion of believers were merely catechumens (Constantine was not baptized until he was dying); but as baptisms of the children of Christians, using an adaptation of the rite intended for adults, became more common than baptisms of adult converts, the number of catechumens decreased. catechumen. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/99350/catechumen As baptism was believed to forgive sins, the issue of sins committed after baptism arose. Some insisted that apostasy, even under threat of death, and other grievous sins cut one off forever from the Church. As indicated in the writings of Saint Cyprian, others favoured readmitting the "lapsi" easily. The rule that prevailed was that they were readmitted only after undergoing a period of penance that demonstrated sincere repentance. What is now generally called the Nicene Creed, longer than the text adopted by the First Council of Nicaea of 325, and known also as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed because of its adoption in that form by the First Council of Constantinople in 381, was probably the baptismal creed then in use in Constantinople, the venue of the 381 Council. Infant Baptism The practice of infant baptism is at least as old as the 3rd century. Evidence for infant baptism, which would remain the norm in mainstream Christianity until the Protestant Reformation, has been seen in second-century writers such as Justin Martyr and Irenaeus and is more explicit in the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – c. 236).. In many Protestant denominations, such as the Presbyterians and United Church, infants are still baptised or "christened" by sprinkling, but this is not believed to confer salvation or membership in the congregation. Membership is achieved at a ceremony called confirmation, which is granted to the supplicant when they are deemed old enough to understand the decision they are making, and the doctrines of the denomination. The baptism of Clovis, a turning-point for official Christianity, represented by the Master of Saint Gilles as by immersion, not submersion. (Detail) c. 1500 (National Gallery of Art) Early Middle Ages Infant baptism became common, alongside the developing theology of original sin, displacing the earlier common practice of delaying baptism until the deathbed. Against Pelagius, Augustine insisted that baptism was necessary for salvation even for virtuous people and for children. Baptism of Augustine of Hippo as represented in a sculptural group in Troyes cathedral (1549) Middle Ages The twelfth century saw the meaning of the word "sacrament" narrowed down and restricted to seven rites, among them that of baptism, while other symbolic rites came to be called "sacramentals". In the period between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, affusion became the usual manner of administering baptism in Western Europe, though immersion continued to be found in some places even as late as the sixteenth century. Throughout the Middle Ages, there was therefore considerable variation in the kind of facility required for baptism, from the baptismal pool large enough to immerse several adults simultaneously of the 13th century Baptistery at Pisa, to the half-metre deep basin in the 6th century baptistery of the old Cologne Cathedral. Both East and West considered washing with water and the Trinitarian baptismal formula necessary for administering the rite. Scholasticism referred to these two elements as the matter and the form of the sacrament, employing terms taken from the then prevailing Aristotelian philosophy. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, while teaching the necessity of both elements, nowhere uses these philosophical terms when speaking of any of the sacraments. The words "matter" and "form" are not found in the index, nor do they appear in the definition of the sacraments given in section 1131. A search of the electronic form of the book finds no instance of the word "matter", and finds "form" only in the section 1434, headed "The Many Forms of Penance in Christian Life", which is not about the sacraments. Reformation |Awaiting submersion baptism in the Jordan river In the 16th century, Martin Luther considered baptism to be a sacrament. For the Lutherans, baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration" () in which infants and adults are reborn (). Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same. Because it is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare." In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism, Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit. Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli differed with the Lutherans by denying sacramental status of baptism. Zwingli identified baptism and the Lord's supper as sacraments, but in the sense of an initiatory ceremony. His understanding of these sacraments as symbolic differentiated him from Luther. Anabaptists (a word that means "rebaptizers") rejected so thoroughly the tradition maintained by Lutherans as well as Catholics that they denied the validity of baptism outside their group. They "rebaptized" converts on the grounds that one cannot be baptized without wishing it, and an infant, who does not understand what happens in a baptism ceremony and who has no knowledge of the concepts of Christianity, is not really baptized. They saw as non-biblical the baptism of infants, who cannot confess their faith and who, not having yet committed any sins, are not in the same need of salvation. Anabaptists and other Baptist groups do not consider that they rebaptize those who have been baptized as infants, since, in their view, infant baptism is without effect. The Amish, Restoration churches (Churches of Christ/ Christian Church), Hutterites, Baptists, Mennonites and other groups descend from this tradition. Pentecostal, charismatic and most non-denominational churches share this view as well. Modern practice Today, baptism is most readily identified with Christianity, where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he may be called "saved" or "born again". Most Christian groups use water to baptize and agree that it is important, yet may strongly disagree with other groups regarding aspects of the rite such as: Manner or method of baptism Recipients of baptism Meaning and effects of baptism Manner of baptism Baptism of a child by affusion A Christian baptism is administered in one of the following forms, performing the action either once or thrice: Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley, David B. Barrett, The encyclopedia of Christianity (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999 ISBN 0802824137), p. 562 Didache, chapter 7: "Pour out water three times upon the head". Aspersion Aspersion is the sprinkling of water on the head. Affusion Affusion is the pouring of water over the head. Immersion Immersion (as distinguished from submersion) is a method of baptism employed at least from the second century, whereby part of the candidate's body was submerged in the baptismal water which was poured over the remainder. The term is occasionally loosely used to include submersion, from which it is strictly to be distinguished. The rite is still found in the Eastern Church. In the Latin Church, immersion seems to have prevailed until the twelfth century. Submersion Baptism by submersion Submersion (also called "total immersion" or, loosely, "immersion") is the form of baptism in which the water completely covers the candidate's body. Though immersion is now also common, submersion is practiced in the Orthodox and several of the other Eastern Churches, as well as in the Ambrosian Rite. It is one of the methods provided in the Roman Catholic rite for the baptism of infants. It has been generally supposed to have been the custom of the early Church (), though historians use the vaguer term "immersion" when speaking of the usual practice of the time and this view has been challenged from evidence of primitive pictorial representations and from measurements of surviving early baptismal fonts. cf. Southern Baptists, Official Website of the Southern Baptist Convention Basic Beliefs, subheading "Baptism & the Lord's Supper", retrieved 2009-04-08, "Christian baptism is the immersion of a believer in water. …It is an act of obedience symbolizing the believer's faith in a crucified, buried, and risen Saviour, the believer's death to sin, the burial of the old life, and the resurrection to walk in newness of life in Christ Jesus." [ellipsis retained from quoted text]. Latter-day Saints, Official Web site of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Basic Beliefs, subheading "Baptism and Confirmation", retrieved 2009-04-08, "You are briefly immersed in water, as Jesus Christ was baptized. Baptism by immersion is a sacred symbol of the death, burial, and Resurrection? of Jesus Christ, and it represents the end of your old life and the beginning of a new life as a disciple of Jesus Christ." Jehovah's Witnesses, Brochure: "Jehovah's Witnesses—Who Are They? What Do They Believe?", p. 13"Baptism by complete immersion symbolizes dedication - Mark 1:9, 10; John 3:23; Acts 19:4, 5". Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site Your Decision to Serve God, retrieved 2009-04-08, "When a person is baptized, his whole body should be put under the water momentarily." Seventh-day Adventists, Official Website of the Seventh-day Adventist Church What Adventists Believe, retrieved 2009-04-08, "Baptism symbolized dying to self and coming alive in Jesus. Seventh-day Adventists practice full immersion baptism". and other Christians who believe in baptism by total immersion read Biblical passages (such as and ) to imply that the practice intentionally symbolizes burial and resurrection. Especially when performed before onlookers, the total immersion ceremony depicts a burial (when the person being baptized is submerged under the water, as if buried), and a resurrection (when the person comes up out of the water, as if rising from the grave) a "death" and a "burial" to an old way of life focused on sinning, and a "resurrection" to the start of a new life as a Christian focused on God. Such Christians typically believe that also supports this view, with its implication that water baptism symbolizes how a Christian has been "born again". Baptism by submersion is also practiced by the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Disciples.org, copyrighted Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Baptism, retrieved 2009-04-08, "Just as the baptism represents the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus Christ, it symbolizes the death and burial of the old self of the repentant believer, and the joyous birth of a brand new being in Christ." although the faith does not suggest rebaptism of those who have undergone a different Christian baptism tradition. Disciples.org The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): A Reformed North American Mainstream Moderate Denomination, retrieved 2009-04-08, "Our traditions of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper are ecumenical. While practicing believer’s immersion, most congregations affirm the baptisms of other churches." Apparel Until the Middle Ages, most baptisms were performed with the candidates completely naked - as is evidenced by most of the early portrayals of baptism (some of which are shown in this article), and the early Church Fathers and other Christian writers. Typical of these is St Cyril of Jerusalem, who wrote in the 4th Century (c. 350 A.D., in Catechetical Lecture XX): "Therefore, I shall necessarily lay before you the sequel of yesterday's Lecture, that ye may learn of what those things, which were done by you in the inner chamber(2), were symbolical. 2. As soon, then, as ye entered, ye put off your tunic; and this was an image of putting off the old man with his deeds(3). Having stripped yourselves, ye were naked; in this also imitating Christ, who was stripped naked on the Cross, and by His nakedness put off from Himself the principalities and powers, and openly triumphed over them on the tree(4). For since the adverse powers made their lair in your members, ye may no longer wear that old garment; I do not at all mean this visible one, but the old man, which waxeth corrupt in the lusts of deceit(5). May the soul which has once put him off, never again put him on, but say with the Spouse of Christ in the Song of Songs, I have put off my garment, how shall I put it on(6)? O wondrous thing! ye were naked in the sight of all, and were not ashamed(7); for truly ye bore the likeness of the first-formed Adam, who was naked in the garden, and was not ashamed." Taken from "The Early Church Fathers and Other Works" originally published by Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. in English in Edinburgh, Scotland, beginning in 1867. (LNPF II/VII, Schaff and Wace). The symbolism is three-fold: 1) Baptism is considered to be a form of rebirth - "by water and the Spirit" (Jn 3:5) - the nakedness of baptism (the second birth) paralleled the condition of one's original birth - for example, St. John Chrysostom calls the baptism "λοχείαν", i.e. giving birth, and "new way of creation...from water and Spirit" ("to John" speech 25,2), and later elaborates: "For nothing perceivable was handed over to us by Jesus; but with perceivable things, all of them however conceivable. This is also the way with the baptism; the gift of the water is done with a perceivable thing, but the things being conducted, i.e. the rebirth and renovation, are conceivable. For, if you were without a body, He would hand over these bodiless gifts as naked [gifts] to you. But because the soul is closely linked to the body, He hands over the perceivable ones to you with conceivable things " (Chrysostom to Matthew., speech 82, 4, c. 390 A.D.), 2) The removal of clothing represented the "image of putting off the old man with his deeds" (as per Cyril, above), so the stripping of the body before for baptism represented taking off the trappings of sinful self, so that the "new man" which is given by Jesus, can be put on., and 3) As St. Cyril again asserts above, as Adam and Eve in scripture and tradition were naked, innocent and unashamed in the Garden of Eden, nakedness during baptism was seen as a renewal of that innocence and state of original sinlessness. Other parallels can also be drawn, such as between the exposed condition of Christ during His crucifixion, and the crucifixion of the "old man" of the repentant sinner in preparation for baptism. Changing customs and concerns regarding modesty probably contributed to the practice of permitting or requiring the baptismal candidate to either retain their undergarments (as in many Renaissance paintings of baptism such as those by da Vinci, Tintoretto, Van Scorel, Masaccio, de Wit and others) and/or to wear, as is almost universally the practice today, baptismal robes. These robes are most often white, symbolizing purity. Some groups today allow any suitable clothes to be worn, such as trousers and a t-shirt - practical considerations include how easily the clothes will dry (denim is discouraged), and whether they will become see-through when wet. Meaning and effects of baptism There are differences in views about the effect of baptism for a Christian. Some Christian groups assert baptism is a requirement for salvation and a sacrament, and speak of "baptismal regeneration". This view is shared by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, and by Churches formed early during the Protestant Reformation such as Lutheran and Anglican. For example, Martin Luther said: Much later Restorationist Churches such as the Churches of Christ and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also espouse baptism as necessary for salvation. For Roman Catholics, baptism by water is a sacrament of initiation into the life of children of God (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1212-13). It configures the person to Christ (CCC 1272), and obliges the Christian to share in the Church's apostolic and missionary activity (CCC 1270). The Catholic Tradition holds that there are three types of baptism by which one can be saved: sacramental baptism (with water), baptism of desire (explicit or implicit desire to be part of the Church founded by Jesus Christ), and baptism of blood (martyrdom) (see topic below). By contrast, most Reformed (Calvinist), evangelical, and fundamentalist Protestant groups recognize baptism as an act of obedience to and identification with Jesus as the Christ. They say that baptism has no sacramental (saving) power, and only testifies outwardly to the invisible and internal operation of God's power, which is completely separate from the rite itself. Baptism in most Christian traditions The baptistry at St. Raphael's Cathedral, Dubuque, Iowa. This particular font was expanded in 2005 to include a small pool to provide for immersion baptism of adults. Eight-sided font architectures are common symbology of the day of Christ's Resurrection: the "Eighth Day". The liturgy of baptism in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, and Methodist traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of Noah and the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea divided by Moses. Thus, baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of original sin, and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy) also baptize infants on the basis of texts, such as , which are interpreted as supporting full Church membership for children. In these traditions, baptism is immediately followed by Chrismation and Communion at the next Divine Liturgy, regardless of age. Orthodox likewise believe that baptism removes what they call the ancestral sin of Adam. Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilities as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of what in the West is called original sin, in the East ancestral sin. Eastern Orthodox Christians usually insist on complete threefold immersion as both a symbol of death and rebirth into Christ, and as a washing away of sin. Latin Rite Catholics generally baptize by affusion (pouring); Eastern Catholics usually by submersion, or at least partial immersion. However, submersion is gaining in popularity within the Latin Catholic Church. In newer church sanctuaries, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion. Anglicans baptize by submersion, immersion, affusion or sprinkling. According to a tradition, evidence of which can be traced back to at latest about the year 200, sponsors or godparents are present at baptism and vow to uphold the Christian education and life of the baptized. Baptists argue that the Greek word originally meant "to immerse". They interpret some Biblical passages concerning baptism as requiring submersion of the body in water. They also state that only submersion reflects the symbolic significance of being "buried" and "raised" with Christ (see ). Baptist Churches baptize in the name of the Trinity the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. However, they do not believe that baptism is necessary for salvation; but rather that it is an act of Christian obedience. Some "full gospel" charismatic churches such as Oneness Pentecostals baptize only in the name of Jesus Christ, citing Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus as their authority (). They also point to several historical sources that maintain that the early church always baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus until development of the Trinity Doctrine in the Second Century. Comparative summary Comparative Summary of Baptisms of Denominations of Christian Influence. Good News. Issue 3. St Louis, MO. 2003. p 18-19 (This section does not give a complete listing of denominations, and therefore, it only mentions a fraction of the churches practicing "believer's baptism".) Denomination Beliefs about Baptism Type of Baptism Baptize Infants? Baptism Regenerates, Gives Spiritual Life Standard Anglican Communion "Baptism is not only a sign of profession, and mark of difference, whereby Christian men are discerned from others that be not christened, but it is also a sign of Regeneration or New-Birth, whereby, as by an instrument, they that receive Baptism rightly are grafted into the Church; the promises of the forgiveness of sin, and of our adoption to be the sons of God by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed; Faith is confirmed, and Grace increased by virtue of prayer unto God." By submersion, immersion, pouring, or sprinkling. Yes Yes Trinity Apostolic Brethren Necessary for salvation because it conveys spiritual rebirth. By submersion only. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit. Yes Yes Jesus Baptists A divine ordinance, a symbolic ritual, a mechanism for publicly declaring one's faith, and a sign of having already been saved, but not necessary for salvation. See Baptist - Believer's Baptism. By submersion only. No No Trinity Christadelphians Baptism is essential for the salvation of a believer. It is only effective if somebody believes the true gospel message before they are baptized. Baptism is an external symbol of an internal change in the believer: it represents a death to an old, sinful way of life, and the start of a new life as a Christian, summed up as the repentance of the believer it therefore leads to forgiveness from God, who forgives people who repent. Although someone is only baptized once, a believer must live by the principles of their baptism (i.e. death to sin, and a new life following Jesus) throughout their life. By submersion only No Yes The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (although Christadelphians do not believe in the Nicean trinity) Disciples of Christ Baptism is an outward and public sign of God's grace made manifest in the individual. In submersion, one symbolically experiences dying with Christ, and then rises with Him. Usually by submersion No No Trinity Churches of Christ Baptism is a must for salvation as commanded by Jesus, Mark 16:16; Matt. 28:19. One receives forgiveness of sin, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and addition to God's church. Acts 2:38-41. This is done after one has expressed faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God and repented from sins. Submersion only No Yes. Churches of Christ deny, however, the concept of baptismal regeneration as the phrase per se is not found in the scriptures; rather, Churches of Christ are prone to point to 1 Peter 3:21, to the effect that baptism is "not the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience toward God"; see also baptism in the Churches of Christ. Jesus The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints An ordinance essential to enter the Celestial Kingdom of Heaven and preparatory for receiving the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands. By immersion performed by a person holding proper priesthood authority. No (at least 8 years old) Yes Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost (The LDS church doesn't believe in the Nicean trinity) Eastern Orthodox Church / Oriental Orthodox Church / Eastern Catholic The old man dies the "New Man" is born free from the stain of ancestral sin. A new name is given. All previous commitments and sins are null and void. By 3-fold submersion or immersion (other forms only in emergency, must be corrected by priest if possible). Yes. Chrismation (i.e. Confirmation) and Holy Communion follow immediately. Yes Trinity Jehovah’s Witnesses Baptism is necessary for salvation as part of the entire baptismal arrangement: as an expression of obedience to Jesus' command (Matthew 28:19-20), as a public symbol of the saving faith in the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ (Romans 10:10), and as an indication of repentance from dead works and the dedication of one's life to Jehovah. (1 Peter 2:21) However, baptism does not guarantee salvation. Worship the Only True God, published by Jehovah's Witnesses (2002, 2006), "Chapter 12: The Meaning of Your Baptism", p. 118, "It would be a mistake to conclude that baptism is in itself a guarantee of salvation. It has value only if a person has truly dedicated himself to Jehovah through Jesus Christ and thereafter carries out God’s will, being faithful to the end." By submersion only; typical candidates are baptized at district and circuit conventions. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, May 1, 1979, p. 31, "The Bible shows that baptism by complete immersion is very important. So even when unusual steps are necessary because of a person’s condition, he should be baptized if at all possible. ...In modern times Jehovah’s Witnesses have arranged for baptisms at conventions. [However], fully valid baptisms have even been performed locally in large home bathtubs. ...Of course, it might be that in some extreme case baptism would seem absolutely impossible for the time being. Then we trust that our merciful heavenly Father will understand". No No Jesus Denomination (Continued) Beliefs about Baptism Type of Baptism Baptize Infants? Baptism Regenerates, Gives Spiritual Life Standard Lutherans Baptism is how God miraculously delivers a person from sin, death, and the devil; gives new life; and brings one into Christ’s kingdom forever (Titus 3:5). By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion. Yes Yes Trinity Methodists (Arminians, Wesleyans) The Sacrament of initiation into Christ's holy church whereby one is incorporated into God's mighty acts of salvation and given new birth through water and the spirit. Baptism washes away sin and clothes one in the righteousness of Christ. By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion. Yes Yes Trinity Trinitarian Pentecostals and various "Holiness" groups, Christian Missionary Alliance, Assemblies of God Water Baptism is an ordinance, a symbolic ritual used to witness to having accepted Christ as personal Savior. By submersion. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit. No Varies Trinity Oneness Pentecostals Necessary for Salvation By submersion only No Yes Jesus name Presbyterian and most Reformed churches A sacrament, a symbolic ritual, and a seal of the adult believer’s present faith. It is an outward sign of an inward grace. By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant. No Trinity Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) Only an external symbol that is no longer to be practiced. Do not believe in Baptism of water, but only in an inward, ongoing purification of the human spirit in a life of discipline led by the Holy Spirit. — — — Revivalism A necessary step for salvation. By submersion, with the expectation of receiving the Holy Spirit. No Yes Trinity Roman Catholic Church "Necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament" Usually by pouring in the West, by submersion or immersion in the East; sprinkling admitted only if the water then flows on the head. Scott Hahn, Leon J. Suprenant, Catholic for a Reason: Scripture and the Mystery of the Family of God (Emmaus Road Publishing, 1998 ISBN 0966322304, 9780966322309), p. 135. Paul Haffner, The Sacramental Mystery (Gracewing Publishing, 1999 ISBN 0852444761, 9780852444764), p. 36. Yes Yes Trinity Seventh-day Adventists Not stated as the way to salvation, but a prerequisite for salvation since it symbolizes the acceptance of Jesus as Savior. A time for person to express personal faith in Christ. By submersion only. No No Trinity United Church of Christ (Evangelical and Reformed Churches and the Congregational Christian Churches) One of two sacraments. Baptism is an outward sign of God's inward grace. It may or may not be necessary for membership in a local congregation. However, it is a common practice for both infants and adults. By sprinkling, pouring, immersion or submersion. Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant. No Trinity Anabaptist Baptism is considered by the majority of Anabaptist Churches (anabaptist means to baptize again) to be essential to Christian faith but not to salvation. It is considered a biblical ordinance along with communion, feet washing, the holy kiss, the Christian woman's head covering, anointing with oil, and marriage. The Anabaptists also have stood historically against the practice of infant baptism. The Anabaptists stood firmly against infant baptism in a time when the Church and State were one and when people were made a citizen through baptism into the officially sanctioned Church (Reformed or Catholic). Belief and repentance are believed to precede and follow baptism. By pouring, immersion or submersion. No No Trinity Ecumenical statements In 1982 the World Council of Churches published the ecumenical paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry. The preface of the document states: "Those who know how widely the churches have differed in doctrine and practice on baptism, eucharist and ministry, will appreciate the importance of the large measure of agreement registered here. Virtually all the confessional traditions are included in the Commission's membership. That theologians of such widely different traditions should be able to speak so harmoniously about baptism, eucharist and ministry is unprecedented in the modern ecumenical movement. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the Commission also includes among its full members theologians of the Roman Catholic and other churches which do not belong to the World Council of Churches itself." A 1997 another document, Becoming a Christian: The Ecumenical Implications of Our Common Baptism, gave the views of a commission of experts brought together under the aegis of the World Council of Churches. It states: "…according to , baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" () as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life () lead to purification and new birth (). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (), by participation in the life of the community—the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God ()—and by further moral formation ( ff.) At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. ). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules ()." Baptism and salvation in Roman Catholic teaching In Roman Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation. This teaching dates back to the teachings and practices of first-century Christians, and the connection between salvation and baptism was not, on the whole, an item of major dispute until Martin Luther's teachings regarding grace. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament." Accordingly, a person who knowingly, willfully and unrepentantly rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. This teaching is based on Jesus' words in the Gospel according to John: "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the Kingdom of God." (). Catholics are baptized in water, by submersion, immersion or infusion, in the name (singular) of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit Ordo initiationis christanae adultorum, editio typica, Vatican City, Typis polyglottis vaticanis, 1972, pg 92, cf Lateran IV De Fide Catholica, DS 802, cf Florence, Decretum pro Armeniis, DS , 1317. — not three gods, but one God subsisting in three Persons. While sharing in the one divine essence, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct, not simply three "masks" or manifestations of one Person. The faith of the Church and of the individual Christian is based on a relationship with these three Persons of the one God. Adults can also be baptized, if they aren't baptized already, through the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults. It is claimed that Pope Stephen I, St. Ambrose, and Pope Nicholas I declared that baptisms in the name of "Jesus" only as well as in the name of "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" were valid. The correct interpretation of their words is disputed. Current canonical law requires the Trinitarian formula and water for validity The Church recognizes two equivalents of baptism with water: "baptism of blood" and "baptism of desire". Baptism of blood is that undergone by unbaptized individuals who are martyred for the Faith, while baptism of desire generally applies to catechumens who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms: The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This Baptism of blood, like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258) For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259) Non-Christians who seek God with a sincere heart and, moved by grace, try to do God's will as they know it through the dictates of conscience can also be saved without water baptism; they are said to desire it implicitly. (cf. Catechism, 1260). As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism, 1261). Validity considerations by some Churches Russian Orthodox priest greeting an infant and its godparents on the steps of the church at the beginning of the Sacred Mystery of Baptism. Since Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran Churches teach that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e., to actually have those effects.) Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism illicit (in violation of the Church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a priest introduces some variation in the authorized rite for the ceremony, the baptism may still be valid (provided certain key criteria are met). One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Latin Rite Roman Catholics and Episcopalians/Anglicans use the form "I baptize you..."; Eastern Orthodox and some Eastern Catholic Churches use the form "This servant of Christ is baptized..." or "This person is baptized by my hands…". These Churches recognize each other's form of baptism as valid to varying degrees. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the use of the verb "baptize" is essential. It is also considered essential that the Trinitarian formula ("in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit") be used; thus they do not accept as valid baptisms of non-Trinitarian churches such as Oneness Pentecostals. There was an ancient controversy over baptism using the formula that Oneness Pentecostals use, with some ancient authorities holding it to be valid. Another condition is that water be used. Some Christian groups historically have rejected the use of water for baptism, for example the Albigensians. These baptisms would not be valid, nor would a baptism in which some other liquid was used. Another requirement is that the celebrant intends to perform baptism. This requirement entails merely the intention "to do what the Church does", not necessarily to have Christian faith, since it is not the person baptizing, but the Holy Spirit working through the sacrament, who produces the effects of the sacrament. Doubt about the faith of the baptizer is thus no ground for doubt about the validity of the baptism. Some conditions expressly do not affect validity—for example, whether submersion, immersion, affusion or aspersion is used. However, if water is sprinkled, there is a danger that the water may not touch the skin of the unbaptized. If the water does not flow on the skin, there is no ablution and so no baptism. If for a medical or other legitimate reason the water cannot be poured on the head, it may be poured over another principal part of the body, such as the chest. In such case validity is uncertain and the person will be considered to be conditionally baptized – until such time as they can be baptized in the traditional manner later. In many communions it does not affect validity for a single submersion or pouring to be performed rather than a triple, but in Orthodoxy this is controversial. According to the Catholic Church, baptism imparts an indelible "seal" upon the soul of the baptized. Thus, once baptized, an individual cannot be baptized again. This teaching was affirmed against the Donatists who practiced rebaptism. Baptism is said to operate ex opere operato and is valid even if administered in heresy or schism. Like holy orders, it confers a "character" on the recipient, who can never be re-baptized. Recognition of baptism by other denominations The Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist Churches accept baptism performed by other denominations within this group as valid, subject to certain conditions. It is only possible to be baptized once, thus people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. Such people are accepted upon making a profession of faith and, if they have not yet validly received the sacrament of confirmation, by being confirmed. In some cases it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is doubt, conditional baptism is administered, with a formula on the lines of "If you are not yet baptized, I baptize you…". Code of Canon Law, canon 869; cf. New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law By John P. Beal, James A. Coriden, Thomas J., pp. 1057-1059. In the still recent past, it was common practice in the Roman Catholic Church to baptize conditionally almost every convert from Protestantism because of a perceived difficulty in judging about the validity in any concrete case. In the case of the major Protestant Churches, agreements involving assurances about the manner in which they administer baptism has ended this practice, which sometimes continues for other groups of Protestant tradition. The Catholic Church has always recognized the validity of both baptism and chrismation in the Churches of Eastern Christianity. On the other hand, it has explicitly denied the validity of baptism conferred in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Practice in the Eastern Orthodox Church for converts from other communions is not uniform, but even a convert received without administration of baptism is considered to have his previous baptism retroactively filled with grace by whatever form is used to accept him, such as by chrismation or confession. The exact procedure is dependent on local canons and is the subject of some controversy. Oriental Orthodox Churches recognise the validity of baptisms performed within the Eastern Orthodox Communion. Some also recognise baptisms performed by Roman Catholic Churches. Any supposed baptism not performed using the Trinitarian formula is considered invalid. In the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church and all Orthodox Churches, the baptism conferred by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is invalid. Declaration of 5 June 2001 by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. An article published together with the official declaration to that effect gave reasons for that judgment, summed up in the following words: "The Baptism of the Catholic Church and that of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints differ essentially, both for what concerns faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in whose name Baptism is conferred, and for what concerns the relationship to Christ who instituted it." The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stresses that baptism must be administered by one having proper authority; consequently, the Church does not recognize the baptism of any other church as valid. Jehovah's Witnesses do not recognise any other baptism occurring after 1914 "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, May 1, 1959, p. 288, "Thus, when Christ was enthroned as King A.D. 1914 it was not necessary for all true Christians to be rebaptized in recognition of his ruling position." as valid, "Jehovah’s Witnesses Endure for His Sovereign Godship", The Watchtower, September 15, 1966, p. 560, "In the decades of restoration since 1919, right-hearted clergymen of various religious sects in different parts of the earth have repentantly accepted the priesthood services of the anointed remnant of Job-like ones by becoming rebaptized and ordained as true ministers of Jehovah." as they believe that they are now the one true church of Christ, "True Christianity Is Flourishing", The Watchtower, March 1, 2004, p. 7 As retrieved 2009-04-09, "While Christendom's theologians, missionaries, and churchgoers continue to grapple with the gathering storm of controversy in their churches, true Christianity is flourishing worldwide. Indeed, true Christians...invite you to join Jehovah's Witnesses in united Christian worship of the only true God, Jehovah." and that the rest of "Christendom" is false religion. Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, publ Jehovah's Witnesses, "Chapter 31: How Chosen and Led by God", p. 706, "Clearly, when the time of the end began in 1914, none of the churches of Christendom were measuring up to these Bible standards for the one true Christian congregation. What, though, about the Bible Students, as Jehovah’s Witnesses were then known?" Who may administer a baptism A youth oriented contemporary style baptism in a North American church.There is debate among Christian churches as to who can administer baptism. The examples given in the New Testament only show apostles and deacons administering baptism. Ancient Christian churches interpret this as indicating that baptism should be performed by the clergy except in extremis, i.e., when the one being baptized is in immediate danger of death. Then anyone may baptize, provided, in the view of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the person who does the baptizing is a member of that Church, or, in the view of the Roman Catholic Church, that the person, even if not baptized, intends to do what the Church does in administering the rite. Many Protestant churches see no specific prohibition in the biblical examples and permit any believer to baptize another. In the Latin Rite Catholic Church the ordinary minister of baptism is a member of the clergy (bishop, priest or deacon), but in normal circumstances only the Parish Priest of the person to be baptized, or someone authorized by the Parish Priest, may do so licitly "If the ordinary minister is absent or impeded, a catechist or some other person deputed to this office by the local Ordinary, may lawfully confer baptism; indeed, in a case of necessity, any person who has the requisite intention may do so By "a case of necessity" is meant imminent danger of death because of either illness or an external threat. "The requisite intention" is, at the minimum level, the intention "to do what the Church does" through the rite of baptism. In the Eastern Catholic Churches, a deacon is not considered an ordinary minister. Administration of the sacrament is reserved, as in the Latin Rite, to the Parish Priest. But, "in case of necessity, baptism can be administered by a deacon or, in his absence or if he is impeded, by another cleric, a member of an institute of consecrated life, or by any other Christian faithful; even by the mother or father, if another person is not available who knows how to baptize." The discipline of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East is similar to that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. They require the baptizer, even in cases of necessity, to be of their own faith, on the grounds that a person cannot convey what he himself does not possess, in this case membership in the Church. The Latin Rite Catholic Church does not insist on this condition, considering that the effect of the sacrament, such as membership of the Church, is not produced by the person who baptizes, but by the Holy Spirit. For the Orthodox, while Baptism in extremis may be administered by a deacon or any lay-person, if the newly-baptized person survives, a priest must still perform the other prayers of the Rite of Baptism, and administer the Mystery of Chrismation. The discipline of Anglicanism is similar to that of the Latin Rite Catholic Church. For Methodists and many other Protestant denominations, too, the ordinary minister of baptism is a duly ordained or appointed minister of religion. Newer movements of Protestant Evangelical churches, particularly non-denominational, have begun to allow those persons most instrumental in one's faith to baptize. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, only a man who has been ordained to the Aaronic Priesthood holding the priesthood office of Priest or higher office in the Melchizedek Priesthood may administer baptism. In practice, most baptisms among Jehovah's Witnesses are performed at scheduled assemblies and conventions by elders and ministerial servants, although smaller services without onlookers are considered Scriptural "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, August 1, 1973, page 480, "In connection with baptism, it may also be noted that a baptism may be performed by a dedicated male even though no other human witnesses are present." and the only baptizer requirement is that he should himself be a baptized male. The Watchtower, May 15, 1970, page 309, "those who are to perform the immersion, all of whom must be themselves dedicated, baptized Christian ministers, male members of the congregation". "The General Priesthood Today", The Watchtower, March 1, 1963, page 147, "Because he is a minister, any competent male member is called on to perform funerals, baptisms and weddings, and to conduct the service in annual commemoration of the Lord’s death." Unless the candidate is physically challenged or some other special situation exists, a particular candidate is immersed by only one baptizer. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, November 15, 1986, page 31, "Jesus’ baptism, then, sets the pattern of total immersion in water, but it also suggests that one male servant of God should perform the baptism. ...Of course, over the years there have been some special situations that have needed to be considered when performing certain baptisms. ...The norm among Jehovah’s Witnesses is for only one male to immerse the baptismal candidate." In circumstances of extended isolation, a qualified candidate's prayerful dedication and publicly stated intention to become baptized as soon as possible serve to identify the start of his or her life as a dedicated Christian, even if immersion itself must be delayed. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, August 1, 1973, pages 479-480, "If a person learns the truth when in a prison or any place where there are no dedicated males present or available to perform a baptism and the person wishes to make a dedication to Jehovah, what can be done? ...A believing woman [or man] can go to Jehovah in prayer and make a dedication. She can then make public declaration of her faith and can go on record before dedicated sisters [and/or dedicated but unbaptized brothers] who may be present that she has ‘exercised faith in her heart’ and that she is awaiting the first opportunity to be baptized... So there is a way open for both men and women who do not have access to baptism, either because circumstances do not allow for it or because a dedicated male is not present. But by making a valid dedication and going on record publicly before any other dedicated ones present he or she is now recognized as dedicated." In rare instances, an unbaptized man who has made a public dedication has performed the baptism of another who immediately reciprocated; Witnesses accept both baptisms as valid. "Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands", 1987 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 71, "...two men began to realize the need to “consecrate” (or, dedicate) themselves to Jehovah and to get baptized. But who was there to baptize them? They knew of no other Witnesses in Puerto Rico. What would they do? After prayerful thought, they gathered the group together and all went to a small river near Arecibo, where Ambrosio first baptized Santiago and then Santiago baptized Ambrosio". Witnesses who had been baptized in the 1930s and 1940s by women ministers, such as in concentration camps, were rebaptized but retained the earlier as their baptism dates. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, August 1, 1973, page 480, "it does not appear Scripturally proper for a sister to try to perform a baptism. "Venezuela", 1996 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 190, "Incidentally, the seven who had been baptized by Sister Goas were rebaptized in 1946 by a brother, in harmony with the Bible pattern that shows baptisms being performed only by males who were in an approved relationship with Jehovah." Anabaptist and Baptist baptism Anabaptists ("re-baptizers") and Baptists promote adult baptism, or "believer's baptism". A river baptism in North Carolina at the turn of the 20th century. Full-immersion (submersion) baptism continues to be a common practice in many African-American Christian congregations today. Early Anabaptists were labeled such because they re-baptized persons whom they felt had not been properly baptized (having received infant baptism, sprinkling, or baptism of any sort by another denomination). Some modern Baptists do not believe baptism by submersion is the only legitimate form of baptism, they simply perform baptism by submersion for members who wish to be baptized. It does not imply that any previous form of baptism by affusion or sprinkling is invalid. Baptism is an act identifying one as having accepted Jesus Christ as Savior. According to M. L. Moser, Jr., "one enters by baptism into the membership of the church which performs it." Baptist theologians (such as John Gill) teach that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith. This is called believer's baptism. Some, such as Gill, argue that the regulative principle of worship, which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of worship (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Some would argue that according to this understanding, the rebaptisms that Baptists generally perform if a person was not regenerate when baptized also violate the Regulative Principle for Worship. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in as a time when all who were members of it would have the law written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist theology teaches that only those who are born again, as indicated by a profession of faith, are members of the New Covenant. They view this text as speaking of the visible church in the present age, rather than as a prophetic text of God's New Covenant in Christ administered to all saints from Genesis to the present, which will be fulfilled when Christ returns to earth. Baptism is therefore not administered to those unable to make a credible confession of saving faith in Christ prior to being baptized; but it will be administered upon making this confession, regardless of the confessor's age. Some Baptist churches take exception to this and are very hesitant to baptize young children because they want to confirm whether or not they are regenerate. A confession alone is not enough for these churches, they want to see fruit of regeneration in the life of the person to be baptized, which some argue violates the example set forth in the book of Acts, which performed immediate baptisms. Those who hold views influenced by the Baptists may perform the ceremony indoors in a baptismal font, a swimming pool, or a bathtub, or outdoors in a creek or river: as long as there is water, nothing prevents the performance of Baptism. Protestant groups influenced by these convictions usually emphasize that it memorializes the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus (), which according to the grace of God has become the basis of repentance and new life for those who have professed belief in Him, symbolizing spiritual death with regard to sin and a new life of faith in God. They typically teach that baptism does not accomplish anything in itself, but is an outward sign or testimony, a personal act, indicating the invisible reality that the person's sins have already been washed away by the cross of Christ, and applied to their life according to their profession of faith. It is also understood to be a covenantal act, signifying entrance into the New Covenant of Christ (; ; ). For Baptists, baptism is a requirement for church membership, rather than a necessary requirement for salvation. Once baptized, a Baptist may move their membership to another congregation by letter. The above description applies not just to those denominations using Baptist in their names, but also to a wide variety of Protestant denominations who have taken influence from the Anabaptist tradition. Reformed and Covenant Theology view Paedobaptist Covenant theologians see the administration of all the biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, as including a principle of familial, corporate inclusion or "generational succession". The biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants. These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households), not in an exclusively individualistic manner. Baptism is considered by the Reformed churches as the visible sign of entrance into the New Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of faith. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include children, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see Infant baptism). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of circumcision and symbolizes the internal cleansing from sin, among other things. Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints This section is a part of a series on The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism), baptism is recognized as the first ordinance of the gospel. As with many other Restorationist faiths, baptism must be by submersion for the remission of sins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. LDS baptism does not intend to remit any sins other than personal ones, as the LDS Church does not believe in original sin. Latter Day Saint baptisms also occur only after an "age of accountability", or the age at which a child begins to know right from wrong (similar to the age of reason), which is defined by the church as the age of eight years. Mormonism rejects infant baptism. In addition, Mormonism requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with priesthood authority. Since the LDS Church has a lay priesthood, children raised in an LDS family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend or family member who has achieved the office of priest, which is conferred to worthy male members at least 16 years old. Latter Day Saints do not believe that the gift of the Holy Spirit occurs immediately after baptism; rather, the gift is given by the laying on of hands in a separate confirmation ritual after baptism. This ritual is believed to be confirmed by Paul's actions in Acts 19:6, where, following the baptism of several followers of Christ, he "laid his hands upon" those who were baptized and they then received the Holy Ghost. The process of repentance and sanctification continues by partaking of the sacrament every week, which Latter Day Saints consider to be a renewal of one's baptismal covenant with God. They also believe that baptism is symbolic both of Jesus's death, burial and resurrection and of the death and burial of the natural or sinful man and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus of the one baptized. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (or "Mormon" Church), baptism and confirmation are only the first of several ordinances believed to be required for exaltation. Membership into the LDS Church is granted only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the church. As Latter-day Saints do not recognize the validity of baptisms of other faiths, all who come into the church as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith. The person being baptized must be at least eight years old. The church also practices baptism for the dead "vicariously" or "by proxy" in their temples for anyone who did not receive these ordinances while living. (LDS doctrine holds the concept of moral agency sacred, so deceased individuals baptized by proxy are believed to have the absolute right to accept or reject the ordinances done for them. Proxy baptism for the dead does not mean that the person is automatically considered a member of the church, posthumously or otherwise, only that the ordinance of baptism has been performed for them.) Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a font, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples, where proxy baptisms are performed for the dead, the fonts rest on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel, following the pattern of the "molten sea" in the Temple of Solomon (see 2 Chronicles 4:2-5). Great care is taken in the execution of the baptism; if the baptism is not executed properly it must be redone. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two priesthood holders witness the baptism to ensure that it is performed properly. The Book of Mormon discusses people who lived prior to the life of Jesus who performed ordinances, including baptism. Jehovah's Witnesses Baptism is also practiced by Jehovah's Witnesses. They believe it should be performed by complete immersion (submersion) only when one is old enough to understand the significance of it. They teach that water baptism is an outward symbol that one has made a complete, unreserved, and unconditional dedication through Jesus Christ to do the will of Jehovah God. Jehovah's Witnesses usually baptize converts at large conventions Organized to Do Jehovah's Will, published by Jehovah's Witnesses, page 215, "Baptisms are usually performed at assemblies and conventions of Jehovah’s Witnesses." rather than at the local Kingdom Halls. A candidate must request baptism some time before a planned baptismal event, since preparation is required to qualify. Organized to Do Jehovah's Will, published by Jehovah's Witnesses, page 182, "When you desire to be baptized, make this known to the elders in the congregation. The questions that follow this message provide the basis for discussions that the elders will have with you in order to determine whether you qualify for baptism. ...If you have not yet gained sufficient knowledge of basic Bible teachings, the elders will arrange for you to receive assistance so that you will be able to express in your own words a proper understanding of the Scriptures and qualify to be baptized at a later time." Congregation elders may only approve a candidate for baptism after he understands what is expected of a Christian associated with Jehovah's Witnesses and he demonstrates sincere dedication to the faith. Organized to Do Jehovah's Will, published by Jehovah's Witnesses, page 217-218, "After the person requesting baptism has had time to review the information, the ["coordinator of the body of elders"] will make arrangements for some of the elders to have discussions with the person based on that material. It is not necessary to wait until an assembly is announced before having these discussions. ...Usually it is best to review the questions with each baptism candidate individually, not in a group. By having each candidate comment on every question, the elders will get a clear picture of his depth of understanding, leaving no doubt as to whether he is ready for baptism or not. ...The elders will make sure that a person to be baptized has acquired a reasonable understanding of basic Bible teachings. Additionally, they will want to ascertain whether the prospective minister deeply appreciates the truth and demonstrates proper respect... The elders assigned to help a baptism candidate will meet after the third session and decide whether the person should be accepted for baptism or not. Elders will take into consideration the background, ability, and other circumstances of each baptism candidate. Our interest is in those who have turned their hearts to Jehovah and who have grasped the sense of fundamental Bible truths. With your loving assistance, those being baptized will be helped to enter into the Christian ministry adequately prepared to accomplish that important assignment. Thereafter, one or two of the assigned elders should meet with the person and inform him whether he qualifies for baptism or not." While baptisms may be performed simultaneously by different baptizers, the baptism of a typical Jehovah's Witness candidate is performed by one male minister "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, November 15, 1986, page 31, "Normally only one male minister is needed to baptize someone. ...Jesus’ baptism, then, sets the pattern of total immersion in water, but it also suggests that one male servant of God should perform the baptism. ...Of course, over the years there have been some special situations...to be handled as wisdom dictates. The norm among Jehovah’s Witnesses is for only one male to immerse the baptismal candidate." with or without human onlookers. "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, August 1, 1973, page 480, "In connection with baptism, it may also be noted that a baptism may be performed by a dedicated male even though no other human witnesses are present." Baptism in Churches of Christ There is no single statement of conformity on the doctrine of baptism as practiced by Churches of Christ, yet there are several similarities among the vast majority of congregations: basically, Churches of Christ believe in the age of accountability and believer's baptism. Churches of Christ practice submersion baptism only and do not baptize infants. However, they also believe that baptism is necessary for salvation. There is no restriction upon who may perform a baptism, but it is usually done by an adult male. Adult converts are baptized, as are children who are old enough to understand that they are accountable for their sins and to understand the sacrifice of Christ and the meaning of his death, burial, and resurrection. Churches of Christ interpret Matthew's version of the Great Commission () as evidence that baptism is a command that comes straight from Jesus Christ. compares baptism to a "burial", in their view indicating, along with other descriptions in the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, that baptism was a submersion. They see as teaching that repentance precedes baptism and that the remission of sins occurs at baptism. They often cite this verse when discussing the doctrine of baptism. (cf. , , ). They say that and other passages assert that the baptismal burial is in water, not in some spiritual or figurative element. Churches of Christ sites quote and take it to mean that baptism is essential to salvation. The second part of this verse confirms their belief that there is nothing magical about the water, but rather it is the act of obedience that results in salvation. states that baptism puts one into the death of Christ, and that baptism clothes one in Christ. has also been cited to exclude salvation without baptism. The church will site that Paul was not saved at the point of belief on the road to Damascus but rather three days later when Ananias commanded him to be baptized to wash away his sins . The church will also cite as a reference to the spiritual rebirth that occurs during baptism. Opposition to water baptism Quakers and baptism Quakers (members of the Religious Society of Friends) do not believe in the baptism of either children or adults with water, rejecting all forms of outward sacraments in their religious life. Robert Barclay's Apology for the True Christian Divinity (a historic explanation of Quaker theology from the seventeenth century), explains Quakers' opposition to baptism with water thus: "I indeed baptize you with water unto repentance; but he that cometh after me is mightier than I, whose shoes I am not worthy to bear; he shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire." () Here John mentions two manners of baptizings and two different baptisms, the one with water, and the other with the Spirit, the one whereof he was the minister of, the other whereof Christ was the minister of: and such as were baptized with the first were not therefore baptized with the second: "I indeed baptize you, but he shall baptize you." Though in the present time they were baptized with the baptism of water, yet they were not as yet, but were to be, baptized with the baptism of Christ. - Robert Barclay, 1678 http://www.qhpress.org/texts/barclay/apology/prop12.html Barclay argued that water baptism was only something that happened until the time of Christ, but that now, people are baptised inwardly by the spirit of Christ, and hence there is no need for the external sacrament of water baptism, which Quakers argue is meaningless. Salvation Army and baptism The Salvation Army does not practice water baptism, or indeed other outward sacraments. William Booth and Catherine Booth, the founders of the Salvation Army, believed that many Christians had come to rely on the outward signs of spiritual grace rather than on grace itself, whereas what they believed was important was spiritual grace itself. However, although the Salvation Army does not practice baptism, they are not opposed to baptism within other Christian denominations. http://www1.salvationarmy.org.uk/uki/www_uki.nsf/vw-print/C28E39B2CA06E8F98025708A003D9FAC?openDocument Hyperdispensationalism There are some Christians who carry dispensationalism to such an extreme that they accept only Paul's Prison Epistles as applicable for the church today. As a result, they do not accept baptism or the Lord's Supper, since these are not found in the Prison Epistles. They also teach that Peter's gospel message was not the same as Paul's. Hyperdispensationalists assert: The great commission () and its baptism is directed to early Jewish believers, not the Gentile believers of mid-Acts or later. The baptism of is Peter's call for Israel to repent of complicity in the death of the Messiah; not as a Gospel announcement of atonement for sin, a later doctrine revealed by Paul. Water baptism found early in the book of Acts is, according to this view, now supplanted by the one baptism () foretold by John the Baptist (, , , ). The one baptism for today, it is asserted, is the "baptism of the Holy Spirit" (). This, "spirit" baptism, however, is unlikely given the texts and facts that the baptisms of the Eunuch () and the household of Cornelius () were explicitly in water. Further evidence points to the humanly administered Great Commission which was to last until the end of the world . Therefore, the baptism the Ephesians underwent was water by context (; ). Likewise, Holy Spirit Baptism is recorded as only occurring twice in all the book of Acts to selected individuals (; ). Finally, it is argued that only Jesus possessed the power to baptize with the Holy Spirit and with Fire which eliminates any mortal ever doing, , . "John answered, saying to all, "I indeed baptize you with water; but One mightier than I is coming, whose sandal strap I am not worthy to loose. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire" () Many in this group also argue that John's promised baptism by fire is pending, referring to the destruction of the world by fire (, , ). John, as he said "baptized with water", as did Jesus's disciples to the early, Jewish Christian church. Jesus himself never personally baptized with water, but did so through his disciples (). Unlike Jesus' first Apostles, Paul, his Apostle to the Gentiles, was sent to preach rather than to baptize () but did occasionally baptize, for instance in Corinth () and in Philippi (), in the same manner as they (cf. ). In he also taught the spiritual significance of the submerging in baptism and how one contacts the atoning death of Christ in such. Another Hyperdispensationalist view Other Hyperdispensationalists believe that baptism was necessary only for a short period between Christ's ascension and mid-Acts. The great commission () and its baptism was directed to early Jewish believers, not the Gentile believers of mid-Acts or later. Any Jew who believed did not receive salvation (, ) or the Holy Spirit () until they were baptized. This period ended with the calling of Paul (). Peter's reaction when the Gentiles received the Holy Spirit before baptism () is worthy of note. Other initiation ceremonies Many cultures practice or have practiced initiation rites, with or without the use of water, including the ancient Egyptian, the Hebraic/Jewish, the Babylonian, the Mayan, and the Norse cultures. The modern Japanese practice of Miyamairi is such as ceremony that does not use water. In some, such evidence may be archaeological and descriptive in nature, rather than a modern practice. Mystery religion initiation rites Apuleius, a second-century Roman writer, described an initiation into the mysteries of Isis: This initiation of Lucius, the character in Apuleius's story who had been turned into an ass and changed back by Isis into human form, into the successive degrees of the rites of the goddess was accomplished only after a significant period of study to demonstrate his loyalty and trustworthiness, akin to catechumenical practices in Christianity. Mandaean baptism Mandaeans, who abhor Jesus and Moses as false prophets, revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism, a rite therefore of purification, not of initiation. Sikh baptism ceremony The Sikh initiation ceremony, which involves drinking, not washing, dates from 1699, when the religion's tenth leader (Guru Gobind Singh) initiated 5 followers of his faith and then was initiated himself by his followers. The Sikh baptism ceremony is called Amrit Sanchar or Khande di Pahul. The Sikh has taken Amrit once they have been initiated. In Sikhism, the initiated Sikh is also called an Amritdhari literally meaning Amrit Taker or one who has Taken on Amrit. Khande Di Pahul (Amrit ceremony) was initiated in the times of Guru Gobind Singh when Khalsa was inaugurated at Sri Anandpur Sahib on the day of Baisakhi in 1699. Guru Gobind Singh asked a gathering of Sikhs, who was prepared to die for God? At first, the people hesitated, and then one man stepped forward, and he was taken to a tent. After some time, Guru Gobind Singh came out of the tent, with blood dripping from his sword. He asked the same question again. After the next four volunteers were in the tent, he reappeared with the four, who were now all dressed like him. These five men came to be known as Panj Pyares or the Beloved Five. These five were initiated into the Khalsa by receiving Amrit. These five were Bhai Daya Singh, Bhai Mukham Singh, Bhai Sahib Singh, Bhai Dharam Singh and Bhai Himmat Singh. Sikh men were then given the name "Singh" meaning "lion" and the women received the last name "Kaur" meaning "princess". Filling an iron bowl with clean water, he kept stirring it with a two-edged sword (called a Khanda) while reciting over it five of the sacred texts or banis—Japji, Jaap, Savaiyye, Benti Chaupai and Anand Sahib. The Guru’s wife, Mata Jito (also known as Mata Sahib Kaur), poured into the vessel sugar crystals, mingling sweetness with the alchemy of iron. The five Sikhs sat on the ground around the bowl reverently as the holy water was being churned to the recitation of the sacred verses. With the recitation of the five banis completed, khande di pahul or amrit, the Nectar of Immortality, was ready for administration. Guru Gobind Singh gave the five Sikhs five palmsful each of it to drink. Ritual washing in Islam Islam requires a sort of washing called Ghusul (Arabic word means washing), similar to Judaic practices mentioned above, which should include the washing of the whole body in special order or immersion of the whole body (submersion), in a river for instance. This Ghusul is NOT required for an adult when adopting Islam, but must be performed after each sexual intercourse or a wet dream or a menstrual flow so that they may resume their five daily prayers. Also is required to be done for dead bodies. The notion that prayers must be invoked to ask God for forgiveness from impure thoughts and actions is incorrect; it is only desirable. Such Ghusul is very different from practices in other religions. A person performs it alone privately, whenever it is indicated or desired. Apart from this, washing before daily prayers is essential and is called Wudu. Muslims believe no one should approach God in prayer, before first asking God to forgive them their sins. Formal prayers are offered five times per day. While washing, one prays to God asking for forgiveness of the sins committed throughout the day, whether intentional or unintentional. This is a Muslim's way of reminding him/herself that the goal of this life is to please God, and to pray to attain His forgiveness and grace. Christian baptism is challenged in the Quran in the verse: "Our religion is the Baptism of Allah; And who can baptize better than Allah? And it is He Whom we worship". It means that belief in the monotheism of God in Islam is merely sufficient for entering in the fold of faith and does not require a ritual form of baptism. Gnostic Catholicism and Thelema The Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, or Gnostic Catholic Church (the ecclesiastical arm of Ordo Templi Orientis), offers its Rite of Baptism to any person at least 11 years old. The ceremony is performed before a Gnostic Mass and represents a symbolic birth into the Thelemic community. Non-religious initiations Although even the use of water is often absent, the term baptism is also used for various initiations as rite of passage to a walk of secular life. In Belgium, for example, one word for university pledging is schachtendoop ('pledge baptism') in Dutch or Baptême in French. It is the traditional way of initiation into student societies (generally gender-mixed) and is accepted by institutions of higher education and sometimes controlled, e.g. by the Belgian universities Université catholique de Louvain and Université Libre de Bruxelles. In the Brazilian martial art capoeira, an annual promotion ceremony is held, known as a batizado (literally "baptism"). For practitioners participating in their first batizado, it is traditional to receive their Capoeira names at that time, as a mark that they have been received in the community of Capoeiristas. The name is often given by the senior instructor or other senior students, and is largely determined by an individual way they perform a movement, how they look, or something else unique to the individual. Their Capoeira name is often used as a nom de guerre within Capoeira circles, a tradition which dates back to when practicing Capoeira was illegal in Brazil. Baptism of objects Christening of USS Dewey The word "baptism" or "christening" is sometimes used to describe the inauguration of certain objects for use. The name Baptism of Bells has been given to the blessing of (musical, especially church) bells, at least in France, since the eleventh century. It is derived from the washing of the bell with holy water by the bishop, before he anoints it with the oil of the infirm without and with chrism within; a fuming censer is placed under it and the bishop prays that these sacramentals of the Church may, at the sound of the bell, put the demons to flight, protect from storms, and call the faithful to prayer. Baptism of Ships: at least since the time of the Crusades, rituals have contained a blessing for ships. The priest begs God to bless the vessel and protect those who sail in. The ship is usually sprinkled with holy water. Footnotes See also Related articles and subjects Anabaptist Baptism of Jesus Baptism of desire Baptism by fire Believer's baptism Baptismal clothing Baptistery Chrismation Christifideles Consolamentum Catechumen Conditional baptism Disciple (Christianity) Divine filiation Infant baptism Emergency baptism Jesus-Name doctrine Sacrament Prevenient Grace Theophany Whitsunday People and ritual objects Baptismal font Chrism Church Holy water John the Baptist Godparent Mikvah Resources | Baptism |@lemmatized representation:2 baptism:445 early:35 christian:84 art:3 christianity:18 greek:14 baptizo:1 immerse:24 perform:49 ablution:5 ritual:19 act:31 use:54 water:97 one:72 admit:3 membership:14 church:160 view:18 member:16 particular:5 administer:24 usual:4 form:30 among:14 candidate:21 baptizand:2 totally:3 partially:1 john:66 baptist:34 deep:2 river:8 suggest:7 immersion:58 pictorial:2 archaeological:2 evidence:14 century:28 onwards:1 indicate:16 normal:2 stand:5 pour:19 upper:2 body:19 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6,955 | Brezhnev_Doctrine | The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet Union foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by S. Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article, entitled “Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries.” Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." This doctrine was announced to retroactively justify the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that ended the Prague Spring, along with earlier Soviet military interventions, such as the invasion of Hungary in 1956. These interventions were meant to put an end to democratic liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Eastern bloc, which was considered by the Soviets to be an essential defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out. In practice, the policy meant that limited independence of communist parties was allowed, but no country would be allowed to leave the Warsaw Pact, disturb a nation's communist party's monopoly on power, or in any way compromise the cohesiveness of the Eastern bloc. Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the right to define "socialism" and "capitalism". Following the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, numerous treaties were signed between the Soviet Union and its satellite states to reassert these points and to further ensure inter-state cooperation. The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the non-Warsaw Pact nation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Brezhnev Doctrine stayed in effect until it was finally ended due to the refusal of Mikhail Gorbachev to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989 and Solidarity defeated the Communist Party. Hunt, p. 945 It was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1989. References Bibliography Ouimet, Matthew: The Rise and Fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine in Soviet Foreign Policy. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London. 2003. Hunt, Lynn: "The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures." Bedford/St. Martin's, Boston and London. 2009. See also Truman Doctrine Domino theory Cold War Ulbricht Doctrine Leonid Brezhnev Reagan Doctrine Soviet occupations | Brezhnev_Doctrine |@lemmatized brezhnev:6 doctrine:11 soviet:10 union:3 foreign:2 policy:3 first:1 clearly:1 outline:1 kovalev:1 september:1 pravda:1 article:1 entitle:1 sovereignty:1 international:1 obligation:1 socialist:3 country:5 leonid:2 reiterate:1 speech:1 fifth:1 congress:1 polish:1 united:1 worker:1 party:4 november:1 state:3 force:2 hostile:1 socialism:2 try:1 turn:1 development:1 towards:1 capitalism:2 become:1 problem:2 concern:2 common:1 announce:1 retroactively:1 justify:2 invasion:2 czechoslovakia:1 august:1 end:3 prague:1 spring:1 along:1 early:1 military:3 intervention:3 hungary:1 mean:1 put:1 democratic:1 liberalization:1 effort:1 uprising:1 potential:1 compromise:2 hegemony:1 inside:1 eastern:2 bloc:2 consider:1 essential:1 defensive:1 strategic:1 buffer:1 case:1 hostility:1 nato:1 break:1 practice:1 meant:1 limit:1 independence:1 communist:3 allow:2 would:1 leave:1 warsaw:2 pact:2 disturb:1 nation:2 monopoly:1 power:1 way:1 cohesiveness:1 implicit:1 leadership:1 reserve:1 right:1 define:1 follow:1 announcement:1 numerous:1 treaty:1 sign:1 satellite:1 reassert:1 point:1 ensure:1 inter:1 cooperation:1 principle:1 broad:1 even:1 use:2 non:1 afghanistan:1 stay:1 effect:1 finally:1 due:1 refusal:1 mikhail:1 gorbachev:1 poland:1 hold:1 free:1 election:1 solidarity:1 defeat:1 hunt:2 p:1 supersede:1 facetiously:1 name:1 sinatra:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 ouimet:1 matthew:1 rise:1 fall:1 university:1 north:1 carolina:1 press:1 chapel:1 hill:1 london:2 lynn:1 making:1 west:1 people:1 culture:1 bedford:1 st:1 martin:1 boston:1 see:1 also:1 truman:1 domino:1 theory:1 cold:1 war:1 ulbricht:1 reagan:1 occupation:1 |@bigram brezhnev_doctrine:4 soviet_union:3 leonid_brezhnev:2 eastern_bloc:2 warsaw_pact:2 mikhail_gorbachev:1 north_carolina:1 |
6,956 | Bantu_languages | The Bantu languages (technically Narrow Bantu languages) constitute a grouping belonging to the Niger-Congo family. This grouping is deep down in the genealogical tree of the Bantoid grouping, which in turn is deep down in the Niger-Congo tree. By one estimate, there are 513 languages in the Bantu grouping, 681 languages in Bantoid, and 1,514 in Niger-Congo. Ethnologue report for Bantoid Bantu languages are spoken largely east and south of the present day country of Nigeria; i.e., in the regions commonly known as central Africa, east Africa, and southern Africa. Parts of this Bantu chunk of Africa also have languages from outside the Niger-Congo family (see map). The word Bantu was first used by Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek (1827-1875) with the meaning 'people', as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A common characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use a stem form such as -ntu or -tu for 'person', and the plural prefix for people in many languages is ba-, together giving ba-ntu "people". Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive comparative studies of Bantu language grammars. Classification The approximate locations of the sixteen Guthrie Bantu zones, including the addition of a zone J The term 'narrow Bantu' was coined by the Benue-Congo Working Group to distinguish Bantu as recognized by Malcolm Guthrie in his seminal 1948 classification of the Bantu languages from Bantoid languages not recognized as Bantu by Guthrie (1948). In recent times, the distinctness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid groups has been called into doubt (cf. Piron 1995), but the term is still widely used. There is no genealogical classification of the (Narrow) Bantu languages. The most widely used system, the alphanumeric coding system developed by Guthrie, is mainly geographic. However, based on reflexes of proto-Bantu tone patterns, zones A–C and part of D are grouped together as Northwest Bantu, and zones D–S as Central Bantu. Northwest Bantu is more divergent internally than Central Bantu, and perhaps less conservative due to contact with non-Bantu Niger-Congo languages; however, Central Bantu is likely the innovative line cladistically, with Northwest being the non-Central languages, not a family in their own right. The only attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 "Tervuren" proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. The Guthrie, Tervuren, and SIL lists are compared side by side in Maho 2002. However, it relies on lexicostatistics, an inferior methodology. Meanwhile, Ethnologue has added languages to the Guthrie classification that Guthrie overlooked, while removing the Mbam languages (much of zone A), and shifting some languages between groups (much of zones D and E to a new zone J, for example, and part of zone L to K, and part of M to F) in an apparent effort at a semi-genetic, or at least semi-areal, classification. However, zone S (Southern Bantu) does appear to be a coherent group. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many subdivisions of Niger-Congo, not just Bantu, is hampered by insufficient data. Language structure The phoneme inventory of Proto-Bantu and its core vocabulary were reconstructed by Guthrie. The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of affixes (see Sesotho grammar and Luganda language for detailed discussions of these affixes). Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, somewhat like genders in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix on the noun, as well as on verbs and qualificative roots agreeing with it. Plural is indicated by a change of prefix. The verb has a number of prefixes. In Swahili, for example, Mtoto mdogo amekisoma, (also Kamwana kadoko kariverenga in Shona language) means 'The small child has read it [a book]'. Mtoto 'child' governs the adjective prefix m- and the verb subject prefix a-. Then comes perfect tense -me- and an object marker -ki- agreeing with implicit kitabu 'book'. Pluralizing to 'children' gives Watoto wadogo wamekisoma/Vana vadoko variverenga in Shona, and pluralizing to 'books' (vitabu) gives it Watoto wadogo wamevisoma. Bantu words are typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most languages having syllables exclusively of this type. The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly a V- syllable at the start). In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible. This tendency to avoid consonant clusters is important when words are imported from English or other non-Bantu languages. An example from Chichewa: the word "school", borrowed from English, and then transformed to fit the sound patterns of this language, is sukulu. That is, sk- has been broken up by inserting an epenthetic -u-; -u has also been added at the end of the word. Another example is buledi for "bread". Similar effects are seen in loanwords for other non-African CV languages like Japanese. The Bantu language with the largest number of speakers is Swahili (G 40), while the Bantu languages with the most native speakers are Sesotho,Shona and Zulu. Judging from the history of Swahili, some linguists believe that Bantu languages are on a continuum from purely tonal languages to languages with no tone at all. Reduplication Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem Example: in Swahili piga means "strike", pigapiga means "strike repeatedly". Well-known names that have reduplication include Bafana Bafana Chipolopolo Eric Djemba-Djemba Lualua Ngorongoro Polepole (Swahili for slowly, or slowly-slowly). Haraka-haraka (Swahili for quickly, or quickly-quickly, compare with vite-vite in French, that has the approximate meaning to 'fast-fast' in English). Repetition emphasizes the repeated word in the context that it is used. For instance, "Mwenda pole hajikwai," while, "Pole pole ndio mwendo," has two to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace. The meaning of the former in translation is, "He who goes slowly doesn't trip," and that of the latter is, "A slow but steady pace wins the race." Haraka haraka would mean hurrying just for the sake of hurrying, reckless hurry, as in Njoo! Haraka haraka [come here! Hurry, hurry]. On the contrary to the above definition, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the opposite meaning. It usually denotes short durations, and or lower intensity of the action and also means a few repetitions or a little bit more. Example 1: in isiZulu and SiSwati hamba means "go", hambahamba means "go-go meaning go a little bit, but not much". Example 2: in both of the above languages shaya means "strike", shayashaya means "strike-strike, meaning strike a few more times lightly, but not heavy strikes and not too many times" A list of common Bantu languages Bantu languages in Central and Eastern Africa ordered according to country where spoken According to Ethnologue : Lingua Franca Swahili (Kiswahili) Angola Kongo (Kikongo) Botswana Pedi (Sepedi) Tswana (Setswana) Burundi Rundi (Kirundi) Cameroon Ngumba Basaa Duala Kako Beti Central African Republic Kako Democratic Republic of congo Lingala Mongo (Mongo, Lomongo) Tetela language (Congo) Luva (Tshiluba) Kongo (Kikongo) Rwanda (Kinyarwanda) Equatorial Guinea Ndowe Kenya Gikuyu| Kamba Ekegusii Luhyia Lesotho Sesotho language (Language of Basotho) Malawi Chewa, Chichewa (Nyanja) Tumbuka (chiTumbuka) Yao (Chiyao) Mozambique Chewa, Chichewa (Nyanja) Yao (Chiyao) SiSwati (SiSwati) Tsonga (Xitsonga) Namibia Tswana (Setswana) Kwangali (RuKwangali) People's Republic of Congo Kongo (Kikongo) Kako Lingala Rwanda Rwanda (Kinyarwanda) South Africa Oshiwambo (Oshiwambo) Ndebele (Sindebele) Shona (chiShona) SiSwati (SiSwati) Phuthi (Siphuthi) Sotho (Sesotho) Swazi (SiSwati) Tsonga (Xitsonga) Tswana (Setswana) Venda (Tshivenda) Xhosa (isiXhosa) Zulu (isiZulu) Swaziland SiSwati (SiSwati) Tsonga (Xitsonga) Zulu (isiZulu) Tanzania Nyamwanga (Namwanga) Chaga (Kichaga) Haya (Kihaya) Yao (Chiyao) Uganda Ganda (Luganda) Masaba (Lumasaba) Soga (Lusoga) Kiga (Rukiga) Nyoro (Runyoro) Tooro (Rutooro) Rundi (Kirundi) Runyankore (Runyankole) Luhyia Rwanda (Kinyarwanda) Zambia Bemba Nyamwanga (Namwanga) Chewa, Chichewa (Nyanja) Tumbuka (chiTumbuka) Yao (Chiyao) Lozi (Silozi) Zimbabwe Chewa, Chichewa (Nyanja) Tsonga (Xitsonga) Tswana (Setswana) Venda (Tshivenda) Most are known in English without the class prefix (Swahili, Tswana, Ndebele), but are sometimes used with the (language-specific) prefix (Kiswahili, Setswana, Sindebele). The bare (prefixless) form typically does not occur in the language itself. So, in the country of Botswana the people are the Batswana, 'one person' is a 'Motswana', and the language is 'Setswana'. Today most Bantu linguists would regard the southwards migration, or Bantu expansion, that started about 2000 years before present as originating in the region of eastern Nigeria or Cameroon. Bantu words popularised in western cultures Some words from various Bantu languages have been borrowed into western languages. These include: Agogô Askari Banjo bongos Bomba Bwana Candombe Conga Gumbo Hakuna matata Jenga Jumbo Kalimba Kwanzaa Mambo Mbira Marimba Rumba Safari Samba Simba Ubuntu Zombie Pitso Other relevant links Malcolm Guthrie Meeussen's rule Noun class Bantu peoples List of Bantu languages Bibliography Guthrie, Malcolm. 1948. The classification of the Bantu languages. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute. Guthrie, Malcolm. 1971. Comparative Bantu, Vol 2. Farnborough: Gregg International. Heine, Bernd. 1973. Zur genetische Gliederung der Bantu-Sprachen. Afrika und Übersee, 56: 164–185. Maho, Jouni F. 2001. The Bantu area: (towards clearing up) a mess. Africa & Asia, 1:40–49. Maho, Jouni F. 2002. Bantu lineup: comparative overview of three Bantu classifications. Göteborg University: Department of Oriental and African Languages. Piron, Pascale. 1995. Identification lexicostatistique des groupes Bantoïdes stables. Journal of West African Languages, 25(2): 3–39. References External links Comparative Bantu Online Dictionary - includes a comprehensive bibliography. Bantu online resources by Jacky Maniacky, including List of Bantu noun classes with reconstructed Proto-Bantu prefixes (in French) List of Bantu language names with synonyms ordered by Guthrie number). Introduction to the languages of South Africa Etymology Dictionary Adaptation of English loanwords in Chichewa Bemba Phonology Journal of West African Languages - for back issues and reprints of articles. Bantu Languages of Uganda | Bantu_languages |@lemmatized bantu:53 languages:5 technically:1 narrow:4 language:50 constitute:1 group:7 belonging:1 niger:6 congo:10 family:4 grouping:3 deep:2 genealogical:3 tree:2 bantoid:5 turn:1 one:2 estimate:1 ethnologue:3 report:1 speak:2 largely:1 east:2 south:3 present:2 day:1 country:3 nigeria:2 e:2 region:2 commonly:1 know:3 central:7 africa:8 southern:3 part:4 chunk:1 also:4 outside:1 see:3 map:1 word:12 first:1 use:7 wilhelm:1 heinrich:1 immanuel:1 bleek:2 meaning:4 people:6 reflect:1 many:4 common:3 characteristic:2 stem:2 form:2 ntu:2 tu:1 person:2 plural:2 prefix:9 ba:2 together:2 give:3 later:1 carl:1 meinhof:1 pursue:1 extensive:2 comparative:4 study:1 grammar:2 classification:9 approximate:2 location:1 sixteen:1 guthrie:13 zone:9 include:5 addition:1 j:2 term:2 coin:1 benue:1 work:1 distinguish:1 recognize:2 malcolm:4 seminal:1 recent:1 time:3 distinctness:1 oppose:1 call:1 doubt:1 cf:1 piron:2 still:1 widely:2 used:1 system:3 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kariverenga:1 shona:4 mean:11 small:1 child:3 read:1 book:3 govern:1 adjective:1 subject:1 come:2 perfect:1 tense:1 object:1 marker:1 ki:1 implicit:1 kitabu:1 pluralize:2 watoto:2 wadogo:2 wamekisoma:1 vana:1 vadoko:1 variverenga:1 vitabu:1 wamevisoma:1 typically:3 make:1 open:1 syllable:4 type:2 cv:4 consonant:2 vowel:2 exclusively:1 morphological:2 shape:1 vcv:1 cvcv:1 vcvcv:1 etc:1 combination:1 possibly:1 v:1 start:2 strong:1 claim:1 almost:1 end:2 precisely:1 closed:1 cvc:1 permissible:1 tendency:1 avoid:1 cluster:1 important:1 import:1 english:5 chichewa:6 school:1 borrow:2 transform:1 fit:1 sound:1 sukulu:1 sk:1 break:1 insert:1 epenthetic:1 u:2 another:1 buledi:1 bread:1 similar:1 effect:1 loanword:2 african:6 japanese:1 large:1 speaker:2 g:1 native:1 zulu:3 judging:1 history:1 linguist:2 believe:1 continuum:1 purely:1 tonal:1 reduplication:4 phenomenon:1 usually:2 frequency:1 intensity:2 action:2 signal:1 unreduplicated:1 piga:1 strike:7 pigapiga:1 repeatedly:1 name:2 bafana:2 chipolopolo:1 eric:1 djemba:2 lualua:1 ngorongoro:1 polepole:1 slowly:4 haraka:6 quickly:3 vite:2 french:2 fast:2 repetition:2 emphasize:2 repeated:1 context:1 instance:1 mwenda:1 pole:3 hajikwai:1 ndio:1 mwendo:1 two:1 consistency:1 slowness:1 pace:2 former:1 translation:1 go:5 trip:1 latter:1 slow:1 steady:1 win:1 race:1 would:2 hurrying:2 sake:1 reckless:1 hurry:3 njoo:1 contrary:1 definition:1 opposite:1 denote:1 short:1 duration:1 low:1 little:2 bit:2 isizulu:3 siswati:8 hamba:1 hambahamba:1 shaya:1 shayashaya:1 lightly:1 heavy:1 eastern:2 order:2 accord:2 lingua:1 franca:1 kiswahili:2 angola:1 kongo:3 kikongo:3 botswana:2 pedi:1 sepedi:1 tswana:5 setswana:6 burundi:1 rundi:2 kirundi:2 cameroon:2 ngumba:1 basaa:1 duala:1 kako:3 beti:1 republic:3 democratic:1 lingala:2 mongo:2 lomongo:1 tetela:1 luva:1 tshiluba:1 rwanda:4 kinyarwanda:3 equatorial:1 guinea:1 ndowe:1 kenya:1 gikuyu:1 kamba:1 ekegusii:1 luhyia:2 lesotho:1 basotho:1 malawi:1 chewa:4 nyanja:4 tumbuka:2 chitumbuka:2 yao:4 chiyao:4 mozambique:1 tsonga:4 xitsonga:4 namibia:1 kwangali:1 rukwangali:1 oshiwambo:2 ndebele:2 sindebele:2 chishona:1 phuthi:1 siphuthi:1 sotho:1 swazi:1 venda:2 tshivenda:2 xhosa:1 isixhosa:1 swaziland:1 tanzania:1 nyamwanga:2 namwanga:2 chaga:1 kichaga:1 haya:1 kihaya:1 uganda:2 ganda:1 masaba:1 lumasaba:1 soga:1 lusoga:1 kiga:1 rukiga:1 nyoro:1 runyoro:1 tooro:1 rutooro:1 runyankore:1 runyankole:1 zambia:1 bemba:2 lozi:1 silozi:1 zimbabwe:1 without:1 sometimes:1 specific:1 bare:1 prefixless:1 occur:1 batswana:1 motswana:1 today:1 regard:1 southward:1 migration:1 expansion:1 year:1 originate:1 popularise:1 western:2 culture:1 various:1 agogô:1 askari:1 banjo:1 bongo:1 bomba:1 bwana:1 candombe:1 conga:1 gumbo:1 hakuna:1 matata:1 jenga:1 jumbo:1 kalimba:1 kwanzaa:1 mambo:1 mbira:1 marimba:1 rumba:1 safari:1 samba:1 simba:1 ubuntu:1 zombie:1 pitso:1 relevant:1 link:2 meeussen:1 rule:1 bibliography:2 london:1 oxford:1 university:2 press:1 international:2 institute:1 vol:1 farnborough:1 gregg:1 heine:1 bernd:1 zur:1 genetische:1 gliederung:1 der:1 sprachen:1 afrika:1 und:1 übersee:1 jouni:2 area:1 towards:1 clear:1 mess:1 asia:1 lineup:1 overview:1 three:1 göteborg:1 department:1 oriental:1 pascale:1 identification:1 lexicostatistique:1 des:1 groupes:1 bantoïdes:1 stable:1 journal:2 west:2 reference:1 external:1 online:2 dictionary:2 comprehensive:1 resource:1 jacky:1 maniacky:1 reconstructed:1 synonym:1 introduction:1 etymology:1 adaptation:1 phonology:1 back:1 issue:1 reprint:1 article:1 |@bigram bantu_languages:4 niger_congo:6 carl_meinhof:1 genealogical_classification:2 reflex_proto:1 phoneme_inventory:1 perfect_tense:1 consonant_cluster:1 lingua_franca:1 tswana_setswana:4 republic_congo:2 equatorial_guinea:1 sotho_sesotho:1 nigeria_cameroon:1 external_link:1 |
6,957 | Kingman_Reef | __NOTOC__ Southeast part of Kingman Reef, looking north Orthographic projection over Kingman Reef Kingman Reef () is a largely submerged uninhabited tropical atoll located in the North Pacific Ocean, roughly half way between the Hawaiian Islands and American Samoa at . It is the northernmost of the Northern Line Islands and lies NNW of the next closest island (Palmyra Atoll), and about south of Honolulu. The reef partly encloses a lagoon up to 73 meters deep, with the greater depths in the western part. At times, its shoreline might reach three kilometers in circumference; the total area within the outer rim of the reef is 76 km². There is just one small strip of dry land on the eastern rim, with an area of less than 0.01 km². The highest point on the reef is about one meter above sea level and wetted or awash most of the time, making Kingman Reef a maritime hazard. It has no natural resources, is uninhabited, and supports no economic activity. Status Kingman Reef has the status of an unincorporated territory of the United States, administered from Washington, DC by the U.S. Navy. The atoll is closed to the public. For statistical purposes, Kingman Reef is grouped as part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. In January 2009, Kingman Reef was designated a marine national monument. Among radio amateurs who visit the reef to make contacts, Kingman Reef is one of the most wanted "countries" to contact among radio amateurs. The pre-20th century names Danger Reef, Caldew Reef, Maria Shoal and Crane Shoal refer to this atoll, which by then was still entirely submerged at high tide. Thomas Hale Streets described its state in the 1870s, when it had "... hardly, as yet, assumed the distinctive features of an island. It is entirely under water at high tide, and but a few coral heads project here and there above the surface at low water. In the course of time, however, it will undoubtedly be added to the [northern Line Islands]." Streets (1877): p.65 History Kingman Reef was found in 1789 by the American Captain Edmund Fanning of the ship Betsey. Captain W. E. Kingman described it in 1853. It was claimed for the United States under the name "Danger Reef" under the Guano Islands Act of 1856 Bryan (1941): p.154 . Lorrin A. Thurston formally annexed to the United States on May 10, 1922 when reading this declaration on shore: "Be it known to all people: That on the tenth of May, A.D. 1922, the undersigned agent of the Island of Palmyra Copra Co., Ltd., landed from the motorship Palmyra doth, on this tenth day of May, A.D. 1922, take formal possession of this island, called Kingman Reef, situated in longitude 162 degrees 18' west and 6 degrees 23' north, on behalf of the United States of America and claim the same for said company." The lagoon was used in 1937 and 1938 as a halfway station between Hawai'i and American Samoa by Pan American Airways flying boats (Boeing 314). In 1937, Pan Am had plans to anchor the ship North Wind as a floating tanker at Kingman and use the reef as a stopover for its flying boats on the route to New Zealand. It served as the base for the Sikorsky Clipper and the Samoan Clipper, captained by Edwin C. Musick, who made five successful landings in the lagoon in 1937 and 1938. The idea was abandoned as Pan Am found that the costs of supporting a mostly idle tanker ship prohibitive. There were also concerns that comfortable overnight accommodations would not be available in the event of a mechanical breakdown. As a result, Pan Am switched to Canton Island on May 18, 1939 and began services to New Zealand on July 12, 1940. Footnotes References (1941): American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain (1st ed.). Tongg Publishing Conpany, Honolulu, Hawaii. (1877): Some Account of the Natural History of the Fanning Group of Islands. Am. Nat. 11(2): 65-72. First page image External links Jane's Oceania profile of Kingman Reef K5K Amateur Radio Expedition to Kingman Reef (includes photos) Kennedy Warne: "An uneasy eden" National Geographic Magazine July 2008. .link be-x-old:Кінгман | Kingman_Reef |@lemmatized southeast:1 part:3 kingman:14 reef:20 look:1 north:4 orthographic:1 projection:1 largely:1 submerge:2 uninhabited:2 tropical:1 atoll:4 locate:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 roughly:1 half:1 way:1 hawaiian:2 island:10 american:5 samoa:2 northernmost:1 northern:2 line:2 lie:1 nnw:1 next:1 closest:1 palmyra:3 south:1 honolulu:2 partly:1 enclose:1 lagoon:3 meter:2 deep:1 great:1 depth:1 western:1 time:3 shoreline:1 might:1 reach:1 three:1 kilometer:1 circumference:1 total:1 area:2 within:1 outer:1 rim:2 one:3 small:1 strip:1 dry:1 land:2 eastern:1 less:1 high:3 point:1 sea:1 level:1 wet:1 awash:1 make:3 maritime:1 hazard:1 natural:2 resource:1 support:2 economic:1 activity:1 status:2 unincorporated:1 territory:1 united:5 state:6 administer:1 washington:1 dc:1 u:1 navy:1 close:1 public:1 statistical:1 purpose:1 group:2 minor:1 outlying:1 january:1 designate:1 marine:1 national:2 monument:1 among:2 radio:3 amateur:3 visit:1 contact:2 wanted:1 country:1 pre:1 century:1 name:2 danger:2 caldew:1 maria:1 shoal:2 crane:1 refer:1 still:1 entirely:2 tide:2 thomas:1 hale:1 street:2 describe:2 hardly:1 yet:1 assume:1 distinctive:1 feature:1 water:2 coral:1 head:1 project:1 surface:1 low:1 course:1 however:1 undoubtedly:1 add:1 p:2 history:2 find:2 captain:3 edmund:1 fanning:1 ship:3 betsey:1 w:1 e:1 claim:2 guano:1 islands:1 act:1 bryan:1 lorrin:1 thurston:1 formally:1 annex:1 may:4 read:1 declaration:1 shore:1 know:1 people:1 tenth:2 undersigned:1 agent:1 copra:1 co:1 ltd:1 motorship:1 doth:1 day:1 take:1 formal:1 possession:1 call:1 situate:1 longitude:1 degree:2 west:1 behalf:1 america:1 say:1 company:1 use:2 halfway:1 station:1 hawai:1 pan:4 airway:1 fly:2 boat:2 boeing:1 plan:1 anchor:1 wind:1 floating:1 tanker:2 stopover:1 route:1 new:2 zealand:2 serve:1 base:1 sikorsky:1 clipper:2 samoan:1 edwin:1 c:1 musick:1 five:1 successful:1 landing:1 idea:1 abandon:1 cost:1 mostly:1 idle:1 prohibitive:1 also:1 concern:1 comfortable:1 overnight:1 accommodation:1 would:1 available:1 event:1 mechanical:1 breakdown:1 result:1 switch:1 canton:1 begin:1 service:1 july:2 footnote:1 reference:1 polynesia:1 chain:1 ed:1 tongg:1 publishing:1 conpany:1 hawaii:1 account:1 fan:1 nat:1 first:1 page:1 image:1 external:1 link:2 jane:1 oceania:1 profile:1 expedition:1 include:1 photo:1 kennedy:1 warne:1 uneasy:1 eden:1 geographic:1 magazine:1 x:1 old:1 кінгман:1 |@bigram kingman_reef:12 orthographic_projection:1 pacific_ocean:1 palmyra_atoll:1 outer_rim:1 unincorporated_territory:1 washington_dc:1 minor_outlying:1 guano_islands:1 honolulu_hawaii:1 external_link:1 |
6,958 | History_of_Chad | Chad (; ), officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in central Africa. It borders Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely desert climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa". Prehistory Location of Sahelanthropus tchadensis find in 2002.The territory now known as Chad possesses some of the richest archaeological sites in Africa. A possibly hominid skull has been found in 2002 in Borkou that is more than 7 million years old; it has been given the name Sahelanthropus tchadensis. In 1996 a hominid jaw was found and given the scientific name Australopithecus bahrelghazali and unofficially dubbed Abel.It was dated using Berylium based Radiometric dating as living circa. 3.6 million years ago.During the 7th millennium BC, the northern half of Chad was part of a broad expanse of land, stretching from the Indus River in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, in which ecological conditions favored early human settlement. Rock art of the "Round Head" style, found in the Ennedi region, has been dated to before the 7th millennium BC and, because of the tools with which the rocks were carved and the scenes they depict, may represent the oldest evidence in the Sahara of Neolithic industries. Many of the pottery-making and Neolithic activities in Ennedi date back further than any of those of the Nile Valley to the east. In the prehistoric period, Chad was much wetter than it is today, as evidenced by large game animals depicted in rock paintings in the Tibesti and Borkou regions. Recent linguistic research suggests that all of Africa's languages south of the Sahara Desert (except Khoisan) originated in prehistoric times in a narrow band between Lake Chad and the Nile Valley. The origins of Chad's peoples, however, remain unclear. Several of the proven archaeological sites have been only partially studied, and other sites of great potential have yet to be mapped. Era of Empires (AD 900–1900) Toward the end of the 1st millennium AD, the formation of states began across central Chad in the sahelian zone between the desert and the savanna. For almost the next 1,000 years, these stsurvive long), but none was able to expand far into southern Chad, where forests and the tsetse fly complicated the use of cavalry. Control over the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region formed the economic basis of these kingdoms. Although many states rose and fell, the most important and durable of the empires were Kanem-Bornu, Baguirmi, and Ouaddai, according to most written sources (mainly court chronicles and writings of Arab traders and travelers). Kanem-Bornu The Kanem Empire originated in the 9th century AD to the northeast of Lake Chad. Historians agree that the leaders of the new state were ancestors of the Kanembu people. Toward the end of the 11th century the Sayfawa king (or mai, the title of the Sayfawa rulers) Hummay, converted to Islam. In the following century the Sayfawa rulers expandeded southward into Kanem, where was to rise their first capital, Njimi. Kanem's expansion peaked during the long and energetic reign of Mai Dunama Dabbalemi (c. 1221–1259). Group of Kanem-Bu warriors By the end of the fourteenth century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. Finally, around 1396 the Bulala invaders forced Mai Umar Idrismi to abandon Njimi and move the Kanembu people to Bornu on the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Bornu peoples created a new people and language, the Kanuri, and founded a new capital, Ngazargamu. Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the outstanding statesman Mai Idris Aluma (c. 1571–1603). Aluma is remembered for his military skills, administrative reforms, and Islamic piety. The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the empire until the mid-1600s, when its power began to fade. By the early 19th century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors conquered Ngazargamu. Bornu survived, but the Sayfawa dynasty ended in 1846 and the Empire itself fell in 1893. Baguirmi and Ouaddai In addition to Kanem-Bornu, two other states in the region, Baguirmi and Ouaddai, achieved historical prominence. Baguirmi emerged to the southeast of Kanem-Bornu in the sixteenth century. Islam was adopted, and the state became a sultanate. Absorbed into Kanem-Bornu, Baguirmi broke free later in the 1600s, only to be returned to tributary status in the mid-1700s. Early in the nineteenth century, Baguirmi fell into decay and was threatened militarily by the nearby kingdom of Ouaddai. Although Baguirmi resisted, it accepted tributary status in order to obtain help from Ouaddai in putting down internal dissension. When the capital was burned in 1893, the sultan sought and received protectorate status from the French. Located northeast of Baguirmi, Ouaddai was a non-Muslim kingdom that emerged in the 16th century as an offshoot of the state of Darfur (in present-day Sudan). Early in the 17th century, groups in the region rallied to Abd al-Karim, who overthrew the ruling Tunjur group, transforming Ouaddai in an Islamic sultanate. During much of the 18th century, Ouaddai resisted reincorporation into Darfur. In about 1800, under the rule of Sabun, the sultanate began to expand its power. A new trade route north was discovered, and Sabun outfitted royal caravans to take advantage of it. He began minting his own coinage and imported chain mail, firearms, and military advisers from North Africa. Sabun's successors were less able than he, and Darfur took advantage of a disputed political succession in 1838 to put its own candidate in power. This tactic backfired when Darfur's choice, Muhammad Sharif, rejected Darfur and asserted his own authority. In doing so, he gained acceptance from Ouaddai's various factions and went on to become Ouaddai's ablest ruler. Sharif eventually established Ouaddai's hegemony over Baguirmi and kingdoms as far away as the Chari River. The Ouaddai opposed French domination until well into the 20th century. Colonialism (1900–40) Death of Commander Lamy of France, 1900The French first penetrated Chad in 1891, establishing their authority through military expeditions primarily against the Muslim kingdoms. The decisive colonial battle for Chad was fought on April 22, 1900 at Battle of Kousséri between forces of French Major Amédée-François Lamy and forces of the Sudanese warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. Both leaders were killed in the battle. In 1905, administrative responsibility for Chad was placed under a governor-general stationed at Brazzaville, capital of French Equatorial Africa (AEF). Chad did not have a separate colonial status until 1920, when it was placed under a lieutenant-governor stationed in Fort-Lamy (today N'Djamena). Two fundamental themes dominated Chad's colonial experience with the French: an absence of policies designed to unify the territory and an exceptionally slow pace of modernization. In the French scale of priorities, the colony of Chad ranked near the bottom, and the French came to perceive Chad primarily as a source of raw cotton and untrained labour to be used in the more productive colonies to the south. Throughout the colonial period, large areas of Chad were never governed effectively: in the huge BET Prefecture, the handful of French military administrators usually left the people alone, and in central Chad, French rule was only slightly more substantive. Truly speaking, France managed to govern effectively only the south. Decolonization (1940–60) Félix Éboué in a contemporary World War II cartoonDuring World War II, Chad was the first French colony to rejoin the Allies (August 26, 1940), after the defeat of France by Germany. Under the administration of Félix Éboué, France's first black colonial governor, a military column, commanded by Colonel Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, and including two battalions of Sara troops, moved north from N'Djamena (then Fort Lamy) to engage Axis forces in Libya, where, in partnership with the British Army's Long Range Desert Group, they captured Kufra. After caca war ended local parties started to develop in Chad. The first to be born was the conservative Chadian Democratic Union (UDT), which represented French commercial interests and a bloc of traditional leaders composed primarily of Muslim and Ouaddaïan nobility. Shortly after a more radical formation was created, the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT), eventually headed by François Tombalbaye, which was to win the pre-independence elections. The confrontation between the PPT and UDT was more than simply ideological; it represented different regional identities, with the PPT representing the Christian and animist south and the UDT the Islamic north. After a referendum on territorial autonomy (September 28, 1958), French Equatorial Africa was dissolved, and its four constituent states – Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville), the Central African Republic, and Chad became autonomous members of the French Community (November 28, 1958). On August 11, 1960, Chad became an independent nation under its first president, François Tombalbaye. The Tombalbaye era (1960–75) One of the most prominent aspects of Tombalbaye's rule to prove itself was his authoritarianism and distrust of democracy. Already in January 1962 he banned all political parties except his own PPT, and started immediately concentrating all power in his own hands. His treatment of opponents, real or imagined, was extremely harsh, filling the prisons with thousands of political prisoners. What was even worse was his constant discrimination against the central and northern regions of Chad, where the southern Chadian administrators came to be perceived as arrogant and incompetent. This resentment at last exploded in a tax revolt on November 1, 1965, in the Guéra Prefecture, causing 500 deaths. The year after saw the birth in Sudan of the National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT), created to militarily oust Tombalbaye and the Southern dominance. It was the start of a bloody civil war. Tombalbaye resorted to calling in French troops; while moderately successful, they were not fully able to quell the insurgency. Proving more fortunate was his choice to break with the French and seek friendly ties with Libyan president Qaddafi, taking away the rebels' principal source of supplies. But while he had reported some success against the rebels, Tombalbaye started behaving more and more irrationally and brutally, continuously eroding his consensus among the southern elites, which dominated all key positions in the army, the civil service and the ruling party. As a consequence on April 13, 1975, several units of N'Djamena's gendarmerie killed Tombalbaye during a coup. Military rule (1975–78) The coup d'état that terminated Tombalbaye's government received an enthusiastic response in N'Djamena. The southerner General Félix Malloum emerged early as the chairman of the new junta. The new military leaders were unable to retain for long the popularity that they had gained through their overthrow of Tombalbaye. Malloum proved himself unable to cope with the FROLINAT and at the end decided his only chance was in coopting some of the rebels: in 1978 he allied himself with the insurgent leader Hissène Habré, who entered the government as prime minister. Civil war (1979-82) Internal dissent within the government led Prime Minister Habré to send his forces against Malloum's national army in the capital in February 1979. Malloum was ousted from the presidency, but the resulting civil war amongst the 11 emergent factions was so widespread that it rendered the central government largely irrelevant. At that point, other African governments decided to intervene. A series of four international conferences held first under Nigerian and then Organization of African Unity (OAU) sponsorship attempted to bring the Chadian factions together. At the fourth conference, held in Lagos, Nigeria, in August 1979, the Lagos Accord was signed. This accord established a transitional government pending national elections. In November 1979, the Transitional Government of National Unity (GUNT) was created with a mandate to govern for 18 months. Goukouni Oueddei, a northerner, was named President; Colonel Kamougué, a southerner, Vice President; and Habré, Minister of Defense. This coalition proved fragile; in January 1980, fighting broke out again between Goukouni's and Habré's forces. With assistance from Libya, Goukouni regained control of the capital and other urban centers by year’s end. However, Goukouni’s January 1981 statement that Chad and Libya had agreed to work for the realization of complete unity between the two countries generated intense international pressure and Goukouni's subsequent call for the complete withdrawal of external forces. The Habré era (1982–90) see: Chadian-Libyan conflict Libya's partial withdrawal to the Aozou Strip in northern Chad cleared the way for Habré's forces to enter N’Djamena in June. French troops and an OAU peacekeeping force of 3,500 Nigerian, Senegalese, and Zairian troops (partially funded by the United States) remained neutral during the conflict. The Aozou Strip (blue), claimed and occupied by Libya between 1976 and 1987. Habré continued to face armed opposition on various fronts, and was brutal in his repression of suspected opponents, massacring and torturing many during his rule. In the summer of 1983, GUNT forces launched an offensive against government positions in northern and eastern Chad with heavy Libyan support. In response to Libya's direct intervention, French and Zairian forces intervened to defend Habré, pushing Libyan and rebel forces north of the 16th parallel. In September 1984, the French and the Libyan governments announced an agreement for the mutual withdrawal of their forces from Chad. By the end of the year, all French and Zairian troops were withdrawn. Libya did not honor the withdrawal accord, and its forces continued to occupy the northern third of Chad. Rebel commando groups (Codos) in southern Chad were broken up by government massacres in 1984. In 1985 Habré briefly reconciled with some of his opponents, including the Democratic Front of Chad (FDT) and the Coordinating Action Committee of the Democratic Revolutionary Council. Goukouni also began to rally toward Habré, and with his support Habré successfully expelled Libyan forces from most of Chadian territory. A cease-fire between Chad and Libya held from 1987 to 1988, and negotiations over the next several years led to the 1994 International Court of Justice decision granting Chad sovereignty over the Aouzou strip, effectively ending Libyan occupation. The Déby era Rise to power However, rivalry between Hadjerai, Zaghawa and Gorane groups within the government grew in the late 1980s. In April 1989, Idriss Déby, one of Habré's leading generals and a Zaghawa, defected and fled to Darfur in Sudan, from which he mounted a Zaghawa-supported series of attacks on Habré (a Gorane). In December 1990, with Libyan assistance and no opposition from French troops stationed in Chad, Déby’s forces successfully marched on N’Djamena. After 3 months of provisional government, Déby’s Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS) approved a national charter on February 28, 1991, with Déby as president. During the next two years, Déby faced at least two coup attempts. Government forces clashed violently with rebel forces, including the Movement for Democracy and Development, MDD, National Revival Committee for Peace and Democracy (CSNPD), Chadian National Front (FNT) and the Western Armed Forces (FAO), near Lake Chad and in southern regions of the country. Earlier French demands for the country to hold a National Conference resulted in the gathering of 750 delegates representing political parties (which were legalized in 1992), the government, trade unions and the army to discuss the creation of a pluralist democratic regime. However, unrest continued, sparked in part by large-scale killings of civilians in southern Chad. The CSNPD, led by Kette Moise and other southern groups entered into a peace agreement with government forces in 1994, which later broke down. Two new groups, the Armed Forces for a Federal Republic (FARF) led by former Kette ally Laokein Barde and the Democratic Front for Renewal (FDR), and a reformulated MDD clashed with government forces from 1994 to 1995. Multiparty elections Talks with political opponents in early 1996 did not go well, but Déby announced his intent to hold presidential elections in June. Déby won the country’s first multi-party presidential elections with support in the second round from opposition leader Kebzabo, defeating General Kamougue (leader of the 1975 coup against Tombalbaye). Déby’s MPS party won 63 of 125 seats in the January 1997 legislative elections. International observers noted numerous serious irregularities in presidential and legislative election proceedings. By mid-1997 the government signed peace deals with FARF and the MDD leadership and succeeded in cutting off the groups from their rear bases in the Central African Republic and Cameroon. Agreements also were struck with rebels from the National Front of Chad (FNT) and Movement for Social Justice and Democracy in October 1997. However, peace was short-lived, as FARF rebels clashed with government soldiers, finally surrendering to government forces in May 1998. Barde was killed in the fighting, as were hundreds of other southerners, most civilians. Since October 1998, Chadian Movement for Justice and Democracy (MDJT) rebels, led by Youssuf Togoimi until his death in September 2002, have skirmished with government troops in the Tibesti region, resulting in hundreds of civilian, government, and rebel casualties, but little ground won or lost. No active armed opposition has emerged in other parts of Chad, although Kette Moise, following senior postings at the Ministry of Interior, mounted a smallscale local operation near Moundou which was quickly and violently suppressed by government forces in late 2000. Déby, in the mid-1990s, gradually restored basic functions of government and entered into agreements with the World Bank and IMF to carry out substantial economic reforms. Oil exploitation in the southern Doba region began in June 2000, with World Bank Board approval to finance a small portion of a project, the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development Project, aimed at transport of Chadian crude through a 1000-km. buried pipeline through Cameroon to the Gulf of Guinea. The project established unique mechanisms for World Bank, private sector, government, and civil society collaboration to guarantee that future oil revenues benefit local populations and result in poverty alleviation. Success of the project depended on multiple monitoring efforts International Advisory Group, External Compliance Monitoring Group, Collège de Contrôle et de Surveillance des Revenues Pétroliers (CCSRP), World Bank Inspection Panel, Comité Technique National de Suivi et de Contrôle (CTNSC). to ensure that all parties keep their commitments. These "unique" mechanisms for monitoring and revenue management have faced intense criticism from the beginning. Gary, Ian (Catholic Relief Services) and Nikki Reisch (Bank Information Center). Chad's Oil: Miracle or Mirage? Debt relief was accorded to Chad in May 2001. Déby won a flawed 63% first-round victory in May 2001 presidential elections after legislative elections were postponed until spring 2002. Having accused the government of fraud, six opposition leaders were arrested (twice) and one opposition party activist was killed following the announcement of election results. However, despite claims of government corruption, favoritism of Zaghawas, and abuses by the security forces, opposition party and labor union calls for general strikes and more active demonstrations against the government have been unsuccessful. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy. In 2003, Chad began receiving refugees from the Darfur region of western Sudan. More than 200,000 refugees fled the fighting between two rebel groups and government-supported militias known as Janjaweed. A number of border incidents led to the Chadian-Sudanese War. War in the East Hot spots in the present civil war.The war started on December 23, 2005, when the government of Chad declared a state of war with Sudan and called for the citizens of Chad to mobilize themselves against the "common enemy," Chad in 'state of war' with Sudan by Stephanie Hancock, BBC News. which the Chadian government sees as the Rally for Democracy and Liberty (RDL) militants, Chadian rebels, backed by the Sudanese government, and Sudanese militiamen. Militants have attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses. Over 200,000 refugees from the Darfur region of northwestern Sudan currently claim asylum in eastern Chad. Chadian president Idriss Déby accuses Sudanese President Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir of trying to "destabilize our country, to drive our people into misery, to create disorder and export the war from Darfur to Chad." An attack on the Chadian town of Adre near the Sudanese border led to the deaths of either one hundred rebels, as every news source other than CNN has reported, or three hundred rebels. The Sudanese government was blamed for the attack, which was the second in the region in three days, Chad fightback 'kills 300 rebels', BBC News. but Sudanese foreign ministry spokesman Jamal Mohammed Ibrahim denies any Sudanese involvement, "We are not for any escalation with Chad. We technically deny involvement in Chadian internal affairs." This attack was the final straw that led to the declaration of war by Chad and the alleged deployment of the Chadian airforce into Sudanese airspace, which the Chadian government denies. Al Jazeera An attack on N'Djamena was defeated on April 13, 2006 in the Battle of N'Djamena. The President on national radio stated that the situation was under control, but residents, diplomats and journalists reportedly heard shots of weapons fire. On November 25, 2006, rebels captured the eastern town of Abeche, capital of the Ouaddaï Region and center for humanitarian aid to the Darfur region in Sudan. On the same day, a separate rebel group Rally of Democratic Forces had captured Biltine. On November 26, 2006, the Chadian government claimed to have recaptured both towns, although rebels still claimed control of Biltine. Government buildings and humanitarian aid offices in Abeche were said to have been looted. The Chadian government denied a warning issued by the French Embassy in N'Djamena that a group of rebels were making its way through Batha prefecture in central Chad. Chad insists that both rebel groups are supported by the Sudanese government. Rebel Attack on Ndjamena On Friday, February 1, 2008, rebels, an opposition alliance of leaders Mahamat Nouri, a former defense minister, and Timane Erdimi, a nephew of Idriss Déby who was his chief of staff, attacked the Chadian capital of Ndjamena - even surrounding the Presidential Palace. But Idris Deby with government troops fought back. French forces flew in ammunition for Chadian government troops but took no active part in the fighting. UN has said that up to 20,000 people left the region, taking refuge in nearby Cameroon and Nigeria. Hundreds of people were killed, mostly civilians. The rebels accuse Deby of corruption and embezzling millions in oil revenue. While many Chadians may share that assessment, the uprising appears to be a power struggle within the elite that has long controlled Chad. The French government believes that the opposition has regrouped east of the capital. Idris Deby has blamed Sudan for the current unrest in Chad. International orphanage scandal Nearly 100 children at the center of an international scandal that left them stranded at an orphanage in remote eastern Chad returned home after nearly five months March 14, 2008. The 97 children were taken from their homes in October 2007 by a then-obscure French charity, Zoé's Ark, which claimed they were orphans from Sudan's war-torn Darfur region. References External links The Library of Congress - A Country Study: Chad | History_of_Chad |@lemmatized chad:59 officially:1 republic:5 landlocked:1 country:8 central:9 africa:7 border:3 libya:9 north:6 sudan:11 east:5 african:5 south:5 cameroon:5 nigeria:3 southwest:1 niger:1 west:2 due:1 distance:1 sea:1 largely:2 desert:4 climate:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 dead:1 heart:1 prehistory:1 location:1 sahelanthropus:2 tchadensis:2 find:4 territory:3 know:2 possess:1 rich:1 archaeological:2 site:3 possibly:1 hominid:2 skull:1 borkou:2 million:3 year:8 old:2 give:2 name:3 jaw:1 scientific:1 australopithecus:1 bahrelghazali:1 unofficially:1 dub:1 abel:1 date:3 use:3 berylium:1 base:2 radiometric:1 dating:1 living:1 circa:1 ago:1 millennium:3 bc:2 northern:6 half:1 part:4 broad:1 expanse:1 land:1 stretch:1 indus:1 river:2 atlantic:1 ocean:1 ecological:1 condition:1 favor:1 early:7 human:1 settlement:1 rock:3 art:1 round:3 head:2 style:1 ennedi:2 region:16 tool:1 carve:1 scene:1 depict:2 may:5 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6,959 | Fascism | Fascism comprises a radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology Girvin, Brian. The Right in the Twentieth Century. Pinter, 1994. Pp. 83. Describes fascism as an "anti-liberal radical authoritarian nationalist movement". Turner, Henry Ashby. Reappraisals of Fascism. New Viewpoints, 1975. Pp. 162. States fascism's "goals of radical and authoritarian nationalism". Payne, Stanley. Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1992. Pp. 43. Payne describes Spanish fascist José Antonio Primo de Rivera's objectives, saying "Young José Antonio's primary political passion was and would long remain the vindication of his father's work, which he was now trying to conceptualize in a radical, authoritarian nationalist form." Larsen, Stein Ugelvik; Hagtvet, Bernt; Myklebust, Jan Petter. Who were the Fascists: social roots of European Fascism. Pp. 424. This reference calls fascism an "organized form of integrative radical nationalist authoritarianism". and a corporatist economic ideology. E.g. Noel O'Sullivan's five major themes of fascism are: corporatism, revolution, the leader principle, messianic faith, and autarky. The Fascism Reader by Aristotle A. Kallis says, "1. Corporatism. The most important claim made by fascism was that it alone could offer the creative prospect of a 'third way' between capitalism and socialism. Hitler, in Mein Kampf, spoke enthusiastically about the 'National Socialist corporative idea' as one which would eventually 'take the place of ruinous class warfare'; whilst Mussolini, in typically extravagant fashion, declared that 'the Corporative System is destined to become the civilization of the twentieth century.'" Fascists advocate the creation of a single-party state. De Grand, Alexander. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: the "fascist" style of rule. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 28. Fascists believe that nations and/or races are in perpetual conflict whereby only the strong can survive by being healthy, vital, and by asserting themselves in combat against the weak. Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. p. 285. "Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest and less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict." Alfredo Rocco, Italian Fascist theorist and government minister. Fascist governments forbid and suppress criticism and opposition to the government and the fascist movement. Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Nasri, William Z. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 62 - Supplement 25 - Automated Discourse Generation to the User-Centered Revolution: 1970-1995. CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 0824720628, 9780824720629. p. 69. Fascism opposes class conflict, blames capitalist liberal democracies for its creation and communists for exploiting the concept. Welch, David. Modern European History, 1871-2000. p. 57. (Speaks of fascism opposing capitalism for creating class conflict and communism for exploiting class conflict). In the economic sphere, many fascist leaders have claimed to support a "Third Way" in economic policy, which they believed superior to both the rampant individualism of unrestrained capitalism and the severe control of state communism. Peter Davies, Derek Lynch. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, 2002. p. 146 Heywood, Andrew. Key Concepts in Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. p. 78 This was to be achieved by a form of government control over business and labor (called "the corporate state" by Mussolini) Rao, B. V. History of Modern Europe Ad 1789-2002. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2006. p. 215 E.g. Noel O'Sullivan's five major themes of fascism are: corporatism, revolution, the leader principle, messianic faith, and autarky. The Fascism Reader by Aristotle A. Kallis says, "1. Corporatism. The most important claim made by fascism was that it alone could offer the creative prospect of a 'third way' between capitalism and socialism. Hitler, in Mein Kampf, spoke enthusiastically about the 'National Socialist corporative idea' as one which would eventually 'take the place of ruinous class warfare'; whilst Mussolini, in typically extravagant fashion, declared that 'the Corporative System is destined to become the civilization of the twentieth century.'" No common and concise definition exists for fascism and historians and political scientists disagree on what should be in any concise definition. http://books.google.com/bookshl=en&lr=&id=IKn2y2yS014C&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=corporatism+fascism&ots=6D7mtY4n2r&sig=qYEFO4vn5ojaN1-fv8zhbnITnU8#PPA7,M1 Following the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II and the publicity surrounding the atrocities committed during the period of fascist governments, the term fascist has been used as a pejorative word. Gregor, Mussolini's Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought, Princeton University Press, 2005 ISBN 0691120099 282 pages, page 4 Etymology The term fascismo is derived from the Italian word fascio, which means "bundle", group, or "union", and from the Latin word fasces. The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods that were tied around an axe, were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrates; they were carried by his Lictors and could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command. Furthermore, the symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break. This is a familiar theme throughout different forms of fascism; for example the Falange symbol is a bunch of arrows joined together by a yoke. Definitions Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism. Since the 1990s, scholars like Stanley Payne, Roger Eatwell, Roger Griffin and Robert O. Paxton have begun to gather a rough consensus on the system's core tenets. Each form of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions as too wide or too narrow. Griffin wrote: [Fascism is] a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti-conservative nationalism. As such it is an ideology deeply bound up with modernization and modernity, one which has assumed a considerable variety of external forms to adapt itself to the particular historical and national context in which it appears, and has drawn a wide range of cultural and intellectual currents, both left and right, anti-modern and pro-modern, to articulate itself as a body of ideas, slogans, and doctrine. In the inter-war period it manifested itself primarily in the form of an elite-led "armed party" which attempted, mostly unsuccessfully, to generate a populist mass movement through a liturgical style of politics and a programme of radical policies which promised to overcome a threat posed by international socialism, to end the degeneration affecting the nation under liberalism, and to bring about a radical renewal of its social, political and cultural life as part of what was widely imagined to be the new era being inaugurated in Western civilization. The core mobilizing myth of fascism which conditions its ideology, propaganda, style of politics and actions is the vision of the nation's imminent rebirth from decadence. Roger Griffin, The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology, Chapter published in Alessandro Campi (ed.), Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Roma, 2003, pp. 97-122. Paxton wrote that fascism is: a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion. Position in the political spectrum Benito Mussolini promoted ambiguity about fascism's positions in order to rally as many people to it as possible, saying fascists can be "aristocrats or democrats, revolutionaries and reactionaries, proletarians and anti-proletarians, pacifists and anti-pacifists". Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 54. Mussolini claimed that Italian Fascism's economic system of corporatism could be identified as either state capitalism or state socialism, which in either case involved "the bureaucratisation of the economic activities of the nation." Mussolini, Benito; Schnapp, Jeffery Thompson (ed.); Sears, Olivia E. (ed.); Stampino, Maria G. (ed.). "Address to the National Corporative Council (14 November 1933) and Senate Speech on the Bill Establishing the Corporations (abridged; 13 January 1934)". A Primer of Italian Fascism. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Pp. 158-159. Mussolini claimed that fascism could be both revolutionary and conservative. Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 57. There have been national conservatives, such as Edgar Jung of the German Conservative Revolutionary movement in the 1920s and 1930s who were proponents of fascist versions of national conservatism. Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Legal Basis of the Total State" - by Carl Schmitt. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 108. "there could also be a fascism of the Right and of the Left" Latin fascist elites: the Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar regimes, Paul H. Lewis, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002 ISBN 027597880X, 9780275978808 209 page 10 "a final indicator of the amibiguity between left and right extremes is that many militants switch sides, including the very founder of fascism, Benito Mussolini" Terrorism today, Christopher C. Harmon, Routledge, 2000 ISBN 0714649988, 9780714649986 316 pages ]http://books.google.com/books?id=hnv0F88nLawC&pg=PA223] "The interventionist Left which included Fascism ... " The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution, Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, David Maisel, Maia Ashéri, Translated by David Maisel, Princeton University Press, 1995 ISBN 0691044864, 9780691044866 348 pages " the moderate right and the moderate left are side by side against fascism and Communism " The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom By Arthur Meier Schlesinger, "Arthur M. , Jr." Schlesinger, Westview Press, 1988 ISBN 0306803232, 9780306803239 274 pages "The uniqueness of fascism lay in its opposition to nearly all the existing political sectors, left, right, and centre." The Social science encyclopedia, Jessica Kuper, Taylor & Francis, 1985 ISBN 0710200080, 9780710200082 916 pages Eugen Weber places fascism on the right: "...their most common allies lay on the right, particularly on the radical authoritarian right, and Italian Fascism as a semi-coherent entity was partly defined by its merger with one of the most radical of all right authoritarian movements in Europe, the Italian Nationalist Association (ANI)." Weber, Eugen. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, [1964] 1982. p. 8. Walter Laqueur says that historical fascism "did not belong to the extreme Left, yet defining it as part of the extreme Right is not very illuminating either", but that it "was always a coalition between radical, populist ('fascist') elements and others gravitating toward the extreme Right". Roger Griffin argues that since the end of World War II, fascist movements have become intertwined with the radical right, describing certain groups as part of a "fascist radical right". Roger Griffin, Interregnum or Endgame?: Radical Right Thought in the ‘Post-fascist’ Era, The Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 5, no. 2, July 2000, pp. 163-78 ‘Non Angeli, sed Angli: the neo-populist foreign policy of the "New" BNP', in Christina Liang (ed.) Europe for the Europeans: the foreign and security policy of the populist radical right (Ashgate, Hampshire,2007). ISBN 0754648516 Stanley Payne notes the alliances and sometimes fusion between fascists and right-wing authoritarians, but stresses the important differences between the two, http://books.google.com/books?id=9wHNrF7nFecC&pg=RA1-PA16&dq=payne and contends that German Nazism was closer to Russian communism than to any other noncommunist system. Stanley G. Payne. Fascism: Comparison and Definition. University of Wisconsin Press. 1983. ISBN 9780299080648. p. 104 Zeev Sternhell sees fascism as an anti-Marxist form of socialism. Zeev Sternhell, in Walter Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader's Guide, Berkeley: University of California Press (1976), p. 315-76. On economic issues, fascists reject ideas of class conflict and internationalism which are commonly held by Marxists and international socialists in favor of class collaboration and statist nationalism. Italian fascism declared its objection to excessive capitalism which it called supercapitalism. Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. University of California Press, 2000. Pp. 136. A number of fascist movements described themselves as a "third force" that was outside the traditional political spectrum altogether. Many scholars accept fascism as a search for a Third position between capitalism in parliamentary democracies and communism. Roger Griffin argued, "Not only does the location of fascism within the right pose taxonomic problems, there are good ground for cutting this particular Gordian knot altogether by placing it in a category of its own "beyond left and right." Sir Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists, described his position as "hard centre" in the political spectrum. Spanish Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera was critical of both left-wing and right-wing politics, once saying that "basically the Right stands for the maintenance of an economic structure, albeit an unjust one, while the Left stands for the attempt to subvert that economic structure, even though the subversion thereof would entail the destruction of much that was worthwhile". Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 58. Seymour Martin Lipset sees fascism as "extremism of the center". Russian Fascism By Stephen Shenfield In some two dimensional political models, such as the Political Compass (where left and right are described in purely economic terms), fascism is ascribed to the economic centre with its extremism expressing itself on the authoritarianism axis instead. The Political Compass, Analysis Fascist as epithet Following World War II, the word fascist has become a slur throughout the political spectrum. In contemporary political discourse, some adherents of political ideologies on both the left and right wings of the political spectrum associate fascism with their political enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. Some argue that the term fascist has become hopelessly vague over the years and that it is now little more than a pejorative epithet. George Orwell wrote in 1944: The word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shopkeepers, Social Credit, corporal punishment, fox-hunting, bull-fighting, the 1922 Committee, the 1941 Committee, Kipling, Gandhi, Chiang Kai-Shek, homosexuality, Priestley's broadcasts, Youth Hostels, astrology, women, dogs and I do not know what else... almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’. George Orwell, What is Fascism?. 1944. Richard Griffiths argued in 2005 that the term fascism is the "most misused, and over-used word of our times". Historical causes of the rise of fascism A variety of views exist on what led to the rise of fascism as an ideology. Common views include that fascism was a response to events during World War I that led to perceived failings of democracy, liberalism, and Marxism for each having favoured either individualism or internationalism at the expense of nations and nationalism. Griffin, Roger (ed.). Linz, Juan. "Crisis of democracy after the First World War". International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998. Pp. 177-178. Turner, Stephen P. (ed.); Käsler, Dirk (ed.). Sociology Responds to Fascism. Routledge. Pp. 128. In Italy, the perceptions of failures of democratic government within the country, Italian liberalism, and the fears of Italian society having been torn apart by Marxism stimulated the creation and popularity of Italian Fascism. Griffin, Roger (ed.). Linz, Juan. "Crisis of democracy after the First World War". International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998. Pp. 177-178. Fascism presented itself as a radical nationalist alternative to rising Bolshevism that came in the Russian October Revolution of 1917 but it did incorporate government infrastructure aspects of Bolshevism into the ideology, such as the single-party state, the concept of rule by an elite group to represent the masses, and appeals to proletarian workers. Griffin, Roger (ed.). Linz, Juan. "Crisis of democracy after the First World War". International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998. Pp. 176, 180. With economic problems and unemployment facing recently returned veterans of World War I, fascism appealed to collectivism and honouring soldiers and the military by calling for the end of bourgeois individualism while calling for war on Marxism for its anti-nationalist and perceived anti-patriotic ways. Griffin, Roger (ed.). Linz, Juan. "Crisis of democracy after the First World War". International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998. Pp. 177-178. The creation of the League of Nations after World War I aggravated nationalists in the world, as the League was seen as the imposition of an internationalist political order upon nations. Griffin, Roger (ed.). Linz, Juan. "Crisis of democracy after the First World War". International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998. Pp. 180. Fascists saw the League of Nations as only benefiting the wealthy, capitalist democracies. Griffin, Roger (ed.). Linz, Juan. "Crisis of democracy after the First World War". International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. London: Arnold Publishers, 1998. Pp. 180. Disillusionment with liberalism deepened with the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression and also created nationalist sentiment in opposition to internationalism. Turner, Stephen P. (ed.); Käsler, Dirk (ed.). Sociology Responds to Fascism. Routledge. Pp. 128, 131. Core tenets Nationalism Fascists see the struggle of nation and race as fundamental in society, in opposition to communism's perception of class struggle Ebenstein, William. 1964. Today's Isms: Communism, Fascism, Capitalism, and Socialism. Prentice Hall (original from the University of Michigan). p. 178. and in opposition to capitalism's focus on the value of productivity and individualism. The nation is seen in fascism as a single organic entity which binds people together by their ancestry and is seen as a natural unifying force of people. Oliver Zimmer, Nationalism in Europe, 1890-1940 (London, Palgrave, 2003), chapter 4, pp. 80-107. Fascists promote the unification and expansion of influence, power, and/or territory of and for their nation. Fascism seeks to solve existing economic, political, and social problems by achieving a millenarian national rebirth, exalting the nation or race above all else, and promoting cults of unity, strength and purity. Benito Mussolini stated in 1922, "For us the nation is not just territory but something spiritual... A nation is great when it translates into reality the force of its spirit." Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. p. 44. Eoin O'Duffy, an Irish national corporatist, stated in 1934, We must lead the people always; nationally, socially and economically. We must clear up the economic mess and right the glaring social injustices of to-day by the corporative organization of Irish life; but before everything we must give a national lead to our people...The first essential is national unity. We can only have that when the Corporative system is accepted. We shall put our National programme to the people, and it is a programme in which even the most advanced Nationalist can find nothing to disturb him. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. p. 183. Joseph Goebbels described the Nazis as being affiliated with authoritarian nationalism: It enables us to see at once why democracy and Bolshevism, which in the eyes of the world are irrevocably opposed to one another, meet again and again on common ground in their joint hatred of and attacks on authoritarian nationalist concepts of State and State systems. For the authoritarian nationalist conception of the State represents something essentially new. In it the French Revolution is superseded. "Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17-19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state. Plínio Salgado, leader of the Brazilian Integralist Action party emphasized the role of the nation: The best governments in the world cannot succeed in pulling a country out of the quagmire, out of apathy, if they do not express themselves as national energies...Strong governments cannot result either from conspiracies of from military coups, just as they cannot come out of the machinations of parties or the Machiavellian game of political lobbying. They can only be born from the actual roots of the Nation. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. p. 236. Foreign policy Italian fascists described expansionist imperialism as a necessity. The 1932 Italian Encyclopedia stated: "For Fascism, the growth of empire, that is to say the expansion of the nation, is an essential manifestation of vitality, and its opposite a sign of decadence." Similarly the Nazis promoted territorial expansionism to in their words provide "living space" to the German nation. Kershaw, Ian. 2000. Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 442. Fascists oppose pacifism and believe that a nation must have a warrior mentality. Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge, 1996. pp. 485-486. Benito Mussolini spoke of war idealistically as a source of masculine pride, and spoke of pacifism in negative terms: War alone brings up to their highest tension all human energies and puts the stamp of nobility upon the peoples who have the courage to meet it. Fascism carries this anti-pacifist struggle into the lives of individuals. It is education for combat...war is to man what maternity is to the woman. I do not believe in perpetual peace; not only do I not believe in it but I find it depressing and a negation of all the fundamental virtues of a man. Bollas, Christopher. 1993. Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience. Routledge. ISBN 0415088151, 9780415088152. p. 205. Speaks of Italian Fascism supporting war and opposing pacifism. Joseph Goebbels of the Nazi Party compared World War II to childbirth, and described war as a positive transformative experience: Every birth brings pain. But amid the pain there is already the joy of a new life. It is a sign of sterility to shy away from new life on the account of pain[...] Our age too is an act of historical birth, whose pangs carry with them the joy of richer life to come. The significance of the war has grown as its scale has increased. It is relentlessly at work, shattering old forms and ideas, and directing the eyes of human beings to new, greater objectives. Griffen, Roger (ed). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN0192892495. p. 159. Authoritarianism All fascist movements advocate the creation of an authoritarian government that is an autocratic single-party state led by a charismatic leader with the powers of a dictator. Many fascist movements support the creation of a totalitarian state. The Italian Doctrine of Fascism states: "The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people." Mussolini, Benito. 1935. Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions. Rome: Ardita Publishers. p 14. Political theorist Carl Schmitt, as a Nazi party member, published The Legal Basis of the Total State in 1935, describing the Nazi regime's intention to form a totalitarian state: The recognition of the plurality of autonomous life would, however, immediately lead back to a disastrous pluralism tearing the German people apart into discrete classes and religious, ethnic, social, and interest groups if it were not for a strong state which guarantees a totality of political unity transcending all diversity. Every political unity needs a coherent inner logic underlying its institutions and norms. It needs a unified concept which gives shape to every sphere of public life. In this sense there is no normal State which is not a total State. Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Legal Basis of the Total State" - by Carl Schmitt. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 72. Japanese fascist Nakano Seigo described the need for Japan to follow the Italian Fascist and Nazi regimes as a model for Japanese government and declared that a totalitarian society was more democratic than democracies, saying: Both Fascism and Nazism are clearly different from the despotism of the old period. They do not represent the conservatism which lags behind democracy, but are a form of more democratic government going beyond democracy. Democracy has lost its spirit and decayed into a mechanism which insists only on numerical superiority without considering the essence of human beings. It says the majority is all good. I do not agree, because it is the majority which is the precise cause of contemporary decadence. Totalitarianism must be based on essentials, superseding the rule of numbers. Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Need for a Totalitarian Japan" - by Nakano Seigo. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 239. Some have argued that in spite of Italian fascism's attempt to form a totalitarian state, fascism in Italy devolved to a cult of personality around Mussolini. Linz, Juan José. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes: with a major new introduction. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 7. However, both proponents and opponents of fascism in Italy claimed that it had a clear intention to establish a totalitarian state. Maier, Hans. Totalitarianism and Political Religions. p. 6. (Explains how Italian Fascism attempted to form a totalitarian state and how both proponents of fascism and opponents saw it as a totalitarian ideology.) Hungarian fascist leader Gyula Gömbös and his Hungarian National Defence Association attempted to form a totalitarian state in Hungary, but that attempt failed after Gömbös' death in 1936. Sugar, Peter F; Hanak, Peter; Frank, Tibor. 1994. A History of Hungary. Indiana University Press. p. 331. The Nazi regime in Germany has been described as totalitarian by most scholars and critics. Maier, Hans. Totalitarianism and Political Religions. pp. 10-11. (Explains how Italian Fascism attempted to form a totalitarian state and how both proponents of fascism and opponents saw it as a totalitarian ideology.) Pauley, Bruce F. 2003. Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century. Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc. A key element of fascism is its endorsement of a prime national leader, who is often known simply as the "Leader" or a similar title, such as: Duce in Italian, Führer in German, Caudillo in Spanish, Poglavnik in Croatia, or Conducător in Romanian. The fascist movement demands obedience to the leader, and may exhort people worship the leader as an infallible saviour of the people. Fascist leaders who ruled countries were not always heads of state, but heads of government, such as Benito Mussolini, who held power under the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III. Social Darwinism Fascist movements have commonly held social darwinist views of nations, races, and societies. Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge, 1996. pp. 485-486. Italian Fascist Alfredo Rocco shortly after World War I claimed that conflict was inevitable in society: Italian Fascist philosopher Giovanni Gentile in The Origins and Doctrine of Fascism promoted the concept of conflict being an act of progress by stating that "mankind only progresses through division, and progress is achieved through the clash and victory of one side over another". Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. p. 285. Fascist movements commonly follow the social Darwinist view that in order for nations and races to survive in a world defined by perpetual national and racial conflict, nations and races must purge themselves of socially and biologically weak or degenerate people while simultaneously promoting the creation of strong people. Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. p. 59. In Germany, the Nazis utilized social Darwinism to promote their racialist concept of the German nation as being part of the Aryan race and the need for the Aryan race to be strong in order to be victorious in what the Nazis believed was ongoing competition and conflict between different races. Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp. 282 and 284. The Nazis attempted to strengthen the Aryan race in Germany by murdering those they regarded as weaker Germans. The name given to this mass murder was the T4 Project. The T4 project was introduced in the late 1930s and organised the murders of around roughly 275,000 handicapped and elderly German civilians using carbon monoxide gas. Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. Vol. C. Boston: Bedford St. Martins, 2005. p. 1064. Social interventionism Generally fascist movements endorse social interventionism dedicated to influencing society to promote the state's interests. Some scholars say that one cannot speak of “fascist social policy” as a single concept with logical and internally consistent ideas and common identifiable goals. Rimlinger, G.V. ‘’Social Policy Under German Fascism’’ in Stagnation and Renewal in Social Policy: The Rise and Fall of Policy Regimes by Martin Rein, Gosta Esping-Andersen, and Lee Rainwater, p. 61, M.E. Sharpe, 1987. Different fascist movements have spoken of creating a "new man" and a "new civilization" as part of their intention to transform society. Gentile, Emilio. The Struggle for Modernity: Nationalism, Futurism, and Fascism. p. 86. Mussolini promised a “social revolution” for “remaking” the Italian people. Knight, Patricia Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003. Hitler promised to purge Germany of non-Aryan influences on society and create a pure Aryan race through eugenics. Indoctrination Fascist states have pursued policies of indoctrination of society to their fascist movements such as through propaganda deliberately spread through education and media through regulation of the production of education and media material. Pauley, Bruce F. 2003. Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy. Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc. Pauley, p. 117. Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge p. 220. Education was designed to glorify the fascist movement, inform students of it being of major historical and political importance to the nation, attempted to purge education of ideas that were not consistent with the beliefs of the fascist movement, and taught students to be obedient to the fascist movement. Pauley, 2003. 117-119. Thus fascism tends to be anti-intellectual. Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldma Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science, 2004 Taylor and Francis The Nazis in particular despised intellectuals and university professors. Hitler declared them unreliable, useless and even dangerous. Evans, pg. 299 Hitler said of them: "When I take a look at the intellectual classes we have - unfortunately, I suppose, they are necessary; otherwise one could one day, I don't know, exterminate them or something - but unfortunately they're necessary." Domarus, Hitler II. 251-252 Abortion, eugenics and euthanasia Different fascist groups had differing positions on abortion as a whole but agreed that abortion amongst healthy members of their nation or race should be forbidden, while other cases of abortion were viewed differently by some fascists. The fascist government in Italy banned abortion and literature on birth control in 1926, declaring them both crimes against the state. De Grazia, Victoria. 2002. How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922-1945. University of California Press. p. 55. The Nazis decriminalized abortion in cases in which fetuses had racial or hereditary defects, while the abortion of healthy "pure" German, "Aryan" unborn remained strictly forbidden. Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of Northern Carolina Press, 1995): 30. For non-Aryans, abortion was not only allowed, but often compelled. McLaren, Angus, Twentieth-Century Sexuality, p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999 Their eugenics program stemmed also from the "progressive biomedical model" of Weimar Germany. McLaren, Angus, Twentieth-Century Sexuality p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999 The security chief of the neo-Nazi group Aryan Nations expressed similar views, stating: "I’m just against abortion for the pure white race. For blacks and other mongrelized races, abortion is a good idea." Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman [ Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science], p. 140, Taylor & Francis, 2004 Culture and gender roles Fascism tends to promote principles of masculine heroism, militarism, and discipline; and rejects cultural pluralism and multiculturalism. Roger Griffin, The `post-fascism' of the Alleanza Nazionale: a case-study in ideological morphology, Journal of Political Ideologies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1996 Initially Italian Fascism officially stood in favour of expanding voting rights to women. In 1920 Mussolini declared that "Fascists do not belong to the crowd of the vain and skeptical who undervalue women's social and political importance. Who cares about voting? You will vote!". Gori, Gigliola. Italian fascism and the female body: sport, submissive women and strong mothers. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 58 Women were briefly given the right to vote until 1925 when the Italian Fascist government abolished elections. Gori, Gigliola. Italian fascism and the female body: sport, submissive women and strong mothers. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 58 Benito Mussolini perceived women's primary role as childbearers while men should be warriors, once saying "war is to man what maternity is to the woman". Bollas, Christopher. 1993. Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience. Routledge. ISBN 0415088151, 9780415088152. p. 205. The Italian Fascist government during the "Battle for Births" gave financial incentives to women who raised large families as well as policies designed to reduce the number of women employed to allow women to give birth to larger numbers of children. McDonald, Harmish. 1999. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. p. 27. In 1934, Benito Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" which Italy was facing at the time and said that women having a habit of working was "incompatible with childbearing". Durham, Martin. Women and fascism. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 15. Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force". Durham, Martin. Women and fascism. Routledge, 1998. Pp. 15. Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation" and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation. Mann, Michael. Fascists. Cambridge University Press, 2004. Pp. 101. In the 1920s, the Italian Fascist government's Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND) allowed working women to attend various entertainment and recreation events including sports that in the past had traditionally been played by men. Gori, Gigliola. Italian fascism and the female body: sport, submissive women and strong mothers. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 144-145. The Italian Fascist regime was criticized by the Roman Catholic Church that claimed that these activities were causing "masculinization" of women. Gori, Gigliola. Italian fascism and the female body: sport, submissive women and strong mothers. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 145. The Italian Fascist regime responded to such criticism by restricting women to only being allowed to take part "feminine" and "womanly" sports, while forbidding them to be part of sports that were played mostly by men. Gori, Gigliola. Italian fascism and the female body: sport, submissive women and strong mothers. Routledge, 2004. Pp. 145. The British Union of Fascists believed that it was unnatural for women to have more influence in a relationship with a man. Gottlieb, Julie V., Linehan, Thomas P. The Culture of Fascism: Visions of the Far Right in Britain. p. 93. After Oswald Mosley was arrested in 1940, during interrogation he declared that the British Fascists were committed to equality of the sexes and commended women's role in the British Fascist movement, claiming that the movement had "been largely built up by the fanaticism of women...Without the women I could not have got a quarter of the way...". Durham, Martin. Women and fascism. Routledge, 1998. Pp. 49. It is believed that women accounted for 20 per cent to one-third of the British Union of Fascists' membership. Durham, Martin. Women and fascism. Routledge, 1998. Pp. 49. Nazi policies toward women strongly encouraged them to stay at home to bear children and keep house. Evans, 331-332 This policy was reinforced by bestowing the Cross of Honor of the German Mother on women bearing four or more babies. The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs. Nazi propaganda sometimes promoted premarital and extramarital sexual relations, unwed motherhood, and divorce. At other times the Nazis opposed such behaviour. Ann Taylor Allen. Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germay H-German, H-Net Reviews, January 2006 The growth of Nazi power, however, was accompanied by a breakdown of traditional sexual morals with regard to extramarital sex and licentiousness. Hau, Michael, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germany (review) Modernism/modernity - Volume 14, Number 2, April 2007, pp. 378-380, The Johns Hopkins University Press Fascist movements and governments oppose homosexuality. The Italian Fascist government declared it illegal in Italy in 1931. McDonald, 1999. p. 27. The British Union of Fascists opposed homosexuality and pejoratively questioned their opponents' sexual orientation, especially of male anti-fascists. Gottlieb, Julie V., Linehan, Thomas P. p. 93. The Romanian Iron Guard opposed homosexuality as undermining society. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, p. 98, citing N. Cainic, Ortodoxie şi etnocraţie, pp. 162-4.) The Nazis thought homosexuality was degenerate, effeminate, perverted and undermined the masculinity which they promoted, because it did not produce children. Evans, pg. 529 Nevertheless the Nazis considered homosexuality curable through therapy. They explained it though modern scientism and the study of sexology which said that homosexuality could be felt by "normal" people and not just an abnormal minority. Ann Taylor Allen. Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism January 2006 Critics have claimed that the Nazis' claim of scientific reasons for their promotion of racism, and hostility to homosexuals is pseudoscience, Baumslag, Naomi; Pellgrino, Edmund D. 2005. Murderous medicine: Nazi doctors, human experimentation, and typhus. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 37. Claims Nazi scientific reasoning for racial policy was pseudoscience Lancaster, Roger N.The Trouble of Nature: Sex in Science and Popular Culture. University of California Press. p. 10. Claims that Nazi scientific reasoning for anti-homosexual policy was pseudoscience in that scientific findings were selectively picked that promoted their pre-existing views, while scientific findings opposing those views were rejected and not taken into account. Economic policies The central economic idea of all forms of fascism is corporatism. Corporatism is government control of the economy by cartelizing it, that is, by selecting favored firms in an industry. These favoured firms fix prices and create barriers to entry and obstacles for competitors, and by controlling which firms have corporate rights. The government thereby maintains a level of power over the economy. The most important claim made by fascism was that it alone could offer the creative prospect of a 'third way' between capitalism and socialism. Hitler, in Mein Kampf, spoke enthusiastically about the 'National Socialist corporative idea' as one which would eventually 'take the place of ruinous class warfare'; whilst Mussolini, in typically extravagant fashion, declared that 'the Corporative System is destined to become the civilization of the twentieth century. - The Fascism Reader by Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascists explicitly promoted their ideology as a "Third Position" between capitalism and communism. Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168. Italian Fascism involved corporatism, a political system in which economy is collectively managed by employers, workers and state officials by formal mechanisms at national level. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right (2002) by Peter Jonathan Davies and Derek Lynch, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415214947 p.143. Fascists advocated a new national multi-class economic system that is labeled as either national corporatism, national socialism or national syndicalism. Common aim of all fascist movements was elimination of the autonomy or, in some cases, the existence of large-scale capitalism. Payne, Stanley (1996). A History of Fascism. Routledge. ISBN 1857285956 p.10 Fascist governments exercised influence over the economy differently than that of communist-led states, in that individual private property was controlled but not nationalized. Pauley. 2003. pp. 72, 84. Nevertheless, like the Soviet Union, fascist states pursued economic policies to strengthen state power and spread ideology, such as consolidating trade unions to be state or party-controlled. Pauley. 2003. p. 85. Attempts were made by both Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany to establish "autarky" (self-sufficiency) through significant economic planning, but both failed to make the two countries self-sufficient. Pauley. 2003. p. 86. National corporatism, national socialism and national syndicalism While fascists support the unifying of proletariat workers to their cause along corporatistic, socialistic, or syndicalistic lines, fascists specify that they advocate a nationalized form of such economic systems such as corporatism, national socialism, or national syndicalism which promotes the creation of a strong proletarian nation, but not a proletarian class. Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. Routledge. p. 64. Fascists also make clear that they have no hostility to the petite bourgeoisie (lower middle-class) or to small businesses and promise these groups protection alongside the proletariat from the upper-class bourgeoisie, big business, and Marxism. The promotion of these groups is the source of the term 'extremism of the centre' to describe fascism. Griffen, Roger (editor). Chapter 8: "Extremism of the Centre" - by Seymour Martin Lipset. International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. Arnold Readers. p. 101. Fascism blames capitalist liberal democracies for creating class conflict and in turn blames communists for exploiting class conflict. Welch, David. Modern European History, 1871-2000. p. 57. (Speaks of fascism opposing capitalism for creating class conflict and communism for exploiting class conflict). In Italy, the Fascist period presided over the creation of the largest number of state-owned enterprises in Western Europe such as the nationalization of petroleum companies in Italy into a single state enterprise called the Italian General Agency for Petroleum (Azienda Generale Italiani Petroli, AGIP). Schachter, Gustav; Engelbourg, Saul. 2005. Cultural Continuity In Advanced Economies: Britain And The U.S. Versus Continental Europe. Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 302. Fascists made populist appeals to the middle class (especially the lower middle class) by promising to protect small business and small property owners from communism, and by promising an economy based on competition and profit while pledging to oppose big business. Griffen, Roger (editor). Chapter 8: "Extremism of the Centre" - by Seymour Martin Lipset. International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. Arnold Readers. p. 101. On economic issues, Benito Mussolini in 1933 declared Italian Fascism's opposition to "decadent capitalism" that he claimed prevailed in the world at the time, but did not denounce capitalism entirely. Mussolini claimed that capitalism had degenerated in three stages, starting with dynamic or heroic capitalism (1830-1870) followed by static capitalism (1870-1914) and then reaching its final form of decadent capitalism, also known as supercapitalism beginning in 1914. Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. University of California Press, 2000. Pp. 136. Mussolini argued that Italian Fascism was in favour of dynamic and heroic capitalism for its contribution to industrialism and technical developments but claimed that it did not favour supercapitalism, which he claimed was incompatible with Italy's agricultural sector. Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. University of California Press, 2000. Pp. 136. Thus Mussolini claimed that Italy under Fascist rule was not capitalist in the modern use of the term which referred to supercapitalism. Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. University of California Press, 2000. Pp. 136. Mussolini denounced supercapitalism for causing the "standardization of humankind" and for causing excessive consumption. Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta. Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. University of California Press, 2000. Pp. 137. Mussolini claimed that at this stage of supercapitalism "[it] is then that a capitalist enterprise, when dificultires arise, throws itself like a dead weight into the state's arms. It is then that state intervention begins and becomes more necessary. It is then that those who once ignored the state now seek it out anxiously." Mussolini, Benito; Schnapp, Jeffery Thompson (ed.); Sears, Olivia E. (ed.); Stampino, Maria G. (ed.). "Address to the National Corporative Council (14 November 1933) and Senate Speech on the Bill Establishing the Corporations (abridged; 13 January 1934)". A Primer of Italian Fascism. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Pp. 158. Mussolini went on to claim that Fascism was the next logical step to solve the problems of supercapitalism and claimed that this step could be seen either as a form of capitalism or socialism which involved state intervention, saying "our path would lead inexorably into state capitalism, which is nothing more nor less than state socialism turned on its head. In either event, [whether the outcome be state capitalism or state socialism] the result is the bureaucratization of the economic activities of the nation." Mussolini, Benito; Schnapp, Jeffery Thompson (ed.); Sears, Olivia E. (ed.); Stampino, Maria G. (ed.). "Address to the National Corporative Council (14 November 1933) and Senate Speech on the Bill Establishing the Corporations (abridged; 13 January 1934)". A Primer of Italian Fascism. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Pp. 158-159. The Nazis initially attempted to form a corporatist economic system like that in Fascist Italy, and created the National Socialist Institute for Corporatism in May 1933, which included many major economists who argued that corporatism was consistent with National Socialism. Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 47. Peter Davies, Derek Lynch. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, 2002. p. 103 . In Mein Kampf, Hitler spoke enthusiastically about the "National Socialist corporative idea" as one which would eventually "take the place of ruinous class warfare" The Fascism Reader by Aristotle A. Kallis. However, the Nazis later believed that corporatism was not beneficial to Germany because they deemed that it institutionalized and legitimized social differences within the German nation and instead the Nazis went on to promote economic organizations that emphasized the biological unity of the German national community. Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 49. Economic planning Fascists opposed laissez-faire economic policies dominant in the era prior to the Great Depression. David Baker, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227-250. After the Great Depression began, many people from across the political spectrum blamed laissez-faire capitalism for the Great Depression, and fascists promoted their ideology as a "third way" between capitalism and communism. Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168. Fascists declared their opposition to finance capitalism, interest charging, and profiteering. Frank Bealey & others. Elements of Political Science. Edinburgh University Press, 1999, p. 202 Nazis and other anti-Semitic fascists, considered finance capitalism a "parasitic" "Jewish conspiracy". Postone, Moishe. 1986. "Anti-Semitism and National Socialism." Germans & Jews Since the Holocaust: The Changing Situation in West Germany, ed. Anson Rabinbach and Jack Zipes. New York: Homes & Meier. Fascist governments nationalized some key industries, managed their currencies and made some massive state investments. Fascist governments introduced price controls, wage controls and other types of economic interventionist measures. Stanislav Andreski, Wars, Revolutions, Dictatorships, Routledge 1992, page 64 Other than nationalization of certain industries, private property was allowed, but property rights and private initiative were contingent upon service to the state. James A. Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7 For example, "an owner of agricultural land may be compelled to raise wheat instead of sheep and employ more labor than he would find profitable." Herbert Kitschelt, Anthony J. McGann. The Radical Right in Western Europe: a comparative analysis. 1996 University of Michigan Press. p. 30 According to historian Tibor Ivan Berend, dirigisme was an inherent aspect of fascist economies. Tibor Ivan Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 93 The Labour Charter of 1927, promulgated by the Grand Council of Fascism, stated in article 7: "The corporative State considers private initiative, in the field of production, as the most efficient and useful instrument of the Nation", then goes on to say in article 9: "State intervention in economic production may take place only where private initiative is lacking or is insufficient, or when are at stakes the political interest of the State. This intervention may take the form of control, encouragement or direct management." Italian: Lo Stato corporativo considera l’iniziativa privata, nel campo della produzione, come lo strumento più utile ed efficiente della Nazione. Fascists thought that private property should be regulated to ensure that "benefit to the community precedes benefit to the individual." Richard Allen Epstein, Principles for a Free Society: Reconciling Individual Liberty With the Common Good, De Capo Press 2002, p. 168 They also introduced price controls and other types of economic planning measures. Fascism had Social Darwinist views of human relations and promoted "superior" individuals and saw people who were weak as being inferior. Alexander J. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge, 1995. p. 47. In terms of economic practice, this meant promoting the interests of successful businesses while banning trade unions and other workers' organizations. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, pp. 48-51. Benito Mussolini in his English autobiography in one section focused on the economy of the United States where he stated that he agreed with the capitalist notion held by Americans that profit should not be taken away from those who produced it from their own labour for any purpose, saying "I do not respect—I even hate—those men that leech a tenth of the riches produced by others". Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. p. 26. Social welfare Benito Mussolini promised a "social revolution" that would "remake" the Italian people, which was only achieved in part. Knight, Patricia, Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003. The people who primarily benefited from Italian fascist social policies were members of the middle and lower-middle classes, who filled jobs in the vastly expanding government workforce, which grew from about 500,000 to a million jobs in 1930. Knight, Patricia, Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003. Health and welfare spending grew dramatically under Italian fascism, with welfare rising from 7% of the budget in 1930 to 20% in 1940. Pollard, John Francis, The Fascist Experience in Italy, p. 80 Routledge 1998 A major success in social welfare policy in Fascist Italy was the creation of the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND) or "National After-work Program" in 1925. The OND was the state's largest recreational organizations for adults. Pauley, p113 The Dopolavoro was responsible for establishing and maintaining 11,000 sports grounds, over 6,400 libraries, 800 movie houses, 1,200 theatres, and over 2,000 orchestras. Membership in the Dopolavoro was voluntary but had high participation because of its nonpolitical nature. It is estimated that by 1936 the OND had organized 80% of salaried workers. de Grazia, Victoria. The Culture of Consent: Mass Organizations of Leisure in Fascist Italy. Cambridge, 1981. Nearly 40% of the industrial workforce had been recruited into the Dopolavoro by 1939 and the sports activities proved popular with large numbers of workers. The OND had the largest membership of any of the mass Fascist organizations in Italy. Kallis, Aristotle, ed. (2003). The Fascism Reader, London: Routledge, pages 391-395. The enormous success of the Dopolavoro in Fascist Italy was the key factor in Nazi Germany creating its own version of the Dopolavoro, the Kraft durch Freude (KdF) or "Strength through Joy" program of the Nazi government's German Labour Front, which was even more successful than the Dopolavoro. Pauley, p113–114 KdF provided government-subsidized holidays for German workers. Social Policy in the Third Reich. The Working Class and the 'National Community - Mason, T.W., Oxford: Berg. 1993, Page 160 KdF was also responsible for the creation of the original Volkswagen ("People's Car") that was a state-made automobile that was meant to be cheap enough to allow all German citizens to be able to own one. While fascists promote social welfare for ameliorating negative economic conditions that are affecting their nation or race as whole, they do not support social welfare for egalitarian reasons. Fascists abhor egalitarianism for preserving the weak; they promote social Darwinist views and claim that nations and races must preserve and promote their strengths to ensure survival in a world that is in a perpetual state of national and/or racial conflict and competition. Griffen, Roger; Feldman, Matthew. Fascism: Critical Concepts. p. 353. "When the Russian revolution occurred in 1917 and the 'Democratic' revolution spread after the First World War, anti-bolshevism and anti-egalitarianism rose as very strong "restoration movements" on the European scene. However, by the turn of that century no one could predict that fascism would become such a concrete, political reaction..." Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. p. 285. "Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest ans less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict." Alfredo Rocco, Italian Fascist. Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, 2004. pp. 103-104. "Fascist ideologies were also collectivist. individual freedom could only have meaning through the community or the nation." Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. p. 59. [When the] city dies, the nation—deprived of the young life—blood of new generations—is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers[...] This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race. - Benito Mussolini, 1928. Adolf Hitler was opposed to egalitarian and universal social welfare because, in his view, it encouraged the preservation of the degenerate and feeble. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, pgs. 27-28 While in power, the Nazis created social welfare programs to deal with the large numbers of unemployed. However, those programs were neither egalitarian nor universal, but instead residual, as they excluded multiple minority groups and certain other people whom they felt were incapable of helping themselves, and who would pose a threat to the future health of the German people. Evans, pgs. 491-492 Non-universal characteristics Racism and racialism Fascists are not unified on the issues of racism and racialism. In the 1920s, Italian fascists recognized the existence of races and Benito Mussolini declared that the white race in Europe was threatened by coloured races, in terms of social decline in cities and the rapid birthrate of coloured people. In Mussolini's autobiography produced in the 1920s, he affirmed the importance of race, saying, "Race and soil are strong influences upon us all" and spoke of World War I from a racialist perspective, saying: "There were seers who saw in the European conflict not only national advantages but the possibility of a supremacy of race". Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. pp. 2, 38. In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated that "Fascism was born...out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race". Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 35. Mussolini said in 1928: [When the] city dies, the nation—deprived of the young life—blood of new generations—is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers[...] This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race. Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. p. 59. The Italian Fascists had strong hostility towards Slavs, especially the neighbouring Yugoslav (South Slav) nations whom the Italian Fascists saw Italians as being in competition with and had territorial claims on territories of Yugoslavia, particularly Dalmatia. Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. p. 106. Mussolini spoke of the threat he perceived as being posed by Yugoslavs after Italy did not receive the territory along the Adriatic coast at the end of World War I as promised by the Treaty of London in 1915, saying: "The danger of seeing the Jugo-Slavians settle along the whole Adriatic shore had caused a bringing together in Rome of the cream of our unhappy regions. Students, professors, workmen, citizens—representative men—were entreating the ministers and the professional politicians. Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. pp. 105-106. Italian Fascist anti-Slavism and xenophobic views associated with anti-Slavism were present amongst various Italian Fascists in the 1920s, who accused Serbs of having "atavistic impulses", that Yugoslavs were conspiring together on behalf of "Grand Orient masonry and its funds" and one anti-Semitic claim that Serbs were part of a "social-democratic, masonic Jewish internationalist plot". Burgwyn, H. James. Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1940. p. 43. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. Mussolini himself once utilized anti-Semitism in a 1919 speech to denounce Soviet Russia, claiming that Jewish bankers in London and New York were bound by the chains of race to Moscow, and claimed that 80 percent of the Soviet leaders were Jews. Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Pp. 35. In 1933, Mussolini contradicted his earlier statements on the important role of races in society and instead dismissed the role of races in society, and said: "Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. [...] National pride has no need of the delirium of race." </blockquote> Relation to religion The attitude of fascism toward religion has run the gamut from persecution, to denunciation, to cooperation, Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p. 41 1996 Oxford University Press.] to embrace. Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. pp. 204-9. Stanley Payne notes that fundamental to fascism was the foundation of a purely materialistic "civic religion" that would "displace preceding structures of belief and relegate supernatural religion to a secondary role, or to none at all", and that "though there were specific examples of religious or would-be 'Christian fascists,' fascism presupposed a post-Christian, post-religious, secular, and immanent frame of reference." Payne, Stanley, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945], p. 9, Routledge 1996. According to Payne, such "would be" religious fascists only gain hold where traditional belief is weakened or absent, as fascism seeks to create new non-rationalist myth structures for those who no longer hold a traditional view. Payne, Stanley A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, p. 9, Routledge 1996. The rise of modern secularism in Europe and Latin America, and the incursion and large-scale adoption of western secular culture in the mid-east leave a void where this modern secular ideology, sometimes under a religious veneer, can take hold. Payne, Stanley A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, p. 9, Routledge 1996. Many fascists were anti-clerical in both private and public life. Laqueur, Walter; Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p. 42 1996 Oxford University Press.] Although both Hitler and Mussolini were anti-clerical, some believe they both understood that it would be rash to begin their Kulturkampfs prematurely, such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, being put off while they dealt with other enemies. Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future pp. 31, 42, 1996 Oxford University Press.] In Mexico, the Red Shirts were vehemently atheist, renounced religion, killed priests, and on one occasion gunned down Catholics as they left Mass. Krauze, Enrique, THE TROUBLING ROOTS OF MEXICO'S LÓPEZ OBRADOR: Tropical Messiah, The New Republic June 19, 2006. Parsons, Wilfrid, Mexican Martyrdom], p. 238, 2003 Kessinger Publishing "Garrido Canabal, Tomás". The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition (2005). The New International Yearbook] p. 442, Dodd, Mead and Co. 1966. Millan, Verna Carleton, Mexico Reborn, p. 101, 1939 Riverside Press. According to a biographer of Mussolini, "Initially, fascism was fiercely anti-Catholic" - the Church being a competitor for dominion of the people's hearts. Farrell, Nicholas, Mussolini: A New Life p. 5 2004 Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. Mussolini, originally an atheist, published anti-Catholic writings and planned for the confiscation of Church property, but eventually moved to accommodation. Mussolini endorsed the Roman Catholic Church for political legitimacy, as during the Lateran Treaty talks, Fascist Party officials engaged in bitter arguments with Vatican officials and put pressure on them to accept the terms that the regime deemed acceptable. Pollard, John F. (1985). The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-32. Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 53. Protestantism in Italy was not as significant as Catholicism, and the Protestant minority was persecuted. ROCHAT Giorgio, Regime fascista e chiese evangeliche, Torino, Claudiana, 1990. Mussolini's sub-secretary of Interior, Bufferini-Guidi issued a memo closing all houses of worship of the Italian Pentecostals and Jehovah's Witnesses, and imprisoned their leaders. BRACCO, Roberto. Persecuzione in Italia . Rome, n.d. In some instances, people were killed because of their faith. ROCHAT, Giorgio. Regime fascista e chiese evangeliche. Torino: Claudiana, 1990. The Ustaše in Croatia had strong Catholic overtones, with some clerics in positions of power. Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future p. 148 1996 Oxford University Press.] The fascist movement in Romania, known as the Iron Guard or the Legion of Archangel Michael, preceded its meetings with a church service, and their demonstrations were usually led by priests carrying icons and religious flags. The Romanian fascist movement promoted a cult of "suffering, sacrifice and martyrdom." source: Weber, E. "Rumania" in H. Rogger and E. Weber, eds., The European Right: A Historical Profile. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965. Nagy-Talavera, N. M. The Green Shirts and the Others. A History of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1970; pp. 247, 266-70. In Latin America, the most notable fascist movement was Plinio Salgado's Brazilian Integralism. Built on a network of lay religious associations, its vision was of an integral state that "comes from Christ, is inspired in Christ, acts for Christ, and goes toward Christ." Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. pp. 208-9. Hilton, S. "Acao Integralista Brasiliera: Fascism in Brazil, 1932-38" Lusa Brazilian Review, v.9, n.2, 1972: 12. Williams, M.T. "Integralism and the Brazilian Catholic Church." Hispanic American Historical Review, v.54, n.3, 1974: pp. 436-40. Salgado criticised the "dangerous pagan tendencies of Hitlerism". Payne, Stanley A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, pp. 345-346, Routledge 1996. Hitler and the Nazi regime attempted to found their own version of Christianity called Positive Christianity which made major changes in its interpretation of the Bible which said that Jesus Christ was the son of God, but was not a Jew and claimed that Christ despised Jews, and that the Jews were the ones solely responsible for Christ's death. By 1940 however, it was public knowledge that Hitler had abandoned even the syncretist idea of a positive Christianty. Poewe, Karla O, New Religions and the Nazis, p. 30, Routledge 2006 The Catholic Church was particularly suppressed by Nazis in Poland. Between 1939 and 1945, an estimated 3,000 members, 18% of the Polish clergy, were murdered; of these, 1,992 died in concentration camps. Craughwell, Thomas J., The Gentile Holocaust Catholic Culture, Accessed July 18, 2008 In the annexed territory of Reichsgau Wartheland it was even harsher than elsewhere. Churches were systematically closed, and most priests were either killed, imprisoned, or deported to the General Government. The Germans also closed seminaries and convents persecuting monks and nuns throughout Poland. Eighty percent of the Catholic clergy and five of the bishops of Warthegau were sent to concentration camps in 1939; in Chełmno, 48%. Craughwell, Thomas J., The Gentile Holocaust Catholic Culture, Accessed July 18, 2008 One hundred eight of them are regarded as blessed martyrs. Craughwell, Thomas J., The Gentile Holocaust Catholic Culture, Accessed July 18, 2008 Among them, Maximilian Kolbe was canonized as a saint. Not only in Poland were Christians persecuted by the Nazis. In the Dachau concentration camp alone, 2,600 Catholic priests from 24 different countries were killed. Craughwell, Thomas J., The Gentile Holocaust Catholic Culture, Accessed July 18, 2008 One theory is that religion and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person. Along these lines, Yale political scientist, Juan Linz and others have noted that secularization had created a void which could be filled by a total ideology, making totalitarianism possible Griffin, Roger, Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion, p. 7 2005Routledge Maier, Hans and Jodi Bruhn Totalitarianism and Political Religions, p. 108, 2004 Routledge , and Roger Griffin has characterized fascism as a type of anti-religious political religion. Eatwell, Roger The Nature of Fascism: or Essentialism by Another Name? 2004 Such political religions vie with existing religions, and try, if possible, to replace or eradicate them. Maier, Hans and Jodi Bruhn Totalitarianism and Political Religions, p. 108, 2004 Routledge Variations and subforms Movements identified by scholars as fascist hold a variety of views, and what qualifies as fascism is often a hotly contested subject. The original movement which self-identified as Fascist was that of Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party. Intellectuals such as Giovanni Gentile produced The Doctrine of Fascism and founded the ideology. The majority of strains which emerged after the original fascism, but are sometimes placed under the wider usage of the term, self-identified their parties with different names. Major examples include; Falangism, Integralism, Iron Guard and Nazism as well as various other designations. Italian Fascism Italian Fascism was the first form of fascism to emerge and the originator of the name. Founded by Benito Mussolini, it is considered to be the model for later fascist movements. Benito Mussolini Fascism was born during a period of social and political unrest following World War I. The war had seen Italy, born from the Italian unification less than a century earlier begin to appreciate a sense of nationalism, rather than the historic regionalism. Despite the Kingdom of Italy being a fully fledged Allied Power during the war against the Central Powers, Italy was given what nationalists considered an unfair deal at the Treaty of Versailles; which they saw as the other allies "blocking" Italy from progressing to a major power. A significant example of this was when the other allies told Italy to hand over the city of Fiume at the Paris Peace Conference, this saw war veteran Gabriele d'Annunzio declaring the independent state Italian Regency of Carnaro. He positioned himself as Duce of the nation and declared a constitution, the Charter of Carnaro which was highly influential to early Fascism, though he himself never became a fascist. Flag of the National Fascist Party. Origins Benito Mussolini founded Italian fascism as the Fasci italiani di combattimento after he returned from World War I and published a Fascist manifesto. The birth of the Fascist movement can be traced to a meeting he held in the Piazza San Sepolcho in Milan Italy on March 23, 1919. This meeting declared the original principles of the Fascists through a series of declarations. Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 7. The first declaration was a dedication to Italian war veterans. Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 8. The second declaration spoke of the fascist movement's loyalty to Italy and its opposition to foreign aggressors, and stated that the fascist movement was "opposed to the imperialism of other peoples at the expense of Italy....." Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 8. The third declaration announced that the fascists would fight against other political factions, saying that the fascists would "sabotage in every way the candidates of neturalists in all the various parties...." Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 pp. 7-8. After declaring their first three declarations, the fascists declared their opposition to bolshevism and socialism, particlarly the socialism of the Italian Socialist Party, for their anti-nationalism, saying: "...We don't need to place ourselves programmatically on a revolutionary footing because, in a historic sense, we already did so in 1915. It isn't too necessary to set forth too analytical a program.....it has now been demonstrated beyond a doubt that Bolshevism has ruined the economic life of Russia.... We declare war against Socialism, not because it is socialist but because it has opposed nationalism...We who have led the attack on political life in these past few years are going to expose the responsibiities of the official Socialist party." Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 8. It is inevitable that majorities become static, whereas minorities are dynamic. We intend to be an active minority, to attract the proletariat away from the official Socialist party. But if the middle class thinks we are going to be their lightning rods, they are mistaken. We must go halfway towards meeting the workers...(comments on Worker rights)...We shall support these demands, partly because we want workers to get accustomed to the responsibilities of management and to learn as a result that it isn't easy to operate a business successfully." Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 9. The fascists made a moderate stance on the economy, effectively declaring that they favoured class collaboration while opposing excessive state intervention into the economy, and calling for pressure on industrialists and workers to be cooperative and constructive, saying: As for economic democracy, we favor national syndicalism and reject State intervention whenever it aims at throttling the creation of wealth. Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 9. We shall fight against technological and moral backwardness. There are industrialists who shun both technological and moral innovations. If they don't find the strength to transform themselves they will be swept aside. We must impress upon the workers, however, that it is one thing to destroy, and quite another to build. Destruction can be the work of an hour, but construction may require years or centuries. Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 9. The fascists on that day declared their intention to seize power and their opposition to the multiparty representative democracy in Italy. ...We must act fast...we must be ready to take its place. For that reason we must be ready to rush into the piazzas and cry out 'The right of political succession belongs to us, because we were the ones who pushed the country to war and led it to victory!"...The existing system of political representation cannot satisfy us; we want every distinct interest group to be represented directly. Mediterranean Fascism, 1919-1945, Edited by Charles F. Delzell copyright 1970 p. 10. An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages was the fact that it opposed discrimination based on social class and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war. Fascism instead supported nationalist sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great Roman past. Mussolini did not ignore the plight of the working class, however, and he gained their support with stances such as those in The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle, published in June 1919. The Manifesto demanded the end of the Italian monarchy and the creation of a republic, restricting the power of the Roman Catholic clergy, the creation of a minimum wage, large-scale nationalization of property, showing the same confidence in labor unions as was given to industry executives or public servants, voting rights for women, and the systemisation of public transport such as railways. Much of the Manifesto was moderated or cancelled, moving the Fascists away from republicanism to a pro-monarchy stance, from anti-clericalism to support of the Roman Catholic Church, and moving away from advocating large nationalization of property to advocating protection of private property while allowing nationalization when private enterprise was failing. Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist; because this was vastly different from anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way". The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called Blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, due in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time and was later appointed as Prime Minister by the King in 1922. He then went on to install a dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti, who had finished writing The Fascist Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination, by Amerigo Dumini and others agents of the Ceka secret police created by Mussolini. Influenced by the concepts of the Roman Empire, with Mussolini viewing himself as a modern day Roman Emperor, Italy set out to build the Italian Empire whose colonialism would reach further into Africa in an attempt to compete with British and French colonial empires. Mussolini dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923. Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and forcibly ended a rebellion in Libya, which had been a colony (loosely) since 1912. It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean. Nazism (National Socialism, Germany) Adolf Hitler Flag of the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Nazism, short for National Socialism, is the political ideology of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party that ruled Germany from 1933 until 1945. The term national socialist is also a descriptive term used to refer to the Austrian National Socialism of a similar ideology, as well as several puppet states under Nazi control, including; the Arrow Cross of Hungary, the Ustaše of Croatia (also heavily influenced by Italian Fascism), and Rexism of Belgium. The Nazis came to prominence in Germany's Weimar Republic through democratic elections in 1932; their leader Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany the following year, subsequently putting into place the Enabling Act, which effectively gave him the power of a dictator. Hitler's book detailing the national socialist ideology Mein Kampf, was authored during the mid-1920s. The NSDAP announced a national rebirth, in the form of the Third Reich nicknamed the Thousand Years Empire, promoted as a successor to the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire. After Mussolini's successful March on Rome in 1922, Hitler gained profound admiration of Mussolini and shortly after Mussolini gained power, the Nazis presented themselves as a German version of Italian Fascism and through their media outlets constantly compared their movement with Italian Fascism and compared Hitler to Mussolini. Fulda, Bernhard. Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 65. Carlsten, F.L. The Rise of Fascism. 2nd ed. University of California Press, 1982. p. 80. Nazi member Hermann Esser proclaimed, "In Bavaria too we have Italy's Mussolini [sic]. His name is Adolf Hitler." Carlsten, 1982. p. 80. In addition, the Nazis attempted to copy the Italian Fascists' March on Rome with a "March on Berlin" to topple what they saw as a "Marxist" government leading Germany (in reality a non-Marxist, social democratic government was in government at the time) and during their march, they would overthrow "red" governments in the German states. Carlsten, 1982. p. 80. A month after Mussolini had risen to power and amid claims by Hitler and the Nazis that they were equivalent to Mussolini the Italian Fascists, Hitler's personal popularity in Germany began to grow and large crowds beginning to attend the Nazi rallies, German media began to pay attention to Hitler's activities with the newspaper Berlin Lokal-Anzeiger featuring a front page article about Hitler, saying "There are a lot of people who believe him to be the German Mussolini". Fulda, Bernhard. Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 65. In private, Mussolini himself did not appreciate Hitler or the Nazis as he saw them as merely imitators of Italian Fascism and when Mussolini met with the Italian Consul in Munich prior to the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, he stated that he thought the Nazis were "buffoons". Carlsten, 1982. p. 81. Nazi official Joseph Goebbels credited Italian Fascism with starting a conflict against liberal democracy which the Nazis supported, saying, The march on Rome was a signal, a sign of storm for liberal-democracy. It is the first attempt to destroy the world of the liberal-democratic spirit[...] which started in 1789 with the storm on the Bastille and conquered one country after another in violent revolutionary upheavals, to let... the nations go under in Marxism, democracy, anarchy and class warfare..." Carlsten, 1982. p. 80. Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type of generic fascism Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p. 8, 2004 Taylor and Francis. , some scholars, such as Gilbert Allardyce, Zeev Sternhell and A.F.K. Organski, argue that Nazism is not fascism either because the differences are too great, or because they believe fascism cannot be generic. A synthesis of these two opinions, states that German Nazism was a form of racially oriented fascism, while Italian fascism was state-oriented. Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race, especially exhibited as antisemitism, in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state, whereas Nazism saw the individual, as well as the state, as ultimately subservient to the race. Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21. Mussolini's fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it was not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry. Where fascism talked of state, Nazism spoke of the Volk and of the Volksgemeinschaft Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship, Problems & perspectives of interpretation, 4th Edition. Hodder Arnold 2000, p. 41. Roger Griffin, who is a leading exponent of the generic fascism theory wrote: It might well be claimed that Nazism and Italian fascism were separate species within the same genus, without any implicit assumption that the two species ought to be well-nigh identical. Ernst Nolte has stated that the differences could be easily reconciled by employing a term such as 'radical fascism' for Nazism.56 [...]The establishment of fundamental generic characteristics linking Nazism to movements in other parts of Europe allows further consideration on a comparative basis of the reasons why such movements were able to become a real politicial danger and gain power in Italy and Germany, whereas in other European countries they remained an unpleasant, but transitory irritant... Sternhell views National Socialism as separate from fascism: Fascism can in no way be identified with Nazism. Undoubtedly the two ideologies, the two movements, and the two regimes had common characteristics. They often ran parallel to one another or overlapped, but they differed on one fundamental point: the criterion of German national socialism was biological determination. The basis of Nazism was a racism in its most extreme sense, and the fight against Jews, against 'inferior' races, played a more preponderant role in it than the struggle against communism. During Hitler's rise to power, he was seen by the media and by himself as associated with fascism, and being the "Mussolini of Germany". Leach, Henry Goddard. Forum and Century, v.85 1931 Jan-Jun. University of Michigan, 1931. p. 218. "THE GERMAN MUSSOLINI HE MAN behind National Socialism, the would-be Mussolini of Germany, is Adolf Hitler." Iron Guard (Romania) The Iron Guard was an antisemitic fascist movement and political party in Romania from 1927 to 1941. Spicer, Kevin P. 2007. Antisemitism, Christian ambivalence, and the Holocaust. Indiana University Press on behalf of the Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies. p. 142. (Describes the Romanian Iron Guard as a totalitarian nationalist and anti-Semitic movement. It was briefly in power from September 14, 1940 until January 21, 1941. The Iron Guard was founded by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu on 24 July 1927 as the "Legion of the Archangel Michael" (Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail), and it was led by him until his death in 1938. Adherents to the movement continued to be widely referred to as "legionnaires" (sometimes "legionaries"; ) and the organization as the "Legion" or the "Legionary Movement" (Mişcarea Legionară), despite various changes of the (intermittently banned) organization's name. It was strongly anti-Semitic, promoting the idea that "Rabbinical aggression against the Christian world" in "unexpected 'protean forms': Freemasonry, Freudianism, homosexuality, atheism, Marxism, Bolshevism, the civil war in Spain, and social democracy" were undermining society. Volovici, Nationalist Ideology, p. 98, citing N. Cainic, Ortodoxie şi etnocraţie, pp. 162-4.) The Iron Guard "willingly inserted strong elements of Orthodox Christianity into its political doctrine to the point of becoming one of the rare modern European political movements with a religious ideological structure." Ioanid, "The Sacralised Politics of the Romanian Iron Guard". Revisionist Maximalism (British Mandate of Palestine) |Abba Ahimeir, the founder of Revisionist Maximalism. Prior to Italian Fascism allying itself with Nazi Germany and adopting anti-Semitic policies, an influential but short-lived Jewish fascist ideology called Revisionist Maximalism with a fascist faction within the nationalist Revisionist Zionist Movement (ZRM) called Brit HaBirionim (The Strongmen Alliance), which existed in the British Mandate of Palestine (now Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian National Authority). The ideology was formed alongside the Brit HaBirionim movement in 1930 with the intention to take over the ZRM to turn it into a fascist movement and then create a Jewish state governed by fascist government based on that of Benito Mussolini's regime in Italy. Larsen, Stein Ugelvik (ed.). Fascism Outside of Europe. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN0880339888. pp. 364-365. Kaplan, The Jewish Radical Right. University of Wisconson Press, 2005. p. 15. The founder of Revisionist Maximalism was Abba Ahimeir who adopted the fascist principles to create an integralist "pure nationalism" amongst Jews. Larsen, pp. 364-365. Revisionist Maximalism rejects communism, humanism, internationalism, liberalism, pacifism and socialism; condemned liberal Zionists for only working for middle-class Jews rather than the Jewish nation as a whole. Kaplan, p. 15. Shindler, Colin. The Triumph of Military Zionism: Nationalism and the Origins of the Israeli Right. I.B.Tauris, 2006. p. 156. Ahimeir's Revisionist Maximalists quickly became the largest faction in the ZRM in 1930 and pressured moderate ZRM members to submit to agree to align the ZRM with fascism, with Ahimeir declaring at one conference in 1930: In 1932, the Revisionist Maximalists again pressured the ZRM to adopt their polices which were titled the "Ten Commandments of Maximalism" which were made "in the spirit of complete fascism". Larsen, p. 377. In 1932, Ahimeir officially called for the leadership of the Zionist Revisionist Movement to be redesigned into the form of a dictatorship, called for the creation of an indepenent Zionist federation, called for a "war on funds" to end corruption in the Zionist movement, and called for a war on anti-Semitism. Larsen, Stein Ugelvik (ed.). Fascism Outside of Europe. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN0880339888. p. 378. Moderate ZRM members refused to accept this and moderate ZRM member Yaacov Kahan pressured the Revisionist Maximalists to accept the democratic nature of the ZRM and not push for the movement to adopt fascist dictatorial policies. Larsen, p. 377. In spite of the Revisionist Maximalists' opposition to the anti-Semitism of the Nazi Party, Achemeir was initially controversially supportive of the Nazi Party in early 1933, believing that the Nazis' rise to power was positive because it recognized that previous attempts by Germany to assimilate Jews had finally been proven to be a failure. Larsen, p. 379. In March 1933, Achemeir wrote about the Nazi party, stating that: "The anti-Semitic wrapping should be discarded but not its anti-Marxist core...". Larsen, p. 377. Ahimeir personally believed that the Nazis' anti-Semitism was just a nationalist ploy that did not have substance. Larsen, p. 381. After Ahimeir supported the Nazis, other Zionists within the ZRM quickly condemned Ahimeir and the Revisionist Maximalists for their support of Hitler. Larsen, p. 380. Ahimeir, in response to the outrage, in May 1933 reversed his position and opposed Nazi Germany and Revisionist Maximalists began to burn down German consolates and tore down German flags. Larsen, p. 380. However in 1933, Revisionist Maximalist' support quickly deteriorated and fell apart, support for Ahimeir did not recover and the Revisionist Maximalists collapsed until they were recreated in 1938 under new leadership, but did not regain significant influence. Larsen, p. 380. Integralism Plínio Salgado Flag of the Integralists. Brazilian Integralism is a salutary form of fascism created in Brazil by Plínio Salgado, the movement's figurehead and philosophical leader. The movement was founded in 1932 and was known in its native tongue as Ação Integralista Brasileira; rather than a reaction against the far-left which was not strong in Brazil at the time, the Integralists were initially founded to combat national disunity and the perceived weakness of the liberal state, hoping for national rebirth via a fascist form. Many of the ideas were similar to Italian fascism; it was militarised and favoured the creation of a strong centralised state with a corporatist, government directed economic policy. The party's nationalist element was influenced by the thought of Alberto Torres and was inclusionist, looking to create a strong national unity. While many of the members were Catholics, the group supported freedom of religion so as not to isolate Protestants in Brazil. As an ethnically diverse country due to its colonial history, the Integralists held a non-divisionist and anti-racist stance with the phrase, union of all races and all people; the members were mostly of European background such as Italian and Portuguese but there were also some people of Amerindian and African background. As Brazil was already territorially endowed, the Integralists had no need for an expansionist outlook. Early Falangism (Spain) José Antonio Primo de Rivera Falangism is a form of fascism founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera in 1934, emerging during the Second Spanish Republic. Primo de Rivera was the son of Miguel Primo de Rivera who was appointed Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Spain by Bourbon monarch Alfonso XIII of Spain; José's father served as military dictator from 1923—1930. In the local and municipal elections of 1931, republican candidates won the majority of votes in urban areas, what led to Alfonso XIII "suspend(ing) the exercise of royal power" and going into exile in Rome. Spain went from a kingdom into a far-left republic overnight. A liberal Republican Constitution was written, giving the right of autonomy to regions, stripping the nobility of juristic status and stripping from the Catholic Church its schools. In this environment José Antonio Primo de Rivera was inspired by Mussolini and Italy. Primo de Rivera founded the Falange Española party; referring to Ancient Greek military formation phalanx. A year later Falange Española merged with the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista party of Ramiro Ledesma and Onésimo Redondo. The party and Primo de Rivera presented the Falange Manifesto in November 1934; it promoted nationalism, unity, glorification of the Spanish Empire and dedication to the national syndicalism economic policy, inspired by integralism in which there is class collaboration. The manifesto supported agrarianism, to improve the standard of living for the peasants of the rural areas. It supported anti-capitalism, anti-Marxism, repudiated the latter's divisive class war philosophy, and was directly opposed to the ruling Republican regime. The Falange participated in the Spanish general election, 1936 with low results compared to the far-left Popular Front, but soon after increased in membership rapidly, with a membership of 40,000. José Antonio Primo de Rivera wrote in the Falange Manifesto: We reject the capitalist system, which disregards the needs of the people, dehumanizes private property, and transforms the workers into shapeless masses that are prone to misery and despair. Our spiritual and national awareness likewise repudiates Marxism. We shall channel the drive of the working classes, that are nowadays led astray by Marxism, by demanding their direct participation in the formidable task of the national State. Flag of the FET y de las JONS party. Primo de Rivera was captured by Republicans on 6 July 1936 and held in captivity at Alicante. The Spanish Civil War broke out on 17 July 1936 between the Republicans and the Nationalists, with the Falangistas fighting for Nationalist cause. Despite his incarceration Primo de Rivera was a strong symbol of the cause, referred to as El Ausente, meaning "the Absent One"; he was summarily executed on 20 November after a trial by socialists. General Francisco Franco, already the leader of the rebel Nationalists took over the leadership of the Falangists, even though he was less ideological than his predecessor. Franco's focus at this time was the push for victory in the war, and important flows of material came from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. A merger between the Falange and the Carlist traditionalists who support a different line of the monarchy to that of exiled Alfonso XIII took place in 1937, creating the FET y de las JONS, a more traditionalist, conservative party than the original Falagnists, and one which is desribed by some "authentic" Falangists as a move away from the party's original fascist principles. Franco balanced several different interests of elements in his party, in an effort to keep them united, especially in regard to the question of monarchy. The ideas of Falangism were also exported, mainly to parts of the Hispanosphere, especially in South America. In some countries these movements were obscure, in others they had some impact. The Bolivian Socialist Falange under Óscar Únzaga provided significant competition to the ruling government during the 1950s until the 1970s. In Peru, Catholic activist Luis Fernando Figari attempted to promote the ideals of Falangism before creating the youth Catholic association Sodalitium Christianae Vitae, in which, during the 70's, future members were educated in the official social doctine of the Church as well in the Falangismo. The adoctrination relied heavily on the mystic of Falangista songs, especially Cara al Sol. Falangism was significant in Lebanon through the Kataeb Party and its founder Pierre Gemayel. The Lebanese Falange fought for national independence which was won in 1943; they became significant during the complex and multifaceted Lebanese Civil War which was largely fought between Christians and Muslims. Rexism (Belgium) Léon Degrelle Flag of Rex Rexism was a fascist political movement in the first half of the twentieth century in Belgium. It was the ideology of the Rexist Party (Parti Rexiste), officially called Christus Rex, founded in 1930 by Léon Degrelle, a Walloon. The name was derived from the Roman Catholic social teachings concerning Christus Rex, and it was also the title of a conservative Catholic journal. The ideology of Rexism called for the moral renewal of Belgian society in conformity with the teachings of the Church, by forming a corporatist society, and abolishing democracy. The Rexist movement attracted support mostly among the Walloons; it had a counterpart on the Flemish side in the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond, or VNV. Rexism soon began to ally itself with the interests of Nazi Germany and to incorporate Nazi-style antisemitism into its platform after Adolf Hitler's rise to power, and got financial support from German interests, while ties to the Roman Catholic Church were increasingly cut off one-sidedly by the Belgian bishops. Some former Rexists went into the underground resistance against Nazi Germany, after they had come to see the Nazis' somewhat anticlerical and very anti-Semitic policies enforced in occupied Belgium (although others, notably José Streel, simply withdrew from political activity as a result of this). Most Rexists however proudly supported the occupiers and assisted Nazi Germany in its endeavors wherever they could. Para-fascism Some states and movements have certain characteristics of fascism, but scholars generally agree they are not fascist. Such near-fascist groups are generally anti-liberal, anti-communist and use similar political or paramilitary methods to fascists, but lack fascism's revolutionary goal to create a new national character. Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis Para-fascism is a term used to describe authoritarian regimes with aspects that differentiate them from true fascist states or movements. Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 3, 2002 Routledge Para-fascists typically eschewed radical change and some viewed genuine fascists as a threat. Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 326, 2002 Routledge Para-fascist states were often the home of genuine fascist movements, which were sometimes suppressed or co-opted, sometimes collaborated with. Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis Austrian Fatherland Front Engelbert Dollfuß Flag of the Fatherland Front of Austria. "Austrofascism" is a controversial category encompassing various para-fascist and semi-fascist movements in Austria in the 1930s. Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 255, 2002 Routledge In particular it refers to the Fatherland Front which became Austria's sole legal political party in 1934. The Fatherland Front's ideology was partly based on a fusion of Italian fascism, as expounded by Gentile, and Austria's Political Catholicism. It had an ideology of the "community of the people" (Volksgemeinschaft) that was different from that of the Nazis. They were similar in that both served to attack the idea of a class struggle by accusing leftism of destroying individuality, and thus help usher in a totalitarian state. Engelbert Dollfuß claimed he wanted to "over-Hitler" (überhitlern) Nazism. Unlike the ethnic nationalism promoted by Italian Fascists and Nazis, the Fatherland Front focused entirely on cultural nationalism such as Austrian identity and distinction from Germany, such as extolling Austria's ties to the Roman Catholic Church. According to this philosophy, Austrians were "better Germans" as the German population was mostly Protestant. The monarchy was elevated to the ideal of a powerful and far-reaching state, a status which Austria lost after the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The notion of the Fatherland Front being fascist was claimed due to the regime's support and similar ideology of Fascist Italy, but its intensely conservative nationalism is distinct from revolutionary fascism. 4th of August Regime (Greece) Ioannis Metaxas EON on parade, from its official magazine, I Neolaia. The double axe, emblem of the organisation, is visible on the standard The 4th of August Regime was an authoritarian regime under the leadership of General Ioannis Metaxas that ruled Greece from 1936 to 1941. There is some debate over how the regime relates to other authoritarian regimes of the era: those of Franco's Spain, Italian Fascism, and German Nazism. Richard Clogg argues that while the regime had "superficial trappings of Fascism" and Metaxas "did not disguise his admiration for Nazism and Fascism", it is "more correctly categorised as paternalist-authoritarian rather than fascist". Clogg (1987), p. 182 The roots of Metaxas' "New State" were sought in Greece's classical history. Metaxas thought Hellenic nationalism would galvanize "the heathen values of ancient Greece, specifically those of Sparta, along with the Christian values of the Medieval empire of Byzantium". Clogg (1992) As its main symbol, the followers of Metaxas chose the labrys, the symbol of ancient Minoan Crete. The traditional Greek values of "Country, Loyalty, Family and Religion", which Metaxas praised repeatedly, were also close to those of the ancient Spartans. Imperial Rule Assistance Association (Japan) Symbol of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association. Fumimaro Konoe founded the Imperial Rule Assistance Association in 1940. The Imperial Rule Assistance Association (大政翼賛会, Taisei Yokusankai) was an coalition of multiple fascist and nationalist political movements of Japan such as the Imperial Way Faction (皇道派, Kōdōha) and the Society of the East (東方会, Tōhōkai) which were previously competing for power. The IRAA was formed under the guidance of Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe who was seeking to politically unify the various Japanese fascist and nationalist groups together to reduce political friction and strengthen relations with the fascist regimes in Germany and Italy. Tsuzuki, Chushichi. The Pursuit of Power in Japan 1825-1995. Oxford University Press, 2000. P. 244. Nish, Ian. Japanese Foreign Policy. Routledge, 2001. P. 234. Prior to creation of the IRAA, Konoe had already passed the National Mobilization Law, which effectively nationalized strategic industries, the news media, and labor unions, in preparation for total war with China. After Konoe was replaced by Hideki Tōjō (a former member of the Imperial Way Faction), Tōjō entrenched the IRAA as the country's ruling political movement. Tōjō during this period attempted to establish himself as the absolute leader of Japan's government, called by his supporters as a Shogun (an ancient title given to supreme military commanders). Large, Stephen S. 1998. Showa Japan: Political, Economic and Social History, 1926-1989. Taylor & Francis. pp. 9-10. The IRAA held one fundamental difference from fascism in Europe, which was that the cult of personality for the movement did not focus on the head of government but instead focused on the Emperor of Japan who is regarded in Japanese society as being associated with the divine. Tsuzuki, Chushichi. The Pursuit of Power in Japan 1825-1995. Oxford University Press, 2000. P. 244. Nish, Ian. Japanese Foreign Policy. Routledge, 2001. P. 234. The IRAA pursued a totalitarian course to take control of Japanese society beginning by creating the mandatory Tonarigumi (Neighbourhood Association) system consisting of 10 to 15 households whereby each unit was responsible for allocating rationed goods, distributing government bonds, fire fighting, public health, civil defense and assisting the IRAA's National Spiritual Mobilization Movement, by distribution of government propaganda, and organizing participation in patriotic rallies. Pekkanan, Japan's dual civil society. Members without advocates All Japanese youth and women were forced to be part of organizations of the IRAA in 1942. Modern Japan in archives, the Yokusan System, http://www.ndl.go.jp/modern/e/cha4/description15.html All youth organizations were merged into the , based on the model of the Nazi Sturmabteilung. After the 1942 general election, all members of the Japanese parliament were forced to become members of the IRAA, making Japan a single-party state. The IRAA government promoted Japanese expansionism and imperialism, declaring that Japan would form and lead a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere". Tsuzuki, Chushichi. The Pursuit of Power in Japan 1825-1995. Oxford University Press, 2000. P. 245. References Notes Primary sources Gentile, Giovanni. 1932. The Doctrine of Fascism. Enciclopedia Italiana. de Oliveira Salazar, António. 1939. Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928-1939. Faber and Faber. Mosley, Sir Oswald. 1968. My Life. Nelson Publications. de Rivera, José Antonio Primo. 1971. Textos de Doctrina Politica. Madrid. Mussolini, Benito. 1998. My Rise And Fall . Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306808641 Ciano, Galezzo. 2001. The Ciano Diaries, 1939—1943. Simon Publications. ISBN 1931313741 Mussolini, Benito. 2006. My Autobiography: With "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism". Dover Publications. ISBN 0486447774 Secondary sources Evans, Richard J, The Third Reich in Power: 1933-1939, The Penguin Press HC, 2005 De Felice, Renzo. 1976. Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice. Transaction Books. ISBN 0878556192 De Felice, Renzo. 1977. Interpretations of Fascism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674459628. Ben-Am, Shlomo. 1983. Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923-1930. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198225962 Payne, Stanley G. 1987. The Franco Regime, 1936-1975. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299110702 Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. 1988. Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936-1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas. Routledge. ISBN 0714648698 Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299148742 Costa Pinto, António. 1995. Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of Interpretation. Social Science Monographs. ISBN 0880339683 Griffiths, Richard. 2001. An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism. Duckworth. ISBN 0715629182 Lewis, Paul H. 2002. Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027597880X Payne, Stanley G. 2003. Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism. Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0758134452 Paxton, Robert O. 2005. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books. ISBN 1400033918 Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane. Nolte, Ernst The Three Faces Of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965. Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers. Alfred Sohn-Rethel Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism, London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007 Kallis, Aristotle A. ," To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Apr., 2003), pp. 237–260. Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5 Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London. Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" pages 404-424 from The American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967. Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250 Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.) 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6,960 | Politics_of_Colombia | The Politics of Colombia take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Colombia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of congress, the Senate of Colombia and the House of Representatives of Colombia. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Constitutional Reforms Colombia's present constitution, enacted on July 5, 1991, strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an adversarial system which ultimately is to entirely replace the existing Napoleonic Code. Other significant reforms under the new constitution provide for civil divorce, dual nationality, the election of a vice president, and the election of departmental governors. The constitution expanded citizens' basic rights, including that of "tutela," under which an immediate court action can be requested by an individual if he or she feels that their constitutional rights are being violated and if there is no other legal recourse. The national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Executive branch The president is elected for a four-year term and, since 2005, can be re-elected for one consecutive term. The 1991 constitution reestablished the position of vice president, who is elected on the same ticket as the president. By law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president's resignation, illness, or death. Legislative branch Colombia's bicameral Congress consists of a 102-member Senate of Colombia and a 161-member Chamber of Representatives of Colombia. Senators are elected on the basis of a nationwide ballot, while representatives are elected in multimember districts co-located within the 32 national departments. The country's capital is a separate capital district and elects its own representatives. Members may be re-elected indefinitely, and, in contrast to the previous system, there are no alternate congressmen. Congress meets twice a year, and the president has the power to call it into special session when needed. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The civilian judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government. Guidelines and the general structure for Colombia's administration of justice are set out in Law 270 of March 7, 1996. Colombia's legal system has recently begun to incorporate some elements of an oral, accusatorial system. The judicial branch's general structure is composed of four distinct jurisdictions (civilian, administrative, constitutional, and special). Colombia's highest judicial organs include the Supreme Court, the Council of State, the Constitutional Court, and the Superior Judicial Council. This sometimes leads to conflicting opinions since there is no one court which clearly has authority over the decisions of the other three. International organization participation BCIE, CAN, CDB, CSN, FAO, G-3, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ITUC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MIGA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO | Politics_of_Colombia |@lemmatized politics:1 colombia:11 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:1 representative:5 democratic:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:8 head:2 state:2 government:5 multi:1 party:2 system:5 executive:4 power:3 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 two:1 chamber:2 congress:3 senate:2 house:1 judiciary:2 independent:2 legislature:1 constitutional:4 reform:2 present:1 constitution:4 enact:1 july:1 strengthen:1 administration:2 justice:2 provision:1 introduction:1 adversarial:1 ultimately:1 entirely:1 replace:1 exist:1 napoleonic:1 code:1 significant:1 new:1 provide:1 civil:1 divorce:1 dual:1 nationality:1 election:3 vice:3 departmental:1 governor:1 expand:1 citizen:1 basic:1 right:2 include:2 tutela:1 immediate:1 court:4 action:1 request:1 individual:1 feel:1 violate:1 legal:2 recourse:1 national:2 separate:3 judicial:5 branch:6 elect:7 four:2 year:2 term:2 since:2 one:2 consecutive:1 reestablish:1 position:1 ticket:1 law:2 succeed:1 event:1 resignation:1 illness:1 death:1 bicameral:1 consist:1 member:3 senator:1 basis:1 nationwide:1 ballot:1 multimember:1 district:2 co:1 locate:1 within:1 department:1 country:1 capital:2 may:1 indefinitely:1 contrast:1 previous:1 alternate:1 congressman:1 meet:1 twice:1 call:1 special:2 session:1 need:1 political:1 civilian:2 guideline:1 general:2 structure:2 set:1 march:1 recently:1 begin:1 incorporate:1 element:1 oral:1 accusatorial:1 compose:1 distinct:1 jurisdiction:1 administrative:1 high:1 organ:1 supreme:1 council:2 superior:1 sometimes:1 lead:1 conflict:1 opinion:1 clearly:1 authority:1 decision:1 three:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 bcie:1 cdb:1 csn:1 fao:1 g:3 iadb:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 icct:1 ituc:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 iho:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 laes:1 laia:1 mercosur:1 associate:1 miga:1 nam:1 oas:1 opanal:1 opcw:1 pca:1 rg:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 upu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wto:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 vice_president:3 judicial_branch:3 legislative_branch:1 supreme_court:1 g_iadb:1 iadb_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_iho:1 iho_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_laes:1 nam_oas:1 opanal_opcw:1 opcw_pca:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unhcr:1 unhcr_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wco:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wto:1 |
6,961 | Bird | Birds (class Aves) are winged, bipedal, endothermic (warm-blooded), vertebrate animals that lay eggs. There are around 10,000 living species, making them the most numerous tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Birds range in size from the Bee Hummingbird to the Ostrich. The fossil record indicates that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period, around 150–200 Ma (million years ago), and the earliest known bird is the Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx, c 155–150 Ma. Most paleontologists regard birds as the only clade of dinosaurs that survived the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event approximately 65.5 Ma. Modern birds are characterised by feathers, a beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. All birds have forelimbs modified as wings and most can fly, with some exceptions including ratites, penguins, and a number of diverse endemic island species. Birds also have unique digestive and respiratory systems that are highly adapted for flight. Some birds, especially corvids and parrots, are among the most intelligent animal species; a number of bird species have been observed manufacturing and using tools, and many social species exhibit cultural transmission of knowledge across generations. Many species undertake long distance annual migrations, and many more perform shorter irregular movements. Birds are social; they communicate using visual signals and through calls and songs, and participate in social behaviours including cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous ("many females") or, rarely, polyandrous ("many males"). Eggs are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Many species are of economic importance, mostly as sources of food acquired through hunting or farming. Some species, particularly songbirds and parrots, are popular as pets. Other uses include the harvesting of guano (droppings) for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure prominently in all aspects of human culture from religion to poetry to popular music. About 120–130 species have become extinct as a result of human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Currently about 1,200 species of birds are threatened with extinction by human activities, though efforts are underway to protect them. Evolution and taxonomy Archaeopteryx, the earliest known bird The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carolus Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use. Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda. Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, together are the sole living members of the reptile clade Archosauria. Phylogenetically, Aves is commonly defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica. Archaeopteryx, from the Tithonian stage of the Late Jurassic (some 150–145 million years ago), is the earliest known bird under this definition. Others, including Jacques Gauthier and adherents of the Phylocode system, have defined Aves to include only the modern bird groups. This has been done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the Avialae in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs. All modern birds lie within the subclass Neornithes, which has two subdivisions: the Paleognathae, containing mostly flightless birds like ostriches, and the wildly diverse Neognathae, containing all other birds. These two subdivisions are often given the rank of superorder, although Livezey & Zusi assigned them "cohort" rank. Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint, the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9,800 to 10,050. Dinosaurs and the origin of birds Confuciusornis, a Cretaceous bird from China Fossil evidence and intensive biological analyses have demonstrated beyond any reasonable doubt that birds are a specialised sub-group of theropod dinosaurs. see eg Richard O. Prum "Who's Your Daddy" Science 322 1799-1800, citing also R. O. Prum, Auk 119, 1 (2002) More specifically, they are members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids, among others. As scientists discover more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrate that many small theropod dinosaurs had feathers, contribute to this ambiguity. The consensus view in contemporary paleontology is that the birds, Aves, are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids. Together, these three form a group called Paraves. The basal dromaeosaur Microraptor has features which may have enabled it to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs are very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal, and/or may have been able to glide. The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well-known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx has clearly reptilian characteristics: teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail, but it has finely preserved wings with flight feathers identical to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of modern birds, but is the oldest and most primitive member of Aves or Avialae, and it is probably closely related to the real ancestor. It has even been suggested that Archaeopteryx was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups, and that Avimimus was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than Archaeopteryx. Alternative theories and controversies There have been many controversies in the study of the origin of birds. Early disagreements included whether birds evolved from dinosaurs or more primitive archosaurs. Within the dinosaur camp there were disagreements as to whether ornithischian or theropod dinosaurs were the more likely ancestors. Heilmann, Gerhard (1927). The Origin of Birds. New York: Dover Publications. Although ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the hip structure of modern birds, birds are thought to have originated from the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs, and therefore evolved their hip structure independently. In fact, a bird-like hip structure evolved a third time among a peculiar group of theropods known as the Therizinosauridae. A few scientists suggest that birds are not dinosaurs, but evolved from early archosaurs like Longisquama. This theory is contested by most paleontologists Early evolution of birds Basal bird phylogeny simplified after Chiappe, 2007 Birds diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of bird groups, including modern birds (Neornithes). While the earliest forms, such as Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis, retained the long bony tails of their ancestors, the tails of more advanced birds were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the clade Pygostylia. The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed birds to evolve were the Enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. More advanced lineages also specialised in eating fish, like the superficially gull-like subclass of Ichthyornithes ("fish birds"). One order of Mesozoic seabirds, the Hesperornithiformes, became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. Despite their extreme specialisations, the Hesperornithiformes represent some of the closest relatives of modern birds. Radiation of modern birds Moa attacked by a Haast's Eagle Containing all modern birds, the subclass Neornithes is, due to the discovery of Vegavis, now known to have evolved into some basic lineages by the end of the Cretaceous Supporting information and is split into two superorders, the Paleognathae and Neognathae. The paleognaths include the tinamous of Central and South America and the ratites. The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae, the superorder containing the Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans and screamers) and the Galliformes (the pheasants, grouse, and their allies, together with the mound builders and the guans and their allies). The dates for the splits are much debated by scientists. It is agreed that the Neornithes evolved in the Cretaceous, and that the split between the Galloanseri from other Neognathes occurred before the K–T extinction event, but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining Neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs. This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation, while fossil evidence supports a Tertiary radiation. Attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial. The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds, although it is frequently debated and constantly revised. Most evidence seems to suggest that the assignment of orders is accurate, but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders. Modern bird orders: Classification Basal divergences of modern birdsbased on Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy This is a list of the taxonomic orders in the subclass Neornithes, or modern birds. This list uses the traditional classification (the so-called Clements order), revised by the Sibley-Monroe classification. The list of birds gives a more detailed summary of the orders, including families. Subclass Neornithes The subclass Neornithes comprises two superorders - Superorder Paleognathae: The name of the superorder is derived from 'paleognath', the ancient Greek for "old jaws" in reference to the skeletal anatomy of the palate, which is described as more primitive and reptilian than that in other birds. The Paleognathae consists of two orders which comprise of 49 existing species. Struthioniformes—ostriches, emus, kiwis, and allies Tinamiformes—tinamous Superorder Neognathae: The superorder Neognathae comprises 27 orders which have a total of nearly ten thousand species. The Neognathae have undergone adaptive radiation to produce the staggering diversity of form (especially of the bill and feet), function, and behavior that we see today. The orders comprising the Neognathae are: Anseriformes—waterfowl Galliformes—fowl Charadriiformes—gulls, button-quails, plovers and allies Gaviiformes—loons Podicipediformes—grebes Procellariiformes—albatrosses, petrels, and allies Sphenisciformes—penguins Pelecaniformes—pelicans and allies Phaethontiformes—tropicbirds Ciconiiformes—storks and allies Cathartiformes—New World vultures Phoenicopteriformes—flamingos Falconiformes—falcons, eagles, hawks and allies Gruiformes—cranes and allies Pteroclidiformes—sandgrouse Columbiformes—doves and pigeons Psittaciformes—parrots and allies Cuculiformes—cuckoos and turacos Opisthocomiformes—hoatzin Strigiformes—owls Caprimulgiformes—nightjars and allies Apodiformes—swifts and hummingbirds Coraciiformes—kingfishers and allies Piciformes—woodpeckers and allies Trogoniformes—trogons Coliiformes—mousebirds Passeriformes—passerines The radically different Sibley-Monroe classification (Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy), based on molecular data, found widespread adoption in a few aspects, as recent molecular, fossil, and anatomical evidence supported the Galloanserae for example. Distribution The range of the House Sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human activities. Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the Snow Petrel's breeding colonies up to inland in Antarctica. The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics, however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics. Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been recorded diving up to . Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the Ring-necked Pheasant, for example, has been introduced around the world as a game bird. Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild Monk Parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity. Some species, including Cattle Egret, Yellow-headed Caracara and Galah, have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat. Anatomy and physiology External anatomy of a bird: 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Median coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Feet, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate flight. The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory system. Based on The Birder's Handbook (Paul Ehrlich, David Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. 1988. Simon and Schuster, New York.) The skull bones are fused and do not show cranial sutures. The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum. The spine has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae. The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum. The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings. Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca. The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate pellets. The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration. (Erratum in Proceedings of the Royal Society B 267(1461):2567.) Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups. Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lung and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation. Sound production is achieved using the syrinx, a muscular chamber with several tympanic membranes which is situated at the lower end of the trachea, from where it separates. PMID 15313772 The bird's heart has four chambers and the right aortic arch gives rise to systemic circulation (unlike in the mammals where the left arch is involved). The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in mammals, the red blood cells in birds have a nucleus. The nervous system is large relative to the bird's size. The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. Most birds have a poor sense of smell with notable exceptions including kiwis, New World vultures and tubenoses. The avian visual system is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water. Some species also have dual fovea. Birds are tetrachromatic, possessing ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones. This allows them to perceive ultraviolet light, which is involved in courtship. Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers. Male Blue Tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers. Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents. The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third eyelid that moves horizontally. The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds. The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten. Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the Great Cormorant. Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, while birds with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field. The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers, although in some birds, such as the Asio, Bubo and Otus owls, these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The inner ear has a cochlea, but it is not spiral as in mammals. A few species are able to use chemical defenses against predators; some Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant oil against an aggressor, and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers. Chromosomes Birds have two sexes: male and female. The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes, rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals. Male birds have two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome (WZ). In nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at fertilization. However, one recent study demonstrated temperature-dependent sex determination among Australian Brush-turkeys, for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male sex ratio. Feathers, plumage, and scales The plumage of the African Scops Owl allows it to blend in with its surroundings. Feathers are a feature unique to birds. They facilitate flight, provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation, and are used in display, camouflage, and signaling. There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called plumage, may vary within species by age, social status, and sex. Plumage is regularly moulted; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the "non-breeding" plumage, or – in the Humphrey-Parkes terminology – "basic" plumage; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey-Parkes system as "alternate" plumages. Moulting is annual in most species, although some may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species. In passerines, flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the innermost primary being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced, the outermost tertiaries begin to drop. After the innermost tertiaries are moulted, the secondaries starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal moult). The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap. A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless. de Beer SJ, Lockwood GM, Raijmakers JHFS, Raijmakers JMH, Scott WA, Oschadleus HD, Underhill LG (2001). SAFRING Bird Ringing Manual. SAFRING. As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair. Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae. The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail. The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from center outward. Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation. Red Lory preening Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this. The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent, inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading bacteria. This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting, to remove feather parasites. The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not overlap significantly, except in the cases of kingfishers and woodpeckers. The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those of reptiles and mammals. Flight Restless Flycatcher in the downstroke of flapping flight Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrates. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for breeding, feeding, and predator avoidance and escape. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis, which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird, and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as an aerofoil. Wing shape and size generally determine a bird species' type of flight; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators. Though flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly" through the water, as do auks, shearwaters and dippers. Behaviour Most birds are diurnal, but some birds, such as many species of owls and nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours), and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or night. Diet and feeding Feeding adaptations in beaks Birds' diets are varied and often include nectar, fruit, plants, seeds, carrion, and various small animals, including other birds. Because birds have no teeth, their digestive system is adapted to process unmasticated food items that are swallowed whole. Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists. Birds' feeding strategies vary by species. Many birds glean for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds, sunbirds, lories, and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co-adapted flowers. Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of ecological niches. Loons, diving ducks, penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion, while aerial predators such as sulids, kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey. Flamingos, three species of prion, and some ducks are filter feeders. Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily grazers. Some species, including frigatebirds, gulls, and skuas, engage in kleptoparasitism, stealing food items from other birds. Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting, rather than a significant part of any species' diet; a study of Great Frigatebirds stealing from Masked Boobies estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40% of their food and on average stole only 5%. Other birds are scavengers; some of these, like vultures, are specialised carrion eaters, while others, like gulls, corvids, or other birds of prey, are opportunists. Water and drinking Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of sweat glands reduces the physiological demands. Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting. Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils. Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat. Some species, especially of arid zones, belonging to the pigeon, finch, mousebird, button-quail and bustard families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads. Some desert birds depend on water sources and sandgrouse are particularly well-known for their daily congregations at waterholes. Nesting sandgrouse carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers. Migration Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of seasonal temperatures, therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups. Many landbirds, shorebirds, and waterbirds undertake annual long distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions. These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or arctic/antarctic regions and a non-breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs. Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling. Landbirds have a flight range of around and shorebirds can fly up to , although the Bar-tailed Godwit is capable of non-stop flights of up to . Seabirds also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of Sooty Shearwaters, which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of . Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons. The routes of satellite tagged Bar-tailed Godwits migrating north from New Zealand. This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any species, up to . Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food. Irruptive species such as the boreal finches are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next. This type of migration is normally associated with food availability. Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range, with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics; others undertake partial migrations, where only a fraction of the population, usually females and subdominant males, migrates. Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions; in Australia, surveys found that 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerines were partially migratory. Altitudinal migration is a form of short distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes elevations and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions. It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when the normal territories also become inhospitable due to lack of food. Some species may also be nomadic, holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability. Parrots as a family are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive, irruptive, nomadic or undertake small and irregular migrations. The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s a Manx Shearwater released in Boston returned to its colony in Skomer, Wales within 13 days, a distance of . Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods. For diurnal migrants, the sun is used to navigate by day, and a stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an internal clock. Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the constellations surrounding Polaris. These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's geomagnetism through specialised photoreceptors. Communication The startling display of the Sunbittern mimics a large predator. Birds communicate using primarily visual and auditory signals. Signals can be interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within species). Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance, to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the Sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks. Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species. Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds. The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements; males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays. Call of the House Wren, a common North American songbird Bird calls and songs, which are produced in the syrinx, are the major means by which birds communicate with sound. This communication can be very complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs. Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate attraction, evaluation of potential mates, bond formation, the claiming and maintenance of territories, the identification of other individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season ), and the warning of other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat. Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication. The Coenocorypha snipes of New Zealand drive air through their feathers, woodpeckers drum territorially, and Palm Cockatoos use tools to drum. Flocking and other associations Red-billed Queleas, the most numerous species of bird, form enormous flocks—sometimes tens of thousands strong. While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups, other birds may form large flocks. The principal benefits of flocking are safety in numbers and increased foraging efficiency. Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests, where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable early warning system. This has led to the development of many mixed-species feeding flocks, which are usually composed of small numbers of many species; these flocks provide safety in numbers but reduce potential competition for resources. Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases. Birds sometimes also form associations with non-avian species. Plunge-diving seabirds associate with dolphins and tuna, which push shoaling fish towards the surface. Hornbills have a mutualistic relationship with Dwarf Mongooses, in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators. Resting and roosting Many birds, like this American Flamingo, tuck their head into their back when sleeping The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening 'peeks', allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats. Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight. It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight. Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from marine mammals. Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators. Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety. Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside down. Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates. This physiological adaptation shows nearly a hundred other species, including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the Common Poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation. Birds do not have sweat glands, but they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohydrosis to cool themselves. Breeding Social systems Red-necked Phalaropes have an unusual polyandrous mating system where males care for the eggs and chicks and brightly coloured females compete for males. Warnock, Nils & Sarah (2001). "Sandpipers, Phalaropes and Allies" in The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behaviour (eds Chris Elphick, John B. Dunning, Jr & David Sibley) London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 0-7136-6250-6 Ninety-five percent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for biparental care, which is especially important for species in which females require males' assistance for successful brood-rearing. Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common. Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids. For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate. Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise. Other mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances. Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal lekking. Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection, although in the polyandrous phalaropes, this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females. Courtship feeding, billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated. Territories, nesting and incubation Nest of Eurasian Blackbird Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks. Species that are unable to defend feeding territories, such as seabirds and swifts, often breed in colonies instead; this is thought to offer protection from predators. Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites, and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense. Kokko H, Harris M, Wanless S (2004). "Competition for breeding sites and site-dependent population regulation in a highly colonial seabird, the common guillemot Uria aalge." Journal of Animal Ecology 73 (2): 367–76. All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate. Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts. Booker L, Booker M (1991). "Why Are Cuckoos Host Specific?" Oikos 57 (3): 301–09. The nesting colonies of the Sociable Weaver are amongst the largest bird-created structures. Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Hansell M (2000). Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour. University of Cambridge Press ISBN 0-521-46038-7 Some bird nests, however, are extremely primitive; albatross nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival, Lafuma L, Lambrechts M, Raymond M (2001). "Aromatic plants in bird nests as a protection against blood-sucking flying insects?" Behavioural Processes 56 (2) 113–20. and feathers are often used for nest insulation. Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting Common Guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male Emperor Penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground-nesting species where the newly hatched young are precocial. Incubation, which optimises temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid. In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through brood patches, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as of body weight per day of incubation. Warham, J. (1990) The Petrels - Their Ecology and Breeding Systems London: Academic Press ISBN 0127354204. The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun, decaying vegetation or volcanic sources. Jones DN, Dekker, René WRJ, Roselaar, Cees S (1995). The Megapodes. Bird Families of the World 3. Oxford University Press: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-854651-3 Incubation periods range from 10 days (in woodpeckers, cuckoos and passerine birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and kiwis). Parental care and fledging At the time of their hatching, chicks range in development from helpless to independent, depending on their species. Helpless chicks are termed altricial, and tend to be born small, blind, immobile and naked; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed precocial. Altricial chicks need help thermoregulating and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks. Chicks at neither of these extremes can be semi-precocial or semi-altricial. The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in megapodes ends at hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately. Elliot A (1994). "Family Megapodiidae (Megapodes)" in Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 2; New World Vultures to Guineafowl (eds del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J) Lynx Edicions:Barcelona. ISBN 84-873337-15-6 At the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental care, the longest being that of the Great Frigatebird, whose chicks take up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months. Metz VG, Schreiber EA (2002). "Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor)" In The Birds of North America, No 681, (Poole, A. & Gill, F., eds) The Birds of North America Inc: Philadelphia Great Blue Heron parents and chicks at the nest In some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, other members of the same species—usually close relatives of the breeding pair, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young. Ekman J (2006). "Family living amongst birds." Journal of Avian Biology 37 (4): 289–98. Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida, which includes such birds as the true crows, Australian Magpie and Fairy-wrens, but has been observed in species as different as the Rifleman and Red Kite. Among most groups of animals, male parental care is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common—more so than in any other vertebrate class. Though territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often shared tasks, there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty. The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically. The chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets, like the Ancient Murrelet, leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators. Gaston AJ (1994). Ancient Murrelet (Synthliboramphus antiquus). In The Birds of North America, No. 132 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologists' Union. Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging. Schaefer HC, Eshiamwata GW, Munyekenye FB, Bohning-Gaese K (2004). "Life-history of two African Sylvia warblers: low annual fecundity and long post-fledging care." Ibis 146 (3): 427–37. Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration. Alonso JC, Bautista LM, Alonso JA (2004). "Family-based territoriality vs flocking in wintering common cranes Grus grus." Journal of Avian Biology 35 (5): 434–44. Brood parasites Reed Warbler raising a Common Cuckoo, a brood parasite. Brood parasitism, in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of organism. Davies N (2000). Cuckoos, Cowbirds and other Cheats. T. & A. D. Poyser: London ISBN 0-85661-135-2 After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young, or non-obligate brood parasites, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young. Sorenson M (1997). "Effects of intra- and interspecific brood parasitism on a precocial host, the canvasback, Aythya valisineria." Behavioral Ecology 8 (2) 153–61. PDF One hundred bird species, including honeyguides, icterids, estrildid finches and ducks, are obligate parasites, though the most famous are the cuckoos. Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks. Spottiswoode C, Colebrook-Robjent J (2007). "Egg puncturing by the brood parasitic Greater Honeyguide and potential host counteradaptations." Behavioral Ecology Ecology The South Polar Skua (left) is a generalist predator, taking the eggs of other birds, fish, carrion and other animals. This skua is attempting to push an Adelie Penguin (right) off its nest Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions. While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the niches occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the forest canopy, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be insectivores, frugivores, and nectarivores. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy or kleptoparasitism. Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised scavengers. Some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal. Clout M, Hay J (1989). "The importance of birds as browsers, pollinators and seed dispersers in New Zealand forests." New Zealand Journal of Ecology 12 27–33 PDF Plants and pollinating birds often coevolve, Stiles F (1981). "Geographical Aspects of Bird–Flower Coevolution, with Particular Reference to Central America." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 68 (2) 323–51. and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar. Temeles E, Linhart Y, Masonjones M, Masonjones H (2002). "The Role of Flower Width in Hummingbird Bill Length–Flower Length Relationships." Biotropica 34 (1): 68–80. PDF Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfill ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand the moas were important browsers, as are the Kereru and Kokako today. Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa. Bond W, Lee W, Craine J (2004). "Plant structural defences against browsing birds: a legacy of New Zealand's extinct moas." Oikos 104 (3), 500–08. Nesting seabirds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil Wainright S, Haney J, Kerr C, Golovkin A, Flint M (1998). "Utilization of nitrogen derived from seabird guano by terrestrial and marine plants at St. Paul, Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea, Alaska." Marine Ecology 131 (1) 63–71. PDF and the surrounding seas. Bosman A, Hockey A (1986). "Seabird guano as a determinant of rocky intertidal community structure." Marine Ecology Progress Series 32: 247–57 PDF A wide variety of Avian ecology field methods, including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking, are used for researching avian ecology. Relationship with humans Industrial farming of chickens. Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana. Dean W, Siegfried R, MacDonald I (1990). "The Fallacy, Fact, and Fate of Guiding Behavior in the Greater Honeyguide." Conservation Biology 4 (1) 99–101. PDF Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the House Sparrow Singer R, Yom-Tov Y (1988). "The Breeding Biology of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus in Israel." Ornis Scandinavica 19 139–44. have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, Dolbeer R (1990). "Ornithology and integrated pest management: Red-winged blackbirds Agleaius phoeniceus and corn." Ibis 132 (2): 309–22. and some pose an aviation hazard. Dolbeer R, Belant J, Sillings J (1993). "Shooting Gulls Reduces Strikes with Aircraft at John F. Kennedy International Airport." Wildlife Society Bulletin 21: 442–50. Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction. Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis), avian influenza (bird flu), giardiasis, and cryptosporidiosis over long distances. Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be transmitted to humans. Reed KD, Meece JK, Henkel JS, Shukla SK (2003). "Birds, Migration and Emerging Zoonoses: West Nile Virus, Lyme Disease, Influenza A and Enteropathogens." Clin Med Res. 1 (1):5–12. PMID 15931279 Economic importance Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called poultry, are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide. Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption, though turkeys, ducks, and geese are also relatively common. Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include pheasants, wild turkeys, quail, doves, partridge, grouse, snipe, and woodcock. Simeone A, Navarro X (2002). "Human exploitation of seabirds in coastal southern Chile during the mid-Holocene." Rev. chil. hist. nat 75 (2): 423–31 Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand. Hamilton S (2000). "How precise and accurate are data obtained using. an infra-red scope on burrow-nesting sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus?" Marine Ornithology 28 (1): 1–6 PDF Though some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species. Keane A, Brooke MD, Mcgowan PJK (2005). "Correlates of extinction risk and hunting pressure in gamebirds (Galliformes)." Biological Conservation 126 (2): 216–33. The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction. Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially the down of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding, and seabird feces (guano), which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen. The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Guano War, was fought in part over the control of guano deposits. Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in captivity or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species. Cooney R, Jepson P (2006). "The international wild bird trade: what's wrong with blanket bans?" Oryx 40 (1): 18–23. PDF Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing, respectively. Messenger pigeons, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as World War II. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism, Manzi M (2002). "Cormorant fishing in Southwestern China: a Traditional Fishery under Siege. (Geographical Field Note)." Geographic Review 92 (4): 597–603. or for sports such as pigeon racing. Amateur bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, birders) number in the millions. Pullis La Rouche, G. (2006). Birding in the United States: a demographic and economic analysis. Waterbirds around the world. Eds. G.C. Boere, C.A. Galbraith & D.A. Stroud. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh, UK. pp. 841–46. PDF Many homeowners erect bird feeders near their homes to attract various species. Bird feeding has grown into a multimillion dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter. Chamberlain DE, Vickery JA, Glue DE, Robinson RA, Conway GJ, Woodburn RJW, Cannon AR (2005). "Annual and seasonal trends in the use of garden feeders by birds in winter." Ibis 147 (3): 563–75. PDF Religion, folklore and culture "The 3 of Birds" by the Master of the Playing Cards, 16th century Germany Birds play prominent and diverse roles in folklore, religion, and popular culture. In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity, such as in the Cult of Makemake, in which the Tangata manu of Easter Island served as chiefs, Routledge S, Routledge K (1917). "The Bird Cult of Easter Island." Folklore 28 (4): 337–55. or as attendants, as in the case of Hugin and Munin, two Common Ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin. Chappell J (2006). "Living with the Trickster: Crows, Ravens, and Human Culture." PLoS Biol 4 (1):e14. They may also serve as religious symbols, as when Jonah (Hebrew: יוֹנָה, dove) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves. Hauser A (1985). "Jonah: In Pursuit of the Dove." Journal of Biblical Literature 104 (1): 21–37. Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the Common Peacock, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the Dravidians of India. Nair P (1974). "The Peacock Cult in Asia." Asian Folklore Studies 33 (2): 93–170. Some birds have also been perceived as monsters, including the mythological Roc and the Māori's legendary Pouākai, a giant bird capable of snatching humans. Tennyson A, Martinson P (2006). Extinct Birds of New Zealand Te Papa Press, Wellington ISBN 978-0-909010-21-8 Birds have been featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early cave paintings. Meighan C (1966). "Prehistoric Rock Paintings in Baja California." American Antiquity 31 (3): 372–92. Birds were later used in religious or symbolic art and design, such as the magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors. Clarke CP (1908). "A Pedestal of the Platform of the Peacock Throne." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 3 (10): 182–83. With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books. Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon, whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society. Boime A (1999). "John James Audubon, a birdwatcher's fanciful flights." Art History 22 (5) 728–55. Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, Homer incorporated Nightingales into his Odyssey, and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2. Chandler A (1934). "The Nightingale in Greek and Latin Poetry." The Classical Journal 30 (2): 78–84. The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a 'burden'. Lasky E (1992). "A Modern Day Albatross: The Valdez and Some of Life's Other Spills." The English Journal, 81 (3): 44–46. Other English metaphors derive from birds; vulture funds and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture. Carson A (1998). "Vulture Investors, Predators of the 90s: An Ethical Examination." Journal of Business Ethics 17 (5): 543–55. PDF Perceptions of various bird species often vary across cultures. Owls are associated with bad luck, witchcraft, and death in parts of Africa, Enriquez PL, Mikkola H (1997). "Comparative study of general public owl knowledge in Costa Rica, Central America and Malawi, Africa." Pp. 160–66 In: J.R. Duncan, D.H. Johnson, T.H. Nicholls, (Eds). Biology and conservation of owls of the Northern Hemisphere. General Technical Report NC-190, USDA Forest Service, St. Paul, Minnesota. 635 pp. but are regarded as wise across much of Europe. Lewis DP (2005). Owls in Mythology and Culture. The Owl Pages. Retrieved on 15 September 2007 Hoopoes were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia, but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia. Dupree N (1974). "An Interpretation of the Role of the Hoopoe in Afghan Folklore and Magic." Folklore 85 (3): 173–93. Conservation Though human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as the Barn Swallow and European Starling, they have caused population decreases or extinction in many other species. Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times, Fuller E (2000). Extinct Birds (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. ISBN 0-19-850837-9 although the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated 750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian, Polynesian, and Micronesian islands. Steadman D (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7 Many bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as threatened by Birdlife International and the IUCN in 2009. The most commonly cited human threat to birds is habitat loss. Norris K, Pain D (eds) (2002). Conserving Bird Biodiversity: General Principles and their Application Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521789493 Other threats include overhunting, accidental mortality due to structural collisions or long-line fishing bycatch, Brothers NP (1991). "Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean." Biological Conservation 55: 255–68. pollution (including oil spills and pesticide use), Wurster D, Wurster C, Strickland W (1965). "Bird Mortality Following DDT Spray for Dutch Elm Disease." Ecology 46 (4): 488–99. competition and predation from nonnative invasive species, Blackburn T, Cassey P, Duncan R, Evans K, Gaston K (2004). "Avian Extinction and Mammalian Introductions on Oceanic Islands." Science 305: 1955–58. and climate change. Governments and conservation groups work to protect birds, either by passing laws that preserve and restore bird habitat or by establishing captive populations for reintroductions. Such projects have produced some successes; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16 species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004, including the California Condor and Norfolk Island Green Parrot. Butchart S, Stattersfield A, Collar N (2006). "How many bird extinctions have we prevented?" Oryx 40 (3): 266–79 PDF Notes External links Avibase – The World Bird Database Birdlife International – Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species. Bird biogeography Birds and Science from the National Audubon Society Cornell Lab of Ornithology Essays on bird biology International Ornithological Committee North American Birds for Kids Ornithology Sora Searchable online research archive; Archives of the following ornithological journals The Auk, Condor, Journal of Field Ornithology, North American Bird Bander, Studies in Avian Biology, Pacific Coast Avifauna, and the Wilson Bulletin. 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6,962 | Mario_Berlinguer | Mario Berlinguer () (1891-1969) was an Italian lawyer and politician. He descended from a noble Sardinian family. Born in Sassari, in his youth he was a follower of the Meridionalist activist Gaetano Salvemini. After his graduation in law he collaborated with the newspaper La Nuova Sardegna and other Italian newspapers. In 1921 he abandoned the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and adhered to the Italian Communist Party (PCI), with which he was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies in 1924. The following year he founded the clandestine newspaper Sardegna libera ("Free Sardinia") which attracted him the hostility of the Fascist regime. A friend of Palmiro Togliatti, after the armistice with Italy (September 1943), he left the PCI and entered the Sardinian Action Party. For the latter Berlinguer was a member of the second government formed by Pietro Badoglio in southern Italy. In 1945 he was named to the National Consult and collaborated to the elaboration of the special regional status for Sardinia. He was a deputy for PSI from 1948 to 1953. He was the father of Giovanni and Enrico Berlinguer, outstanding members of the Italian Communist Party. | Mario_Berlinguer |@lemmatized mario:1 berlinguer:3 italian:6 lawyer:1 politician:1 descend:1 noble:1 sardinian:2 family:1 bear:1 sassari:1 youth:1 follower:1 meridionalist:1 activist:1 gaetano:1 salvemini:1 graduation:1 law:1 collaborate:2 newspaper:3 la:1 nuova:1 sardegna:2 abandon:1 socialist:1 party:4 psi:2 adhere:1 communist:2 pci:2 elect:1 chamber:1 deputy:2 following:1 year:1 found:1 clandestine:1 libera:1 free:1 sardinia:2 attract:1 hostility:1 fascist:1 regime:1 friend:1 palmiro:1 togliatti:1 armistice:1 italy:2 september:1 leave:1 enter:1 action:1 latter:1 member:2 second:1 government:1 form:1 pietro:1 badoglio:1 southern:1 name:1 national:1 consult:1 elaboration:1 special:1 regional:1 status:1 father:1 giovanni:1 enrico:1 outstanding:1 |@bigram chamber_deputy:1 |
6,963 | Concord,_New_Hampshire | The city of Concord (, often mispronounced as "concorde") is the capital of the state of New Hampshire in the United States. It is also the county seat of Merrimack County. As of the 2000 census, its population was 40,765. Its estimated population in 2007 was 42,392. Concord includes the villages of Penacook, East Concord and West Concord. The city is home to the Franklin Pierce Law Center, New Hampshire's only law school; St. Paul's School, a private preparatory school; New Hampshire Technical Institute, a two-year community college; and the Granite State Symphony Orchestra. History The land was originally settled thousands of years ago by Abenaki Native Americans called the Pennacook. The tribe fished for migrating salmon, sturgeon and alewives with nets strung across the rapids of the Merrimack River. The stream was also the transportation route for their birch bark canoes, which could travel from Lake Winnipesaukee to the Atlantic Ocean. The broad sweep of the Merrimack River valley floodplain provided good soil for farming beans, gourds, pumpkins, melons and maize. On January 17, 1725, the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which then held jurisdiction over New Hampshire, granted it as the Plantation of Penacook. Lyford et al., p. 107 It was settled between 1725 and 1727 by Captain Ebenezer Eastman and others from Haverhill, Massachusetts. On February 9, 1734, the town was incorporated as Rumford, Lyford et al., p. 147 from which Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford would take his title. It was renamed Concord in 1765 by Governor Benning Wentworth following a bitter boundary dispute between Rumford and the town of Bow. Citizens displaced by the resulting border adjustment were given land elsewhere as compensation. In 1779, New Pennacook Plantation was granted to Timothy Walker, Jr. and his associates at what would be incorporated in 1800 as Rumford, Maine, the site of Pennacook Falls. Concord grew in prominence throughout the 18th century, and some of its earliest houses survive at the northern end of Main Street. In the years following the Revolution, Concord's central geographical location made it a logical choice for the state capital, particularly after Samuel Blodget in 1807 opened a canal and lock system to allow vessels passage around the Amoskeag Falls downriver, connecting Concord with Boston by way of the Middlesex Canal. In 1808, Concord was named the official seat of state government, Lyford et al., p. 324–326 its 1819 State House the oldest capitol in which legislative branches meet in their original chambers. The city would become noted for furniture-making and granite quarrying. In 1828, Lewis Downing joined J. Stephens Abbot to form Abbot-Downing Coaches. Lyford et al., p. 339–340 Their most famous coach was the Concord Coach, modeled after the coronation coach of King George III. In the 19th century, Concord became a hub for the railroad industry, with Penacook a textile manufacturing center using water power from the Contoocook River. Today, the city is a center for health care and several insurance companies. It is also home to Concord Litho, one of the largest independently owned commercial printing companies in the country. Geography and climate Concord is located at (43.2070, -71.5371). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it is water, comprising 4.78% of the city. Concord is drained by the Merrimack River. Penacook Lake is in the west. The highest point in Concord is above sea level on Oak Hill, just west of the hill's summit in neighboring Loudon. Concord lies fully within the Merrimack River watershed , and is centered on the river, which runs from northwest to southeast through the city. Downtown is located on a low terrace to the west of the river, with residential neighborhoods climbing hills to the west and extending southwards towards the town of Bow. To the east of the Merrimack, atop a bluff, is a flat, sandy plain known as Concord Heights, which has seen most of the city's commercial development since 1960. The eastern boundary of Concord (with the town of Pembroke) is formed by the Soucook River, a tributary of the Merrimack. The Turkey River winds through the southwestern quarter of the city, passing through the campus of St. Paul's School before entering the Merrimack River in Bow. In the northern part of the city, the Contoocook River enters the Merrimack at the village of Penacook. Other village centers in the city include West Concord (actually north of downtown, on the west side of the Merrimack) and East Concord (also north of downtown, but on the east side of the Merrimack). The city's neighboring communities are Bow to the south, Pembroke to the southeast, Loudon to the northeast, Canterbury, Boscawen, and Webster to the north, and Hopkinton to the west. Interstate 89 and Interstate 93 are the two main Interstate highways serving Concord, and join just south of the city limits. Interstate 89 links Concord with Lebanon and the state of Vermont to the northwest, while Interstate 93 connects the city to Plymouth, Littleton, and the White Mountains to the north and Manchester to the south. Interstate 393 is a spur highway leading east from Concord and merging with U.S. Route 4 as a direct route to New Hampshire's seacoast. North-south U.S. Route 3 serves as Concord's Main Street, while U.S. Route 202 and New Hampshire Route 9 cross the city from east to west. Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F (°C) 68 (20) 67 (19.4) 89 (31.6) 95 (35) 97 (36.1) 98 (36.6) 102 (38.8) 101 (38.3) 98 (36.6) 90 (32.2) 80 (26.6) 73 (22.7) Norm High °F (°C) 30.6 (-0.7) 34.1 (1.2) 43.8 (6.5) 56.9 (13.8) 69.6 (20.8) 77.9 (25.5) 82.9 (28.3) 80.8 (27.1) 72.1 (22.3) 60.5 (15.8) 47.6 (8.6) 35.6 (2) Norm Low °F (°C) 9.7 (-12.4) 12.6 (-10.7) 22.7 (-5.2) 32.2 (0.1) 42.4 (5.7) 51.8 (11) 57.1 (13.9) 55.6 (13.1) 46.6 (8.1) 35.1 (1.7) 27.6 (-2.4) 16.2 (-8.7) Rec Low °F (°C) -33 (-36.1) -37 (-38.3) -16 (-26.6) 8 (-13.3) 21 (-6.1) 30 (-1.1) 35 (1.6) 29 (-1.6) 21 (-6.1) 10 (-12.2) -5 (-20.5) -22 (-30) Precip in (mm) 2.97 (75.4) 2.36 (59.9) 3.04 (77.2) 3.07 (78.0) 3.33 (84.6) 3.1 (78.7) 3.37 (85.6) 3.21 (81.5) 3.16 (80.3) 3.46 (87.9) 3.57 (90.7) 2.96 (75.2)Source: USTravelWeather.com Demographics As of the census of 2000 , there were 40,687 people, 16,281 households, and 9,622 families residing in the city. The population density was 632.9 people per square mile (244.4/km²). There were 16,881 housing units at an average density of 262.6/sq mi (101.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 95.52% White, 1.03% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 1.47% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.34% from other races, and 1.31% from two or more races. 1.45% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 16,281 households out of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.3% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.95. In the city the population was spread out with 23.1% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $42,447, and the median income for a family was $52,418. Males had a median income of $35,504 versus $27,348 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,976. About 6.2% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 5.4% of those age 65 or over. Media The Concord area is served by the daily newspaper The Concord Monitor and its weekly publication The Concord Insider as well as the weekly alternative The Hippo. Other newspapers with circulation in Concord include The Union Leader and the Boston Globe, among others. Concord is home to one AM radio station, WKXL, and several FM radio stations, WCNH-LP, WEVO, WJYY, WMLL, and WWHK. The Ion Television-affiliated WPXG-TV broadcasts from Concord on UHF channel 21. New Hampshire Public Radio is headquartered in Concord. Concord TV is the city's public-access station, operating Education Channel 6, Government Channel 17, and Public Channel 22. Sites of interest Concord has many landmarks and other tourist attractions in it. Probably the largest is the New Hampshire State House, which was designed by architect Stuart Park and constructed between 1815 and 1818, is the oldest state house in which the legislature meets in its original chambers. The building was remodeled in 1866, and the third story and west wing were added in 1910. Located directly across from the State House is the Eagle Hotel, which has been downtown landmark for nearly 150 years. Presidents Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford Hayes, and Benjamin Harrison all dined here, and Franklin Pierce spent the night here before departing for his inauguration. Other well-known guests included Jefferson Davis, Charles Lindbergh, Eleanor Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Thomas Dewey. The hotel closed its doors in 1961 . South from there on Main Street is Phenix Hall, which is a building that replaced "Old" Phenix Hall (which burned in 1893). Both the old and new buildings featured multi-purpose auditoriums used for political speeches, theater productions, and fairs. Abraham Lincoln spoke at the old hall in 1860; Theodore Roosevelt spoke at the new hall in 1912. North from there on Main Street is the Walker-Woodman House, which is the oldest standing house in Concord. It was built for the Rev. Timothy Walker on North Main Street between 1733 and 1735. North from there on the north end of Main Street is the Pierce Manse, which is where President Franklin Pierce lived in Concord before and following his presidency. The mid-1830s Greek Revival house was moved from Montgomery Street to North Main Street in 1971 to prevent its demolition. Beaver Meadow Golf Course, located in the northern part of Concord, is the oldest golf course in the state of New Hampshire. The 18 hole public course has been around for over 100 years and contains a pro shop, driving range, putting green and banquet hall. Other sites of interest include the New Hampshire Historical Society, which has two facilities in Concord, and the Christa McAuliffe Planetarium, which was named after the Concord teacher who died during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986. Education Concord has many different schools. Most of its public schools are run by the Concord School District, except for Merrimack Valley High School, which covers the Penacook area and several towns north of Concord. The only public high school in the Concord School District is Concord High School, which has about 2000 students. The only public middle school in the Concord School District is Rundlett Middle School, which has about 1500 students. Concord School District has many different elementary schools, the largest of which is Broken Ground Elementary School. Broken Ground serves grades three to five. Students heading into Broken Ground come from either Eastman Elementary School or Dame Elementary School. Other public elementary schools in the Concord School District include Kimball School, Walker School, Beaver Meadow Elementary School and Conant Elementary School. Concord has two parochial schools, Bishop Brady High School and Saint John Regional School. Other area schools include Concord Christian Academy, Parker Academy, Shaker Road School, and St. Paul's School. Concord is also home to Franklin Pierce Law Center, New Hampshire Technical Institute, and a branch of Hesser College. Notable inhabitants Joseph Carter Abbott (1825 – 1881), General for the Union in the Civil War and a senator from North Carolina Matt Bonner (b. 1980), American professional basketball player Mary Baker Eddy (1821 – 1910), founder of the Church of Christ, Scientist Elizabeth Gurley Flynn (1890 – 1964), labor leader and activist Judy Fortin (b. 1961), medical correspondent for CNN Paul Hodes (b. 1951), US Congressman from New Hampshire Richard Lederer (b. 1938), author and commentator on the English language Christa McAuliffe (1948 – 1986), teacher and first Teacher in Space project winner, died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster Mace Moulton (1796 – 1867), US Congressman from New Hampshire Franklin Pierce (1804 – 1869), the 14th president of the United States Tom Rush (b. 1941), folk and blues singer Thomas Stickney (1729 – 1809), soldier in the American Revolution and a statesman Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (1753 – 1814), scientist/inventor, loyalist during the American Revolution Sarah Thompson, Countess Rumford (1774 - 1852), founder of Rolfe and Rumford Asylum, daughter of Benjamin Thompson References <div class="references-small"> External links Concord, NH Official Website New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile Volume One of James Lyford's History of Concord (PDF) Volume Two of James Lyford's History of Concord (PDF) The Concord Monitor The Granite State Symphony Orchestra The New Hampshire Historical Society Concord Historical Society The Pierce Manse The Walker-Woodman House Christa McAuliffe Planetarium Greater Concord Chamber of Commerce Museum of New Hampshire History Tuck Library Concord Christian Academy Parker Academy Shaker Road School | Concord,_New_Hampshire |@lemmatized city:21 concord:56 often:1 mispronounce:1 concorde:1 capital:2 state:14 new:19 hampshire:16 united:3 also:5 county:2 seat:2 merrimack:12 census:3 population:6 estimated:1 include:8 village:3 penacook:6 east:6 west:10 home:4 franklin:5 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6,964 | Charlize_Theron | Charlize Theron (IPA: ʃɑ:rˈliːz ˈθɛɹən; born August 7, 1975) is a South African-American actress, film producer, and former fashion model. She rose to fame in the late 1990s following her roles in 2 Days in the Valley, Mighty Joe Young, The Devil's Advocate, and The Cider House Rules. She received critical acclaim and an Academy Award for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in the film Monster, for which she became the first African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category. She received another Academy Award nomination for her performance in North Country. She was named Esquire's Sexiest Woman Alive in 2007. Charlize Theron: Sexiest Woman Alive | Article from AP Online | HighBeam Research In late 2008 she was asked to be a UN messenger of peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7730770.stm Acting career At the age of 16, Theron traveled to Milan, Italy, on a one-year modeling contract, after winning a local competition. She went to New York with Pauline's Model Management. She decided to remain after her contract ended, attending the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer. A knee injury closed this career path when Theron was 19. Unable to dance, Theron flew to Los Angeles on a one-way ticket her mother bought her. During her early months there, she went to a bank to cash a check her mother had sent her to help with the rent. When the teller refused to cash it, Theron immediately started into a shouting match with her. Afterwards, a talent agent in line behind her handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to some casting agents and also an acting school. She later fired him as her manager after he allegedly kept sending her scripts for films similar to Showgirls and Species. After eight months in the city, she was cast in her first film part, a non-speaking role in the direct-to-video film Children of the Corn III (1995). Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career skyrocketed in the late 1990s with box office successes like The Devil's Advocate (1997), Mighty Joe Young (1998), and The Cider House Rules (1999). Theron appeared on the cover of the May 1999 edition of Playboy Magazine with an accompanying nude pictorial. Theron later claimed that the nude pictures were not intended for publication and appeared in the magazine against her wishes. After appearing in a few notable films, Theron starred as the serial killer Aileen Wuornos in Monster (2003). Film critic Roger Ebert called it "one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema". For this role, Theron won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the SAG Award and the Golden Globe Award. She is the first African to win an Oscar for Best Actress. The Oscar win pushed her to The Hollywood Reporter's 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood; earning $10,000,000 for both her subsequent films, North Country and Æon Flux, she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon, and Nicole Kidman. On September 30, 2005, Theron received her own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller Æon Flux. IMDB Business Data Additionally, Theron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for her lead performance in the drama North Country. Ms. magazine also honored her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue. In 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of FOX's critically-acclaimed television series Arrested Development. Charlize Theron gets ‘Arrested’ this season - TV comedy - MSNBC.com She also received Golden Globe and Emmy nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO movie The Life and Death of Peter Sellers. Charlize Theron - Awards In 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year. Hasty Pudding To Honor Walken, Theron from the Harvard Crimson On November 10, 2008, TV Guide reported that Theron will star in the film adaptation of The Danish Girl alongside Nicole Kidman. Theron will play Gerda Wegener, wife of Einar Wegener/Lili Elbe (Kidman), the world's first known person to undergo sex reassignment surgery. Nicole Kidman to Star as Transsexual, Marrying Charlize Theron in New Film" TV Guide. November 10, 2008. Retrieved on November 12, 2008. It has been reported that Theron will co-star with Tom Cruise in action thriller, The Tourist. Personal life Theron was born in Benoni, South Africa, the daughter and only child of Charles and Gerda Theron (see her Family Tree for more detail), and is of German and French descent. Charlize Theron family tree Theron's first language is Afrikaans; she is fluent in English and speaks some Zulu. "Theron" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as "Tronn", although she has said that she prefers the pronunciation "Thrown". Aclasscelebs.com interview Theron grew up on her parents' farm near Johannesburg (Benoni). She attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein). At the age of 13, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School Of The Arts in Johannesburg. At 15, Theron witnessed the death of her father, an abusive alcoholic; Gerda shot him in self-defence when he attacked her. The police pressed no charges against her. Theron resides in Los Angeles, in the home of late actress Helen Twelvetrees, with Theron's long-time boyfriend Stuart Townsend, with whom she starred in the 2004 film Head in the Clouds, as well as in the 2002 film Trapped and uncredited 2005 Æon Flux. She, like Sarah Silverman and Brad Pitt, has said that she will not marry until same-sex couples are able to have their marriages recognized. Townsend recently stated he considers himself and Theron to be husband and wife. "We didn't have a ceremony," he said. "I don't need a certificate or the state or the church to say otherwise. So no there's no big official story on a wedding, but we are married... I consider her my wife and she considers me her husband". While filming Æon Flux in Berlin, Germany, Theron had suffered a herniated disc in her neck, which occurred as a result of her suffering a fall while filming a series of back handsprings. This required her to wear a neck collar for a month. Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States in May 2007. Promotional deals Having signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the J'ADORE advertisements by Christian Dior. From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned $3,000,000 for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches. Charlize Theron's Screen Gems from The Smoking Gun In February 2006, she and her loan-out corporation were sued by Weil for breach of contract. "Actress Charlize Theron Sued by Swiss Watchmaker". Associated Press, February 6, 2007. Activism Theron is involved in women's rights organizations, and marched for abortion rights. Theron is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA. She appeared in a PETA ad for their anti-fur campaign. She is also an active supporter of Democracy Now! and Link TV. Link TV January 22, 09 She is a supporter of same sex marriage and attended the march in Fresno, California on 30 May 2009. Filmography Year Film Role Notes 1995 Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest Young Woman Uncredited1996 2 Days in the Valley Helga Svelgen That Thing You Do! Tina Powers 1997 Trial and Error Billie Tyler The Devil's Advocate Mary Ann Lomax 1998 Celebrity Supermodel Mighty Joe Young Jill Young Nominated — Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress1999 The Astronaut's Wife Jillian Armacost The Cider House Rules Candy Kendall Nominated — Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion PictureNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture2000 Reindeer Games Ashley Mercer The Yards Erica Stoltz The Legend of Bagger Vance Adele Invergordon Men of Honor Gwen Sunday 2001 Sweet November Sara Deever The Curse of the Jade Scorpion Laura Kensington 15 Minutes Rose Heam 2002 Trapped Karen Jennings Waking Up in Reno Candy Kirkendall 2003 The Italian Job Stella Bridger Monster Aileen Wuornos Academy Award for Best ActressBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressCentral Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressDallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressGolden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture DramaIndependent Spirit Award for Best First FeatureIndependent Spirit Award for Best Lead FemaleLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best ActressNational Board of Review Award for Best Breakthrough Performance by an ActressNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActressNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActressSan Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressSatellite Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or ComedyScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role - Motion PictureSilver Bear for Best Actress (tied with Catalina Sandino Moreno for Maria full of Grace)Vancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading RoleNominated — London Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressNominated — Irish Film & Television Award for Best International Actress2004 The Life and Death of Peter Sellers Britt Ekland Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Mini-series or Motion Picture Made for TelevisionNominated — Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress – Miniseries or a MovieNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Head in the Clouds Gilda Bessé 2005 North Country Josey Aimes Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressNominated — Academy Award for Best ActressNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture DramaNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role - Motion PictureNominated — Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress Æon Flux Æon Flux 2007 In the Valley of Elah Det. Emily Sanders 2008 Sleepwalking Joleen Also producer Hancock Mary Battle in Seattle Ella Longtime partner Stuart Townsend directing The Burning Plain Sylvia Also producer 2009 The Road Wife Post-production TV guest appearances Year Film Role Notes 2005 Arrested Development Rita 5 episodes 2006 Robot Chicken Daniel's Mom / Mother / Waitress 1 episode In May 2006, Maxim named Theron #25 in its annual "Hot 100" issue. Maxim Online In October 2007, Esquire named Theron The Sexiest Woman Alive in its annual issue. Charlize Theron Is the Sexiest Woman Alive 2007 from Esquire magazine References External links |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Academy Award |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Golden Globe Award |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Berlin Film Festival |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | GLAAD Media Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Hasty Pudding Theatricals |- | Charlize_Theron |@lemmatized charlize:9 theron:43 ipa:1 ʃɑ:1 rˈliːz:1 ˈθɛɹən:1 bear:3 august:1 south:2 african:3 american:1 actress:14 film:31 producer:3 former:1 fashion:1 model:3 rise:2 fame:2 late:4 follow:2 role:9 day:2 valley:3 mighty:3 joe:3 young:5 devil:3 advocate:3 cider:3 house:3 rule:3 receive:5 critical:1 acclaim:1 academy:9 award:44 portrayal:1 serial:2 killer:2 aileen:3 wuornos:3 monster:3 become:2 first:6 win:5 major:1 act:2 category:1 another:1 nomination:3 performance:10 north:4 country:4 name:4 esquire:3 sexy:4 woman:7 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6,965 | Politics_of_North_Korea | The Politics of North Korea take place within a nominally democratic multi-party system within the framework of the official state philosophy, Juche, a concept created by the founder of the North Korean state, Kim Il-sung, and his son and successor as leader, Kim Jong-il. In practice, North Korea functions as a dominant-party state. It is widely considered to be a de facto totalitarian Stalinist dictatorship and the Economist Intelligence Unit, while admitting that "there is no consensus on how to measure democracy" and that "definitions of democracy are contested", lists North Korea in last place as the most authoritarian regime in its index of democracy assessing 167 countries. North Korea's political system is built upon the principle of centralization. While the constitution guarantees the protection of human rights and democratic government, most power is within the hands of a ruling elite dominated by Kim Jong-il, the de facto leader of the country. The ruling party is the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), which is thought to allow some slight inner-party democracy (see Democratic centralism). The WPK has ruled since North Korea's independence in 1948. Two minor political parties exist but are legally bound to accept the ruling role of the WPK. Elections occur only in single-candidate races where the candidate has been selected by the WPK beforehand. Kim Il-sung served as General Secretary and President of North Korea from 1948 until his death in July 1994. He was given the posthumous title of Eternal President, symbolizing that he forever holds the position of President, which is formally vacant. Most analysts believe the title a product of the cult of personality he cultivated during his life. The government is highly controlling and severely limits freedom of expression and participation of its citizens in government (see Human rights in North Korea). North Korea is widely considered a Communist state in the Western world, but the government has formally replaced references to Marxism-Leninism in its constitution with the locally developed concept of Juche, or self-reliance. In recent years, there has been great emphasis on the Songun or "military-first" philosophy. The constitution of North Korea declares that "the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea shall, by carrying out a thorough cultural revolution, train all the people to be builders of socialism and communism". Most of its policies resemble those of Communist regimes before the fall of the Soviet Union. The status of the military has been enhanced and it appears to occupy the centre of the North Korean political system; all the social sectors are forced to follow the military spirit and adopt military methods. Kim Jong-il’s public activity focuses heavily on on-the-spot guidance of places and events related to the military. The enhanced status of the military and military-centred political system was confirmed at the first session of the 10th Supreme People's Assembly (SPA) by the promotion of National Defense Commission (NDC) members in the official power hierarchy. All ten NDC members were ranked within the top twenty on September 5, and all but one occupied the top twenty at the fiftieth anniversary of National Foundation Day on September 9. National Defence Commission According to the Constitution of North Korea, "the National Defence Commission is the highest military leadership body of State power...the Chairman of the National Defence Commission of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea commands and directs all the armed forces and guides national defence as a whole." The position of Chairman of the National Defence Commission has been declared the "highest office of state" and has the "highest administrative authority" according to decrees issued by the Supreme People's Assembly. Few people correctly anticipated that Kim Jong Il would officially terminate the transitional period by resuming the chairmanship of the National Defense Commission (NDC) and abolishing the post of president. Under the 1998 constitution, the NDC’s role and status was strengthened. The 1998 constitution defines the NDC as “the highest guiding organ of the military and the managing organ of military matters.” The chairman of the NDC controls the armed forces. In a speech endorsing Kim Jong Il as NDC chairman, Kim Young Nam made it clear that chairman of the NDC is the highest position in the country, in charge of all matters regarding the country’s politics, economy, and military. Thus Kim Jong Il is in substance head of the state, but theoretically the chairman of the SPA Presidium represents the state and is responsible for foreign affairs, such as reception. Government The Cabinet of North Korea consists of the Premiers, Vice Premiers, and Ministers of the government. Their terms of office are concurrent with the Supreme People's Assembly. The Premier is the head of the cabinet. The cabinet exercises theoretical control over the executive ministries and has the authority to issue decrees concerning administration of the government, although in reality the government also takes its directions from Kim Jong-il. The current cabinet consists of: Premier: Kim Yong-il Foreign Minister: Pak Ui-chun Vice Foreign Minister: Kim Kye Gwan Vice Foreign Minister: Choe Su-hon Minister of State Construction Control: Pae Tal-jun President of the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea: Kim Wan Su Minister of Public Security: Kwack Pum Ji Deputy Director: Paek Hak-rim Minister of People's Armed Forces: Vice Marshal Kim Il-Chol Parliament According to the constitution, the legislative Supreme People's Assembly (SPA) is the highest organ of state power. It consists of 687 members, who are elected every five years. The Assembly usually holds only two meetings annually, each lasting a few days; this is the shortest meeting time of any parliament. A standing committee known as the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly and elected by the Assembly performs legislative functions when the Assembly is not in session. The Assembly officially chooses between, compromises upon, and ratifies the political positions on subjects put forward by the three represented parties. The president of the Supreme People's Assembly is Kim Yong Nam. Nearly all outside sources regard the SPA as a rubberstamp body, due to the short period of its sessions, uncontested elections to office, and the fact that it passes all proposals submitted by the government over a period of a few days. In theory, North Korea's judiciary is accountable to the SPA and the Presidium. The SPA's standing committee also appoints judges to the highest court for 5-year terms that are concurrent with those of the Assembly. Party-Government relations The relationship between the party organ and the administrative organ is often compared to the relationship between the man who steers the boat and the man who rows the boat. Party workers in the back should steer so that administrative and economic workers can stay on the party track. Article 11 of the new constitution repeats that “the DPRK shall conduct all activities under the leadership of the KWP.” Although relations between the party and the government have experienced both continuity and change, the party has maintained a guiding role over the government. In the near future, continuity rather than change in party-government relations is more likely to be the case. First, North Korean leaders attribute the demise of the socialist bloc in Eastern Europe to the failure of ideology. Thus, they emphasize the importance of ideology, which is led by the party. They also focus on the significance of popular support of the party. Second, Kim Jong il started his career as a party cadre and his succession to power took place within the structure of the party. Moreover, most of his strong supporters are in the party and the party at large is his most loyal supporter. Third, North Korea’s hesitation to implement a policy aimed at integration into the international community makes one expect that the status of the party vis-à-vis that of the government will be strengthened. Although North Korea is very concerned with the opening policy, its economic policy is dictated by political considerations. North Korea’s opening policy is implemented in a very limited way because of the fear of the side effects opening may bring. Thus the role of government technocrats is clearly limited, and it is not feasible to see the government outside the control of the party. Although the government gained in status under the new constitution, this does not seem to affect the guiding role of the party over the government. Particularly in the area of organization and ideology, party guidance may be firmer. Party-Military relations The party traditionally has controlled the military in North Korea since the Korean War, when North Korea began to dispatch political officials to the military. In October 1950, party committees began to be organized within the military. The party organs within the military were strengthened after two incidents in 1956 and 1969 that resulted in a wide-scale purge of factions opposed to Kim Il Sung. According to the Party Act (article 46) adopted in 1980, “KPA is the revolutionary armed forces of the KWP.” Some believe, however, that the military-centered political system of recent years may be damaging the party’s control over the military. Kim Jong Il has treated the military better than ever by frequently visiting events and places associated with it and by promoting military officials in the official power hierarchy. Political parties and elections According to the constitution, North Korea is a democratic republic and the Supreme People's Assembly and provincial People's Assemblies are elected by direct universal suffrage by secret ballot. Suffrage is guaranteed to all citizens aged 17 and over. In reality, elections in North Korea are non-competitive and have only single candidate races. According to the North Korean government, "representatives of the Supreme People's Assembly" are elected by a free election. The Workers' Party selects an ardent party member with good background for each election district and nominates him or her as a single candidate. Other parties may have different methods. Then, voters select a candidate. Therefore, the Supreme People's Assembly, in its nature, is somewhat different from the legislature of a Western country." All elected candidates are members of the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland, a coalition of the three political parties. The two minor parties in the coalition are the Chondoist Chongu Party and the Korean Social Democratic Party; they also have a few elected officials. The WPK exercises direct control over the candidates selected for election by members of the other two parties. Legal system See also: Constitution of North Korea North Korea's judiciary is headed by the Central Court, which consists of a Chief Justice and two People's Assessors; three judges may be present in some cases. Their terms of office coincide with those of the members of the Supreme People's Assembly. Every court in North Korea has the same composition as the Central Court. The judicial system is theoretically held accountable to the SPA and the Presidium of the SPA when the legislature is not in session. The judiciary does not practice judicial review. The security forces so often interfere with the actions of the judiciary that the conclusion of most cases is foregone; experts outside North Korea and numerous defectors confirm this to be a widespread problem. Freedom House states that, "North Korea does not have an independent judiciary and does not acknowledge individual rights...reports of arbitrary detentions, "disappearances," and extrajudicial killings are common; torture is widespread and severe" North Korea's fifth and current constitution was approved and adopted in September 1998, replacing the one previously adopted in 1972. The former constitution had last been amended in 1992. Under the constitution, North Korea has an unusual legal system based upon German civil law and influenced by Japanese legal theory. Criminal penalties can be stiff; one of the basic functions of the system is to uphold the power of the regime. Because so little information is available concerning what actually occurs inside of the country, the extent to which there is any rule of law is uncertain. In any case, North Korea is renowned for its poor human rights situation and regularly detains thousands of dissidents without trial or benefit of legal advice. According to a US Department of State report on human rights practices, the government of North Korea often punishes the family of a criminal along with the perpetrator. Political developments For much of its history, North Korean politics have been dominated by its adverserial relationship with South Korea. During the Cold War, North Korea aligned with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The North Korean government invested heavily in its military, hoping to develop the capability to reunify Korea by force if possible and also preparing to repel any attack by traditional enemies South Korea, Japan, or the United States. As relations with the PRC and the Soviet Union loosened towards the end of the Cold War, North Korea developed an ideology, Juche, based upon a high degree of economic independence and the mobilization of all the resources of the nation to defend against foreign powers seen as a threat to the country's sovereignty. In the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union and Soviet-supplied economic aid, North Korea has faced a long period of economic crisis including severe agricultural and industrial shortages. North Korea's main political issue has been to find a way to sustain its economy without compromising the internal stability of its government or its ability to respond to perceived external threats. To date, North Korean efforts to improve relations with South Korea in order to increase trade and to receive development assistance have been mildly successful, but North Korea's determination to develop nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles has prevented relations with Japan or the United States from improving. North Korea has also experimented with market economics in some sectors of its economy, but these have had limited impact. Some outside observers have suggested that Kim Jong-il himself favors such reforms but that some parts of the party and the military resist any changes that might threaten stability. Although there exist sporadic reports of opposition to the government, these appear to be relatively isolated, and there is no evidence of significant internal threats to the current regime. Some foreign analysts have pointed to widespread starvation, increased emigration through China, and new sources of information about the outside world for ordinary North Koreans as factors pointing to an imminent collapse of the regime, but North Korea has remained stable in spite of more than a decade of such predictions. The Workers' Party of Korea maintains a monopoly on political power and Kim Jong-il has remained the leader of the country ever since he first gained power following the death of his father. References External links Freedom House Country Report on North Korea The North Korean Human Rights Act: Documents and Background Materials The North Korean International Documentation Project See also North Korea List of Korea-related topics Gay rights in North Korea | Politics_of_North_Korea |@lemmatized politics:3 north:48 korea:48 take:3 place:5 within:7 nominally:1 democratic:9 multi:1 party:41 system:9 framework:1 official:6 state:14 philosophy:2 juche:3 concept:2 create:1 founder:1 korean:12 kim:20 il:16 sung:3 son:1 successor:1 leader:4 jong:11 practice:3 function:3 dominant:1 widely:2 consider:2 de:2 facto:2 totalitarian:1 stalinist:1 dictatorship:1 economist:1 intelligence:1 unit:1 admit:1 consensus:1 measure:1 democracy:4 definition:1 contest:1 list:2 last:3 authoritarian:1 regime:5 index:1 assess:1 country:9 political:13 build:1 upon:4 principle:1 centralization:1 constitution:14 guarantee:2 protection:1 human:5 right:7 government:23 power:10 hand:1 ruling:1 elite:1 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6,966 | Bathyscaphe_Trieste | The Trieste was a Swiss-designed deep-diving research bathyscaphe ("deep boat") with a crew of two, which reached a record-breaking depth of about , in the deepest part of any ocean on Earth, the Challenger Deep in the Marianas Trench, in January 1960. (This is near the Marianas Islands, including Guam.) Design The Trieste was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard and built in Italy. Her pressure sphere, composed of two sections, was built by the company Acciaierie Terni, and the upper part was manufactured by the company Cantieri Riuniti dell' Adriatico, in the free city of Trieste on the border between Italy and Yugoslavia; hence that name was chosen for the bathyscape. The installation of the pressure sphere was done in the Cantiere navale di Castellammare di Stabia, near Naples. The Trieste was launched on 26 August 1953 in the Mediterranean Sea near the Isle of Capri. The design was based on previous experience with the bathyscape FNRS-2, also designed by the Piccards. (It was built in Belgium and operated by the French Navy). After several years of operation in the Mediterranean Sea, the Trieste was purchased by the United States Navy in 1958 for $250,000. The Trieste consisted of a float chamber filled with gasoline for buoyancy, with a separate pressure sphere. This configuration (dubbed a bathyscaphe by the Piccards), allowed for a free dive, rather than the previous bathysphere designs in which a sphere was lowered to depth and raised from a ship by cable. At the time of Project Nekton, the Trieste was over 15 m (50 ft) long, the majority of this was a series of floats filled with 85,000 liters (22,500 gallons) of gasoline, and water ballast tanks were included at either end of the vessel, as well as releasable iron ballast in two conical hoppers along the bottom, fore and aft of the crew sphere. The crew occupied the 2.16 m (6.5 ft) pressure sphere, attached to the underside of the float and accessed from the deck of the vessel by a vertical shaft that penetrated the float and ran down to the sphere hatch. In the Trieste the pressure sphere provided just enough room for two people. It provided completely independent life support, with a closed-circuit rebreather system similar to that used in modern spacecraft and spacesuits: oxygen was provided from pressure cylinders, and carbon dioxide was scrubbed from breathing air by being passed through canisters of soda-lime. Power was provided by batteries. The Trieste was later fitted with a new pressure sphere, manufactured by the Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany, in three finely-machined sections (an equatorial ring and two caps). To withstand the high pressure of 1.25 metric tons per cm² (110 MPa) at the bottom of Challenger Deep, the sphere's walls were thick (it was overdesigned to withstand considerably more than the rated pressure). The sphere weighed 13 metric tons in air and eight metric tons in water (giving it an average specific gravity of 13/(13-8) = 2.6 times that of sea water). The float was necessary because the sphere was dense: it was not possible to design a sphere large enough to hold a person which would withstand the necessary pressures, yet also have metal walls thin enough for the sphere to be neutrally-buoyant. Gasoline (petrol) was chosen as the float fluid because it was lighter than water, yet relatively incompressible even at extreme pressure, thus retaining its buoyant properties. General arrangement drawing, showing the main features Close-up of pressure sphere, with forward ballast silo at left Observation of the sea outside the craft was conducted directly by eye, via a single highly-tapered cone-shaped block of acrylic glass (Plexiglas), the only transparent substance identified which would withstand the needed pressures, at the design hull thickness. Outside illumination for the craft was provided by quartz arc-light bulbs, which proved to be able to withstand the over-1000 atmosphere pressure without any modification. Nine tons of magnetic iron pellets were taken on the craft as ballast, both to speed the descent and allow ascent, since the extreme water pressures would not have permitted compressed air ballast-expulsion tanks to be utilized at great depths. This additional weight was held actively in place at the throats of two hopper-like ballast silos by electromagnets, so that in case of an electrical failure the bathyscape would automatically rise to the surface. Transported to the Naval Electronics Laboratory's facility in San Diego, the Trieste was extensively modified by the Americans, and then used in a series of deep-submergence tests in the Pacific Ocean during the next few years, culminating in the dive to the bottom of the Challenger Deep in the Marianas Trench, the deepest part of the ocean, in January 1960. The Mariana Trench dives January 23, 1960: Trieste just before the record dive Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard inside Trieste Trieste departed San Diego on October 5, 1959 on the way to Guam by the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton — a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On January 23, 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was later revised to , and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower, at . The descent took 4 hours and 48 minutes before reaching the ocean floor. To the Depths in Trieste, University of Delaware College of Marine Studies After passing 9,000 meters one of the outer Plexiglas window panes cracked, shaking the entire vessel. Seven Miles Down: The Story of The Bathyscaph Trieste., Rolex Deep Sea Special, Written January 2006. The two men spent barely twenty minutes at the ocean floor, eating chocolate bars to keep their strength. The temperature in the cabin was a mere 7°C (45°F) at the time. While on the bottom at maximum depth, Piccard and Walsh (unexpectedly) regained the ability to communicate with the surface ship, USS Wandank II (ATA-204), using a sonar/hydrophone voice communications system. . At a speed of almost a mile per second (about five times the speed of sound in air), it took about 7 seconds for a voice message to travel from the craft to the surface ship, and another 7 seconds for answers to return. While on the bottom, Piccard and Walsh observed small soles and flounders swimming away, proving that certain vertebrate life can withstand all existing extremes of pressure in earth's oceans. They noted that the floor of the Challenger Deep consisted of "diatomaceous ooze". After leaving the bottom, they undertook their ascent, which required 3 hours, 15 minutes. Since then, no manned craft has ever returned to the Challenger Deep. A Japanese robotic craft Kaiko reached the bottom of the Challenger Deep in 1995. The Nereus hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) is scheduled to attempt to reach the bottom in May 2009. Other deep dives by Trieste In April 1963, Trieste was modified and used in the Atlantic Ocean to search for the missing submarine . In August 1963, Trieste found the wreck off the coast of New England, 8,400 feet (2.56 km) below the surface. The bathyscaphe was then retired and dismantled. The Krupp pressure sphere is now on display at the Naval Historical Center, Washington D.C. Her original Terni pressure sphere was incorporated into the Trieste II, which also conducted some dives to the Thresher site in 1964. The pressure sphere of the Trieste II was replaced in 1966 by a new sphere designed for work at depth. See also Deep Submergence Vehicle Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle Trieste class Bathyscaphe Trieste II FNRS-2 Alvin (DSV-2) Notes References External links US Navy - Trieste Animation of Trieste FNRS-2 HNSA Ship Page: RV Trieste | Bathyscaphe_Trieste |@lemmatized trieste:26 swiss:2 design:9 deep:20 dive:8 research:1 bathyscaphe:4 boat:1 crew:3 two:7 reach:6 record:2 break:1 depth:7 part:4 ocean:9 earth:3 challenger:8 marianas:3 trench:5 january:5 near:3 island:1 include:2 guam:2 scientist:1 auguste:2 piccard:5 build:3 italy:2 pressure:19 sphere:19 compose:1 section:2 company:2 acciaierie:1 terni:2 upper:1 manufacture:2 cantieri:1 riuniti:1 dell:1 adriatico:1 free:2 city:1 border:1 yugoslavia:1 hence:1 name:1 choose:2 bathyscape:3 installation:1 cantiere:1 navale:1 di:2 castellammare:1 stabia:1 naples:1 launch:1 august:2 mediterranean:2 sea:5 isle:1 capri:1 base:1 previous:2 experience:1 fnrs:3 also:4 piccards:2 belgium:1 operate:1 french:1 navy:3 several:1 year:2 operation:1 purchase:1 united:1 state:1 consist:1 float:6 chamber:1 fill:2 gasoline:3 buoyancy:1 separate:1 configuration:1 dub:1 allow:2 rather:1 bathysphere:1 lower:1 raise:1 ship:4 cable:1 time:5 project:2 nekton:2 ft:2 long:1 majority:1 series:3 liter:1 gallon:1 water:5 ballast:6 tank:2 either:1 end:1 vessel:4 well:1 releasable:1 iron:2 conical:1 hopper:2 along:1 bottom:8 fore:1 aft:1 occupy:1 attach:1 underside:1 access:1 deck:1 vertical:1 shaft:1 penetrate:1 run:1 hatch:1 provide:5 enough:3 room:1 people:1 completely:1 independent:1 life:2 support:1 closed:1 circuit:1 rebreather:1 system:3 similar:1 use:4 modern:1 spacecraft:1 spacesuit:1 oxygen:1 cylinder:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 scrub:1 breathe:1 air:4 pass:2 canister:1 soda:1 lime:1 power:1 battery:1 later:2 fit:1 new:3 krupp:2 steel:1 work:2 essen:1 germany:1 three:1 finely:1 machine:1 equatorial:1 ring:1 cap:1 withstand:6 high:1 metric:3 ton:4 per:2 mpa:1 wall:2 thick:1 overdesigned:1 considerably:1 rated:1 weigh:1 eight:1 give:1 average:1 specific:1 gravity:1 necessary:2 dense:1 possible:1 large:1 hold:2 person:1 would:4 yet:2 metal:1 thin:1 neutrally:1 buoyant:2 petrol:1 fluid:1 light:2 relatively:1 incompressible:1 even:1 extreme:3 thus:1 retain:1 property:1 general:1 arrangement:1 drawing:1 show:1 main:1 feature:1 close:1 forward:1 silo:2 left:1 observation:1 outside:2 craft:6 conduct:2 directly:1 eye:1 via:1 single:1 highly:1 taper:1 cone:1 shaped:1 block:1 acrylic:1 glass:1 plexiglas:2 transparent:1 substance:1 identify:1 needed:1 hull:1 thickness:1 illumination:1 quartz:1 arc:1 bulb:1 prove:2 able:1 atmosphere:1 without:1 modification:1 nine:1 magnetic:1 pellet:1 take:3 speed:3 descent:2 ascent:2 since:2 permit:1 compressed:1 expulsion:1 utilize:1 great:1 additional:1 weight:1 actively:1 place:1 throat:1 like:1 electromagnet:1 case:1 electrical:1 failure:1 automatically:1 rise:1 surface:4 transport:1 naval:2 electronics:1 laboratory:1 facility:1 san:2 diego:2 extensively:1 modify:2 american:1 submergence:3 test:1 pacific:1 next:1 culminate:1 mariana:3 walsh:4 jacques:2 inside:1 depart:1 october:1 way:1 freighter:1 santa:1 maria:1 participate:1 floor:4 southern:1 carry:1 son:1 lieutenant:1 usn:1 first:1 man:2 unmanned:1 point:1 onboard:1 indicate:1 although:1 revise:1 accurate:1 measurement:1 make:1 find:2 slightly:1 shallow:1 hour:2 minute:3 university:1 delaware:1 college:1 marine:1 study:1 meter:1 one:1 outer:1 window:1 pane:1 crack:1 shake:1 entire:1 seven:1 mile:2 story:1 bathyscaph:1 rolex:1 special:1 write:1 men:1 spend:1 barely:1 twenty:1 eat:1 chocolate:1 bar:1 keep:1 strength:1 temperature:1 cabin:1 mere:1 c:2 f:1 maximum:1 unexpectedly:1 regain:1 ability:1 communicate:1 uss:1 wandank:1 ii:4 ata:1 sonar:1 hydrophone:1 voice:2 communication:1 almost:1 second:3 five:1 sound:1 message:1 travel:1 another:1 answer:1 return:2 observe:1 small:1 sol:1 flounder:1 swim:1 away:1 certain:1 vertebrate:1 exist:1 note:2 consisted:1 diatomaceous:1 ooze:1 leave:1 undertake:1 require:1 ever:1 japanese:1 robotic:1 kaiko:1 nereus:1 hybrid:1 remotely:1 operated:1 vehicle:3 hrov:1 schedule:1 attempt:1 may:1 april:1 atlantic:1 search:1 missing:1 submarine:1 wreck:1 coast:1 england:1 foot:1 km:1 retire:1 dismantle:1 display:1 historical:1 center:1 washington:1 original:1 incorporate:1 thresher:1 site:1 replace:1 see:1 rescue:1 class:1 alvin:1 dsv:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 u:1 animation:1 hnsa:1 page:1 rv:1 |@bigram challenger_deep:8 fore_aft:1 carbon_dioxide:1 soda_lime:1 metric_ton:3 gasoline_petrol:1 cone_shaped:1 light_bulb:1 san_diego:2 deep_submergence:3 pacific_ocean:1 mariana_trench:3 santa_maria:1 remotely_operated:1 atlantic_ocean:1 external_link:1 |
6,967 | Amazons | Amazon preparing for the battle (Queen Antiope or Armed Venus), by Pierre-Eugène-Emile Hébert 1860 (National Gallery of Art, Washington DC) The Amazons (, ამორძალები) are a nation of all-female warriors in Classical and Greek mythology. Herodotus placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia (modern territory of Ukraine). Other historiographers place them in Asia Minor or Libya. Notable queens of the Amazons are Penthesilea, who participated in the Trojan War, and her sister Hippolyta, whose magical girdle was the object of one of the labours of Hercules. Amazonian raiders were often depicted in battle with Greek warriors in amazonomachies in classical art. The Amazons become associated with various historical peoples throughout the Roman Empire period and Late Antiquity. In Roman era historiography, there are various accounts of Amazon raids in Asia Minor. From the Early Modern period, their name has become a term for woman warriors in general. Etymology The origin of the word is uncertain. It may be derived from an Iranian ethnonym *ha-mazan-, "warriors", a word attested as a denominal verb (formed with the Indo-Iranian root kar- "make" also in kar-ma) in Hesychius of Alexandria's gloss ("hamazakaran: 'to make war' (Persian)"). Lagercrantz, Xenia Lide´niana (1912), 270ff., cited after Hjalmar Frisk, Greek Etymological Dictionary (1960, 1970) Alternatively, a Greek derivation from "manless, without husbands" (a- privative and a derivation of *man- also found in Slavic muzh) has been proposed, an explanation deemed "unlikely" by Hjalmar Frisk. Jacobsohn, KZ 54, 278ff., cited after Hjalmar Frisk (1960, 1970). 19th century scholarship also connected the term to the ethnonym Amazigh. Guy Cadogan Rothery, The Amazons (1910) , ch. 7: "There have been some authors who trace the word Amazon from this term." Among Classical Greeks, amazon was given a popular etymology as from a-mazos, "without breast", connected with an etiological tradition that Amazons had their right breast cut off or burnt out, so they would be able to use a bow more freely and throw spears without the physical limitation and obstruction ; there is no indication of such a practice in works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered. History Amazons were said to have lived in Pontus, which is part of modern day Turkey near the shore of the Euxine Sea (the Black Sea). There they formed an independent kingdom under the government of a queen named Hippolyta or Hippolyte ("loose, unbridled mare"). This area is known to have been occupied in the Late Bronze Age by a transhumant group known to the Hittites as the Kaŝka; though they were not directly known to Greeks, modern archaeologists have detected that they finally defeated their enemies, the Hittites, about 1200 BCE; they left no inscriptions. The Amazons were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them Smyrna, Ephesus, Sinope, and Paphos. According to the dramatist Aeschylus, in the distant past they had lived in Scythia (modern Crimea), at the Palus Maeotis ("Lake Maeotis", the Sea of Azov), but later moved to Themiscyra on the River Thermodon (the Terme river in northern Turkey). Herodotus called them Androktones ("killers of men"), and he stated that in the Scythian language they were called Oiorpata, which he asserted had this meaning. In some versions of the myth, no men were permitted to have sexual encounters or reside in Amazon country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race from dying out, they visited the Gargareans, a neighbouring tribe. The male children who were the result of these visits were either killed, or sent back to their fathers or exposed in the wilderness to fend for themselves; the females were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of war. Strabo xi. 503. In the Iliad, the Amazons were referred to as Antianeira ("those who fight like men"). The Amazons appear in Greek art of the Archaic period and in connection with several Greek legends. They invaded Lycia, but were defeated by Bellerophon, who was sent against them by Iobates, the king of that country, in the hope that he might meet his death at their hands (Iliad, vi. 186). The tomb of Myrine is mentioned in the Iliad; later interpretation made of her an Amazon: according to Diodorus, Book ii.45-46; book iii.52-55. Queen Myrine led her Amazons to victory against Libya and much of Gorgon. They attacked the Phrygians, who were assisted by Priam, then a young man (Iliad, iii. 189). Although in his later years, towards the end of the Trojan War, his old opponents took his side again against the Greeks under their queen Penthesilea "of Thracian birth" (Quintus Smyrnaeus), who was slain by Achilles, in the Aethiopis The epic, by Arctinus of Miletus, is lost: only references to it survive. that continued the Iliad. (Quintus Smyrn. i.; Justin ii.4; Virgil, Aeneid i. 490). One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles by Eurystheus was to obtain possession of the girdle of the Amazonian queen Hippolyte (Apollodorus ii. 5). He was accompanied by his friend Theseus, who carried off the princess Antiope, sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory invasion of Attica, in which Antiope perished fighting by the side of Theseus. In some versions, however, Theseus marries Hippolyta and in others, he marries Antiope and she does not die. The battle between the Athenians and Amazons is often commemorated in an entire genre of art, amazonomachy, in marble bas-reliefs such as from the Parthenon or the sculptures of the mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Thalestris, Queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander (1696) The Amazons are also said to have undertaken an expedition against the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the Danube, where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by Thetis. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, who were forced to retire. Pompey is said to have found them in the army of Mithridates. They are heard of in the time of Alexander, when some of the great king's biographers make mention of Amazon Queen Thalestris visiting him and becoming a mother by him. However, several other biographers of Alexander dispute the claim, including the highly regarded secondary source, Plutarch. In his writing he makes mention of a moment when Alexander's secondary naval commander, Onesicritus, was reading the Amazon passage of his Alexander history to King Lysimachus of Thrace who was on the original expedition: the king smiled at him and said "And where was I, then?" The Roman writer Virgil's characterization of the Volscian warrior maiden Camilla in the Aeneid borrows heavily from the myth of the Amazons. Lists There are several (conflicting) lists of names of Amazons. Quintus Smyrnaeus (Posthomerica i) lists the attendant warriors of Penthesilea: "Clonie was there, Polemusa, Derinoe, Evandre, and Antandre, and Bremusa, Hippothoe, dark-eyed Harmothoe, Alcibie, Derimacheia, Antibrote, and Thermodosa glorying with the spear." Names of Amazons include : Ainiaan, enemy of Achilles and an Amazon, one of the twelve who accompanied Penthesilea to the Trojan War. Her name means "swiftness." Antianara, succeeded Penthesilea as Queen of the Amazons. She was best known for ordering her male servants to be crippled and castrated "as the lame best perform the acts of love". Antibrote, one of the twelve followers of Penthesilea in Quintus Smyrnaeus's Posthomerica (book i) Antiope Asteria, sixth Amazon killed by Heracles. Cleite, one of the twelve followers of Penthesilea . Her ship was blown off course and she landed in Italy, founding the city of Clete. Helene, daughter of Tityrus. She fought Achilles and died after he seriously wounded her. Hippolyta, the Amazonian queen who possessed a magical girdle she was given by her father Ares, the god of war. Melanippe, sister of Hippolyte. Heracles captured her and demanded Hippolyte's girdle in exchange for her freedom. Hippolyte complied and Heracles let her go. Otrera, the consort of Ares and mother of Hippolyta and Penthesilea. Penthesilea Thalestris, a queen of the Amazons in the Alexander Romance. Hero cults According to ancient sources, (Plutarch Theseus, http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:BiDerPMT15YJ:classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/theseus.html+Amazon+statues+in+Scotussa&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=4 Pausanias), Amazon tombs could be found frequently throughout what was once known as the ancient Greek world. Some are found in Megara, Athens, Chaeronea, Chalcis, Thessaly at Scotussa, in Cynoscephalae and statues of Amazons are all over Greece. At both Chalcis and Athens Plutarch tells us that there was an Amazoneum or shrine of Amazons that implied the presence of both tombs and cult. On the day before the Thesea at Athens there were annual sacrifices to the Amazons. In historical times Greek maidens of Ephesus performed an annual circular dance with weapons and shields that had been established by Hippolyte and her Amazons. They had initially set up wooden statues of Artemis, a bretas, (Pausanias, (fl.c.160): Description of Greece, Book I: Attica Ancient History Sourcebook: Pausanias: Description of Greece, Book I: Attica ). Two female gladiators with their names Amazonia and Achillea In art In works of art, battles between Amazons and Greeks are placed on the same level as and often associated with battles of Greeks and centaurs. The belief in their existence, however, having been once accepted and introduced into the national poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings. Their occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called pelta, and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind having apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often peculiarly Persian – that is, close-fitting trousers and a high cap called the kidaris. They were usually on horseback but sometimes on foot. They can also be identified in vase paintings by the fact that they are wearing one earring. The battle between Theseus and the Amazons (Amazonomachy) is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the reliefs from the frieze of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, now in the British Museum), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at Athens it was represented on the shield of the statue of Athena Parthenos, on wall-paintings in the Theseum and in the Stoa Poikile. There were also three standard Amazon statue types. In historiography Herodotus reported that the Sarmatians were descendants of Amazons and Scythians, and that their females observed their ancient maternal customs, "frequently hunting on horseback with their husbands; in war taking the field; and wearing the very same dress as the men". Moreover, said Herodotus, "No girl shall wed till she has killed a man in battle". In the story related by Herodotus, a group of Amazons was blown across the Maeotian Lake (the Sea of Azov) into Scythia near the cliff region (today's southeastern Crimea). After learning the Scythian language, they agreed to marry Scythian men, on the condition that they not be required to follow the customs of Scythian women. According to Herodotus, this band moved toward the northeast, settling beyond the Tanais (Don) river, and became the ancestors of the Sauromatians. According to Herodotus, the Sarmatians fought with the Scythians against Darius the Great in the 5th century B.C. Hippocrates describes them as: "They have no right breasts...for while they are yet babies their mothers make red-hot a bronze instrument constructed for this very purpose and apply it to the right breast and cauterize it, so that its growth is arrested, and all its strength and bulk are diverted to the right shoulder and right arm." (See breast ironing, a current practice in which breast growth is deliberately stunted.) Amazons came to play a role in Roman historiography. Caesar reminded the Senate of the conquest of large parts of Asia by Semiramis and the Amazons. Successful Amazon raids against Lycia and Cilicia contrasted with effective resistance by Lydian cavalry against the invaders (Strabo 5.504; Nicholas Damascenus). Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus pays particularly detailed attention to the Amazons. The story of the Amazons as deriving from a Cappadocian colony of two Scythian princes Ylinos and Scolopetos is due to him. Philostratus places the Amazons in the Taurus mountains. Ammianus places them east of Tanais, as neighbouring the Alans. Procopius places them in the Caucasus. Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica chapter 49) derived the Amazons from Atlantis and located them in western Libya. He also relates the story of Hercules defeating the Amazons at Themiscyre. Although Strabo shows scepticism as to their historicity, the Amazons in general continue to be taken as historical throughout Late Antiquity. Several Church Fathers speak of the Amazons as of a real people. Solinus embraces the account of Plinius. Under Aurelianus, captured Gothic women were identified as Amazons (Claudianus). The account of Justinus was influential, and was used as a source by Orosius who continued to be read during the European Middle Ages. Medieval authors thus continue the tradition of locating the Amazons in the North, Adam of Bremen placing them at the Baltic Sea and Paulus Diaconus in the heart of Germania. F. A. Ukert, Die Amazonen, Abhandlungen der philosophisch-philologischen Classe der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (1849), 63.. Renaissance literature Amazons continued to be discussed by authors of the European Renaissance, and with the Age of Exploration, they were located in ever more remote areas. Francisco de Orellana in 1542 reached the Amazonas River, naming it after the warlike women he encountered there. Amazons also figure in the accounts of both Christopher Columbus and William Raleigh. Ukert (1849), p. 35. Famous medieval traveller John Mandeville also mentions them in his book: "Beside the land of Chaldea is the land of Amazonia, that is the land of Feminye. And in that real is all woman and no man; not as some may say, that men may not live there, but for because that the women will not suffer no men amongst them to be their sovereigns." The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, Dover publications, Mineola, New York, 2006, cap. XVII, p. 103-104 Medieval and Renaissance authors credit the Amazons with the invention of the battle-axe. This is probably related to the Sagaris, an axe-like weapon associated with both Amazons and Scythian tribes by Greek authors (see also Aleksandrovo kurgan). Paulus Hector Mair expresses astonishment that such a "manly weapon" should have been invented by a "tribe of women", but he accepts the attribution out of respect for his authority, Johannes Aventinus. Ariosto's Orlando furioso contains a country of warrior women, ruled by Queen Orontea; the epic describes an origin much like that in Greek myth, in that the women, abandoned by a band of warriors and unfaithful lovers, rallied together to form a nation from which men were severely reduced, to prevent them from regaining power. Historical background Classicist Peter Walcot wrote, "Wherever the Amazons are located by the Greeks, whether it is somewhere along the Black Sea in the distant north-east, or in Libya in the furthest south, it is always beyond the confines of the civilized world. The Amazons exist outside the range of normal human experience." P. Walcot, "Greek Attitudes towards Women: The Mythological Evidence" Greece & Rome2nd Series 31.1 (April 1984, pp. 37-47) p 42. Nevertheless, there are various proposals for a historical nucleus of the Amazons of Greek historiography, the most obvious candidates being historical Scythia and Sarmatia in line with the account by Herodotus, but some authors prefer a comparison to cultures of Asia Minor or even Minoan Crete. Speculation that the idea of Amazons contains a core of reality is most recently based on archaeological findings from burials, pointing to the possibility that some Sarmatian women may have participated in battle. These findings have led scholars to suggest that the Amazonian legend in Greek mythology may have been "inspired by real warrior women", Lyn Webster Wilde, "Did the Amazons really exist?" Diotima though this remains a minority opinion among classical historians. Scythia Mounted Amazon in Scythian costume, on an Attic red-figure vase, ca 420 BCE Archaeological evidence seems to confirm the existence of Women-Warriors, as Sarmatian women's active role in military operation and social life. Burial of armed Sarmatian women comprise about 25 percent of the military burial in the group, and are usually buried with bows. Diotima Russian archaeologist Vera Kovalevskaya points out that when Scythian men were away fighting or hunting, nomadic women would have to be able to defend themselves, their animals and pasture-grounds competently. During the time that the Scythians advanced into Asia and achieved near-hegemony in the Near-East, there was a period of twenty-eight years when the men would have been away on campaigns for long periods. During this time the women would not only have had to defend themselves, but to reproduce and this could well be the origin of the idea that Amazons mated once a year with their neighbours, if Herodotus actually intended to base this on a factual base. Before modern archaeology uncovered some of the Scythian burials of warrior-maidens entombed under kurgans in the region of Altay Mountains and Sarmatia, "Warrior Women of Eurasia", Archaeology Magazine (Abstract) Volume 50 Number 1, January/February 1997 Retrieved 7/10/08. In a recent excavation of Sarmatian sites by Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball, a tomb was found wherein female warriors were buried. giving concrete form at last to the Greek tales of mounted Amazons, the origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject of speculation among classics scholars. In the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica speculation ranged along the following lines: "While some regard the Amazons as a purely mythical people, others assume an historical foundation for them. The deities worshipped by them were Ares (who is consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of Thracian and generally northern origin) and Artemis, not the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent. It is conjectured that the Amazons were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (hierodulae) of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded with the self-mutilation of the god Attis and the galli, Roman priests of Rhea Cybele. Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended, travellers brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of affairs. Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women. According to J. Viirtheim (De Ajacis origine, 1907), the Amazons were of Greek origin [...] It has been suggested that the fact of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two famous heroes of Greek mythology, Heracles and Theseus [...] shows that they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of the colonies on the Euxine and the barbarism of the native inhabitants." Departure of the Amazons, by Claude Deruet, 1620. Minoan Crete When Minoan archeology was still in its infancy, nevertheless, a theory raised in an essay regarding the Amazons contributed by Lewis Richard Farnell and John Myres to Robert Ranulph Marett's Anthropology and the Classics (1908), L.R. Farnell and J.L. Myres, "Herodotus and anthropology" in Robert R. Marett Anthropology and the Classics 1908, pp. 138ff. placed their possible origins in Minoan civilization, drawing attention to overlooked similarities between the two cultures. According to Myres, (pp. 153 ff), the tradition interpreted in the light of evidence furnished by supposed Amazon cults seems to have been very similar and may have even originated in Minoan culture. Modern popular fiction See also Amazon feminism Artemis Liburnians (according to Pseudo-Scylax ruled by women) Matriarchy Shieldmaiden Sitones Terra Feminarum Themis Timeline of women in ancient warfare Valkyrie Virago Warrior princess Woman warriors in mythology Sources and notes Bibliography Andreas David Mordtmann, Die Amazonen (Hanover, 1862) W. Stricker, Die Amazonen in Sage und Geschichte (1868) A. Klugmann, Die Amazonen in der attischen Literatur und Kunst (1875) H. L. Krause, Die Amazonensage (1893) F. G. Bergmann, Les Amazones dans l'histoire et dans la fable (1853) P. Lacour, Les Amazones (1901) articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, and W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie George Grote, History of Greece, pt. i. ch. 11. Lexikon Iconographicum Mythologia Classica, vol. I, s.v. "Amazones". Dietrich von Bothmer, Amazons in Greek Art (Oxford University Press), 1957. Josine H. Blok, (Peter Mason, tr.)The Early Amazons: Modern and Ancient Perspectives on a Persistent Myth (1995) External links Herodotus on the Amazons Herodotus via Gutenberg Perseus Straight Dope: Amazons Religious cults associated with the Amazons (Florence Mary Bennett, 1912) | Amazons |@lemmatized amazon:79 prepare:1 battle:9 queen:12 antiope:5 arm:3 venus:1 pierre:1 eugène:1 emile:1 hébert:1 national:2 gallery:1 art:12 washington:1 dc:1 ამორძალები:1 nation:3 female:6 warrior:16 classical:4 greek:26 mythology:4 herodotus:12 place:8 region:3 border:1 scythia:5 sarmatia:3 modern:8 territory:1 ukraine:1 historiographer:1 asia:6 minor:4 libya:4 notable:1 penthesilea:9 participate:2 trojan:3 war:9 sister:3 hippolyta:5 whose:1 magical:2 girdle:4 object:1 one:6 labour:1 hercules:2 amazonian:4 raider:1 often:4 depict:1 amazonomachies:1 become:5 associate:4 various:3 historical:7 people:3 throughout:3 roman:5 empire:1 period:5 late:5 antiquity:2 era:1 historiography:4 account:5 raid:2 early:3 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6,968 | History_of_the_Faroe_Islands | Pre-Norse history Faroese depicting Saint Brendan discovering the Faroe Islands The early details of Faroese history are rather nebulous. It is possible that Saint Brendan, an Irish monk (a Papar) sailed past the islands during his North Atlantic voyage in the 6th century. He saw an 'Island of Sheep' and a 'Paradise of Birds', which some say could be the Faroes with its dense bird population and sheep. In the late 600s to early 700s the islands were visited by monks from Ireland, possibly looking for converts or solitude. Little is known about them, except that they used the Faroes (and Iceland) as a hermitage. As these monks were celibate and lived in all-male communities, their populations were not self sustaining. The earliest text which is believed to include a description of the Faroe Islands, was written by an Irish monk in the Frankish Kingdom named Dicuil, who wrote about the countries in the north.. Dicuil had met a "man worthy of trust" who related to his master, the abbot Sweeney (Suibhne), how he had landed on the Faroe Islands after having navigated "two days and a summer night in a little vessel of two banks of oars." Around A.D. 825, Dicuil wrote a book, Liber de Mensura Orbis Terrae, (Measure/description of the sphere of the earth) in which he states: "Many other islands lie in the northerly British Ocean. One reaches them from the northerly islands of Britain, by sailing directly for two days and two nights with a full sail in a favourable wind the whole time.... Most of these islands are small, they are separated by narrow channels, and for nearly a hundred years hermits lived there, coming from our Scotland (i.e. Ireland) by boat. But just as these islands have been uninhabited from the beginning of the world, so now the Norwegian pirates have driven away the monks; but countless sheep and many different species of sea-fowl are to be found there..." The physical description of these islands and the travel time described, fits the Faroe Islands, and the name Faeroe is thought to mean Sheep Islands. According to this, the first settlers in the Faroe Islands were Irish monks, who introduced sheep and oats to the Faroe Isles. Recent pollen analysis showing that oats were grown in the Faroes about the year 650 A.D supports this theory. Pre-14th century 1904 illustration of Færeyinga Saga, depicting Tróndur í Gøtu Little is known about Faroese history up until the 14th century. The main historical source for this period is the 13th century work Færeyinga Saga (Saga of the Faroese), and it is disputed as to how much of this work is historical fact. Færeyinga Saga only exists today as copies in other sagas. In particular three manuscripts called Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, Flateyjarbók and one registered as AM 62 fol. According to Flateyjarbók Grímr Kamban settled in Faroe when Harald Hårfagre was king of Norway (872 – 930). But this version does not correspond with the above mentioned writings of Dicuil. Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar, however, does. According to that manuscript, Færeyinga Saga starts like this: There was a man named Grímr Kamban; he first settled in Faroe. But in the days of Harold Fairhair many men fled before the king’s overbearing. Some settled in Faroe and began to dwell there, and others sought to other waste lands. According to this many men did indeed flee from Harald Hårfagre. But the text suggests that Grímr Kamban settled in the Faroes some time before. Maybe even hundreds of years. His first name Grímr is Norse. But his last name Kamban (Cambán) is Gaelic. He may have been of mixed Norse and Irish origin and come from a settlement in the British isles; a so-called Norse-Gael. These Norse-Gaels had intermarried with the local Gaelic speaking people in Britain, a feature that is still visible in the Faroese genes today, which prove to be mixed Scandinavian-British. If many men settled in the Faroes in the reign of Harald Hårfagre, people must have known about the Faroes. And therefore someone may have settled or visited there some time before. The fact that settlers from Norway also settled in the Faroe Islands is proven by a runestone (see Sandavágur stone) found in the village of Sandavágur on Vágoy Island. It says: I.e. "Thorkil Onundsson, eastman (Norwegian) from Rogaland, settled first in this place (Sandavágur)". This description "eastman" (from Norway) has to be seen together with the description "westman" (From Ireland/Scotland) which is to be found in local place-names such as "Vestmanna-havn" i.e. "Irish-mens harbour" in the Faroe Isles, and "Vestmannaeyjar" i.e. "Irish-mens islands" in Iceland. Faroese stamp commemorating the arrival of Christianity in the islands According to Færeyinga Saga there was an ancient institution on the headland Tinganes in Tórshavn on the island of Streymoy. This was an Alþing or Althing (All-council.) This was the place where laws were made and disputes solved. All free men had the right to meet in the Alþing. It was a parliament and law court for all, thus the name. Historians estimate the Alþing to have been established from 800 to 900. The islands were converted to Christianity around the year 1000, with the Diocese of the Faroe Islands based at Kirkjubøur, southern Streymoy, of which there were 33 Catholic bishops. The Faroes became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in 1035. Early in the 11th century Sigmund or Sigmundur Brestisson, whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the northern, was sent from Norway, whither he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld and continued. King Sverre of Norway was brought up in the Faroe, being stepson of a Faroese man, and relative to Roe, bishop of the islands. Foreign commercial interest: 14th century to Second World War The 14th century saw the start of what would prove to be a long era of foreign encroachment in the Faroese economy. At this time trading regulations were set up so that all Faroese commerce had to pass through Bergen, Norway in order to collect customs tax. Meanwhile, the Hanseatic League was gaining in power, threatening Scandinavian commerce. Though Norway tried to halt this process it was forced to relent after the Black Death decimated its population. Norwegian supremacy continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the dual monarchy Denmark-Norway. The islands were still a possession of the Norwegian crown since the crowns had not been joined. In 1380 the Alþting was renamed the Løgting, though it was by now little more than a law court. In 1390s, Henry Sinclair I, Earl of Orkney, took possession of the islands (as vassal of Norway, however) and for some time they were part of the Sinclair principality in the North Atlantic. Archaeological excavations on the islands indicate sustained pig keeping up to and beyond the 13th century, a situation unique compared to Iceland and Greenland. The Faroese at Junkarinsfløtti remained dependent upon bird resources, especially puffins, far longer, and to a greater degree than any of the other Viking Age settlers of the North Atlantic islands. English adventurers gave great trouble to the inhabitants in the 16th century, and the name of Magnus Heinason, a native of Streymoy, who was sent by Frederick II to clear the seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. In 1535 Christian II, the deposed monarch, tried to regain power from King Christian III who just succeeded his father Frederick I. Several of the powerful German companies backed Christian II, but he eventually lost. The new King Christian III gave the German trader Thomas Köppen exclusive trading rates in the Faroes. These rights were subject to the following conditions: only good quality goods were to be supplied by the Faroese and were to be made in numbers proportionate to the rest of the market; the goods were to be brought at their market value; and the traders were to deal fairly and honestly with the Faroese. Christian III also introduced Lutheranism to the Faroes, to replace Catholicism. This process took five years to complete, in which time Danish was used instead of Latin and church property was transferred to the state. The bishopric at Kirkjubøur, south of Tórshavn, where remains of the cathedral may be seen, was also abolished. After Köppen, others took over the trading monopoly, though the economy suffered as a result of the war between Denmark and Sweden. During this period of the monopoly most Faroese goods (wool products, fish, meat) were taken to the Netherlands where they were sold at pre-determined prices. However, the guidelines of the trading agreement were often ignored or corrupted. This caused delays and shortages in Faroese supplies. Subsequently they produced poorer quality goods, and received poorer quality goods themselves. With the trading monopoly nearing collapse smuggling and piracy were rife. Denmark tried to solve the problem by giving the Faroes to Christoffer Gabel (and later on his son, Frederick) as a personal feudal estate. However, the Gabel was harsh and repressive, breeding much resentment from the Faroese. This caused Denmark, in 1708, to take the islands and trading monopoly back to central government. However, they too struggled to keep the economy going, and many merchants were running at a loss. Finally, on the 1 January 1856 the trading monopoly was abolished. Denmark retained possession of the Faroes at the Peace of Kiel in 1814, but lost continental Norway. In 1816 the Løgting (the Faroese parliament) was officially abolished and replaced by a Danish judiciary. Danish was introduced as the main language, whilst Faroese was discouraged. In 1849 a new constitution came into power in Denmark. This new constitution was announced in the Faroes in 1850, giving the Faroese two seats in the Rigsdag (Danish parliament). However, the Faroese managed to re-establish the Løgting as a county council with an advisory role in 1852, with many people hoping to eventually achieve independence. The late 1800s saw increasing support for the home rule/independence movement, though not all people supported it. Meanwhile, the Faroese economy was growing with the introduction of large-scale fishing. The Faroese were allowed access to the large Danish waters in the North Atlantic. Living standards subsequently improved and there was a population increase. Faroese became a standardised written language in 1890. World War II During the Second World War Denmark was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany. The British subsequently made a pre-emptive (but friendly) invasion and occupation of the Faroes to prevent a German invasion. Given their strategic location in the North Atlantic, the Faroes could have proved useful to Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic, possibly as a submarine base. Instead, the British forces built an airbase on Vágar. Faroese fishing boats also provided a large amount of fish to the , which was essential given food rationing. The Løgting gained legislative powers, with the Danish prefect Carl Aage Hilbert retaining executive power. The Faroese flag was recognized by British authorities. There were some attempts to declare complete independence in this period, but the had given an undertaking not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Faroe Islands nor to act without the permission of a liberated Denmark. The experience of wartime self-government was crucial in paving the way for formal autonomy in 1948. The British presence was broadly popular (particularly given the alternative of a German occupation). Approximately 150 marriages took place between British soldiers and Faroese women, although the scale of the British presence on Vágar did lead to some local tensions. The British presence also left a lasting popularity for British chocolate, which is readily available in Faroese shops but uncommon in Denmark. Post-WWII: Home Rule Following the liberation of Denmark and the end of World War II, the last British troops left in September 1945. Until 1948 the Faroes had the official status of an Danish amt (county). A referendum on full independence was held in 1946, which produced a majority in favour. This was, however, not recognised by the Danish Government or king due to only 2/3 of the population participating in the referendum, so the Danish king abbolished the government of the Faroes. The subsequent elections Løgting were won by an anti-independence majority and instead a high degree of self-governance was attained in 1948 with the passing of the Act of Faroese Home Rule. Faroese was now an official language, though Danish is still taught as a second language in schools. The Faroese flag was also officially recognised by Danish authorities. In 1973 Denmark joined the European Community (now European Union). The Faroes refused to join, mainly over the issue of fishing limits. The 1980s saw an increase in support for Faroese independence. Unemployment was very low, and the Faroese were enjoying one of the world's highest standards of living. The Faroese economy though was almost entirely reliant on fishing. The early 1990s saw a dramatic slump in fish stocks, which were being overfished with new high-tech equipment. During the same period the government was also enagaged in massive overspending, associated with the Big 80s. National debt was now at 9.4 billion Danish krones (DKK). Finally, in October 1992, the Faroese national bank (Sjóvinnurbankin) called in receivers and were forced into asking Denmark for a broad financial bailout. The initial sum was 500 million DKK, though this eventually grew to 1.8 billion DKK (this was in addition to the annual grant of 1 billion DKK). Austerity measures were introduced: public spending was cut, there was a tax and VAT increase and public employees were given a 10% wage-cut. Much of the fishing industry was put into receivership, with talk of cutting down on the number of fish-farms and ships. It was during this period that many Faroese (6%) decided to emigrate, mainly to Denmark. Unemployment rose, up to as much as 20% in Tórshavn, with it being higher in the outlying islands. In 1993 the Sjóvinnurbankin merged with the Faroes second largest bank, Føroya Banki. A third was declared bankrupt and folded. Meanwhile, there was a growing international boycott of Faroese produce over the grindadráp (whaling) issue. The independence movement dissolved on the one hand while Denmark found itself left with the Faroe Islands' unpaid bills on the other. The measures largely worked. Unemployment peaked in January 1994 at 26%, since which it fell (10% in mid-1996, 5% in April 2000). The fishing industry was not curtailed as much as was being considered, so it survived largely intact. Fish stocks also rose, with the annual catch being 100,000 in 1994, to 150,000 in 1995. In 1998 it was 375,000. Emigration also fell to 1% in 1995, and there was a small population increase in 1996. Oil has been discovered nearby as well. By the early 2000s, weakness in the Faroese economy had been eliminated and, accordingly, many minds turned once again to the possibility of independence from Denmark. However, a planned referendum on a roadmap towards independence in 2001 was called off following Danish Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen saying that Danish money grants would be phased out within four years if there was a 'yes' vote. The Faroese ethnic group is of primarily Norse Viking descent and Scottish. Sources Church, MJ, Arge, SV, Brewington, S, McGovern, TH, Woollett, JM, Perdikaris, S, Lawson, IT, Cook, GT, Amundsen, C. Harrison, R, Krivogorskaya, Y and Dunar, E. (2005). Puffins, Pigs, Cod and Barley: Palaeoeconomy at Undir Junkarinsfløtti, Sandoy, Faroe Islands. Environmental Archaeology 10 (2): 179-197. Further reading Brandt, Don. Stamps and Story of the Faroe Islands. Reykjavík: Nesútgáfan, 1996. ISBN 9979919442 Johnston, George. The Faroe Islanders' Saga. [Ottawa]: Oberon, 1975. ISBN 0887501354 West, John F. The History of the Faroe Islands, 1709-1816. København: C.A. Reitzel, 1985. ISBN 8774214861 Wylie, Jonathan. The Faroe Islands Interpretations of History. Lexington, Ky: University Press of Kentucky, 1987. ISBN 0813115787 External links History of Faroe Islands - Information on the history of the Faroe Islands from the 9th Century to the present. See also Timeline of the Faroe Islands Faroese language conflict | History_of_the_Faroe_Islands |@lemmatized pre:4 norse:6 history:7 faroese:38 depict:2 saint:2 brendan:2 discover:2 faroe:23 islands:4 early:6 detail:1 rather:1 nebulous:1 possible:1 irish:6 monk:6 papar:1 sail:3 past:1 island:36 north:6 atlantic:6 voyage:1 century:10 saw:5 sheep:5 paradise:1 bird:3 say:3 could:2 faroes:18 dense:1 population:6 late:2 visit:2 ireland:3 possibly:2 look:1 convert:2 solitude:1 little:4 know:3 except:1 use:2 iceland:3 hermitage:1 celibate:1 live:2 male:1 community:2 self:3 sustain:2 text:2 believe:1 include:1 description:5 write:4 frankish:1 kingdom:2 name:8 dicuil:4 country:1 meet:2 man:3 worthy:1 trust:1 relate:1 master:1 abbot:1 sweeney:1 suibhne:1 land:2 navigate:1 two:5 day:3 summer:1 night:2 vessel:1 bank:3 oar:1 around:2 book:1 liber:1 de:1 mensura:1 orbis:1 terrae:1 measure:3 sphere:1 earth:1 state:2 many:10 lie:1 northerly:2 british:12 ocean:1 one:4 reach:1 britain:2 directly:1 full:2 favou:1 rable:1 wind:1 whole:1 time:7 small:2 separate:1 narrow:1 channel:1 nearly:1 hund:1 red:1 year:6 hermits:1 come:3 scotland:2 e:5 boat:2 uninhabi:1 ted:1 beginning:1 world:6 norwegian:5 pirate:1 drive:1 away:1 countless:1 different:1 specie:1 sea:2 fowl:1 find:4 physical:1 travel:1 describe:1 fit:1 faeroe:1 think:1 mean:1 accord:5 first:4 settler:3 introduce:5 oat:2 isle:3 recent:1 pollen:1 analysis:1 show:1 grow:4 support:4 theory:1 illustration:1 færeyinga:5 saga:10 tróndur:1 í:1 gøtu:1 main:2 historical:2 source:2 period:5 work:3 dispute:2 much:5 fact:2 exist:1 today:2 copy:1 particular:1 three:1 manuscript:2 call:4 óláfs:1 tryggvasonar:2 flateyjarbók:2 register:1 fol:1 grímr:4 kamban:4 settle:8 harald:3 hårfagre:3 king:8 norway:12 version:1 correspond:1 mention:1 writing:1 ólafs:1 however:8 start:2 like:1 harold:1 fairhair:1 men:6 flee:2 overbear:1 begin:1 dwell:1 others:2 seek:1 waste:1 indeed:1 suggest:1 maybe:1 even:1 hundred:1 last:2 cambán:1 gaelic:2 may:3 mixed:2 origin:1 settlement:1 gael:2 intermarry:1 local:3 speak:1 people:4 feature:1 still:4 visible:1 gene:1 prove:4 scandinavian:2 reign:1 must:1 therefore:1 someone:1 also:10 runestone:1 see:4 sandavágur:3 stone:1 village:1 vágoy:1 thorkil:1 onundsson:1 eastman:2 rogaland:1 place:4 together:1 westman:1 vestmanna:1 havn:1 harbour:1 vestmannaeyjar:1 stamp:2 commemorate:1 arrival:1 christianity:3 ancient:1 institution:1 headland:1 tinganes:1 tórshavn:3 streymoy:3 alþing:3 althing:1 council:2 law:3 make:3 solve:2 free:1 right:2 parliament:3 court:2 thus:1 historian:1 estimate:1 establish:2 diocese:1 base:2 kirkjubøur:2 southern:2 catholic:1 bishop:2 become:3 part:3 sigmund:1 sigmundur:1 brestisson:1 whose:1 family:1 flourish:1 almost:2 exterminate:1 invader:1 northern:1 send:2 whither:1 escape:1 take:7 possession:4 olaf:1 tryggvason:1 though:8 subsequently:4 murder:1 supremacy:2 upheld:1 continued:1 sverre:1 bring:2 stepson:1 relative:1 roe:1 foreign:2 commercial:1 interest:1 second:4 war:5 would:2 long:2 era:1 encroachment:1 economy:6 trading:7 regulation:1 set:1 commerce:2 pass:1 bergen:1 order:1 collect:1 custom:1 tax:2 meanwhile:3 hanseatic:1 league:1 gain:2 power:5 threaten:1 try:3 halt:1 process:2 force:3 relent:1 black:1 death:1 decimate:1 continue:1 dual:1 monarchy:1 denmark:15 crown:2 since:2 join:3 alþting:1 rename:1 løgting:5 henry:1 sinclair:2 earl:1 orkney:1 vassal:1 principality:1 archaeological:1 excavation:1 indicate:1 pig:2 keep:2 beyond:1 situation:1 unique:1 compare:1 greenland:1 junkarinsfløtti:2 remain:1 dependent:1 upon:1 resource:1 especially:1 puffin:2 far:1 great:2 degree:2 viking:2 age:1 english:1 adventurer:1 give:9 trouble:1 inhabitant:1 magnus:1 heinason:1 native:1 frederick:3 ii:5 clear:1 celebrate:1 song:1 story:2 christian:5 deposed:1 monarch:1 regain:1 iii:3 succeed:1 father:1 several:1 powerful:1 german:4 company:1 back:2 eventually:3 lose:2 new:4 trader:2 thomas:1 köppen:2 exclusive:1 rate:1 subject:1 following:1 condition:1 good:6 quality:3 supply:2 number:2 proportionate:1 rest:1 market:2 value:1 deal:1 fairly:1 honestly:1 lutheranism:1 replace:2 catholicism:1 five:1 complete:2 danish:14 instead:3 latin:1 church:2 property:1 transfer:1 bishopric:1 south:1 remains:1 cathedral:1 abolish:3 monopoly:5 suffer:1 result:1 sweden:1 wool:1 product:1 fish:6 meat:1 netherlands:1 sell:1 determined:1 price:1 guideline:1 agreement:1 often:1 ignore:1 corrupt:1 cause:2 delay:1 shortage:1 produce:3 poor:2 receive:1 near:1 collapse:1 smuggling:1 piracy:1 rife:1 problem:1 christoffer:1 gabel:2 later:1 son:1 personal:1 feudal:1 estate:1 harsh:1 repressive:1 breed:1 resentment:1 central:1 government:5 struggle:1 go:1 merchant:1 run:1 loss:1 finally:2 january:2 retain:2 peace:1 kiel:1 continental:1 officially:2 judiciary:1 language:5 whilst:1 discourage:1 constitution:2 announce:1 seat:1 rigsdag:1 manage:1 county:2 advisory:1 role:1 hop:1 achieve:1 independence:9 increase:5 home:3 rule:3 movement:2 introduction:1 large:4 scale:2 fishing:5 allow:1 access:1 water:1 living:2 standard:2 improve:1 standardised:1 invade:1 occupy:1 nazi:1 germany:2 emptive:1 friendly:1 invasion:2 occupation:2 prevent:1 strategic:1 location:1 useful:1 battle:1 submarine:1 build:1 airbase:1 vágar:2 provide:1 amount:1 essential:1 food:1 ration:1 legislative:1 prefect:1 carl:1 aage:1 hilbert:1 executive:1 flag:2 recognize:1 authority:2 attempt:1 declare:2 undertaking:1 interfere:1 internal:1 affair:1 act:2 without:1 permission:1 liberated:1 experience:1 wartime:1 crucial:1 pave:1 way:1 formal:1 autonomy:1 presence:3 broadly:1 popular:1 particularly:1 alternative:1 approximately:1 marriage:1 soldier:1 woman:1 although:1 lead:1 tension:1 leave:3 lasting:1 popularity:1 chocolate:1 readily:1 available:1 shop:1 uncommon:1 post:1 wwii:1 follow:2 liberation:1 end:1 troop:1 september:1 official:2 status:1 amt:1 referendum:3 hold:1 majority:2 favour:1 recognise:2 due:1 participate:1 abbolished:1 subsequent:1 election:1 win:1 anti:1 high:3 governance:1 attain:1 passing:1 teach:1 school:1 european:2 union:1 refuse:1 mainly:2 issue:2 limit:1 unemployment:3 low:1 enjoy:1 entirely:1 reliant:1 dramatic:1 slump:1 stock:2 overfished:1 tech:1 equipment:1 enagaged:1 massive:1 overspending:1 associate:1 big:1 national:2 debt:1 billion:3 krone:1 dkk:4 october:1 sjóvinnurbankin:2 receiver:1 ask:1 broad:1 financial:1 bailout:1 initial:1 sum:1 million:1 addition:1 annual:2 grant:2 austerity:1 public:2 spending:1 cut:3 vat:1 employee:1 wage:1 industry:2 put:1 receivership:1 talk:1 farm:1 ship:1 decide:1 emigrate:1 rise:2 higher:1 outlying:1 merge:1 føroya:1 banki:1 third:1 bankrupt:1 fold:1 international:1 boycott:1 grindadráp:1 whale:1 dissolve:1 hand:1 unpaid:1 bill:1 largely:2 peak:1 fell:2 mid:1 april:1 curtail:1 consider:1 survive:1 intact:1 catch:1 emigration:1 oil:1 nearby:1 well:1 weakness:1 eliminate:1 accordingly:1 mind:1 turn:1 possibility:1 plan:1 roadmap:1 towards:1 prime:1 minister:1 poul:1 nyrup:1 rasmussen:1 money:1 phase:1 within:1 four:1 yes:1 vote:1 ethnic:1 group:1 primarily:1 descent:1 scottish:1 mj:1 arge:1 sv:1 brewington:1 mcgovern:1 th:1 woollett:1 jm:1 perdikaris:1 lawson:1 cook:1 gt:1 amundsen:1 c:2 harrison:1 r:1 krivogorskaya:1 dunar:1 cod:1 barley:1 palaeoeconomy:1 undir:1 sandoy:1 environmental:1 archaeology:1 reading:1 brandt:1 reykjavík:1 nesútgáfan:1 isbn:4 johnston:1 george:1 islander:1 ottawa:1 oberon:1 west:1 john:1 f:1 københavn:1 reitzel:1 wylie:1 jonathan:1 interpretation:1 lexington:1 ky:1 university:1 press:1 kentucky:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 present:1 timeline:1 conflict:1 |@bigram faroe_islands:3 faroe_island:13 færeyinga_saga:5 harald_hårfagre:3 norse_gael:2 olaf_tryggvason:1 bergen_norway:1 hanseatic_league:1 earl_orkney:1 archaeological_excavation:1 iceland_greenland:1 pre_emptive:1 food_ration:1 danish_krone:1 billion_dkk:2 austerity_measure:1 tax_vat:1 prime_minister:1 lexington_ky:1 external_link:1 |
6,969 | Lycos | Lycos is a search engine and web portal with broadband entertainment content. History Lycos began as a search engine research project by Dr. Michael Loren Mauldin of Carnegie Mellon University in 1994. Bob Davis joined the company as its CEO and first employee in 1995. Lycos then enjoyed several years of growth and, in 1999, became the most visited online destination in the world, with a global presence in more than 40 countries. Lycos was sold to Terra Networks of Spain in May 2000 for $5.4 billion, forming a new company Terra Lycos and maintaining a position as one of the world's largest Internet companies. Shortly after the merger, Davis left the company to become a venture capitalist with Highland Capital Partners in Boston. In October 2004, Lycos was sold by Terra's parent company Telefonica to Daum Communications Corporation, the second largest Internet portal in Korea, becoming once again Lycos Inc. Corporate Development Shortly after the development of the search engine, Lycos Inc. was formed with approximately US$2 million in venture capital funding from CMGI. The founder and CEO of Lycos since interception was Bob Davis, a Boston native who incorporated the company in Massachusetts and concentrated on building it into an advertising-supported web portal. Lycos grew from a crowded field in 1995 to become the most-visited web portal in the world in the spring of 1999 (as measured by visits to all of its sites). In 1996, the company completed the fastest IPO from inception to offering in NASDAQ history, and, in 1997, became one of the first profitable internet businesses in the world. In 1998 it paid $58 million for Tripod in an attempt to "break into the portal market" which was rapidly developing; over the course of the next few years this was followed by nearly two dozen acquisitions of high profile internet brands including Gamesville, WhoWhere, Wired Digital (sold to Wired), Quote.com, Angelfire and Raging Bull. Lycos Europe was a joint venture between Bertelsmann and Lycos but has always been a distinct corporate entity. Although Lycos Europe is the largest of the overseas ventures several other companies also entered into joint venture agreements including Lycos Canada, Lycos Korea and Lycos Asia. Near the peak of the internet bubble in May 2000, Lycos announced its intent to be acquired by Terra Networks, the internet arm of the Spanish telecommunications giant Telefónica, for $5.4 billion. The acquisition price represented a nearly 3000 times return on the initial venture capital investment in Lycos and about 20 times its initial public offering valuation. The transaction closed in October 2000. The merged company was renamed Terra Lycos yet the Lycos brand was the US franchise. Overseas the company continued to be known as Terra Networks, Davis left the company shortly after the merger was completed to join Highland Capital Partners, a premier venture capital fund where he now serves as a Managing General partner and concentrates on internet investments. On August 2, 2004, Terra announced that it was selling Lycos to Seoul, South Korea-based Daum Communications Corporation for $95.4 million in cash, less than 2% of Terra's initial multi-billion investment. In October 2004, the transaction closed and the company name was changed back to Lycos Inc. The remaining Terra half of the business was subsequently reacquired by Telefónica. Under new ownership, Lycos began to refocus its strategy in 2005, moving away from a search-centric portal torwards a community destination for broadband entertainment content. With a new management team in place, Lycos also began divesting properties that were not core to its new strategy. In July 2006, Wired News, which had been part of Lycos since the purchase of Wired Digital in 1998, was sold to Condé Nast and re-merged with Wired magazine. The Lycos Finance division, best known for Quote.com and Raging Bull.com, was sold to FT Interactive Data Corporation in February 2006, while its online dating site, Matchmaker.com, was sold to Date.com. In 2006, Lycos also regained ownership of the Lycos trademark from Carnegie Mellon University becoming Lycos Inc. once again. During 2006, Lycos introduced services, including Lycos Phone, which combined IM video chat, real-time video on demand and an MP3 player. In August of the same year, a new version of Lycos Mail was released, which allowed sending and receiving mega files, including unlimited size file attachments. In November 2006, Lycos began to roll out applications centered around social media, including the web's first watch & chat video application, with the launch of its "Lycos Cinema" platform. In February 2007 "Lycos MIX" was launched a tool allowing users to pull video clips from YouTube, Google Video, Yahoo! Video and MySpace Video, creating playlists where other users can add video comments and chat in real-time. Lycos Network sites Angelfire , a Lycos property providing free webhosting, blogging and web publishing tools Gamesville , Lycos's massive multiplayer gaming site Hotbot , a Lycos-owned search engine HtmlGear , a Lycos property providing web-page addons (guestbooks, etc.) Tripod.com , a Lycos property providing free webhosting, blogging and web publishing tools Webon , a next generation webhosting and publishing platform WhoWhere.com , a people search engine Lycos-branded sites Lycos Domains , Internet domain name purchasing Lycos Mail , free email provider formerly known as Mailcity.com. Lycos Planet , Lycos social networking and light web-building site. It is the successor to Lycos Circles, which was shut down in September 2005. Lycos Retriever , an automatically generated information summarization service. Lycos Cinema , an online video and social networking site. (This service closed on April 29th 2009.) Lycos MIX , a video playlist chat and social networking site. Former Lycos sites GetRelevant, a Lycos online advertising site Quote.com and Raging Bull, finance sites Matchmaker.com, a dating site Webmonkey, web-building help and tutorials Wired.com, the online arm of Wired magazine Lycos Radio, allowed users to create and host their own free internet radio shows References External links Lycos Search Home Lycos' parent company | Lycos |@lemmatized lycos:55 search:7 engine:5 web:9 portal:6 broadband:2 entertainment:2 content:2 history:2 begin:4 research:1 project:1 dr:1 michael:1 loren:1 mauldin:1 carnegie:2 mellon:2 university:2 bob:2 davis:4 join:2 company:13 ceo:2 first:3 employee:1 enjoy:1 several:2 year:3 growth:1 become:6 visited:2 online:5 destination:2 world:4 global:1 presence:1 country:1 sell:7 terra:9 network:4 spain:1 may:2 billion:3 form:2 new:5 maintain:1 position:1 one:2 large:3 internet:9 shortly:3 merger:2 leave:2 venture:7 capitalist:1 highland:2 capital:5 partner:3 boston:2 october:3 parent:2 telefonica:1 daum:2 communication:2 corporation:3 second:1 korea:3 inc:4 corporate:2 development:2 approximately:1 u:2 million:3 funding:1 cmgi:1 founder:1 since:2 interception:1 native:1 incorporate:1 massachusetts:1 concentrate:2 build:1 advertising:2 support:1 grow:1 crowded:1 field:1 spring:1 measure:1 visit:1 site:12 complete:2 fast:1 ipo:1 inception:1 offering:2 nasdaq:1 profitable:1 business:2 pay:1 tripod:2 attempt:1 break:1 market:1 rapidly:1 develop:1 course:1 next:2 follow:1 nearly:2 two:1 dozen:1 acquisition:2 high:1 profile:1 brand:3 include:5 gamesville:2 whowhere:2 wire:4 digital:2 quote:3 com:11 angelfire:2 rag:3 bull:3 europe:2 joint:2 bertelsmann:1 always:1 distinct:1 entity:1 although:1 overseas:2 also:3 enter:1 agreement:1 canada:1 asia:1 near:1 peak:1 bubble:1 announce:2 intent:1 acquire:1 arm:2 spanish:1 telecommunication:1 giant:1 telefónica:2 price:1 represent:1 time:4 return:1 initial:3 investment:3 public:1 valuation:1 transaction:2 close:3 merged:1 rename:1 yet:1 franchise:1 continue:1 know:3 premier:1 fund:1 serve:1 manage:1 general:1 august:2 seoul:1 south:1 base:1 cash:1 less:1 multi:1 name:2 change:1 back:1 remain:1 half:1 subsequently:1 reacquired:1 ownership:2 refocus:1 strategy:2 move:1 away:1 centric:1 torwards:1 community:1 management:1 team:1 place:1 divest:1 property:4 core:1 july:1 news:1 part:1 purchase:2 wired:3 condé:1 nast:1 merge:1 magazine:2 finance:2 division:1 best:1 ft:1 interactive:1 data:1 february:2 date:3 matchmaker:2 regain:1 trademark:1 introduce:1 service:3 phone:1 combine:1 im:1 video:10 chat:4 real:2 demand:1 player:1 version:1 mail:2 release:1 allow:3 sending:1 receive:1 mega:1 file:2 unlimited:1 size:1 attachment:1 november:1 roll:1 application:2 center:1 around:1 social:4 medium:1 watch:1 launch:2 cinema:2 platform:2 mix:2 tool:3 user:3 pull:1 clip:1 youtube:1 google:1 yahoo:1 myspace:1 create:2 playlist:2 add:1 comment:1 provide:3 free:4 webhosting:3 blogging:2 publishing:3 massive:1 multiplayer:1 game:1 hotbot:1 htmlgear:1 page:1 addons:1 guestbooks:1 etc:1 webon:1 generation:1 people:1 domain:2 email:1 provider:1 formerly:1 mailcity:1 planet:1 networking:3 light:1 building:2 successor:1 circle:1 shut:1 september:1 retriever:1 automatically:1 generate:1 information:1 summarization:1 april:1 former:1 getrelevant:1 webmonkey:1 help:1 tutorial:1 radio:2 host:1 show:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 |@bigram carnegie_mellon:2 rag_bull:3 joint_venture:2 wired_magazine:2 video_clip:1 tripod_com:1 external_link:1 |
6,970 | Acrylic_paint | Acrylic paint is fast-drying paint containing pigment suspended in an acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints can be diluted with water, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted (with water) or modified with acrylic gels, mediums, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor or an oil painting, or have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other media. History Acrylics were first made commercially available in the 1950s. These were mineral spirit-based paints called Magna Terry Fenton online essay about Kenneth Noland, and acrylic paint, accessed April 30th, 2007 offered by Bocour Artist Colors. Water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as "latex" house paints, although acrylic dispersion uses no latex derived from a rubber tree. Interior "latex" house paints tend to be a combination of binder (sometimes acrylic, vinyl, pva and others), filler, pigment and water. Exterior "latex" house paints may also be a "co-polymer" blend, but the very best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic. Soon after the water-based acrylic binders were introduced as house paints, artists (the first of whom were Mexican muralists) and companies alike began to explore the potential of the new binders. Water soluble artist quality acrylic paints became commercially available in the early 1960s, offered by Liquitex. Techniques Acrylic artist paints may be thinned with water and used as washes in the manner of watercolor paints, but the washes are not re-hydratable once dry. For this reason, acrylics do not lend themselves to color lifting techniques as do gum arabic based watercolor paints. Fluorescent acrylic paints lit by UV light. Acrylic paints can be used in high gloss or matte finishes. As with oils, pigment amounts and particle size can alter the paint sheen. Likewise, matting agents can be added to dull the finish. Topcoats or varnishes may also be applied to alter sheen. When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable. Water or mild solvents do not re-solubilize it, although isopropyl alcohol can lift some fresh paint films off. Toluene and acetone can remove paint films, but they do not lift paint stains very well and are not selective. The use of a solvent to remove paint will result in removal of all of the paint layers, acrylic gesso, etc. Only a proper, artist-grade acrylic gesso should be used to prime canvas in preparation for painting with acrylic. It is important to avoid adding non-stable or non-archival elements to the gesso upon application. Acrylic will not form a stable paint film if it has been thinned with more than 30% water content. However, the viscosity of acrylic can successfully be reduced by using suitable extenders that maintain the integrity of the paint film. There are retarders to prolong drying and workability time and a flow release to increase color blending ability. Painters and acrylic Prior to the 20th century, artists mixed their own paints to increase the longevity of the artwork and achieve desired pigment load, viscosity, and to control the use of fillers, if any. While suitable mediums and raw pigments are available for the individual production of acrylic paint, due to the fast drying time, hand mixing may not be practical. Acrylic painters modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface using acrylic mediums. Watercolor and oil painters also use various mediums, but the range of acrylic mediums is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and mediums can be used to adjust their binding characteristics. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint: gel and molding paste mediums are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features that are literally sculptural. Acrylic paints are the most commonly used in grattage. Differences between acrylic and oil paint The vehicle and binder of oil paints is linseed oil, whereas water serves as the vehicle for an emulsion of acrylic polymer that is the binder in acrylic paint. Thus, oil paint is said to be "oil-based", while acrylic paint is "water-based" The main practical difference between acrylics and oil paints is the inherent drying time. Oils allow for more time to blend colors and apply even glazes over underpaintings. This slow drying aspect of oil can be seen as an advantage for certain techniques, but in other regards it impedes the artist trying to work quickly. The fast evaporation of water from the acrylic paint film can be slowed with the use of acrylic retarders. Retarders are generally glycol or glycerin-based additives. In the case of acrylic paints, the addition of a retarder slows the evaporation rate of the water, and allows for more water to be added and the paint workable, until the retarder has left the film and the paint layer is dry. Oil paints tend to require the addition of a toxic solvent, such as mineral spirits or turpentine to thin the paints and clean up tools, though relatively recently water soluble oil paints have been developed for artist use. Secondly, oil paint films become increasing yellow and brittle, and will lose their flexibility in a few decades. Thirdly, the rules of "fat over lean" must be employed to ensure the paint films are durable. Oil paint is able to absorb more pigment than acrylic because linseed oil has a smaller molecule than does acrylic. Oil has a different refractive index than do acrylic dispersions. This changes how light interacts with the paint films. Due to acrylic's more flexible nature and more consistent drying time between colors, the painter does not have to follow the "fat over lean" rule of oil painting, where more medium must be applied to each layer to avoid cracking. While canvas needs to be properly primed and gessoed before painting with oil, acrylic can be safely applied to raw canvas. The rapid drying of the paint tends to discourage the blending of color and use of wet-in-wet technique unique to oil painting. While acrylic retarders can slow drying time to several hours, it remains a relatively fast-drying medium, and the addition of too much acrylic retarder can prevent the paint from ever drying properly. Although the permanency of acrylics is sometimes debated by conservators, they appear more stable than oil paints. Whereas oil paints normally turn yellow as they age/dry(oxidize)—and require a removable protective layer of varnish—acrylic paints, at least in the 50 years since their invention, have not yellowed, cracked, or altered. Another difference between oil and acrylic paints is the versatility offered by acrylic paints - acrylic is very useful in mixed media, allowing use of pastel (oil & chalk), charcoal, pen, etc. on top of the dried acrylic painted surface. Mixing other bodies into the acrylic is possible - sand, rice, even pasta may be incorporated in the artwork. Mixing artist or student quality acrylic paint with household acrylic emulsions is possible, allowing the use of pre-mixed tints straight from the tube or tin, so presenting the painter with a vast color range at his or her disposal. Some popular manufacturers of artist acrylics Subsidiaries of Col Art include Winsor & Newton ([Artists Acrylic], Galeria), Royal Talens (Amsterdam all Acrylics), Liquitex, and Lefranc & Bourgeois acrylics. Daler-Rowney (Cryla and System 3 ) is another English manufacturer of acrylic paint. In the United States, manufacturers of artist acrylic paints include Golden Artist Colors, based in New Berlin, New York, Liquitex, Nova Color Artists Acrylic Paint and Daniel Smith Artists' Materials. These offer a full range of professional paints and mediums. M. Graham, based in Oregon, also produces a limited range of professional-quality acrylics. Grumbacher Academy Acrylics, also manufactured in the United States Leeds, Massachusetts, offer a 24 color collegiate grade line with matching mediums. D. L. Stevenson & Son Ltd., manufacturers of professional artist quality acrylics, are located in Toronto, Canada. Stevenson Acrylics consists of a line of 64 colors as well as a variety of mediums. See also Leonard Bocour Sam Golden Golden Artist Colors Magna paint Nova Color Artists Acrylic Paint Da Vinci Paint Company Liquitex Delta Creative Inc Daniel Smith Artists' Materials Oil paint Watercolor Acrylic painting techniques Grumbacher Academy Acrylics References External links General acrylic painting essay National Acrylic Painter's Association Stevenson Acrylic Paints discussion of solvents for magna paint, accessed April 30, 2007 | Acrylic_paint |@lemmatized acrylic:71 paint:73 fast:4 dry:11 contain:1 pigment:6 suspend:1 polymer:3 emulsion:3 dilute:2 water:17 become:3 resistant:1 depend:1 much:3 modify:2 gel:2 medium:14 paste:2 finish:3 resemble:1 watercolor:5 oil:25 painting:4 unique:2 characteristic:3 attainable:1 history:1 first:2 make:1 commercially:2 available:3 mineral:2 spirit:2 base:10 call:1 magna:3 terry:1 fenton:1 online:1 essay:2 kenneth:1 noland:1 access:2 april:2 offer:5 bocour:2 artist:16 color:13 subsequently:1 sell:1 latex:4 house:4 although:3 dispersion:2 use:18 derive:1 rubber:1 tree:1 interior:1 tend:3 combination:1 binder:5 sometimes:3 vinyl:1 pva:1 others:1 filler:2 exterior:2 may:5 also:7 co:1 blend:3 best:1 soon:1 introduce:1 mexican:1 muralist:1 company:2 alike:1 begin:1 explore:1 potential:1 new:3 soluble:2 quality:4 early:1 liquitex:4 technique:5 thin:3 wash:2 manner:1 hydratable:1 reason:1 lend:1 lift:3 gum:1 arabic:1 fluorescent:1 light:3 uv:1 high:1 gloss:1 matte:1 amount:1 particle:1 size:1 alter:3 sheen:2 likewise:1 mat:1 agent:1 add:3 dull:1 topcoat:1 varnish:2 apply:4 generally:2 non:3 removable:2 mild:1 solvent:4 solubilize:1 isopropyl:1 alcohol:1 fresh:1 film:9 toluene:1 acetone:1 remove:2 stain:1 well:2 selective:1 result:1 removal:1 layer:5 gesso:3 etc:2 proper:1 grade:2 prime:1 canvas:3 preparation:1 important:1 avoid:2 stable:3 archival:1 element:1 upon:1 application:1 form:1 content:1 however:1 viscosity:2 successfully:1 reduce:1 suitable:2 extenders:1 maintain:1 integrity:1 retarders:4 prolong:1 drying:4 workability:1 time:6 flow:1 release:1 increase:3 ability:2 painter:6 prior:1 century:1 mix:3 longevity:1 artwork:2 achieve:1 desire:1 load:1 control:1 raw:2 individual:1 production:1 due:2 hand:1 mixing:1 practical:2 appearance:1 hardness:1 flexibility:2 texture:1 surface:3 various:1 range:4 great:1 bond:1 many:1 different:2 adjust:1 binding:1 build:1 thick:1 mold:1 create:1 relief:1 feature:1 literally:1 sculptural:1 commonly:1 grattage:1 difference:3 vehicle:2 linseed:2 whereas:2 serf:1 thus:1 say:1 main:1 inherent:1 allow:4 even:2 glaze:1 underpaintings:1 slow:4 aspect:1 see:2 advantage:1 certain:1 regard:1 impede:1 try:1 work:1 quickly:1 evaporation:2 glycol:1 glycerin:1 additive:1 case:1 addition:3 retarder:3 rate:1 workable:1 leave:1 require:2 toxic:1 turpentine:1 clean:1 tool:1 though:1 relatively:2 recently:1 develop:1 secondly:1 yellow:3 brittle:1 lose:1 decade:1 thirdly:1 rule:2 fat:2 lean:2 must:2 employ:1 ensure:1 durable:1 able:1 absorb:1 small:1 molecule:1 refractive:1 index:1 change:1 interacts:1 flexible:1 nature:1 consistent:1 follow:1 crack:2 need:1 properly:2 prim:1 gessoed:1 safely:1 rapid:1 discourage:1 blending:1 wet:2 several:1 hour:1 remain:1 prevent:1 ever:1 permanency:1 debate:1 conservator:1 appear:1 normally:1 turn:1 age:1 oxidize:1 protective:1 least:1 year:1 since:1 invention:1 another:2 versatility:1 useful:1 mixed:2 pastel:1 chalk:1 charcoal:1 pen:1 top:1 dried:1 body:1 possible:2 sand:1 rice:1 pasta:1 incorporate:1 student:1 household:1 pre:1 tint:1 straight:1 tube:1 tin:1 present:1 vast:1 disposal:1 popular:1 manufacturer:4 subsidiary:1 col:1 art:1 include:2 winsor:1 newton:1 artists:3 galeria:1 royal:1 talens:1 amsterdam:1 lefranc:1 bourgeois:1 daler:1 rowney:1 cryla:1 system:1 english:1 united:2 state:2 golden:3 berlin:1 york:1 nova:2 daniel:2 smith:2 material:2 full:1 professional:3 graham:1 oregon:1 produce:1 limited:1 grumbacher:2 academy:2 manufacture:1 leeds:1 massachusetts:1 collegiate:1 line:2 match:1 l:1 stevenson:3 son:1 ltd:1 locate:1 toronto:1 canada:1 consist:1 variety:1 leonard:1 sam:1 da:1 vinci:1 delta:1 creative:1 inc:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 general:1 national:1 association:1 discussion:1 |@bigram acrylic_paint:27 kenneth_noland:1 mexican_muralist:1 gum_arabic:1 matte_finish:1 isopropyl_alcohol:1 acrylic_gesso:2 linseed_oil:2 refractive_index:1 da_vinci:1 external_link:1 |
6,971 | Nereid_(moon) | Nereid (; also , as in Greek Νηρηΐδα), In US dictionary transcription, . also known as Neptune II, is a moon of Neptune. Nereid was discovered on 1 May 1949 by Gerard P. Kuiper, who proposed the name in the report of his discovery. It is named after the Nereids, sea-nymphs of Greek mythology. Nereid was the outermost known moon of Neptune from its discovery until 2002. Nereid's diameter is 340 km, making it the third-largest moon in the Neptune system. Its orbit averages 5,513,400 km in radius, but is highly eccentric and varies from 1,372,000 to 9,655,000 kilometres. This is the highest mean eccentricity of any known satellite in the solar system. But it may lose this title briefly to an outer irregular moon of a gas giant, such as Saturn's Bestla and Uranus' Margaret, because of the Kozai mechanism (a periodic exchange between the inclination and eccentricity). As of 2008, the Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service lists the current instantaneous eccentricities and epochs as: Margaret: 0.7979 (2006 Mar. 6.0 TT = JDT 2453800.5) Nereid: 0.7464 (2007 Oct. 27.0 TT = JDT 2454400.5) Bestla: 0.7309 (2007 Apr. 10.0 TT = JDT 2454200.5) (To use this utility: pick a gas giant, deselect Ephemerides and select Orbital Elements) The unusual orbit suggests that it may be a captured asteroid or Kuiper belt object, or that it was perturbed during the capture of Neptune's largest moon Triton. Halimede may be a fragment of Nereid that was broken off during a collision. Grav, T., M. J. Holman and W. Fraser, Photometry of Irregular Satellites of Uranus and Neptune, The Astrophysical Journal, 613 (2004), pp. L77–L80. Preprint Nereid was too far away from Voyager 2 to be properly imaged when the spacecraft visited the Neptune system in 1989. Photos sent back show only its highly irregular shape, and no surface features could be seen at the resolution available. References External links Transit of the Sun on 2006-Mar-28 as seen from Neptune | Nereid_(moon) |@lemmatized nereid:8 also:2 greek:2 νηρηΐδα:1 u:1 dictionary:1 transcription:1 know:3 neptune:8 ii:1 moon:5 discover:1 may:4 gerard:1 p:1 kuiper:2 propose:1 name:2 report:1 discovery:2 sea:1 nymph:1 mythology:1 outermost:1 diameter:1 km:2 make:1 third:1 large:2 system:3 orbit:2 average:1 radius:1 highly:2 eccentric:1 varies:1 kilometre:1 high:1 mean:1 eccentricity:3 satellite:3 solar:1 lose:1 title:1 briefly:1 outer:1 irregular:3 gas:2 giant:2 saturn:1 bestla:2 uranus:2 margaret:2 kozai:1 mechanism:1 periodic:1 exchange:1 inclination:1 natural:1 ephemeris:2 service:1 list:1 current:1 instantaneous:1 epoch:1 mar:2 tt:3 jdt:3 oct:1 apr:1 use:1 utility:1 pick:1 deselect:1 select:1 orbital:1 element:1 unusual:1 suggest:1 captured:1 asteroid:1 belt:1 object:1 perturb:1 capture:1 triton:1 halimede:1 fragment:1 break:1 collision:1 grav:1 j:1 holman:1 w:1 fraser:1 photometry:1 astrophysical:1 journal:1 pp:1 preprint:1 far:1 away:1 voyager:1 properly:1 image:1 spacecraft:1 visit:1 photo:1 send:1 back:1 show:1 shape:1 surface:1 feature:1 could:1 see:2 resolution:1 available:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 transit:1 sun:1 |@bigram kuiper_belt:1 moon_triton:1 uranus_neptune:1 astrophysical_journal:1 external_link:1 |
6,972 | Politics_of_Malta | The politics of Malta take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Malta is the constitutional head of state with executive powers remaining with the Prime Minister of Malta who is the head of government and the cabinet. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Malta which consists of the President of Malta and the unicameral House of Representatives of Malta with the Speaker presiding officer of the legislative body. Judicial power remains with the Chief Justice and the Judiciary of Malta. Since Independence, the party electoral system has been dominated by the Christian democratic Nationalist Party (Partit Nazzjonalista) and the social democratic Malta Labour Party (Partit Laburista). Legislative branch Elections to the House of Representatives (Il-Kamra tar-Raprezentanti) are based on the single transferable vote system, which in turn is a variant of the proportional representation electoral system. First vacancies are filled through casual election and subsequent vacancies through co-option, meaning that no by-elections are held between one general election and the other. The Parliamentary term cannot exceed five years. Ordinarily, 65 members are elected to the House from 13 multi-seat constituencies each returning 5 MPs. Additional MPs are elected in two circumstances: when a party achieves 50%+1 of first-preference valid votes in the election but does not secure a Parliamentary majority it is awarded enough seats (filled by the best runner-up candidates) to make a Parliamentary majority when in an election contested by more than two parties only two parties are elected to Parliament and the relative Parliamentary strength is not proportionate to the first preference votes obtained, additional seats are allocated to establish proportionality Political parties and elections Political developments since independence Since independence, general elections have been held in 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1987, 1992, 1996, 1998 , 2003 and 2008. Two parties have dominated Malta's polarized and evenly-divided politics during this period: the Partit Nazzjonalista and the Partit Laburista. Third parties have failed to score any electoral success: in the 2008 election the Democratic Alternative (a Green Party established in 1989) managed to secure only 1.31% of the first preference votes nationwide. Elections have invariably generated a widespread voter turnout exceeding 90% of registered voters. The 1996 elections resulted in the election of the Labour Party, by 8,000 votes, to replace the Nationalists who had won in 1987 and 1992. Voter turnout was characteristically high at 96%, with the Labour Party receiving 50.72%, the Nationalist Party 47.8%, the Democratic Alternative 1.46%, and independent candidates 0.02%. In 1998, the Labour Party's loss in a parliamentary vote led the Prime Minister to call an early election. The Nationalist Party was returned to office in September 1998 by a majority of 13,000 votes, holding a five-seat majority in Parliament. Voter turnout was 95%, with the Nationalist Party receiving 51.81%, the Labour Party 46.97%, the Democratic Alternative 1.21%, and independent candidates 0.01%. The Nationalist government wrapped up negotiations for European Union membership by the end of 2002. A referendum on the issue was called in March 2003 for which the Nationalists and the Democratic Alternative campaigned for a "yes" vote while Labour campaigned heavily for "no" vote, invalidate their vote or abstain. Turnout was 91%, with more than 53% voting "yes". The Labour Party argued that the "yes" votes amounted to less than 50% of the overall votes, hence, and citing the Integration referendum as an example, they claimed that the "yes" had not in fact won the referendum. The then MLP Leader Alfred Sant said that the General Elections that was to be held within a month would settle the affair. In the General Elections the Nationalists were returned to office with 51.79% of the vote to Labour's 47.51%. The Democratic Alternative managed 0.68%. The Nationalists were thus able to form a government and sign and ratify the EU Accession Treaty on 16 April 2003. On 1 May 2004 Malta joined the EU and on 1 January 2008, the Eurozone with the euro as the national currency. The first elections after membership were held in March 2008 resulting in a narrow victory for the Nationalist Party with 49.34% of first preference votes. Executive branch Under its 1964 constitution, Malta became a parliamentary democracy within the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom was sovereign of Malta, and a Governor-General exercised executive authority on her behalf, while the actual direction and control of the government and the nation's affairs were in the hands of the cabinet under the leadership of a Maltese prime minister. On December 13, 1974, the constitution was revised, and Malta became a republic within the Commonwealth, with executive authority vested in the President of Malta which can be exercised directly or through officers subordinate to him. The president is elected by the House of Representatives for a five-year term. He appoints as Prime Minister the leader of the party with a majority of seats in the unicameral House of Representatives, known in Maltese as Il-Kamra tad-Deputati. The President also nominally appoints, upon recommendation of the Prime Minister, the individual ministers. Ministers are selected from among the members of the House of Representatives, which usually consists of 65 members unless bonus seats are given to a party which gains an absolute majority of votes but not a Parliamentary majority. Elections must be held at least every 5 years and the electoral system used is single transferable vote. Judicial branch Courthouse, Valletta Malta's judiciary is independent. The President appoints the chief justice and 16 judges. Their mandatory retirement age is 65. There is a civil court, a commercial court, and a criminal court. In the latter, the presiding judge sits with a jury of nine. The court of appeal hears appeals from decisions of the civil court and of the commercial court. The court of criminal appeal hears appeals from judgments of conviction by the criminal court. The highest court, the Constitutional Court, hears appeals in cases involving violations of human rights, interpretation of the constitution, and invalidity of laws. It also has jurisdiction in cases concerning disputed parliamentary elections and electoral corrupt practices. There also are inferior courts presided over by a magistrate. Administrative divisions Malta is divided into 68 elected local councils, with each council responsible for the administration of cities or regions of varying sizes. Administrative responsibility is distributed between the local councils and the central government in Valletta. The Local Councils Act, 1993 (Act XV of 1993) was published on June 30, 1993, subdividing Malta into 54 local councils in Malta and 14 in Gozo. The inhabitants who are registered elect the Council every three years, as voters in the Local Councils' Electoral Register. Elections are held by means of the system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote. The mayor is the head of the Local Council and the representative of the Council for all effects under the Act. The Executive Secretary, who is appointed by the Council, is the executive, administrative, and financial head of the Council. All decisions are taken collectively with the other members of the Council. Local councils are responsible for the general upkeep and embellishment of the locality, local wardens, and refuse collection, and carry out general administrative duties for the central government such as collection of government rents and funds, and answering government-related public inquiries. International organization participation Malta is member of C, CE, EBRD, ECE, EU (member from 1 May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO Malta was a long-time member of NAM. It ceased to be part of the movement when it joined the European Union. See also Malta Mass meeting Maltese Italians Partit Nazzjonalista Partit Laburista Alternattiva Demokratika External links Local Councils of Malta Central Government of Malta House of Representatives Constitution of Malta (pdf file) Nationalist Party Malta Labour Party Alternativa Demokratika Laws of Malta | Politics_of_Malta |@lemmatized politics:2 malta:26 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:9 representative:8 democratic:8 republic:2 whereby:1 president:6 constitutional:2 head:4 state:1 executive:6 power:3 remain:2 prime:5 minister:7 government:9 cabinet:2 legislative:3 vest:2 parliament:3 consist:2 unicameral:2 house:7 speaker:1 preside:3 officer:2 body:1 judicial:2 chief:2 justice:2 judiciary:2 since:3 independence:3 party:23 electoral:6 system:5 dominate:2 christian:1 nationalist:11 partit:6 nazzjonalista:3 social:1 labour:9 laburista:3 branch:3 election:19 il:2 kamra:2 tar:1 raprezentanti:1 base:1 single:3 transferable:3 vote:17 turn:1 variant:1 proportional:2 representation:2 first:6 vacancy:2 fill:2 casual:1 subsequent:1 co:1 option:1 mean:2 hold:7 one:1 general:7 term:2 cannot:1 exceed:2 five:3 year:4 ordinarily:1 member:7 elect:5 multi:1 seat:6 constituency:1 return:3 mp:2 additional:2 two:4 circumstance:1 achieve:1 preference:4 valid:1 secure:2 majority:7 award:1 enough:1 best:1 runner:1 candidate:3 make:1 contest:1 relative:1 strength:1 proportionate:1 obtain:1 allocate:1 establish:2 proportionality:1 political:2 development:1 polarize:1 evenly:1 divided:1 period:1 third:1 fail:1 score:1 success:1 alternative:5 green:1 manage:2 nationwide:1 invariably:1 generate:1 widespread:1 voter:5 turnout:4 registered:1 result:2 replace:1 win:2 characteristically:1 high:2 receive:2 independent:3 loss:1 lead:1 call:2 early:1 office:2 september:1 wrap:1 negotiation:1 european:2 union:2 membership:2 end:1 referendum:3 issue:1 march:2 campaign:2 yes:4 heavily:1 invalidate:1 abstain:1 voting:1 argue:1 amount:1 less:1 overall:1 hence:1 cite:1 integration:1 example:1 claim:1 fact:1 mlp:1 leader:2 alfred:1 sant:1 say:1 within:3 month:1 would:1 settle:1 affair:2 thus:1 able:1 form:1 sign:1 ratify:1 eu:3 accession:1 treaty:1 april:1 may:2 join:2 january:1 eurozone:1 euro:1 national:1 currency:1 narrow:1 victory:1 constitution:4 become:2 democracy:1 commonwealth:2 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 united:1 kingdom:1 sovereign:1 governor:1 exercised:1 authority:2 behalf:1 actual:1 direction:1 control:1 nation:1 hand:1 leadership:1 maltese:3 december:1 revise:1 exercise:1 directly:1 subordinate:1 appoint:3 know:1 tad:1 deputati:1 also:4 nominally:1 appoints:1 upon:1 recommendation:1 individual:1 select:1 among:1 usually:1 unless:1 bonus:1 give:1 gain:1 absolute:1 must:1 least:1 every:2 use:2 courthouse:1 valletta:2 judge:2 mandatory:1 retirement:1 age:1 civil:2 court:11 commercial:2 criminal:3 latter:1 sits:1 jury:1 nine:1 appeal:5 hears:2 decision:2 judgment:1 conviction:1 hear:1 case:2 involve:1 violation:1 human:1 right:1 interpretation:1 invalidity:1 law:2 jurisdiction:1 concern:1 disputed:1 corrupt:1 practice:1 inferior:1 magistrate:1 administrative:4 division:1 divide:1 elected:1 local:9 council:14 responsible:2 administration:1 city:1 region:1 vary:1 size:1 responsibility:1 distribute:1 central:3 act:3 xv:1 publish:1 june:1 subdivide:1 gozo:1 inhabitant:1 register:2 three:1 mayor:1 effect:1 secretary:1 financial:1 collectively:1 upkeep:1 embellishment:1 locality:1 warden:1 refuse:1 collection:2 carry:1 duty:1 rent:1 fund:1 answer:1 relate:1 public:1 inquiry:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 c:1 ce:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ifad:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 observer:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 opcw:1 osce:1 pca:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wco:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 long:1 time:1 nam:1 cease:1 part:1 movement:1 see:1 mass:1 meeting:1 italian:1 alternattiva:1 demokratika:2 external:1 link:1 pdf:1 file:1 alternativa:1 |@bigram prime_minister:5 legislative_branch:1 single_transferable:3 transferable_vote:3 proportional_representation:2 seat_constituency:1 voter_turnout:3 registered_voter:1 parliamentary_democracy:1 queen_elizabeth:1 judicial_branch:1 valletta_malta:1 judiciary_independent:1 mandatory_retirement:1 hears_appeal:2 ebrd_ece:1 ece_eu:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 osce_pca:1 pca_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wco_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1 |
6,973 | Iowa_State_University | The Iowa State University of Science and Technology, more commonly known as Iowa State University (ISU), is a public land-grant and space-grant research university located in Ames, Iowa, United States. Iowa State has produced a number of astronauts, scientists, Nobel laureates, Pulitzer Prize winners, and a variety of other notable individuals in their respective fields. Until 1945 it was known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The university is a member of the prestigious American Association of Universities and the Big 12 Conference. History In 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the State Agricultural College and Model Farm. Story County was chosen as the location on June 21, 1859, from proposals by Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall, Polk, and Story counties. When Iowa accepted the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862, Iowa State became the first institution in the nation designated as a land-grant college. The institution was coeducational from the first preparatory class admitted in 1868. The formal admitting of students began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and 2 women. Iowa State University Time Line, 1858-1874. Iowa State University Website. The Iowa Experiment Station was one of the university's prominent features. Practical courses of instruction were taught, including one designed to give a general training for the career of a farmer. Courses in mechanical, civil, electrical, and mining engineering were also taught. The domain occupied about 1175 acres (476 hectares), of which 120 acres (49 hectares) formed the campus. In 1914, tuition was free to residents of Iowa. Students from other states paid an annual fee of $50. There were 217 members on the faculty in 1914 when 3,458 students attended the school. In 1923, 7,766 students were taught by a faculty which numbered 567 members. In the period from 1914 to 1923, the following buildings were erected: four women's dormitories, plant propagation building and greenhouse, science building, hospital, armory, animal husbandry laboratory, agricultural engineering building, poultry laboratory, dairy judging pavilion, and sheep, horse, hog, and dairy barns. A library of 250,000 volumes' capacity, a home economics building, and a dormitory for women were under construction in 1924. The president was Raymond Allen Pearson. Academics ISU is ranked among the top 50 public universities in the U.S. and is known for its degree programs in science, engineering, and agriculture. Overall, ISU ranks #85 in the U.S. News & World Report ranking of national universities and #21 in the Washington Monthly rankings. ISU is also home of the world's first electronic digital computing device, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, and it is the operating agency for the Ames Laboratory, a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, where the world first mass production of uranium was enabled and started the atomic age. In addition, the university is one of 60 elected members of the prestigious Association of American Universities, an organization composed of the most highly ranked research universities in the U.S. that is only open to membership by invitation. ISU is classified as a Carnegie RU/VH institution, i.e., a research university with very high research activity Carnegie Classifications for Iowa State University and receives nearly $300 million in research grants each year. The National Science Foundation ranks ISU #94 in the nation in research and development expenditures for science and engineering and #78 in total research and development expenditures. Currently, ISU ranks #2 in license and options executed on its intellectual property and #5 in license and options that yield income. Parks Library contains nearly 2.5 million books and subscribes to more than 32,000 journals, making ISU's library one of the 100 largest university libraries in the country. ISU is organized into eight colleges that offer 96 Bachelors degree programs, 115 Masters programs, 83 Ph.D programs, and one professional degree program in Veterinary Medicine. ISU consists of the following colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences Business Design Engineering Human Sciences Liberal Arts and Sciences Veterinary Medicine In addition to these seven colleges, the Graduate College oversees graduate study in all fields. Athletics The "Cyclones" name dates back to 1895. That year, Iowa suffered an unusually high number of devastating cyclones (as tornadoes were called at the time). In September, the Iowa State football team traveled to Northwestern University and defeated its highly-regarded team by a score of 36-0. The next day, the Chicago Tribunes headline read "Struck by a Cyclone: It Comes from Iowa and Devastates Evanston Town." Iowa State University Time Line, 1875-1899. Iowa State University website. The article reported that "Northwestern might as well have tried to play football with an Iowa cyclone as with the Iowa team it met yesterday." The nickname stuck and the Iowa State team had made a name for itself. The school colors are cardinal and gold. The mascot is , a cardinal, introduced in 1954. Since a cyclone was determined to be difficult to depict in costume, the cardinal was chosen in reference to the school colors. A contest was held to select a name for the mascot, with the name Cy being chosen as the winner. In early Summer 2007, Cy was voted by fans on the CBS Sports website as the "Most Dominant College Mascot on Earth". The Iowa State Cyclones play in the NCAA's Division I-A as a member of the Big 12 Conference. The wrestling squad has captured the NCAA tournament title eight times between 1928 and 1987 , and is the current three-year defending Big 12 Conference champion. School songs Iowa State Fight Song Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games. O we will fight, fight, fight for Iowa State, And may her colors ever fly. Yes, we will fight with might for Iowa State, With a will to do or die, Rah! Rah! Rah! Loyal sons forever true, And we will fight the battle through. And when we hit that line we'll hit it hard ev'ry yard for I. S. U. Iowa State University Fight Song Bells of Iowa StateGreen Hills for thy throne,And for crown a golden melody,Ringing in the hearts of allWho bring thee love and loyalty.Dear Alma Mater,Make our spirits great,True and valiant,Like the Bells of Iowa State. Bells of Iowa State Rise Sons of Iowa State Fighting sons we sing to you, Keep your spirit ringing true; Make our valor carry on, And you'll see the battle through. Rise sons of Iowa State, And proudly raise our flaming banner to the sky; Lift our ringing challenge valiantly, Let our fighting war cry ever be "Victory!" Bold sons of Iowa State, Keep marching onward ever near the vic'try gate There to consecrate our everlasting loyalty. Rise! Iowa State. Rise Sons of Iowa State For "I", For "S"For "I", for "S", foreverFor Iowa State all the way,Let's go! To show them what the gang's all here forGo! To show them how the Cyclones cheer.For "I", for "S", foreverFor Iowa State do it right!It's time to climb up on the vic'try wagon,Fight! Iowa State, Fight! Fight! For "I", For "S" Alma Mater Replaced by Bells of Iowa State Stately stands our Alma Mater On the Western plain. From her halls and to her glory Raise we now our strain. Gather now and lift her praises; Sing them loud and free (true). Come, ye loyal sons and daughters Sail to I.S.C. (I.S.U.). Alma Mater Student life Residence halls Iowa State operates 19 on-campus residence halls. The residence halls are divided into geographical areas. Richardson Court (RCA) consists of 12 residence halls on the east side of campus. The Union Drive Neighborhood (UDA) consists of four residence halls located on the west side of campus, including Friley Hall, which has been declared one of the largest residence halls in the country. The seven wonders of Iowa State. The Iowa State Daily. Buchanan Hall is an upper-division hall that is nominally considered part of the UDA, despite its distance from the other buildings. The Towers Residence Halls (TRA) are located south of the main campus. Like Buchanan, they are reserved for second-year students and upperclassmen. Two of the four towers, Knapp and Storms Halls, were imploded in 2005; however, Wallace and Wilson Halls still stand. ISU also operates two apartment complexes for upperclassmen, Frederiksen Court and SUV Apartments. Union DriveRichardson CourtTowersApartmentsOther Friley Hall Helser Hall Martin Hall Eaton Hall Birch-Welch-Roberts Halls Barton Hall Lyon Hall Freeman Hall Linden Hall Oak-Elm Halls Maple Hall Willow Hall Larch Hall Wallace Hall Wilson Hall Frederiksen Court Schilleter Village Buchanan Hall Student government The governing body for ISU students is the Government of Student Body or GSB. The GSB is composed of a president, vice president, cabinet, senators representing each college and residence area at the University, a nine-member judicial branch and an election commission. Government of the Student Body Constitution Student organizations ISU has nearly 700 student organizations on campus that represent a variety of interests. Organizations are supported by Iowa State's Student Activities Center. Many student organization offices are housed in the Memorial Union. Greek community ISU is home to an active Greek community. There are 50 chapters that involve 11% of undergraduate students. Collectively, fraternity and sorority members have raised over $82,000 for philanthropies and committed 31,416 hours to community service. In 2006, the ISU Greek community was named the best large Greek community in the Midwest. Collegiate Panhellenic CouncilInterfraternity CouncilNational Pan-Hellenic CouncilMulticultural Greek Council Alpha Chi Omega Alpha Delta Pi Alpha Gamma Delta Alpha Omicron Pi Alpha Sigma Kappa Chi Omega Delta Delta Delta Delta Zeta Gamma Phi Beta Kappa Alpha Theta Kappa Delta Kappa Kappa Gamma Phi Beta Chi Pi Beta Phi Sigma Kappa Acacia Adelante Alpha Gamma Rho Alpha Kappa Lambda Alpha Sigma Phi Alpha Tau Omega Beta Sigma Psi Beta Theta Pi Delta Lambda Phi Delta Tau Delta Delta Upsilon FarmHouse Kappa Sigma Lambda Chi Alpha Phi Delta Theta Phi Gamma Delta Phi Kappa Theta Phi Kappa Psi Pi Kappa Alpha Pi Kappa Phi Sigma Alpha Epsilon Sigma Chi Sigma Phi Epsilon Sigma Pi Tau Kappa Epsilon Theta Chi Theta Delta Chi Theta Xi Triangle Alpha Phi Alpha Delta Sigma Theta Omega Psi Phi Phi Beta Sigma Zeta Phi Beta Lambda Theta Nu Phi Iota Alpha Sigma Lambda Beta Sigma Lambda Gamma The first fraternity, Delta Tau Delta, was established at Iowa State in 1875, six years after the first graduating class entered Iowa State. The first sorority, I.C. Sorocis, was established only 2 years later, in 1877. I.C. Sorocis later became a chapter of the first national sorority at Iowa State, Pi Beta Phi. Anti-Greek rioting occurred in 1888. As reported in The Des Moines Register, "The anti-secret society men of the college met in a mob last night about 11 o'clock in front of the society rooms in chemical and physical hall, determined to break up a joint meeting of three secret societies." In 1891, President William Beardshear banned students from joining secret college fraternities, resulting in the eventually closing of all formerly established fraternities. President Storms lifted the ban in 1904. Following the lifting of the fraternity ban, the first twelve national fraternities (IFC) installed on the Iowa State campus between 1904 and 1913 were, in order, Sigma Nu, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Beta Theta Pi, Phi Gamma Delta, Alpha Tau Omega, Kappa Sigma, Theta Xi, Acacia, Phi Sigma Kappa, Delta Tau Delta, Pi Kappa Alpha, and Phi Delta Theta. The Scroll of Phi Delta Theta, Vol. XXXVII, (1912-1913) p 542, edited by Davis, T. Though some have suspended their chapters at various times, ten of the original twelve fraternities are active in 2008. Many of these chapters existed on campus as local fraternities before being reorganized as national fraternities, prior to 1904. School newspaper The Iowa State Daily is the university's student newspaper. The Daily has its roots from a news sheet titled the Clipper, which was started in the spring of 1890 by a group of students at Iowa Agricultural College led by F.E. Davidson. The Clipper soon led to the creation of the Iowa Agricultural College Student, and the beginnings of what would one day become the Iowa State Daily. Campus radio 88.5 KURE is the university's student-run radio station. Programming for KURE includes ISU sports coverage, talk shows, and various music genres. Landmarks Iowa State's campus contains over 160 buildings. Several buildings, as well as the Marston Water Tower, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It's a Fact: Iowa State University. Iowa State University website. Central campus is a 20-acre lawn and was listed as a "medallion site" by the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1999, one of only three college campuses designated as such. The other two are Yale and the University of Virginia. Thomas Gaines, in The Campus As a Work of Art'', proclaimed the Iowa State campus to be one of the twenty-five most beautiful campuses in the country. VEISHEA celebration Iowa State is widely known for VEISHEA, an annual education and entertainment festival held on campus each spring. The name VEISHEA is derived from the initials of ISU's five original colleges, forming an acronym as the university existed when the festival was founded in 1922:Veterinary Medicine Engineering Industrial Science Home EconomicsA'griculture VEISHEA is the largest student run festival in the nation, bringing in tens of thousands of visitors to the campus each year. The celebration features an annual parade and many open-house demonstrations of the university facilities and departments. Campus organizations exhibit products, technologies, and hold fund raisers for various charity groups. In addition, VEISHEA brings speakers, lecturers, and entertainers to Iowa State, and throughout its over eight decade history, it has hosted such distinguished guests as Bob Hope, John Wayne, Presidents Harry Truman, Ronald Reagan, and Lyndon Johnson, and performers Diana Ross, Billy Joel, Sonny and Cher, the Goo Goo Dolls, Bobby V, and the Black Eyed Peas. VEISHEA History from the official 2006 media kit The 2007 VEISHEA festivities marked the start of Iowa State's year-long sesquicentennial celebration. Notable people As with any major public university, many Iowa State University alumni have achieved fame or notoriety after graduating. These people include astronauts, scientists, Nobel laureates, Pulitzer Prize winners, statesmen, academicians, CEOs, entrepreneurs, athletes, film and television actors, and a variety of other notable individuals in their respective fields. USDA buildings and their architectural structures in Washington, D.C. bear more names of Iowa State alumni than those from any other university. More than one-third of the Fortune 500 companies have Iowa State alumni in leadership positions. Iowa State chronology Events occurring in the same year did not necessarily happen in the order presented here. Year Event 1856 Iowa General Assembly enacts legislation for creation of the State Agricultural College and Model Farm 1859 Story County is the chosen county for the State Agricultural College and Model Farm 1860 Construction starts on the first building on campus, Farm House 1862 Morrill Act of 1862 is passed; college to be named Iowa State Agricultural College 1869 First graduating class enters Iowa State 1875 The first national fraternity, Delta Tau Delta, opens at Iowa State 1876 The university cemetery is opened. One of the very few active cemeteries associated with a university campus in the U.S. 1877 The first national sorority, Pi Beta Phi, opens at Iowa State 1879 The School of Veterinary Science is formally organized. It's the first of its kind in the United States. 1890 Student newspaper Iowa Agricultural College Student is founded. Later to be named the Iowa State Daily 1895 Football team nicknamed Cyclones for their performance against Northwestern University 1898 The college is divided into "divisions": Agriculture, Engineering, Science and Philosophy, and Veterinary Medicine 1898 Renamed the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 1905 First Agricultural Engineering program in the world established 1913 The college roads are paved 1922 VEISHEA is established 1922 Jack Trice is mortally injured during a football game against Minnesota 1933 First statistics laboratory in the U.S. is established 1939 The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) is invented. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer was the world's first electronic digital computer. 1945 Campus production reaches 2 million pounds of high-purity uranium for Manhattan Project. 1947 Ames Laboratory established by U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1950 WOI-TV established as the first commercially operated television station owned by a university in the U.S. Station sold in 1994. 1954 Cy becomes the Iowa State mascot 1959 Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev visits Iowa State 1959 10-KW, 150-ton nuclear teaching reactor is built. Reactor decommissioned and removed in 2000. 1959 Renamed the Iowa State University of Science and Technology 1959 Iowa State's divisions become colleges: the College of Agriculture, College of Engineering, College of Home Economics, College of Sciences and Humanities, and College of Veterinary Medicine 1962 Enrollment reaches 10,000 students 1966 Enrollment reaches 15,000 students 1968 The College of Education is established 1974 The Maintenance Shop opens in the Memorial Union 1979 The College of Design is established 1984 The College of Business is established 1988 First VEISHEA Riot 1992 Second VEISHEA Riot 1997 Working replica of Atanasoff-Berry Computer is unveiled, goes on nationwide tour 1999 Central Campus is listed as a "medallion site" by the American Society of Landscape Architects 2004 Third VEISHEA Riot 2005 The College of Education and the College of Family and Consumer Sciences are combined to create the College of Human Sciences 2006 VEISHEA returns after being canceled for 2005; is deemed a huge success 2007 ISU's year long Sesquicentennial celebration is kicked off at VEISHEA 2007 with a 20,000-piece birthday cake 2008 Sesquicentennial of Iowa State See also CyRide Iowa State Center List of forestry universities and colleges Reiman Gardens VEISHEA References External links Official website | Iowa_State_University |@lemmatized iowa:75 state:68 university:37 science:14 technology:3 commonly:2 know:4 isu:18 public:3 land:2 grant:4 space:1 research:7 locate:3 ames:3 united:3 produce:1 number:4 astronaut:2 scientist:2 nobel:2 laureate:2 pulitzer:2 prize:2 winner:3 variety:3 notable:4 individual:2 respective:2 field:3 college:36 agriculture:6 mechanic:2 art:4 member:7 prestigious:2 american:4 association:2 big:3 conference:3 history:3 general:3 assembly:2 enact:2 legislation:2 establish:12 agricultural:9 model:3 farm:4 story:3 county:4 choose:3 location:1 june:1 proposal:1 johnson:2 kossuth:1 marshall:1 polk:1 accept:1 provision:1 morrill:2 act:2 become:5 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6,974 | Order_of_Saint_Benedict | This article concerns Roman Catholic Order of Saint Benedict; see also Benedictine Confederation and Benedictine. Benedictine monks singing Vespers on Holy Saturday in Morristown, NJ The Order of Saint Benedict (Latin name: Ordo Sancti Benedicti) is a Roman Catholic religious order of independent monastic communities that observe the Rule of St. Benedict. Within the order, each individual community (which may be a monastery, a priory or abbey) maintains its own autonomy, while the organization as a whole exists to represent their mutual interests. Today the terms "Order of St Benedict" and "Benedictine Order" are also used frequently to refer to the total of the independent Benedictine abbeys, thereby giving the wrong impression of a "generalate" or "motherhouse" with jurisdiction over dependent communities. The Benedictine Confederation, which was established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIII in his brief Summum semper, is the international governing body of the order. Historical development The monastery at Monte Cassino established in Italy by St. Benedict of Nursia circa 529 was the first of a dozen monasteries founded by him. Even so, there is no evidence to suggest that he intended to found an order. To the contrary, the Rule of St Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. Despite the absence of a Benedictine order, since most monasteries founded during the Middle Ages adopted the Rule of St Benedict, it became the standard for Western Monasticism. The Benedictine monasteries went on to make considerable contributions not only to the monastic and the spiritual life of the West, but also to economics, education, and government, so that the years from 550 to 1150 may be called the "Benedictine centuries". Even today Benedictine monasticism is fundamentally different from other Western religious orders insofar as its individual communities are not part of a religious order with "Generalates" and "Superiors General". Rather, in modern times, the various autonomous houses have formed themselves loosely into congregations (for example, Cassinese, English, Solesmes, Subiaco, Camaldolese, Sylvestrines) that in turn are represented in the Benedictine Confederation that came into existence through Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Brief "Summum semper" on July 12, 1883. This organization facilitates dialogue of Benedictine communities with each other and the relationship between Benedictine communities and other religious orders and the church at large. The Rule of Saint Benedict is also used by a number of religious orders that began as reforms of the Benedictine tradition such as the Cistercians and Trappists although none of these groups are part of the Benedictine Confederation. The largest number of Benedictines are Roman Catholics, but there are also some within the Anglican Communion and occasionally within other Christian denominations as well, for example, within the Lutheran Church. Benedictine Vow and life The Rule of St Benedict (ch. 58.17) requires candidates for reception into a Benedictine community to promise solemnly stability (to remain in the same monastery), conversatio morum (an idiomatic Latin phrase suggesting "conversion of manners"), and obedience (to the superior, because the superior holds the place of Christ in their community). This solemn commitment tends to be referred to as the "Benedictine vow" and is the Benedictine antecedent and equivalent of the evangelical counsels professed by candidates for reception into a religious order. Much scholarship over the last 50 years has been dedicated to the translation of conversatio morum. The older translation "conversion of life" has generally been replaced with phrases such as "a monastic manner of life" drawing from the vulgate's use of conversatio as the translation of "citizenship" in Philippians 3:22. Some scholars have claimed that the vow formula of the Rule is better translated as one multi-part promise something like "to live in this place as a monk, in obedience to its rule and abbot." Benedictine abbots and abbesses have full jurisdiction of their abbey and thus absolute authority over the monks or nuns who are resident and have full authority to, for example, to assign them duties, to decide which books they may or may not read, to take charge of their comings and goings, and if necessary to punish and even to excommunicate them. A tight communal timetable (horarium) is meant to ensure that the time given by God is not wasted but in whichever way necessary used in his service, whether for prayer, work, meals, spiritual reading, sleep. The Benedictines make no vow of silence, nevertheless the hours of stricter silence are fixed, and even at other times, out of fraternal love, silence is maintained as much as is practically possible. Social conversations tend to be limited to communal recreation times. But such details, like many others details of the daily routine of a Benedictine house that the Rule of St Benedict leaves to the discretion of the superior, are set out in its customary. In the Roman Catholic Church according to the norms of the Code of Canon Law 1983 a Benedictine abbey is a "Religious Institute", and its professed members are therefore members of the "Consecrated Life", commonly referred to as "Religious". All Benedictine monks and nuns who have not been ordained are members of the laity among the Christian faithful. Only those Benedictine monks who have been ordained as a deacon or priest are also members of the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. Benedictine Oblates, who are not members of the consecrated life, nevertheless endeavour to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine vow in their own life in the world. See also Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, an abbey, reformed during the Middle Ages, strictly adhering to the Rule. Camaldolese Sylvestrines Cistercian Trappists Pontifical Congregation of the Benedictine Sisters of the Reparation of the Holy Face Selby Abbey Further reading Dom Columba Marmion OSB, Christ the Ideal of the Monk – Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life (Engl. edition London 1926, trsl. from the French by a nun of Tyburn Convent). External links R Dom Luke Dysinger, The Benedictine Family Tree The Benedictines: An Introduction Catholic Encyclopedia entry for The Benedictine Order Confoederatio Benedictina Ordinis Sancti Benedicti, the Benedictine Confederation of Congregations Links of the Congregations | Order_of_Saint_Benedict |@lemmatized article:1 concern:1 roman:5 catholic:6 order:15 saint:3 benedict:10 see:2 also:7 benedictine:34 confederation:5 monk:6 sing:1 vesper:1 holy:2 saturday:1 morristown:1 nj:1 latin:2 name:1 ordo:1 sancti:2 benedicti:2 religious:9 independent:2 monastic:4 community:9 observe:1 rule:9 st:7 within:4 individual:2 may:4 monastery:6 priory:1 abbey:7 maintain:2 autonomy:2 organization:2 whole:1 exist:1 represent:2 mutual:1 interest:1 today:2 term:1 use:4 frequently:1 refer:3 total:1 thereby:1 give:2 wrong:1 impression:1 generalate:1 motherhouse:1 jurisdiction:2 dependent:1 establish:2 pope:2 leo:2 xiii:2 brief:2 summum:2 semper:2 international:1 governing:1 body:1 historical:1 development:1 monte:1 cassino:1 italy:1 nursia:1 circa:1 first:1 dozen:1 found:2 even:4 evidence:1 suggest:2 intend:1 find:1 contrary:1 presuppose:1 despite:1 absence:1 since:1 middle:2 age:2 adopt:1 become:1 standard:1 western:2 monasticism:2 go:1 make:2 considerable:1 contribution:1 spiritual:3 life:8 west:1 economics:1 education:1 government:1 year:2 call:1 century:1 fundamentally:1 different:1 insofar:1 part:3 generalates:1 superior:4 general:1 rather:1 modern:1 time:4 various:1 autonomous:1 house:2 form:1 loosely:1 congregation:4 example:3 cassinese:1 english:1 solesmes:1 subiaco:1 camaldolese:2 sylvestrines:2 turn:1 come:1 existence:1 apostolic:1 july:1 facilitate:1 dialogue:1 relationship:1 church:4 large:2 number:2 begin:1 reform:2 tradition:1 cistercian:2 trappist:2 although:1 none:1 group:1 anglican:1 communion:1 occasionally:1 christian:2 denomination:1 well:2 lutheran:1 vow:5 ch:1 require:1 candidate:2 reception:2 promise:2 solemnly:1 stability:1 remain:1 conversatio:3 morum:2 idiomatic:1 phrase:2 conversion:2 manner:2 obedience:2 hold:1 place:2 christ:2 solemn:1 commitment:1 tend:2 antecedent:1 equivalent:1 evangelical:1 counsel:1 profess:1 much:2 scholarship:1 last:1 dedicate:1 translation:3 old:1 generally:1 replace:1 draw:1 vulgate:1 citizenship:1 philippian:1 scholar:1 claim:1 formula:1 translate:1 one:1 multi:1 something:1 like:2 live:1 abbot:2 abbess:1 full:2 thus:1 absolute:1 authority:2 nun:3 resident:1 assign:1 duty:1 decide:1 book:1 read:1 take:1 charge:1 coming:1 going:1 necessary:2 punish:1 excommunicate:1 tight:1 communal:2 timetable:1 horarium:1 mean:1 ensure:1 god:1 waste:1 whichever:1 way:1 service:1 whether:1 prayer:1 work:1 meal:1 reading:2 sleep:1 silence:3 nevertheless:2 hour:1 stricter:1 fix:1 fraternal:1 love:1 practically:1 possible:1 social:1 conversation:1 limit:1 recreation:1 detail:2 many:1 others:1 daily:1 routine:1 leave:1 discretion:1 set:1 customary:1 accord:1 norm:1 code:1 canon:1 law:1 institute:1 professed:1 member:5 therefore:1 consecrate:1 commonly:1 ordain:2 laity:1 among:1 faithful:1 deacon:1 priest:1 clergy:1 oblate:1 consecrated:1 endeavour:1 embrace:1 spirit:1 world:1 cluny:1 strictly:1 adhere:1 pontifical:1 sister:1 reparation:1 face:1 selby:1 dom:2 columba:1 marmion:1 osb:1 ideal:1 conference:1 engl:1 edition:1 london:1 trsl:1 french:1 tyburn:1 convent:1 external:1 link:2 r:1 luke:1 dysinger:1 family:1 tree:1 introduction:1 encyclopedia:1 entry:1 confoederatio:1 benedictina:1 ordinis:1 |@bigram benedictine_confederation:5 benedictine_monk:3 sancti_benedicti:2 benedictine_abbey:3 pope_leo:2 leo_xiii:2 governing_body:1 monte_cassino:1 benedict_nursia:1 benedictine_monastery:1 anglican_communion:1 abbot_abbess:1 monk_nun:2 ordain_deacon:1 abbey_cluny:1 external_link:1 |
6,975 | Emperor_Saga | Emperor Saga (嵯峨天皇, Saga-tennō) (786–842) was the 52nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 809 through 823. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 97-102; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 280-282; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 151-163. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Kamino-shinnō. Titsingh, p. 96; Brown, p. 280. He was the second son of Emperor Kammu, and younger brother of Emperor Heizei by the same mother. Varley, p. 151. Saga had nine Empresses and consorts and 47 Imperial sons and daughters. Brown, p. 280. Events of Saga's life Saga succeeded to the throne after the retirement of Heizei due to illness, and soon after his enthronement was himself ill. Daidō 4, on the 1st day of the 4th month (809): In the 4th year of Emperor Heizei's reign (平城天皇4年), he fell ill and abdicated; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by Kammu's second son, the eldest son having become a Buddhist priest. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Saga is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 96; Brown, p. 280; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Emperor Saga's untimely health problems provided former-Emperor Heizei with a unique opportunity to foment a rebellion; and yet ultimately, the Heizei insurgents were defeated. Forces loyal to Emperor Saga, led by taishōgun Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, quickly defeated the Heizei rebels which thus limited the adverse consequences which would have followed any broader conflict. Titsingh, p. 98; Varley, p. 151. This same Tamuramaro is remembered in Aomori's annual nebuta or neputa matsuri which feature a number of gigantic, specially-constructed, illuminated paper floats. These great lantern-structures are colorfully painted with mythical figures; and teams of men carry them through the streets as crowds shout encouragement. This early ninth century military leader is commemorated in this way because he is said to have ordered huge illuminated lanterns to be placed at the top of hills; and when the curious Emishi approached these bright lights to investigate, they were captured and subdued by Tamuramaro's men. Boroff, Nicholas. National Geographic Traveler Japan, p. 156. Cry for noble Saichō (哭最澄上人), which was written by Emperor Saga for Saichō's death. Chinese calligraphic influence had been weakened after the Heian period. This text was one of the example for such a transformation.Saga was a scholar of the Chinese classics. He was also a renowned as a skillful calligrapher. According to legend, he was the first Japanese emperor to drink tea. Emperor Saga played an important role as a stalwart supporter of the Buddhist monk Kūkai. The emperor helped Kūkai to establish the Shingon School of Buddhism by granting him the Toji temple in the capital Heian-kyō (present day Kyoto). Saga's grandson, Minamoto no Tōru, is thought to be an inspiration for the protagonist of the novel The Tale of Genji. In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the Gempeitōkitsu (源平藤橘). One of these clans, the Minamoto clan (源氏)are also known as Genji, and of these, the Saga Genji (嵯峨源氏) are descended from 52nd emperor Saga. Jōwa 9, on the 15th day of the 7th month (842): Saga died at the age of 57. Brown, p. 282; Varley, p. 163. Kugyō Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.-- kugyō of Saga-tennō (in French) In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Saga's reign (809-823), this kugyō included: Sadaijin Udaijin, Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麿), 806-812. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Sonohito (藤原園人), 812-818. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣), 821-825. [see above] Naidaijin Dainagon Eras of Saga's reign The years of Saga's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Titsingh, p. 97. Daidō (806-810) Kōnin (810-824) Consorts and Children Empress: Tachibana no Kachiko (橘嘉智子) (786-850), daughter of Tachibana no Kiyotomo (橘清友) Imperial Prince Masara (正良親王) (810-850) Imperial Princess Masako (正子内親王) (810-879), married to Emperor Junna Imperial Princess Hideko (秀子内親王) (?-850) Imperial Prince Hidera (秀良親王) (817-895) Imperial Princess Toshiko (俊子内親王) (?-826) Imperial Princess Yoshiko (芳子内親王) (?-839) Imperial Princess Shigeko (繁子内親王) (?-851) Hi(deposed): Princess Takatsu (高津内親王) (?-841), daughter of Emperor Kammu Imperial Prince Nariyoshi (業良親王) (?-868) Imperial Princess Nariko (業子内親王) (?-815) Hi: Tajihi no Takako (多治比高子) (787-825), daughter of Tajihi no Ujimori (多治比氏守) Bunin: Fujiwara no Onatsu (藤原緒夏) (?-855), daughter of Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麻呂) Nyōgo: Ōhara no Kiyoko (大原浄子) (?-841), daughter of Ōhara no Yakatsugu (大原家継) Imperial Princess Ninshi (仁子内親王) (?-889), 15th Saiō in Ise Shrine 809-823 Nyōgo: Princess Katano (交野女王), daughter of Prince Yamaguchi (山口王) Imperial Princess Uchiko (有智子内親王) (807-847), 1st Saiin in Kamo Shrine 810-831 Nyōgo: Kudara no Kimyō (百済貴命) (?-851), daughter of Kudara no Shuntetsu (百済俊哲) Imperial Prince Motora (基良親王) (?-831) Imperial Prince Tadara (忠良親王) (819-876) Imperial Princess Motoko (基子内親王) (?-831) Koui: Iidaka no Yakatoji (飯高宅刀自) Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常) (812-854) Minamoto no Akira (源明) (814-852/853) Koui: Akishino no Koko (秋篠高子/康子), daughter of Akishino no Yasuhito (秋篠安人) Minamoto no Kiyoshi (源清) Koui: Yamada no Chikako (山田近子) Minamoto no Hiraku(?) (源啓) (829-869) Minamoto no Mituhime (源密姫) Court lady (Naishi-no-kami): Kudara no Kyomyō (百済慶命) (?-849), daughter of Kudara no Kyōshun (百済教俊) Minamoto no Yoshihime (源善姫）(814-?) Minamoto no Sadamu (源定) (815-863) Minamoto no Wakahime (源若姫) Minamoto no Shizumu(?) (源鎮) (824-881) Court lady: Takashina no Kawako (高階河子), daughter of Takashina no Kiyoshina (高階浄階) Imperial Princess Sōshi (宗子内親王) (?-854) Court lady: Fun'ya no Fumiko (文屋文子), daughter of Fun'ya no Kugamaro (文屋久賀麻呂) Imperial Princess Junshi (純子内親王) (?-863) Imperial Princess Seishi (斉子内親王) (?-853), married to Prince Fujii(son of Emperor Kammu) Prince Atsushi (淳王) Court lady: A daughter of Hiroi no Otona (広井弟名の娘) Minamoto no Makoto (源信) (810-869) Court lady: Fuse no Musashiko (布勢武蔵子) Minamoto no Sadahime (源貞姫) (810-880) Minamoto no Hashihime (源端姫) Court lady: A daughter of Kamitsukeno clan (上毛野氏の娘) Minamoto no Hiromu (源弘) (812-863) Court lady(Nyoju): A daughter of Taima no Osadamaro (当麻治田麻呂の娘) Minamoto no Kiyohime (源潔姫) (810-856), married to Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房) Minamoto no Matahime (源全姫) (812-882), Naishi-no-kami (尚侍) Court lady: A daughter of Abe no Yanatsu (安部楊津の娘) Minamoto no Yutaka(?) (源寛) (813-876) Court lady: Kasa no Tsugiko (笠継子), daughter of Kasa no Nakamori (笠仲守) Minamoto no Ikeru (源生) (821-872) Court lady: A daughter of Tanaka clan (田中氏の娘) Minamoto no Sumu(?) (源澄) Court lady: A daughter of Awata clan (粟田氏の娘) Minamoto no Yasushi (源安) (822-853) Court lady: Ōhara no Matako (大原全子), daughter of Ōhara no Mamuro (大原真室) Minamoto no Tōru (源融) (822-895), Sadaijin Minamoto no Tsutomu (源勤) (824-881) Minamoto no Mitsuhime (源盈姫) Court lady: A daughter of Koreyoshi no Sadamichi (惟良貞道の娘) Minamoto no Masaru (源勝) Court lady: A daughter of Nagaoka no Okanari (長岡岡成の娘) Minamoto no Sakashi(?) (源賢) Court lady: A daughter of Ki clan (紀氏の娘) Minamoto no Sarahime (源更姫) Court lady: Kura no Kageko (内蔵影子) Minamoto no Kamihime (源神姫) Minamoto no Katahime(?) (源容姫) Minamoto no Agahime (源吾姫) Court lady: Kannabi no Iseko (甘南備伊勢子) Minamoto no Koehime (源声姫) Court lady: Tacibana no Haruko (橘春子) Court lady: Ōnakatomi no Mineko (大中臣峯子) (from unknown women) Minamoto no Tsugu(?)(源継) Minamoto no Yoshihime(源良姫) Minamoto no Toshihime(源年姫) Notes References Boroff, Nicholas. (2006). National Geographic Traveler Japan. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. 10-ISBN 1-426-20234-2; 13-ISBN 978-1-4262-0234-6 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Emperor Go-Saga External links Official Imperial Household Agency page for Emperor Saga's mausoleum located in Kyoto city Another photo of Emperor Saga's mausoleum | Emperor_Saga |@lemmatized emperor:26 saga:22 嵯峨天皇:1 tennō:2 japan:9 accord:2 traditional:1 order:2 succession:2 reign:7 span:1 year:4 titsingh:6 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:3 brown:7 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:7 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 p:14 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:3 personal:2 name:4 imina:2 time:2 jomei:2 long:1 people:1 generally:1 use:1 number:2 character:1 diminish:1 kamino:1 shinnō:1 second:2 son:5 kammu:4 young:1 brother:1 heizei:6 mother:1 nine:1 empress:2 consort:2 imperial:21 daughter:23 event:1 life:2 succeed:1 retirement:1 due:1 illness:1 soon:1 enthronement:1 ill:2 daidō:2 day:3 month:2 fell:1 abdicate:1 senso:3 receive:1 eldest:1 become:1 buddhist:2 priest:1 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6,976 | Absolute_Infinite | The Absolute Infinite is mathematician Georg Cantor's concept of an "infinity" that transcended the transfinite numbers. Cantor equated the Absolute Infinite with God. §3.2, He held that the Absolute Infinite had various mathematical properties, including that every property of the Absolute Infinite is also held by some smaller object. Cantor's view Cantor is quoted as saying: The actual infinite arises in three contexts: first when it is realized in the most complete form, in a fully independent otherworldly being, in Deo, where I call it the Absolute Infinite or simply Absolute; second when it occurs in the contingent, created world; third when the mind grasps it in abstracto as a mathematical magnitude, number or order type. Quoted in Mind Tools: The Five Levels of Mathematical Reality, Rudy Rucker, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987; ISBN 0395383153. Cantor also mentioned the idea in his letters to Richard Dedekind (text in square brackets not present in original): Gesammelte Abhandlungen[4], Georg Cantor, ed. Ernst Zermelo, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1962, pp. 443–447; translated into English in From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931, ed. Jean van Heijenoort, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 113–117. These references both purport to be a letter from Cantor to Dedekind, dated July 28, 1899. However, as Ivor Grattan-Guinness has discovered[5], this is in fact an amalgamation by Cantor's editor, Ernst Zermelo, of two letters from Cantor to Dedekind, the first dated July 28 and the second dated August 3. A multiplicity is called well-ordered if it fulfills the condition that every sub-multiplicity has a first element; such a multiplicity I call for short a "sequence".... Now I envisage the system of all [ordinal] numbers and denote it Ω. ... The system Ω in its natural ordering according to magnitude is a "sequence". Now let us adjoin 0 as an additional element to this sequence, and place it, obviously, in the first position; then we obtain a sequence Ω′: 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ω0, ω0+1, ..., γ, ... of which one can readily convince oneself that every number γ occurring in it is the type [i.e., order-type] of the sequence of all its preceding elements (including 0). (The sequence Ω has this property first for ω0+1. [ω0+1 should be ω0.]) Now Ω′ (and therefore also Ω) cannot be a consistent multiplicity. For if Ω′ were consistent, then as a well-ordered set, a number δ would correspond to it which would be greater than all numbers of the system Ω; the number δ, however, also belongs to the system Ω, because it comprises all numbers. Thus δ would be greater than δ, which is a contradiction. Therefore: The system Ω of all [ordinal] numbers is an inconsistent, absolutely infinite multiplicity. The Burali-Forti paradox The idea that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot logically exist seems paradoxical to many. This is related to Cesare Burali-Forti's "paradox" that there can be no greatest ordinal number. All of these problems can be traced back to the idea that, for every property that can be logically defined, there exists a set of all objects that have that property. However, as in Cantor's argument (above), this idea leads to difficulties. More generally, as noted by A.W. Moore, there can be no end to the process of set formation, and thus no such thing as the totality of all sets, or the set hierarchy. Any such totality would itself have to be a set, thus lying somewhere within the hierarchy and thus failing to contain every set. A standard solution to this problem is found in Zermelo's set theory, which does not allow the unrestricted formation of sets from arbitrary properties. Rather, we may form the set of all objects that have a given property and lie in some given set (Zermelo's Axiom of Separation). This allows for the formation of sets based on properties, in a limited sense, while (hopefully) preserving the consistency of the theory. However, while this neatly solves the logical problem, the philosophical problem remains. It seems natural that a set of individuals ought to exist, so long as the individuals exist. Indeed, naive set theory might be said to be based on this notion. Although Zermelo's fix allows a class to describe arbitrary (possibly "large") entities, these predicates of the meta-language may have no formal existence (i.e., as a set) within the theory. For example, the class of all sets would be a proper class. This is philosophically unsatisfying to some and has motivated additional work in set theory and other methods of formalizing the foundations of mathematics. See also Monadology Reflection principle Class (set theory) Infinity Limitation of size The Ultimate References and further reading <li>^Gesammelte Abhandlungen mathematischen und philosophischen Inhalts, Georg Cantor, ed. Ernst Zermelo, with biography by Adolf Fraenkel; orig. pub. Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1932; reprinted Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1962, and Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1980, ISBN 3540098496. <li>^The Rediscovery of the Cantor-Dedekind Correspondence, I. Grattan-Guinness, Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 76 (1974/75), pp. 104–139, at p. 126 ff. <li> Infinity and the Mind, Rudy Rucker, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995, ISBN 0691001723; orig. pub. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1982, ISBN 3764330341. <li>The Infinite, A. W. Moore, London, New York: Routledge, 1990, ISBN 0415033071. <li> Set Theory, Skolem's Paradox and the Tractatus, A. W. 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6,977 | Fontainebleau | Fontainebleau is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located south-southeast of the centre of Paris. Fontainebleau is a sous-préfecture of the Seine-et-Marne département, and it is the seat of the arrondissement of Fontainebleau. The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region; it is the only one to cover a larger area than Paris itself. Fontainebleau, together with the neighboring commune of Avon and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 36,713 inhabitants (according to the 1999 census). This urban area is a satellite of Paris. Fontainebleau is renowned for the large and scenic forest of Fontainebleau, a favorite weekend getaway for Parisians, as well as for the historical château de Fontainebleau, which once belonged to the kings of France, It is also the home of INSEAD, one of the world's most elite business schools; of the École supérieure d'ingénieurs en informatique et génie des télécommunications (ESIGETEL), one of France's grandes écoles; and of a branch of the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris, the Paris School of Mines, also one of the elite grandes écoles. Inhabitants of Fontainebleau are called Bellifontains. History Originally called Fontaine Belle Eau or Fontaine Belleau, Fontainebleau settled on its ultimate name in 1169. This hamlet was endowed with a royal hunting lodge and a chapel by Louis VII in the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Louis IX, also called Saint Louis, who held Fontainebleau in high esteem and referred to it as "his wilderness", had a country house and a hospital constructed there. Philip the Fair was born there in 1268 and died there in 1314. In all, thirty-four sovereigns, from Louis VI, the Fat, (1081-1137) to Napoléon III (1808-1873), spent time at Fontainebleau. The connection between the town of Fontainebleau and the French monarchy was reinforced with the transformation of the royal country house into a true royal palace, the Palace of Fontainebleau. This was accomplished by the great builder-king, Francis I (1494–1547), who, in the largest of his many construction projects, reconstructed, expanded, and transformed the royal château at Fontainebleau into a residence that became his favorite, as well as the residence of his mistress, Anne, duchess of Étampes. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, every monarch, from Francis I to Louis XV, made important renovations at the Palace of Fontainebleau, including demolitions, reconstructions, additions, and embellishments of various descriptions, all of which endowed it with a character that is a bit heterogeneous, but harmonious nonetheless. On 18 October 1685, Louis XIV signed the Edict of Fontainebleau there. Also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, this royal fiat reversed the permission granted to the Huguenots in 1598 to worship publicly in specified locations and hold certain other privileges. The result was that a large number of Protestants were forced into exile, mainly in the Low Countries, Prussia and in England. The 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, a secret agreement between France and Spain concerning the Louisiana territory in North America, was concluded here. Also, preliminary negotiations, held before the 1763 Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years' War, were at Fontainebleau. During the French Revolution, Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning "Fountain by the Mountain". (The mountain referred to is the series of rocky formations located in the forest of Fontainebleau.) On 29 October 1807, Manuel Godoy, chancellor to the Spanish king, Charles IV and Napoléon signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which authorized the passage of French troops through Spanish territories so that they might invade Portugal. On 20 June 1812, Pope Pius VII arrived at the château of Fontainebleau, after a secret transfer from Savona, accompanied by his personal physician, Balthazard Claraz. In poor health, the pope was the prisoner of Napoléon, and he remained in his genteel prison at Fontainebleau for nineteen months. From June 1812 until 23 January 1814, the pope never left his apartments. On 18 April 1814, Napoléon Bonaparte, shortly before his first abdication, bid farewell to the Old Guard, the renowned grognards (gripers) who had served with him since his very first campaigns, in the "White Horse Courtyard" (la cour du Cheval Blanc) at the Palace of Fontainebleau. (The courtyard has since been renamed the "Courtyard of Goodbyes".) According to contemporary sources, the occasion was very moving. The 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau stripped Napoléon of his powers (but not his title as Emperor of the French) and sent him into exile on Elba. In July and August of 1946, the town hosted the Franco-Vietnamese Conference, intended to find a solution to the long-contested struggle for Vietnam’s independence from France, but the conference ended in failure. Fontainebleau also hosted the general staff of the Allied Forces in Central Europe (Allied Forces Center or AFCENT) and the land forces command (LANDCENT); the air forces command (AIRCENT) was located nearby at Camp Guynemer. These facilities were in place from the inception of NATO until France’s partial withdrawal from NATO in 1967 when the United States returned those bases to French control. NATO moved AFCENT to Brunssum in the Netherlands and AIRCENT to Ramstein in West Germany. (Note that the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, also known as SHAPE, was located at Rocquencourt, west of Paris, quite a distance from Fontainebleau. Tourism Fontainebleau is a popular tourist destination; each year, 300,000 people visit the palace and about 11 million people visit the forest. Fontainebleau forest The forest of Fontainebleau surrounds the city and dozens of nearby villages. It is protected by France's Office National des Forêts, and it is recognised as a French national park. It is managed in order that its wild plants and trees, such as the rare Service Tree of Fontainebleau, and its populations of birds, mammals, and butterflies, can be conserved. It is a former royal hunting park often visited by hikers and horse riders. The forest is also well regarded for bouldering and is particularly popular among climbers, as the biggest developed area of that kind in the world. Royal Château de Fontainebleau The Royal Château de Fontainebleau is a large palace where the kings of France took their ease. It is also the site where the French royal court, from 1528 onwards, entertained the body of new ideas that became known as the Renaissance. Town centre INSEAD The European (and historical) campus of the INSEAD business school is located at the edge of Fontainebleau. INSEAD students live in chateaux and other accommodations in the Fontainebleau area. Other Notables The graves of G. I. Gurdjieff and Katherine Mansfield can be found in the cemetery at Avon. Transport Fontainebleau is served by two stations on the Transilien Paris–Lyon rail line: Fontainebleau–Avon and Thomery. Fontainebleau–Avon station, the station closest to the center of Fontainebleau, is located near the dividing-line between the commune of Fontainebleau and the commune of Avon, on the Avon side of the border. Famous Residents Philippe IV, king of France, born and died in Fontainebleau François II, king of France, born in Fontainebleau Henri III, king of France, born in Fontainebleau Louis XIII, king of France, born in Fontainebleau Christina, queen of Sweden; her lover, Monaldeschi, was murdered in Fontainebleau Alphonse XIII, king of Spain, after his abdication Aga Khan IV Anna Elizabeth Klumpke, an early twentieth-century artist The prince and princess of Hanover Rosa Bonheur, a nineteenth-century artist Also, Tom Ripley, the fictional protagonist of several novels by Patricia Highsmith, lives in a small village a few miles away, and he sometimes visits the town. Image Gallery See also Communauté de communes de Fontainebleau-Avon List of climbing areas Milly-la-Forêt Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) Fontainebleau High School External links Fontainebleau official website Castle of Fontainebleau (in English) | Fontainebleau |@lemmatized fontainebleau:50 commune:7 metropolitan:1 area:8 paris:9 france:13 locate:6 south:1 southeast:1 centre:2 sous:1 préfecture:1 seine:1 et:2 marne:1 département:1 seat:1 arrondissement:1 large:6 land:2 île:1 de:10 region:1 one:4 cover:1 together:1 neighbor:1 avon:7 three:1 small:2 form:1 urban:2 inhabitant:2 accord:2 census:1 satellite:1 renowned:2 scenic:1 forest:6 favorite:2 weekend:1 getaway:1 parisian:1 well:3 historical:2 château:5 belong:1 king:9 also:11 home:1 insead:4 world:2 elite:2 business:2 school:4 école:2 supérieure:2 ingénieurs:1 en:1 informatique:1 génie:1 télécommunications:1 esigetel:1 grandes:2 écoles:2 branch:1 nationale:1 mine:2 call:3 bellifontains:1 history:1 originally:1 fontaine:3 belle:1 eau:1 belleau:1 settle:1 ultimate:1 name:1 hamlet:1 endow:2 royal:9 hunt:2 lodge:1 chapel:1 louis:7 vii:2 middle:1 twelfth:1 century:5 later:1 ix:1 saint:1 hold:3 high:2 esteem:1 refer:2 wilderness:1 country:3 house:2 hospital:1 construct:1 philip:1 fair:1 bear:5 die:2 thirty:1 four:1 sovereign:1 vi:1 fat:1 napoléon:5 iii:2 spent:1 time:1 connection:1 town:4 french:7 monarchy:1 reinforce:1 transformation:1 true:1 palace:6 accomplish:1 great:1 builder:1 francis:2 many:1 construction:1 project:1 reconstruct:1 expand:1 transform:1 residence:2 become:2 mistress:1 anne:1 duchess:1 étampes:1 sixteenth:1 eighteenth:1 every:1 monarch:1 xv:1 make:1 important:1 renovation:1 include:1 demolition:1 reconstruction:1 addition:1 embellishment:1 various:1 description:1 character:1 bit:1 heterogeneous:1 harmonious:1 nonetheless:1 october:2 xiv:1 sign:3 edict:2 know:3 revocation:1 nantes:1 fiat:1 reverse:1 permission:1 grant:1 huguenot:1 worship:1 publicly:1 specified:1 location:1 certain:1 privilege:1 result:1 number:1 protestant:1 force:5 exile:2 mainly:1 low:1 prussia:1 england:1 treaty:5 secret:2 agreement:1 spain:2 concern:1 louisiana:1 territory:2 north:1 america:1 conclude:1 preliminary:1 negotiation:1 end:2 seven:1 year:2 war:1 revolution:1 temporarily:1 rename:2 la:3 montagne:1 mean:1 fountain:1 mountain:2 series:1 rocky:1 formation:1 manuel:1 godoy:1 chancellor:1 spanish:2 charles:1 iv:3 authorize:1 passage:1 troop:1 might:1 invade:1 portugal:1 june:2 pope:3 pius:1 arrive:1 transfer:1 savona:1 accompany:1 personal:1 physician:1 balthazard:1 claraz:1 poor:1 health:1 prisoner:1 remain:1 genteel:1 prison:1 nineteen:1 month:1 january:1 never:1 leave:1 apartment:1 april:1 bonaparte:1 shortly:1 first:2 abdication:2 bid:1 farewell:1 old:1 guard:1 grognards:1 gripers:1 serve:2 since:2 campaign:1 white:1 horse:2 courtyard:3 cour:1 du:1 cheval:1 blanc:1 goodbye:1 contemporary:1 source:1 occasion:1 move:2 strip:1 power:2 title:1 emperor:1 send:1 elba:1 july:1 august:1 host:2 franco:1 vietnamese:1 conference:2 intend:1 find:2 solution:1 long:1 contest:1 struggle:1 vietnam:1 independence:1 failure:1 general:1 staff:1 allied:2 central:1 europe:2 center:2 afcent:2 command:2 landcent:1 air:1 aircent:2 nearby:2 camp:1 guynemer:1 facility:1 place:1 inception:1 nato:3 partial:1 withdrawal:1 united:1 state:1 return:1 base:1 control:1 brunssum:1 netherlands:1 ramstein:1 west:2 germany:1 note:1 supreme:1 headquarters:1 ally:1 shape:1 rocquencourt:1 quite:1 distance:1 tourism:1 popular:2 tourist:1 destination:1 people:2 visit:4 million:1 surround:1 city:1 dozen:1 village:2 protect:1 office:1 national:2 forêts:1 recognise:1 park:2 manage:1 order:1 wild:1 plant:1 tree:2 rare:1 service:1 population:1 bird:1 mammal:1 butterfly:1 conserve:1 former:1 often:1 hiker:1 rider:1 regard:1 bouldering:1 particularly:1 among:1 climber:1 big:1 developed:1 kind:1 take:1 ease:1 site:1 court:1 onwards:1 entertain:1 body:1 new:1 idea:1 renaissance:1 european:1 campus:1 edge:1 student:1 live:2 chateau:1 accommodation:1 notables:1 graf:1 g:1 gurdjieff:1 katherine:1 mansfield:1 cemetery:1 transport:1 two:1 station:3 transilien:1 lyon:1 rail:1 line:2 thomery:1 closest:1 near:1 divide:1 side:1 border:1 famous:1 resident:1 philippe:1 françois:1 ii:1 henri:1 xiii:2 christina:1 queen:1 sweden:1 lover:1 monaldeschi:1 murder:1 alphonse:1 aga:1 khan:1 anna:1 elizabeth:1 klumpke:1 early:1 twentieth:1 artist:2 prince:1 princess:1 hanover:1 rosa:1 bonheur:1 nineteenth:1 tom:1 ripley:1 fictional:1 protagonist:1 several:1 novel:1 patricia:1 highsmith:1 mile:1 away:1 sometimes:1 image:1 gallery:1 see:1 communauté:1 list:1 climb:1 milly:1 forêt:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 castle:1 english:1 |@bigram louis_xv:1 louis_xiv:1 edict_fontainebleau:1 edict_nantes:1 pope_pius:1 pius_vii:1 napoléon_bonaparte:1 bid_farewell:1 la_cour:1 tourist_destination:1 aga_khan:1 twentieth_century:1 nineteenth_century:1 milly_la:1 external_link:1 |
6,978 | Birmingham_Small_Arms_Company | The Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) was a British manufacturer of vehicles, firearms, and military equipment, and still exists as an airgun sport manufacturer and distributor. At its peak, BSA was the largest motorcycle producer in the world. Loss of sales and poor investments in new products in the motorcycle division, which included Triumph Motorcycles, led to problems for the whole group. History BSA was founded in 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England by fourteen gunsmiths of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association, who had together supplied arms to the British government during the Crimean War. The company branched out as the gun trade declined; in the 1870s they manufactured the Otto Dicycle, in the 1880s the company began to manufacture bicycles and in 1903 the company's first experimental motorcycle was constructed. Their first prototype automobile was produced in 1907 and the next year the company sold 150 automobiles. By 1909 they were offering a number of motorcycles for sale and in 1910 BSA purchased the British Daimler Company for its automobile engines. World War One During World War I, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort. Inter-War years 1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars In 1920, it bought some of the assets of the Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), which had built many important aircraft during the war but had become bankrupt due to the falloff in orders once hostilities ceased. BSA did not go into aviation; the chief designer Geoffrey de Havilland of Airco founded the de Havilland company. As well as the Daimler car range, BSA re-entered the car market under their own name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926 when the name was temporarily dropped. In 1929 a new range of 3 and 4 wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936. In the 1930s the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use - it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty. In 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works. World War Two By World War II, BSA had 67 factories and was well positioned to meet the demand for guns and ammunition. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence. During the war it produced over a million Lee-Enfield rifles, Sten sub machine guns and half a million Browning machine guns. Wartime demands included motorcycle production. 126,000 BSA M20 motorcycles were supplied to the armed forces, from 1937 (and later until 1950) plus military bicycles including the folding paratrooper bicycle. At the same time, the Daimler concern was producing armoured cars. Post war Sir Bernard Docker was chairman of BSA until 1951 with James Leek CBE Managing Director from 1939, after which Jack Sangster became Managing Director. Post-war, BSA continued to expand the range of metal goods it produced. The BSA Group bought Triumph Motorcycles in 1951, making them the largest producer of motorcycles in the world. The cycle and motor cycle interests of Ariel, Sunbeam and New Hudson were also acquired. Most of these had belonged to Sangster. In 1960 Daimler was sold off to Jaguar. The BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., was sold to Raleigh in 1956. Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India. The production of guns bearing the BSA name continued beyond the 1957 sale of the bicycle division, but in 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed BSA Guns (UK) Ltd. The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and are still based in Small Heath in Birmingham. Norton-Villiers-Triumph The Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share. The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales, superbike engine capacity had risen to 1000 cc and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes. Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses. For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3 wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at some 2 million pounds. In 1968 BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three cylinder machine named the "Rocket three" for the 1969 model year. It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets. However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near. Reorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath. At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets. Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of 10 million. Upgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic. The merger to Norton Villers was started in late 1972 and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50 based unit-single engine but few if any were sold publicly. The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe. By 1972, BSA was so moribund that with bankruptcy imminent, and with government backing its motorcycle businesses were absorbed into the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, which became Norton-Villiers-Triumph with the intention of producing and marketing Norton and Triumph motorcycles. The shareholders of BSA confirmed the deal. Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973. The final range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three. However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites. This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance. Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later. Out of the ashes of receivership, the NVT Motorcycles Ltd company which owned the rights to the BSA marque, was bought-out by the management and renamed the BSA Company. The BSA bicycle arm had been sold to Raleigh in 1956 and the BSA Winged-B logo was still seen for a while on up-market bicycles. Limited revival The BSA company produced military motorcycles (with Rotax engines) and motorcycles for developing countries (with Yamaha engines) under the BSA name. In the later case the old "Bushman" name was recalled to duty – it had been previously used on high ground clearance Bantams sold for the likes of Australian sheep farmers. In 1991, the BSA (motorcycle) Company merged with Andover Norton International Ltd., to form a new BSA Group, largely producing spare parts for existing motorcycles. In December 1994, BSA Group was taken over by a newly formed BSA Regal Group. The new company, based in Southampton, has a large spares business and has produced a number of limited-edition, retro-styled motorcycles. Products Bicycles Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles. The subsidiary business BSA Bicycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957. Motorcycles The first wholly BSA motorcycles were built in 1910, before then engines had come from other manufacturers. BSA Motorcycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary in 1919. BSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user. BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support. The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g. hauling a sidecar. The bulk of use would be for commuting. BSA motorcycles were also popular with "fleet buyers" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services. This mass market appeal meant they could claim "one in four is a BSA" on advertising. Machines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work. Initially, after World War II, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton. In the immediate post war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses). In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette. To improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike. The BSA team riders amazingly took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th. This was the first case of a one brand sweep. BSA: 50 years later The BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships. It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s. A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a "Beezer." Birmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song "BSA" on his 1980 album "Saints & Sinners" as a tribute to the Gold Star. He still pays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races. Motorcycle models Pre World War II 1935 BSA Blue Star G14 1000 cc V-twin Blue Star Empire Star Silver Star Gold Star Sloper M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in WW2 M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in WW2 Post World War II 1957 BSA Golden Flash 650 1969 BSA Royal Star A series Twins (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins) A7 A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction A10 Golden Flash A10 Super Flash A10 Road Rocket A10 Super Rocket A10 Rocket Gold Star A50 - 500cc unit construction A50R Royal Star A50C Cyclone A50W Wasp A65 - 650cc unit construction A65 Star Twin A65R Rocket A65T Thunderbolt A65L Lightning A65S Spitfire A65H Hornet A65F Firebird Scrambler A70L Lightning 750 Triples (four stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together. The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and cycle parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels, BSA frame and cycle parts. A75R Rocket3 750 A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed Singles (Four-stroke single cylinder) C25 Barracuda B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction B25FS Fleetstar B25 SS Gold Star BSA B31 single B32 Gold Star B33 B34 Gold Star B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction B40 SS90 B44 Victor B44 B44SS Shooting Star B44VS Victor Special B50 B50SS Gold Star 500 B50T Victor Trials B50MX Motocross C series (Four-stroke single-cylinder unit construction). C10 C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight . The C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head. The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension. Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable. The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame. Both models had better front brakes than earlier models. This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today. C12 (1956 - 1958). 249 cc OHV Used the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension. C15 Star - 250cc unit construction C15T Trials C15S Scrambler C15SS80 Sports Star 80 C15 Sportsman D series (Two-stroke single cylinder. See BSA Bantam for details) D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction D3 Bantam Major D5 Bantam Super D7 Bantam Super D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman D13 D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman Others (may include some export versions of models listed above) B31 Twin (350 cc). B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin. Very few units were produced, probably prototypes. BSA Barracuda BSA Beagle BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the boxer-GT50, beaver, brigand (or 50cc) range BSA GT50 (renamed from the boxer) BSA beaver the standard road version BSA Brigand - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha 50 cc two stroke engine. BSA Dandy 70 BSA Sunbeam (Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress) 175B1 250B2 BSA Starfire BSA Rocket Scrambler BSA Rocket Gold Star BSA Fury BSA Hornet Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles) T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges) Cars BSA Scout Car timeline 1907 to 1914 various forms with capacities ranging from 2.5 to 4.2 litre. The larger cars were based on the 1907 Peking-Paris Itala. 1910 BSA purchased the Daimler Company who took over car manufacture. 1911 BSA car with Daimler engine. 1912 Car production transferred to Coventry, BSA cars became rebadged Daimlers. 1914 War stopped car production 1921 BSA car production resumed with rear-wheel-drive air-cooled V-twin light car. 1929 First BSA three-wheeler 1931 TW-5 van version of the three-wheeler 1931 BSA acquired Lanchester. 1932 T-9 open four seat four-wheeler with a water-cooled four cylinder 9 hp (6.7 kW) engine (1075 cc). 1932 V-9 Van version also produced. 1932 Another BSA Rear-wheel-drive fluid flywheel 10 hp (7.5 kW) car, sold alongside the T9. 1932 FW32 Four wheeled version of the 3-wheeler produced for 1 year 1933 T-9 and V-9 production ceased 1933 Four-cylinder engine version of the three and four-wheeled car was added to the range. 1935 First Scout Series 2/3 1936 to 1937 Scout Series 4 1936 Three wheeled cars dropped 1937 to 1938 Scout Series 5 1938 to 1939 Scout Series 6 1940 WWII stopped production of BSA cars 1960 Jaguar Cars Ltd. acquired The Daimler Co. Ltd. and its subsidiaries from the BSA group. Military vehicles BSA Scout armoured car. "Type G Apparatus", Folding paratrooper bicycle, 32½ lb (15 kg) with parachute. Military Firearms Besa machine gun Lee Enfield rifle Sten submachine gun L1A1 SLR Civilian Firearms The 1906 war office pattern rifle The War Office Pattern Miniature Rifle The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt action rifles Various Martini action target .22lr rifles BSA Small-bore Target Rifles and Equipment The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles The BSA Ralock and Armatic semi-auto rifles Various bolt action hunting rifles mostly in .243 and .270 calibre Air rifles BSA CF2 BSA AirSporter Air Rifle BSA Buccaneer Air Rifle BSA Mercury Air Rifle BSA Meteor Air Rifle BSA Comet Air Rifle BSA Lightning Air Rifle BSA Lightning XL Air Rifle Carbine BSA Superstar Air Rifle BSA Goldstar Air Rifle BSA Hornet Air Rifle BSA Supersport Air Rifle BSA Ultra Air Rifle BSA Superten Air Rifle BSA Spitfire Air Rifle BSA 3240 Air pistols BSA Scorpion Air Pistol BSA Ultra .22 Air Pistol See also List of modern armament manufacturers Tribsa cafe racer using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame CCM (Clews Competition Motorcycles) - the remnants of BSA's off road arm List of BSA motorcycles References BSA Rocket 3 and Triumph Trident External links BSA Portal BSA Owners Club UK BSA Owners Club of New England BSA Owners Club of Northern California BSA Owners Club of The Netherlands Ohio Valley BSA Owners Club BSA Owners Club of Southern California Swedish BSA Owners Club BSA Rocket 3 and Triumph Trident BSA Gold Star Owners' Club BSA B50 homepage C10, C11, C12 MSN group 1966 BSA Bantam D7 BSA Regal motorcycles BSA guns site BSA Air Rifle Owners Group - Updated BSA Small-bore Target Rifles Birmingham's Industrial History Website | Birmingham_Small_Arms_Company |@lemmatized birmingham:6 small:7 arm:8 company:23 bsa:134 british:5 manufacturer:4 vehicle:3 firearm:2 military:5 equipment:3 still:4 exist:2 airgun:1 sport:7 distributor:1 peak:1 large:5 motorcycle:38 producer:2 world:10 loss:3 sale:7 poor:2 investment:2 new:8 product:5 division:3 include:4 triumph:16 lead:2 problem:1 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6,979 | Food | Food is any substance, usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role. Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption. Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with foodborne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought". Food sources Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin, although there are some exceptions. Foods not coming from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, such as mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods such as leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, and yogurt. Many cultures eat seaweed, a protist, or blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as Spirulina. McGee, 333-334. Additionally, salt is often eaten as a flavoring or preservative, and baking soda is used in food preparation. Both of these are inorganic substances, as is water, an important part of human diet. Plants Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct cultivars. McGee ,253. Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans because they contain nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (such as maize, wheat, and rice), legumes (such as beans, peas, and lentils), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils, such as sunflower, rapeseed (including canola oil), and sesame. McGee, Chapter 9. One of the earliest food recipes made from ground chickpeas is called hummus, which can be traced back to Ancient Egypt times. Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. McGee, Chapter 7. (For more information, see list of fruits.) Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (such as potatoes and carrots), leaf vegetables (such as spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables (such as bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (such as globe artichokes and broccoli). Many herbs and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables. McGee, Chapter 6. Animals Animals can be used as food either directly, or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from either muscle systems or from organs. Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammals, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products such as cheese or butter. In addition birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, some in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as civet. Davidson, 81-82. Production Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of subsistence locally important. More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more sustainable agricultural practices. This approach, which is partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and organic farming methods. Mason Major influences on food production are international organizations, (e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy (or law), and war. Messer, 53-91. Preparation While some food can be eaten raw, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; and others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place. Mead, 11-19 Animal slaughter and butchering The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning and rendering. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home in slaughterhouses which are used to process animals en mass for meat production. Many countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example, the United States has established the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as kosher shechita and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut. McGee, 142-143. On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts and pre-wrapped for commercial sale or wrapped to order in butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger at the local level. However fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality. McGee, 202-206 Cooking The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual cooking. McGee Chapter 14. The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it. Mead, 11-19. Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. McGee There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago. Campbell, 312. Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and was practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery. McGee, 784. Cooking equipment and methods There are many types of cooking equipment used for cooking. Ovens are one type of cooking equipment which can be used for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of ovens, for example Indian culture uses a Tandoor oven is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature, Davidson, 782-783 while western kitchens will use variable temperature convection ovens, conventional ovens, toaster ovens in addition to non-radiant heat ovens like the microwave oven. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired. McGee, 539,784. Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat source, such as a sauté pan, sauce pot, frying pan, pressure cooker, etc. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as steaming, simmering, boiling, and poaching for moist methods; while the dry methods include sautéing, pan frying, or deep-frying. McGee, 771-791 In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grill operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open bit barbecue in the American south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill fueled by wood, liquid propane or charcoal along with soaked wood chips for smoking. Davidson, 356. A Mexican style of barbecue is called barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats and whole sheep over open fire. In Argentina, asado is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on which a whole animal is grilled or in other cases smaller cuts of the animal. Asado Argentina Raw food Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat, and sushi often incorporates raw fish or other seafood as well. Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon respectively, mixed with various ingredients and served with baguette, brioche or frites. Davidson, 786-787. In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thin sliced raw beef, drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil. Robuchon, 224. A popular health food movement known as raw foodism promotes a mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation that do not heat the food above 118 degrees Fahrenheit. Davidson, 656 Restaurants Many cultures produce food for sale in restaurants for paying customers. These restaurants often have trained chefs who prepare the food, while trained waitstaff serve the customers. The term restaurant is credited to the French from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the bouillons that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation may have existed during the age of the city of Pompeii, as well as an urban sales of prepared foods in China during the Song Dynasty. The coffee shops or cafes of 17th century Europe may also be considered an early version of the restaurant. Davidson, 660-661. In 2005 the United States spent $496 billion annually for out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining was as follows, 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (fast food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and vending machines, 4.7% in hotels and motels, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in other which includes military bases. United States Department of Agriculture Food manufacture Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a butcher preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international food industry. Early food processing techniques were limited by available food preservation, packaging and transportation. This mainly involved salting, curing, curdling, drying, pickling, fermentation and smoking. Aguilera, 1-3. Food manufacturing arose during the industrial revolution in the 19th century. Miguel, 3. This development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such as milling, preservation, packaging and labeling and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ domestic servants. Jango-Cohen At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food brands. There also exists a wide array of small local or national food processing companies. Hannaford Advanced technologies have also come to change food manufacture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated processing and packaging methods, and logistics and distribution advances, can enhance product quality, improve food safety, and reduce costs. Commercial trade International exports and imports The World Bank reported that the European Union was the top food importer in 2005, followed at a distance by the USA and Japan. Food is now traded and marketed on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season. The Economic Research Service of the USDA Between 1961 and 1999, there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food exports. Regmi Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports. CIA World Factbook In 1994, over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in trade liberalization. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, underpinned by the WTO enforcement of agricultural subsidy, tariffs, import quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. World Trade Organization, The Uruguay Round Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade. Van den Bossche Marketing and retailing Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate." Wansink, Marketing Nutrition, 501-3. The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans. Smith, 501-3. The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States. In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local village marketplace. Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers. With the onset of industrialization, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them. Benson In the 20th century supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world. Humphery Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than ten percent of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations. Magdoff, Fred (Ed.) "[T]he farmer's share of the food dollar (after paying for input costs) has steadily declined from about 40 percent in 1910 to less than 10 percent in 1990." Prices Consumers worldwide faced rising food prices, it was reported on March 24 2008. Reasons for this development are freak weather, dramatic changes in the global economy, including higher oil prices, lower food reserves and growing consumer demand in China and India. In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize. Farmers will grow more grain for both fuel and food and eventually bring prices down. Already this is happening with wheat, with more crops to be planted in the United States, Canada and Europe in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture Organization projects that consumers still face at least until 2018 more expensive food. It is rare that the spikes are hitting all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices rose 4 percent in the United States 2007, the highest rise since 1990, and are expected to climb as much again 2008. As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of pork has jumped 58 percent in 2007. In the 1990s and 1980s, farm subsidies and support programs allowed major grain exporting countries to hold large surpluses, which could be tapped during food shortages to keep prices down. But new trade policies have made agricultural production much more responsive to market demands -- putting global food reserves at their lowest since 1983. CNN "[Food prices rising across the world" 24 March 2008 Food prices are rising, wealthier Asian consumers are westernizing their diets, and farmers and nations of the third world are struggling to keep up the pace. The past five years have seen rapid growth in the contribution of Asian nations to the Global Fluid and Powdered Milk Manufacturing industry, which in 2008 accounts for more than 30% of production, while China alone accounts for more than 10% of both production and consumption in the Global Fruit and Vegetable Processing and Preserving industry. The trend is similarly evident in industries such as Soft Drink and Bottled Water Manufacturing, as well as Global Cocoa, Chocolate and sugar Confectionery Manufacturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and 10.0% respectively during 2008 in response to soaring demand in China and Southeast Asian markets. May 2008, Global Trends: - Food Production and Consumption: The China Effect, IBISWorld Famine and hunger Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often connected with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war. Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes. World Health Organization Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales. Howe, 353-372 Food aid Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required. World Food Programme Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence can develop. Shah Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination country, a strategy known as food politics. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of donor countries. Kripke International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are often co-ordinated by the World Food Programme. United Nations World Food program Safety Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. National Institute of Health, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze. Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates. Hippocrates, On Acute Diseases. The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern food storage and food preservation methods. Magner, 243-498 In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks. USDA Allergies Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. National Institute of Health The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy. Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen. Rarely, food allergies can lead to a medical emergency, such as anaphylactic shock, hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is peanut, although latex products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an Epi-pen. About Epipen, Epipen.com Diet Cultural and religious diets Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. Wansink, Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think Although humans are omnivores, many cultures hold some food preferences and some food taboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, and halal/haram foods by Islam, in the diet of believers. Simoons In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's cuisine. Diet deficiencies Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known as body fat. Nicklas Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases which can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at risk for developing, Iodine deficiency. Merson, 245 It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to vitamin A deficiency. Merson, 231. Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy. Merson, 464. Calcium, Vitamin D and phosphorus are inter-related; the consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein. Merson, 224. Moral, ethical, and health conscious diet Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants. Carpenter Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, and many other diseases. Merson, 266-268. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food. Parekh,187-206. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on animal welfare, human health and the environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a counterculture with a preference for organic and local food. Schor Nutrition Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as scurvy, obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health. Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins. Additionally food contains water and dietary fiber. Legal definition Some countries list a legal definition of food. These countries list food as any item that is to be processed, partially processed or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items included as foodstuffs include any substance, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by humans. In addition to these foodstuffs, drink, chewing gum, water or other items processed into said food items are part of the legal definition of food. Items not included in the legal definition of food include animal feed, live animals unless being prepared for sale in a market, plants prior to harvesting, medicinal products, cosmetics, tobacco and tobacco products, narcotic or psychotropic substances, and residues and contaminants. United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Information See also :Category:Lists of foods Contemporary Food Engineering Food and Bioprocess Technology Food security Non-food crop Optimal foraging theory Notes References Aguilera, Jose Miguel and David W. Stanley. Microstructural Principles of Food Processing and Engineering. Springer, 1999. ISBN 0-8342-1256-0. Asado Argentina. About Asado Argentina. Retrieved from http://www.asadoargentina.com/about-asado-argentina/ on 2007-05-28. Campbell, Bernard Grant. Human Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Adaptations. Aldine Transaction: 1998. ISBN 0-202-02042-8. Carpenter, Ruth Ann; Finley, Carrie E. Healthy Eating Every Day. Human Kinetics, 2005. ISBN 0-7360-5186-4. Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food. 2nd ed. UK: Oxford University Press, 2006. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2005. . Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0200e/a0200e00.htm on 2006-09-29. Hannaford, Steve. Oligopoly Watch: Top 20 world food companies. Retrieved from http://www.oligopolywatch.com/2005/10/06.html on 2006-09-23. Howe, P. and S. Devereux. Famine Intensity and Magnitude Scales: A Proposal for an Instrumental Definition of Famine. 2004. Humphery, Kim. Shelf Life: Supermarkets and the Changing Cultures of Consumption. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-62630-7. Jango-Cohen, Judith. The History Of Food. Twenty-First Century Books, 2005. ISBN 0-8225-2484-8. Jurgens, Marshall H. Animal Feeding and Nutrition. Kendall Hunt, 2001. ISBN 0-7872-7839-4. Kripke, Gawain. Food aid or hidden dumping?. Oxfam International,March 2005. Retrieved from http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/briefingpapers/bp71_food_aid_240305 on 2007-05-26. Lawrie, Stephen; R A Lawrie. Lawrie's Meat Science. Woodhead Publishing: 1998. ISBN 1-85573-395-1. Magdoff, Fred; Foster, John Bellamy; and Buttel, Frederick H. Hungry for Profit: The Agribusiness Threat to Farmers, Food, and the Environment. September 2000. ISBN 1-58367-016-5. Mason, John. Sustainable Agriculture. Landlinks Press: 2003. ISBN 0-643-06876-7. Merson, Michael H.; Black, Robert E.; Mills, Anne J. International Public Health: Disease, Programs, Systems, and Policies. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005. McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. ISBN 0-684-80001-2. Mead, Margaret. The Changing Significance of Food. In Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik (Ed.), Food and Culture: A Reader. UK: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91710-7. Messer, Ellen; Derose, Laurie Fields and Sara Millman. Who's Hungry? and How Do We Know?: Food Shortage, Poverty, and Deprivation. United Nations University Press, 1998. ISBN 92-808-0985-7. National Institute of Health. Food poisoning. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia F. May 11, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/pdf/foodallergy.pdf on 2006-09-29. Nicklas, Barbara J. Endurance Exercise and Adipose Tissue. CRC Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8493-0460-1. Parekh, Sarad R. The Gmo Handbook: Genetically Modified Animals, Microbes, and Plants in Biotechnology. Humana Press,2004. ISBN 1-58829-307-6. Regmi, Anita (editor).Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade. Market and Trade Economics Division, Economic Research Service, USDA, May 30, 2001. stock #ERSWRS01-1. Schor, Juliet; Taylor, Betsy (editors). Sustainable Planet: Roadmaps for the Twenty-First Century. Beacon Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8070-0455-3. Shah, Anup. Food Dumping (Aid) Maintains Poverty. Causes of Poverty. 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6,980 | Harrison_Narcotics_Tax_Act | The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (Ch. 1, ) was a United States federal law that regulated and taxed the production, importation, and distribution of opiates. The act was proposed by Representative Francis Burton Harrison of New York and was approved on December 17, 1914. "An Act To provide for the registration of, with collectors of internal revenue, and to impose a special tax on all persons who produce, import, manufacture, compound, deal in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away opium or coca leaves, their salts, derivatives, or preparations, and for other purposes." The courts interpreted this to mean that physicians could prescribe narcotics to patients in the course of normal treatment, but not for the treatment of addiction. Although technically illegal for purposes of distribution and use, the distribution, sale and use of cocaine was still legal for registered companies and individuals. History International background Following the Spanish-American War the U.S. took the Philippines. Confronted with a licensing system for opium addicts, a Commission of Inquiry was appointed to examine alternatives to this system. The Brent Commission recommended that narcotics should be subject to international control. This proposal was supported by the United States Department of State and in 1906 President Theodore Roosevelt called for an international opium conference, the Shanghai Commission in 1909. In 1906 an imperial edict, had been published prohibiting the cultivation and smoking of opium in the Chinese Empire over a period of ten years. This was being implemented with greater success than had been anticipated UNOCD:The Shanghai Opium Commission The British Empire had since the Opium war in the 1840s by military means forced China to allow a large import of opium from India. A second conference was held at The Hague in 1911, and out of it came the first international drug control treaty, the International Opium Convention of 1912. Domestic Background In the 1800s opiates and cocaine were mostly unregulated drugs. In the 1890s the Sears & Roebuck catalogue, which was distributed to millions of Americans homes, offered a syringe and a small amount of cocaine for $1.50. It has been estimated that one U.S. citizen in 400 (0.25%) was an addict of opium in 1914, and the number had increased swiftly for a number of years. Edward Marshall: UNCLE SAM IS THE WORST DRUG FIEND IN THE WORLD, New York Times 1911 The opium addicts were mostly women who were prescribed and dispensed legal opiates by physicians and pharmacist for ”female problems,” probably mostly pain at menstruation, or white men and Chinese at the Opium dens. Between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women. Stephen R. Kandall, M.D.:Women and Addiction in the United States—1850 to 1920 "Of all the nations of the world, the United States consumes most habit-forming drugs per capita. Opium, the most pernicious drug known to humanity, is surrounded, in this country, with far fewer safeguards than any other nation in Europe fences it with." -- Dr. Hamilton Wright, United States first Opium Commissioner, New York Times, 1911 At the beginning of the 20th century, cocaine began to be linked to crime. In 1900, the Journal of the American Medical Association published an editorial stating, "Negroes in the South are reported as being addicted to a new form of vice that of 'cocaine sniffing' or the 'coke habit.'" Some newspapers later claimed cocaine use caused blacks to rape white women and was improving their pistol marksmanship. Chinese immigrants were blamed for importing the opium-smoking habit to the U.S. The 1903 blue-ribbon citizens' panel, the Committee on the Acquirement of the Drug Habit concluded, "If the Chinaman cannot get along without his dope we can get along without him". By 1914 forty-six states had regulations on cocaine and twenty-nine states had laws against opium, morphine, and heroin. p. 14-15. Mentions New York Times article about drug crazed blacks. p. 572 (Google Print) Dr. Hamilton Wright, appointed by Theodore Roosevelt, stated that "cocaine is often the direct incentive to the crime of rape by the Negroes of the South and other sections of the country," even though there was no evidence to support this claim. Wright also stated that "one of the most unfortunate phases of smoking opium in this country is the large number of women who have become involved and were living as common-law wives or cohabitating with Chinese in the Chinatowns of our various cities". Wetherington states that the 1909 Shanghai Commission made this comment. A 1910 federal survey reported that "cocaine is often the direct incentive to the crime of rape by the Negroes in the South and other sections of the country. Southern sheriffs believed cocaine even rendered blacks impervious to .32-cal. bullets (as a result many police departments switched to .38-cal.)." Debate In 1914, the Senate considered the Harrison bill. The act was supported by the Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan who urged that the law be passed to fulfill the obligation of the new international treaty. Several authors have argued that the debate was merely to regulate trade and collect a tax. However, the committee report Committee on Finance (Ways and Means Committee, Senate Reports, vol. 1, of the 63rd Congress, 2nd session on Senate Bill 6552, report #258, pp. 3-4) prior to the debate on the house floor and the debate itself, discussed the rise of opiate use in the United States. Harrison stated that "The purpose of this Bill can hardly be said to raise revenue, because it prohibits the importation of something upon which we have hitherto collected revenue." Later Harrison stated, "We are not attempting to collect revenue, but regulate commerce." House representative Thomas Sisson stated, "The purpose of this bill--and we are all in sympathy with it--is to prevent the use of opium in the United States, destructive as it is to human happiness and human life." p. 14-15 The drafters played on fears of “drug-crazed, sex-mad negroes” and made references to Negroes under the influence of drugs murdering whites, degenerate Mexicans smoking marijuana, and “Chinamen” seducing white women with drugs. "The drafters of the Harrison Act of 1914, the first federal ban on non-medical narcotics, played on fears of “drug-crazed, sex-mad negroes”." Dr. Hamilton Wright, testified at a hearing for the Harrison Act. Wright alleged that drugs made blacks uncontrollable, gave them superhuman powers and caused them to rebel against white authority. Dr. Christopher Koch of the State Pharmacy Board of Pennsylvania testified that "Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain". Before the Act was passed, on February 8, 1914 The New York Times published an article entitled "Negro Cocaine 'Fiends' Are New Southern Menace:Murder and Insanity Increasing Among Lower-Class Blacks" by Edward Huntington Williams which reported that Southern sheriffs had increased the caliber of their weapons from .32 to .38 to bring down Negroes under the effect of cocaine. Effect The act appears to be concerned about the marketing of opiates. However a clause applying to doctors allowed distribution "in the course of his professional practice only." This clause was interpreted after 1917 to mean that a doctor could not prescribe opiates to an addict, since addiction was not considered a disease. A number of doctors were arrested and some were imprisoned. The medical profession quickly learned not to supply opiates to addicts. In 1919, the Supreme Court ruled in Doremus that the Harrison Act was constitutional and in Webb that physicians could not prescribe narcotics solely for maintenance. The impact of diminished supply was obvious by mid-1915. A 1918 commission called for sterner law enforcement. Congress responded by tightening up the Harrison Act-the importation of heroin for any purpose was banned in 1924. After other complementary laws (for ex. implementing the Uniform State Narcotic Act in 1932), and other actions by the government the number of addicts of opium started to decrease fast from 1925 to a level that in 1945 that was about one tenth of the level in 1914. The use of the term 'narcotics' in the title of the act to describe not just opiates but also cocaine — which is a central nervous system stimulant, not a narcotic — initiated a precedent of frequent legislative and judicial misclassification of various substances as 'narcotics'. Today, law enforcement agencies, popular media, the United Nations, other nations and even some medical practitioners can be observed applying the term very broadly and often pejoratively in reference to a wide range of illicit substances, regardless of the more precise definition existing in medical contexts. The remaining effect of this act, which has largely been superseded by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, is the warning "*Warning: May be habit forming" on labels, package inserts, and other places where ingredients are listed in the case of many opioids, barbiturates, medicinial formulations of cocaine, and chloral hydrate. Challenge The Act's applicability in prosecuting doctors who prescribe narcotics to addicts was successfully challenged in Linder v. United States in 1925, as Justice McReynolds ruled that the federal government has no power to regulate medical practice. References External links The Harrison Narcotics Act (1914) at Erowid.com | Harrison_Narcotics_Tax_Act |@lemmatized harrison:10 narcotic:11 tax:4 act:16 ch:1 united:9 state:20 federal:4 law:7 regulate:4 production:1 importation:3 distribution:4 opiate:8 propose:1 representative:2 francis:1 burton:1 new:8 york:5 approve:1 december:1 provide:1 registration:1 collector:1 internal:1 revenue:4 impose:1 special:1 person:1 produce:1 import:3 manufacture:1 compound:1 deal:1 dispense:1 sell:1 distribute:2 give:2 away:1 opium:18 coca:1 leaf:1 salt:1 derivative:1 preparation:1 purpose:5 court:2 interpret:2 mean:4 physician:3 could:3 prescribe:5 patient:1 course:2 normal:1 treatment:2 addiction:3 although:1 technically:1 illegal:1 use:6 sale:1 cocaine:15 still:1 legal:2 registered:1 company:1 individual:1 history:1 international:6 background:2 follow:1 spanish:1 american:3 war:2 u:3 take:1 philippine:1 confront:1 licensing:1 system:3 addict:9 commission:6 inquiry:1 appoint:2 examine:1 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wright:5 commissioner:1 beginning:1 century:1 begin:1 link:2 crime:3 journal:1 medical:6 association:1 editorial:1 stating:1 negro:9 south:4 report:6 form:2 vice:1 sniff:1 coke:1 newspaper:1 later:2 claim:2 cause:2 black:5 rape:3 improve:1 pistol:1 marksmanship:1 immigrant:1 blame:1 blue:1 ribbon:1 panel:1 committee:4 acquirement:1 conclude:1 chinaman:2 cannot:1 get:2 along:2 without:2 dope:1 forty:1 six:1 regulation:1 twenty:1 nine:1 morphine:1 heroin:2 p:3 mention:1 article:2 craze:4 google:1 print:1 often:3 direct:3 incentive:2 section:2 even:3 though:1 evidence:1 also:2 unfortunate:1 phase:1 smoke:2 become:1 involved:1 live:1 common:1 wive:1 cohabitating:1 chinatowns:1 various:2 city:1 wetherington:1 make:3 comment:1 survey:1 southern:3 sheriff:2 believe:1 render:1 impervious:1 cal:2 bullet:1 result:2 many:2 police:1 switch:1 debate:4 senate:3 consider:2 bill:4 secretary:1 william:1 jennings:1 bryan:1 urge:1 pass:2 fulfill:1 obligation:1 several:1 author:1 argue:1 merely:1 trade:1 collect:3 however:2 finance:1 way:1 vol:1 congress:2 session:1 pp:1 prior:1 house:2 floor:1 discuss:1 rise:1 hardly:1 say:1 raise:1 something:1 upon:2 hitherto:1 attempt:1 commerce:1 thomas:1 sisson:1 sympathy:1 prevent:1 destructive:1 human:2 happiness:1 life:1 drafter:2 play:2 fear:2 sex:2 mad:2 reference:3 influence:1 murder:2 degenerate:1 mexican:1 marijuana:1 seduce:1 ban:2 non:1 testify:2 hearing:1 allege:1 uncontrollable:1 superhuman:1 power:2 rebel:1 authority:1 christopher:1 koch:1 pharmacy:1 board:1 pennsylvania:1 attack:1 brain:1 february:1 entitle:1 menace:1 insanity:1 among:1 low:1 class:1 huntington:1 williams:1 caliber:1 weapon:1 bring:1 effect:3 appear:1 concern:1 marketing:1 clause:2 apply:2 doctor:4 professional:1 practice:2 disease:1 arrest:1 imprison:1 profession:1 quickly:1 learn:1 supply:2 supreme:1 rule:2 doremus:1 constitutional:1 webb:1 solely:1 maintenance:1 impact:1 diminished:1 obvious:1 mid:1 sterner:1 enforcement:2 respond:1 tighten:1 complementary:1 ex:1 uniform:1 action:1 government:2 start:1 decrease:1 fast:1 level:2 tenth:1 term:2 title:1 describe:1 central:1 nervous:1 stimulant:1 initiate:1 precedent:1 frequent:1 legislative:1 judicial:1 misclassification:1 substance:3 today:1 agency:1 popular:1 medium:1 practitioner:1 observe:1 broadly:1 pejoratively:1 wide:1 range:1 illicit:1 regardless:1 precise:1 definition:1 exist:1 context:1 remain:1 largely:1 supersede:1 controlled:1 warning:2 may:1 label:1 package:1 insert:1 place:1 ingredient:1 list:1 case:1 opioids:1 barbiturate:1 medicinial:1 formulation:1 chloral:1 hydrate:1 challenge:2 applicability:1 prosecute:1 successfully:1 linder:1 v:1 justice:1 mcreynolds:1 external:1 erowid:1 com:1 |@bigram harrison_narcotic:2 coca_leaf:1 opium_addict:2 theodore_roosevelt:2 sears_roebuck:1 drug_fiend:1 physician_pharmacist:1 habit_forming:1 per_caput:1 opium_smoking:1 morphine_heroin:1 jennings_bryan:1 fulfill_obligation:1 smoke_marijuana:1 supreme_court:1 enforcement_agency:1 controlled_substance:1 external_link:1 |
6,981 | Lateral_consonant | Laterals are "L"-like consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue, while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both sides of the tongue. Most commonly the tip of the tongue makes contact with the upper teeth (see dental consonant) or the upper gum (the alveolar ridge) just behind the teeth (see alveolar consonant). The most common laterals are approximants and belong to the class of liquids. Laterals in various languages English has one lateral phoneme: the lateral approximant , which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in lady or fly, is called clear l, pronounced as the alveolar lateral approximant with a "neutral" position of the body of the tongue. The other variant, so-called dark l found before consonants or word-finally, as in bold or tell, is pronounced as the velarized alveolar lateral approximant with the tongue assuming a spoon-like shape with its back part raised, which gives the sound a - or -like resonance. In some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes. East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have a plain [l]. In many British accents (e.g. London English), dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide. This process turns tell into something like . A similar process happened in Brazilian Portuguese and in Old French, resulting in , whence Modern French sauce as compared with Spanish salsa. Also in Polish historical (spelled ł ) has become [w] even word-initially or between vowels. In central and Venice dialects of Vèneto intervocalic has turned into a semivocalic , so that the written word la bala is pronounced . Many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish. Rarer lateral consonants include the retroflex laterals that can be found in most Indic languages and in some Swedish dialects; and the sound of Welsh ll, the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative that is also found in Zulu and many Semitic and Native American languages. In Adyghe and some Athapaskan languages like Hän both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricative occur, but there is no approximant. Many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu but the IPA has no symbols for these sounds. However, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant (see below). Failing that, a devoicing diacritic is added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant. However, Tlingit is an exception, with but no . Some older Tlingit speakers do have , as an allophone of . However, if this is analyzed as phonemic , then these speakers have no phonemic nasal consonants. Tibetan has a voiceless lateral approximant, usually romanized as lh, as in the name Lhasa. Pashto has retroflex lateral flap. There are a large number of lateral click consonants; seventeen occur in !Xóõ. Lateral trills are possible (but occur in no known langauge). It is also possible to articulate Uvular laterals, but they are also too hard to pronouce to occur as a phoneme in any known language. List of laterals Approximants Alveolar lateral approximant Velarized alveolar lateral approximant Retroflex lateral approximant Palatal lateral approximant Velar lateral approximant Fricatives Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (in Navajo, Welsh) Voiced alveolar lateral fricative (in Mongolian) Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative (or []) (in Toda) Voiceless palatal lateral fricative (or []) (in Dahalo) Voiceless velar lateral fricative (or []) (in Archi) Affricates Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate (in Navajo) Ejective alveolar lateral affricate (in Navajo) Voiced alveolar lateral affricate Voiceless palatal lateral affricate (or [c]) (in Hadza) Ejective palatal lateral affricate (or [cʼ]) (in Dahalo, Hadza) Ejective velar lateral affricate (or [kʼ]) (in Zulu) Flaps Alveolar lateral flap Retroflex lateral flap (or []) Palatal lateral flap Clicks Dental lateral clicks , , , etc. (in Juu) Alveolar lateral clicks , , , etc. (in Khoisan and Bantu) Palatal lateral clicks "", "", "", etc. (in Juu) Other symbols The symbol for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative forms the basis for the occasional ad hoc symbols for other voiceless lateral fricatives: retroflex, palatal, velar (the latter two only known from affricates): Image:Lateral fricatives.png The symbol for the alveolar lateral flap is the basis for the expected symbol for the retroflex lateral flap: Image:Lateral flaps.png Such symbols are rare, but are becoming more common now that font-editing software has become accessible. Note however that since they are not sanctioned by the IPA, there are no Unicode values for them. Notes See also Lateral release (phonetics) List of phonetics topics References | Lateral_consonant |@lemmatized lateral:52 l:4 like:6 consonant:7 pronounce:4 occlusion:1 make:3 somewhere:1 along:1 axis:1 tongue:6 air:1 lung:1 escape:1 one:3 side:2 commonly:1 tip:2 contact:2 upper:2 teeth:2 see:4 dental:2 gum:1 alveolar:18 ridge:2 behind:1 common:2 approximants:3 belong:1 class:1 liquid:1 various:2 language:11 english:2 phoneme:3 approximant:13 many:5 accent:2 two:3 allophone:2 find:4 vowel:3 lady:1 fly:1 call:2 clear:1 neutral:1 position:1 body:1 variant:1 dark:2 word:3 finally:1 bold:1 tell:2 velarized:2 assume:1 spoon:1 shape:1 back:2 part:1 raise:1 give:1 sound:4 resonance:1 albanian:1 different:1 east:1 slavic:1 contrast:1 plain:1 british:1 e:1 g:1 london:1 may:1 undergo:1 vocalization:1 reduction:1 loss:1 become:4 round:1 glide:1 process:2 turn:2 something:1 similar:1 happen:1 brazilian:1 portuguese:1 old:2 french:2 result:1 whence:1 modern:1 sauce:1 compare:1 spanish:1 salsa:1 also:7 polish:1 historical:1 spelled:1 ł:1 w:1 even:1 initially:1 central:1 venice:1 dialect:3 vèneto:1 intervocalic:1 semivocalic:1 write:1 la:1 bala:1 aboriginal:1 australian:1 series:1 three:1 four:1 irish:1 rarer:1 include:1 retroflex:7 indic:1 swedish:1 welsh:2 voiceless:12 fricative:13 zulu:3 semitic:1 native:1 american:1 adyghe:1 athapaskan:1 hän:1 voice:3 occur:4 affricate:9 palatal:8 velar:5 dahalo:3 ipa:2 symbol:8 however:4 appropriate:1 easy:1 add:2 belt:1 corresponding:1 failing:1 devoicing:1 diacritic:1 nearly:1 obstruent:1 tlingit:2 exception:1 speaker:2 analyze:1 phonemic:2 nasal:1 tibetan:1 usually:1 romanize:1 lh:1 name:1 lhasa:1 pashto:1 flap:8 large:1 number:1 click:5 seventeen:1 xóõ:1 trill:1 possible:2 known:2 langauge:1 articulate:1 uvular:1 hard:1 pronouce:1 list:2 navajo:3 mongolian:1 toda:1 archi:1 affricates:1 ejective:3 c:2 hadza:2 ʼ:2 k:1 etc:3 juu:2 khoisan:1 bantu:1 symbols:1 form:1 basis:2 occasional:1 ad:1 hoc:1 latter:1 know:1 image:2 png:2 expected:1 rare:1 font:1 edit:1 software:1 accessible:1 note:2 since:1 sanction:1 unicode:1 value:1 release:1 phonetics:2 topic:1 reference:1 |@bigram lateral_approximants:3 lateral_approximant:10 alveolar_lateral:15 retroflex_lateral:6 voiceless_alveolar:4 lateral_fricative:12 lateral_affricate:7 palatal_velar:2 voiceless_lateral:3 fricative_affricate:1 nasal_consonant:1 lateral_flap:7 lateral_click:4 palatal_lateral:6 velar_lateral:3 fricative_voiceless:1 voiceless_retroflex:1 voiceless_palatal:2 voiceless_velar:1 affricate_voiceless:1 ad_hoc:1 retroflex_palatal:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
6,982 | Observable_universe | Hubble Ultra Deep Field image of a small region of the observable universe, near the constellation Fornax. The light from the smallest, most redshifted galaxies originated roughly 13 billion years ago. In Big Bang cosmology, the observable universe consists of the galaxies and other matter that we can in principle observe from Earth in the present day, because light (or other signals) from those objects has had time to reach us since the beginning of the cosmological expansion. Assuming the universe is isotropic, the distance to the edge of the observable universe is roughly the same in every direction—that is, the observable universe is a solid sphere (a ball) centered on the observer, regardless of the shape of the universe as a whole. The actual shape of the universe may or may not be spherical. However, the portion of it that we (humans, from the perspective of planet Earth) are able to observe is determined by whether or not the light and other signals originating from distant objects has had time to arrive at our point of observation (planet Earth). Therefore, the observable universe appears from our perspective to be spherical. Every location in the universe has its own observable universe which may or may not overlap with the one centered around the Earth. The word observable used in this sense does not depend on whether modern technology actually permits detection of radiation from an object in this region (or indeed on whether there is any radiation to detect). It simply indicates that it is possible in principle for light or other signals from the object to reach an observer on Earth. In practice, we can only see objects as far as the surface of last scattering, before which the universe was opaque to photons. However, it may be possible in the future to observe the still older neutrino background, or even more distant events via gravitational waves (which also move at the speed of light). Sometimes a distinction is made between the visible universe, which includes only signals emitted since the last scattering time, and the observable universe, which includes signals since the beginning of the cosmological expansion (the Big Bang in traditional cosmology, the end of the inflationary epoch in modern cosmology). The radius of the observable universe is about 2% larger than the radius of the visible universe by this definition. The age of the universe is about 13.7 billion years, but due to the expansion of space we are now observing objects that are now considerably farther away than a static 13.7 billion light-years distance. The edge of the observable universe is now located about 46.5 billion light-years away. Estimates of the matter content of the observable universe indicate that it contains on the order of 1080 atoms. The vast majority of the energy density is contributed by dark matter and dark energy. The universe versus the observable universe While special relativity constrains objects in the universe from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, there is no such constraint when space itself is expanding. This means that the size of the observable universe could be smaller than the entire universe; there are some parts of the universe which might never be close enough for the light to overcome the speed of the expansion of space, in order to be observed on Earth. Some parts of the universe which are currently observable may later be unobservable due to ongoing expansion. Using Tiny Particles To Answer Giant Questions. Science Friday, 3 Apr 2009. See also Faster than light#Universal_expansion. Some parts of the universe may simply be too far away for the light from there to have reached Earth, but despite the expansion of space, at a later time could be observed. Both popular and professional research articles in cosmology often use the term "universe" to mean "observable universe". This can be justified on the grounds that we can never know anything by direct experimentation about any part of the universe that is causally disconnected from us, although many credible theories require a total universe much larger than the observable universe. No evidence exists to suggest that the boundary of the observable universe corresponds precisely to the physical boundary of the universe (if such a boundary exists); this is exceedingly unlikely in that it would imply that Earth is exactly at the center of the universe, in violation of the cosmological principle. It is likely that the galaxies within our visible universe represent only a minuscule fraction of the galaxies in the universe. According to the theory of cosmic inflation and its founder, Alan Guth, the entire universe could be (at least) 1023 to 1026 times as large in volume as the observable universe. For comparison: assuming a factor of 1024, then the observable universe in comparison with the entire universe would be about the same as the earth compared with a sphere with a diameter of just over a lightyear, or about the same as an orange in comparison with the earth. It is also possible that the universe is smaller than the observable universe. In this case, what we take to be very distant galaxies may actually be duplicate images of nearby galaxies, formed by light that has circumnavigated the universe. It is difficult to test this hypothesis experimentally because different images of a galaxy would show different eras in its history, and consequently might appear quite different. A 2004 paper Neil J. Cornish, David N. Spergel, Glenn D. Starkman, and Eiichiro Komatsu, Constraining the Topology of the Universe. Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 201302 (2004). astro-ph/0310233 claims to establish a lower bound of 24 gigaparsecs (78 billion light-years) on the diameter of the whole universe, making it, at most, only slightly smaller than the observable universe. This value is based on matching-circle analysis of the WMAP data. However, if the recent discovery of dark flow proves to be accurate, it strongly suggests that there is matter beyond the observable universe. Size of the observable universe The comoving distance from Earth to the edge of the visible universe (also called particle horizon) is about 14 billion parsecs (46.5 billion light-years) in any direction. This defines a lower limit on the comoving radius of the observable universe, although as noted in the introduction, it's expected that the visible universe is somewhat smaller than the observable universe since we only see light from the cosmic microwave background radiation that was emitted after the time of recombination, giving us the spherical surface of last scattering (gravitational waves could theoretically allow us to observe events that occurred earlier than the time of recombination, from regions of space outside this sphere). The visible universe is thus a sphere with a diameter of about 28 billion parsecs (about 93 billion light-years). Since space is roughly flat, this size corresponds to a comoving volume of about or about 3×1080 cubic meters. The figures quoted above are distances now (in cosmological time), not distances at the time the light was emitted. For example, the cosmic microwave background radiation that we see right now was emitted at the time of recombination, 379,000 years after the Big Bang, which occurred around 13.7 billion years ago. This radiation was emitted by matter that has, in the intervening time, mostly condensed into galaxies, and those galaxies are now calculated to be about 46 billion light-years from us. To estimate the distance to that matter at the time the light was emitted, a mathematical model of the expansion must be chosen and the scale factor, a(t), calculated for the selected time since the Big Bang, t. For the observationally-favoured Lambda-CDM model, using data from the WMAP satellite, such a calculation yields a scale factor change of approximately 1292. This means the universe has expanded to 1292 times the size it was when the CMBR photons were released. Hence, the most distant matter that is observable at present, 46 billion light-years away, was only 36 million light-years away from the matter that would eventually become Earth when the microwaves we are currently receiving were emitted. Misconceptions Many secondary sources have reported a wide variety of incorrect figures for the size of the visible universe. Some of these are listed below. 13.7 billion light-years. The age of the universe is about 13.7 billion years. While it is commonly understood that nothing travels faster than light, it is a common misconception that the radius of the observable universe must therefore amount to only 13.7 billion light-years. This reasoning only makes sense if the universe is the flat spacetime of special relativity; in the real universe, spacetime is highly curved on cosmological scales, which means that 3-space (which is roughly flat) is expanding, as evidenced by Hubble's law. Distances obtained as the speed of light multiplied by a cosmological time interval have no direct physical significance. Ned Wright, "Why the Light Travel Time Distance should not be used in Press Releases". 15.8 billion light-years. This is obtained in the same way as the 13.7 billion light year figure, but starting from an incorrect age of the universe which was reported in the popular press in mid-2006 SPACE.com - Universe Might be Bigger and Older than Expected Big bang pushed back two billion years - space - 04 August 2006 - New Scientist Space 2 billion years added to age of universe . For an analysis of this claim and the paper that prompted it, see Edward L. Wright, "An Older but Larger Universe?". . 27 billion light-years. This is a diameter obtained from the (incorrect) radius of 13.7 billion light-years. 78 billion light-years. This is a lower bound for the size of the whole universe, based on the estimated current distance between points that we can see on opposite sides of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), so this figure represents the diameter of the sphere formed by the CMBR. If the whole universe is smaller than this sphere, then light has had time to circumnavigate it since the big bang, producing multiple images of distant points in the CMBR, which would show up as patterns of repeating circles. Bob Gardner's "Topology, Cosmology and Shape of Space" Talk, Section 7 Cornish et al. looked for such an effect at scales of up to 24 gigaparsecs (78 billion light years) and failed to find it, and suggested that if they could extend their search to all possible orientations, they would then "be able to exclude the possibility that we live in a universe smaller than 24 Gpc in diameter". The authors also estimated that with "lower noise and higher resolution CMB maps (from WMAP's extended mission and from Planck), we will be able to search for smaller circles and extend the limit to ~28 Gpc." This estimate of the maximum diameter of the CMBR sphere that will be visible in planned experiments corresponds to a radius of 14 gigaparsecs, the same number given in the previous section. 156 billion light-years. This figure was obtained by doubling 78 billion light-years on the assumption that it is a radius. Since 78 billion light-years is already a diameter, the doubled figure is incorrect. This figure was very widely reported. SPACE.com - Universe Measured: We're 156 Billion Light-years Wide! New study super-sizes the universe - Space.com - MSNBC.com BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Astronomers size up the Universe 180 billion light-years. This estimate accompanied the age estimate of 15.8 billion years in some sources; Space.com - Universe Might be Bigger and Older than Expected it was obtained by incorrectly adding 15 percent to the incorrect figure of 156 billion light years. Matter content The observable universe contains about 3 to 7 × 1022 stars (30 to 70 sextillion stars), organized in more than 80 billion galaxies, which themselves form clusters and superclusters. How many galaxies in the Universe? says "the Hubble telescope is capable of detecting about 80 billion galaxies. In fact, there must be many more than this, even within the observable Universe, since the most common kind of galaxy in our own neighborhood is the faint dwarfs which are difficult enough to see nearby, much less at large cosmological distances." Two back-of-the-envelope calculations give the number of atoms in the observable universe to be around 1080. Observations of the cosmic microwave background from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe suggest that the spatial curvature of the universe is very close to zero, which in current cosmological models implies that the value of the density parameter must be very close to a certain critical value. This works out to 9.9×10−27 kilograms/meter3 WMAP- Content of the Universe , which would be equal to about 5.9 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. Analysis of the WMAP results suggests that only about 4.6% of the critical density is in the form of normal atoms, while 23% is thought to be made of cold dark matter and 72% is thought to be dark energy, so this leaves 0.27 hydrogen atoms/m3. Multiplying this by the volume of the visible universe, you get about 8×1079 hydrogen atoms. A typical star has a mass of about 2×1030 kg, which is about 1×1057 atoms of hydrogen per star. A typical galaxy has about 400 billion stars so that means each galaxy has 1×1057 × 4×1011 = 4×1068 hydrogen atoms. There are possibly 80 billion galaxies in the Universe, so that means that there are about 4×1068 × 8×1010 = 3×1079 hydrogen atoms in the observable Universe. But this is definitely a lower limit calculation, and it ignores many possible atom sources. Matthew Champion, "Re: How many atoms make up the universe?", 1998 Mass of the observable universe The mass of the matter in the observable universe can be estimated based on density and size. Estimation based on the measured stellar density One way to calculate the mass of the visible matter which makes up the observable universe is to assume a mean solar mass and to multiply that by an estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe. The estimate of the number of stars in the universe is derived from the volume of the observable universe and a stellar density calculated from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope yielding an estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe of 9 × 1021 stars (9 billion trillion stars). Taking the mass of Sol (2 × 1030 kg) as the mean solar mass (on the basis that the large population of dwarf stars balances out the population of stars whose mass is greater than Sol) and rounding the estimate of the number of stars up to 1022 yields a total mass for all the stars in the observable universe of 3 × 1052 kg. However, as noted in the "matter content" section, the WMAP results in combination with the Lambda-CDM model predict that less than 5% of the total mass of the observable universe is made up of visible matter such as stars, the rest being made up of dark matter and dark energy. Sir Fred Hoyle calculated the mass of an observable steady-state universe using the formula: which can also be stated as Here H = Hubble constant, ρ = Hoyle's value for the density, G = gravitational constant and c = speed of light. See also Particle horizon Event horizon of the universe Causality (physics) Hubble volume Large-scale structure of the cosmos Observation Multiverse Open multiverse Omniverse Nine Million Bicycles (a physicist challenges the scientific accuracy of some song lyrics) Universe References External links Cosmology FAQ Hubble, VLT and Spitzer Capture Galaxy Formation in the Early Universe Star Survey reaches 70 sextillion Inflation and the Cosmic Microwave Background, Lineweaver 2003 Animation of the cosmic light horizon Logarithmic Maps of the Universe | Observable_universe |@lemmatized hubble:7 ultra:1 deep:1 field:1 image:4 small:9 region:3 observable:40 universe:94 near:1 constellation:1 fornax:1 light:41 redshifted:1 galaxy:17 originate:2 roughly:4 billion:35 year:30 ago:2 big:8 bang:6 cosmology:6 consists:1 matter:15 principle:3 observe:7 earth:12 present:2 day:1 signal:5 object:7 time:17 reach:4 u:5 since:9 beginning:2 cosmological:8 expansion:7 assume:3 isotropic:1 distance:10 edge:3 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6,983 | Otto_von_Bismarck | Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg, Prince of Bismarck, (1 April 1815 30 July 1898), was a Prussian German statesman and aristocrat of the 19th century. As Minister-President of Prussia from 1862–1890, he oversaw the unification of Germany. In 1867 he became Chancellor of the North German Confederation. When the second German Empire was formed in 1871, he served as its first Chancellor until 1890 and practiced Realpolitik, which gained him the nickname "The Iron Chancellor". As Chancellor, Bismarck held an important role in the German government and greatly influenced German and international politics both during and after his time of service. Early years Bismarck at age eleven. Otto von Bismarck as a young man in 1836 Bismarck was born in Schönhausen, the wealthy family estate situated west of Berlin in the Prussian Province of Saxony. His father, Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck (Schönhausen, 13 November 1771 - 22 November 1845), was a landowner and a former Prussian military officer; his mother, Wilhelmine Luise Mencken (Potsdam, 24 February 1789 - Berlin), the educated daughter of a politician. A.J.P. Taylor later remarked on the importance of this dual heritage: although Bismarck physically resembled his father, and appeared as a Prussian Junker to the outside world - an image which he often encouraged by wearing military uniform, even though he was not a regular officer - he was also more cosmopolitan and highly educated than was normal for men of such background. He spoke and wrote English, Crankshaw, Bismarck, p. 13 French and Russian Taylor, Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman, p. 44 fluently. As a young man he would often quote Shakespeare or Byron in letters to his wife. Bismarck was educated at the Friedrich-Wilhelm and Graues Kloster secondary schools. From 1832-33 he studied law at the University of Göttingen where he was a member of the Corps Hannovera before enrolling at the University of Berlin (1833-35). Whilst at Göttingen, Bismarck had become the lifelong friend of an American student John Lothrop Motley, who described Bismarck as Otto v. Rabenmark in his novel Morton's Hope, or the Memoirs of a Provincial (1839). Motley was later an eminent historian. Although Bismarck hoped to become a diplomat, he started his practical training as a lawyer in Aachen and Potsdam, and soon resigned, having first placed his career in jeopardy by taking unauthorised leave to pursue two English girls, first Laura Russell, niece of the Duke of Cleveland, and then Isabella Loraine-Smith, daughter of a wealthy clergyman. He did not succeed in marrying either. He also served in the army for a year and became an officer in the Landwehr (reserve), before returning to run the family estates at Schönhausen on his mother's death in his mid-twenties. Around the age of thirty Bismarck had an intense friendship with Marie von Thadden, newly-married to a friend of his. Under her influence, he became a Pietist Lutheran, and later recorded that at Marie's deathbed (from typhoid) he prayed for the first time since his childhood. Bismarck married Marie's cousin, the noblewoman Johanna von Puttkamer (Viartlum, 11 April 1824 - Varzin, 27 November 1894) at Alt-Kolziglow on 28 July 1847. Their long and happy marriage produced three children, Herbert (b. 1849), Wilhelm (b. 1852) and Marie (b. 1847). Johanna was a shy, retiring and deeply religious woman - although famed for her sharp tongue in later life - and in his public life Bismarck was sometimes accompanied by his sister Malwine ("Malle") von Arnim. Whilst on holiday alone in Biarritz in the summer of 1862 (prior to becoming Prime Minister of Prussia), Bismarck would later have a romantic liaison with Kathy Orlov, the twenty-two year old wife of a Russian diplomat - it is not known whether or not their relationship was sexual. Bismarck kept his wife informed of his new friendship by letter, and in a subsequent year Kathy broke off plans to meet Bismarck on holiday again on learning that his wife and family would be accompanying him this time. They continued to write to one another until Kathy's premature death in 1874. Early political career In the year of his marriage, 1847, at age 32, Bismarck was chosen as a representative to the newly created Prussian legislature, the Vereinigter Landtag. There, he gained a reputation as a royalist and reactionary politician with a gift for stinging rhetoric; he openly advocated the idea that the monarch had a divine right to rule. His election was arranged by the Gerlach brothers, who were also Pietist Lutherans and whose ultra-conservative faction was known as the "Kreuzzeitung" after their newspaper, which featured an Iron Cross on its cover. In March 1848, Prussia faced a revolution (one of the revolutions of 1848 in various European nations), which completely overwhelmed King Frederick William IV. The monarch, though initially inclined to use armed forces to suppress the rebellion, ultimately declined to leave Berlin for the safety of military headquarters at Potsdam (Bismarck later recorded that there had been a "rattling of sabres in their scabbards" from Prussian officers when they learned that the King would not suppress the revolution by force). He offered numerous concessions to the liberals: he wore the red-yellow-and black revolutionary colors (as seen on the flag of today's democratic Germany), promised to promulgate a constitution, agreed that Prussia and other states should merge into a single nation, and appointed a liberal, Ludolf Cam, as Minister-President. Bismarck had at first tried to rouse the peasants of his estate into an army to march on Berlin in the King's name. He traveled to Berlin in disguise to offer his services, but was instead told to make himself useful by arranging food supplies for the Army from his estates in case they were needed. The King's brother Prince William (the future King and Emperor William I) had fled to England, and Bismarck intrigued with William's wife Augusta to place their teenage son (the future Frederick III) on the Prussian throne in King Frederick William IV's place - Augusta would have none of it, and detested Bismarck thereafter, although Bismarck did later help to restore a working relationship between the King and his brother, who were on poor terms. Bismarck was not a member of the Landtag elected that year. But the liberal victory perished by the end of the year. The movement became weak due to internal fighting, while the conservatives regrouped, formed an inner group of advisers - including the Gerlach brothers - known as the "Camarilla" around the King, and retook control of Berlin. Although a constitution was granted, its provisions fell far short of the demands of the revolutionaries. In 1849, Bismarck was elected to the Landtag, the lower house of the new Prussian legislature. At this stage in his career, he opposed the unification of Germany, arguing that Prussia would lose its independence in the process. He accepted his appointment as one of Prussia's representatives at the Erfurt Parliament, an assembly of German states that met to discuss plans for union, but only in order to oppose that body's proposals more effectively. The Parliament failed to bring about unification, for it lacked the support of the two most important German states, Prussia and Austria. In 1850, after a dispute over Hesse, Prussia was humiliated and forced to back down by Austria (supported by Russia) in the so-called Punctation of Olmutz; a plan for the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership, proposed by Prussia's Prime Ministers Radowitz, was also abandoned. In 1851, Frederick William appointed Bismarck as Prussia's envoy to the Diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt. Bismarck gave up his elected seat in the Landtag, but was appointed to the Prussian House of Lords a few years later. In Frankfurt he engaged in a battle of wills with the Austrian representative Count Thun, insisting on being treated as an equal by petty tactics such as insisting on doing the same when Thun claimed the privileges of smoking and removing his jacket in meetings. Bismarck's eight years in Frankfurt were marked by changes in his political opinions, detailed in the numerous lengthy memoranda which he sent to his ministerial superiors in Berlin. No longer under the influence of his ultraconservative Prussian friends, Bismarck became less reactionary and more pragmatic. He became convinced that in order to countervail Austria's newly-restored influence, Prussia would not only have to ally herself with other German states - thus, he grew more accepting of the notion of a united German nation - but also maintain the friendship of Russia and a working relationship with Napoleon III's France - the latter being anathema to his conservative friends the Gerlachs, but necessary both to threaten Austria and to prevent France allying herself to Russia. In a famous letter to Leopold von Gerlach, Bismarck wrote that it was foolish to play chess having first put 16 of the 64 squares out-of-bounds, an ironic observation as after 1871 France would indeed become Germany's permanent enemy and would indeed eventually ally with Russia against Germany in the 1890s. Bismarck was also horrified by Prussia's isolation during the Crimean War of the mid-1850s (in which Austria sided with Britain and France against Russia - Prussia was almost not invited to the peace talks in Paris). In the Eastern crisis of the 1870s, fear of a repetition of this turn of events would later be a factor in Bismarck's signing the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. However, in the 1850s Bismarck correctly foresaw that by failing to support Russia (after Russian help in crushing the Hungarian Revolt in 1849, and at Olmutz in 1850, the Austrian leader Schwarzenberg had said that "Austria would astonish the world by the depth of her ingratitude") Austria could no longer count on Russian support in Italy and Germany, and had thus exposed herself to attack by France and Prussia. In 1858, Frederick William IV suffered a stroke that paralyzed and mentally disabled him. His brother, William, took over the government of Prussia as regent. At first William was seen as a moderate ruler, whose friendship with liberal Britain was symbolised by the recent marriage of his son (the future Frederick III) to Queen Victoria's eldest daughter Vicky; their son (the future Wilhelm II) was born in 1859. As part of William's "New Course" he brought in new ministers, moderate conservatives known as the "Wochenblatt" party after their newspaper. Soon the Regent replaced Bismarck as envoy in Frankfurt and made him Prussia's ambassador to the Russian Empire. In theory this was a promotion as Russia was one of the two most powerful neighbors of Prussia (the other was Austria). In reality Bismarck was sidelined ("on ice") from events in Germany, watching impotently as France drove Austria out of Lombardy during the Italian War of 1859. Bismarck proposed that Prussia should exploit Austria's weakness to move her frontiers "as far south as Lake Constance" on the Swiss border; instead Prussia mobilised troops in the Rhineland to deter further French advances into Venetia. As a further snub, the Regent, who scorned Bismarck as a "Landwehrleutnant" (reserve lieutenant), had declined to promote him to the rank of major-general, normal for the ambassador to St Petersburg (and important as Prussia and Russia were close military allies, whose heads of state often communicated through military contacts rather than diplomatic channels). Bismarck stayed in Saint Petersburg for four years, during which he almost lost his leg to botched medical treatment and once again met his future adversary, the Russian Prince Gorchakov, who had been Russian representative in Frankfurt in the early 1850s. The Regent also appointed Helmuth von Moltke as the new Chief of Staff for the Prussian Army, and Albrecht von Roon as Prussian Minister of War and to the job of reorganizing the army. These three people over the next twelve years transformed Prussia. Despite his lengthy stay abroad, Bismarck was not entirely detached from German domestic affairs; he remained well-informed due to his friendship with Roon, and they formed a lasting political alliance. Interestingly, in 1862 Bismark was offered a place in the Russian diplomatic service after the Czar misunderstood a comment about his likelihood to miss St. Petersburg. Bismark courteously declined the offer. Morgenthau, Hans J. (1949) Politics Among Nations, p 186 In June 1862, he was sent to Paris, so that he could serve as ambassador to France. He also visited England that summer. These visits enabled him to meet and get the measure of his adversaries Napoleon III, and the British Prime Minister Palmerston and Foreign Secretary Earl Russell, and also of the British Conservative politician Disraeli, later to be Prime Minister in the 1870s - who later claimed to have said of Bismarck's visit "be careful of that man - he means what he says". Ministerpräsident (Prime Minister) of Prussia Otto von Bismarck as Minister-President of Prussia The regent became King William I upon his brother's death in 1861. The new monarch was often in conflict with the increasingly liberal Prussian Diet. A crisis arose in 1862, when the Diet refused to authorise funding for a proposed re-organization of the army. The King's ministers could not convince legislators to pass the budget, and the King was unwilling to make concessions. Wilhelm threatened to abdicate (his son would not hear of it) and believed that Bismarck was the only politician capable of handling the crisis, but was ambivalent about appointing a person who demanded unfettered control over foreign affairs. When, in September 1862, the Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) overwhelmingly rejected the proposed budget, Wilhelm was persuaded to recall Bismarck to Prussia on the advice of Roon. On 23 September 1862, Wilhelm appointed Bismarck Minister-President and Foreign Minister. The convergence of Bismarck, Roon and Moltke occurred at a time when relations among the Great Powers--Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia--had been shattered by the Crimean War of 1854-55 and the Italian War of 1859. In the midst of this disarray, the European balance of power was restructured with the creation of the German Empire as the dominant power in Europe. This was achieved by Bismarck's diplomacy, by Roon's reorganization of the army, and by Moltke's military strategy. Despite the initial distrust of the King and Crown Prince, and the loathing of Queen Augusta, Bismarck soon acquired a powerful hold over the King by force of personality and powers of persuasion. Bismarck was intent on maintaining royal supremacy by ending the budget deadlock in the King's favour, even if he had to use extralegal means to do so. He contended that, since the Constitution did not provide for cases in which legislators failed to approve a budget, he could merely apply the previous year's budget. Thus, on the basis of the budget of 1861, tax collection continued for four years. Bismarck's conflict with the legislators grew more heated during the following years. In 1863, the House of Deputies passed a resolution declaring that it could no longer come to terms with Bismarck; in response, the King dissolved the Diet, accusing it of trying to obtain unconstitutional control over the ministry. Bismarck then issued an edict restricting the freedom of the press; this policy even gained the public opposition of the Crown Prince, Friedrich Wilhelm (the future King Friedrich III). Despite attempts to silence critics, Bismarck remained a largely unpopular politician. His supporters fared poorly in the elections of October 1863, in which a liberal coalition (whose primary member was the Progress Party) won over two-thirds of the seats in the House. The House made repeated calls to the King to dismiss Bismarck, but the King supported him as he feared that if he dismissed him, a liberal ministry would follow. German unification Iron and Blood Speech German unification had been one of the major objectives during the widespread revolutions of 1848-49, when representatives of the German states met in Frankfurt and drafted a constitution creating a federal union with a national parliament to be elected by universal male suffrage. In April 1849, the Frankfurt Parliament offered the title of Emperor to the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The Prussian king, fearing the opposition of the other German princes and the military intervention of Austria and Russia, lacked the resolve to accept this popular mandate. Thus, the Frankfurt Parliament ended in failure for the German liberals. On September 30, 1862, Bismarck made a speech to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies, at the end of which occurred "[o]ne of Bismarck's most famous utterances [...] also one of the most imperfectly recorded". Hollyday, 1970, p. 16 Defeat of Denmark and Austria-Hungary Germany consisted of a multitude of principalities loosely bound together as members of the German Confederation. Bismarck used both diplomacy and the Prussian military to achieve unification, excluding Austria from unified Germany. Not only did he make Prussia the most powerful and dominant component of the new Germany, but he also ensured that Prussia would remain an authoritarian state, rather than a liberal parliamentary regime. Bismarck, left, with Roon (center) and Moltke (right). The three leaders of Prussia in the 1860s. Bismarck faced a diplomatic crisis when Frederick VII of Denmark died in November 1863. Succession to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was disputed; they were claimed by Christian IX (Frederick VII's heir as King) and by Frederick von Augustenburg (a German duke). Prussian public opinion strongly favoured Augustenburg's claim, as Holstein and southern Schleswig were (and are) German-speaking. Bismarck took an unpopular step by insisting that the territories legally belonged to the Danish monarch under the London Protocol signed a decade earlier. Nonetheless, Bismarck did denounce Christian's decision to completely annex Schleswig to Denmark. With support from Austria, he issued an ultimatum for Christian IX to return Schleswig to its former status; when Denmark refused, Austria and Prussia invaded, commencing the Second war of Schleswig and Denmark was forced to cede both duchies. Britain under Prime Minister Palmerston and Foreign Secretary Earl Russell was humiliated and left impotent, as she was unwilling to commit ground troops to Denmark. At first this seemed like a victory for Augustenberg, but Bismarck soon bullied him out of the picture by making impossible demands, namely that Prussia should have control over the army and navy of the Duchies. Originally, it was proposed that the Diet of the German Confederation (in which all the states of Germany were represented) should determine the fate of the duchies; but before this scheme could be effected, Bismarck induced Austria to agree to the Gastein Convention. Under this agreement signed 20 August 1865, Prussia received Schleswig, while Austria received Holstein. In that year he was made Graf (Count) von Bismarck-Schönhausen. But in 1866, Austria reneged on the prior agreement by demanding that the Diet determine the Schleswig-Holstein issue. Bismarck used this as an excuse to start a war with Austria by charging that the Austrians had violated the Convention of Gastein. Bismarck sent Prussian troops to occupy Holstein. Provoked, Austria called for the aid of other German states, who quickly became involved in the Austro-Prussian War. With the aid of Albrecht von Roon's army reorganization, the Prussian army was nearly equal in numbers to the Austrian army. With the organizational genius of Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, the Prussian army fought battles it was able to win. Bismarck had also made a secret alliance with Italy, who desired Austrian-controlled Venetia. Italy's entry into the war forced the Austrians to divide their forces. To the surprise of the rest of Europe, Prussia quickly defeated Austria and its allies, at the Battle of Königgrätz (aka "Battle of Sadowa"), the largest battle fought in Europe up until that time (involving 427,000 combatants). The King and his generals wanted to push on, conquer Bohemia and march to Vienna, but Bismarck, worried that Prussian military luck might change or that France might intervene on Austria's side, enlisted the help of the Crown Prince (who had opposed the war but had commanded one of the Prussian armies at Sadowa) to change his father's mind after stormy meetings. As a result of the Peace of Prague (1866), the German Confederation was dissolved; Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), and Nassau; and Austria promised not to intervene in German affairs. To solidify Prussian hegemony, Prussia and several other North German states joined the North German Confederation in 1867; King Wilhelm I served as its President, and Bismarck as its Chancellor. From this point on begins what historians refer to as "The Misery of Austria", in which Austria served as a mere vassal to the superior Germany, a relationship that was to shape history up to the two World Wars. Bismarck, who by now held the rank of major in the Landwehr, wore this uniform during the campaign, and was at last promoted to the rank of major-general in the Landwehr cavalry after the war. Although he never personally commanded troops in the field, he usually wore a general's uniform in public for the rest of his life, as seen in numerous paintings and photographs. He was also given a cash grant by the Prussian Landtag, which he used to buy a new country estate, Varzin, larger than his existing estates combined. Military success brought Bismarck tremendous political support in Prussia. In the elections to the House of Deputies in 1866, liberals suffered a major defeat, losing their large majority. The new, largely conservative House was on much better terms with Bismarck than previous bodies; at the Minister-President's request, it retroactively approved the budgets of the past four years, which had been implemented without parliamentary consent. Hence, Bismarck is considered one of the most talented statesmen in history. The Reptiles Slush Fund Following the 1866 war, Prussia annexed the Kingdom of Hanover, which had been allied with Austria against Prussia. An agreement was reached whereby the deposed King George V of Hanover was allowed to keep about 50% of the crown assets. The rest were deemed to be state assets and were transferred to the national treasury. Subsequently Bismarck accused George of organizing a plot against the state and sequestered his share (16 million thalers) in early 1868. Bismarck used this money to set up a secret slush fund (the "Reptilienfonds" or Reptiles Fund), which he used to bribe journalists and to discredit his political enemies. In 1870 he used some of these funds to win the support of King Ludwig II of Bavaria for making William I German Emperor. Bismarck also used these funds to place informers in the household of Crown Prince Frederick and his wife Vicky. Some of the bogus stories that Bismarck planted in newspapers accused the royal couple of acting as British agents by revealing state secrets to the British government. Frederick and Victoria were great admirers of her father Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. They planned to rule as consorts, like Albert and Queen Victoria. Frederick "described the Imperial Constitution as ingeniously contrived chaos." Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and his Times, Houghton Mifflin (1964) p. 69 The office of Chancellor responsible to the Kaiser would be replaced with a British-style cabinet, with ministers responsible to the Reichstag. Government policy would be based on the consensus of the cabinet. "The Crown Prince and Princess shared the outlook of the Progressive Party, and Bismarck was haunted by the fear that should the old Emperor die--and he was now in his seventies--they would call on one of the Progressive leaders to become Chancellor. He sought to guard against such a turn by keeping the Crown Prince from a position of any influence and by using foul means as well as fair to make him unpopular." Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and his Times, Houghton Mifflin (1964) p. 70 In order to undermine the royal couple, when the future Kaiser William II was still a teenager, Bismarck would separate him from his parents and would place him under his tutelage. Bismarck planned to use William as a weapon against his parents in order to retain his own power. Bismarck would drill William on his prerogatives and would teach him to be insubordinate to his parents. Consequently, William II developed a dysfunctional relationship with his father and especially with his English mother. In 1892, after Bismarck's dismissal, Kaiser William II stopped the abuse of the fund by releasing the interest payments into the official budget. Brockhaus-Enzyklopädie, (17th edition, 1966-74) Establishment of the German Empire Anton von Werner's depiction of William's proclamation as Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles; Wilhelm's son Friedrich (top step, with hand raised) leads the cheering. Bismarck can be seen in the centre-right wearing white. Prussia's victory over Austria increased tensions with France. The French Emperor, Napoleon III, feared that a powerful Germany would change the balance of power in Europe (the French opposition politician Adolphe Thiers had correctly observed that it had really been France who had been defeated at Sadowa). Bismarck, at the same time, did not avoid war with France. He believed that if the German states perceived France as the aggressor, they would unite behind the King of Prussia, and kept Napoleon III involved in various intrigues whereby France might gain territory from Luxembourg or Belgium - France never achieved any such gain, but was made to look greedy and untrustworthy. A suitable premise for war arose in 1870, when the German Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Spanish throne, which had been vacant since a revolution in 1868. France blocked the candidacy and demanded assurances that no member of the House of Hohenzollern become King of Spain. To provoke France into declaring war with Prussia, Bismarck published the Ems Dispatch, a carefully edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and the French ambassador to Prussia, Count Benedetti. France mobilized and declared war on 19 July, five days after the dispatch was published in Paris. It was seen as the aggressor and German states, swept up by nationalism and patriotic zeal, rallied to Prussia's side and provided troops. Russia remained aloof and used the opportunity to remilitarise the Black Sea, demilitarised after the Crimean War of the 1850s. Both of Bismarck's sons served as officers in the Prussian cavalry. The Franco-Prussian War (1870) was a great success for Prussia. The German army, under nominal command of the King but controlled by Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, won victory after victory. The major battles were all fought in one month (7 August till 1 September), and both the two French armies were captured at Sedan (Napoleon III was taken prisoner along with the former and kept in Germany for a while in case Bismarck had need of him to head a puppet regime; he later died in England in 1873) and Metz, the latter after a siege of some weeks. The remainder of the war featured a siege of Paris, the city was ”ineffectually bombarded”; Taylor, Bismarck, p. 126 the new French republican regime then tried, without success, to relieve Paris with various hastily assembled armies and increasingly bitter partisan warfare. Bismarck acted immediately to secure the unification of Germany. He negotiated with representatives of the southern German states, offering special concessions if they agreed to unification. The negotiations succeeded; while the war was in its final phase King Wilhelm of Prussia was proclaimed 'German Emperor' on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Château de Versailles. Crankshaw, Bismarck, p. 294-296 The new German Empire was a federation: each of its 25 constituent states (kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, and free cities) retained some autonomy. The King of Prussia, as German Emperor, was not sovereign over the entirety of Germany; he was only primus inter pares, or first among equals. But he held the presidency of the Bundesrat, which met to discuss policy presented from the Chancellor (whom the president appointed). At the end, France had to surrender Alsace and part of Lorraine, because Moltke and his generals insisted that it was needed as a defensive barrier. Tuchman, Barbara. The Guns of August. New York: Ballantine Books, 1962, p. 35 Bismarck opposed the annexation because he did not wish to make a permanent enemy of France. Massie, Robert K. Dreadnaught. New York: Ballantine Books, 1992, p. 62 France was also required to pay an indemnity. Taylor, p. 133; the indemnity figure was calculated, on the basis of population, as the precise equivalent of the indemnity which Napoleon I imposed on Prussia in 1807 Chancellor of the German Empire Otto von Bismarck in 1873. In 1871, Otto von Bismarck was raised to the rank of Fürst (Prince) von Bismarck. He was also appointed Imperial Chancellor of the German Empire, but retained his Prussian offices (including those of Minister-President and Foreign Minister). He was also promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general, and given another country estate, Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg, which was larger than Varzin, making him a very wealthy landowner. Because of both the imperial and the Prussian offices that he held, Bismarck had near complete control over domestic and foreign policy. The office of Minister-President (M-P) of Prussia was temporarily separated from that of Chancellor in 1873, when Albrecht von Roon was appointed to the former office. But by the end of the year, Roon resigned due to ill health, and Bismarck again became M-P. In the following years, one of Bismarck's primary political objectives was to reduce the influence of the Catholic church in Germany. This may have been due to the anti-liberal message of Pope Pius IX in the Syllabus of Errors of 1864, and especially to the dogma of Papal infallibility (1870). Bismarck feared that Pope Pius IX and future popes would use the definition of the doctrine of their infallibility as a political weapon for creating instability by driving a wedge between Catholics and Protestants. To prevent this, Bismarck attempted, without success, to reach an understanding with other European governments, whereby future papal elections would be manipulated. The European governments would agree on unsuitable papal candidates, and then instruct their national cardinals to vote in the appropriate manner. "Bismarck's confidential diplomatic circular to German representatives abroad, Berlin, 14 May 1872." In: Hollyday, (1970) pp 42-44 Prussia (except the Rhineland) and most other northern German states were predominantly Protestant, but many Catholics lived in the southern German states (especially Bavaria). In total, approximately one third of the population was Catholic. Bismarck believed that the Roman Catholic Church held too much political power; he was further concerned about the emergence of the Catholic Centre Party (organised in 1870). Accordingly, he began an anti-Catholic campaign known as the Kulturkampf. In 1871, the Catholic Department of the Prussian Ministry of Culture was abolished. In 1872, the Jesuits were expelled from Germany. More severe anti-Roman Catholic laws of 1873 allowed the government to supervise the education of the Roman Catholic clergy, and curtailed the disciplinary powers of the Church. In 1875, civil ceremonies were required for weddings, which could hitherto be performed in churches. However, these efforts only ended up strengthening the Catholic Centre Party, and Bismarck abandoned the Kulturkampf in 1878 to preserve what political capital he had left. Pius died that same year, replaced by a more pragmatic Pope Leo XIII who would eventually establish a better relationship with Bismarck. Otto Fürst von Bismarck became Chancellor of Germany in 1871. The Kulturkampf had won Bismarck a new supporter in the secular National Liberal Party, which had become Bismarck's chief ally in the Reichstag. But in 1873, Germany and much of Europe had entered the Long Depression beginning with the crash of the Vienna Stock Exchange in 1873, the Gründerkrise. A downturn hit the German economy for the first time since vast industrial development in the 1850s after the 1848–49 revolutions. To aid faltering industries, the Chancellor abandoned free trade and established protectionist tariffs, which alienated the National Liberals who supported free trade. The Kulturkampf and its effects also stirred up public opinion against the party that supported it, and Bismarck used this opportunity to distance himself from the National Liberals. This marked a rapid decline in the support of the National Liberals, and by 1879 their close ties with Bismarck had all but ended. Bismarck instead returned to conservative factions — including the Centre Party — for support. He helped foster support from the conservatives by enacting several tariffs protecting German agriculture and industry from foreign competitors in 1879. Hunt, Lynn, Thomas Martin, Barbara Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, Bonnie Smith "Power Politics in Central and Eastern Europe",page 755. The Making of the West:Peoples and Cultures, 2009. To prevent the Austro-Hungarian problems of different nationalities within one state, the government tried to Germanize the state's national minorities, situated mainly in the borders of the empire, such as the Danes in the North of Germany, the French of Alsace-Lorraine and the Poles in the East of Germany. His policies concerning the Poles of Prussia were generally unfavourable to them, and anti-Polish, BISMARCK, DHM. furthering enmity between the German and Polish peoples. The policies were usually motivated by Bismarck's view that Polish existence was a threat to German state; Bismarck, who himself spoke Polish, Crankshaw, p. 150 wrote about Poles: "One shoots the wolves if one can." von BISMARCK, Otto, Deutsche und Polen. He also said: "Beat Poles until they lose faith in sense of living. Personally, I pity the siutuation they're in. However, if we want to survive -we've got only one option - to exterminate them. Christian Graf von Krockow,Bismarck. Eine Biographie, Stuttgart 1997 Bismarck worried about the growth of the socialist movement — in particular, that of the Social Democratic Party. In 1878, he instituted the Anti-Socialist Laws. Socialist organizations and meetings were forbidden, as was the circulation of socialist literature. Socialist leaders were arrested and tried by police courts. But despite these efforts, the movement steadily gained supporters and seats in the Reichstag. Socialists won seats in the Reichstag by running as independent candidates, unaffiliated with any party, which was allowed by the German Constitution. Then the Chancellor tried to reduce the appeal of socialism to the public by trying to appease the working classes. He enacted a variety of liberal social programs. Bismarck’s social insurance legislations were the first in the world and became the model for other countries. Taylor, p. 203 The Health Insurance Act of 1883 entitled workers to health insurance. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, old age pensions and disability insurance in 1889, he even thought of insurance for unemployment. Taylor, p. 204 Other laws restricted the employment of women and children. Irrespective of these progressive programs, the working classes largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government. Foreign policies A main objective of Bismarck's was to prevent other major powers allying with France. Bismarck ca. 1875 Bismarck had unified his nation and now he devoted himself to promoting peace in Europe with his skills in statesmanship. He was forced to contend with French revanchism — the desire to avenge the loss in the Franco-Prussian War — therefore engaging in a policy of diplomatically isolating France while maintaining cordial relations with other nations in Europe. He had no interest in naval or colonial entanglements and thus avoided discord with the United Kingdom. In 1872, he offered friendship to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia, whose rulers joined Wilhelm I in the League of the Three Emperors, also known as the Dreikaiserbund. Also in 1872, a protracted quarrel began to fester between Bismarck and Count Harry von Arnim, a career diplomat and the imperial ambassador to France. Arnim was a member of a prominent Pomeranian family, related to Bismarck by marriage, and someone who saw himself as a rival and competitor for the chancellorship. The ambassador unwisely tangled with Bismarck over policy vis-à-vis France. In a compromise penalty for this indiscretion, Bismarck intended to remove Arnim from Paris and reassign him as ambassador to the Ottoman Empire at Constantinople, a clear demotion. Arnim balked and continued his belligerent insubordination, even removed sensitive records from embassy files at Paris to back up his attacks on Bismarck. The controversy dragged on for two years with Arnim being ‘protected’ by powerful friends; then he was formally accused of misappropriating official documents, was indicted, tried and convicted. While his sentence was under appeal, he slipped away to Switzerland and died in exile. After this episode, no-one again openly challenged Bismarck in foreign policy matters. Crankshaw, p. 322 By 1875 France had recovered from defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and a new government began to militarily expand and reassert itself again as a player in European politics. The German general staff under Moltke was alarmed and managed to have Bismarck ban a French procurement of ten thousand cavalry horses from Germany. Then followed much loose talk of preventive war. By encouraging a friendly newspaper to print "Is War in Sight?", a crisis developed that was not to Bismarck’s advantage. The British government dispatched a polite warning to Berlin. Russia’s Tsar Alexander II and his chancellor Prince Gorchakov, at the time on a state visit to Germany, seized the opportunity to inject themselves as European peace makers, thereby initiating a lasting estrangement between Bismarck and Gorchakov over the latter’s ‘interference’ in a Franco-German spat. Taylor, p. 154 Bismarck maintained good relations with Italy, although he had a personal dislike for Italians and their country. Taylor, p. 212 He can be seen as marginal contributor to Italian Unification. Politics surrounding the 1866 war against Austria allowed Italy to annex Lombardy-Venetia, which had been a kingdom of the Austrian Empire since the 1815 Congress of Vienna; and, French mobilization for the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 made it necessary for Napoleon III to withdraw his troops from Rome and The Papal States. Without these two events, Italian unification would have been a more prolonged process. After Russia's victory over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), Bismarck helped negotiate a settlement at the Congress of Berlin. The Treaty of Berlin, 1878, revised the earlier Treaty of San Stefano, reducing the size of newly-independent Bulgaria (a pro-Russian state at that time). Bismarck and other European leaders opposed the growth of Russian influence and tried to protect the potency of the Ottoman Empire (see Eastern Question). As a result, Russo-German relations further suffered; the Russian chancellor Gorchakov denounced Bismarck for compromising his nation's victory. The relationship was additionally strained due to Germany's protectionist trade policies. The League of the Three Emperors having fallen apart, Bismarck negotiated the Dual Alliance (1879) with Austria-Hungary, in which each guaranteed the other against Russian attack. This became the Triple Alliance in 1882 with the addition of Italy, while Italy and Austria-Hungary soon reached the "Mediterranean Agreement" with Britain. Attempts to reconcile Germany and Russia did not have lasting effect: the Three Emperors' League was re-established in 1881, but quickly fell apart (the end of the Russian-Austrian-Prussian solidarity which had existed in various forms since 1813), and the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 (in which both powers promised to remain neutral towards one another unless Russia attacked Austria-Hungary) was allowed to expire in 1890 after Bismarck’s departure. Bismarck all along opposed colonial acquisitions, arguing that the burden of obtaining, maintaining and defending such possessions would outweigh any potential benefit. But during the late 1870s and early 1880s public opinion shifted to favor colonies, and Bismarck converted to the colonial idea. "The pretext was economic." Crankshaw, p. 395 Bismarck was influenced by Hamburg merchants and traders, his neighbors at Friedrichsruh, "and the creation of Germany’s colonial empire proceeded with the minimum of friction." Crankshaw, p. 397 Other European nations, with Britain and France in the lead, had earlier and rapidly acquired colonies (see New Imperialism). During the 1880s, Germany joined the European powers in the Scramble for Africa. Among Germany's colonies were Togoland (now part of Ghana and Togo), Cameroon, German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania), and German South-West Africa (now Namibia). The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) established regulations for the acquisition of African colonies; in particular, it protected free trade in certain parts of the Congo basin. Germany later also acquired colonies in the Pacific. In February 1888, during a Bulgarian crisis, Bismarck addressed the Reichstag on the dangers of a European war. Bismarck also repeated his emphatic warning against any German military involvement in Balkan disputes. Bismarck had first made this famous comment to the Reichstag in December 1876, when the Balkan revolts against the Ottoman Empire threatened to extend to a war between Austria and Russia. According to Taylor, "The more familiar grenadier took the musketeer's place in a speech of 1888." Taylor, 1969 p. 167 Last years A painting of Bismarck, late in his career. Bismarck on his 80th birthday (1 April 1895) In 1888, the German Emperor, Wilhelm I, died leaving the throne to his son, Friedrich III. But the new monarch was already suffering from an incurable throat cancer and died after reigning for only three months. He was replaced by his son, Wilhelm II. The new Emperor opposed Bismarck's careful foreign policy, preferring vigorous and rapid expansion to protect Germany's "place in the sun." Conflicts between Wilhelm II and his chancellor soon poisoned their relationship. Bismarck believed that he could dominate Wilhelm, and showed little respect for his policies in the late 1880s. Their final split occurred after Bismarck tried to implement far-reaching anti-Socialist laws in early 1890. Kartell majority in the Reichstag, of the amalgamated Conservative Party and the National Liberal Party, was willing to make most of the laws permanent. But it was split about the law allowing the police the power to expel socialist agitators from their homes, a power used excessively at times against political opponents. The National Liberals refused to make this law permanent, while the Conservatives supported only the entirety of the bill and threatened to and eventually vetoed the entire bill in session because Bismarck wouldn't agree to a modified bill. As the debate continued, Wilhelm became increasingly interested in social problems, especially the treatment of mine workers who went on strike in 1889, and keeping with his active policy in government, routinely interrupted Bismarck in Council to make clear his social policy. Bismarck sharply disagreed with Wilhelm's policy and worked to circumvent it. Even though Wilhelm supported the altered anti-socialist bill, Bismarck pushed for his support to veto the bill in its entirety. But when his arguments couldn't convince Wilhelm, Bismarck became excited and agitated until uncharacteristically blurting out his motive to see the bill fail: to have the socialists agitate until a violent clash occurred that could be used as a pretext to crush them. Wilhelm replied that he was not willing to open his reign with a bloody campaign against his own subjects. The next day, after realizing his blunder, Bismarck attempted to reach a compromise with Wilhelm by agreeing to his social policy towards industrial workers, and even suggested a European council to discuss working conditions, presided by the German Emperor. Despite this, a turn of events eventually led to his distancing from Wilhelm. Bismarck, feeling pressured and unappreciated by the Emperor and undermined by ambitious advisers, refused to sign a proclamation regarding the protection of workers along with Wilhelm, as was required by the German Constitution, to protest Wilhelm's ever increasing interference to Bismarck's previously unquestioned authority. Bismarck also worked behind the scenes to break the Continental labour council on which Wilhelm had set his heart. The final break came as Bismarck searched for a new parliamentary majority, with his Kartell voted from power due to the anti-socialist bill fiasco. The remaining forces in the Reichstag were the Catholic Centre Party and the Conservative Party. Bismarck wished to form a new block with the Centre Party, and invited Ludwig Windthorst, the parliamentary leader to discuss an alliance. This would be Bismarck's last political manoeuvre. Wilhelm was furious to hear about Windthorst's visit. In a parliamentary state, the head of government depends on the confidence of the parliamentary majority, and certainly has the right to form coalitions to ensure his policies a majority. However, in Germany, the Chancellor depended on the confidence of the Emperor alone, and Wilhelm believed that the Emperor had the right to be informed before his minister's meeting. After a heated argument in Bismarck's office Wilhelm, whom Bismarck had allowed to see a letter from Tsar Alexander III describing him as a "badly brought-up boy", stormed out, after first ordering the rescinding of the Cabinet Order of 1851, which had forbidden Prussian Cabinet Ministers to report directly to the King of Prussia, requiring them instead to report via the Prime Minister. Bismarck, forced for the first time into a situation he could not use to his advantage, wrote a blistering letter of resignation, decrying Wilhelm's interference in foreign and domestic policy, which was only published after Bismarck's death. As it turned out, Bismarck became the first victim of his own creation, and when he realized that his dismissal was imminent: All Bismarck’s resources were deployed; he even asked Empress Frederick to use her influence with her son on his behalf. But the wizard had lost his magic; his spells were powerless because they were exerted on people who did not respect them, and he who had so signally disregarded Kant’s command to use people as ends in themselves had too small a stock of loyalty to draw on. As Lord Salisbury told Queen Victoria: 'The very qualities which Bismarck fostered in the Emperor in order to strengthen himself when the Emperor Frederick should come to the throne have been the qualities by which he has been overthrown.' The Empress, with what must have been a mixture of pity and triumph, told him that her influence with her son could not save him for he himself had destroyed it. Michael Balfour, "The Kaiser and his Times," Houghton Mifflin (1964) p. 132 "Dropping the Pilot" Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II's insistence in 1890, at age 75, to be succeeded as Chancellor of Germany and Minister-President of Prussia by Leo von Caprivi. Bismarck was discarded ("dropping the pilot" in the words of the famous Punch cartoon), promoted to the rank of "Colonel-General with the Dignity of Field Marshal" (so-called because the German Army did not appoint full Field Marshals in peacetime) and given a new title, Duke of Lauenburg, which he joked would be useful when travelling incognito. He was soon elected as a National Liberal to the Reichstag for Bennigsen's old and supposedly safe Hamburg seat, but was embarrassed by being forced to a second ballot by a Social Democrat rival, and never actually took up his seat. He entered into restless, resentful retirement to his estates at Varzin (in today's Poland). Within one month after his wife died on 27 November 1894, he moved to Friedrichsruh near Hamburg, waiting in vain to be petitioned for advice and counsel. As soon as he had to leave his office, citizens started to praise him, collecting money to build monuments like the Bismarck Memorial or towers dedicated to him. Much honour was given to him in Germany, many buildings have his name, books about him were best-sellers, and he was often painted, e.g., by Franz von Lenbach and C.W. Allers. Bismarck spent his final years gathering his memoirs (Gedanken und Erinnerungen, or Thoughts and Memories), which criticized and discredited the Emperor. He died in 1898 (at the age of 83) at Friedrichsruh, where he is entombed in the Bismarck-Mausoleum. He was succeeded as Fürst von Bismarck-Schönhausen by Herbert. On his gravestone it is written "Loyal German Servant of Kaiser William I". Last warning and prediction Bismarck-Monument, Hamburg Memorial statue in Bielefeld In December 1897, Wilhelm II visited Bismarck for the last time. Bismarck again warned the Kaiser about the dangers of improvising government policy based on the intrigues of courtiers and militarists. Bismarck’s last warning was: Subsequently, Bismarck made these accurate predictions: Bismarck's social legislation The 1880s were a period when Germany started on its long road towards the welfare state it is today. The Social Democratic, National Liberal and Center parties were all involved in the beginnings of social legislation, but it was Bismarck who established the first practical aspects of this program. The program of the Social Democrats included all of the programs that Bismarck eventually implemented, but also included programs designed to preempt the programs championed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Bismarck’s idea was to implement the minimum aspects of these programs that were acceptable to the German government without any of the overtly Socialistic aspects. Bismarck opened debate on the subject on 17 November 1881 in the Imperial Message to the Reichstag, using the term practical Christianity Moritz Busch, Bismarck: Some secret pages from his history, Macmillan, New York (1898) Vol. II, p. 282 to describe his program. In 1881 Bismarck had also referred to this program as Staatssozialismus, when he made the following accurate prediction to a colleague: "It is possible that all our politics will come to nothing when I am dead but state socialism will drub[force] itself in. (Der Staatssozialismus paukt sich durch.)" Werner Richter, Bismarck, G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York (1965) p. 275 Bismarck’s program centered squarely on insurance programs designed to increase productivity, and focus the political attentions of German workers on supporting the Junker's government. The program included Health Insurance; Accident Insurance (Workman’s Compensation); Disability Insurance; and an Old-age Retirement Pension, none of which were then currently in existence to any great degree. Based on Bismarck’s message, The Reichstag filed three bills designed to deal with the concept of Accident insurance, and one for Health Insurance. The subjects of Retirement pensions and Disability Insurance were placed on the back burner for the time being. Holborn, Hajo: A History of Modern Germany — 1840–1945: Princeton University Press; 1969; pp. 291–93. Health Insurance Bill of 1883 The first bill that had success was the Health Insurance bill, which was passed in 1883. The program was considered the least important from Bismarck’s point of view, and the least politically troublesome. The program was established to provide health care for the largest segment of the German workers. The health service was established on a local basis, with the cost divided between employers and the employed. The employers contributed 1/3rd, while the workers contributed 2/3rds . The minimum payments for medical treatment and Sick Pay for up to 13 weeks were legally fixed. The individual local health bureaus were administered by a committee elected by the members of each bureau, and this move had the unintended effect of establishing a majority representation for the workers on account of their large financial contribution. This worked to the advantage of the Social Democrats who – through heavy Worker membership – achieved their first small foothold in public administration. Accident Insurance Bill of 1884 Bismarck’s government had to submit three draft bills before they could get one passed by the Reichstag in 1884. Bismarck had originally proposed that the Federal Government pay a portion of the Accident Insurance contribution. Bismarck’s motive was a demonstration of the willingness of the German government to lessen the hardship experienced by the German workers as a means of weaning them away from the various left-wing parties, most importantly the Social Democrats. The National Liberals took this program to be an expression of State Socialism, which they were dead set against. The Center party was afraid of the expansion of Federal Power at the expense of States Rights. As a result, the only way the program could be passed at all was for the entire expense to be underwritten by the Employers. To facilitate this, Bismarck arranged for the administration of this program to be placed in the hands of “Der Arbeitgeberverband in den beruflichen Korporationen”, which translates as “The organization of employers in occupational corporations”. This organization established central and bureaucratic insurance offices on the Federal, and in some cases the State level to perform the actual administration. The program kicked in to replace the health insurance program as of the 14th week. It paid for medical treatment and a Pension of up to 2/3rds of earned wages if the worker was fully disabled. This program was expanded in 1886 to include Agricultural workers. Old Age and Disability Insurance Bill of 1889 The Old Age Pension program, financed by a tax on workers, was designed to provide a pension annuity for workers who reached the age of 70 years. At the time, the life expectancy for the average Prussian was 45 years. Unlike the Accident Insurance and Health Insurance programs, this program covered Industrial, Agrarian, Artisans and Servants from the start. Also, unlike the other two programs, the principle that the Federal Government should contribute a portion of the underwriting cost, with the other two portions prorated accordingly, was accepted without question. The Disability Insurance program was intended to be used by those permanently disabled. This time, the State or Province supervised the programs directly. Legacy Memorial to Otto von Bismarck, Tiergarten, Berlin Bismarck's most important legacy is the unification of Germany. Germany had existed as a collection of hundreds of separate principalities and Free Cities since the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. Over the next thousand years various kings and rulers had tried to unify the German states without success until Bismarck. Largely as a result of Bismarck's efforts, the various German kingdoms were united into a single country. Following unification, Germany became one of the most powerful nations in Europe. Bismarck's astute, cautious, and pragmatic foreign policies allowed Germany to retain peacefully the powerful position into which he had brought it; maintaining amiable diplomacy with almost all European nations. France, the main exception, was devastated by Bismarck's wars and his harsh subsequent policies towards it; France became one of Germany's most bitter enemies in Europe. Austria, too, was weakened by the creation of a German Empire, though to a much lesser extent than France. Bismarck's diplomatic feats were accidentally undone, however, by Kaiser Wilhelm II, whose policies unified other European powers against Germany in time for World War I. In British writing (eg. the biographies by Taylor, Palmer or Crankshaw) Bismarck is often seen as an ambivalent figure, undoubtedly a man of great skill but who left no lasting system in place to guide successors less skilled than himself. It is often argued by such historians that his unification of Germany by force of arms, arresting of the development of liberal parliamentary rule in Prussia and diplomacy of secret treaties set Germany and Europe on the path to the First World War and ultimately the Third Reich [ambiguous]. During most of his nearly 30 year-long tenure, Bismarck held undisputed control over the government's policies. He was well supported by his friend Albrecht von Roon, the war minister, as well as the leader of the Prussian army Helmuth von Moltke. Bismarck's diplomatic moves relied on a victorious Prussian military, and these two people gave Bismarck the victories he needed to convince the smaller German states to join Prussia. Memorial dedicated to Bismarck as a student at the Rudelsburg Bismarck took steps to silence or restrain political opposition, as evidenced by laws restricting the freedom of the press, the Kulturkampf, and the anti-socialist laws. His king (later Emperor) Wilhelm I rarely challenged the Chancellor's decisions; on several occasions, Bismarck obtained his monarch's approval by threatening to resign. However, Wilhelm II intended to govern the country himself, making the ousting of Bismarck one of his first tasks as Kaiser. Bismarck's successors as Chancellor were much less influential, as power was concentrated in the Emperor's hands. Two ships of the German Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine), as well as the German battleship Bismarck from the World War II-era, were named after him. Numerous statues and memorials dot the cities, towns, and countryside of Germany, including numerous Bismarck towers on four continents, and the famous Bismarck Memorial in Berlin. The only memorial showing him as a student at Göttingen University (together with his dog Tiran) and as a member of his Corps Hannovera was re-erected in 2006 at the Rudelsburg. The gleaming white The Bismarck-Denkmal (German for Bismarck monument) is a monument in the city of Hamburg. It stands in the centre of the St. Pauli district. Built in 1906, it is the largest and probably most well-known memorial to Bismarck worldwide. Documentaries Bismarck - Chancellor and Demon, a two-part German documentary from 2007 which sheds light on Bismarck's contradictory personality. Written and directed by Christoph Weinert. phoenix.de - Bismarck - Kanzler und Dämon Part 1: Vom Landjunker zum Reichsgründer. phoenix.de - Bismarck - Kanzler und Dämon Part 2: Regierungsgewalt und Machtverlust. . Place names Bismarck Archipelago, near the former German colony of New Guinea Bismarck, Illinois Bismarck, North Dakota, a city and state capital in the United States. Bismarck Sea Titles from birth to death 1865-30 July 1898: High Born Count Otto of Bismarck-Schönhausen 1871-30 July 1898: His Serene Highness The Prince of Bismarck 1890-30 July 1898: His Serene Highness The Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg Quotes "Laws are like sausages, it is better not to see them being made." "There is a Providence that protects idiots, drunkards, children, and the United States of America." "The Americans have contrived to be surrounded on two sides by weak neighbors and on two sides - by fish!" "Anyone who has ever looked into the glazed eyes of a soldier dying on the battlefield will think hard before starting a war." “History is simply a piece of paper covered with print; the main thing is still to make history, not to write it.” "I am bored, all of the great things have been done." "The Balkans start in the slums of Vienna." "The world spins around in circles. Germany remains stagnant." References in fiction Otto von Bismarck appears as a character in the historical novel Royal Flash, part of the Flashman series of books by George MacDonald Fraser. In the novel, von Bismarck is portrayed as a very aggressive and ambitious character with excellent horsemanship skills. In the film version, he was portrayed by Oliver Reed. After meeting Bismarck at the Congress of Berlin, Disraeli cast him as the Count of Ferroll in his 1880 novel Endymion. In the 1941 film The Prime Minister, a biopic of Disraeli, Bismarck is shown ranting whilst his shadow falls across the map of Europe, implying that the 1870s Eastern crisis was caused by German desire to dominate the Balkans (a false implication, but the film was made in Britain during the Second World War). Footnotes References Busch, Moritz. Bismarck: Some secret pages from his history, 2 vols, Macmillan (1898). Crankshaw, Edward. Bismarck. The Viking Press. (1981). Eyck, Erich. Bismarck and the German Empire. W. W. Norton & Company. (1964). Hiss, O.C. Bismarck: Gesetze und Würste. Sans Souci Druck (1931) Hollyday, F. B. M. Bismarck (Great Lives Observed), Prentice-Hall, (1970). Lerman, Katharine Anne. Bismarck: Profiles in Power. Longman, 2004. ISBN 0-582-03740-9. Ludwig, Emil, Wilhelm Hohenzollern: The last of the Kaisers, New York (1927a) Ludwig, Emil, Bismarck: The Story Of A Fighter, Little, Brown (1927b) Ludwig, Emil, Bismarck: Geschichte Eines Kämpfers, Paul Zsolnay Verlag (1932) Palmer, Alan. Bismarck, Charles Scribner’s Sons. (1976) Otto Pflanze. Bismarck and the Development of Germany. 3 vols. (Princeton University Press, 1963–90). Werner Richter, Bismarck, G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York (1965). Stern, Fritz. Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire. Penguin. (1977). Taylor, A. J. P. Bismarck: the Man and the Statesman. Alfred A Knopf, New York, (1969). Wehler, Hans-Ulrich "Bismarck's Imperialism 1862-1890" pages 119-155 from Past and Present, No. 48, August 1970. Thomas Weiberg: … wie immer Deine Dona. Verlobung und Hochzeit des letzten deutschen Kaiserpaares. Isensee-Verlag, Oldenburg 2007, ISBN 978-3-89995-406-7. See also Wilhelm Stieber External links Life of Otto von Bismarck Gedanken und Erinnerungen "Thoughts and Remeniscences" by Otto von Bismarck Vol. I Gedanken und Erinnerungen "Thoughts and Remeniscences" by Otto von Bismarck Vol. II Bismarck's Memoirs Vol. II. In English at archive.org Complete German text of Bismarck's autobiography The correspondence of William I. and Bismarck : with other letters from and to Prince Bismarck at archive.org The Kaiser vs. Bismarck : suppressed letters by the Kaiser and new chapters from the autobiography of the Iron Chancellor at archive.org Bismarck: his authentic biography. Including many of his private letters and personal memoranda at archive.org The love letters of Bismarck; being letters to his fiancée and wife, 1846-1889; authorized by Prince Herbert von Bismarck and translated from the German under the supervision of Charlton T. Lewis at archive.org Prince Bismarck's Letters to His Wife, His Sister, and Others, from 1844-1870 Rede des Reichskanzlers Fürsten Bismarck über das Bündniss zwischen Deutschland und Oesterreich Speech of Reich Chancellor Prince Bismarck on the League between Germany and Austria Oct. 7 1879 |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- | Otto_von_Bismarck |@lemmatized otto:15 eduard:1 leopold:3 von:36 bismarck:259 count:8 schönhausen:7 duke:5 lauenburg:3 prince:20 april:4 july:6 prussian:40 german:76 statesman:4 aristocrat:1 century:1 minister:25 president:10 prussia:52 oversee:1 unification:14 germany:49 become:24 chancellor:24 north:5 confederation:6 second:4 empire:19 form:6 serve:6 first:20 practice:1 realpolitik:1 gain:6 nickname:1 iron:5 hold:7 important:5 role:1 government:21 greatly:1 influenced:1 international:1 politics:6 time:19 service:4 early:7 year:26 age:10 eleven:1 young:2 man:6 bear:2 wealthy:3 family:4 estate:7 situate:2 west:3 berlin:16 province:2 saxony:1 father:5 karl:2 wilhelm:39 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6,984 | Matzo | Machine-made Yehuda Matzos. Matza (also Matzah, Matzoh, or Matsah, , in Ashkenazi matzo or matzoh, and, in Yiddish, matze) is a cracker-like flatbread made of white plain flour and water. The dough is pricked in several places and not allowed to rise before or during baking, thereby producing a hard, flat bread. It is similar in preparation to the Southwest Asian lavash and the Indian chapati Baking author Peter Reinhart, in his 1998 book Crust and Crumb (Ten Speed Press, ISBN 0580088023) provides a recipe using the same dough, cooked by two different procedures, for matzo and chapati . Matza is the substitute for bread during the Jewish holiday of Passover, when eating chametz—bread and leavened products—is forbidden. Eating matza on the night of the seder is considered a positive mitzvah, i.e., a commandment. In the context of the Passover seder meal, certain restrictions additional to the chametz prohibitions are to be met for the matza to be considered "mitzva matza", that is, matza that meets the requirements of the positive commandment to eat matza at the seder. In The Netherlands it is traditional for Christian families to eat matzo at Easter. Meaning There are numerous explanations behind the meaning of matza. One is historical: Passover is a commemoration of the exodus from Egypt. The biblical narrative relates that the Israelites left Egypt in such haste, they could not wait for their bread dough to rise. The resulting product was matza. (Exodus 12:39). The other reason for eating matza is symbolic: On the one hand, matza symbolizes redemption and freedom, but it is also (lechem oni), "poor man's bread." Thus it serves as a reminder to be humble, and to not forget what life was like in servitude. Also, leaven symbolizes corruption and pride as leaven "puffs up", as in the "leaven of the Pharisees". Eating the "bread of affliction" is both a lesson in humility and an act that enhances one's appreciation of freedom. Another explanation is that matza has been used to replace the pesach, or the traditional Passover offering that was made before the destruction of the Temple. During the Seder the third time the matza is eaten it is preceded with the Sefardic rite, “zekher l’korban pesach hane’ekhal al hasova.” This means, “Remembrance of the Passover offering, eaten while full.” This last piece of the matza eaten is called afikoman and many explain it as a symbol of salvation in the future. Bread was often a symbol of salvation in ancient Israel. This is related to the idea that the Garden of Eden was fertile with bread trees. The benediction over bread was, “motsi lechem min ha’arets,” meaning, “brings forth bread from the earth.” This implies “that in the future He will bring forth bread from the earth,” or the paradise of the Garden of Eden will be restored. After the Temple cult, sometime in the first century, the saving symbolism of bread was applied to matza. Matza became a substitute for the pesach because bread was already a symbol of salvation in the Jewish community. The Passover Seder meal is full of symbols of salvation, including the opening of the door for Elijah and the closing line, “Next year in Jerusalem,” but the use of matza is the oldest symbol of salvation in the Seder. Bradshaw, Paul F., and Hoffman Lawrence A.. Passover and Easter: The Symbolic Structuring of Sacred Seasons. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1999. Ingredients and preparation At the Passover seder, it is customary to eat matza made of flour and water only. Matza containing eggs, wine, or fruit juice in addition to water is not acceptable as it is considered to become leaven. Mishna Brurah 462:1 1 Matza made with these items without the use of water is acceptable during the remaining days of the holiday, although most strictly Orthodox Ashkenazi Jews will not eat this kind of matza at all during Passover. There are five grains that may not be used during Passover in any form except for matzoh. Wheat, חיטה Barley, שעורה Spelt כוסמין Rye, שיפון, and Oats (according to Rashi) (or two-rowed barley according to Rambam's interpretation of Mishnah Kilayim 1:1; Yerushalmi Challah 1:1).שיבולת שועל Wheat and spelt (biblical spelt is now more correctly identified as emmer wheat) are both in the genus Triticum and anything else in the genus is likewise forbidden. Oat-grain is practically gluten-free and belongs to a different tribe than wheat, spelt, rye and barley. Millet and teff are borderline; it takes a few days for them to rise. Concerning Identification of שיבולת שועל "oats" see מיני דגן (Clarification: In modern Hebrew כסמת is used for Buckwheat, which is not a grain at all.) Matza dough is quickly mixed and rolled out without an autolyse step such as might be used in leavened breads. Most forms are docked with a fork or a similar tool to keep the finished product from puffing in the same manner as a tortilla or pita bread, and the resulting flat piece of dough is cooked at high heat until it develops dark spots, then set aside to cool (and, if sufficiently thin, to harden to crispness). Dough made from the five grains is considered to begin the leavening process 18 minutes from the time it gets wet, and sooner if eggs, fruit juice, or milk is added to the dough. In reality, though, the entire process of making a matzoh takes only a few minutes in efficient, well-organized modern matzo bakeries. After baking, matza may be ground into fine crumbs, known as matza meal'. Matza meal is used to make matza balls and is added to other foods, such as gefilte fish, to hold the ingredients together instead of flour. Kosher for Passover cakes and cookies are made with matza meal, which gives them a denser texture than ordinary baked goods made with flour. Coarse matzo meal is known as matzo farfel. Common varieties There are two major forms of matza, with several subcategories. In the United States, the most common form is the hard form of matza which is cracker-like in both appearance and taste, which is used in all Ashkenazic and most Sephardic communities. Many Mizrahi, Yemenite Jews, Ethiopian Jews, Hispanic and Latin Sephardi Jews traditionally made a form of soft matza. In those communities, matzo looks similar to pita while in others it can resemble a tortilla. However, it is made under proper supervision, just like the hard form of matzah. The soft form of matza is only made by hand, and generally with shmurah flour, as described below, like traditional "Shmurah Matza". Handmade shmura matzo Among Ashkenazi matza, one can distinguish between what is called shmura matza — a round matza about a foot in diameter — which is made by hand, and machine-made matza, which is usually square and much smaller. Shmura ("guarded") matzo (Hebrew מַצָּה שְׁמוּרָה maṣṣā šəmūrā) is made from grain that has been under special supervision from the time it was harvested to ensure that no fermentation has occurred. In addition, it is made with the intention of using it to fulfill the commandment of eating matza on the first night of Passover. (The same shmura wheat may be formed into either handmade or machine-made matza, while non-shmura wheat is only fashioned into machine-made matza. Moreover, although it is possible to bake shmura-style matza from non-shmurah flour, such matza is rarely produced today, although before the invention of machine-made matza it was quite common.) Matzo-forming machine. Beginning of 20th century. The Lviv Museum of the History of Religion. Besides their shape, handmade and machine-made matza taste distinctively different. Handmade matzo is dense and chewy, while machine-made matza is lighter and crispy. Shmurah matza is generally available only around Passover and is more expensive. Various commercial brands of matza come in flavored varieties, such as poppyseed- or onion-flavored. For those who cannot eat wheat, it is possible to buy oat and spelt matza with kosher certification. Organic wheat matza is also available On organic matzah . Chocolate-covered matza is a favorite among children, although some consider it "enriched matza" and will not eat it during the Passover holiday (Chocolate-covered matza should not be confused with "chocolate matza," a flat confection of chocolate and nuts that resembles real matza, much as a chocolate cigar resembles a real cigar). Matza contains approximately 111 calories per 1-ounce/28g serving (USDA Nutrient Database). This compares with 109 calories for the same serving of rye crispbread. Matzos Calories Supervision and Provisions Machine matzo produced from shmura wheat in Israel Many Haredi or ultra-orthodox Jews are extremely scrupulous about the supervision of their Matzah, as eating leavened products during Passover is liable to the biblical punishment of Kareth, thus many have the custom of baking their own Matzo, or at least participating in some stage of the baking process. Ultra-Orthodox Shmurah Matzah is typically expensive, generally between $10-$20 per pound, but sometimes costing up to $50 per pound for special varieties with particular stringencies. Among many Hasidic Jews, only hand made shmurah matzah may be used, in accord with the opinion of Rabbi Chaim Halberstam of Sanz, who ruled that machine-made matzoth were chametz. According to that opinion, hand-made non-shmurah matzoth may be used on the eighth day of Passover outside of the Holy Land. However, today such matzoth are generally not made. However the non-Hasidic Haredi community of Jerusalem follows the custom that machine-made matzoth may be used, with preference to the use of shmurah flour, in accordance with the ruling of Rabbi Yoseph Chaim Sonnenfeld, who actually ruled that machine-made matzoth may be preferable to hand made in some cases. Matzah cookery Matzot are used not only by themselves but in several roles in Passover cuisine where they can substitute for flour or pasta. In English-speaking countries, where Ashkenazic culture dominates, matzo balls and matzo farfel are widely used in soups and as pasta, as well as matzo meal being used in baked goods such as cakes. In Sephardic settings, matzo (soaked in water or stock) is used as a substitute for phyllo or lasagna noodles to make pies known as mina (or, in Italian, scacchi). A sort of pancake, called a matzo meal pancake, made from matzo meal (powder ground matzah) egg and milk and fried is also eaten as a substitute to normal pancakes. Egg Matzah Egg Matzah are matzot that are usually made with fruit juice, often grape or apple juice instead of water. Not all egg matza is made with actual eggs. There is a custom among some Ashkenazic Jews not to eat them during Passover, except for the elderly, infirm, or children, who cannot digest plain matzo, although they are considered to be kosher for Passover if prepared otherwise properly. The issue whether egg matzah is allowed for Passover comes down to if there is a difference between the various possible liquids that make flour wet. Water facilitates fermentation of grain flour, but the question is if fruit juice, eggs, honey, oil or milk also do it. The Talmud (Pesachim 35a.) states that liquid food extracts do not cause flour to leaven the way that water does. For this reason flour mixed with other liquids would not need to be treated with the same care as flour mixed with water according to this view. However, other Talmudic commentaries (Tosafot) say that such liquids only produce a leavening reaction within flour if they themselves have had water added to them and otherwise the dough they produce is completely permissible for consumption during Passover, whether or not made according to the laws applying to matzot. As a result, Rabbi Yosef Karo, author of the Code of Jewish Law, (Orach Chaim 462:4.) granted blanket permission for the use of egg matzah (or any other matzah made from non-water-based dough) on Passover. "Is Egg Matzah okay for Passover use?" - Rabbi Shais Taub of Chabad-Lubavitch Many egg matzah boxes no longer include the message, “Ashkenazi custom is that egg matzah is only allowed for children, eldery and the infirm during Passover.” In any event even amongst Ashkenazi Jews it is permissible to retain Enriched Matza in the home during Passover, it just may not be consumed. Another view of this is that since the Hebrew term for egg matzo is matzo ashirah (), literally, "enriched matzah" or "rich matzah", Egg matzo cannot be used to fulfill the requirement of eating matzo at the Passover Seder. This is because such matzo would be considered "rich", while the matzo eaten at the Seder is called "poor man's bread" (Hebrew: ) (Deut. 16:3) Kosher Quest - Matzo A basic principle of whether a given dough can be used for mitzva matzo is that doughs that do not have the potential of becoming chametz by simply sitting for 18 minutes cannot be made into mitzva matzo. Thus, a dough made from juice, etc., is of doubtful validity as mitzva matzo and may be used for the mitzva only in cases of illness or age. Those who contend that Ashkenazi Jews should not eat egg matzah cite Rema (Orach Chaim ibid., 4) ruling that the custom among the Ashkenazim is to refrain from using Egg Matzah on Passover at all, unless it is necessary for children or the elderly who would have difficulty eating regular Matzah. Commenting on Rabbi Yosef Karo's permission to use egg matzah, the Rema responded "…in our communities, we do not knead (matzah) dough with fruit juice.…And one should not change from this unless in a time of emergency for the sake of a sick or old person who needs this" Those who follow this prohibition of eating egg matzah on Passover also include chocolate covered matzah, grape flavoured matzah and the many other varieties available. Matzo during the year Commercial matzo is often available during the year, both in flavored and plain forms. It is used in cooking (e.g. matzo ball soup made from matzo meal) or eaten as a snack. During the year, Ashkenazim treat matzo as bread, requiring washing before and full Birkat Hamazon'' afterwords. Sephardim normally treat it as a cracker and accord it the special status of bread only during Passover. Because of a tradition in some Ashkenazim circles that says that passover matzo should not be eaten during the year, some matzo not made for passover is intentionally made in a way that invalidates it, such as using malt in the product. These matzos bear the message, "not kosher for passover." Christian beliefs According to Western Christian belief, matzo was the bread used by Jesus in the Last Supper as there he was celebrating Passover; Communion wafers used by Roman Catholics for the Eucharist are flat (Orthodox Christians use leavened bread, as in the east there is the tradition that leavened bread was on the table of the Last Supper). In Koine Greek matza became known as ἄζυμος, Greek for unleavened bread. The term is no longer widely used in English but was used by the Catholic Church in the Douay-Rheims Bible. References Bibliography Up-to-date reference to cereals in the Biblical world External links Matzo Guide Etymology of "matza" Slideshow of 13 matzo dishes at Epicurious.com. Includes links to their respective recipes. 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6,985 | Politics_of_Ecuador | Politics of Ecuador takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Ecuador is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The constitution of Ecuador provides for concurrent four-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of Congress. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term, while legislators may be re-elected immediately. Citizens must be at least 18 years of age to vote. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for literate persons ages 18-65 and optional for other eligible voters. Political conditions Ecuador's political parties have historically been small, loose organizations that depended more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced extreme factionalism. However, a pattern has emerged in which administrations from the center-left alternate with those from the center-right. Although Ecuador's political elite is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives and to remove cabinet ministers. Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on August 10, 1998. The new constitution strengthens the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to challenge cabinet ministers. Party discipline is traditionally weak, and routinely many deputies switch allegiance during each Congress. However, after the new Constitution took effect, the Congress passed a code of ethics which imposes penalties on members who defy their party leadership on key votes. Beginning with the 1996 election, the indigenous population abandoned its traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population has established itself as a significant force in Ecuadorian politics, as shown by the selection of indigenous representative Nina Pacari, who led the indigenous political party, Pachakutik, as second vice president of the 1998 Congress. A presidential election was held on 15 October 2006 and November 26, 2006. Rafael Correa defeated Alvaro Noboa in a run-off election, or second and final round. Correa won with 56.8% of the vote. "Ecuador Exit Polls Show Correa Wins Presidential Vote (Update2)" Bloomberg Judicial branch New justices of the Supreme Court are elected by the sitting members of the court. A bare majority of Congress, acting in a special session called by former President Lucio Gutiérrez in December, 2004, ousted 27 of the 31 justices and replaced them with new members chosen by Congress, notwithstanding the lack of any provisions permitting impeachment of Supreme Court justices by Congress and the specific provisions giving the Court the power to select new members. Earlier, in November 2004, Congress replaced the majority of judges on the country’s Electoral Court and Constitutional Court by a similar process. Executive branch Current President of Ecuador, Rafael Correa |President |Rafael Correa |Alianza País |January 15 2007 |- |Vice President |Lenín Moreno |Alianza País |January 15 2007 |} The president and vice president are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year term (no reelection); Lucio Gutiérrez was dramatically removed by an act of Congress on 20 April 2005; election last held 20 October 2002; runoff election held 24 November 2002 (next to be held 2006) The executive branch includes 15 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are 20 seven-member congressional committees. Former Vice President Alfredo Palacio assumed the presidency on April 20 2005 after Congress removed Lucio Gutiérrez amid escalating street protests precipitated by growing criticism of Gutiérrez Supreme Court appointments. Legislative branch Ecuador has a unicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional. There are 100 members, who are elected by popular vote by province to serve four-year terms, so in fact multi-seat constituencies. On November 29, 2007 the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly dismissed Congress on charges of corruption and then assumed legislative powers for itself. Political parties and elections Administrative divisions Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces: Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Esmeraldas, Galápagos Islands, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Ríos, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Pichincha,Santa Elena, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Sucumbíos, Tungurahua, Zamora-Chinchipe Legal system Ecuador's legal system is based on the common law system. Ecuador recently accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction. International organization participation Ecuador or Ecuadorian organizations participate in the following international organizations: the Andean Community of Nations (CAN), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Group of Eleven (G-11), Group of 77 (G-77), Inter-American Development Bank (IADB), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ICC, ICC, International Red Cross, International Development Association (IDA), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), International Labour Organization (ILO), IMF, International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), Interpol, IOC, International Organization for Migration (IOM), International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), Latin American Economic System (LAES), Latin American Integration Association (LAIA), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), OAS, Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL), Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), RG, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU), World Health Organization (WHO), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), World Tourism Organization (WToO), World Trade Organization (WTO) See also List of heads of state of Ecuador References External links Global Integrity Report: Ecuador has analysis of corruption and anti-corruption in Ecuador Presidencia de Ecuador | Politics_of_Ecuador |@lemmatized politics:2 ecuador:16 take:3 place:1 framework:1 presidential:3 representative:2 democratic:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:12 head:3 state:2 government:3 multi:2 party:6 system:6 executive:5 power:5 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 congress:16 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:1 constitution:3 provide:1 concurrent:1 four:3 year:5 term:5 office:1 vice:5 member:7 may:2 elect:7 intervening:1 legislator:1 immediately:1 citizen:1 must:1 least:1 age:2 vote:6 suffrage:1 universal:2 compulsory:2 literate:1 person:1 optional:1 eligible:1 voter:1 political:6 condition:1 historically:2 small:1 loose:1 organization:20 depend:1 populist:1 often:3 charismatic:1 leader:1 retain:1 support:1 program:1 ideology:1 frequent:1 internal:1 split:1 produce:1 extreme:1 factionalism:1 however:2 pattern:1 emerge:1 administration:2 center:2 left:1 alternate:1 right:1 although:1 elite:1 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6,986 | Foreign_relations_of_Luxembourg | Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political and economic integration. In efforts foreshadowing European integration, Luxembourg and Belgium in 1921 formed the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) to create an inter-exchangeable currency and a common customs regime. Luxembourg is a member of the Benelux Economic Union and was one of the founding members of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in the Schengen Group (named after the Luxembourg village where the agreements were signed), whose goal is the free movement of citizens among member states. At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued a pro-NATO, pro-US foreign policy. Luxembourg is the site of the European Court of Justice, the European Court of Auditors, the Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat) and other vital EU organs. The Secretariat of the European Parliament is located in Luxembourg, but the Parliament usually meets in nearby Strasbourg. Israel In November 1947, Luxembourg voted in favor of the partition plan to create a Jewish state. Israel and Luxembourg established full diplomatic relations in 1949. Due to Luxembourg's small size, the Israeli embassy is located in Brussels and Luxembourg is represented politically by the Dutch embassy and economically by the Belgian embassy. Australia Australia is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium) and an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City. Luxembourg is represented in Australia through the embassy of the Netherlands in Canberra and through an honorary consulate in East Lindfield. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes Canada is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium). Canadian embassy in Brussels (also accredited to Luxembourg) Luxembourg is represented in Canada through its embassy in Washington, D.C. (USA), and 4 honorary consulates (in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver). Luxembourg embassy in Washington (also accredited to Canada) Canada often deals with Luxembourg in tandem with Belgium. Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of NATO. Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade about the relation with Luxembourg The Czech Republic has an embassy in Luxembourg City. Czech embassy in Luxembourg City (in Czech and French only) Luxembourg has an embassy in Prague. Luxembourg embassy in Prague Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, of the European Union and of NATO. Denmark has an embassy in the city of Luxembourg. Embassy of Denmark in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Luxembourg has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the European Union, and NATO. 1991-08-29 Luxembourg recognized Estonia on February 22, 1923 and re-recognised Estonia on August 27, 1991. Estonia is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium) and an honorary consulate in Luxembourg. Estonian embassy in Brussels (also accredited to Luxembourg) Luxembourg is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic). Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with LuxembourgSee Finland–Luxembourg relationsSee Georgia–Luxembourg relationsSee Greece–Luxembourg relationsSee Hungary–Luxembourg relationsSee Ireland–Luxembourg relationsSee Italy–Luxembourg relationsSee Kosovo–Luxembourg relationsSee Latvia–Luxembourg relations 1992-03-23 Luxembourg did not recognise the annexation of the Baltic States by the USSR in 1940-1991 either de iure or de facto. Lithuania is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussel (Belgium) and through an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City. Lithuanian embassy in Brussels (also accredited to Luxembourg) Luxembourg is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland) and through an honorary consulate in Vilnius. Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with LuxembourgSee Luxembourg–Romania relationsSee Luxembourg–Russia relations Luxembourg is represented in Ukraine through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic) and through an honorary consulate in Kiev. Ukraine is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium) and through an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City. Ukrainian embassy in Brussels (also accredited to Luxembourg) See Luxembourg – United States relations1973See Luxembourg–Vietnam relations References External links Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about the relation with Luxembourg | Foreign_relations_of_Luxembourg |@lemmatized luxembourg:54 long:1 prominent:1 supporter:1 european:13 political:1 economic:6 integration:2 effort:1 foreshadow:1 belgium:8 form:1 union:7 bleu:1 create:2 inter:1 exchangeable:1 currency:1 common:1 custom:1 regime:1 member:8 benelux:1 one:1 found:1 community:2 also:6 participate:1 schengen:1 group:1 name:1 village:1 agreement:1 sign:1 whose:1 goal:1 free:1 movement:1 citizen:1 among:1 state:4 time:1 majority:1 luxembourger:1 consistently:1 believe:1 unity:1 make:1 sense:1 context:1 dynamic:1 transatlantic:1 relationship:1 thus:1 traditionally:1 pursue:1 pro:2 nato:6 u:1 foreign:5 policy:1 site:1 court:2 justice:1 auditor:1 statistical:1 office:1 eurostat:1 vital:1 eu:1 organ:1 secretariat:1 parliament:2 locate:2 usually:1 meet:1 nearby:1 strasbourg:1 israel:2 november:1 vote:1 favor:1 partition:1 plan:1 jewish:1 establish:1 full:6 diplomatic:1 relation:9 due:1 small:1 size:1 israeli:1 embassy:25 brussels:9 represent:11 politically:1 dutch:1 economically:1 belgian:1 australia:4 honorary:8 consulate:8 city:6 netherlands:1 canberra:1 east:1 lindfield:1 country:7 formal:1 begannotes:1 canada:4 canadian:2 accredit:5 washington:2 c:1 usa:1 calgary:1 montreal:1 toronto:1 vancouver:1 often:1 deal:1 tandem:1 organisation:2 co:2 operation:2 development:2 ministry:3 affair:4 trade:2 czech:5 republic:3 french:1 prague:4 denmark:2 grand:1 duchy:1 copenhagen:1 council:1 europe:1 recognize:1 estonia:4 february:1 recognise:2 august:1 estonian:2 luxembourgsee:2 finland:1 relationssee:8 georgia:1 greece:1 hungary:1 ireland:1 italy:1 kosovo:1 latvia:1 annexation:1 baltic:1 ussr:1 either:1 de:2 iure:1 facto:1 lithuania:2 brussel:1 lithuanian:2 warsaw:1 poland:1 vilnius:1 list:1 bilateral:1 treaty:1 romania:1 russia:1 ukraine:2 kiev:1 ukrainian:1 see:1 united:1 vietnam:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 department:1 |@bigram belgium_luxembourg:1 diplomatic_relation:1 brussels_belgium:4 honorary_consulate:8 relation_begannotes:1 luxembourg_luxembourg:4 foreign_affair:4 czech_republic:3 grand_duchy:1 prague_czech:2 luxembourg_relationssee:7 relationssee_latvia:1 de_iure:1 de_facto:1 bilateral_treaty:1 romania_relationssee:1 kiev_ukraine:1 external_link:1 |
6,987 | Politics_of_the_Isle_of_Man | The government of the Isle of Man is a parliamentary representative democracy. As a Crown Dependency, it is subordinate to the government of the United Kingdom, which rarely intervenes in the domestic affairs of the isle. The Monarch of the United Kingdom is also The Queen, Lord of Mann, and is the head of state of the Isle of Man. Her representative on the isle is the Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man, but his role is mostly ceremonial, though he does have the power to grant Royal Assent (the withholding of which is the same as a veto). Although the Isle of Man is not an integral part of the United Kingdom, its people are British citizens under UK law - there is no separate Manx citizenship. The United Kingdom has responsibility for all the isle's external affairs, including citizenship, the isle's defense, good governance, and foreign relations. The isle has no representation at either the UK or EU parliaments. The legislative power of the government is vested in a bicameral parliament called Tynwald (said to be the world's oldest continuously existing parliament), which consists of the directly elected House of Keys and the indirectly chosen Legislative Council. Following every House of Keys general election, the members of Tynwald elect from amongst themselves the Chief Minister of the Isle of Man, who serves as the head of government for five years (until the next general election). Executive power is vested in the Lieutenant Governor (as Governor-in-Council), the Chief Minister, and the Isle of Man's Council of Ministers. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Douglas, the largest town on the Isle of Man is its capital and seat of government, where the Government offices and the parliament chambers (Tynwald) are located. Executive branch The Head of State is the Lord of Mann, which is a hereditary position held by the British monarch (currently Queen Elizabeth II). The Lieutenant Governor is appointed by the Queen, on the advice of the UK's Secretary of State for Justice, for a five-year term and nominally exercises executive power on behalf of the Queen. The Chief Minister is elected by Tynwald following every House of Keys general election and serves for five years until the next general election. When acting as Lord of Mann, the Queen acts on the advice of the Secretary of State for Justice in the United Kingdom. The Monarchy Today > Queen and State > Queen and Crown dependencies > Isle of Man The executive branch under the Chief Minister is referred to as "the government" or the "Civil Service", and consists of the Council of Ministers, nine Departments, ten Statutory Boards and three Offices. Each Department is run by a minister (of the Council of Ministers), who reports directly to the Council of Ministers. The Civil Service has more than 2000 employees and the total number of public sector employees including the Civil Service, teachers, nurses, police, etc is about 9000 people. This is somewhat more than 10% of the population of the Island, and a full 23% of the working population. This does not include any military forces, as defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Legislative branch The Manx legislature is Tynwald, which consists of two chambers. The House of Keys has 24 members, elected for a five year term in multi- and single-seat constituencies by the whole island. The Legislative Council has eleven members, the President of Tynwald, Bishop of Sodor and Man, the Attorney General and eight other members who are elected from the general population (often they are already Members of the House of Keys) by the House of Keys for a five year term. Political parties and elections Most Manx politicians stand for election as independents rather than as representatives of political parties. Though political parties do exist, their influence is not nearly as strong as is the case in the United Kingdom. Consequently, much Manx legislation develops through consensus among the members of Tynwald, which contrasts with the much more adversarial nature of the UK parliament. The largest political party is the recently established Liberal Vannin Party, which promotes greater Manx independence and more accountability in Government. The LibVannin party has two members of Tynwald including Leader Peter Karran MHK. A Manx Labour Party also exists, unaffiliated to the UK Labour Party. A political pressure group Mec Vannin advocates the establishment of a sovereign republic. The island also formerly had a Manx National Party and a Manx Communist Party. There are Manx members in the Celtic League, a political pressure group that advocates greater co-operation between and political autonomy for the Celtic nations. The main political issues include the Island's relationship with the finance sector, housing prices and shortages, and the Manx language. The vast majority of the members of the House of Keys are non-partisan (19), with two representatives from the Manx Labour Party and three from the Alliance for Progressive Government. Intervention of the United Kingdom The UK Parliament has paramount power to legislate for the Isle of Man on all matters but it is a long-standing convention that it does not do so on domestic ('insular') matters without Tynwald's consent. The Office of the Lieutenant Governor - Isle of Man Government Chief Secretary's Office Occasionally, the UK Parliament acts against the wishes of Tynwald – the most recent example being the Marine etc. Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967, which banned pirate radio stations from operating in Manx waters. Legislation to accomplish this was defeated on its second reading in Tynwald, prompting Westminster to legislate directly. The UK's secondary legislation (regulations and Statutory Instruments) cannot be extended to apply to the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man is subject to certain European Union laws, by virtue of a being a territory for which the UK has responsibility in international law. These laws are those for areas not covered by the Protocol 3 opt-out that the UK included for the Isle of Man in its accession treaty – the areas excluded being free movement of persons, services and capital and taxation and social policy harmonisation. The Isle of Man has had several disputes with the European Court of Human Rights because it was late to change its laws concerning birching (corporal punishment) and sodomy. Judicial branch The lowest courts in the Isle of Man are presided over by the High Bailiff and the Deputy High Bailiff, along with lay Justices of the Peace. The High Court of Justice consists of three civil divisions and is presided over by a Deemster. Appeals are dealt with by the Staff of Government Division with final appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom. The head of the Judiciary is the First Deemster and Clerk of the Rolls. The other High & Appeal Court Judges are the Second Deemster, Deputy Deemster and Judge of Appeal, all of whom are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor. The Court of General Gaol Delivery is the criminal court for serious offences (effectively the equivalent of a Crown Court in England). It is theoretically not part of the High Court, but is effectively the criminal division of the court. The Second Deemster normally sits as the judge in this court. In 1992, His Honour Deemster Callow passed the last-ever sentence of death in a court in the British Islands (which was commuted to life imprisonment). Capital punishment in the Isle of Man was formally abolished by Tynwald in 1993 (although the last execution on the island took place in 1872). See also Royal Commission on the Constitution (United Kingdom) References External links Isle of Man Government Tynwald - The Parliament of the Isle of Man iomelections.com - 2006 General Election | Politics_of_the_Isle_of_Man |@lemmatized government:12 isle:23 man:19 parliamentary:1 representative:4 democracy:1 crown:3 dependency:2 subordinate:1 united:10 kingdom:10 rarely:1 intervene:1 domestic:2 affair:2 monarch:2 also:4 queen:7 lord:3 mann:3 head:4 state:5 lieutenant:5 governor:6 role:1 mostly:1 ceremonial:1 though:2 power:5 grant:1 royal:2 assent:1 withholding:1 veto:1 although:2 integral:1 part:2 people:2 british:3 citizen:1 uk:10 law:5 separate:1 manx:12 citizenship:2 responsibility:3 external:2 include:6 defense:1 good:1 governance:1 foreign:1 relation:1 representation:1 either:1 eu:1 parliament:8 legislative:4 vest:2 bicameral:1 call:1 tynwald:13 say:1 world:1 old:1 continuously:1 exist:3 consist:3 directly:3 elect:5 house:7 key:7 indirectly:1 choose:1 council:8 follow:2 every:2 general:8 election:7 member:9 amongst:1 chief:5 minister:9 serve:1 five:5 year:5 next:2 executive:5 judiciary:2 independent:2 legislature:2 douglas:1 large:2 town:1 capital:3 seat:2 office:4 chamber:2 locate:1 branch:4 hereditary:1 position:1 hold:1 currently:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 appoint:2 advice:2 secretary:3 justice:4 term:3 nominally:1 exercise:1 behalf:1 serf:1 act:4 monarchy:1 today:1 refer:1 civil:4 service:4 nine:1 department:2 ten:1 statutory:2 board:1 three:3 run:1 report:1 employee:2 total:1 number:1 public:1 sector:2 teacher:1 nurse:1 police:1 etc:2 somewhat:1 population:3 island:6 full:1 work:1 military:1 force:1 defence:1 two:3 multi:1 single:1 constituency:1 whole:1 eleven:1 president:1 bishop:1 sodor:1 attorney:1 eight:1 often:1 already:1 political:8 party:11 politician:1 stand:1 rather:1 influence:1 nearly:1 strong:1 case:1 consequently:1 much:2 legislation:3 develop:1 consensus:1 among:1 contrast:1 adversarial:1 nature:1 recently:1 establish:1 liberal:1 vannin:2 promote:1 great:2 independence:1 accountability:1 libvannin:1 leader:1 peter:1 karran:1 mhk:1 labour:3 unaffiliated:1 pressure:2 group:2 mec:1 advocate:2 establishment:1 sovereign:1 republic:1 formerly:1 national:1 communist:1 celtic:2 league:1 co:1 operation:1 autonomy:1 nation:1 main:1 issue:1 relationship:1 finance:1 housing:1 price:1 shortage:1 language:1 vast:1 majority:1 non:1 partisan:1 alliance:1 progressive:1 intervention:1 paramount:1 legislate:2 matter:2 long:1 standing:1 convention:1 insular:1 without:1 consent:1 occasionally:1 wish:1 recent:1 example:1 marine:1 broadcasting:1 offence:2 ban:1 pirate:1 radio:1 station:1 operating:1 water:1 accomplish:1 defeat:1 second:3 reading:1 prompt:1 westminster:1 secondary:1 regulation:1 instrument:1 cannot:1 extend:1 apply:1 subject:1 certain:1 european:2 union:1 virtue:1 territory:1 international:1 area:2 cover:1 protocol:1 opt:1 accession:1 treaty:1 exclude:1 free:1 movement:1 person:1 taxation:1 social:1 policy:1 harmonisation:1 several:1 dispute:1 court:11 human:1 right:1 late:1 change:1 concern:1 birching:1 corporal:1 punishment:2 sodomy:1 judicial:2 low:1 preside:2 high:5 bailiff:2 deputy:2 along:1 lay:1 peace:1 consists:1 division:3 deemster:6 appeal:4 deal:1 staff:1 final:1 committee:1 privy:1 first:1 clerk:1 roll:1 judge:3 gaol:1 delivery:1 criminal:2 serious:1 effectively:2 equivalent:1 england:1 theoretically:1 normally:1 sit:1 honour:1 callow:1 pass:1 last:2 ever:1 sentence:1 death:1 commute:1 life:1 imprisonment:1 formally:1 abolish:1 execution:1 take:1 place:1 see:1 commission:1 constitution:1 reference:1 link:1 iomelections:1 com:1 |@bigram crown_dependency:2 lieutenant_governor:5 royal_assent:1 vest_bicameral:1 bicameral_parliament:1 judiciary_independent:1 queen_elizabeth:1 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 sodor_man:1 vast_majority:1 corporal_punishment:1 judicial_branch:1 committee_privy:1 privy_council:1 external_link:1 |
6,988 | French_materialism | French materialism is the name given to a handful of French 18th century philosophers during the Age of Enlightenment, many of them clustered around the salon of Baron d'Holbach. Although there are important differences between them, all of them were materialists who believed that the world was made up of a single substance, matter, the motions and properties of which could be used to explain all phenomena. Prominent French materialists of the 18th century include: Julien Offray de La Mettrie Denis Diderot Baron d'Holbach Claude Adrien Helvétius Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis Jacques-André Naigeon External links Marx's essay on French Materialism on WikiSource Materialism in Eighteenth-Century European Thought: French Materialism | French_materialism |@lemmatized french:5 materialism:4 name:1 give:1 handful:1 century:3 philosopher:1 age:1 enlightenment:1 many:1 cluster:1 around:1 salon:1 baron:2 holbach:2 although:1 important:1 difference:1 materialist:2 believe:1 world:1 make:1 single:1 substance:1 matter:1 motion:1 property:1 could:1 use:1 explain:1 phenomenon:1 prominent:1 include:1 julien:1 offray:1 de:1 la:1 mettrie:1 denis:1 diderot:1 claude:1 adrien:1 helvétius:1 pierre:1 jean:1 george:1 cabanis:1 jacques:1 andré:1 naigeon:1 external:1 link:1 marx:1 essay:1 wikisource:1 eighteenth:1 european:1 thought:1 |@bigram la_mettrie:1 denis_diderot:1 external_link:1 |
6,989 | Bretwalda | Bretwalda, also Brytenwalda, Bretenanwealda, is an Anglo-Saxon term, the first record of which comes from the late ninth century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It is applied in that chronicle to some of the rulers of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from the fifth century onwards who had achieved overlordship over some or all the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is unclear if the word really dates back to the fifth century, or is a ninth century invention. The rulers of Mercia Mercia were generally the most powerful of the English kings from the mid-seventh to the early-ninth centuries. However they are not accorded the title of Bretwalda by the chronicle—which fact is usually assigned to anti-Mercian bias by its authors. Whether they used it themselves is again uncertain, though in many cases their power was even greater than those listed by the chronicle. It is notable that the Annals of Wales also continued to recognize Northumbrian rulers as King of the Saxons (i.e. English) until the death of Osred in 716. The term Bretwalda also appears in a charter of Æthelstan, king of the English. It appears in several variant forms (brytenwalda, bretenanwealda, &c.), and means most probably "lord of the Britons" or "lord of Britain"; for although the derivation of the word is uncertain, its earlier syllable seems to be cognate with the words Briton and Britannia. However Kemble derives Bretwalda from the Old English word breotan, to distribute, and translates it "widely ruling." Bretwaldas Listed by Bede and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Aelle of Sussex (488–c.514) (break in sequence) Ceawlin of Wessex (560–91, died 593) Æthelberht of Kent (591–616) Rædwald of East Anglia (616–27) Edwin of Deira (627–32) Oswald of Bernicia (633–41) Oswy of Northumbria (641–58, died 670) King of the Saxons, as listed by the Annals of Wales Oswy of Northumbria (641-670) Aldfrith of Northumbria (685-705) Osred of Northumbria (705-716) Ethelbald of Mercia (716-757) Mercian rulers Wulfhere of Mercia (658-675) Æthelred of Mercia (675-704, died 716) Cœnred of Mercia (704-709, died ?) Ceolred of Mercia (709-716) Ceolwald of Mercia (716) Ethelbald of Mercia (716-757, proclaimed King of Britain 746) Beornred of Mercia (757, died ?) Offa of Mercia (757-796, proclaimed King of the English 774) Egfrith of Mercia (796) Cœnwulf of Mercia (796-821, proclaimed Emperor) Ceolwulf of Mercia (821-823, died ?) Beornwulf of Mercia (823-826) Ludeca of Mercia (826-827) Wiglaf of Mercia (827-829, died 840) Listed only by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Egbert of Wessex (829–39) Contemporary use The entry for 827 in the [C] manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, listing the eight bretwaldas. The first recorded use of the term Bretwalda comes from a West Saxon Chronicle of the late 9th century applying the term to Ecgberht, who was King of Wessex from 802-839. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle MS A, 827 for 829. The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings Bede had listed in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum in 731. From Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum 2.5. All subsequent manuscripts of the Chronicle use Brytenwalda, whether it represents the original term or derives from a common error. There is no evidence that the term Bretwalda was a title that had any practical use, with implications of formal rights, powers and office, or even that it had any existence before the ninth-century chronicler. Bede wrote in Latin and never used the term, and his list of kings holding imperium should be treated with great caution, not least in that he overlooks kings such as Penda of Mercia who clearly held some kind of dominance in their time. Similarly, in his list of Bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignores Mercian kings such as Offa. It is unlikely that there was a succession and defined duties, and it is doubtful whether the term Bretwalda is anything more than a later simplification of a complex structure of kingship. Bretwalda is, therefore, a highly problematic term, and one which, if anything, was merely the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon kings to the whole of Great Britain. This shows that the concept of the unity of Britain was at least recognised in the period, whatever was meant by the term. Quite possibly it was only a survival of a Roman concept of "Britain"; it is significant that, while the hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often include the title rex Britanniae, when England was actually unified the title used was rex Angulsaxonum, king of the Anglo-Saxons. Modern interpretation by historians For some time the existence of the word Bretwalda in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was based in part on the list given by Bede in his Historia Ecclesiastica, led historians to think that there was perhaps a "title" held by overlords of Great Britain. This was particularly attractive as it would lay the foundations for the establishment of an "English" monarchy. The twentieth-century historian Frank Stenton says of the Anglo-Saxon chronicler that "his inaccuracy is more than compensated by his preservation of the English title applied to these outstanding kings." F.M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 3rd edition, (Oxford: University Press, 1971), pp.34–5. He goes on to argue that the term Bretwalda "falls into line with the other evidence which points to the Germanic origin of the earliest English institutions." Over the later twentieth century this assumption was increasingly challenged. Patrick Wormald interprets it as "less an objectively realized office than a subjectively perceived status" and emphasizes the partiality of its usage in favour of Southumbrian rulers. Patrick Wormald, "Bede, Bretwaldas and the Origins of the Gens Anglorum. p. 118-9." In 1991, Steven Fanning argues, "It is unlikely that the term ever existed as a title or was in common usage in Anglo-Saxon England." Steven Fanning, “Bede, Imperium, and the Bretwaldas,” Speculum 66, no. 1 (1991): 24. The fact that Bede never mentioned a special title for the kings in his list implies that he was unaware of one. Steven Fanning, "Bede, Imperium, and the Bretwaldas." 23. In 1995 Simon Keynes wrote, "if Bede's concept of the Southumbrian overlord, and the chronicler's concept of the 'Bretwalda', are to be regarded as artificial constructs, which have no validity outside the context of the literary works in which they appear, we are released from the assumptions about political development which they seem to involve...we might ask whether kings in the eighth and ninth centuries were quite so obsessed with the establishment of a pan-Southumbrian state." Simon Keynes, 'England, 700–900' in The New Cambridge Medieval History, II, c.700-c.900. ed. R. McKitterick, (Cambridge: University Press, 1995), p.39 Thus, more recent interpretations view the bretwaldaship as a complex concept. It is now recognized as an important indicator of how a ninth-century chronicler interpreted history and tried to insert the West Saxon kings, who were rapidly expanding their power at the time, into that history. Overlordship What did exist was a complex array of dominance and subservience. Examples such as a king granting land with charters in another kingdom, are a sure sign of such a relationship. When a king held sway over a larger kingdom, such as a Mercian ruler over East Anglia, the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of a larger kingdom exercising overlordship over a smaller one, as in the case of Mercia and Hwicce. Mercia was arguably the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom for much of the late seventh and eighth centuries, though Mercian kings are missed out of the two main "lists". For Bede, Mercia was a traditional enemy of his native Northumbria, and he saw powerful Mercian kings such as Penda (a pagan) as standing in the way of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, and so does not include them in his list, even though it is evident that Penda held a considerable degree of power. Similarly, powerful Mercia kings such as Offa are missed out of the West Saxon Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of the West Saxon kings to rule over other Anglo-Saxon peoples. Notes References Fanning, Steven. "Bede, Imperium, and the Bretwaldas." Speculum 66 (1991): 1-26. Wormald, Patrick. "Bede, the Bretwaldas and the Origins of the Gens Anglorum." In Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society, ed. P. Wormald et al. Oxford, 1983. 99-129. Other sources Charles-Edwards, T.M. "The continuation of Bede, s.a. 750. High-kings, kings of Tara and Bretwaldas." In Seanchas. Studies in early and medieval Irish archaeology, history and literature in honour of Francis J. Byrne, ed. Alfred P. Smyth. Dublin: Four Courts, 2000. 137-45. Dumville, D. "The Terminology of Overkingship in Early Anglo-Saxon England." In The Anglo-Saxons from the Migration period to the Eighth Century. An Ethnographic Perspective, ed. J. Hines (1997): 345-65 Keynes, Simon. "Bretwalda." In The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Michael Lapidge et al. Oxford, 1999. Kirby, D.P. The Making of Early England. London, 1967. Wormald, Patrick. "Bede, Beowulf and the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy." In Bede and Anglo-Saxon England. Papers in honour of the 1300th anniversary of the birth of Bede, ed. R.T. Farrell. BAR, British series 46. 1978. 32-95. Yorke, Barbara. "The vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon overlordship." Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 2 (1981): 171-200. See also Kings of the Isle of Wight Kings of East Anglia Kings of Essex Kings of Kent Kings of Sussex Kings of Wessex Kings of Mercia Kings of Northumbria Mythical pre-Saxon Kings of Britain Historical Kings of the Britons (contemporaries with Anglo-Saxon kings) List of English monarchs (to 1707) List of British monarchs (since 1707) High King | Bretwalda |@lemmatized bretwalda:12 also:5 brytenwalda:3 bretenanwealda:2 anglo:26 saxon:36 term:12 first:2 record:2 come:2 late:5 ninth:6 century:13 chronicle:12 apply:3 ruler:6 kingdom:6 fifth:2 onwards:1 achieve:1 overlordship:4 unclear:1 word:5 really:1 date:1 back:1 invention:1 mercia:23 generally:1 powerful:4 english:9 king:37 mid:1 seventh:2 early:5 however:2 accord:1 title:9 fact:2 usually:1 assign:1 anti:1 mercian:6 bias:1 author:1 whether:4 use:7 uncertain:2 though:3 many:1 case:3 power:4 even:3 great:4 list:14 notable:1 annals:2 wale:2 continue:1 recognize:2 northumbrian:1 e:1 death:1 osred:2 appear:3 charter:3 æthelstan:1 several:1 variant:1 form:1 c:5 mean:2 probably:1 lord:2 briton:3 britain:7 although:1 derivation:1 earlier:1 syllable:1 seem:2 cognate:1 britannia:1 kemble:1 derives:2 old:1 breotan:1 distribute:1 translate:1 widely:1 rule:2 bretwaldas:9 bede:17 aelle:1 sussex:2 break:1 sequence:1 ceawlin:1 wessex:4 die:7 æthelberht:1 kent:2 rædwald:1 east:3 anglia:3 edwin:1 deira:1 oswald:1 bernicia:1 oswy:2 northumbria:6 aldfrith:1 ethelbald:2 wulfhere:1 æthelred:1 cœnred:1 ceolred:1 ceolwald:1 proclaim:3 beornred:1 offa:3 egfrith:1 cœnwulf:1 emperor:1 ceolwulf:1 beornwulf:1 ludeca:1 wiglaf:1 egbert:1 contemporary:2 entry:1 manuscript:2 eight:1 west:7 ecgberht:1 ms:1 chronicler:7 write:3 name:1 seven:1 historia:3 ecclesiastica:3 gentis:2 anglorum:4 subsequent:1 represent:1 original:1 common:2 error:1 evidence:2 practical:1 implication:1 formal:1 right:1 office:2 existence:2 latin:1 never:2 hold:5 imperium:4 treat:1 caution:1 least:2 overlook:1 penda:3 clearly:1 kind:1 dominance:2 time:3 similarly:2 ignores:1 unlikely:2 succession:1 defined:1 duty:1 doubtful:1 anything:2 simplification:1 complex:3 structure:1 kingship:1 therefore:1 highly:1 problematic:1 one:3 merely:1 attempt:1 make:1 claim:1 whole:1 show:1 concept:5 unity:1 recognise:1 period:2 whatever:1 quite:2 possibly:1 survival:1 roman:1 significant:1 hyperbolic:1 inscription:1 coin:1 often:1 include:2 rex:2 britanniae:1 england:8 actually:1 unify:1 angulsaxonum:1 modern:1 interpretation:2 historian:3 base:1 part:1 give:1 lead:1 think:1 perhaps:1 overlord:2 particularly:1 attractive:1 would:2 lay:1 foundation:1 establishment:2 monarchy:1 twentieth:2 frank:1 stenton:2 say:1 inaccuracy:1 compensate:1 preservation:1 outstanding:1 f:1 edition:1 oxford:3 university:2 press:2 pp:1 go:1 argue:1 fall:1 line:1 point:1 germanic:1 origin:3 institution:1 assumption:2 increasingly:1 challenge:1 patrick:4 wormald:5 interpret:2 le:1 objectively:1 realize:1 subjectively:1 perceive:1 status:1 emphasize:1 partiality:1 usage:2 favour:1 southumbrian:3 gen:2 p:5 steven:4 fan:3 argues:1 ever:1 exist:2 speculum:2 mention:1 special:1 implies:1 unaware:1 fanning:1 simon:3 keynes:3 regard:1 artificial:1 construct:1 validity:1 outside:1 context:1 literary:1 work:1 release:1 political:1 development:1 involve:1 might:1 ask:1 eighth:3 obsessed:1 pan:1 state:1 new:1 cambridge:2 medieval:2 history:5 ii:1 ed:6 r:2 mckitterick:1 thus:1 recent:1 view:1 bretwaldaship:1 important:1 indicator:1 try:1 insert:1 rapidly:1 expand:1 array:1 subservience:1 example:1 grant:1 land:1 another:1 sure:1 sign:1 relationship:2 sway:1 large:2 equal:1 exercise:1 small:1 hwicce:1 arguably:1 much:1 miss:2 two:1 main:1 traditional:1 enemy:1 native:1 saw:1 pagan:1 stand:1 way:1 conversion:2 evident:1 considerable:1 degree:1 seek:1 demonstrate:1 legitimacy:1 people:1 note:1 reference:1 ideal:1 reality:1 frankish:1 society:1 et:2 al:2 source:1 charles:1 edward:1 continuation:1 high:2 tara:1 seanchas:1 study:2 irish:1 archaeology:2 literature:1 honour:2 francis:1 j:2 byrne:1 alfred:1 smyth:1 dublin:1 four:1 court:1 dumville:1 terminology:1 overkingship:1 migration:1 ethnographic:1 perspective:1 hines:1 blackwell:1 encyclopaedia:1 michael:1 lapidge:1 kirby:1 making:1 london:1 beowulf:1 aristocracy:1 paper:1 anniversary:1 birth:1 farrell:1 bar:1 british:2 series:1 yorke:1 barbara:1 vocabulary:1 see:1 isle:1 wight:1 essex:1 mythical:1 pre:1 historical:1 monarch:2 since:1 |@bigram anglo_saxon:26 saxon_chronicle:8 æthelberht_kent:1 east_anglia:3 offa_mercia:1 egbert_wessex:1 historia_ecclesiastica:3 ecclesiastica_gentis:2 gentis_anglorum:2 bede_historia:2 twentieth_century:2 stenton_anglo:1 wormald_patrick:2 et_al:2 blackwell_encyclopaedia:1 michael_lapidge:1 isle_wight:1 |
6,990 | Hinduism | Hinduism is the predominant religion Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. René Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, proposes a definition of the term "religion" and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58). of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as , a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The modern use of the term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movements (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987); less literally also rendered "eternal way" (so ). See also René Guénon, Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, part III, chapter 5 "The Law of Manu", p. 146. On the meaning of the word "Dharma", see also René Guénon, Studies in Hinduism, Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-69-3, chapter 5, p. 45 Hindu beliefs vary widely, with concepts of God and/or gods ranging from Panentheism, pantheism, monotheism, polytheism, and atheism with Vishnu and Shiva being the most popular deities. Other notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma, as well as personal duty, or dharma. Among its roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India, and as such Hinduism is often stated to be the "oldest religious tradition" or "oldest living major tradition." It is formed of diverse traditions and types and has no single founder. Hinduism is the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam, with approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India. Other countries with large Hindu populations can be found across southern Asia. Hinduism's vast body of scriptures are divided into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered"). These scriptures discuss theology, philosophy and mythology, and provide information on the practice of dharma (religious living). Among these texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the and the epics and . The , a treatise from the , spoken by Krishna, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas. The Gita Dhyanam is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the Bhagavad Gita. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them. () Etymology Hindū is the Persian name for the Indus River, first encountered in the Old Persian word Hindu (həndu), corresponding to Vedic Sanskrit Sindhu, the Indus River. The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as Sapta Sindhu (the land of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to Hapta Həndu in the Avesta (Vendidad or Videvdad 1.18)—the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. The term was used for those who lived in the Indian subcontinent on or beyond the "Sindhu". See Indo-European sound laws for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu" In Arabic, the term al-Hind (the Hind) also refers to 'the land of the people of modern day India'. Thapar, R. 1993. Interpreting Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77 The Persian term (Middle Persian Hindūk, New Persian Hindū) entered India with the Delhi Sultanate and appears in South Indian and Kashmiri texts from at least 1323 CE, David Lorenzen, Who Invented Hinduism? New Delhi 2006, pp. 24-33; Rajatarangini of Yonaraja : "Hinduka" and increasingly so during British rule. Since the end of the 18th century the word has been used as an umbrella term for most of the religious, spiritual, and philosophical traditions of the sub-continent, excluding the distinct religions of Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The term Hindu was introduced to the English. It generally denotes the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India. "...that many-sided and all-enfolding culture which we in the West have chosen to call Hinduism" Jan Gonda, Visnuism and Sivaism, Munshiram Manoharlal. 1996, ISBN 812150287X p. 1. cited by Typology Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darshanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism. The vast majority of present day Hindus can be categorized under one of these four groups, although there are many other, partly overlapping, allegiances and denominations. McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six more generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex object: J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0195170210 Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level and spanning thorough to pre-historic times or at least prior to written Vedas. Vedic Hinduism as still being practiced by traditionalist brahmins, for example shrautins. Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita (Smartism), as based on philosophical approach of the Upanishads. Yogic Hinduism, especially based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on the notion of Karma, and societal norms such as Hindu marriage customs etc. Bhakti or devotionalism, especially as in Vaishnavism. Definitions Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed". but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the Vedic traditions. Smith, W.C. (1962) The Meaning and End of Religion. San Francisco, Harper and Row. p. 65 Stietencron, on, Hinduism: On the Proper Use of A Deceptive Term, pp.1-22 Halbfass, (1991) Tradition and Reflection. Albany, SUNY Press. pp. 1-22 Smart, (1993) The Formation Rather than the Origin of a Tradition,in DISKUS: A Disembodied Journal of Religious Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1 Hindu in origin is a Persian term in use from the time of the Delhi Sultanate, referring to any tradition native to India as opposed to Islam. Hindu is used in the sense of "Indian pagan" in English from the 17th century, OED cites J. Davies, tr. Mandelslo's Trav. 74 (1662) The King of Cambaya, who was a Hindou, or Indian, that is, a Pagan. and Sir T. Roe's Voy. E. Ind. in P. della Valle's Trav. E. Ind. 374 (1665) The Inhabitants in general of Indostan were all anciently Gentiles, called in general Hindoes. but the notion of Hinduism as an identifiable religious tradition qualifying as one of world religions emerged only during the 19th century. The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief and Hinduism's dogmatic openness makes it difficult to define it as a religion according to the traditional Western conceptions. Bryan S. Turner "Essays on the Sociology of Fate - Page 275" Although Hinduism is a clear practical concept to the majority of adherents, many expressed a problem arriving at a definition of the term, mainly because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated or covered by it. Sometimes referred to as a religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a religious tradition. It is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions and most diverse in religious traditions. Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, p. 434 Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions to it; some religious traditions regard certain particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on it co-exist; some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, sustenance, and destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized with the belief in reincarnation (samsara) determined by the law of karma, and that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death, however other religions of the region, such as Buddhism and Jainism, also believe in this, outside of the scope of Hinduism. Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all the living, historical world religions. Despite its complexity Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest, but also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into the prehistory. A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India and prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that it is not "just a faith," but in itself related to the union of reason and intuition, he explicitly suggests, that it cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced. Bhagavad Gita, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan: "Hinduism is not just a faith. It is the union of reason and intuition that can not be defined but is only to be experienced." Similarly some academics are suggesting that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than a well defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not as central but still within the category. Based on that Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism. Ferro-Luzzi,(1991)The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) Hinduism Reconsidered. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187-95 Problems with the single definition or of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' are often attributed to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say 'Hinduisms', does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen, not as an alternative to Hinduism but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism. A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for "religion". Some academics Hinduism in Britain Kim Knott, (2000) The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and a United States. and many practitioners refer to Hinduism with a native definition, as '', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law" or "eternal way". Beliefs Hinduism refers to the religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to the major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is such. "It is Hindu self-awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be one single religious universe, no matter how richly varied its contents, and make it a significant and potent force alongside the other religions of the world." Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices). Concept of God In Hinduism the concept of God is complex and depends on a particular tradition. In majority of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identifies this being as Krishna, sometimes referred as svayam bhagavan. The term isvara - from the root is, to have extraordinary power that is seen differently within a diverse system of beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization. See and Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal. According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called non-dualist. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul. The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom). Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending on the sect. The ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace. When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called Ishvara ("The Lord" ), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One") or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"). However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita. There are also schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings. Devas and avatars The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or in feminine form; used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings". For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: . In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. The highest are the immortal Mahadevas, such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, are described as their offspring: they are "born", and their "lifespan" is quite limited. In ISKCON the word is translated as "demigods", although it can also denote such heavenly denizens as gandharvas. See: . For translation of as "godhead, divinity", see: . The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in a particular form as their , or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference and regional and family traditions. Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma in society and guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata). Karma and samsara Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed * and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect". According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual. Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny. This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that: Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20 See 301-02 (8th Printing 1993) It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman). The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth. The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven), The Christian concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or loka are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar". Objectives of human life Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, known as the s: dharma "righteousness, ethikos", artha "livelihood, wealth", "sensual pleasure", mokṣa "liberation, freedom [from samsara]". as discussed in Mahābhārata 12.161; Bilimoria et al. (eds.), Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (2007), p. 103; see also , Yoga In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion) Karma Yoga (the path of right action) Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one of four epochs part of the Yuga cycle). For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." () Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa. "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." () Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly. Practices Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in (worship or veneration), either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory, and many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God. The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity. . A few Hindu sects, such as the , do not believe in worshiping God through icons. Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable (which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities. Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age). Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. Rituals The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis, Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc. A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action. Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world. Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm. The rituals, upacharas, change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets. Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education) and Shraadh (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased). For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers. On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre. Pilgrimage and festivals Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them. Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities, including Allahabad, Haridwar, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple. The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami,Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussera, Durga Puja and Diwali. Scriptures Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times". Vol I Vol III The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them. Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti. Shruti Shruti (lit: that which is heard) See, for instance, René Guénon Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta (1925 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-62-4, chapter 1, "General remarks on the Vedanta, p.7. primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (s), some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages. Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal. Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways. Vol II There are four Vedas (called , Sāma- Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda. Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts. Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the , which contains sacred mantras. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the . These are: the , , and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the (knowledge portion). While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation. Smritis Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the epics, which consist of the and the . The is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The , spoken by Krishna, is described as the essence of the Vedas. gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is. However Gita, sometimes called Gitopanishad, is more often placed in the Shruti, category, being Upanishadic in content. Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 3 (September, 1984), pp. 435-459 The Smritis also include the s, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives. There are texts with a sectarian nature such as , the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras and the Hindu . A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the caste system. History The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE). "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)". The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE. T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called , and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and other Indo-European religions. The deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythology, cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion. The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons. Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu thought: the advent and spread of Upanishadic, Jaina, and Buddhist philosophico-religious thought throughout the broader Indian landmass. Olivelle, Patrick, "The renouncer tradition", in Mahavira (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha (founder of Buddhism) taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system. Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary. Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. . Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE. Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism. Sanskritic culture goes into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The early medieval Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions. Vijay Nath, From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition, Social Scientist 2001, pp. 19-50. Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to Islam. Numerous Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims; however some, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West. Today modern movements, such as ISKCON and the Swaminarayan Faith, attract a large amount of followers across the world. p.217 Society Denominations Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination. However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god. Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartists believe in the essential oneness of five or six deities panchadeva or Shanmata (i.e., Tamil Hindus add Skanda http://www.mailerindia.com/god/hindu/index.php?skanda ) as personifications of the Supreme. The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who may not understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers. Heart of Hinduism: The Smarta Tradition Other denominations like Ganapatya (the cult of Ganesha) and Saura (Sun worship) are not so widespread. There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (). The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes: As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. Heresy is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus. Ashramas Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four s (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies and artha in one's married and professional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. , the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in , the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha. S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in Monasticism Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs. It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain. Varnas Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "colour, form, appearance"); the Brahmins: teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and the Shudras: servants and labourers. Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom. Although the scriptures, since the Rigveda (10.90), contain passages that clearly sanction the Varna system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion. Both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the Vedas, strongly sustain the division of society into four classes (varna) but place little emphasis on the caste system, showing that each individual should find his strengths through different ways such as his astrological signs, actions, personality, and appearance, and do his job for the good of that individual as well as society. Being cast into a class because of what parents he was born from was a political problem and not from the actual science of the religion. A verse from the Rig Veda indicates that a person's occupation was not necessarily determined by that of his family: In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the Shudras listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times. White Yajurveda 26.2 Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists. Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination. Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India", in The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that Ahimsa and vegetarianism Hindus advocate the practice of (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition) The term appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata For as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125. and is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of as "vow of self-restraint", see: , p. 206. In accordance with , many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Vegetarianism is propagated by the Yajur Veda and it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle. Page 122 Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%. Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India", "Indian consumer patterns" and "Agri reform in India". Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood. Some Hindus avoid onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic foods. See, Basak, R., "The Hindu concept of the natural world" in ; see also p. 2. Some avoid meat on specific holy days. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India. See further discussion at Cattle_in_religion#In_Hinduism and Food taboo. Hindu Rajputs that eat meat, only eat meat that has been defined as Jhatka. Due to philosophical differences and dietary needs among many modern Indian Hindus, all meat is considered a taboo except mutton, goat, chicken and fish. Conversion Concepts of conversion, evangelization, and proselytization are absent from Hindu literature and in practice have never played a significant role, though acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. Early in its history, in the absence of other competing religions, Hindus considered everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone they met to be Hindus. The modern view of conversions into Hinduism is influenced by the demise of caste system combined with the persistence of age old ideas of Sanathana Dharma. Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas of acceptability of conversion. Hence, many Hindus continue to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had from birth, while many others continue to believe that anyone who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu, and many believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction to perceived and actual threat of evangelization, prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major religions many modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se. Hindus in Western countries generally accept and welcome willing converts, whereas in India acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. With the rise of Hindu revivalist movement, reconversions into Hinduism have also picked up pace. Reconversions are well accepted since conversion out of Hinduism is not recognized. Conversion into Hinduism through marriage is well accepted and often expected in order to enable the non-Hindu partner to fully participate in their spiritual, religious, and cultural roles within the larger Hindu family and society. There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life after conversion and a ritual called shuddhi ("purification") marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion. Most Hindu sects do not seek converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely. See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5 However, some Hindu sects and affiliates such as Vedanta Society, Arya Samaj, International Society for Krishna Consciousness and the Self-Realization Fellowship accept those who have a desire to follow Hinduism. In general, Hindu view of religious freedom is not based on the freedom to proselytize, but the right to retain one’s religion and not be subject to proselyzation. Hindu leaders are advocating for changing the existing formulation of the freedom of religion clause in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since it favors religions which proselytize. See also Hinduism Hindu World Hinduism Hinduism by country Hindu deities List of Hindu temples Hindu calendar Hindu denominations Hindu reform movements Hindu mythology List of notable Hindus Criticism of Hinduism List of related articles Atheism in Hinduism Related systems and religions Hinduism and other religions Eastern philosophy Indian religions Hellenism and Hinduism Jainism Taoism Buddhism Buddhism and Hinduism Hindu philosophy Sikhism Hinduism and Sikh Panth Ayyavazhi Ayyavazhi and Hinduism Islam and Hinduism Zoroastrianism Confucianism Hinduism and Confucianism Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Proto-Indo-European religion Notes References Further reading External links Resources for Scholars and Students Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf) Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions Information on Hinduism or Santana dharma Audio Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda - Presented at World Parliament of Religion in 1893 (Text + 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6,991 | Iron | Iron () is a chemical element with the symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. Iron is a group 8 and period 4 element. Iron and iron alloys (steels) are by far the most common metals and the most common ferromagnetic materials in everyday use. Fresh iron surfaces are lustrous and silvery-grey in color, but oxidise in air to form a red or brown coating of ferrous oxide or rust. Compared with steel which has a hardness of about 140 Brinell, pure iron is soft, about 80 Brinell. . . Iron-56 is the second heaviest stable isotope produced by the alpha process in stellar nucleosynthesis, the heaviest being nickel-62; heavier elements require a supernova for their formation. Iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants, and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth. Characteristics Pure iron is a metal, but is rarely found in this form on the surface of the earth, because it oxidizes readily in the presence of oxygen and moisture. In order to obtain metallic iron, oxygen must be removed from naturally occurring ores by chemical reduction – mainly of the iron ore hematite () by carbon at high temperature. The properties of iron can be modified by alloying it with various other metals (and some non-metals, notably carbon and silicon) to form steels. Nuclei of iron atoms have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon, surpassed only by the nickel isotope 62Ni. The universally most abundant of the highly stable nuclides is, however, 56Fe. This is formed by nuclear fusion in stars. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing 62Ni, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process to be favoured. Elemental distribution on Earth greatly favors iron over nickel, and also presumably in supernova element production. . Iron (as Fe2+, ferrous ion) is a necessary trace element used by almost all living organisms. The only exceptions are several organisms that live in iron-poor environments and have evolved to use different elements in their metabolic processes, such as manganese instead of iron for catalysis, or hemocyanin instead of hemoglobin. Iron-containing enzymes, usually containing heme prosthetic groups, participate in catalysis of oxidation reactions in biology, and in transport of a number of soluble gases. See hemoglobin, cytochrome, and catalase. Allotropes Iron represents perhaps the best-known example of allotropy in a metal. There are three allotropic forms of iron, known as alpha, gamma, and delta. As molten iron cools down it crystallizes at 1538 °C into its delta allotrope, which has a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure. As it cools further its crystal structure changes to face-centered cubic (FCC) at 1394 °C, when it is known as gamma-iron, or austenite. At 912 °C the crystal structure again becomes BCC as alpha-iron, or ferrite, is formed, and at 770 °C (the Curie point, Tc) the iron becomes magnetic. As the iron passes through the Curie temperature there is no change in crystalline structure, but there is a change in "domain structure", where each domain contains iron atoms with a particular electronic spin. In unmagnetized iron, all the electronic spins of the atoms within one domain are in the same direction; however, in neighbouring domains they point in various directions and thus cancel out. In magnetized iron, the electronic spins of all the domains are all aligned, so that the magnetic effects of neighbouring domains reinforce each other. Although each domain contains billions of atoms, they are very small, about one thousandth of a centimetre across. Iron is of most importance when mixed with certain other metals and with carbon to form steels. There are many types of steels, all with different properties; and an understanding of the properties of the allotropes of iron is key to the manufacture of good quality steels. Alpha iron, also known as ferrite, is the most stable form of iron at normal temperatures. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than 0.021% by mass at 910 °C). Above 912 °C and up to 1401 °C alpha iron undergoes a phase transition from body-centred cubic to the face-centred cubic configuration of gamma iron, also called austenite. This is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1146 °C). This form of iron is used in the type of stainless steel used for making cutlery, and hospital and food-service equipment. Occurrence The red appearance of this water is due to ferric ion, Iron(III) or Fe3+, in the rocks. Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe, formed as the final act of nucleosynthesis, by silicon fusing in massive stars. While it makes up about 5% of the Earth's crust, the Earth's core is believed to consist largely of an iron-nickel alloy constituting 35% of the mass of the Earth as a whole. Iron is consequently the most abundant element on Earth, but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust. . Most of the iron in the crust is found combined with oxygen as iron oxide minerals such as hematite and magnetite. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Although rare, iron meteorites are the major form of natural metallic iron on the Earth's surface. The red color of the surface of Mars is thought to derive from an iron oxide-rich regolith. Isotopes Naturally occurring iron consists of four isotopes: 5.845% of radioactive 54Fe (half-life: >3.1×1022 years), 91.754% of stable 56Fe, 2.119% of stable 57Fe and 0.282% of stable 58Fe. 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (1.5 million years). Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe has centered on determining 60Fe variations due to processes accompanying nucleosynthesis (i.e., meteorite studies) and ore formation. In the last decade however, advances in mass spectrometry technology have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work has been driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are beginning to emerge. Dauphas, N. & Rouxel, O. 2006. Mass spectrometry and natural variations of iron isotopes. Mass Spectrometry Reviews, 25, 515-550 The most abundant iron isotope 56Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists. A common misconception is that this isotope represents the most stable nucleus possible, and that it thus would be impossible to perform fission or fusion on 56Fe and still liberate energy. This is not true, as both 62Ni and 58Fe are more stable, being the most stable nuclei. However, since 56Ni is much more easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process), nickel-56 (14 alpha particles) is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since addition of another alpha would result in zinc-60, which requires a great deal more energy. This nickel-56, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is therefore made in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, to first radioactive cobalt-56, and then stable iron-56. This last nuclide is therefore common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight. In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the daughter product of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found which is evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide 26Al, to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. Of the stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin (−1/2). Chemistry and compounds Reactivity Oxidation state II Oxidation state III Other oxidation states Iron chloride hexahydrate Iron oxides (FeO, Fe3O4, and Fe2O3) are ores used for iron production (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used as a catalyst in the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters. http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/srb.html Iron(II) acetate (Fe(CH3CO2)2 (ferrous acetate) is used as a mordant in the dyeing of cloth and leather, and as a wood preservative. Iron(III) ammonium citrate (C6H5+4yFexNyO7) is used in blueprints. Iron(III) arsenate (FeAsO4) is used in insecticides. Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) is used: in water purification and sewage treatment, in the dyeing of cloth, as a coloring agent in paints, as an additive in animal feed, and as an etchant for copper in the manufacture of printed circuit boards. Iron(III) chromate (Fe2(CrO4)3) is used as a yellow pigment for paints and ceramics. Iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) is used as a brown pigment for rubber and in water purification systems. Iron(III) phosphate (FePO4) is used in fertilizer and as an additive in human and animal food. Iron(II) gluconate (Fe(C6H11O7)2) is used as a dietary supplement in iron pills. Iron(II) oxalate (FeC2O4) is used as yellow pigment for paints, plastics, glass and ceramics, and in photography. Iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) is used in water purification and sewage treatment systems, as a catalyst in the production of ammonia, as an ingredient in fertilizer, herbicide, and moss killer, as an additive in animal feed, in wood preservative, and as an additive to flour to increase nutritional iron levels. Experimental iron fertilization of areas of the ocean using iron(II) sulfate has proven successful in increasing plankton growth. Iron-fluorine complex (FeF6)3- is found in solutions containing both Fe(III) ions and fluoride ions. Potassium ferrate (K2FeO4) contains a tetra-oxo anion of iron in its highest known oxidation State. In organic synthesis The use of iron metal filings in organic synthesis is mainly for the reduction of nitro compounds. Fox, B. A.; Threlfall, T. L. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 5, p.346 (1973); Vol. 44, p.34 (1964). (Article) Additionally, iron has been used for desulfurizations, Blomquist, A. T.; Dinguid, L. I. J. Org. Chem. 1947, 12, 718 & 723. reduction of aldehydes, Clarke, H. T.; Dreger, E. E. Org. Syn., Coll. Vol. 1, p.304 (1941); Vol. 6, p.52 (1926). (Article). and the deoxygenation of amine oxides. den Hertog, J.; Overhoff, J. Recl. Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas 1950, 69, 468. History The symbol for Mars has been used since ancient times to represent iron. The Delhi iron pillar is an example of the iron extraction and processing methodologies of India. The iron pillar at Delhi has withstood corrosion for the last 1600 years. The first wrought iron used by mankind during prehistory came from meteors. The smelting of iron in bloomeries began in the second millennium BC. Artifacts from smelted iron occur in India from 1800-1200 BC. The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department) in the Levant from about 1500 BC (suggesting smelting in Anatolia or the Caucasus). E. Photos, 'The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results' World Archaeology Vol. 20, No. 3, Archaeometallurgy (Feb., 1989), pp. 403-421. Muhly, James D. 'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174-83 in Near Eastern Archaeology ed. S. Richard Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns (2003): 180. Cast iron was first produced in China about 550 BC, Donald B. Wagner, 'Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century' Historical Metallurgy 37(1) (2003), 25-37; originally published in West Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine 18 (2001), 41-74. but not in Europe until the medieval period. During the medieval period, means were found in Europe of producing wrought iron from cast iron (in this context known as pig iron) using finery forges. For all these processes, charcoal was required as fuel. Steel (with smaller carbon content than pig iron but more than wrought iron) was first produced in antiquity. New methods of producing it by carburizing bars of iron in the cementation process were devised in the 17th century AD. In the Industrial Revolution, new methods of producing bar iron without charcoal were devised and these were later applied to produce steel. In the late 1850s, Henry Bessemer invented a new steelmaking process, involving blowing air through molten pig iron, to produce mild steel. This and other 19th century and later processes have led to wrought iron no longer being produced. Industrial production Iron ore pellets from Kiruna, Sweden. The production of iron or steel is a process unless the desired final product is cast iron. The first stage is to produce pig iron in a blast furnace. The second is to make wrought iron or steel from pig iron by a further process. Blast furnace Ninety percent of all mining of metallic ores is for the extraction of iron. Industrially, iron is produced starting from iron ores, principally hematite (nominally Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) by a carbothermic reaction (reduction with carbon) in a blast furnace at temperatures of about 2000 °C. In a blast furnace, iron ore, carbon in the form of coke, and a flux such as limestone (which is used to remove impurities in the ore which would otherwise clog the furnace with solid material) are fed into the top of the furnace, while a blast of heated air is forced into the furnace at the bottom. Iron output in 2005 In the furnace, the coke reacts with oxygen in the air blast to produce carbon monoxide: 2 C + O2 → 2 CO The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore (in the chemical equation below, hematite) to molten iron, becoming carbon dioxide in the process: 3 CO + Fe2O3 → 2 Fe + 3 CO2 The flux is present to melt impurities in the ore, principally silicon dioxide sand and other silicates. Common fluxes include limestone (principally calcium carbonate) and dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate). Other fluxes may be used depending on the impurities that need to be removed from the ore. In the heat of the furnace the limestone flux decomposes to calcium oxide (quicklime): CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 Then calcium oxide combines with silicon dioxide to form a slag. CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 The slag melts in the heat of the furnace. In the bottom of the furnace, the molten slag floats on top of the denser molten iron, and apertures in the side of the furnace are opened to run off the iron and the slag separately. The iron once cooled, is called pig iron, while the slag can be used as a material in road construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for agriculture. How Iron was extracted in the 19th century This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production. In 2005, approximately 1,544 Mt (million metric tons) of iron ore were produced worldwide. China was the top producer of iron ore with at least one-fourth world share followed by Brazil, Australia and India, reports the British Geological Survey. Further processes Pig iron is not pure iron, but has 4-5% carbon dissolved in it with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus and manganese. As the carbon is the major impurity, the iron (pig iron) becomes brittle and hard. This form of iron is used to cast articles in foundries such as stoves, pipes, radiators, lamp-posts and rails. Alternatively pig iron may be made into steel (with up to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially pure iron). Various processes have been used for this, including finery forges, puddling furnaces, Bessemer converters, open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, and electric arc furnaces. In all cases, the objective is to oxidize some or all of the carbon, together with other impurities. On the other hand, other metals may be added to make alloy steels. The hardness of the steel depends upon its carbon content, the higher the proportion of carbon, the greater the hardness and the lesser the ductility. The properties of the steel can also be changed by tempering it. To harden the steel, it is heated to red hot and then cooled by quenching it in the water. It becomes harder and more brittle. This steel is then heated to a required temperature and allowed to cool. The steel thus formed is less brittle. Applications Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for 95% of worldwide metal production. Its low cost and high strength make it indispensable in engineering applications such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, automobiles, the hulls of large ships, and structural components for buildings. Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most commonly used in the form of steel. Some of the forms in which iron is produced commercially include: Pig iron has 3.5–4.5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Its only significance is that of an intermediate step on the way from iron ore to cast iron and steel. Cast iron contains 2–4% carbon, 1–6% silicon, and small amounts of manganese. Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect material properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level. It has a melting point in the range of 1420–1470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components, and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. Its mechanical properties vary greatly, dependent upon the form carbon takes in the alloy. "White" cast irons contain their carbon in the form of cementite, or iron carbide. This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken carbide, a very pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the appellation. In grey iron the carbon exists free as fine flakes of graphite, and also renders the material brittle due to the stress-raising nature of the sharp edged flakes of graphite. A newer variant of grey iron, referred to as ductile iron is specially treated with trace amounts of magnesium to alter the shape of graphite to spheroids, or nodules, vastly increasing the toughness and strength of the material.The fining process of smelting iron ore to make wrought iron from pig iron, with the right illustration displaying men working a blast furnace, from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia, published in 1637 by Song Yingxing. Wrought iron contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is a tough, malleable product, but not as fusible as pig iron. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterized by the presence of fine fibers of slag entrapped in the metal. Wrought iron is more corrosion resistant than steel. It has been almost completely replaced by mild steel for traditional "wrought iron" products and blacksmithing. Mild steel corrodes more readily that wrought iron, but is cheaper and more widely available. Carbon steel contains 2.0% carbon or less, with small amounts of manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc. Their alloy content raises their cost, and so they can usually only be justified for specialist uses. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal cost. Iron(III) oxides are used in the production of magnetic storage media in computers. They are often mixed with other compounds, and retain their magnetic properties in solution. The main disadvantage of iron and steel is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly from rust if not protected in some way. Painting, galvanization, passivation, plastic coating and bluing are some techniques used to protect iron from rust by excluding water and oxygen or by sacrificial protection. Biological role Structure of Heme b Iron is essential to nearly all known organisms. In cells, iron is generally stored in the centre of metalloproteins, because "free" iron (which binds non-specifically to many cellular components) can catalyse production of toxic free radicals. Iron deficiency can lead to iron deficiency anemia. In animals, plants, and fungi, iron is often the metal ion incorporated into the heme complex. Heme is an essential component of cytochrome proteins, which mediate redox reactions, and of oxygen carrier proteins such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, and leghemoglobin. Inorganic iron also contributes to redox reactions in the iron-sulfur clusters of many enzymes, such as nitrogenase (involved in the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen) and hydrogenase. Non-heme iron proteins include the enzymes methane monooxygenase (oxidizes methane to methanol), ribonucleotide reductase (reduces ribose to deoxyribose; DNA biosynthesis), hemerythrins (oxygen transport and fixation in marine invertebrates) and purple acid phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate esters). Iron distribution is heavily regulated in mammals, partly because iron has a high potential for biological toxicity. Iron distribution is also regulated because many bacteria require iron, so restricting its availability to bacteria (generally by sequestering it inside cells) can help to prevent or limit infections. This is probably the reason for the relatively low amounts of iron in mammalian milk. A major component of this regulation is the protein transferrin, which binds iron absorbed from the duodenum and carries it in the blood to cells. Dietary sources Good sources of dietary iron include red meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, leaf vegetables, tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, fortified bread, and fortified breakfast cereals. Iron in low amounts is found in molasses, teff and farina. Iron in meat (haem iron) is more easily absorbed than iron in vegetables, Food Standards Agency - Eat well, be well - Iron deficiency but heme/hemoglobin from red meat has effects which may increase the likelihood of colorectal cancer. Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron (II) fumarate, although iron sulfate is cheaper and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, despite being absorbed to a much smaller extent (stomach acid is sufficient to convert some of it to ferrous iron), is often added to foods such as breakfast cereals or "enriched" wheat flour (where it is listed as "reduced iron" in the list of ingredients). Iron is most available to the body when chelated to amino acids - iron in this form is ten to fifteen times more bioavailable than any other, and is also available for use as a common iron supplement. Often the amino acid chosen for this purpose is the cheapest and most common amino acid, glycine, leading to "iron glycinate" supplements. The RDA for iron varies considerably based on age, gender, and source of dietary iron (heme-based iron has higher bioavailability). Infants may require iron supplements if they are breast-fed. Blood donors and pregnant women are at special risk of low iron levels and are often advised to supplement their iron intake. Regulation of uptake Excessive iron can be toxic, because free ferrous iron reacts with peroxides to produce free radicals, which are highly reactive and can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Thus, iron toxicity occurs when there is free iron in the cell, which generally occurs when iron levels exceed the capacity of transferrin to bind the iron. Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no regulated physiological means of excreting iron. Only small amounts of iron are lost daily due to mucosal and skin epithelial cell sloughing, so control of iron levels is mostly by regulating uptake. However, large amounts of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of iron in the blood because high iron levels can damage the cells of the gastrointestinal tract, preventing them from regulating iron absorption, high blood concentrations of iron damage cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, which can cause serious problems, including long-term organ damage and even death. Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of mass, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is a lethal dose. Over-consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is one of the most common toxicological causes of death in children under six. The DRI lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day. Regulation of iron uptake is impaired in some people as a result of a genetic defect that maps to the HLA-H gene region on chromosome 6. In these people, excessive iron intake can result in iron overload disorders, such as hemochromatosis. Many people have a genetic susceptibility to iron overload without realizing it or being aware of a family history of the problem. For this reason, it is advised that people do not take iron supplements unless they suffer from iron deficiency and have consulted a doctor. Hemochromatosis is estimated to cause disease in between 0.3 and 0.8% of Caucasians. Durupt S, Durieu I, Nove-Josserand R, et al.: [Hereditary hemochromatosis]. Rev Med Interne 2000 Nov; 21(11): 961-71[Medline]. The medical management of iron toxicity is complex, and can include use of a specific chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body. Precautions See also El Mutún in Bolivia, where 20% of the world's accessible iron and magnesium is located. Iron Age Iron fertilization - Proposed fertilization of oceans to stimulate phytoplankton growth. Iron (metaphor) Iron in mythology List of countries by iron production Pelletizing - Process of creation of iron ore pellets. Specht Building - A historic landmark in Omaha, Nebraska utilizing an iron facade. Bibliography Doulias PT, Christoforidis S, Brunk UT, Galaris D. Endosomal and lysosomal effects of desferrioxamine: protection of HeLa cells from hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA damage and induction of cell-cycle arrest. Free Radic Biol Med. 2003;35:719-28. H. R. Schubert, History of the British Iron and Steel Industry ... to 1775 AD (Routledge, London, 1957) R. F. Tylecote, History of Metallurgy (Institute of Materials, London 1992). R. F. Tylecote, 'Iron in the Industrial Revolution' in J. Day and R. F. Tylecote, The Industrial Revolution in Metals (Institute of Materials 1991), 200-60. Los Alamos National Laboratory — Iron Crystal structure of iron References External links WebElements.com – Iron It's Elemental – Iron The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei be-x-old:Жалеза | Iron |@lemmatized iron:229 chemical:3 element:10 symbol:2 fe:7 atomic:2 number:2 group:2 period:3 alloy:9 steel:31 far:2 common:8 metal:18 ferromagnetic:1 material:10 everyday:1 use:35 fresh:1 surface:5 lustrous:1 silvery:2 grey:3 color:2 oxidise:1 air:4 form:20 red:7 brown:2 coating:2 ferrous:7 oxide:8 rust:3 compare:1 hardness:3 brinell:2 pure:6 soft:4 second:3 heaviest:1 stable:14 isotope:10 produce:18 alpha:8 process:17 stellar:1 nucleosynthesis:3 heavy:2 nickel:9 require:5 supernova:5 formation:4 abundant:7 core:3 giant:1 meteorite:5 dense:1 planet:1 earth:10 characteristic:1 rarely:1 find:7 oxidize:2 readily:2 presence:2 oxygen:8 moisture:1 order:1 obtain:1 metallic:4 must:1 remove:3 naturally:3 occur:6 ore:18 reduction:4 mainly:2 hematite:4 carbon:27 high:11 temperature:5 property:8 modify:1 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6,992 | Nationality | Nationality is the relationship between a person and their state of origin, culture, association, affiliation and/or loyalty. Nationality affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state. By custom, it is the right of each state to determine who its nationals are. Such determinations are part of nationality law. In some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality. The word citizenship is often used in a different sense from nationality. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the political life of the state, such as by voting or standing for election. The term national includes both citizens and non-citizens. Alternatively, nationality can refer to membership in a nations (collective of people sharing a national identity, usually based on ethnic and cultural ties and self-determination) even if that nation has no state, such as the Basques, Kurds, Finland-Swedes and Palestinians. Individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with semi-autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government, such as the federally recognized tribes of Native Americans in the United States. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of Andalusia, Aragón, Catalonia, Valencia, Galicia and the Basque Country as "nationalities" (Nacionalidades). See also Blood quantum laws Demonym Imagined communities Intersectionality jus soli jus sanguinis Meta-ethnicity Nationalism Second-class citizen References White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257-284. External links Grossman, Andrew. Gender and National Inclusion Trott, Philip D A. Dual Nationality White, Philip L. "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, pp. 257-284. Lord Acton, Nationality (1862) | Nationality |@lemmatized nationality:10 relationship:1 person:3 state:9 origin:1 culture:1 association:1 affiliation:1 loyalty:1 affords:2 jurisdiction:1 protection:1 custom:1 right:2 determine:1 national:5 determination:3 part:1 law:4 case:1 also:3 govern:1 public:1 international:1 example:1 treaty:1 statelessness:1 european:1 convention:1 word:1 citizenship:2 often:1 use:1 different:1 sense:1 common:1 distinguishing:1 feature:1 citizen:4 participate:1 political:1 life:1 vote:1 stand:1 election:1 term:1 include:1 non:1 alternatively:1 refer:1 membership:1 nation:4 collective:1 people:1 share:1 identity:1 usually:1 base:1 ethnic:1 cultural:1 tie:1 self:1 even:1 basque:2 kurd:1 finland:1 swede:1 palestinian:1 individual:1 may:1 consider:1 group:1 semi:1 autonomous:2 status:1 cede:1 power:1 large:1 government:1 federally:1 recognize:1 tribe:1 native:1 american:1 united:1 spanish:1 recognise:1 community:2 andalusia:1 aragón:1 catalonia:1 valencia:1 galicia:1 country:1 nacionalidades:1 see:1 blood:1 quantum:1 demonym:1 imagined:1 intersectionality:1 jus:2 solo:1 sanguinis:1 meta:1 ethnicity:1 nationalism:1 second:1 class:1 reference:1 white:2 philip:3 l:2 globalization:2 mythology:2 g:2 hopkins:2 ed:2 global:2 history:2 interaction:2 universal:2 local:2 palgrave:2 macmillan:2 pp:2 external:1 link:1 grossman:1 andrew:1 gender:1 inclusion:1 trott:1 dual:1 lord:1 acton:1 |@bigram distinguishing_feature:1 self_determination:1 semi_autonomous:1 federally_recognize:1 palgrave_macmillan:2 external_link:1 lord_acton:1 |
6,993 | List_of_Major_League_Baseball_players_with_4,000_total_bases | In baseball statistics, total bases refers to the number of bases a player has gained with hits, i.e., the sum of his hits weighted by 1 for a single, 2 for a double, 3 for a triple and 4 for a home run. Only bases attained from hits count toward this total. Total bases can be calculated from commonly used baseball statistics by using the formula . Singles (1B) can be represented as which, when combined with the given TB formula, yields the simple formula found at the top of the page. This simplifies to Leaders <table border="1" cellpadding="5"> All-Time Total Bases Leaders(through games of September 30, 2008)Active players in bold. RankPlayer NameTotal Bases 1Hank Aaron6,856 2Stan Musial6,134 3Willie Mays6,066 4Barry Bonds5,976 5Ty Cobb5,854 6Babe Ruth5,793 7Pete Rose5,752 8Carl Yastrzemski5,539 9Eddie Murray5,397 10Rafael Palmeiro5,388 11Frank Robinson5,373 12Dave Winfield5,221 13Cal Ripken, Jr.5,168 14Tris Speaker5,101 15'''Ken Griffey, Jr.5,092 16Lou Gehrig5,060 17George Brett5,044 18Mel Ott5,041 19Jimmie Foxx4,956 20Ted Williams4,884 21Honus Wagner4,862 22Paul Molitor4,854 23Al Kaline4,852 24Reggie Jackson4,834 25Andre Dawson4,787 26Robin Yount4,730 27Rogers Hornsby4,712 28Craig Biggio4,711 29Ernie Banks4,706 30Sammy Sosa4,704 31Al Simmons4,685 32Gary Sheffield4,616 33Harold Baines4,604 34Billy Williams4,599 35Rickey Henderson4,588 36Cap Anson4,574 37Frank Thomas4,550 38Alex Rodriguez4,543 39Tony Perez4,532 40Manny Ramírez4,516 41Mickey Mantle4,511 42Roberto Clemente4,492 43Paul Waner4,478 44Nap Lajoie4,474 45Fred McGriff4,458 46Dave Parker4,405 47Mike Schmidt4,404 48Luis Gonzalez4,385 49Eddie Mathews4,349 50Sam Crawford4,328 51Goose Goslin4,325 52Brooks Robinson4,270 53Eddie Collins4,268 54Vada Pinson4,264 55Tony Gwynn4,259 56Charlie Gehringer4,257 57Jeff Kent4,246 58Lou Brock4,238 59Darrell Evans4,230 60Willie McCovey4,219 61Jeff Bagwell4,213 62Willie Stargell4,190 63Rusty Staub4,185 64Steve Finley4,157 65Jake Beckley4,150 66Harmon Killebrew4,143 67Jim Rice4,129 68Jim Thome4,116 69Iván Rodríguez4,110 70Zach Wheat4,100 71Al Oliver4,083 72Wade Boggs4,064 73Harry Heilmann4,053 74Andrés Galarraga4,038 75Chipper Jones4,020 76Roberto Alomar4,018 </tr> </table> Closest active players to 4,000 Total bases Carlos Delgado 3,927 Vladimir Guerrero 3,802 Derek Jeter 3,759 See also related lists Baseball statistics List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters List of lifetime home run leaders through history List of Major League Baseball home run champions 500 home run club List of Major League Baseball players with 3000 hits and 500 home runs List of Major League Baseball players with 3000 hits and 300 home runs MLB players with 2,000 hits MLB players with 400 doubles MLB players with 100 triples MLB players with 1,000 runs MLB players with 1,000 RBI MLB players with 300 stolen bases List of Top 100 MLB leaders in base on balls (walks) Top 15, and List of active Major League Baseball players in the Top 50 in strikeouts List of Major League Baseball players with a .325 batting average List of Major League Baseball players with a .400 on-base percentage List of Major League Baseball players with a .500 slugging percentage List of Major League Baseball players with a .900 on-base plus slugging List of Major League Baseball leaders in games started List of Major League Baseball leaders in games finished List of Major League Baseball leaders in career wins 300 win club Top 100 Major League Baseball strikeout pitchers 3000 strikeout club List of 300-save club and Blown saves List of_Major League Baseball all-time saves leaders Other Slugging average Bases Advanced Percentage External links Baseball.reference.com - Career Leaders & Records for Total Bases ESPN's MLB Statistics Glossary | List_of_Major_League_Baseball_players_with_4,000_total_bases |@lemmatized baseball:18 statistic:4 total:6 base:13 refers:1 number:1 player:16 gain:1 hit:6 e:1 sum:1 weight:1 single:2 double:2 triple:2 home:7 run:8 attain:1 count:1 toward:1 calculate:1 commonly:1 use:2 formula:3 represent:1 combine:1 give:1 tb:1 yield:1 simple:1 find:1 top:6 page:1 simplify:1 leader:9 table:2 border:1 cellpadding:1 time:2 game:3 september:1 active:3 bold:1 rankplayer:1 nametotal:1 ripken:1 jr:2 ken:1 griffey:1 tr:1 close:1 carlos:1 delgado:1 vladimir:1 guerrero:1 derek:1 jeter:1 see:1 also:1 related:1 list:17 major:13 league:14 hitter:1 lifetime:1 history:1 champion:1 club:4 mlb:8 rbi:1 steal:1 ball:1 walk:1 strikeouts:1 batting:1 average:2 percentage:3 slug:2 plus:1 slugging:1 started:1 finished:1 career:2 win:2 strikeout:2 pitcher:1 save:3 blown:1 advanced:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 com:1 record:1 espn:1 glossary:1 |@bigram border_cellpadding:1 ripken_jr:1 ken_griffey:1 griffey_jr:1 vladimir_guerrero:1 derek_jeter:1 league_baseball:14 batting_average:1 slug_percentage:1 plus_slugging:1 external_link:1 |
6,994 | Armored_car_(military) | A 1906 Austro-Daimler Armoured Fighting Vehicle - Prototype |A Rolls Royce armoured car 1920 pattern |Railway shop workers built this vehicle for use by the Danish resistance movement near the end of World War II Kubuś, a replica of a Polish WWII armored vehicle made by the Home Army An armoured car AMZ Dzik used by the Polish military police |A modern French VBL reconnaissance vehicle A military armored (or armoured) car (see spelling differences) is a wheeled armored vehicle, lighter than other armored fighting vehicles, primarily being armored and/or armed for self-defense of the occupants. Other multi-axled wheeled military vehicles can be quite large, and actually be superior to some smaller tracked vehicles in terms of armor and armament. History At the beginning of the twentieth century a number of military armored vehicles were manufactured by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles. The first manufactured one was the "Motor War Car" in 1902. The Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish War. Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 102 A great variety of amored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways. Generally, the armored cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in larger units up to squadron size. The cars were primarily armed with light machine guns. But larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a mobile platform for anti-aircraft guns. Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 25 In 1914, the Belgians fielded some early examples of armored cars during the Race to the Sea. The British Royal Naval Air Service then began using cars to rescue downed reconnaissance pilots in the battle areas, and as these excursions became increasingly dangerous, they improvised boiler plate armoring on the vehicles. Eventually, customized Rolls-Royce armored cars were ordered, but when they arrived in December 1914, the mobile period on the Western Front was already over. First World War - Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003, Pg. 59 Military use A military armored car is a type of armored fighting vehicle having wheels (from four to ten large off-road wheels) instead of tracks, and usually light armor. Armored cars are typically less expensive and have superior speed and range compared to tracked military vehicles. Most are not intended for heavy fighting; their normal use is for reconnaissance, command, control, and communications, or for use against lightly armed insurgents or rioters. Only some are intended to enter close combat, often accompanying convoys to protect soft-skinned vehicles. They usually mount a machine gun, autocannon, or small tank gun. Other uses include as a way to move (or tow) various long-range rocket, missile, or mortar batteries through dangerous areas while giving some protection to the crew. Armored cars are popular for peacekeeping or internal security duties. Their appearance is less confrontational and threatening than tanks, and their size and maneuverability is more compatible with tight urban spaces designed for wheeled vehicles. They can also be much more easily air-deployed in cargo planes. Many modern forces now have their dedicated armored car designs, to exploit the advantages noted above. Examples would be the M1117 Armored Security Vehicle of the USA or Alvis Saladin of the post-World War II era in the United Kingdom. Alternatively, civilian vehicles may be modified into improvised armored cars in ad-hoc fashion. Many militias and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored fighting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some regional conflicts these "technicals" are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor and scrounged weapons. See also Armoring: Aramid Bulletproof glass Twaron Vehicle armor Gun truck Tankette Armored personnel carrier Sources Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ, 1976. ISBN 0-89009-058-0. References External links WWI armored cars | Armored_car_(military) |@lemmatized austro:1 daimler:1 armour:3 fight:2 vehicle:22 prototype:1 roll:2 royce:2 car:23 pattern:1 railway:1 shop:1 worker:1 build:1 use:12 danish:1 resistance:1 movement:1 near:1 end:1 world:4 war:6 ii:2 kubuś:1 replica:1 polish:2 wwii:1 armor:10 make:1 home:1 army:1 armoured:1 amz:1 dzik:1 military:8 police:1 modern:2 french:1 vbl:1 reconnaissance:3 armored:21 see:2 spell:1 difference:1 wheeled:3 light:3 fighting:3 primarily:2 arm:3 self:1 defense:1 occupant:1 multi:1 axled:1 quite:1 large:4 actually:1 superior:2 small:2 tracked:1 term:1 armament:1 history:1 beginning:1 twentieth:1 century:1 number:1 manufacture:2 add:1 weapon:2 exist:1 first:2 one:1 motor:1 italian:1 italo:1 turkish:1 crow:3 encyclopedia:3 pg:3 great:1 variety:1 amored:1 appear:1 side:1 various:2 way:2 generally:1 less:3 independent:1 commander:1 however:1 sometimes:1 unit:2 squadron:1 size:2 machine:2 gun:6 usually:3 employ:1 heavy:2 air:3 power:1 become:2 factor:1 offer:1 mobile:2 platform:1 anti:1 aircraft:1 belgian:1 field:1 early:1 example:2 race:1 sea:1 british:1 royal:1 naval:1 service:1 begin:1 rescue:1 downed:1 pilot:1 battle:1 area:2 excursion:1 increasingly:1 dangerous:2 improvise:2 boiler:1 plate:1 eventually:1 customize:1 order:1 arrive:1 december:1 period:1 western:1 front:1 already:1 willmott:1 h:1 p:1 dorling:1 kindersley:1 type:2 wheel:2 four:1 ten:1 road:1 instead:1 track:2 typically:1 expensive:1 speed:1 range:2 compare:1 intend:2 normal:1 command:1 control:1 communication:1 lightly:1 insurgent:1 rioter:1 enter:1 close:1 combat:3 often:2 accompany:1 convoy:1 protect:1 soft:1 skinned:1 mount:1 autocannon:1 tank:2 us:1 include:1 move:1 tow:1 long:1 rocket:1 missile:1 mortar:1 battery:1 give:1 protection:1 crew:1 popular:1 peacekeeping:1 internal:1 security:2 duty:1 appearance:1 confrontational:1 threaten:1 maneuverability:1 compatible:1 tight:1 urban:1 space:1 design:2 also:2 much:1 easily:1 deploy:1 cargo:1 plane:1 many:2 force:3 dedicate:1 exploit:1 advantage:1 note:1 would:1 usa:1 alvis:1 saladin:1 post:1 era:1 united:1 kingdom:1 alternatively:1 civilian:3 may:1 modify:1 improvised:1 ad:1 hoc:1 fashion:1 militia:1 irregular:1 adapt:2 afvs:1 troop:1 carrier:2 regional:1 conflict:1 technical:1 present:1 occasion:1 even:1 soldier:1 national:1 scrounge:1 aramid:1 bulletproof:1 glass:1 twaron:1 truck:1 tankette:1 personnel:1 source:1 duncan:1 icks:1 robert:1 j:1 chatwell:1 book:1 secaucus:1 nj:1 isbn:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 wwi:1 |@bigram roll_royce:2 tracked_vehicle:1 twentieth_century:1 italo_turkish:1 willmott_h:1 dorling_kindersley:1 armor_armored:1 wheeled_vehicle:1 ad_hoc:1 external_link:1 |
6,995 | Handheld_game_console | A handheld game console is a lightweight, portable device with a built-in screen, games controls and speakers. D 4.1 - Standards and technology monitoring report [revised version]. University of Maribor. Sixth Framework Programme (European Community). 24 April 2007. p. 20. Handheld game consoles are run on machines of small size allowing people to carry them and play them at any time or place. Li, Frederick W. B. Computer Games. University of Durham. Retrieved 19 December 2008. p. 4. Unlike video game consoles, the controls, screen and speakers are all part of a single unit. In 1977, Mattel introduced the first handheld electronic game with the release of Auto Race, . Later, several companies—including Coleco and Milton Bradley—made their own single-game, lightweight table-top or handheld electronic game devices. The oldest true handheld game console with interchangeable cartridges is the Milton Bradley Microvision in 1979. Nintendo is credited with popularizing the handheld console concept with the release of the Game Boy in 1989, and continues to dominate the handheld console market with successive Game Boy models. History Origins The origins of handheld game consoles are found in handheld and tabletop electronic game devices of the 1970s and early 1980s. These electronic devices are capable of playing only a single game, they fit in the palm of the hand or on a tabletop, and they may make use of a variety of video displays such as LED, VFD, or LCD. In 1978, handheld electronic games were described by Popular Electronics magazine as "nonvideo electronic games" and "non-TV games" as distinct from devices that required use of a television screen. Handheld electronic games, in turn, find their origins in the synthesis of previous handheld and tabletop electro-mechanical devices such as Waco's Electronic Tic-Tac-Toe (1972) Cragstan's Periscope-Firing Range (1960's), and the emerging optoelectronic-display-driven calculator market of the early 1970s. This synthesis happened in 1976, when "Mattel began work on a line of calculator-sized sports games that became the world's first handheld electronic games. The project began when Michael Katz, Mattel's new product category marketing director, told the engineers in the electronics group to design a game the size of a calculator, using LED (light-emitting diode) technology." Our big success was something that I conceptualized—the first handheld game. I asked the design group to see if they could come up with a game that was electronic that was the same size as a calculator. —Michael Katz, former marketing director, Mattel Toys. The result was the 1976 release of Auto Race. Followed by Football later the same year, the two games were so successful that according to Katz, "these simple [electronic handheld] games turned into a '$400 million category.'" Mattel would later win the honor of being recognized by the industry for innovation in handheld game device displays. Soon, other manufacturers including Coleco, Parker Brothers, Milton Bradley, Entex, and Bandai began following up with their own tabletop and handheld electronic games. In 1979 the LCD-based Microvision, designed by Smith Engineering and distributed by Milton-Bradley, became the first handheld game console and the first to use interchangeable game cartridges. The Microvision game Cosmic Hunter (1981) also introduced the concept of a directional pad on handheld gaming devices, and is operated by using the thumb to manipulate the on-screen character in any of four directions. Starting in 1980, Nintendo began to release a series of electronic games designed by Gunpei Yokoi called the Game & Watch games. Taking advantage of the technology used in the credit-card-sized calculators that had appeared on the market, Yokoi designed the series of LCD-based games to include a digital time display in the corner of the screen. For later, more complicated Game & Watch games, Yokoi invented a cross shaped directional pad or "D-pad" for control of on-screen characters. Yokoi also included his directional pad on the Famicom game console's controllers, and the cross-shaped thumb controller soon became standard on game console controllers and ubiquitous across the video game industry as a replacement for the joystick. When Yokoi began designing Nintendo's first handheld game console, he came up with a device that married the elements of his Game & Watch devices and the Famicom console, including both items' D-pad controller. The result was the Nintendo Game Boy. Late 1980s through early 1990s The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the relaunch of the handheld game console pillar of the video game market after the demise of the Microvision. As backlit LCD game consoles with color graphics consume a lot of power, they were not battery-friendly like the non-backlit original Game Boy whose monochrome graphics allowed longer battery life. By this point, rechargeable battery technology had not yet matured and so the more advanced game consoles of the time such as the Game Gear and Atari Lynx did not have nearly as much success as the Game Boy. Even though third-party rechargeable batteries were available for the battery-hungry alternatives to the Game Boy, these batteries employed a nickel-cadmium process and had to be completely discharged before being recharged to ensure maximum efficiency. The later NiMH batteries, which do not share this requirement for maximum efficiency, were not released until the late 1990s, years after the Game Gear, Atari Lynx, and original Game Boy had been discontinued. During the time when technologically superior handhelds had strict technical limitations, batteries had a very low mAh rating since batteries with heavy power density were not yet available. Modern game systems such as the Nintendo DS and Sony PlayStation Portable have rechargeable Li-Ion batteries with proprietary shapes. Other seventh-generation consoles such as the GP2X use standard alkaline batteries. Because the mAh rating of alkaline batteries has increased since the 1990s, the power needed for handhelds like the GP2X may be supplied by relatively few batteries. Game Boy The original Game Boy Five years after the failure of Palmtex' Home-Computer Software Super Micro Cartridge System, Nintendo released the Game Boy. The design team headed by the late Gunpei Yokoi had also been responsible for the Game & Watch system, as well as the Nintendo Entertainment System games Metroid and Kid Icarus. The Game Boy came under scrutiny by some industry critics, saying that the monochrome screen was too small, and the processing power was inadequate. The design team had felt that low initial cost and battery economy were more important concerns, and when compared to the Microvision, the Game Boy was a huge leap forward. Yokoi recognized that the Game Boy needed a killer app—at least one game that would define the console, and persuade customers to buy it. In June 1988, Minoru Arakawa, then-CEO of Nintendo of America saw a demonstration of the game Tetris at a trade show. Nintendo purchased the rights for the game, and packaged it with the Game Boy system. It was almost an immediate hit. By the end of the year more than a million units were sold, and 25 million were sold by 1992. As of March 31, 2005, the Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined to sell 118.69 million units worldwide. Gamate Retail store Target in Australia sold the Gamate handheld console next to the Game Boy, which was a cheaper competitor to the Game Boy, with a limited list of titles. It featured a black and green screen similar to the Game Boy, and a controller and button layout similar to the Game Boy Advance. Atari Lynx Atari Lynx In 1987, Epyx created the Handy; a device that would turn into the Atari Lynx in 1989. It was the first color handheld console ever made, as well as the first with a backlighted screen. It also featured networking support with up to 17 other players, and advanced hardware that allowed the zooming and scaling of sprites. The Lynx could also be turned upside down to accommodate left-handed players. However, all these features came at a very high price point, which drove consumers to seek cheaper alternatives. The Lynx was also very unwieldy, consumed batteries very quickly, and lacked the third-party support enjoyed by its competitors. Due to its high price, short battery life, production shortages, a dearth of compelling games, and Nintendo's aggressive marketing campaign, and despite a redesign in 1991, the Lynx became a commercial failure. Despite this, companies like Telegames helped to keep the system alive long past its commercial relevance, and when new owner Hasbro released the rights to develop for the public domain, independent developers like Songbird have managed to release new commercial games for the system every year until 2004's Winter Games. TurboExpress TurboExpress handheld, TV tuner, and games The TurboExpress was a portable version of the TurboGrafx, released in 1990 for $249.99 (the price was briefly raised to $299.99, soon dropped back to $249.99, and by 1992 it was $199.99). Its Japanese equivalent was the PC Engine GT. It was the most advanced handheld of its time and could play all the TurboGrafx-16's games (which were on a small, credit-card sized media called HuCards). It had a 66 mm (2.6 in.) screen, the same as the original Game Boy, and could display 64 sprites at once, 16 per scanline, in 512 (some say only 482?) colors. It had 64 kilobytes of RAM. The Turbo ran its two 6820 CPUs at 3.58 MHz in parallel. The optional "TurboVision" TV tuner included RCA audio/video input, allowing users to use TurboExpress as a video monitor. The "TurboLink" allowed two-player play. Falcon, a flight simulator, included a "head-to-head" dogfight mode that could only be accessed via TurboLink. However, very few TG-16 games offered co-op play modes especially designed with the TurboExpress in mind. Sega Game Gear Sega Game Gear The Sega Game Gear was the third color handheld console, after the Lynx and the TurboExpress. Released in Japan in 1990 and in North America and Europe in 1991, it was based on the Sega Master System, which gave Sega the ability to quickly create Game Gear games from its large library of games for the Master System. Late 1990s The Game Boy was nine years old before it got its first significant makeover. In 1998, the Game Boy Color was released. It used the smaller and lighter form-factor of the Game Boy Pocket, but featured a full color screen. It was also backwards-compatible, so that it could play not only games specifically made for the Game Boy Color, but standard Game Boy games as well. It did not have significantly more computing power than the Game Boy, however. By this time, the lack of significant development in Nintendo's product line began allowing more advanced systems such as the Neo Geo Pocket Color and the Wonderswan Color to achieve moderate success. Game.com Game.com The Game.com (pronounced in TV commercials as "game com", not "game dot com", and not capitalized in marketing material) was a handheld game console released by Tiger Electronics in September 1997. It featured many new ideas for handheld consoles and was aimed at an older target audience, sporting PDA-style features and functions such as a touch screen and stylus. However, Tiger hoped it would also challenge Nintendo's Game Boy and gain a following among younger gamers too. Unlike other handheld game consoles, the first game.com consoles included two slots for game cartridges and could be connected to a 14.4 kbit/s modem. Later models had only a single cartridge slot. Game Boy Color The Game Boy Color was the first handheld by Nintendo featuring ColorsThe Game Boy Color (also referred to as GBC or CGB) is Nintendo's successor to the Game Boy and was released on October 21, 1998 in Japan and in November of the same year in the United States. It features a color screen, and is slightly bigger than the Game Boy Pocket. The processor is twice as fast as a Game Boy's and has twice as much memory. It also had an infrared communications port for wireless linking which did not appear in later versions of the Game Boy, such as the Game Boy Advance. The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new system, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient. The resulting product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld console system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system. This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors. As of March 31, 2005, the Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined to sell 118.69 million units worldwide. The console was capable of displaying up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and could add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy. It could also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors. Neo Geo Pocket Color Neo Geo Pocket Color The Neo Geo Pocket Color (or NGPC) was released in 1998 in Japan. It was a 16-bit color handheld game console designed by SNK, the maker of the Neo Geo home console and arcade machine. It came after SNK's original Neo Geo Pocket monochrome handheld, which debuted in 1998 in Japan (and was released in the U.S. in 1999). In 2000 following SNK's purchase by Japanese Pachinko manufacturer Aruze, the Neo Geo Pocket Color was dropped from both the U.S. and European markets, purportedly due to commercial failure. The system seemed well on its way to being a success in the U.S. It was more successful than any Game Boy competitor since Sega's Game Gear, but was hurt by several factors, such as SNK's infamous lack of communication with third-party developers, and anticipation of the Game Boy Advance. The decision to ship U.S. games in cardboard boxes in a cost-cutting move rather than hard plastic cases that Japanese and European releases were shipped in may have also hurt U.S. sales. Wonderswan Color The Wonderswan Color The WonderSwan Color is a handheld game console designed by Bandai. It was released on December 30, 2000 in Japan, and was a moderate success. The original WonderSwan had only a black and white screen. Although the WonderSwan Color was slightly larger and heavier (7 mm and 2 g) compared to the original WonderSwan, the color version featured 64KB of RAM and a larger color LCD screen. In addition, the WonderSwan Color is compatible with the original WonderSwan library of games. Prior to WonderSwan's release, Nintendo had virtually a monopoly in the Japanese video game handheld market. After the release of the WonderSwan Color, Bandai took approximately 8% of the market share in Japan partly due to its low price of 6800 yen (approximately $65 U.S. Dollars). Another reason for the WonderSwan's success in Japan was the fact that Bandai managed to get a deal with SquareSoft to port over the original Famicom Final Fantasy games with improved graphics and controls. However, with the popularity of the Game Boy Advance and the reconciliation between SquareSoft and Nintendo, the WonderSwan Color and its successor, the SwanCrystal quickly lost its competitive advantage. 2000s Game Boy Advance The Game Boy Advance was a major upgrade to the Game Boy line In 2001, Nintendo released the Game Boy Advance (GBA or AGB), which added two shoulder buttons, a larger screen, and more computing power to the Game Boy Color. The design was revised two years later when the Game Boy Advance SP (GBA SP), a more compact version, was released. The SP featured a "clamshell" design (folding open and closed, like a briefcase), as well as a frontlit color display and rechargeable battery. Despite the smaller form factor, the screen remained the same size as that of the original. In 2005, the Game Boy Micro was released. This revision sacrificed screen size and backwards compatibility with previous Game Boys for a dramatic reduction in total size and a brighter backlit screen. A new SP model with a backlit screen was released in some regions around the same time. Along with the Nintendo GameCube, the GBA also introduced the concept of "connectivity": using a handheld system as a console controller. A handful of games use this feature, most notably Animal Crossing, Pac-Man Vs., Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles, The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventure, The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker, and Sonic Adventure 2: Battle. As of December 31, 2007, the GBA, GBA SP, and the Game Boy Micro combined have sold 80.72 million units worldwide. Game Park 32 GP32 The original GP32 was released in 2001 by the South Korean company Game Park a few months after the launch of the Game Boy Advance. It featured a 32-bit CPU, 133 MHz processor, MP3 and Divx player, and e-book reader. SmartMedia cards were used for storage, and could hold up to 128mb of anything downloaded through a USB cable from a PC. The GP32 was redesigned in 2003. A front-lit screen was added and the new version was called GP32 FLU (Front Light Unit). In summer 2004, another redesign, the GP32 BLU, was made, and added a backlit screen. This version of the handheld was planned for release outside South Korea; in Europe, and it was released for example in Spain (VirginPlay was the distributor). While not a commercial success on a level with mainstream handhelds (only 30,000 units were sold), it ended up being used mainly as a platform for user-made applications and emulators of other systems, being popular with developers and more technically-adept users. GP2X Q&A, With Craig Rothwell. Clockerz. Accessed on 24-03-2008. N-Gage N-Gage N-Gage QD Nokia released the N-Gage in 2003. It was designed as a combination MP3 player, cellphone, PDA, radio, and gaming device. The system received much criticism alleging defects in its physical design and layout, including its vertically-oriented screen and requirement of removing the battery to change game cartridges. The most well known of these was "sidetalking", or the act of placing the phone speaker and receiver on an edge of the device instead of one of the flat sides, causing the user to appear as if they are speaking into a taco. The N-Gage QD was later released to address the design flaws of the original. However, certain features available in the original N-Gage, including MP3 playback, FM radio reception, and USB connectivity were removed. Second generation of N-Gage launched on April 3, 2008 in the form of a service for selected Nokia Smartphones. Tapwave Zodiac Tapwave Zodiac 2 In 2004, Tapwave released the Zodiac. It was designed to be a PDA-handheld game console hybrid. It supported photos, movies, music, Internet, and documents. The Zodiac used a special version Palm OS 5, 5.2T, that supported the special gaming buttons and graphics chip. Two versions were available, Zodiac 1 and 2, differing in memory and looks. The Zodiac line ended in July 2005 when Tapwave declared bankruptcy. Nintendo DS The Nintendo DS has two screens (the lower of which is a touchscreen), a microphone and Wi-Fi connectivity. The Nintendo DSi adds two cameras (one outside, one inside) to the original design, and replaces the Game Boy Advance slot with an SD/SDHC card slot. The Nintendo DS was released in November 2004. Among its new features were the incorporation of two screens, a touchscreen, wireless connectivity, and a microphone port. As with the Game Boy Advance SP, the DS features a clamshell design, with the two screens aligned vertically on either side of the hinge. The DS's lower screen is touch sensitive, designed to be pressed with a stylus, a user's finger or a special "thumb pad" (a small plastic pad attached to the console's wrist strap, which can be affixed to the thumb to simulate an analog stick). More traditional controls include four face buttons, a D-pad, and "Start" and "Select" buttons. The console also features online capabilities via the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection and ad-hoc wireless networking for multiplayer games with up to sixteen players. It is backwards-compatible with all Game Boy Advance games, but not with games designed for the Game Boy or Game Boy Color. In January 2006, Nintendo revealed an updated version of the DS: the Nintendo DS Lite (released on March 2, 2006 in Japan) with an updated, smaller form factor (42% smaller and 21% lighter than the original Nintendo DS), a cleaner design, and brighter, higher-quality displays, with adjustable brightness. It is also able to connect wirelessly with Nintendo's Wii console. As of March 31 2009, the Nintendo DS, Nintendo DS Lite and Nintendo DSi combined have sold 101.78 million units worldwide. In October 2008, Nintendo announced the Nintendo DSi, with larger, 3.25 inch screens and two integrated cameras. It will have an SD card storage slot in place of the Game Boy Advance slot, plus internal flash memory for storing downloaded games. It was released on November 1, 2008 in Japan, and was released in North America April 5 2009 and April 3 2009 in Europe. PlayStation Portable The PlayStation Portable can play music, movies, games, view pictures and browse the web wirelessly. Sony's PlayStation Portable (PSP) was first revealed at E3 2004, and was released in Japan and North America in late 2004 and early 2005, respectively. The PSP, as well as several other handhelds in the seventh generation, is designed with an emphasis on convergence, with video and music playback functions in addition to game playing. As of August 20, 2008, 41 million units have been sold worldwide. The PSP features four face buttons with the distinctive PlayStation symbols, a directional pad, two shoulder buttons and several hardware control buttons along the bottom of the console's face. The PSP has a single analog control in the form of an "analog pad": a small plastic circle which can slide along the plane of the console's front panel. The PSP's screen is often considered one of its most obvious hardware advantages, an unusually large 4.3 inch (11 cm) widescreen (16:9 aspect ratio) LCD. Unlike previous handheld games, PSP games are stored on UMD optical discs rather than a solid-state medium. In terms of hardware connectivity, the PSP supports Wi-Fi for multiplayer gaming both locally and over the Internet, as well as a standard four-pin USB connector on the top edge of the console. The system is designed to connect to Sony's PlayStation 3 console (There are noted similarities between the two consoles, such as the "XMB" user interface). Sony has emphasized the PSP's non-gaming functions. The machine can play movies and music from the system's UMD disks, or from a Memory Stick Duo memory card (Sony's proprietary flash storage format). Some of the games for the PSP, such as Wipeout Pure, can use a wireless Internet connection to download new content, and as of firmware version 2.0 the console has an integrated web browser. Later firmware updates have added more non-gaming functionality such as LocationFree Player support in firmware 2.50; RSS Channel audio which can be streamed or downloaded to the memory stick in 2.60, Video and Photo RSS Channel (Although users cannot stream videos or photo off the internet, they can only download) in 2.80; Full PlayStation 3 connectivity in 3.00 and the ability to use the Chotto Shot (Quick Shot) camera accessory without the Chotto Shot Edit Universal Media Disc software. However, the success of the non-gaming functions, particularly the UMD playback, has been limited. The 5.01 upgrade allows the user to buy demos, games, music and other media from the PlayStation Store. In 2007, Sony announced an updated version of the PSP at E3: the PSP Slim & Lite. It was officially released in September 2007. The price for the Core Pack is US$169.99. Firmware update 3.90 added Skype functionality to the PSP Slim & Lite allowing users to use their Skype account to make and receive calls using VOIP, anywhere Wi-Fi is accessible. In 2008, Sony announced another upgraded version of the PSP,the PSP-3000 with an integrated microphone, a brighter screen and some minor changes. It was released October 2008. In 2009, Rumors came about a new PSP called the PSP Go! It finally gave light on the June 2009 Editon of Qore. It has 16 GB internal flash memory, a sliding screen, Bluetooth support, and is UMD-less. Its expected to be announced at E3 2009 and is expected to be released in the fall of 2009 Gizmondo The Gizmondo Tiger's Gizmondo came out in the UK during March 2005 and it was released in the U.S. during October 2005. It is designed to play music, movies, and games, have a camera for taking and storing photos, and have GPS functions. It also has Internet capabilities. It has a phone for sending text and multimedia messages. Email was promised at launch, but was never released before Gizmondo, and ultimately Tiger Telematics', downfall in early 2006. Users obtained a second service pack, unreleased, hoping to find such functionality. However, Service Pack B did not activate the e-mail functionality. Game Park Holdings GP2X The Gamepark GP2X Released in November 2005, the GP2X is a handheld game console that uses the Linux operating system and is designed to support videos, music, photos, and games in an open architecture allowing any user to develop software for the device. Expandability for future upgrades (new media formats, features, operating system, etc) has been made possible by flash upgradable firmware. The GP2X natively supports codecs and formats such as DivX, Xvid, MP3 and Ogg Vorbis, but because the player is based on the open-source media player named mplayer, it is easily possible to add other codecs unsupported at the launch. It can also emulate games for many systems, including the NES, SMS, PC Engine, SNES, Mega Drive/Genesis, GBA and PlayStation (but not full-speed). The current number sold is unknown, but 30,000 were sold by October 2006. A new version called the "F200" was released on November 1, 2007 and featured a touchscreen, among other changes. Apple iPod Touch/iPhone The iPod Touch and iPhone could be considered as handheld gaming devices with the arrival of Apple's iPhone OS SDK and the App Store, which has allowed for potential use of the Power VR MBX Lite in the devices originally used for Cover Flow and other display effects, powered by an ARM 1176 processor at 412MHz (533MHz for 2G iPod Touch) and MBX Lite. Many games are in 3D and make use of the touchscreen and motion sensors. The iPhone is also a quad-band GSM mobile phone, while the 3G version adds support for 3G connectivity and GPS. The platform has been frequently discussed as a gaming console by Apple executives, technology journalists, and even established video game competitors such as Nintendo. Dingoo The Dingoo A320 is a micro-sized gaming handheld that supports open game development. It also supports music and video playing capabilities. There is also an on board radio and recording program. There are currently two colors available - White and Black. Dingoo has announced that a Pink version will be released soon. List of notable handheld game consoles Milton Bradley Microvision (1979) Epoch Game Pocket Computer - (1984) - Japanese only; not a success Nintendo Game Boy (1989) - First internationally successful handheld game console Atari Lynx (1989) - First backlit/color screen, first hardware capable of accelerated 3d drawing NEC TurboExpress (1990, Japan; 1991, North America) - Played huCard (TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine) games, first console/handheld intercompatibility Sega Game Gear (1991) - Architecturally similar to Sega Master System, notable accessory firsts include a TV tuner Watara Supervision (1992) - first handheld with TV-OUT support: the Super Game Boy was only a compatibility layer for the preceding Game Boy. Sega Mega Jet (1992) - no screen, made for Japan Air Lines (first handheld without a screen) Mega Duck/Cougar Boy (1993) - 4 level grayscale 2,7" LCD - stereo sound - rare, sold in Europe and Brazil Nintendo Virtual Boy (1994) - Monochromatic (red only) 3D goggle set, only semi-portable; first 3D portable Sega Nomad (1995) - Played normal Sega Genesis cartridges, albeit at lower resolution Neo Geo Pocket (1996) - Unrelated to Neo Geo consoles or arcade systems save for name Game Boy Pocket (1996) - Slimmer redesign of Game Boy Game Boy Pocket Light (1997) - Japanese only backlit version of the Game Boy Pocket Tiger game.com (1997) - First touch screen, first Internet support (with use of sold-separately modem) Game Boy Color (1998) Cybiko (around 1998) Playblock (around 1998, possibly earlier) Sony PocketStation (1998) - Japanese only PS1 memory card/portable mini console in one. SNK Neo Geo Pocket Color (1999) Bandai WonderSwan (1999) - Developed by Gumpei Yokoi after leaving Nintendo Bandai WonderSwan Color (2000) Game Park GP32 (2001) - first with full homebrew support Game Boy Advance (2001) - First 32-bit handheld Pokémon mini (2001) - The smallest cartridge-based system that includes a black-and-white LCD screen, and the smallest integrated gamepad ever created. Bandai Swan Crystal (2002) - Minor redesign of WonderSwan Color N-Gage (2003) - Game system and GSM cell phone (first combination of the two); first included mp3 player and FM radio; used Bluetooth (first wireless multiplayer); first use of GPRS for online play Game Boy Advance SP (2003) - Redesign of GBA: slimmer, clamshell form factor; frontlit screen Gameking (2003) - first handheld developed by a Chinese company. Tapwave Zodiac (2004) - First PDA/game handheld hybrid; Palm OS PDA with game-focused form factor and features Nokia N-Gage QD (2004) - Redesign of N-Gage, removed mp3 playback and radio Nintendo DS (2004) - First inclusion of dual screens, built-in microphone, and Wi-Fi for wireless multiplayer; touchscreen PlayStation Portable (2004/2005) - First use of optical media; uses Memory Sticks for saved data; plays movies and music and views JPEG pictures. Gizmondo (2005) - Uses GPRS network; first inclusion of GPS for location-based games, first built-in camera Game Boy Micro (2005) - Redesign of GBA; smallest Game Boy form factor to date, first transflective LCD screen in a handheld. Game Boy Advance SP (Backlit) - A low key re-release of the GBA SP with a backlit screen. XGP (2005) and Game Park Holdings GP2X (2005) - Successor units to the GP32 handheld, each being developed by the two companies that split off from Game Park. Ez MINI (2005) by Shanda Nintendo DS Lite (2006) - Redesign of DS, including smaller size, brighter screen levels, and other subtle changes. VG Pocket Caplet Upgraded VG Pocket Max. PlayStation Portable Slim & Lite (2007) - Redesign of PlayStation Portable (PSP), including smaller size, lighter weight, video out capability, USB charge, and other changes. PlayStation Portable 3000 (2008) - Minor redesign of the current PSP Slim & Lite, including brighter screen, built in mic, and a PS button replacing the Home Button iPhone (2008) - Introduced in 2007, but did not work as a handheld gaming console until Apple's introduction of the iPhone SDK, App Store, and iPhone OS 2.0 iPod touch (2008) - Phone-less iPhone with the AppStore pre-loaded. Original iPod touch can be upgraded to the 2.0 OS through the iTunes Store Nintendo DSi (2008) - Small redesign of the Nintendo DS Lite. Some changes include built in internet, camera, use of SD card, and no more backward compatibility with Game Boy Advance games Open Pandora (2009) - Open Source handheld developed by former distributors and community members of the GP32 and GP2X. Atari Flashback Portable (20??) - handheld Atari 2600 game console created by Curt Vendel and Legacy Engineering Group PSP-Go (2009) - A brand new PSP including no UMD, Internal Memory, Bluetooth, and a sliding screen See also Console emulator Handheld video game Calculator gaming Handheld television References External links | Handheld_game_console |@lemmatized handheld:57 game:205 console:50 lightweight:2 portable:14 device:16 build:5 screen:44 control:7 speaker:3 standard:5 technology:5 monitor:2 report:1 revise:2 version:17 university:2 maribor:1 sixth:1 framework:1 programme:1 european:3 community:2 april:4 p:2 run:2 machine:3 small:15 size:10 allow:11 people:1 carry:1 play:13 time:7 place:3 li:2 frederick:1 w:1 b:2 computer:3 durham:1 retrieve:1 december:3 unlike:3 video:15 part:1 single:5 unit:10 mattel:5 introduce:4 first:36 electronic:13 release:43 auto:2 race:2 later:8 several:4 company:5 include:20 coleco:2 milton:5 bradley:5 make:10 table:1 top:2 old:3 true:1 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6,996 | Enjambment | Enjambment is the breaking of a syntactic unit (a phrase, clause, or sentence) by the end of a line or between two verses. It is to be contrasted with end-stopping, where each linguistic unit corresponds with a single line, and caesura, in which the linguistic unit ends mid-line. The term is directly borrowed from the French enjambement, meaning "straddling" or "bestriding". The following lines from Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale (c. 1611) are heavily enjambed: I am not prone to weeping, as our sex Commonly are; the want of which vain dew Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honourable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown. Meaning flows as the lines progress, and the reader’s eye is forced to go on to the next sentence. It can also make the reader feel uncomfortable or the poem feel like “flow-of-thought” with a sensation of urgency or disorder. In contrast, the following lines from Romeo and Juliet (c. 1595) are completely end-stopped: A glooming peace this morning with it brings. The sun for sorrow will not show his head. Go hence, to have more talk of these sad things. Some shall be pardon’d, and some punished. Each line is formally correspondent with a unit of thought — in this case, a clause of a sentence. End-stopping is more frequent in early Shakespeare: as his style developed, the proportion of enjambment in his plays increased. Scholars such as Goswin König and A. C. Bradley have estimated approximate dates of undated works of Shakespeare by studying the frequency of enjambment. Enjambment may also be used to delay the intention of the line until the following line and thus play on the expectation of the reader and surprise them. Alexander Pope uses this technique for humorous effect in the following lines from The Rape of the Lock: On her white breast a sparkling cross she wore Which Jews might kiss, and infidels adore. The second line should confuse the reader, raising the question "Why would a Jew or infidel adore a cross?" On second reading, the reader should realize that "breast" does not carry the general androgynous connotation of "chest" but instead the specific idea of a woman's breasts, which are so attractive that a man of any religion would kiss the Christian cross to be near. A master of enjambment, E. E. Cummings combined it with the use of punctuation as an art form: i carry your heart with me(i carry it in my heart)i am never without it(anywhere i go you go,my dear;and whatever is done by only me is your doing,my darling) ——————————————————— i fear no fate(for you are my fate,my sweet)i want no world(for beautiful you are my world,my true) and it's you are whatever a moon has always meant and whatever a sun will always sing is you here is the deepest secret nobody knows (here is the root of the root and the bud of the bud and the sky of the sky of a tree called life;which grows higher than soul can hope or mind can hide) and this is the wonder that's keeping the stars apart i carry your heart(i carry it in my heart) For another example of enjambment in poetry, look at the opening lines of Catullus XIII, ad Fabullum: Cenabis bene, mi Fabulle, apud me paucis, si tibi di favent, diebus, si tecum attuleris bonam atque magnam cenam, non sine candida puella et vino et sale et omnibus cachinnis. Here is an English translation, roughly preserving word order: You will dine well, my Fabullus, at my house in a few, if the gods favor you, days, and if you bring with you a good and great dinner, not without a white girl and wine and wit and laughs for all. The phrase si tecum attuleris bonam atque magnam / cenam (“if you bring with you a good and great / dinner”) is sharply enjambed between the third and fourth lines. Enjambment is sometimes referred to as a "run-on line". Further reading John Hollander, Vision and Resonance, Oxford U. Press, 1975 (especially chapter 5). The Literary Encyclopedia See also Blank verse Caesura Concrete poetry End-stopping Free verse Line break Meter (poetry) Poetic form Stanza Visual poetry | Enjambment |@lemmatized enjambment:7 breaking:1 syntactic:1 unit:4 phrase:2 clause:2 sentence:3 end:6 line:15 two:1 verse:3 contrast:2 stopping:2 linguistic:2 correspond:1 single:1 caesura:2 mid:1 term:1 directly:1 borrow:1 french:1 enjambement:1 mean:2 straddle:1 bestride:1 following:4 shakespeare:3 winter:1 tale:1 c:3 heavily:1 enjambed:2 prone:1 weep:1 sex:1 commonly:1 want:2 vain:1 dew:1 perchance:1 shall:2 dry:1 pity:1 honourable:1 grief:1 lodge:1 burn:1 bad:1 tear:1 drown:1 meaning:1 flow:2 progress:1 reader:5 eye:1 force:1 go:4 next:1 also:3 make:1 feel:2 uncomfortable:1 poem:1 like:1 thought:2 sensation:1 urgency:1 disorder:1 romeo:1 juliet:1 completely:1 stop:2 glooming:1 peace:1 morning:1 bring:3 sun:2 sorrow:1 show:1 head:1 hence:1 talk:1 sad:1 thing:1 pardon:1 punish:1 formally:1 correspondent:1 case:1 frequent:1 early:1 style:1 develop:1 proportion:1 play:2 increase:1 scholar:1 goswin:1 könig:1 bradley:1 estimate:1 approximate:1 date:1 undated:1 work:1 study:1 frequency:1 may:1 use:3 delay:1 intention:1 thus:1 expectation:1 surprise:1 alexander:1 pope:1 technique:1 humorous:1 effect:1 rape:1 lock:1 white:2 breast:3 sparkling:1 cross:3 wear:1 jew:2 might:1 kiss:2 infidel:2 adore:2 second:2 confuse:1 raise:1 question:1 would:2 reading:2 realize:1 carry:5 general:1 androgynous:1 connotation:1 chest:1 instead:1 specific:1 idea:1 woman:1 attractive:1 man:1 religion:1 christian:1 near:1 master:1 e:2 cummings:1 combine:1 punctuation:1 art:1 form:2 heart:4 never:1 without:2 anywhere:1 dear:1 whatever:3 darling:1 fear:1 fate:2 sweet:1 world:2 beautiful:1 true:1 moon:1 always:2 sing:1 deep:1 secret:1 nobody:1 know:1 root:2 bud:2 sky:2 tree:1 call:1 life:1 grow:1 high:1 soul:1 hope:1 mind:1 hide:1 wonder:1 keep:1 star:1 apart:1 another:1 example:1 poetry:4 look:1 opening:1 catullus:1 xiii:1 ad:1 fabullum:1 cenabis:1 bene:1 mi:1 fabulle:1 apud:1 paucis:1 si:3 tibi:1 di:1 favent:1 diebus:1 tecum:2 attuleris:2 bonam:2 atque:2 magnam:2 cenam:2 non:1 sine:1 candida:1 puella:1 et:3 vino:1 sale:1 omnibus:1 cachinnis:1 english:1 translation:1 roughly:1 preserve:1 word:1 order:1 dine:1 well:1 fabullus:1 house:1 god:1 favor:1 day:1 good:2 great:2 dinner:2 girl:1 wine:1 wit:1 laugh:1 sharply:1 third:1 fourth:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 run:1 far:1 john:1 hollander:1 vision:1 resonance:1 oxford:1 u:1 press:1 especially:1 chapter:1 literary:1 encyclopedia:1 see:1 blank:1 concrete:1 free:1 break:1 meter:1 poetic:1 stanza:1 visual:1 |@bigram feel_uncomfortable:1 romeo_juliet:1 blank_verse:1 |
6,997 | Evoluon | Current (left) logo of the conference centre and logo (right) of the original museum. Evoluon in 1968. The Evoluon () is a conference centre and former science museum erected by the electronics and electrical company Philips in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, in 1966. The building is unique due to its very futuristic design, resembling a landed flying saucer. It was designed by architect Louis Christiaan Kalff, while the exhibition was conceived by James Gardner. The building was based on an idea by Frits Philips, who originally made a sketch of the building on a paper napkin. Frits Philips wanted to give the people of Eindhoven a beautiful and educational gift to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the company that bears his family name. Its concrete dome is in diameter and is held in place by of rebar. In the 1960s and 70s it attracted large visitor numbers, since its interactive exhibitions were a new and unique concept in the Netherlands at that time. But when competing science museums opened in other cities, the number of visitors to the Evoluon declined every year. After several years of losing money, the original museum closed down in 1989 and the Evoluon was converted into a conference center, opening in 1998. The Evoluon is chiefly remembered in the from Bert Haanstra's wordless short film, titled simply Evoluon. Commissioned by Philips to publicise the museum, it was shown as a trade test colour film on the BBC from 1968 to 1972. External links Extensive site about the history of the Evoluon | Evoluon |@lemmatized current:1 leave:1 logo:2 conference:3 centre:2 right:1 original:2 museum:5 evoluon:7 former:1 science:2 erect:1 electronics:1 electrical:1 company:2 philip:4 eindhoven:2 netherlands:2 building:3 unique:2 due:1 futuristic:1 design:2 resemble:1 landed:1 fly:1 saucer:1 architect:1 louis:1 christiaan:1 kalff:1 exhibition:2 conceive:1 james:1 gardner:1 base:1 idea:1 frits:2 originally:1 make:1 sketch:1 paper:1 napkin:1 want:1 give:1 people:1 beautiful:1 educational:1 gift:1 celebrate:1 anniversary:1 bear:1 family:1 name:1 concrete:1 dome:1 diameter:1 hold:1 place:1 rebar:1 attract:1 large:1 visitor:2 number:2 since:1 interactive:1 new:1 concept:1 time:1 compete:1 open:2 city:1 decline:1 every:1 year:2 several:1 lose:1 money:1 close:1 convert:1 center:1 chiefly:1 remember:1 bert:1 haanstra:1 wordless:1 short:1 film:2 title:1 simply:1 commission:1 publicise:1 show:1 trade:1 test:1 colour:1 bbc:1 external:1 link:1 extensive:1 site:1 history:1 |@bigram fly_saucer:1 frits_philip:2 celebrate_anniversary:1 external_link:1 |
6,998 | Canal | The Alter Strom, in the sea resort of Warnemünde The Royal Canal in Ireland Canals are artificial channels for water. There are two types of canals: aqueduct (or water conveyance) canals are used for the conveyance and delivery of water, and waterway canals are navigable transportation canals used for passage of goods and people, often connected to existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Types of artificial waterways The Danube-Black Sea Canal in Romania Some canals are part of an existing waterway. This is usually where a river has been canalised: making it navigable by widening and deepening some parts (by dredging, weirs or both), and providing locks with "cuts" around the weirs or other difficult sections. In France, these waterways are called lateral canals and in the UK they are generally called navigations, and the length of the artificial waterway often exceeds the natural. The individual cuts that make up such a canal system may each be called a reach. Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an inland port (e.g.: Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (e.g.: Caledonian Canal, Panama Canal). Features The flight of 16 consecutive locks at Caen Hill on the Kennet and Avon Canal, Wiltshire, England A canal boat traverses the longest and highest aqueduct in the UK, at Pontcysyllte in Denbighshire, Wales At their simplest, canals consist of a trench filled with water. Depending on the stratum the canal passes through, it may be necessary to line the cut with some form of watertight material such as clay or concrete. When this is done with clay this is known as puddling. Canals need to be flat, and while small irregularities in the lie of the land can be dealt with through cuttings and embankments for larger deviations, other approaches have been adopted. The most common is the pound lock which consists of a chamber within which the water level can be raised or lowered connecting either two pieces of canal at a different level or the canal with a river or the sea. When there is a hill to be climbed, flights of many locks in short succession may be used. Prior to the development of the pound lock in 984AD in China by Chhaio Wei-Yo and later in Europe in the 15th century, either flash locks consisting of a single gate were used, or ramps, sometimes equipped with rollers, were used to change level. Flash locks were only practical where there was plenty of water available. Locks use a lot of water, so builders have adopted other approaches. These include boat lifts, such as the Falkirk wheel, which use a caisson of water in which boats float while being moved between two levels; and inclined planes where a caisson is hauled up a steep railway. To cross a stream or road, the solution is usually to bridge with an aqueduct. To cross a wide valley (where the journey delay caused by a flight of locks at either side would be unacceptable) the centre of the valley can be spanned by an aqueduct - a famous example in Wales is the Pontcysyllte aqueduct across the valley of the River Dee. Another option when dealing with hills is to tunnel through them. An example of this approach is the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. Tunnels are only practical for smaller canals. Some canals attempted to keep changes in level down to a minimum. These canals known as contour canals would take longer winding routes, along which the land was a uniform altitude. Other generally later canals took more direct routes requiring the use of various methods to deal with the change in level. Canals have various features to tackle the problem of water supply. In some cases such as the Suez Canal the canal is simply open to the sea. Where the canal is not at sea level a number of approaches have been adopted. Taking water from existing rivers or springs was an option in some cases, sometimes supplemented by other methods to deal with seasonal variations in flow. Where such sources were unavailable, reservoirs, either separate from the canal, or built into its course, and back pumping were used to provide the required water. In other cases water pumped from mines was used to feed the canal. Where large amounts of goods are loaded or unloaded such as the end of a canal a canal basin may be built. This would normally be a section of water wider than the general canal. In some cases the canal basins contain wharfs and cranes to assist with movement of goods. When a section of the canal needs to be sealed off so it can be drained for maintenance stop planks are frequently used. These consist of planks of wood placed across the canal to form a dam. They are generally placed in pre existing grooves in the canal bank. History Ancient canals The Grand Canal of China at Suzhou The oldest known canals were irrigation canals, built in Mesopotamia circa 4000 BC, in what is now modern day Iraq and Syria. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and North India (circa 2600 BC) had sophisticated irrigation and storage systems developed, including the reservoirs built at Girnar in 3000 BC. In Egypt, canals date back at least to the time of Pepi I Meryre (reigned 2332–2283 BC), who ordered a canal built to bypass the cataract on the Nile near Aswan. In ancient China, large canals for river transport were established as far back as the Warring States (481-221 BC), the longest one of that period being the Hong Gou (Canal of the Wild Geese), which according to the ancient historian Sima Qian connected the old states of Song, Zhang, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei. By far the longest canal was the Grand Canal of China, still the longest canal in the world today. It is long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang between Beijing and Hangzhou. The project began in 605 and was completed in 609, although much of the work combined older canals, the oldest section of the canal existing since at least 486 BC. Even in its narrowest urban sections it is rarely less than wide. Canals in the Middle Ages In the Middle Ages, the transport over water was cheaper and faster than the transport over the land. That was because the roads were unpaved and poor and by ship, people could transport more. The first artificial canal in Medieval Europe and the most important of the lombard “navigli”; is the Naviglio Grande near Milan. Its construction started in 1127 and ended in 1257, allowing development of commerce, transport and agriculture. Afterwards, canals have been built in the Netherlands and Flanders to drain the polders. Canal building was revived in this age because of commercial expansion from the 12th century AD. River navigations were improved progressively by the use of single, or flash locks. Taking boats through these used large amounts of water leading to conflicts with watermill owners and to correct this, the pound or chamber lock first appeared, in 10th century AD in China and in Europe in 1373 in Vreeswijk, Netherlands. Another important development was the mitre gate which was probably introduced in Italy by Bertola da Novate in the sixteenth century. This allowed wider gates and also removed the height restriction of guillotine locks. To break out of the limitations caused by river valleys, the first summit level canals were developed with the Grand Canal of China in 581-617 AD whilst in Europe the first, also using single locks, was the Stecknitz Canal in Germany in 1398. The first to use pound locks was the Briare Canal connecting the Loire and Seine (1642), followed by the more ambitious Canal du Midi (1683) connecting the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. This included a staircase of 8 locks at Béziers, a tunnel and three major aqueducts. Canal building progressed steadily in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries with three great rivers, the Elbe, Oder and Weser being linked by canals. In post-Roman Britain, the first canal built appears to have been the Exeter Canal, which opened in 1563. The oldest canal built for industrial purposes in North America is Mother Brook in Dedham, MA. It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills. In Russia, the Volga-Baltic Waterway, a nationwide canal system connecting the Baltic and Caspian seas via the Neva and Volga rivers, was opened in 1718. Industrial revolution Lowell's power canal system Canals were important for the industrial development. That's why the greatest stimulus to canal systems came from the Industrial Revolution with its need for cheap transport of raw materials and manufactured items. In Europe, particularly Britain and Ireland, and then in the young United States and the Canadian colonies, inland canals preceded the development of railroads during the earliest phase of the Industrial Revolution. The opening of the Bridgewater Canal in 1761, which halved the price of coal in Manchester, triggered a period of "canal mania" in Britain so that between 1760 and 1820 over one hundred canals were built. The Blackstone Canal in Massachusetts and Rhode Island fulfilled a similar role in the early industrial revolution between 1828-1848. The Blackstone Valley was considered the 'birthplace' of the American Industrial Revolution where Samuel Slater built his first mill. In addition to their transportation purposes, parts of the United States, particularly in the Northeast, had enough fast-flowing rivers that water power was the primary means of powering factories (usually textile mills) until after the American Civil War. For example, Lowell, Massachusetts, considered to be "The Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution," has of canals, built from around 1790 to 1850, that provided water power and a means of transportation for the city. The output of the system is estimated at 10,000 horsepower . Other cities with extensive power canal systems include Lawrence, Massachusetts, Holyoke, Massachusetts, Manchester, New Hampshire, and Augusta, Georgia. The 19th century US canals circa 1825 Competition from the railway network from the 1830s, and in the 20th century the roads, made the smaller canals obsolete for most commercial transportation, and many of the British canals fell into decay. Only the Manchester Ship Canal and the Aire and Calder Canal bucked this trend. But in other countries canals grew in size as construction techniques improved. During the 19th century in the US, the length of canals grew from to over 4,000, with a complex network making the Great Lakes navigable, in conjunction with Canada, although some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way. In the United States, navigable canals reached into isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world beyond. By 1825 the Erie Canal, long with 82 locks, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the Great Lakes. Settlers flooded into regions serviced by such canals, since access to markets was available. The Erie Canal (as well as other canals) was instrumental in lowering the differences in commodity prices between these various markets across America. The canals caused price convergence between different regions because of their reduction in transportation costs, which allowed Americans to ship and buy goods from farther distances for much lower prices compared to before. Ohio built many miles of canal, Indiana had working canals for a few decades, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River system until replaced by a channelized river waterway. In France, a steady linking of all the river systems—Rhine, Rhône, Saône and Seine—and the North Sea was boosted in 1879 by the establishment of the Freycinet gauge which specified the minimum size of locks so that canal traffic doubled in the first decades of the 20th century. Many notable sea canals were completed in this period, starting with the Suez Canal (1869), and the Kiel Canal (1897), which carries tonnage many times that of most other canals, though the Panama Canal was not opened until 1914. In the 19th century, a number of canals were built in Japan including the Biwako canal and the Tone canal. These canals were partially built with the help of engineers from the Netherlands and other countries. Modern uses Large scale ship canals such as the Panama Canal and Suez Canal continue to operate for cargo transportation; as do European barge canals. Due to globalization, they are becoming increasingly important, resulting in expansion projects such as the Panama Canal expansion project. The narrow early industrial canals however have ceased to carry significant amounts of trade and many have been abandoned to navigation, but may still be used as a system for transportation of untreated water. In some cases railways have been built along the canal route, an example being the Croydon Canal. A movement that began in Britain and France to use the early industrial canals for pleasure boats has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals. In some cases abandoned canals such as the Kennet and Avon Canal have been restored and are now used by pleasure boaters. In Britain canalside housing has also proven popular in recent years. The Seine-Nord Europe Canal is being developed into a major transportation waterway, linking France with Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as wayleaves along the towing paths for fibre optic telecommunications networks. Cities on water An intersection of two canals in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Canals are so deeply identified with Venice that many canal cities have been nicknamed "the Venice of..." The city is built on marshy islands, with wooden piles supporting the buildings, so that the land is man-made rather than the waterways. The islands have a long history of settlement; by the 12th century, Venice was a powerful city state. Amsterdam was built in a similar way, with buildings on wooden piles. It became a city around 1300. Other cities with extensive canal networks include: Brugge in Flanders, Birmingham in England, Saint Petersburg in Russia, Hamburg in Germany, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Cape Coral, Florida in the United States. Canal estates are a form of subdivision popular in cities like Miami, Florida and the Gold Coast, Queensland; the Gold Coast has over 700 km of residential canals. Wetlands are difficult areas upon which to build housing estates, so dredging part of the wetland down to a navigable channel provides fill to build up another part of the wetland above the flood level for houses. Land is built up in a finger pattern that provides a suburban street layout of waterfront housing blocks. This practice is not popular with environmentalists. Boats Two Panamax ships in the Miraflores Locks on the Panama Canal Inland canals have often have had boats specifically built for them. An example of this is the British narrowboat, which is up to long and wide and was primarily built for British Midland canals. In this case the limiting factor was the size of the locks. This is also the limiting factor on the Panama canal where Panamax ships are limited to a length of and a width of . For the lockless Suez Canal the limiting factor for Suezmax ships is generally draft, which is limited to . At the other end of the scale, tub-boat canals such as the Bude Canal were limited to boats of under 10 tons for much of their length due to the capacity of their inclined planes or boat lifts. Most canals have a limit on height imposed either by bridges or tunnels. Lists of canals Amsterdam gracht List of waterways Americas Canals of Canada List of canals in the United States Europe List of canals in France List of canals in Germany Canals of Ireland Canals of the United Kingdom See also Barge (includes canal boats) Canal tunnel Channel Ditch Horse-drawn boat Infrastructure Irrigation district List of navigation authorities in the United Kingdom List of waterway societies in the United Kingdom Lock Navigation authority Volumetric flow rate Water bridge Waterway restoration Water transportation Weigh lock Notes Bibliography References External links British Waterways' leisure website - Britain's official guide to canals, rivers and lakes Leeds Liverpool Canal Photographic Guide Information and Boater's Guide to the New York State Canal System "Canals and Navigable Rivers" by James S. 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6,999 | Acephali | Acephali (from the Greek language a-, "without," and kephale, "head") is a term applied to several sects as having no head or leader. In particular, the term refers to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself, in the end of the 5th century, from the rule of Peter Mongus, Patriarch of Alexandria, and remained "without king or bishop" until they were reconciled by Mark II (799 - 819). The term is also used to denote clerici vagantes, i.e. clergy without title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow. Certain persons in England during the reign of King Henry I of England were called Acephali because they had no lands by virtue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord. The name is also given to certain legendary races described by ancient naturalists and geographers as having no heads, their mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified with Pliny's Blemmyae. References | Acephali |@lemmatized acephali:2 greek:1 language:1 without:3 kephale:1 head:3 term:3 apply:1 several:1 sect:2 leader:1 particular:1 refers:1 strict:1 monophysite:1 separate:1 end:1 century:1 rule:1 peter:1 mongus:1 patriarch:1 alexandria:1 remain:1 king:2 bishop:1 reconcile:1 mark:1 ii:1 also:2 use:1 denote:1 clerici:1 vagantes:1 e:1 clergy:1 title:1 benefice:1 pick:1 living:1 anyhow:1 certain:2 person:1 england:2 reign:1 henry:1 call:1 land:1 virtue:1 could:1 acknowledge:1 superior:1 lord:1 name:1 give:1 legendary:1 race:1 describe:1 ancient:1 naturalist:1 geographer:1 mouth:1 eye:1 breast:1 generally:1 identify:1 pliny:1 blemmyae:1 reference:1 |@bigram patriarch_alexandria:1 |
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