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6,800 | Huckleberry | Bog Huckleberry at Polly's Cove, Nova Scotia Wild huckleberry in the Mount Hood National Forest. The floral remnants, signifying a false berry, are visible on the apex of the fruit. Huckleberry is a name used in North America for several plants in two closely related genera in the family Ericaceae: Gaylussacia and Vaccinium. The Huckleberry is the state fruit of Idaho. While some Vaccinium species, such as the Red Huckleberry, are always called huckleberries, other species may be called blueberries or huckleberries depending upon local custom. Usually, the distinction between them is that blueberries have numerous tiny seeds, while huckleberries have 10 larger seeds (making them more difficult to eat). The 'garden huckleberry' (Solanum melanocerasum) is not considered to be a true huckleberry but a member of the nightshade family. The fruit of the various species of plant called huckleberry is generally edible. The berries are small and round, usually less than 5 mm in diameter, and contain 10 relatively large seeds. Berries range in color according to species from bright red, through dark purple, and into the blues. In taste the berries range from tart to sweet, with a flavor similar to that of a blueberry, especially in blue/purple colored varieties. Huckleberries are a favorite of many mammals such as bears and humans. In the Pacific Northwest of North America, the huckleberry plant can be found in mid-alpine regions, often on the lower slopes of mountains. The plant grows best in damp, acidic soil. Under optimal conditions, huckleberries can be as much as 1.5-2 m (about 5-6.5 feet) high, and usually ripen in mid-to-late summer; later at higher elevations. Huckleberries hold a place in archaic English slang. The tiny size of the berries led to their frequent use as a way of referring to something small, often in an affectionate way. The phrase "a huckleberry over my persimmon" was used to mean "a bit beyond my abilities". "I'm your huckleberry" is a way of saying that one is just the right person for a given job, World Wide Words which was used by the character Doc Holliday in the movie Tombstone. The Huckleberry Railroad is a heritage train located in Flint, Michigan. It ran so slowly that it was said a person could jump off the train, pick huckleberries and jump back on the train with minimum effort. Huckleberry Railroad References | Huckleberry |@lemmatized bog:1 huckleberry:20 polly:1 cove:1 nova:1 scotia:1 wild:1 mount:1 hood:1 national:1 forest:1 floral:1 remnant:1 signify:1 false:1 berry:5 visible:1 apex:1 fruit:3 name:1 use:4 north:2 america:2 several:1 plant:4 two:1 closely:1 related:1 genus:1 family:2 ericaceae:1 gaylussacia:1 vaccinium:2 state:1 idaho:1 specie:4 red:2 always:1 call:3 may:1 blueberry:3 depend:1 upon:1 local:1 custom:1 usually:3 distinction:1 numerous:1 tiny:2 seed:3 large:2 make:1 difficult:1 eat:1 garden:1 solanum:1 melanocerasum:1 consider:1 true:1 member:1 nightshade:1 various:1 generally:1 edible:1 small:2 round:1 less:1 mm:1 diameter:1 contain:1 relatively:1 range:2 color:2 accord:1 bright:1 dark:1 purple:2 blue:2 taste:1 tart:1 sweet:1 flavor:1 similar:1 especially:1 variety:1 favorite:1 many:1 mammal:1 bear:1 human:1 pacific:1 northwest:1 find:1 mid:2 alpine:1 region:1 often:2 low:1 slope:1 mountain:1 grow:1 best:1 damp:1 acidic:1 soil:1 optimal:1 condition:1 much:1 foot:1 high:2 ripen:1 late:1 summer:1 later:1 elevation:1 hold:1 place:1 archaic:1 english:1 slang:1 size:1 lead:1 frequent:1 way:3 refer:1 something:1 affectionate:1 phrase:1 persimmon:1 mean:1 bit:1 beyond:1 ability:1 say:2 one:1 right:1 person:2 give:1 job:1 world:1 wide:1 word:1 character:1 doc:1 holliday:1 movie:1 tombstone:1 railroad:2 heritage:1 train:3 locate:1 flint:1 michigan:1 run:1 slowly:1 could:1 jump:2 pick:1 back:1 minimum:1 effort:1 reference:1 |@bigram nova_scotia:1 closely_related:1 flint_michigan:1 |
6,801 | Harry_Shearer | Harry Julius Shearer (born December 23, 1943) is an American actor, comedian, writer, voice artist, musician, author and radio host. He is known for his long-running role on The Simpsons, his work on Saturday Night Live, the comedy band Spinal Tap and his radio program Le Show. Born in Los Angeles, California, Shearer began his career as a child actor, appearing in The Jack Benny Program, as well as the 1953 films Abbott and Costello Go to Mars and The Robe. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to the Eddie Haskell character in the pilot episode for the television series Leave It to Beaver, but his parents decided not to let him continue in the role so that he could have a normal childhood. Shearer attended UCLA as a political science major in the early 1960s and after graduating, he attended Harvard University for one year and became a high school teacher for two years. From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member of The Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group. Following the break up of the group, Shearer co-wrote the film Real Life with Albert Brooks and started writing for Martin Mull's television series Fernwood 2 Night. In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member on Saturday Night Live. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a "living hell" and he did not get along well with the other writers and cast members. He left the show in 1980. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the 1984 film This Is Spinal Tap, a satirical rockumentary about a band called Spinal Tap. Shearer portrayed Derek Smalls, the bassist, and Michael McKean and Christopher Guest played the other two members. The film became a cult hit and the band has since released several albums and played several concerts. While promoting the film, Shearer was offered the chance to return to Saturday Night Live. He accepted, but left the show for good in January 1985. Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music program Le Show on Santa Monica's NPR-affiliated radio station, KCRW. The program, a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy, is carried on many public radio stations throughout the United States. In 1989, Shearer became a part of the cast of The Simpsons. He provides voices for numerous characters, including Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, Ned Flanders, Reverend Timothy Lovejoy, Kent Brockman, Dr. Hibbert, Lenny Leonard, Principal Skinner, Otto Mann and Rainier Wolfcastle. Shearer has been vocal about what he perceives as the show's declining quality. In 2004, he said "I rate the last three seasons as among the worst." Shearer also directed the 2002 film Teddy Bears' Picnic and appeared in several films, including A Mighty Wind, For Your Consideration and Godzilla. Shearer has written three books, Man Bites Town, It's the Stupidity, Stupid, and Not Enough Indians. He has been married to singer-songwriter Judith Owen since 1993. He has received several Primetime Emmy Award and Grammy Award nominations and in 2008 it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Career Early career Shearer was born December 23, 1943 in Los Angeles, California, the son of Dora Warren (née Kohn), a book-keeper, and Mack Shearer. His parents were Jewish immigrants from Austria and Poland. Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress. The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, as she knew people in the business through her daughter's work. The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition. Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio show The Jack Benny Program. Shearer received the role when he was seven-years-old. He described Jack Benny as "very warm and approachable [...] He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy." Shearer said in an interview that one person who "took him under his wing" during his early days in show business was voice actor Mel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, including Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck. Shearer made his film debut in the 1953 film Abbott and Costello Go to Mars, in which he only had a small part. Later that year, he made his first big film performance in The Robe. Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio. In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to the Eddie Haskell character in the pilot episode of the television series Leave It to Beaver. After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series. Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could get a normal childhood. Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network. Shearer attended UCLA as a political science major in the early 1960s and decided to quit show business to become a "serious person". However, he says this lasted "about a month," and he joined the staff of the Daily Bruin, UCLA's school newspaper, during his freshman year. According to Shearer, after graduating, he had "a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out Of The Draft.'" He attended graduate school at Harvard University for one year and worked at the state legislature in Sacramento. In 1967 and 1968 he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies. He left teaching following "disagreements with the administration." From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member of The Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that included David Lander, Richard Beebe and Michael McKean. The group consisted of "a bunch of newsmen" at KRLA 1110, "the number two station" in Los Angeles. They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists. Shearer heard about it from a friend so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist. By the time he got home, there was a message on his answering machine asking, "Can you come to work tomorrow?" The group's radio show was canceled in 1971 so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues. The group broke up 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcom Laverne & Shirley. While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewed Creedence Clearwater Revival for the Pop Chronicles music documentary. Shearer started working with Albert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the film Real Life. Shearer also started writing for Martin Mull's television series Fernwood 2 Night. In the mid-1970s, he started working with Rob Reiner on a pilot for ABC. The show, which starred Christopher Guest, Tom Leopold and Michael McKean, was not picked up. Saturday Night Live In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member on Saturday Night Live, one of the first additions to the cast, and an unofficial replacement for John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show. Al Franken recommended Shearer to Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels. Shearer describes his experience on the show as a "living hell" and "not a real pleasant place to work." He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage, and that Lorne Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was just a writer. His first tenure on the show ended when Michaels left Saturday Night Live, taking the entire cast with him. In 1984, while promoting the film This Is Spinal Tap, Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean had a performance on Saturday Night Live. All three members were offered the chance to join to the show in the 1984–1985 season. Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improved but later stated that he "didn't realize that guests are treated better than the regulars." Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it. Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was "a gifted performer but a pain in the butt. He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people. He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person." In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good. Martin Short said "[Shearer] wanted to be creative and Dick [Ebersol] wanted something else. [...] I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show. When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset." Spinal Tap Harry Shearer as Derek Smalls in This Is Spinal Tap. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in Rob Reiner's 1984 film This Is Spinal Tap. Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch. They decided that the film could not be written and instead filmed a 20 minute demo of what they wanted to do. It was eventually greenlit by Norman Lear and Jerry Perenchio at Embassy Pictures. The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions of hard-rock and heavy-metal bands, as well as the hagiographic tendencies of rockumentaries of the time. The three core members of the band Spinal Tap—David St. Hubbins, Derek Smalls and Nigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively. The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film. There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed. It was filmed in 25 days. Shearer said in an interview that "The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right. The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong. Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it right." When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work. The group kept saying, "No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people. We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know," so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public. The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and a cult following, after its video release. In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on the American Film Institute's list of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinema and it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters. The band has released two albums: This Is Spinal Tap (1984) and Break Like the Wind (1992). In 2009, The Guardian reported that the band would release a new album to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film and the band announced a one date "world tour" performing at London's Wembley Arena on June 30 2009. The band has played several concerts, including at Live Earth in London on July 7, 2007. In anticipation of the concert, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitled Spinal Tap. The Simpsons Shearer may be best known for his prolific work as a voice actor on The Simpsons. Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write. Shearer was asked if he wanted to be in the series, but he was initially reluctant because he thought it would be too much trouble. After three calls, executive producer James L. Brooks managed to convince Shearer to join the cast. Shearer first impression of The Simpsons was that it was funny. Shearer, who thought it was a "pretty cool" way to work, found it peculiar that the members of the cast were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices. Shearer provides voices for Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, Ned Flanders, Reverend Timothy Lovejoy, Kent Brockman, Dr. Julius Hibbert, Lenny Leonard, Principal Skinner, Otto Mann, Rainier Wolfcastle, Dr. Marvin Monroe and many others. Richmond, pp. 178–179 He describes all of his regular characters' voices as "easy to slip into. [...] I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy." Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actors Lionel Barrymore and Ronald Reagan. Shearer said that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice. He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he "like[s] Mr. Burns because he is pure evil. A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it. Never adulterate your evil." Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take. Jean, Al (2002). Commentary for "Blood Feud", in The Simpsons: The Complete Second Season [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor that Homer was jealous of, but because Shearer used "such a sweet voice" for him, Flanders was broadened to become a Christian and a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer. Jean, Al (2003). Commentary for "When Flanders Failed", in The Simpsons: The Complete Third Season [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. Monroe's voice is based on psychiatrist David Viscott's. Groening, Matt (2001). Commentary for "There's No Disgrace Like Home," in The Simpsons: The Complete First Season [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. Monroe has been retired since the seventh season because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat. Jean, Al (2001). Commentary for "Some Enchanted Evening", in The Simpsons: The Complete First Season [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode called "The Otto Show." In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived as the show's declining quality: "I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, so Season Four looks very good to me now." Shearer has also been vocal about "The Principal and the Pauper" (season nine, 1997) one of the most controversial episodes of The Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation that Principal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, "That's so wrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful to the audience." Shearer decided not to participate in The Simpsons Ride, which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all. Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode. During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices. The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode. The dispute was resolved a month later, and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode. After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors now receive $400,000 per episode. Le Show and radio work Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music program Le Show on Santa Monica's NPR-affiliated radio station, KCRW. The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the "mega morons of the mighty media". It is carried on many National Public Radio and other public radio stations throughout the United States. Since the merger of the XM and Sirius satellite radio services the program is no longer available on either; on which Shearer commented, "because I guess, you know, mergers are good." (Comment is at 57:06). The show has also been made available as a podcast on iTunes. On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the news of the day after the manner of Mort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs. In 2008, Shearer released a music CD called Songs of the Bushmen, consisting of his satirical numbers about former President George W. Bush on Le Show. Shearer believes that he criticizes both Republicans and Democrats equally, and believes that "the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place" and that "everyone else is just running around talking. They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse. Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way." Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked on Saturday Night Live, Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air. Shearer refers to these clips as found objects. “I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it’s wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting — but it’s always good,” said Shearer. He collects this material and uses it on Le Show and on his website. In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled "The Silent Echo Chamber" which was exhibited at the The Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum in Ridgefield, Connecticut. In 2006 Shearer appeared with Brian Hayes in four episodes of the BBC Radio 4 sitcom Not Today, Thank You, playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence. He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit. On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. The date of the ceremony where his star will be put in place has yet to be announced. Further career In 2002, Shearer directed his first feature film Teddy Bears' Picnic, which he also wrote. The plot is based on Bohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world. The film was not well-received by critics. It garnered a 0% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negative and received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying "generally negative reviews") on Metacritic from 10 reviews. In 2003, he co-wrote J. Edgar! The Musical with Tom Leopold, which spoofed J. Edgar Hoover's relationship with Clyde Tolson. It premiered at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, Colorado and starred Kelsey Grammer and John Goodman. In 2003, Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in the folk music mockumentary A Mighty Wind, portraying a band called The Folksmen. The film was written by Guest and Eugene Levy, and directed by Guest. Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politicking For Your Consideration in 2006. He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for an Academy Award. He also appeared as a news anchor in Godzilla with fellow The Simpsons cast member Hank Azaria. His other film appearances include The Right Stuff, Portrait of a White Marriage, The Fisher King, The Truman Show, EdTV and Small Soldiers. Shearer has also worked as a columnist for the Los Angeles Times Magazine, but decided that it "became such a waste of time to bother with it." His columns have also been published in Slate and Newsweek. Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post. Shearer has written three books. Man Bites Town, published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote for The Los Angeles Times between 1989 and 1992. Published in 1999, It's the Stupidity, Stupid analyzed the hatred some people had for then-President Bill Clinton. Shearer writes that Clinton became disliked because he had an affair with "the least powerful, least credentialed women cleared into his official compound." His most recent book is Not Enough Indians, his first novel. Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling. Without the "pleasures of collaboration" and "spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects", Not Enough Indians was a "struggle" for Shearer to write. He said that "the only fun thing about it was having written it. It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do. It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline." Personal life Shearer was married to Penelope Nichols in 1974, divorcing in 1977. He has been married to singer-songwriter Judith Owen since 1993. In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records. Shearer has homes in both Santa Monica, California and the Faubourg Marigny of New Orleans, Louisiana. He first came to New Orleans in 1988, and has been to every edition of Jazz Fest since then, except one. Shearer often speaks and writes about the Hurricane Katrina disaster, belittling the coverage of it in the mainstream media and criticizing the role of the United States Army Corps of Engineers in causing it. Filmography Films Year Film Role Notes1953 Abbott and Costello Go to Mars Boy Uncredited The Robe David Uncredited1977 American Raspberry Trucker's friend Cracking Up Various characters Credited as part of "The Credibility Gap"1979 Real Life Pete Also co-writer The Concorde ... Airport '79 Jeffrey Marx Uncredited The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh Murray Sports1980 Animalympics Keen Hacksaw Loose Shoes Narrator One Trick Pony Bernie Wepner 1983 The Right Stuff NASA Recruiter 1984 This Is Spinal Tap Derek Smalls Also co-writer, composer and musician 1987 Flicks Narrator1988 Plain Clothes Simon Feck My Stepmother Is an Alien Voice of Carl Sagan 1990 Marilyn Hotchkiss' Ballroom Dancing and Charm School Announcer Short film1991 Blood and Concrete Sammy Rhodes Oscar Guido Finucci Pure Luck Monosoff The Fisher King Ben Starr 1992 A League of Their Own Newsreel announcer 1993 Wayne's World 2 Handsome Dan1994 I'll Do Anything Audience Research Captain Little Giants Announcer Littbarski Speechless Chuck1997 My Best Friend's Wedding Jonathan P.F. Ritt Waiting for Guffman N/A Composer1998 Godzilla Charles Caiman Almost Heroes Narrator The Truman Show Mike Michaelson Small Soldiers Punch-It1999 EDtv Moderator Encounter in the Third Dimension Narrator Dick G. Gordon Liddy2000 Catching Up with Marty DiBergi Derek Smalls Short film Edwurd Fudwupper Fibbed Big Additional voice2001 Haiku Tunnel Orientation leader Out There Dr. Gerard Haunted Castle Mr. DMephisto 2002 Teddy Bears' Picnic Joey Lavin Also writer, director and executive producer 2003 A Mighty Wind Mark Shubb2005 Marilyn Hotchkiss' Ballroom Dancing and Charm School Promo announcer Chicken Little Dog announcer 2006 For Your Consideration Victor Allan Miller2007 A Couple of White Chicks at the Hairdresser Marc Gavin The Simpsons Movie Various characters Television Year Series Role Notes 1953, 1955 The Jack Benny Program Jack Benny, as a childHarry Beaver Episode 4.2: "Jack as a Child"Episode 5.12: "Jack Takes the Beavers to the Fair"1955 It's a Great Life Terry Episode 2.4: "The Paper Drive" Death Valley Days Unnamed character Episode 4.2: "The Valencia Cake" 1956 Private Secretary Chuckie Willis Episode 4.16: "The Little Caesar of Bleecker Street"1957 General Electric Theater Timmy Episode 5.28: "Cab Driver" Leave It to Beaver Frankie Bennett Pilot: "It's a Small World" Alfred Hitchcock Presents Street Kid Episode 2.31: "The Night the World Ended" 1976 Serpico Hippy TV film/Pilot: "The Deadly Game" 1976-1982 Laverne & Shirley Various characters Appeared in six episodes;also co-wrote episode 1.12: "Hi, Neighbor" 1978 Disco Beaver from Outer Space N/A Co-wrote 1979 The T.V. Show Various characters Pilot; also writer, producer and composer 1979-80, 1984-85 Saturday Night Live Various characters Appeared in 32 episodes;also co-wrote 39 episodes 1981 Likely Stories, Vol. 1 Various characters TV film; also co-wrote 1982 Million Dollar Infield Jack Savage TV film 1985 The History of White People in America Rabbi TV film; also director1986 Viva Shaf Vegas Rabbi TV film; also director, writer and executive producer The History of White People in America: Volume II Rabbi TV film; also director Spitting Image: Down And Out In The White House Additional voice Pilot/TV special1987 Spitting Image: The Ronnie and Nancy Show Additional voice TV special Down and Out with Donald Duck Additional voices TV special1988 Portrait of a White Marriage Unnamed character TV film; also director Miami Vice FBI Agent Timothy Anderson Episode 4.12: "The Cows of October" Merrill Markoe's Guide to Glamorous Living Unnamed character TV special 1989- The Simpsons Various characters Longest-running role1990 The Golden Girls George H. W. Bush Episode 5.26: "The President's Coming! The President's Coming! Part 2" Hometown Boy Makes Good Unnamed character TV film Murphy Brown Chris Bishop Episode 3.1: "The 390th Broadcast" 1991 Sunday Best Various characters1993 Dream On Steve Episode 4.6: "Home Sweet Homeboy" L.A. Law Gordon Huyck Episode 8.6: "Safe Sex" Animaniacs Ned Flat Episode 1.40: "Fair Game/Puppet Rulers" 1994 Ellen Ted Episode 2.9: "The Trainer"1995 Sliders Radio DJ Episode 1.1: "Pilot"; uncredited Friends Dr. Baldharar Episode 1.21: "The One with the Fake Monica" The Show Formerly Known as the Martin Short Show Mr. Blackwell TV special Frontline Larry Hadges Episode 2.10: "Changing the Face of Current Affairs"1996 State of the Union: Undressed Newt Gingrich TV special Chicago Hope Nowhere man Episode 3.7: "A Time to Kill"1997 Tracey Takes On... Ronald Littleman Episode 2.12: "Race Relations" ER John Smythe Episode 3.19: "Calling Dr. Hathaway" The Visitor Louis Faraday Episode 1.1: "Fear of Flying" 1998 George & Leo Unnamed character Episode 1.17: "The Poker Game"1999 Seven Days Walter Landis Episode 1.19: "EBE's" Just Shoot Me! Larry Fenwick Episode 4.1: "A Divorce to Remember" 1999-2001 Jack & Jill Dr. Wilfred Madison Appeared in four episodes 2000-2001 Dawson's Creek Principal Peskin Episodes 4.8: "The Unusual Suspects" and 4.22: "The Graduate" 2001 That's Life Dean Episode 2.9: "Oh, Baby!" 2002 The Agency The President Episode 1.14: "The Gauntlet" 2003 MADtv Mark Shubb Episode 8.21 Video games Year Game Role1996Blazing DragonsSir Burnevere, Sir George's Valet1996The Simpsons Cartoon StudioVarious characters1997Virtual SpringfieldVarious characters1998StarCraftScience Vessel2001The Simpsons WrestlingVarious characters2001The Simpsons Road RageVarious characters2002The Simpsons SkateboardingVarious characters2003The Simpsons Hit & RunVarious characters2005Chicken LittleDog announcer2007The Simpsons GameVarious characters Discography Album Released LabelIt Must Have Been Something I Said1994RhinoDropping Anchors2006Courgette Songs Pointed and Pointless2007Courgette Songs of the Bushmen2008Courgette Bibliography Awards On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category. Shearer is the only one of the six regular voice actors from The Simpsons not to have won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance. Year Award Category Series/album Result Ref.1978Primetime Emmy AwardOutstanding Writing in a Comedy-Variety or Music SeriesAmerica 2Night 1980Primetime Emmy AwardOutstanding Writing in a Variety or Music ProgramSaturday Night Live 2008Grammy AwardBest Comedy AlbumSongs Pointed and Pointless 2009Grammy AwardBest Comedy AlbumSongs of the Bushmen Notes References External links Harry Shearer's official site Archived Harry Shearer site Harry Shearer's blog at the Huffington Post Harry Shearer at Voice Chasers | Harry_Shearer |@lemmatized harry:6 julius:2 shearer:98 born:1 december:2 american:5 actor:12 comedian:2 writer:12 voice:27 artist:1 musician:2 author:1 radio:21 host:4 know:7 long:2 run:4 role:8 simpson:21 work:20 saturday:10 night:14 live:13 comedy:15 band:10 spinal:13 tap:13 program:10 le:6 show:33 bear:5 los:5 angeles:5 california:3 begin:1 career:5 child:4 appear:10 jack:9 benny:5 well:7 film:42 abbott:3 costello:3 go:7 mar:3 robe:3 play:8 precursor:2 eddie:2 haskell:2 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6,802 | Mandolin | A mandolin is a musical instrument in the lute family (plucked, or strummed). It is descended from the mandore, a soprano member of the lute family. It has a body with a teardrop-shaped soundboard, or one which is essentially oval in shape, with a soundhole, or soundholes, of varying shapes which are open and are not decorated with an intricately carved grille like the Baroque era mandolins. Musical Instruments, A Comprehensive Dictionary, by Sibyl Marcuse (Corrected Edition 1975) The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and others (2001) Originally mandolins had six double courses of gut strings tuned similarly to lutes, and plucked with the fingertips, while the design common today has eight metal strings in four pairs (courses) which are plucked with a plectrum. The latter originated in Naples, Italy during the 3rd quarter of the 18th century. There were and still are many variants. These include Milanese, Lombard, Brescian and other 6-course types, as well as four-string (one string per course), twelve-string (three strings per course), and sixteen-string (four strings per course). Mandolin construction F-5-style mandolin (f-holes) A-5-style mandolin (f-holes) Example of an A-4-style mandolin (oval hole) A mandolin's typically hollow wooden body has a neck with a flat (or slight radius) fretted fingerboard, a nut and floating bridge, a tailpiece or pinblock at the edge of the face to which the strings are attached, and mechanical tuning machines, rather than friction pegs, to accommodate metal strings. Like the guitar, the mandolin has relatively poor sustain; that is, the sound from a plucked string decays quickly. A note cannot be maintained for an arbitrary length of time as with a bowed note on a violin. Its small size and higher pitch makes this problem more severe than with the guitar, and the use of tremolo (rapid picking of one or more pairs of strings) is often used to create a sustained note or chords. This technique works particularly well with a mandolin's paired strings, where one of the pair is sounding while the other is being struck by the pick, giving a more rounded and continuous sound than is possible with a single coursed instrument. The small body also contributes to a relatively low sound volume relative to other instruments. Various amplification techniques have been used to overcome this. Hybridization with the louder banjo creates the mandolin-banjo, and resonators have been used, most notably by Dobro and the National String Instrument Corporation. Some musicians use electric mandolins played through amplifiers. Mandolin forms 1930 National Triolian resonator mandolin from Lowell Levinger's collection 1926 Paramount Style A Banjo Mandolin from Lowell Levinger's collection Carved (acoustic-electric) and round backed mandolins (front) Carved and round backed mandolins (back) Mandolins come in several forms. The Neapolitan style, known as a round-back or bowl-back (or "tater-bug", colloquial American) has a vaulted back made of a number of strips of wood in a bowl formation, similar to a lute, and usually a canted, two-plane, uncarved top. Another form has a banjo-style body. At the very end of the nineteenth century, a new style, with a carved top and back construction inspired by violin family instruments began to supplant the European-style bowl-back instruments, especially in the United States. This new style is credited to mandolins designed and built by Orville Gibson, a Kalamazoo, Michigan luthier who founded the "Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Manufacturing Co., Limited" in 1902. Gibson mandolins evolved into two basic styles: the Florentine or F-style, which has a decorative scroll near the neck, two points on the lower body, and usually a scroll carved into the headstock; and the A-style, which is pear shaped, has no points, and usually has a simpler headstock. These styles generally have either two f-shaped soundholes like a violin (F-5 and A-5), or an oval sound hole (F-4 and A-4 and lower models) directly under the strings. Much variation exists between makers working from these archetypes, and other variants have become increasingly common. The Gibson F-hole F-5-style mandolins have come to be considered the most typical and traditional for playing American bluegrass music, while the A-style is generally more associated with Irish, folk, or classical music. The more complicated woodwork also translates into a more expensive instrument. Internal bracing in the F-style mandolins was usually achieved with parallel tone bars, similar to a violin's bassbar. Some makers instead employ "x-bracing" which is simply two tone bars mortised to each other to cross into an X supporting the top. Some luthiers are now using a "modified x-bracing", which incorporates both a tone bar and x-bracing. Numerous modern mandolin makers build instruments which are largely replicas of the Gibson F-5 Artist models built in the early 1920s under the supervision of Gibson acoustician Lloyd Loar. Original Loar-signed instruments are sought after and extremely valuable. Other American-made variants include the Howe-Orme guitar-shaped mandolin (manufactured by the Elias Howe Company between 1897 and roughly 1920), which featured a cylindrical bulge along the top from fingerboard end to tailpiece; the Army-Navy style with a flat back and top; and the Vega mando-lute (more commonly called a cylinder-back mandolin manufactured by the Vega Company between 1913 and roughly 1927), which had a similar longitudinal bulge but on the back rather than the front of the instrument. As with almost every other contemporary string instrument, another modern variant is the electric mandolin. These mandolins can have four (single), five (single) or eight (double) strings. Mandolin history Mandolins evolved from the lute family in Italy during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and the deep bowled mandolin produced particularly in Naples became a common type in the nineteenth century. The original instrument was the mandore which evolved in the fourteenth century from the lute. As time passed and the instrument spread around Europe, it took on many names and various structural characteristics. Further back, dating to around 15,000 BC to 8,000 BC, single-stringed instruments have been seen in cave paintings and murals. They were struck, plucked, and eventually bowed. From these, the families of stringed instruments developed. Single strings were long and gave a single melody line. To shorten the scale length, other strings were added with a different tension and pitch so one string took over where another left off. In turn, this led to being able to play dyads and chords. The bowed family became the rabob, and then the rebec fiddle, evolving into the modern violin family by 1520 (incidentally also in Italy). The plucked family led to lute-like instruments in 2000 BC Mesopotamia, and developed into the oud or ud before appearing in Spain, first documented around 711 AD, courtesy of the Moors. Over the next centuries, the strings were doubled to courses, and eventually (in Europe) frets were added, leading to the first lute appearing in the thirteenth century. The history of the lute and the mandolin are intertwined from this point. The lute gained a fifth course by the fifteenth century, a sixth a century later, and up to thirteen courses in its heyday. As early as the fourteenth century a miniature lute or mandora appeared. Similar to the mandola, it had counterparts in Assyria (pandura), the Arab countries (dambura), and Ukraine (kobza-bandura). From this, the mandolino (a small gut-strung mandola with six strings tuned g b e' a' d g sometimes called the Baroque mandolin and played with a quill, wooden plectrum or finger-style) was developed in several places in Italy. The mandolino was sometimes called a mandolin in the early eighteenth century (around 1735) Naples. At this point, all such instruments were strung with gut strings. The first evidence of modern steel-strung mandolins is from literature regarding popular Italian players who traveled through Europe teaching and giving concerts. Notable is Signor Leone and G. B. Gervasio who traveled widely between 1750 and 1810. This, with the records gleaned from the Italian Vinaccia family of luthiers in Naples, Italy, lead some musicologists to believe that the modern steel-strung mandolin was developed in Naples by the Vinaccia family. Gennaro Vinaccia was active circa 1710 to circa 1788, and Antonio Vinaccia was active circa 1734 to circa 1796. Embergher History An early extant example of a mandolin is one built by Antonio Vinaccia in 1772 which resides at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, England. Another is by Giuseppe Vinaccia built in 1763, residing at the Kenneth G. Fiske Museum of Musical Instruments in Claremont, California. CIMCIM International Directory of Musical Instrument Collections The earliest extant mandolin was built in 1744 by Gaetano Vinaccia. It resides in the Conservatoire Royal de Musique in Brussels, Belgium. The Early Mandolin by James Tyler and Paul Sparks (1989) These early mandolins are termed Neapolitan mandolins, because of their origin from Naples. They are distinguished by an almond-shaped body with a bowled back which is constructed from curved strips of wood along its length. The soundtable is bent just behind the bridge, the bending achieved with a heated bending iron. This "canted" table aids the body to support a greater string tension. A hardwood fingerboard is flush with the soundtable. Ten metal or ivory frets are spaced along the neck in semitones, with additional frets glued upon the soundtable. The strings are brass except for the lowest string course which are gut or metal wound onto gut. The bridge is a movable length of hardwood or ivory placed in front of ivory pins which hold the strings. Wooden tuning pegs are inserted through the back of a flat pegboard. The mandolins have a tortoise shell pickguard below the soundhole under the strings. A quill or shaped piece of tortoise shell is used as a plectrum. The Classical Mandolin by Paul Sparks (1995) Other luthiers who built mandolins included Calace (1863 onwards) in Naples, Luigi Embergher (1856–1943), the Ferrari family (1716 onwards, also originally mandolino makers), and De Santi (1834–1916) in Rome. The Neapolitan style of mandolin construction was adopted and developed by others, notably in Rome, giving two distinct but similar types of mandolin — Neapolitan and Roman. The twentieth century saw the rise in popularity of the mandolin for Celtic, bluegrass, jazz, and classical styles. Much of the development of the mandolin from Neapolitan bowl-back to the flat-back style (actually, gently rounded and carved like a violin) is attributable to Orville Gibson (1856–1918). See above. Tuning A variety of different tunings are used. Usually, courses of 2 adjacent strings are doubled (tuned to the same pitch). The most common tuning by far (GDAE), is the same as violin tuning, and the opposite to that of a bass: fourth (lowest tone) course: G3 ( Hz) third course: D4 ( Hz) second course: A4 ( Hz; A above middle C) first (highest tone) course: E5 ( Hz) Image:Mandolin fretboard.png Other tunings exist, including "cross-tunings" in which the usually doubled string runs are tuned to discrete pitches. Additionally, guitarists may sometimes tune a mandolin to mimic a portion of the intervals on a standard guitar tuning to achieve familiar fretting patterns. Mandolin family 1920 Gibson F-4 mandolin, 1917 Gibson H-2 mandola, 1924 Gibson K-4 mandocello, and 1929 Gibson mando-bass, from Gregg Miner's collection The mandolin is the soprano member of the mandolin family, as the violin is the soprano member of the violin family. Like the violin, its scale length is typically about 13 inches (330 mm). Modern American mandolins modeled after Gibsons have a longer scale, about 13-7/8" (352 mm). Other members of the mandolin family are: The mandola (US and Canada), termed the tenor mandola in Europe, which is tuned to a fifth below the mandolin, in the same relationship as that of the viola to the violin. Some also call this instrument the "alto mandola". Its scale length is typically about 16.5 inches (420 mm). It is normally tuned like a viola: C-G-D-A. The octave mandolin (US and Canada), termed the octave mandola or mandole in Europe, which is tuned an octave below the mandolin. Its scale length is typically about 20 inches (500 mm), although instruments with scales as short as 17 inches (430 mm) or as long as 21 inches (530 mm) are not unknown. The mandocello, which is classically tuned to an octave plus a fifth below the mandolin, in the same relationship as that of the cello to the violin: C-G-D-A. Today, it is not infrequently restrung for octave mandolin tuning or the Irish bouzouki's GDAD. Its scale length is typically about 25 inches (635 mm). A typical violoncello scale is 27" (686 mm). The Greek laouto is essentially a mandocello, ordinarily tuned D-G-D-A, with half of each pair of the lower two courses being tuned an octave high on a lighter gauge string. The body is a staved bowl, the saddle-less bridge glued to the flat face like most ouds and lutes, with mechanical tuners, steel strings, and tied gut frets. Modern laoutos, as played on Crete, have the entire lower course tuned in octaves as well as being tuned a reentrant octave above the expected D. Its scale length is typically about 28 inches (712 mm). The mando-bass, has 4 single strings, rather than double courses, and is tuned like a double bass. These were made by the Gibson company in the early twentieth century, but appear to have never been very common. Reportedly, most mandolin orchestras preferred to use the ordinary double bass, rather than a specialised mandolin family instrument. Calace and other Italian makers predating Gibson also made mandolin-basses. 1911 Leland piccolo mandolin, from Gregg Miner's collection The piccolo or sopranino mandolin is a rare member of the family, tuned one octave above the tenor mandola and one fourth above the mandolin; the same relation as that of the piccolo or sopranino violin to the violin and viola. One model was manufactured by the Lyon & Healy company under the Leland brand. A handful of contemporary luthiers build piccolo mandolins. Its scale length is typically about 9.5 inches (240 mm). The Irish bouzouki is also considered a member of the mandolin family; although derived from the Greek bouzouki, it is constructed like a flat backed mandolin and uses fifth-based tunings (most often GDAD, although sometimes GDAE (an octave below the mandolin), ADAD or ADAE) in place of the guitar-like fourths-and-third tunings of the three- and four-course Greek bouzouki. Although the bouzouki's bass course pairs are most often tuned in unison, on some instruments one of each pair is replaced with a lighter string and tuned in octaves, in the fashion of the 12-string guitar. Although occupying the same range as the octave mandolin/octave mandola, the Irish bouzouki is distinguished from the former instrument by its longer scale length, typically from 22 inches (560 mm) to 24 inches (610 mm), although scales as long as 26 inches (660 mm), which is the usual Greek bouzouki scale, are not unknown. The modern cittern is also an extension of the mandolin family, being typically a five course (ten string) instrument having a scale length between 20 inches (500 mm) and 22 inches (560 mm). It is most often tuned to either DGDAD or GDADA, and is essentially an octave mandola with a fifth course at either the top or the bottom of its range. Some luthiers, such as Stefan Sobell also refer to the octave mandola or a shorter-scaled Irish bouzouki as a cittern, irrespective of whether it has four or five courses. In Indian classical music and Indian light music, the mandolin, which bears little resemblance to the European mandolin, is likely to be tuned to E-B-E-B. As there is no concept of absolute pitch in Indian classical music, any convenient tuning maintaining these relative pitch intervals between the strings can be used. Another prevalent tuning with these intervals is C-G-C-G, which corresponds to Sa-Pa-Sa-Pa in the Indian carnatic classical music style. This tuning corresponds to the way violins are tuned for carnatic classical music. Mandolin music Mandolins have a long history, and much early music was written for them. In the first half of the 20th century, they enjoyed a period of great popularity in Europe and the Americas as an easier approach to playing string music. Many professional and amateur mandolin groups and orchestras were formed to play light classical string repertory. Just as this practice was falling into disuse, the mandolin found a new niche in American country, old-time music, bluegrass, and folk music. More recently, the Baroque and Classical mandolin repertory and styles have benefited from the raised awareness of and interest in Early music. Tremolo and fingerpicking methods are used while playing a mandolin. United States The mandolin's popularity in the United States was spurred by the success of a group of touring young European musicians known as the Estudiantina Figaro, or in the United States, simply the "Spanish Students." The group landed in the U.S. on January 2, 1880 in New York City, and played in Boston and New York to wildly enthusiastic crowds. Ironically, this ensemble did not play mandolins but rather Bandurrias, which are also small, double-strung instruments resembling the mandolin. The success of the Figaro Spanish Students spawned several groups who imitated their musical style and colorful costumes. In many cases, the players in these new musical ensembles were Italian-born Americans who had brought mandolins from their native land. Thus, the Spanish Student imitators did primarily play mandolins and helped to generate enormous public interest in an instrument which previously was relatively unknown in the United States. Mandolins were a fad instrument from the turn of the century to the mid-twenties. Instruments were marketed by teacher-dealers, much as the title character in the popular musical The Music Man. Often these teacher-dealers would conduct mandolin orchestras: groups of 4-50 musicians who would play various mandolin family instruments together. One musician and director who made his start with a mandolin orchestra was pioneer African-American composer James Reese Europe. The instrument was primarily used in an ensemble setting well into the 1930s, although the fad died out at the beginning of the 1930s; the famous Lloyd Loar Master Model from Gibson (1923) was designed to boost the flagging interest in mandolin ensembles, with little success. The true destiny of the "Loar" as the defining instrument of bluegrass music didn't appear until Bill Monroe purchased F-5 S/N 73987 http://www.mandolinarchive.com/perl/show_mando.pl?55 in a Florida barbershop in 1943 and popularized it as his main instrument. The mandolin orchestras never completely went away, however. In fact, along with all the other musical forms the mandolin is involved with, the mandolin ensemble (groups usually arranged like the string section of a modern symphony orchestra, with first mandolins, second mandolins, mandolas, mandocellos, mando-basses, and guitars, and sometimes supplemented by other instruments) continues to grow in popularity. Since the mid-nineties, several public-school mandolin-based guitar programs have blossomed around the country, including Fretworks Mandolin and Guitar Orchestra, the first of its kind. The national organization which represents these groups is the Classical Mandolin Society of America. Single mandolins were first used in southern string band music in the 1930s, most notably by brother duets such as the sedate Blue Sky Boys (Bill Bolick and Earl Bolick) and the more hard-driving Monroe Brothers (Bill Monroe and Charlie Monroe). However, the mandolin's modern popularity in country music can be directly traced to one man: Bill Monroe, the father of bluegrass music. After the Monroe Brothers broke up in 1939, Bill Monroe formed his own group, after a brief time called the Blue Grass Boys, and completed the transition of mandolin styles from a "parlor" sound typical of brother duets to the modern "bluegrass" style. He joined the Grand Ole Opry in 1939 and its powerful clear-channel broadcast signal on WSM-AM spread his style throughout the South, directly inspiring many musicians to take up the mandolin. Monroe famously played Gibson F-5 mandolin, signed and dated July 9, 1923, by Lloyd Loar, chief acoustic engineer at Gibson. The F-5 has since become the most imitated tonally and aesthetically by modern builders. Monroe's style involved playing lead melodies in the style of a fiddler, and also a percussive chording sound referred to as "the chop" for the sound made by the quickly struck and muted strings. He also perfected a sparse, percussive blues style, especially up the neck in keys which had not been used much in country music, notably B and E. He emphasized a powerful, syncopated right hand at the expense of left-hand virtuosity. Monroe's most influential follower of the second generation is Frank Wakefield and nowadays Mike Compton of the Nashville Bluegrass Band and David Long, who often tour as a duet. Tiny Moore of the Texas Playboys developed an electric five-string mandolin and helped popularize the instrument in Western Swing music. Tiny Moore The other major original bluegrass stylists, both emerging in the early 1950s and active still, are generally acknowledged to be Jesse McReynolds (of Jim and Jesse) who invented a syncopated banjo-roll style of crosspicking and Bobby Osborne of the Osborne Brothers, who is a master of clarity and sparkling single-note runs. Highly-respected and influential modern bluegrass players include Herschel Sizemore, Doyle Lawson, and the multi-genre Sam Bush, who is equally at home with old-time fiddle tunes, rock, reggae, and jazz. Ronnie McCoury of the Del McCoury Band has won numerous awards for his Monroe-influenced playing. The late John Duffey of the original Country Gentlemen and later the Seldom Scene did much to popularize the bluegrass mandolin among folk and urban audiences, especially on the east coast and in the Washington, D.C. area. Jethro Burns, best known as half of the comedy duo Homer and Jethro, was also the first important jazz mandolinist. Tiny Moore popularized the mandolin in Western swing music. He initially played an 8-string Gibson but switched after 1952 to a 5-string solidbody electric instrument built by Paul Bigsby. Modern players David Grisman, Sam Bush, and Mike Marshall, among others, have worked since the early 1970s to demonstrate the mandolin's versatility for all styles of music. Chris Thile of California is a well known player; the band Nickel Creek features his playing in its blend of traditional and pop styles. Some rock musicians use mandolins, typically single-stringed electric models rather than double-stringed acoustic mandolins. One example is Tim Brennan of the Irish-American punk rock band Dropkick Murphys. In addition to electric guitar, bass, and drums, the band uses several instruments associated with traditional Celtic music, including mandolin, tin whistle, and Great Highland bagpipes. The band explains that these instruments accentuate the growling sound they favor. Levon Helm of The Band occasionally moved from his drum kit to play mandolin, most notably on 'Evangeline' and 'Rockin' Chair. Late 80's/early 90's rock band Caterwaul featured mandolin on many of its slower songs, including "Lay Down to Rest" and "My Regret". Soft Rock duo Seals and Crofts extensively used mandolin across all their repertoire in the 1970s. The 1991 R.E.M. hit "Losing My Religion" also featured a simple mandolin lick played by guitarist Peter Buck, who also played the mandolin in nearly a dozen other songs. Rod Stewart's still-played 1971 hit "Maggie May" features a significant mandolin riff in its motif. Every song on Mark Heard's final album, 1992's Satellite Sky, was written on a mandolin, Heard's antique National Silvo electric mandolin was prominently featured on every track of the recording. Jack White of The White Stripes played mandolin for the film Cold Mountain, and plays mandolin on the song "Little Ghost" on the White Stripes album Get Behind Me Satan; he also plays mandolin on "Prickly Thorn, But Sweetly Worn" on "Icky Thump". David Immerglück of the Counting Crows, Monks of Doom, and Glider is also known to feature the mandolin in many of his recordings, especially those with the Counting Crows. Rock superstar Tommy Shaw of Styx has used the mandolin in the their international hit "Boat on the River" (1979) and on the Shaw/Blades album Influence in the song "Dance with Me". Luther Dickinson of North Mississippi Allstars and The Black Crowes has made frequent use of the mandolin, most notably on the Black Crowes song "Locust Street". The Country band Sugarland's own Kristian Bush has been known to play the mandolin from time to time. Pop punk band Green Day has used a mandolin in several occasions, especially on their 2000 album, Warning. Boyd Tinsley, violin player of the Dave Matthews Band has been using an electric mandolin since 2005. Nancy Wilson, rhythm guitarist of Heart, uses a mandolin in Heart's song Dream of the Archer from the album Little Queen, as well as in Heart's cover of Led Zeppelin's song The Battle of Evermore which originally features a mandolin, too. Mandolin has also been used in blues music, such as by Johnny 'Man' Young and Gerry Hundt. The theme song to the film Days of Thunder, Show Me Heaven by Maria McKee, prominently features a mandolin. Very rarely mandolins are played with bottlenecks or slides. Sam Bush plays with a slide, mostly on a four string mandolin. Portugal The bandolim (Portuguese for mandolin) was a favorite instrument within the Portuguese bourgeoisie of the 19th century, but its rapid spread took it to other places, joining other instruments. Today you can see mandolins as part of the traditional and folk culture of Portuguese singing groups and the majority of the mandolin scene in Portugal is in Madeira Island. Madeira has over 17 active mandolin Orchestras and Tunas. The mandolin virtuoso Fábio Machado is one of Portugal's most accomplished mandolin players. The Portuguese influence brought the mandolin to Brazil. The United Kingdom The mandolin has been used extensively in the traditional music of England and Scotland for generations, but the instrument has also found its way into British rock music. The mandolin was used by Mike Oldfield (and introduced by Vivian Stanshall) on Oldfield's album Tubular Bells. It was used extensively by the British folk-rock band Lindisfarne, who featured two members on the instrument, Ray Jackson and Simon Cowe, and whose "Fog on the Tyne" was the biggest selling UK album of 1971-1972. "Maggie May" by Rod Stewart, which hit No. 1 on both the British charts and the Billboard Hot 100, also featured Jackson's playing. It has also been used by other British rock musicians, including Steve Howe of Yes who plays the mandolin on the songs I've Seen All Good People and Wondrous Stories, Led Zeppelin, whose bassist John Paul Jones is an accomplished mandolin player and has recorded numerous songs on mandolin including "Going to California" and "That's the Way"; the mandolin part on "The Battle of Evermore" is played by Jimmy Page, who composed the song. Another Led Zeppelin song featuring mandolin is "Hey Hey What Can I Do". Pete Townshend of The Who played mandolin on the track "Mike Post Theme", along with many other tracks on Endless Wire. McGuinness Flint, for whom Benny Gallagher played the mandolin on their most successful single, "When I'm Dead And Gone", is another example. Gallagher was also briefly a member of Ronnie Lane's Slim Chance, and played mandolin on their hit "How Come". One of the more prominent early users of the mandolin in popular music were The Incredible String Band, in which Robin Williamson played the instrument extensively throughout the bands musical career. Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull (band) is a highly accomplished mandolin player (beautiful track "Pussy Willow"), as is his guitarist Martin Barre. The popular song "Please Please Please Let Me Get What I Want" by The Smiths featured a mandolin solo played by Johnny Marr. More recently, the Glasgow-based band Sons and Daughters have featured the mandolin, as played by Ailidh Lennon, on tracks such as "Fight", "Start to End", and "Medicine". British folk-punk icons the Levellers also regularly use the mandolin in their songs. Current bands are also beginning to use the Mandolin and its unique sound - such as South London's Indigo Moss who use it throughout their recordings and live gigs. The mandolin has also recently featured in the playing of Matthew Bellamy in the rock band Muse. It also forms the basis of Paul McCartney's 2007 hit "Dance Tonight". Ireland The mandolin is becoming a somewhat more common instrument amongst Irish traditional musicians. Fiddle tunes are readily accessible to the mandolin player because of the equivalent range of the two instruments and the practically identical (allowing for the lack of frets on the fiddle) left hand fingerings. Although almost any variety of acoustic mandolin might be adequate for Irish traditional music, virtually all Irish players prefer flat-backed instruments with oval sound holes to the Italian-style bowl-back mandolins or the carved-top mandolins with f-holes favoured by bluegrass mandolinists. The former are often too soft-toned to hold their own in a session (as well as having a tendency to not stay in place on the player's lap), whilst the latter tend to sound harsh and overbearing to the traditional ear. The f-hole mandolin, however, does come into its own in a traditional session, where its brighter tone cuts through the sonic clutter of a pub. Greatly preferred for formal performance and recording are flat-topped "Irish-style" mandolins (reminiscent of the WWI-era Martin Army-Navy mandolin) and carved (arch) top mandolins with oval soundholes, such as the Gibson A-style of the 1920s. Noteworthy Irish mandolinists include Andy Irvine (who almost always tunes the E down to D), Mick Moloney, Paul Kelly, and Claudine Langille. John Sheahan and Barney McKenna, fiddle player and tenor banjo player respectively, with The Dubliners are also accomplished Irish mandolin players. The Dubliners 'Live at the Gaiety' DVD features an extensive mandolin duet of a three-tune 'set', two hornpipes and a reel. The instruments used are flat-backed, oval hole examples as described above: in this case made by UK luthier Fylde. The Irish guitarist Rory Gallagher often played the mandolin on stage, and he most famously used it in the song 'Going To My Hometown'. Continental Europe An increased interest in bluegrass music, especially in Central European countries such as the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic, has inspired many new mandolin players and builders. These players often mix traditional folk elements with bluegrass. Classically, Beethoven composed mandolin music http://daniellarson.com/concerts/walz/walz_concert.htm and enjoyed playing the mandolin. http://www.mandozine.com/music/dawgtab/bthoven.php Also very well-known are the mandolin concerti by Vivaldi. Some 20th century classical composers also used the mandolin as their instrument of choice (amongst these are: Schonberg, Webern, Stravinsky, Zappa). Brazil The mandolin (called "bandolim") has a long and rich tradition in Brazilian folk music, especially in the style called choro. The composer and mandolin virtuoso Jacob do Bandolim did much to popularize the instrument through many recordings, and his influence continues to the present day. Some contemporary mandolin players in Brazil include Jacob's disciple Deo Rian, and Hamilton de Holanda (the former, a traditional choro-style player, the latter an eclectic innovator). The mandolin came into Brazil by way of Portugal. Portuguese music has a long tradition of mandolins and mandolin-like instruments (see, for example, the Portuguese guitar). The mandolin is used almost exclusively as a melody instrument in Brazilian folk music - the role of chordal accompaniment being taken over by the cavaquinho and nylon-strung violão, or Spanish-style guitar. Its popularity, therefore, has risen and fallen with instrumental folk music styles, especially choro. The later part of the 20th century saw a renaissance of choro in Brazil, and with it, a revival of the country's mandolinistic tradition. Greece The mandolin has a long tradition in the Ionian islands (the Eptanese) and Crete. It has long been played in the Aegean islands outside of the control of the Ottoman Empire. It is common to see choirs accompanied by mandolin players (mantolinates) in Ionian islands and especially in the cities of Corfu, Zakynthos (also known as Zante) and Kefalonia. The development of songs for mandolin (kantades) developed during the Venetian rule over Ionia. On the island of Crete, along with the lyra and the laouto, the mandolin is one of the main instruments used in Cretan Music. It appeared on Crete around the time of the Venetian rule of the island. Different variants of the mandolin, such as the mantola, were used to accompany the lyra, the violin, and the laouto. Stelios Foustalierakis reported that the mandolin and the mpougari were used to accompany the lyra in the beginning of the 20th century in the city of Rethimno. There are also reports that the mandolin was mostly a woman's musical instrument. Nowadays it is played mainly as a solo instrument in personal and family events on the Ionian islands and Crete. India Mandolin music was used in the Indian Movies as far back as the 1940s by the Raj Kapoor Studios in movies such as Barsaat, Awara etc. Adoption of the mandolin in Carnatic music is recent and, being essentially a very small electric guitar, the instrument itself bears rather small resemblance to European and American mandolins. U. Srinivas has, over the last couple of decades, made his version of the mandolin very popular in India and abroad. Many adaptations of the instrument have been done to cater to the special needs of Indian Carnatic music. This type of mandolin is also used in Bhangra, dance music popular in Punjabi culture. Japan Instruments of the mandolin family are very popular in Japan. But almost all of them are Neapolitan styles except bluegrass bands, and the plucked strings are mandolin orchestras in old Italian style. Morishige Takei (1890-1949), who studied Italian in The Imperial College of Language and was a member of the court of Emperor Hirohito, established the mandolin orchestra in the Italian style before World War II. The military government could not persecute Japanese mandolinists by the authority of Takei and Italy as the Axis. But since Japanese mandolinists had no fanatic patriotisms like Italian mandolinists, so the Japanese mandolin orchestras continued to perform old Italian works after World War II, and they are prosperous today. Western mandolinists tend to like solos, duets, trios, quartets, or concertos performed by few players, but nearly all Japanese mandolinists prefer orchestras with many players, perhaps reflecting Japanese cultural tendencies. These orchestras can consist of up to 40 or even 50 members, and may include wind or percussion instruments. Jiro Nakano (1902-2000) arranged many of the Italian works for regular orchestras or winds composed before World War II as new repertoires for Japanese mandolin orchestras. Original compositions for mandolin orchestras were composed after World War II. Seiichi Suzuki (1901-1980), who is renowned as the composer for early Kurosawa films, composed many symphonic poems for mandolin orchestras; his works have quite a Japanese flavor. Hiroshi Ohguri (1918-1982) was influenced by Béla Bartók, so his works are powerful and quite racial. They were representative of contemporary Japanese composers who also composed many works out of mandolins. Yasuo Kuwahara (1946-2003) succeed to their exotic worlds by the German techniques. Hiroyuki Fujikake (1949- ) introduced swings or counterpoints or the chords from folk guitars to compose new works for mandolin orchestras, which caught on Japanese mandolinists. Yoshinao Kobayashi (1961- ), Hidenori Yoshimizu (1961- ), Hiromitsu Kagajo (1961- ), and many other amateur composers have imitated Fujikake in this way. Another trend of Japanese mandolin music is to perform arrangements of famous classic works originally for regular orchestras. Tadashi Hattori (1908-2008), Jun Akagi (1919-2007), and Takashi Kubota (1942- ) have added many such arrangements as new repertoires for mandolin orchestras. Japanese mandolinists tend to like melodic works mainly performed by trembles, but they are poor at rhythmic works mainly performed by pickings, due to the peculiar condition of Japanese musical education. Japan adopted education in Western music following the Meiji Restoration in 1868. However, their government ill-advisedly separated songs from musics including dances, and they taught their people only songs as the Western music in schools. The Japanese loved melodic Italian works, but could not understand rhythmic compositions originally created for dances. See also List of Mandolinists Stringed instrument tunings Electronic tuner Footnotes External links The Mandolin, The Serenade of Italy, podcast and slideshow The Works for Mandolin Further reading CHORD DICTIONARIES — A very comprehensive chord dictionary — A case-style chord dictionary — A comprehensive chord dictionary METHOD & INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDES — Instructional guide | Mandolin |@lemmatized mandolin:204 musical:11 instrument:60 lute:13 family:22 pluck:4 strum:1 descend:1 mandore:2 soprano:3 member:10 body:8 teardrop:1 shaped:3 soundboard:1 one:16 essentially:4 oval:6 shape:5 soundhole:2 soundholes:3 vary:1 open:1 decorate:1 intricately:1 carved:2 grille:1 like:16 baroque:3 era:2 comprehensive:3 dictionary:5 sibyl:1 marcuse:1 correct:1 edition:2 new:11 grove:1 music:45 musician:9 second:4 edit:1 stanley:1 sadie:1 others:3 originally:5 six:2 double:9 course:23 gut:6 string:53 tune:28 similarly:1 fingertip:1 design:3 common:7 today:4 eight:2 metal:4 four:7 pair:7 plectrum:3 latter:3 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6,803 | Genetic_code | A series of codons in part of a mRNA molecule. Each codon consists of three nucleotides, usually representing a single amino acid. The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells. The code defines a mapping between tri-nucleotide sequences, called codons, and amino acids. A triplet codon in a nucleic acid sequence usually specifies a single amino acid (though in some cases the same codon triplet in different locations can code unambiguously for two different amino acids, the correct choice at each location being determined by context) http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/323/5911/259 . Because the vast majority of genes are encoded with exactly the same code (see the RNA codon table), this particular code is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though in fact there are many variant codes. Thus the canonical genetic code is not universal. For example, in humans, protein synthesis in mitochondria relies on a genetic code that varies from the canonical code. It is important to know that not all genetic information is stored using the genetic code. All organisms' DNA contain regulatory sequences, intergenic segments, chromosomal structural areas, which can contribute greatly to phenotype but operate using distinct sets of rules that may or may not be as straightforward as the codon-to-amino acid paradigm that usually underlies the genetic code (see epigenetics). Cracking the genetic code The genetic code After the structure of DNA was deciphered by James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, serious efforts to understand the nature of the encoding of proteins began. George Gamow postulated that a three-letter code must be employed to encode the 20 standard amino acids used by living cells to encode proteins (because 3 is the smallest integer n such that 4n is at least 20). The fact that codons did consist of three DNA bases was first demonstrated in the Crick, Brenner et al. experiment. The first elucidation of a codon was done by Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich J. Matthaei in 1961 at the National Institutes of Health. They used a cell-free system to translate a poly-uracil RNA sequence (or UUUUU... in biochemical terms) and discovered that the polypeptide that they had synthesized consisted of only the amino acid phenylalanine. They thereby deduced from this poly-phenylalanine that the codon UUU specified the amino-acid phenylalanine. Extending this work, Nirenberg and Philip Leder were able to elucidate the triplet nature of the genetic code and allowed the codons of the standard genetic code to be deciphered. In these experiments, various combinations of mRNA were passed through a filter which contained ribosomes. Unique triplets promoted the binding of specific tRNAs to the ribosome. Leder and Nirenberg were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons. Subsequent work by Har Gobind Khorana identified the rest of the code, and shortly thereafter Robert W. Holley determined the structure of transfer RNA, the adapter molecule that facilitates translation. This work was based upon earlier studies by Severo Ochoa, who received the Nobel prize in 1959 for his work on the enzymology of RNA synthesis. In 1968, Khorana, Holley and Nirenberg received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work. Transfer of information via the genetic code The genome of an organism is inscribed in DNA, or in some viruses RNA. The portion of the genome that codes for a protein or an RNA is referred to as a gene. Those genes that code for proteins are composed of tri-nucleotide units called codons, each coding for a single amino acid. Each nucleotide sub-unit consists of a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar and one of the 4 nitrogenous nucleotide bases. The purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G) are larger and consist of two aromatic rings. The pyrimidine bases cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are smaller and consist of only one aromatic ring. In the double-helix configuration, two strands of DNA are joined to each other by hydrogen bonds in an arrangement known as base pairing. These bonds almost always form between an adenine base on one strand and a thymine on the other strand and between a cytosine base on one strand and a guanine base on the other. This means that the number of A and T residues will be the same in a given double helix, as will the number of G and C residues. In RNA, thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U), and the deoxyribose is substituted by ribose. Each protein-coding gene is transcribed into a template molecule of the related polymer RNA, known as messenger RNA or mRNA. This, in turn, is translated on the ribosome into an amino acid chain or polypeptide. The process of translation requires transfer RNAs specific for individual amino acids with the amino acids covalently attached to them, guanosine triphosphate as an energy source, and a number of translation factors. tRNAs have anticodons complementary to the codons in mRNA and can be "charged" covalently with amino acids at their 3' terminal CCA ends. Individual tRNAs are charged with specific amino acids by enzymes known as aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, which have high specificity for both their cognate amino acids and tRNAs. The high specificity of these enzymes is a major reason why the fidelity of protein translation is maintained. There are 4³ = 64 different codon combinations possible with a triplet codon of three nucleotides; all 64 codons are assigned for either amino acids or stop signals during translation. If, for example, an RNA sequence, UUUAAACCC is considered and the reading-frame starts with the first U (by convention, 5' to 3'), there are three codons, namely, UUU, AAA and CCC, each of which specifies one amino acid. This RNA sequence will be translated into an amino acid sequence, three amino acids long. A comparison may be made with computer science, where the codon is similar to a word, which is the standard "chunk" for handling data (like one amino acid of a protein), and a nucleotide is similar to a bit, in that it is the smallest unit. (Practically speaking, one would need at least 2 bits to represent a nucleotide, and 6 for a codon, in a typical computer.) The standard genetic code is shown in the following tables. Table 1 shows what amino acid each of the 64 codons specifies. Table 2 shows what codons specify each of the 20 standard amino acids involved in translation. These are called forward and reverse codon tables, respectively. For example, the codon AAU represents the amino acid asparagine, and UGU and UGC represent cysteine (standard three-letter designations, Asn and Cys, respectively). RNA codon table nonpolar polar basic acidic (stop codon) + The table shows the 64 codons and the amino acid for each. The direction of the mRNA is 5' to 3'. 2nd base U C A G 1stbase U UUU (Phe/F) Phenylalanine UUC (Phe/F) Phenylalanine UCU (Ser/S) Serine UCC (Ser/S) Serine UAU (Tyr/Y) Tyrosine UAC (Tyr/Y) Tyrosine UGU (Cys/C) Cysteine UGC (Cys/C) Cysteine UUA (Leu/L) Leucine UCA (Ser/S) Serine UAA Ochre (Stop) UGA Opal (Stop) UUG (Leu/L) Leucine UCG (Ser/S) Serine UAG Amber (Stop) UGG (Trp/W) Tryptophan C CUU (Leu/L) Leucine CUC (Leu/L) Leucine CCU (Pro/P) Proline CCC (Pro/P) Proline CAU (His/H) Histidine CAC (His/H) Histidine CGU (Arg/R) Arginine CGC (Arg/R) Arginine CUA (Leu/L) Leucine CUG (Leu/L) Leucine CCA (Pro/P) Proline CCG (Pro/P) Proline CAA (Gln/Q) Glutamine CAG (Gln/Q) Glutamine CGA (Arg/R) Arginine CGG (Arg/R) Arginine A AUU (Ile/I) Isoleucine AUC (Ile/I) Isoleucine ACU (Thr/T) Threonine ACC (Thr/T) Threonine AAU (Asn/N) Asparagine AAC (Asn/N) Asparagine AGU (Ser/S) Serine AGC (Ser/S) Serine AUA (Ile/I) Isoleucine ACA (Thr/T) Threonine AAA (Lys/K) Lysine AGA (Arg/R) Arginine AUG (Met/M) Methionine, Start ACG (Thr/T) Threonine AAG (Lys/K) Lysine AGG (Arg/R) Arginine G GUU (Val/V) Valine GUC (Val/V) Valine GCU (Ala/A) Alanine GCC (Ala/A) Alanine GAU (Asp/D) Aspartic acid GAC (Asp/D) Aspartic acid GGU (Gly/G) Glycine GGC (Gly/G) Glycine GUA (Val/V) Valine GUG (Val/V) Valine GCA (Ala/A) Alanine GCG (Ala/A) Alanine GAA (Glu/E) Glutamic acid GAG (Glu/E) Glutamic acid GGA (Gly/G) Glycine GGG (Gly/G) Glycine The codon AUG both codes for methionine and serves as an initiation site: the first AUG in an mRNA's coding region is where translation into protein begins. + Inverse table Ala/A GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG Leu/L UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG Arg/R CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG Lys/K AAA, AAG Asn/N AAU, AAC Met/M AUG Asp/D GAU, GAC Phe/F UUU, UUC Cys/C UGU, UGC Pro/P CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG Gln/Q CAA, CAG Ser/S UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU, AGC Glu/E GAA, GAG Thr/T ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG Gly/G GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG Trp/W UGG His/H CAU, CAC Tyr/Y UAU, UAC Ile/I AUU, AUC, AUA Val/V GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG START AUG STOP UAG, UGA, UAA Salient features Sequence reading frame A codon is defined by the initial nucleotide from which translation starts. For example, the string GGGAAACCC, if read from the first position, contains the codons GGG, AAA and CCC; and, if read from the second position, it contains the codons GGA and AAC; if read starting from the third position, GAA and ACC. Partial codons have been ignored in this example. Every sequence can thus be read in three reading frames, each of which will produce a different amino acid sequence (in the given example, Gly-Lys-Pro, Gly-Asp, or Glu-Thr, respectively). With double-stranded DNA there are six possible reading frames, three in the forward orientation on one strand and three reverse (on the opposite strand). The actual frame in which a protein sequence is translated is defined by a start codon, usually the first AUG codon in the mRNA sequence. Mutations that disrupt the reading frame by insertions or deletions of a non-multiple of 3 nucleotide bases are known as frameshift mutations. These mutations may impair the function of the resulting protein, if it is formed, and are thus rare in in vivo protein-coding sequences. Often such misformed proteins are targeted for proteolytic degradation. In addition, a frame shift mutation is very likely to cause a stop codon to be read, which truncates the creation of the protein (example ). One reason for the rareness of frame-shifted mutations' being inherited is that, if the protein being translated is essential for growth under the selective pressures the organism faces, absence of a functional protein may cause lethality before the organism is viable. Start/stop codons Translation starts with a chain initiation codon (start codon). Unlike stop codons, the codon alone is not sufficient to begin the process. Nearby sequences (such as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in E.Coli) and initiation factors are also required to start translation. The most common start codon is AUG which is read as methionine or, in bacteria, as formylmethionine. Alternative start codons (depending on the organism), include "GUG" or "UUG", which normally code for valine or leucine. However, when used as a start codon, these alternative start codons are translated as methionine or formylmethionine. The three stop codons have been given names: UAG is amber, UGA is opal (sometimes also called umber), and UAA is ochre. "Amber" was named by discoverers Richard Epstein and Charles Steinberg after their friend Harris Bernstein, whose last name means "amber" in German. The other two stop codons were named "ochre" and "opal" in order to keep the "color names" theme. Stop codons are also called "termination" or "nonsense" codons and they signal release of the nascent polypeptide from the ribosome due to binding of release factors in the absence of cognate tRNAs with anticodons complementary to these stop signals. How nonsense mutations got their names Degeneracy of the genetic code The genetic code has redundancy but no ambiguity (see the codon tables above for the full correlation). For example, although codons GAA and GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy), neither of them specifies any other amino acid (no ambiguity). The codons encoding one amino acid may differ in any of their three positions. For example the amino acid glutamic acid is specified by GAA and GAG codons (difference in the third position), the amino acid leucine is specified by UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG codons (difference in the first or third position), while the amino acid serine is specified by UCA, UCG, UCC, UCU, AGU, AGC (difference in the first, second or third position). A position of a codon is said to be a fourfold degenerate site if any nucleotide at this position specifies the same amino acid. For example, the third position of the glycine codons (GGA, GGG, GGC, GGU) is a fourfold degenerate site, because all nucleotide substitutions at this site are synonymous; i.e., they do not change the amino acid. Only the third positions of some codons may be fourfold degenerate. A position of a codon is said to be a twofold degenerate site if only two of four possible nucleotides at this position specify the same amino acid. For example, the third position of the glutamic acid codons (GAA, GAG) is a twofold degenerate site. In twofold degenerate sites, the equivalent nucleotides are always either two purines (A/G) or two pyrimidines (C/U), so only transversional substitutions (purine to pyrimidine or pyrimidine to purine) in twofold degenerate sites are nonsynonymous. A position of a codon is said to be a non-degenerate site if any mutation at this position results in amino acid substitution. There is only one threefold degenerate site where changing three of the four nucleotides has no effect on the amino acid, while changing the fourth possible nucleotide results in an amino acid substitution. This is the third position of an isoleucine codon: AUU, AUC, or AUA all encode isoleucine, but AUG encodes methionine. In computation this position is often treated as a twofold degenerate site. There are three amino acids encoded by six different codons: serine, leucine, arginine. Only two amino acids are specified by a single codon; one of these is the amino-acid methionine, specified by the codon AUG, which also specifies the start of translation; the other is tryptophan, specified by the codon UGG. The degeneracy of the genetic code is what accounts for the existence of synonymous mutations. Degeneracy results because a triplet code designates 20 amino acids and a stop codon. Because there are four bases, triplet codons are required to produce at least 21 different codes. For example, if there were two bases per codon, then only 16 amino acids could be coded for (4²=16). Because at least 21 codes are required, then 4³ gives 64 possible codons, meaning that some degeneracy must exist. These properties of the genetic code make it more fault-tolerant for point mutations. For example, in theory, fourfold degenerate codons can tolerate any point mutation at the third position, although codon usage bias restricts this in practice in many organisms; twofold degenerate codons can tolerate one out of the three possible point mutations at the third position. Since transition mutations (purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine mutations) are more likely than transversion (purine to pyrimidine or vice-versa) mutations, the equivalence of purines or that of pyrimidines at twofold degenerate sites adds a further fault-tolerance. Grouping of codons by amino acid residue molar volume and hydropathy. A practical consequence of redundancy is that some errors in the genetic code only cause a silent mutation or an error that would not affect the protein because the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity is maintained by equivalent substitution of amino acids; for example, a codon of NUN (where N = any nucleotide) tends to code for hydrophobic amino acids. NCN yields amino acid residues that are small in size and moderate in hydropathy; NAN encodes average size hydrophilic residues; UNN encodes residues that are not hydrophilic. Yang et al. 1990. In Reaction Centers of Photosynthetic Bacteria. M.-E. Michel-Beyerle. (Ed.) (Springer-Verlag, Germany) 209-218 Genetic Algorithms and Recursive Ensemble Mutagenesis in Protein Engineering http://www.complexity.org.au/ci/vol01/fullen01/html/ These tendencies may result from that the aminoacyl tRNA synthetases related the such codons share a common ancestry. Even so, single point mutations can still cause dysfunctional proteins. For example, a mutated hemoglobin gene causes sickle-cell disease. In the mutant hemoglobin a hydrophilic glutamate (Glu) is substituted by the hydrophobic valine (Val), that is, GAA or GAG becomes GUA or GUG. The substitution of glutamate by valine reduces the solubility of β-globin which causes hemoglobin to form linear polymers linked by the hydrophobic interaction between the valine groups causing sickle-cell deformation of erythrocytes. Sickle-cell disease is generally not caused by a de novo mutation. Rather it is selected for in malarial regions (in a way similar to thalassemia), as heterozygous people have some resistance to the malarial Plasmodium parasite (heterozygote advantage). These variable codes for amino acids are allowed because of modified bases in the first base of the anticodon of the tRNA, and the base-pair formed is called a wobble base pair. The modified bases include inosine and the Non-Watson-Crick U-G basepair. Variations to the standard genetic code While slight variations on the standard code had been predicted earlier, Crick, F. H. C. and Orgel, L. E. (1973) "Directed panspermia." Icarus 19:341-346. p. 344: "It is a little surprising that organisms with somewhat different codes do not coexist." (Further discussion at ) none were discovered until 1979, when researchers studying human mitochondrial genes discovered they used an alternative code. Many slight variants have been discovered since, NCBI: "The Genetic Codes", Compiled by Andrzej (Anjay) Elzanowski and Jim Ostell including various alternative mitochondrial codes, Jukes TH, Osawa S, The genetic code in mitochondria and chloroplasts., Experientia. 1990 Dec 1;46(11-12):1117-26. as well as small variants such as Mycoplasma translating the codon UGA as tryptophan. In bacteria and archaea, GUG and UUG are common start codons. However, in rare cases, certain specific proteins may use alternative initiation (start) codons not normally used by that species. Genetic Code page in the NCBI Taxonomy section (Downloaded 27 April 2007.) In certain proteins, non-standard amino acids are substituted for standard stop codons, depending upon associated signal sequences in the messenger RNA: UGA can code for selenocysteine and UAG can code for pyrrolysine as discussed in the relevant articles. Selenocysteine is now viewed as the 21st amino acid, and pyrrolysine is viewed as the 22nd. A detailed description of variations in the genetic code can be found at the NCBI web site. Notwithstanding these differences, all known codes have strong similarities to each other, and the coding mechanism is the same for all organisms: three-base codons, tRNA, ribosomes, reading the code in the same direction and translating the code three letters at a time into sequences of amino acids. Theories on the origin of the genetic code Despite the variations that exist, the genetic codes used by all known forms of life are very similar. Since there are many possible genetic codes that are thought to have similar utility to the one used by Earth life, the theory of evolution suggests that the genetic code was established very early in the history of life. Phylogenetic analysis of transfer RNA suggests that tRNA molecules evolved before the present set of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. The genetic code is not a random assignment of codons to amino acids. For example, amino acids that share the same biosynthetic pathway tend to have the same first base in their codons, and amino acids with similar physical properties tend to have similar codons. There are three themes running through the many theories that seek to explain the evolution of the genetic code (and hence the origin of these patterns). Knight, R.D.; Freeland S. J. and Landweber, L.F. (1999) The 3 Faces of the Genetic Code. Trends in the Biochemical Sciences 24(6), 241-247. : Recent aptamer experiments show that some amino acids have a selective chemical affinity for the base triplets that code for them. Knight, R.D. and Landweber, L.F. (1998). Rhyme or reason: RNA-arginine interactions and the genetic code. Chemistry & Biology 5(9), R215-R220. PDF version of manuscript This suggests that the current complex translation mechanism involving tRNA and associated enzymes may be a later development, and that originally, protein sequences were directly templated on base sequences. That the standard modern genetic code grew from a simpler earlier code through a process of "biosynthetic expansion". Here the idea is that primordial life 'discovered' new amino acids (e.g., as by-products of metabolism) and later back-incorporated some of these into the machinery of genetic coding. Although much circumstantial evidence has been found to suggest that fewer different amino acids were used in the past than today, Brooks, Dawn J.; Fresco, Jacques R.; Lesk, Arthur M.; and Singh, Mona. (2002). Evolution of Amino Acid Frequencies in Proteins Over Deep Time: Inferred Order of Introduction of Amino Acids into the Genetic Code. Molecular Biology and Evolution 19, 1645-1655. precise and detailed hypotheses about exactly which amino acids entered the code in exactly what order has proved far more controversial. Amirnovin R. (1997) An analysis of the metabolic theory of the origin of the genetic code. Journal of Molecular Evolution 44(5), 473-6. Ronneberg T.A.; Landweber L.F. and Freeland S.J. (2000) Testing a biosynthetic theory of the genetic code: Fact or artifact? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 97(25), 13690-13695. That natural selection has led to codon assignments of the genetic code that minimize the effects of mutations. Freeland S.J.; Wu T. and Keulmann N. (2003) The Case for an Error Minimizing Genetic Code. Orig Life Evol Biosph. 33(4-5), 457-77. References Further reading Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (1999). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-3771-X Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1 Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James E. (1999). Molecular Cell Biology (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-3706-X External links The Genetic Codes → Genetic Code Tables Online DNA → Amino Acid Converter Online DNA Sequence → Protein Sequence converter Online DNA to protein translation (6 frames/17+ genetic codes) The Codon Usage Database → Codon frequency tables for many organisms Symmetries in the genetic code | Genetic_code |@lemmatized series:1 codon:85 part:1 mrna:7 molecule:4 consist:6 three:18 nucleotide:17 usually:4 represent:4 single:5 amino:60 acid:68 genetic:46 code:69 set:3 rule:2 information:3 encode:7 material:1 dna:10 rna:17 sequence:24 translate:9 protein:26 live:2 cell:8 define:3 mapping:1 tri:2 call:6 triplet:7 nucleic:1 specify:14 though:2 case:3 different:8 location:2 unambiguously:1 two:9 correct:1 choice:1 determine:3 context:1 http:2 www:2 sciencemag:1 org:2 cgi:1 content:1 short:1 vast:1 majority:1 gene:6 exactly:3 see:3 table:11 particular:1 often:3 refer:2 canonical:3 standard:12 simply:1 fact:3 many:6 variant:3 thus:3 universal:1 example:16 human:2 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6,804 | Gulf_of_Mexico | Gulf of Mexico in 3D perspective. The Gulf of Mexico () is the ninth largest body of water in the world. Considered a smaller part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The shape of its basin is roughly oval and approximately 810 nautical miles (1,500 km) wide and filled with sedimentary rocks and debris. It is part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea (with which it forms the American Mediterranean Sea) via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba. Tidal ranges are extremely small due to the narrow connection with the ocean. The gulf basin is approximately 615,000 mi² (1.6 million km²). Almost half of the basin is shallow intertidal waters. At its deepest it is 14,383 ft (4,384 m) at the Sigsbee Deep, an irregular trough more than 300 nautical miles (550 km) long. It was probably formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of the seafloor sinking. Geology Sediment in the Gulf of Mexico Little is known about the geologic history of the Gulf of Mexico Basin before Late Triassic time. Some authors have postulated the presence of a basin in the area during most of Paleozoic time, but most evidence seems to indicate that Paleozoic rocks do not underlie most of the Gulf of Mexico basin and that the area was, at the end of Paleozoic time, part of the large supercontinent of Pangea, the result of the collision of several continental plates. gulfbase.org The present Gulf of Mexico basin is believed to have had its origin in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within the North American Plate as it began to crack and drift away from the African and South American plates. Rifting probably continued through Early and Middle Jurassic time with the formation of "stretched" or "transitional" continental crust throughout the central part of the basin. Intermittent advance of the sea into the continental area from the west during late Middle Jurassic time resulted in the formation of the extensive salt deposits such as the Brine pool. It appears that the main drifting episode, during which the Yucatan block moved southward and separated from the North American Plate and true oceanic crust formed in the central part of the basin, took place during the early Late Jurassic, after the formation of the salt deposits. In 2002 geologist Michael Stanton published a speculative essay suggesting a large cometary impact origin for the Gulf of Mexico at the close of the Permian. Is the Gulf's Origin Heaven Sent? by Michael S. Stanton Explorer magazine article "Is the Gulf's Origin Heaven Sent?" Since Late Jurassic time, the basin has been a stable geologic province characterized by the persistent subsidence of its central part, probably due at first to thermal cooling and later to sediment loading as the basin filled with thick prograding clastic wedges along its northwestern and northern margins, particularly during the Cenozoic. To the east, the stable Florida platform was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning of Cretaceous time. The Yucatan platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms were submerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has characterized the geologic history of these two stable areas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the Early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank was involved during the latest Cretaceous and early Tertiary in a compressive deformation episode, the Laramide Orogeny, which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. Today, there are 7 main areas of the gulf: Gulf of Mexico Basin, which contains the Sigsbee Deep and can be further divided into the continental rise, the Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, and the Mississippi Cone. Northeast Gulf of Mexico, which extends from just east of the Mississippi Delta near Biloxi to the eastern side of Apalachee Bay. South Florida Continental Shelf and Slope, which extends along the coast from Apalachee Bay to the Straits of Florida and includes the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas. Campeche Bank, which extends from the Yucatan Straits in the east to the Tabasco-Campeche Basin in the west and includes Arrecife Alacran. Bay of Campeche, which is an isthmian embayment extending from the western edge of Campeche Bank to the offshore regions just east of the port of Veracruz. Western Gulf of Mexico, which is located between Veracruz to the south and the Rio Grande to the north. Northwest Gulf of Mexico, which extends from Alabama to the U.S.-Mexico border. History European exploration Fishing boats in Biloxi Graph showing the overall water temperature of the Gulf between Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Although Katrina cooled waters in its path by up to 4 °C, they had rebounded by the time of Rita's appearance. Although Christopher Columbus was credited with the discovery of the Americas, the ships in his four voyages never reached the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, Columbus sailed into the Caribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola. The first European exploration of the Gulf of Mexico was Amerigo Vespucci in 1497. He followed the coastal land mass of central America before returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida between Florida and Cuba. In his letters, Vespucci described this trip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain, a famous world map, depicting Cuba as an island, was produced. In 1506, Hernán Cortés took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his effort. In 1510, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba discovered the Yucatán Peninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advanced civilization in the Americas, with solidly-built buildings and a complex social organization which they recognized as being comparable to those of the Old World; they also had reason to expect that this new land would have gold. All of this encouraged two further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command of Juan de Grijalva, and the second in 1519 under the command of Hernán Cortés, which led to the Spanish exploration, military invasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as the Conquest of Mexico. Hernández did not live to see the continuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of his expedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirst suffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledge that Diego Velázquez had given precedence to Grijalva as the captain of the next expedition to Yucatán. In 1523, Ángel de Villafañe sailed toward Mexico City, but was shipwrecked en route along the coast of Padre Island, Texas in 1554. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet and immediately sent Villafañe marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafañe traveled to Pánuco and hired a ship to transport him to the site, which had already been visited from that community. He arrived in time to greet García de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado), commander of the salvage operation, when Alvarado arrived by sea on July 22, 1554. The team labored until September 12 to salvage the Padre Island treasure. This loss, in combination with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, gave rise to a plan for establishing a settlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and more quickly rescue castaways. As a result, the expedition of Tristán de Luna y Arellano was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on August 15, 1559. On December 11, 1526, Charles V granted Pánfilo de Narváez a license to claim what is now the Gulf Coast of the United States, known as the Narváez expedition. The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, be large enough to found at least two towns of one hundred people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along the coast. On April 7, 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay. They turned south and traveled for two days looking for a great harbor the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the five remaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known of it. In 1697, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville sailed for France and was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead an expedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to colonize Louisiana which the English coveted. Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on 24 October 1698. On January 25, 1699, Iberville reached Santa Rosa Island in front of Pensacola founded by the Spanish; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island, later renamed Dauphin Island. He cast anchor between Cat Island and Ship Island; and on February 13, 1699, he went to the mainland, Biloxi, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. On May 1, 1699, he completed a fort on the north-east side of the Bay of Biloxi, a little to the rear of what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi. This fort was known as Fort Maurepas or Old Biloxi. A few days later, on May 4, Pierre Le Moyne sailed for France leaving his teenage brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, as second in command to the French commandant. Principal features Gulf beach near Sabine Pass. The Gulf of Mexico's eastern, north, and northwestern shores lie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of the Gulf coastline spans , receiving water from thirty-three major rivers that drain 31 states. The Gulf's southwestern and southern shores lie along the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo. The Mexican portion of the Gulf coastline spans . On its southeast quadrant the Gulf is bordered by Cuba. It supports major American, Mexican and Cuban fishing industries. The outer margins of the wide continental shelves of Yucatán and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters from the deep by a process known as upwelling, which stimulates plankton growth in the euphotic zone. This attracts fish, shrimp, and squid. River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrial coastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone. The Gulf Stream, a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf, as a continuation of the Caribbean Current-Yucatán Current-Loop Current system. Other circulation features include the anticyclonic gyres which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westward where they eventually dissipate, and a permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche. The Bay of Campeche in Mexico constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays and smaller inlets. A number of rivers empty into the gulf, most notably the Mississippi River in the northern gulf, and the Grijalva and Usumacinta Rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swamps as well as stretches of sandy beach. The Gulf of Mexico is an excellent example of a passive margin. The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, most notably at the Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil by means of offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and in the Bay of Campeche. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper, amberjack, tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism. The gulf's warm water temperature can feed powerful Atlantic hurricanes causing extensive human death and other destruction as happened with Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In the Atlantic, a hurricane will draw up cool water from the depths and making it less likely that further hurricanes will follow in its wake (warm water being one of the preconditions necessary for their formation). However, the Gulf is shallower and its entire water column is warm. When a hurricane passes over, although the water temperature may drop it soon rebounds and becomes capable of supporting another tropical storm. The Gulf is considered aseismic: however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or less on the Richter scale). A 6.0 tremor was recorded on September 10, 2006, off the coast of Florida which caused no damage, but could be felt throughout the Southeastern United States. No damage or injuries were reported. Earthquakes such as this may be caused by interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor and adjustment by the crust. Pollution There are frequent "red tide" algae blooms that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest and southern Florida coast, from the Florida Keys to north of Pasco County, Florida. In July 2008, researchers reported that the dead zone that runs east-west, from near Galveston, Texas to near Venice, Louisiana, was about , nearly the record. Between 1985 and 2008, the area roughly doubled in size. Joel Achenbach, "A 'Dead Zone' in The Gulf of Mexico: Scientists Say Area That Cannot Support Some Marine Life Is Near Record Size", Washington Post, July 31, 2008 2006 earthquake On September 10, 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that a strong earthquake, ranking 6.0 on the Richter scale, occurred about west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida around 10:56 AM EDT. The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida. There were no reports of major damages or casualties. Observer News Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida. United States Geological Survey, 11 September 2006 The earthquake was described by the USGS as a midplate earthquake, the largest and most widely felt recorded in the past three decades in the region. According to the September 11, 2006 issue of The Tampa Tribune, earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recorded in Quincy, northwest of Tallahassee. See also Territorial evolution of the Caribbean Brine pool Charlotte Harbor Estuary, Florida Gulf Coast Jack 2 (a test well in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico) Outer Continental Shelf Orca Basin References External links Resource Database for Gulf of Mexico Research 6.0 Earthquake reported on 9-10-2006 GSA article on Gulf seismic activity from 1982 EPA factsheet on hypoxia Gulf of Mexico hypoxia Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science Northern Gulf Institute Gallery be-x-old:Мэксыканская затока | Gulf_of_Mexico |@lemmatized gulf:49 mexico:31 perspective:1 ninth:1 large:7 body:1 water:12 world:3 consider:2 small:3 part:8 atlantic:6 ocean:8 basin:16 largely:1 surround:1 north:9 american:6 continent:1 island:10 cuba:10 bound:1 northeast:2 northwest:3 coast:13 united:4 state:7 southwest:3 south:5 southeast:2 shape:1 roughly:2 oval:1 approximately:3 nautical:2 mile:2 km:2 wide:3 fill:2 sedimentary:1 rock:2 debris:1 florida:19 strait:4 u:5 caribbean:4 sea:6 form:4 mediterranean:1 via:2 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6,805 | Geography_of_Ghana | +Republic of GhanaMap of Ghana Continent Africa Geographic coordinates Area - Total - % water Ranked 77th 238,540 km² 3.5% (8,520 km²) Coastline 700 km Highest point Mount Afadjato, 880 m Lowest point Atlantic Ocean, 0 m Longest river Volta River Man Made Largest inland body of water Lake Volta Land Use - Arable land - Permanent crops - Permanent pastures - Forests and woodlands - Other 12 % 7 % 22 % 35 %24 % (1993 est.) Climate: Tropical HDI Index ---- Natural resources gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, hydropower Environmental issues drought, deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, poaching, habitat destruction, water pollution, drinking water Ghana is a country in West Africa, along the Gulf of Guinea, just a few degrees north of the equator. Location and size Ghana, which lies in the center of the West African coast, shares 2,093 km of land borders with the three French-speaking nations of Burkina Faso (548 km) to the north, Côte d'Ivoire (668 km) to the west, and Togo (877 km) to the east. To the south are the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. With a total area of 238,533 square kilometers, Ghana is about the size of the United Kingdom, or slightly smaller than Oregon. Its southernmost coast at Cape Three Points is 4° 30' north of the equator. From here, the country extends inland for some 670 kilometers to about 11° north. The distance across the widest part, between longitude 1° 12' east and longitude 3° 15' west, measures about 560 kilometers. The Greenwich Meridian, which passes through London, also traverses the eastern part of Ghana at Tema. Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km) continental shelf: 200 nautical miles (370 km) exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Climate The country's warm, humid climate has an annual mean temperature between 26 and 29 °C. Variations in the principal elements of temperature, rainfall, and humidity that govern the climate are influenced by the movement and interaction of the dry tropical continental air mass, the harmattan, which blows from the northeast across the Sahara, and the opposing tropical maritime or moist equatorial system. The cycle of the seasons follows the apparent movement of the sun back and forth across the equator. During summer in the northern hemisphere, a warm and moist maritime air mass intensifies and pushes northward across the country. A low-pressure belt, or intertropical front, in the air mass brings warm air, rain, and prevailing winds from the southwest. As the sun returns south across the equator, the dry, dusty, tropical continental front, or harmattan, prevails. Climatic conditions across the country are hardly uniform. The Kwahu Plateau, which marks the northernmost extent of the forest area, also serves as an important climatic divide. To its north, two distinct seasons occur. The harmattan season with its dry, hot days and relatively cool nights from November to late March or April, is followed by a wet period that reaches its peak in late August or September. To the south and southwest of the Kwahu Plateau, where the annual mean rainfall from north to south ranges from 1,250 millimeters 2,150 millimeters, four separate seasons occur. Heavy rains fall from about April through late June. After a relatively short dry period in August, another rainy season begins in September and lasts through November, before the longer harmattan season sets in to complete the cycle. The extent of drought and rainfall varies across the country. To the south of the Kwahu Plateau, the heaviest rains occur in the Axim area in the southwest corner of Ghana. Farther to the north, Kumasi receives an average annual rainfall of about 1,400 millimeters, while Tamale in the drier northern savanna receives rainfall of 1,000 millimeters per year. From Takoradi eastward to the Accra Plains, including the lower Volta region, rainfall averages only 750 millimeters to 1,000 millimeters a year. Temperatures are usually high at all times of the year throughout the country. At higher elevations temperatures are more comfortable. In the far north, temperature highs of 31°C are common. The southern part of the country is characterized by generally humid conditions. This is particularly so during the night, when 95 to 100 % humidity is possible. Humid conditions also prevail the northern section of the country during the rainy season. During the harmattan season, however, humidity drops as low as 25 percent in the north. Terrain of Ghana The terrain consists mostly low plains with the Kwahu Plateau in the south-central area. Half of the country lies less than 152 meters (500 ft) above sea level, and the highest point is 883 meters (2,900 ft). The 537 kilometer (334 mi) coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams, most of which are navigable only by canoe. A tropical rain forest belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extends northward from the shore, near the Côte d'Ivoire frontier. This area, known as the "Ashanti," produces most of the country's cocoa, minerals, and timber. North of this belt, the country varies from 91 to 396 meters (300 to 1,300 ft) above sea level and is covered by low bush, park-like savanna, and grassy plains. Irrigated land: 60 km² (1993 est.) Geographical regions Topography of Ghana Ghana is characterized in general by low physical relief. Indeed, the Precambrian rock system that underlies most of the nation has been worn down by erosion almost to a plain. The highest elevation in Ghana, Mount Afadjato in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, rises only 880 meters above sea level. There are, nonetheless, five distinct geographical regions. Low plains stretch across the southern part of the country. To their north lie three regions--the Ashanti Uplands, the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, and the Volta Basin. The fifth region, the high plains, occupies the northern and northwestern sector of the country (see fig. 4). Like most West African countries, Ghana has no natural harbors. Because strong surf pounds the shoreline, two artificial harbors were built at Takoradi and Tema (the latter completed in 1961) to accommodate Ghana's shipping needs. Low Plains The low plains comprise the four subregions of the coastal savanna, the Volta Delta, the Accra Plains, and the Akan Lowlands. A narrow strip of grassy and scrubby coast runs from a point near Takoradi in the west to the Togo border in the east. This coastal savanna, only about eight kilometers in width at its western end, stretches eastward through the Accra Plains, where it widens to more than eighty kilometers, and terminates at the southeastern corner of the country at the lower end of the Akwapim-Togo Ranges. Almost flat and featureless, the Accra Plains descend gradually to the gulf from a height of about 150 meters. The topography east of the city of Accra is marked by a succession of ridges and spoonshaped valleys. The hills and slopes in this area are the favored lands for cultivation. Shifting cultivation is the usual agricultural practice because of the swampy nature of the very lowlying areas during the rainy seasons and the periodic blocking of the rivers at the coast by sandbars that form lagoons. A plan to irrigate the Accra Plains was announced in 1984. Should this plan come to reality, much of the area could be opened to large-scale cultivation. To the west of Accra, the low plains contain wider valleys and rounded low hills, with occasional rocky headlands. In general, however, the land is flat and covered with grass and scrub. Dense groves of coconut palms front the coastline. Several commercial centers, including Winneba, Saltpond, and Cape Coast, are located here. Although Winneba has a small livestock industry and palm tree cultivation is expanding in the area away from the coast, the predominant occupation of the coastal inhabitants is fishing by dug-out canoe. The Volta Delta, which forms a distinct subregion of the low plains, extends into the Gulf of Guinea in the extreme southeast. The delta's rock formation--consisting of thick layers of sandstone, some limestone, and silt deposits--is flat, featureless, and relatively young. As the delta grew outward over the centuries, sandbars developed across the mouths of the Volta and smaller rivers that empty into the gulf in the same area, forming numerous lagoons, some quite large, making road construction difficult. To avoid the lowest-lying areas, for example, the road between Accra and Keta makes an unusual detour inland just before reaching Ada and finally approaches Keta from the east along the narrow spit on which the town stands. This notwithstanding, road links with Keta continue to be a problem. By 1989 it was estimated that more than 3,000 houses in the town had been swallowed by flooding from the lagoon. In addition, about 1,500 other houses were destroyed by erosion caused by the powerful waves of the sea. Ironically, it is this flat, silt-composed delta region with its abundance of water that supports shallot, corn, and cassava cultivation in the region. Moreover, the sandy soil of the delta gave rise to the copra industry. Salt-making, from the plentiful supply in the dried beds of the lagoons, provides additional employment. The main occupation of the delta people, however, continues to be fishing, an industry that supplies dried and salted fish to other parts of the country. The largest part of the low plains is the Akan Lowlands. Some experts prefer to classify this region as a subdivision of the Ashanti Uplands because of the many characteristics they share. Unlike the uplands, however, the height of the Akan Lowlands is generally between sea level and 150 meters. Some ranges and hills rise to about 300 meters, but few exceed 600 meters. The lowlands that lie to the south of the Ashanti Uplands receive the many rivers that make their way to the sea. The Akan Lowlands contain the basins of the Densu River, the Pra River, the Ankobra River, and the Tano River, all of which play important roles in the economy of Ghana. The Densu River Basin, location of the important urban centers of Koforidua and Nsawam in the eastern lowlands, has an undulating topography. Many of the hills here have craggy summits, which give a striking appearance to the landscape. The upper section of the Pra River Basin, to the west of the Densu, is relatively flat; the topography of its lower reaches, however, resembles that of the Densu Basin and is a rich cocoa and food-producing region. The valley of the Birim River, one of the main tributaries of the Pra, is the country's most important diamond-producing area. The Ankobra River Basin and the middle and lower basins of the Tano River to the west of the lowlands form the largest subdivision of the Akan Lowlands. Here annual rainfall between 1,500 and 2,150 millimeters helps assure a dense forest cover. In addition to timber, the area is rich in minerals. The Tarkwa goldfield, the diamond operations of the Bonsa Valley, and high-grade manganese deposits are all found in this area. The middle and lower Tano basins have been intensely explored for oil and natural gas since the mid-1980s. The lower basins of the Pra, Birim, Densu, and Ankobra rivers are also sites for palm tree cultivation. Ashanti Uplands Comprising the Southern Ashanti Uplands and the Kwahu Plateau, the Ashanti Uplands lie just north of the Akan Lowlands and stretch from the Côte d'Ivoire border in the west to the elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east. Stretching in a northwest-to-southeast direction, the Kwahu Plateau extends 193 kilometers between Koforidua in the east and Wenchi in the northwest. The average elevation of the plateau is about 450 meters, rising to a maximum of 762 meters. The relatively cool temperatures of the plateau were attractive to Europeans, particularly missionaries, who founded many well-known schools and colleges in this region. The plateau forms one of the important physical divides in Ghana. From its northeastern slopes, the Afram and Pru Rivers flow into the Volta River, while from the opposite side, the Pra, Birim, Ofin, Tano, and other rivers flow south toward the sea. The plateau also marks the northernmost limit of the forest zone. Although large areas of the forest cover have been destroyed through farming, enough deciduous forest remains to shade the head waters of the rivers that flow from the plateau. The Southern Ashanti Uplands, extending from the foot of the Kwahu Plateau in the north to the lowlands in the south, slope gently from an elevation of about 300 meters in the north to about 150 meters in the south. The region, however, contains several hills and ranges as well as several towns of historical and economic importance, including Kumasi, Ghana's second largest city and former capital of the Asante (also seen as Ashanti--see Glossary) empire (see The Precolonial Period , ch. 1). Obuasi and Konongo, two of the country's gold-mining centers, are also located here. The region is the country's chief producer of cocoa, and its tropical forests continue to be a vital source of timber for the lumber industry. Volta Basin Occupying the central part of Ghana, the Volta Basin covers about 45 percent of the nation's total land surface. Its northern section, which lies above the upper part of Lake Volta, rises to a height of 150 to 215 meters above sea level. Elevations of the Konkori Scarp to the west and the Gambaga Scarp to the north reach from 300 to 460 meters. To the south and the southwest, the basin is less than 300 meters. The Kwahu Plateau marks the southern end of the basin, although it forms a natural part of the Ashanti Uplands. The basin is characterized by poor soil, generally of Voltaian sandstone. Annual rainfall averages between 1,000 and 1,140 millimeters. The most widespread vegetation type is savanna, the woodlands of which, depending on local soil and climatic conditions, may contain such trees as Red Ironwood and Shea. The basin's population, principally farmers, is low in density, especially in the central and northwestern areas of the basin, where tsetse flies are common. Archeological finds indicate, however, that the region was once more heavily populated. Periodic burning evidently occurred over extensive areas for perhaps more than a millennium, exposing the soil to excessive drying and erosion, rendering the area less attractive to cultivators. In contrast with the rest of the region are the Afram Plains, located in the southeastern corner of the basin. Here the terrain is low, averaging 60 to 150 meters in elevation, and annual rainfall is between 1,140 and about 1,400 millimeters. Near the Afram River, much of the surrounding countryside is flooded or swampy during the rainy seasons. With the construction of Lake Volta (85.15 km² in area) in the mid-1960s, much of the Afram Plains was submerged. Despite the construction of roads to connect communities displaced by the lake, road transportation in the region remains poor. Renewed efforts to improve communications, to enhance agricultural production, and to improve standards of living began in earnest only in the mid-1980s. High plains The general terrain in the northern and northwestern part of Ghana outside the Volta Basin consists of a dissected plateau, which averages between 150 and 300 meters in elevation and, in some places, is even higher. Rainfall averages between 1,000 and 1,150 millimeters annually, although in the northwest it is closer to 1,350 millimeters. Soils in the high plains are more arable than those in the Volta Basin, and the population density is considerably higher. Grain and cattle production are the major economic activities in the high plains of the northern region. Since the mid-1980s, when former United States President Jimmy Carter's Global 2000 program (see Glossary) adopted Ghana as one of a select number of African countries whose local farmers were to be educated and financially supported to improve agricultural production, there has been a dramatic increase in grain production in northern Ghana. The virtual absence of tsetse flies in the region has led, moreover, to increased livestock raising as a major occupation in the north. In fact, the region is the country's largest producer of cattle. Rivers and lakes Lake Volta is one of the world's largest artificially created lakes. Ghana is drained by a large number of streams and rivers. In addition, there are a number of coastal lagoons, the huge man-made Lake Volta, and Lake Bosumtwi, southeast of Kumasi and which has no outlet to the sea. In the wetter south and southwest areas of Ghana, the river and stream pattern is denser, but in the area north of the Kwahu Plateau, the pattern is much more open, making access to water more difficult. Several streams and rivers also dry up or experience reduced flow during the dry seasons of the year, while flooding during the rainy seasons is common. The major drainage divide runs from the southwest part of the Akwapim-Togo Ranges northwest through the Kwahu Plateau and then irregularly westward to the Côte d'Ivoire border. Almost all the rivers and streams north of this divide form part of the Volta system. Extending about 1,600 kilometers in length and draining an area of about 388,000 square kilometers, of which about 158,000 km² lie within Ghana, the Volta and its tributaries, such as the Afram River and the Oti River, drain more than twothirds of the country. To the south of the divide are several smaller, independent rivers. The most important of these are the Pra River, the Tano River, the Ankobra River, the Birim River, and the Densu River. With the exception of smaller streams that dry up in the dry seasons or rivers that empty into inland lakes, all the major rivers in the country flow into the Gulf of Guinea directly or as tributaries to other major rivers. The Ankobra and Tano are navigable for considerable distances in their lower reaches. Navigation on the Volta River has changed significantly since 1964. Construction of the dam at Akosombo, about eighty kilometers upstream from the coast, created vast Lake Volta and the associated 768 megawatt hydroelectric project. Arms of the lake extended into the lower-lying areas, forcing the relocation of 78,000 people to newly created townships on the lake's higher banks. The Black Volta River and the White Volta River flow separately into the lake. Before their confluence was submerged, the rivers came together in the middle of the country to form the main Volta River. The Oti River and the Daka River, the principal tributaries of the Volta in the eastern part of the country, and the Pru River, the Sene River, and the Afram River, major tributaries to the north of the Kawhu Plateau, also empty into flooded extensions of the lake in their river valleys. Lake Volta is a rich source of fish, and its potential as a source for irrigation is reflected in agricultural mechanization agreement signed in the late 1980s to irrigate the Afram Plains. The lake is navigable from Akosombo through Yeji in the middle of the country; a 24 meter pontoon was commissioned in 1989 to link the Afram Plains to the west of the lake with the lower Volta region to the east. Hydroelectricity generated from Akosombo supplies Ghana, Togo, and Benin. On the other side of the Kwahu Plateau from Lake Volta are several river systems, including the Pra, Ankobra, Tano and Densu. The Pra is the easternmost and the largest of the three principal rivers that drain the area south of the Volta divide. Rising south of the Kwahu Plateau and flowing southward, the Pra enters the Gulf of Guinea east of Takoradi. In the early part of the twentieth century, the Pra was used extensively to float timber to the coast for export. This trade is now carried by road and rail transportation. The Ankobra, which flows to the west of the Pra, has a relatively small drainage basin. It rises in the hilly region of Bibiani and flows in a southerly direction to enter the gulf just west of Axim. Small craft can navigate approximately eighty kilometers inland from its mouth. At one time, the Ankobra helped transport machinery to the gold-mining areas in the vicinity of Tarkwa. The Tano, which is the westernmost of the three rivers, rises near Techiman in the center of the country. It also flows in a southerly direction, but it empties into a lagoon in the southeast corner of Côte d'Ivoire. Navigation by steam launch is possible on the southern sector of the Tano for about 70 kilometers. A number of rivers are found to the east of the Pra. The two most important are the Densu and Ayensu, both of which rise in the Atewa Range, and which are important as sources of water for Accra and Winneba respectively. The country has one large natural lake, Lake Bosumtwi, located about 32 kilometers southeast of Kumasi. It occupies the steep-sided meteoric crater http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/images/bosumtwi.htm and has an area of about 47 square kilometers. A number of small streams flow into Lake Bosumtwi, but there is no drainage from it. Apart from providing an opportunity for fishing for local inhabitants, the lake serves as a tourist attraction! Natural hazards Dry, dusty, harmattan winds occur from January to March. The country is also prone to droughts. Environment The recent drought in the north has had a severe effect on agriculture. Wildlife is threatened by poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations. International agreements (ratified): Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands International agreements (signed, but not ratified) Marine Life Conservation Other Volta Lake, the largest artificial lake in the world, extends from the Akosombo Dam in southeastern Ghana to the town of Yapei, 520 kilometers (325 mi) to the north. The lake generates electricity, provides inland transportation, and is a potentially valuable resource for irrigation and fish farming. 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6,806 | David_Lynch | David Keith Lynch (born January 20, 1946) is an American film director, screenwriter, producer, painter, cartoonist, composer, video and performance artist. Lynch has received three Academy Award nominations for Best Director, for The Elephant Man (1980), Blue Velvet (1986), and Mulholland Drive (2001). He also received a screenplay Academy Award nomination for The Elephant Man. Lynch has won awards at the Cannes Film Festival and Venice Film Festival. Over a lengthy career, Lynch has employed a distinctive and unorthodox approach to narrative film making (dubbed Lynchian), which has become instantly recognizable to many audiences and critics worldwide. Lynch's films are known for surreal, nightmarish and dreamlike images and meticulously crafted sound design. Lynch's work often explores the seedy underside of "Small Town U.S." (particularly Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks), or sprawling California metropolises (Lost Highway, Mulholland Drive and his latest release, Inland Empire). Beginning with his experimental film school feature Eraserhead (1977), he has maintained a strong cult following despite inconsistent commercial success. Early life Lynch was born in Missoula, Montana on January 20, 1946. His father, Donald, was a U.S. Department of Agriculture research scientist and his mother, Sunny Lynch, was an English language tutor. He was raised throughout the Pacific Northwest and Durham, North Carolina. He attained the rank of Eagle Scout and, on his 15th birthday, served as an usher at John F. Kennedy's Presidential Inauguration. Lynch was raised a Presbyterian. David Lynch's Shockingly Peaceful Inner Life Yale Daily News - David Lynch thinks we're all lightbulbs. What? Yale Daily News His mother's father, whose last name was Sundholm, moved to the United States from Finland in the 19th century, and Lynch is one of the best-known Finnish Americans. Intending to become an artist, Lynch attended classes at Corcoran School of Art in Washington, D.C. while finishing high school in Alexandria, Virginia. He enrolled in the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston for one year (where he was a roommate of Peter Wolf Peter Wolf - Biography ) before leaving for Europe with his friend and fellow artist Jack Fisk, planning to study with Austrian expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka. Although he had planned to stay for three years, Lynch returned to the US after only 15 days. Early career and short films (1966–1970) In 1966, Lynch relocated to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, attended the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (PAFA) and made a series of complex mosaics in geometric shapes which he called Industrial Symphonies. Lynch's receipt for his first camera, purchased in Philadelphia on April 25, 1967 at Fotorama, lists his residency as 2429 Aspen Street. This house is located in Philadelphia's Fairmount neighborhood, also known as the Art Museum neighborhood. The receipt can be viewed on The Short Films of David Lynch. At this time, he also began working in film. His first short film Six Men Getting Sick (1966), which he described as "57 seconds of growth and fire, and three seconds of vomit", was played on a loop at an art exhibit. It won the Academy's annual film contest. This led to a commission from H. Barton Wasserman to do a film installation in his home. After a disastrous first attempt that resulted in a completely blurred, frameless print, Wasserman allowed Lynch to keep the remaining portion of the commission. Using this, he created The Alphabet. In 1970, Lynch turned his attention away from fine art and focused primarily on film. He won a $5,000 grant (later extended to $7,200) from the American Film Institute to produce The Grandmother, about a neglected boy who “grows” a grandmother from a seed. The 30-minute film exhibited many elements that would become Lynch trademarks, including unsettling sound and surrealistic imagery and a focus on unconscious desires instead of traditional narration. Cult success (1975–1979) In 1971, Lynch moved to Los Angeles to study for an MFA (Masters of Fine Arts) degree at the AFI Conservatory. At the Conservatory, Lynch began working on his first feature-length film, Eraserhead, using a $10,000 grant from the AFI. The grant did not provide enough money to complete the film and, due to lack of a sufficient budget, Eraserhead was filmed intermittently until 1977. Lynch used money from friends and family, including boyhood friend Jack Fisk, a production designer and the husband of actress Sissy Spacek, and even took a paper route to finish it. A stark and enigmatic film, Eraserhead tells the story of a quiet young man (Jack Nance) living in an industrial wasteland, whose girlfriend gives birth to a constantly crying mutant baby. Lynch has referred to Eraserhead as "my Philadelphia story", meaning it reflects all of the dangerous and fearful elements he encountered while studying and living in Philadelphia. David Lynch interview 1985 He said "this feeling left its traces deep down inside me. And when it came out again, it became Eraserhead". The final film was initially judged to be almost unreleasable, but thanks to the efforts of the Elgin Theater distributor Ben Barenholtz, it became an instant cult classic and was a staple of midnight movie showings for the next decade. It was also a critical success, launching Lynch to the forefront of avant-garde filmmaking. Stanley Kubrick said that it was one of his all-time favorite films. It cemented the team of actors and technicians who would continue to define the texture of his work for years to come, including cinematographer Frederick Elmes, sound designer Alan Splet, and actor Jack Nance. Rise to prominence (1980–1986) David Lynch on the set of Blue Velvet with Kyle MacLachlan. Eraserhead brought Lynch to the attention of producer Mel Brooks, who hired him to direct 1980's The Elephant Man, a biopic of deformed Victorian era figure Joseph Merrick. The film was a huge commercial success, and earned eight Academy Award nominations, including Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay nods for Lynch. It also established his place as a commercially viable, if somewhat dark and unconventional, Hollywood director. George Lucas, a fan of Eraserhead, offered Lynch the opportunity to direct Star Wars:Return of the Jedi, which he refused, feeling that it would be more Lucas's vision than his own. Afterwards, Lynch agreed to direct a big budget adaptation of Frank Herbert's science fiction novel Dune for Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis's De Laurentiis Entertainment Group, on the condition that the company release a second Lynch project, over which the director would have complete creative control. Although De Laurentiis hoped it would be the next Star Wars, Lynch's Dune (1984) was a critical and commercial dud, costing $45 million to make, and grossing a mere $27.4 million domestically. The studio released an "extended cut" of the film for syndicated television in which some footage was reinstated; however, certain shots from elsewhere in the film were repeated throughout the story to give the impression that other footage had been added. Whatever the case, this was not representative of Lynch's intended cut, but rather a cut that the studio felt was more comprehensible than the original theatrical version. Lynch objected to these changes and disowned the extended cut, which has "Alan Smithee" credited as the director. This version has since been released on video worldwide. Lynch at the 1990 Emmy Awards ceremony. Lynch's second De Laurentiis-financed project was 1986's Blue Velvet, the story of a college student (Kyle MacLachlan) who discovers his small, idealistic hometown hides a dark side after investigating a severed ear he found in a field. The film featured memorable performances from Isabella Rossellini as a tormented lounge singer, and Dennis Hopper as a crude, psychopathic criminal, and the leader of a small gang of backwater hoodlums. Although Lynch had found success previously with The Elephant Man, Blue Velvet's controversy with audiences and critics introduced him into the mainstream, and became a huge critical and moderate commercial success. Thus, the film earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director. The content of the film and its artistic merit drew much controversy from audiences and critics alike in 1986 and onwards. Blue Velvet introduced several common elements of his work, including abused women, the dark underbelly of small towns, and unconventional uses of vintage songs. Bobby Vinton's "Blue Velvet" and Roy Orbison's "In Dreams" are both featured in unconventional ways. It was also the first time Lynch worked with composer Angelo Badalamenti, who would contribute to all of his future full-length films except Inland Empire. Woody Allen, whose film Hannah and Her Sisters was nominated for Best Picture, said that Blue Velvet was his favourite film of the year. Continued success (1987-1996) and transition to TV After failing to secure funding for several completed scripts in the late 1980s, Lynch collaborated with television producer Mark Frost on the show Twin Peaks, which was about a small Washington town that is the location of several bizarre occurrences. The show centered around the investigation by FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper (Kyle MacLachlan) into the death of popular high school student Laura Palmer, an investigation that unearthed the secrets of many town residents, something that stemmed from Blue Velvet. Lynch directed six episodes of the series, including the feature-length pilot, wrote or co-wrote several more and even acted in some episodes. The show debuted on the ABC Network on April 8, 1990 and gradually rose from cult hit to cultural phenomenon, and because of its originality and success remains one of the most well-known television series of the decade. Catch phrases from the show entered the culture and parodies of it were seen on Saturday Night Live and The Simpsons. Lynch appeared on the cover of Time magazine largely because of the success of the series. Lynch, who has seldom acted in his career, also appeared on the show as the partially-deaf FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole, who shouted his every word. However, Lynch clashed with the ABC Network on several matters, particularly whether or not to reveal Laura Palmer's killer. The network insisted that the revelation be made during the second season but Lynch wanted the mystery to last as long as the series. Lynch soon became disenchanted with the series, and, as a result, many cast members complained of feeling abandoned. Later, in a roundtable discussion with cast members included in the 2007 DVD release of the series, he stated that he and Frost never intended to ever reveal the identity of Laura's killer, that ABC forced him to reveal the culprit prematurely, and that agreeing to do so is one of his biggest professional regrets.<ref>"A Slice of Lynch", a featurette included in the Twin Peaks Definitive Gold Box Edition" DVD set, October 2007.</ref> It was at this time that Lynch began to work with editor/producer/domestic partner Mary Sweeney who had been one of his assistant editors on Blue Velvet. This was a collaboration that would last some eleven projects. During this period, Sweeney also gave birth to their son. Adapted from the novel by Barry Gifford, Wild at Heart was an almost hallucinatory crime/road movie starring Nicolas Cage and Laura Dern. It won the Palme d'Or at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival but was met with a muted response from American critics and viewers. Reportedly, several people walked out of test screenings. The missing link between Twin Peaks and Wild at Heart, however, is Industrial Symphony No. 1: The Dream of the Broken Hearted. It was originally presented on-stage at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York City on November 10, 1989 as a part of the New Music America Festival. Industrial Symphony No. 1 is another collaboration between composer Angelo Badalamenti and David Lynch. It features five songs by Julee Cruise and stars several members of the Twin Peaks cast as well as Nic Cage, Laura Dern and Julee Cruise. Lynch described this musical spectacle as the "sound effects and music and ... happening on the stage. And, it has something to do with, uh, a relationship ending." David Lynch produced a 50 minute video of the performance in 1990.Twin Peaks suffered a severe ratings drop and was canceled in 1991. Still, Lynch scripted a prequel to the series about the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer. The resulting film, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992), flopped at the box office. As a quick blip during this time period, he and Mark Frost wrote and directed several episodes of the short lived comedy series On the Air for ABC, which followed the zany antics at a 1950s TV studio. In the US, only three episodes were aired, although seven were filmed. In the Netherlands, all seven were aired by VPRO. BBC2 in the UK also aired all seven episodes. Lynch also produced (with Frost) and directed the documentary television series American Chronicles. His next project was much more low-key: he directed two episodes of a three-episode HBO mini-series called Hotel Room about events that happened in the same hotel room in a span of decades. Comic strip (1983–1992) Lynch also had a comic strip – The Angriest Dog in the World – which featured unchanging graphics (various panels showing the angular, angry dog chained up in a yard full of bones) and cryptic philosophical references. It ran from 1983 until 1992 in the Village Voice, Creative Loafing and other tabloid and alternative publications. Recent works (1997–present) Lynch speaking at an Amazon.com reception in January 2007. In 1997, Lynch returned with the non-linear, noir-like film Lost Highway, co-written by Barry Gifford and starring Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette. The film failed commercially and received a mixed response from critics. However, thanks in part to a soundtrack featuring David Bowie, Marilyn Manson, Rammstein, Nine Inch Nails and The Smashing Pumpkins, it helped gain Lynch a new audience of Generation X viewers. In 1999, Lynch surprised fans and critics with the G-rated, Disney-produced The Straight Story, written and edited by Mary Sweeney, which was, on the surface, a simple and humble movie telling the true story of Iowan Alvin Straight, played by Richard Farnsworth, who rides a lawnmower to Wisconsin to make peace with his ailing brother, played by Harry Dean Stanton. The film garnered positive reviews and reached a new audience for its director. The same year, Lynch approached ABC once again with an idea for a television drama. The network gave Lynch the go-ahead to shoot a two-hour pilot for the series Mulholland Drive, but disputes over content and running time led to the project being shelved indefinitely. With seven million dollars from the French production company StudioCanal, Lynch completed the pilot as a film. Mulholland Drive is an enigmatic tale of the dark side of Hollywood and stars Naomi Watts, Laura Harring and Justin Theroux. The film performed relatively well at the box office worldwide and was a critical success earning Lynch a Best Director prize at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival (shared with Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There) and a Best Director award from the New York Film Critics Association. Film critic Roger Ebert was notoriously unfavorable towards Lynch, accusing him of misogyny in his reviews of Blue Velvet :: rogerebert.com :: Reviews :: Blue Velvet and Wild at Heart. :: rogerebert.com :: Reviews :: Wild At Heart Yet, Ebert reacted positively to The Straight Story, :: rogerebert.com :: Reviews :: The Straight Story Mulholland Drive, :: rogerebert.com :: Reviews :: Mulholland Drive and Inland Empire, http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070125/REVIEWS/701250301/1023 writing positive 4/4 star reviews for each. As of 2009, in responses to comments on his blogs, Ebert admits that, while he does not embrace some of Lynch's earlier hit films, it may just be something in him personally that resists. Ebert often mentions he can recognize in all Lynch films that 'something is there'. In 2002, Lynch created a series of online shorts entitled Dumbland. Intentionally crude both in content and execution, the eight-episode series was later released on DVD. Film - DVDs - It's Just Lynch - philadelphia weekly online The same year, Lynch treated his fans to his own version of a sitcom via his website - Rabbits, eight episodes of surrealism in a rabbit suit. Later, he showed his experiments with Digital Video () in the form of the Japanese style horror short Darkened Room. At the 2005 Cannes Film Festival, Lynch announced that he had spent over a year shooting his new project digitally in Poland. The feature, titled Inland Empire, included Lynch regulars such as Laura Dern, Harry Dean Stanton, and Mulholland Drive star Justin Theroux, with cameos by Naomi Watts and Laura Harring (voices of Suzie and Jane Rabbit), and a performance by Jeremy Irons. Lynch described the piece as "a mystery about a woman in trouble". It was released in December 2006. In an effort to promote the film, Lynch made appearances with a cow and a placard bearing the slogan "Without cheese there would be no Inland Empire". Despite his almost exclusive focus on America, Lynch has found a large audience in France; Inland Empire, Mulholland Drive, Lost Highway and Fire Walk With Me were all funded through French production companies. The most recent work that Lynch has directed is a fragrance short film/commercial for Gucci. It features 3 prominent models, dancing in what appear to be their own luxurious homes, to the soundtrack of Blondie. A video of the commercial plus a behind-the-scenes video of the making of the commercial is available online at the Gucci website. In May 2008, Lynch announced that he was working on a road documentary "about his dialogues with regular folk on the meaning of life, with the likes of 60’s troubadour Donovan and John Hagelin, the physicist, as traveling companions". Film Legend David Lynch Takes to the Road to Find the “Big Fish” In October, 2008, the OMMA Video Conference, Jen Gregono, chief content officer at On Networks, announced that her company signed Lynch to a webisode series based on his book, Catching the Big Fish: Meditation, Consciousness and Creativity. "ReelPop David Lynch on On Networks." Wallenstein, Andrew. Oct.29,2008. In June 2009, Danger Mouse and Sparklehorse will release an album called "Dark Night of the Soul", with a 100+ page booklet with visuals by Lynch. http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2009/05/15/danger-mouses-dark-night-of-the-soul-album-threatened-by-lawsuit/ http://gizmodo.com/5257670/danger-mouses-next-album-will-be-a-blank-cd+r Awards and honors David Lynch has twice won France's César Award for Best Foreign Film and served as President of the jury at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival, where he had previously won the Palme d'Or in 1990. On September 6. 2006 Lynch received a Golden Lion award for lifetime achievement at the Venice Film Festival. He also premiered his latest work, Inland Empire, at the festival. BBC NEWS | Entertainment | David Lynch given lifetime award Lynch has received four Academy Award nominations: Best Director for The Elephant Man (1980), Blue Velvet (1986) and Mulholland Drive (2001), as well as Best Adapted Screenplay for The Elephant Man (1980). He was also honored by the French government with the Legion of Honor, the country's top civilian honor, as Chevalier in 2002 then Officier in 2007 The Police Knighted In France, Filmmaker David Lynch Promoted To Officer In France's Legion Of Honor , and was named the best director in The Guardian's 'The world's 40 best directors' in 2008. http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/page/0,11456,1082823,00.html Frequent collaboratorsMain article: Frequent David Lynch collaboratorsLynch is also widely noted for his collaborations with various production artists and composers on his films and multiple different productions. He frequently works with Angelo Badalamenti to compose music for his productions, former wife Mary Sweeney as a film editor, casting director Johanna Ray, and cast members Harry Dean Stanton, Jack Nance, Kyle MacLachlan, Naomi Watts, Isabella Rossellini, Grace Zabriskie, and Laura Dern. Themes Although interpretations vary, those who study Lynch's work generally find consistent themes. His narratives are typically set in the United States, either in remote small towns (Twin Peaks, Blue Velvet) or in sprawling metropolises (Lost Highway and Mulholland Drive, both set in Los Angeles, California). Beaten or abused women are also a common subject, as are intimations or explicit mention of incest and sexual abuse (most of his films). Most of Lynch's male protagonists harbor some dark secret or have a "dark side" which they suppress; Eraserheads Henry impregnates and abandons his girlfriend, Jeffrey in Blue Velvet develops sadomasochistic tendencies which violently manifest themselves in his unfaithful couplings with Dorothy, and Leland Palmer has a latent sexual desire for his own daughter in Twin Peaks. Lynch also tends to feature his leading female actors in multiple or "split" roles, so that many of his female characters have multiple, fractured identities. This practice begins with his choice to cast Sheryl Lee as both Laura Palmer and her twin cousin Maddy Ferguson in Twin Peaks and continues in his later works. In Lost Highway, Patricia Arquette plays the dual role of Renee Madison/Alice Wakefield. In Mulholland Drive, Naomi Watts plays Diane Selwyn/Betty Elms and Laura Harring plays Camilla Rhodes/Rita. In Inland Empire, Laura Dern plays Nikki Grace/Susan Blue. By contrast, Lynch rarely creates multi-character roles for his male actors. Influences Lynch has expressed his admiration for filmmakers Federico Fellini, Ingmar Bergman, Stanley Kubrick and Jacques Tati, writer Franz Kafka (stating "the only artist I felt could be my brother was Kafka"), and artist Francis Bacon. He states that the majority of Kubrick films are in his top ten, that he really loves Kafka, and that Bacon paints images that are both visually stunning, and emotionally touching. He has also cited the Austrian expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka as an inspiration for his works. Lynch has a love for the 1939 version of The Wizard of Oz and frequently makes reference to it in his films, most overtly in Wild at Heart. An early influence on Lynch was the book The Art Spirit by American turn-of-the-century artist and teacher Robert Henri. When he was in high school, Bushnell Keeler, an artist who was the stepfather of one of his friends, introduced Lynch to Henri's book, which became his bible. As Lynch said in Chris Rodley's book Lynch on Lynch, "it helped me decide my course for painting — 100 percent right there." Lynch, like Henri, moved from rural America to an urban environment to pursue an artistic career. Henri was an urban realist painter, legitimizing every day city life as the subject of his work, much in the same way that Lynch first drew street scenes. Henri's work also bridged changing centuries, from America's agricultural 19th century into the industrial 20th century, much in the same fashion as Lynch's films blend the nostalgic happiness of the fifties to the twisted weirdness of the eighties and nineties. His influences have also included Werner Herzog, Alfred Hitchcock and Billy Wilder. Some of Lynch's influences have cited him as an influence themselves, most notably Kubrick, who stated that he modeled his vision of The Shining (1980) upon that of Eraserhead and who, according to Lynch's book Catching the Big Fish, once commented while screening Eraserhead for a small group that it was his favorite film. Unfinished and unrealized projects Ronnie Rocket Ronnie Rocket drawing by David Lynch.Ronnie Rocket is an as-yet-unproduced film by David Lynch. After finishing Eraserhead, Lynch spent two years writing a script for a new project, entitled Ronnie Rocket, which was "about a three-foot tall guy with red hair and physical problems, and about 60-cycle alternating current electricity." Mandell, Paul (October 1984). "David Lynch -- Director of 'Dune'." Starlog. p. 48. Ronnie Rocket was a strange mixture of the abstractness of Eraserhead and Lynch's love of America in the fifties. He has described it as "an American smokestack industrial thing -- it has to do with coal and oil and electricity." Breskin, David. Inner Views: Filmmakers in Conversation. USA: Faber and Faber, 1992. p. 77. Initially, Lynch and producer Stuart Cornfeld had hoped to get it made with Dean Stockwell, Brad Dourif, Jack Nance, Dennis Hopper and Harry Dean Stanton originally starring in it back in 1987 with it being set in Hoboken, New Jersey. Later on Isabella Rossellini was intended to star in the film. Various drafts of the script have languished at both Dino De Laurentiis and Francis Ford Coppola's Zoetrope Studios. Lynch had a multi-picture deal with De Laurentiis that began with Dune. After Blue Velvet, Lynch planned to make Ronnie Rocket but then De Laurentiis' company went bankrupt in 1988 and this project ended up in legal limbo. Lynch has stated that he is still very much interested in making the film, but anticipates that it will not be a commercial picture, but more personal like Eraserhead. He has already considered Michael J. Anderson who was the Man from Another Place' in the Twin Peaks TV show and feature film, as the man to play Ronnie Rocket. Lynch would like to approach the film much in the same fashion as Eraserhead. "I want to have time to go into that world and live in it for a while, and that costs money. I don't really want to have a normal eleven-week shooting schedule on Ronnie Rocket. I'd rather go with a smaller crew, and build the sets and live in them for a while." Breskin, David. Inner Views: Filmmakers in Conversation. USA: Faber and Faber, 1992. p. 77. Other projectsGardenback: After the success he had enjoyed with "The Grandmother", Lynch moved to Beverly Hills to participate in the AFI's Center for Advanced Film. Lynch began working on a script for a short film called "Gardenback" in 1970. Lynch spent the whole year working on a 45-page script. The film was to explore the physical materialization of what grows inside a man's head when he desires a woman that he sees. This manifestation metamorphoses into a monster. Cinematographer/director Caleb Deschanel, who was also at the AFI at the time and wanted to shoot the film, introduced Lynch to a producer at 20th Century Fox. The studio was interested in making a series of low-budget horror films and wanted to expand "Gardenback" into a feature film. The studio was willing to give Lynch $50,000 to make it but wanted the 45-page script to be expanded. This involved writing dialogue -- something Lynch had never tried before. Lynch said in Lynch on Lynch, "What I wrote was pretty much worthless, but something happened inside me about structure, about scenes. And I don't even know what it was, but it sort of percolated down and became part of me. But the script was pretty much worthless. I knew I'd just watered it down." Consequently, Lynch became disenchanted with the project. Some of the elements in "Gardenback" would later surface in Eraserhead, such as its main characters Henry and Mary X.Dune Messiah: Lynch was in the process of writing the sequel to film Dune (which was partially adapted from the book), but the box office failure of the first film killed the project. From the Inner Views Lynch interview, "...I was really getting into Dune II. I wrote about half the script, maybe more, and I was really getting excited about it. It was much tighter, a better story." From a Prevue article from 1984: "Lynch has written two sequel screenplays to Dune – Dune Messiah and Children of Dune, based on Herbert's succeeding novels – which currently await the author's approval. Back-to-back lensing is expected if the first film is a success. Although Kyle MacLachlan will portray Paul Atreides in the three Dune spectacles, Lynch promises a different cast each time." Untitled animated short, 1969 or 1970: Though David doesn't remember what the film itself was about, he distinctly recalls that he was paid to produce a short film and the negatives came back from the lab messed up. Red Dragon: Before making Blue Velvet, the film's producer, Richard Roth, approached Lynch with another project -- an adaptation of Thomas Harris' novel, Red Dragon. Lynch was turned off by the content of the book and Roth subsequently took the project to Michael Mann who went on to direct the film as Manhunter (1986).The Lemurians: This was a TV show that Lynch was going to do with Mark Frost based on the continent of Lemuria. Their premise for the show was that Lemurian essence was leaking from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean and becomes a threat to the world. It was intended to be a comedy but when Lynch and Frost tried to pitch this show to NBC, the network rejected it.Goddess: When Lynch and Frost first met, they began working on a project about Marilyn Monroe. Lynch had been fascinated by the actress' life and met with Anthony Summers who wrote a biography of the same name. The more they worked on it, the more they became embroiled in conspiracy theories involving Monroe and the Kennedys which turned Lynch off the project. Twin Peaks was created soon after, which has similarities with the story of Monroe.One Saliva Bubble: This was a comedy that Lynch co-wrote with Mark Frost and intended to direct with Steve Martin and Martin Short starring. It was set in Kansas. Robert Engels describes the premise of the film in Lynch on Lynch: "It's about an electric bubble from a computer that bursts over this town and changes people's personalities – like these five cattlemen, who suddenly think they're Chinese gymnasts. It's insane!"The White Hotel: Lynch was attached to Dennis Potter's adaptation of D.M. Thomas' novel during the late 1980s. I'll Test My Log With Every Branch of Knowledge: Around the time that Lynch and Catherine Coulson made "The Amputee", he had an idea for a TV show. He told Chris Rodley in Lynch on Lynch, "It's a half-hour television show starring Catherine as the lady with the log. Her husband has been killed in a forest fire and his ashes are on the mantelpiece, with his pipes and his sock hat. He was a woodsman. But the fireplace is completely boarded up. Because she now is very afraid of fire." The series would have been educational in nature and geared towards families, with the Log Lady teaching her young son a new lesson each week using the log as a demonstration tool. This project never got off the ground, but when it came time to film the pilot for Twin Peaks, Lynch remembered this idea and called Coulson up to appear as the Log Lady.Metamorphosis: This was intended to be an adaptation of the story written by Franz Kafka. Lynch has expressed on several accounts his desire to film the story of Metamorphosis. He has even written a script. The main reason that Lynch has not filmed it is a matter of money and technology involving the transformation of a man into a beetle.The Dream of the Bovine: Lynch and Robert Engels wrote the screenplay for this film after Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. According to Engels in Lynch on Lynch, the film was about "three guys, who used to be cows, living in Van Nuys and trying to assimilate their lives."Untitled Twin Peaks Films: Were Fire Walk With Me to have been a success, the film's backers were prepared to offer Lynch the funding necessary to make two further films, which would have been sequals to the series' narrative. Additionally, Lynch has been trying since 1992 to get the rights to over an hour's worth of unused footage from Fire Walk With Me to be edited together and released. Personal life Lynch speaking in Washington D.C., January 23, 2007. Lynch tends to keep his personal life private and rarely comments on his films. However, he does attend public events and film festivals when he or his films are nominated/awarded. Despite a belief that a film should be seen in its totality, the DVD release of Inland Empire is divided into chapters, with Lynch explaining why in the "Stories" feature. In addition, on his two DVD collections of short films, Lynch provides short introductions to each film. In the 1980s, Lynch expressed that he liked Ronald Reagan and at one point he had dinner with the Reagans at the White House, though he sees himself as a Libertarian or Democrat. Q&A: David Lynch, by Peter Smith In the "Stories" feature on the Eraserhead DVD, Lynch mentions that he ate French fries and grilled cheese almost every day while on the set. Despite his professional accomplishments, Lynch once characterized himself simply as "Eagle Scout, Missoula, Montana". Lynch an "Eagle Scout" at The City of Absurdity; accessed May 29, 2007. In 1967, Lynch married Peggy Lentz in Chicago, Illinois. http://www.peggyreavey.com They had one child, Jennifer Chambers Lynch, born in 1968, who currently works as a film director. They filed for divorce in 1974. On June 21, 1977, Lynch married Mary Fisk, and the couple had one child, Austin Jack Lynch, born in 1982. They divorced in 1987, and Lynch began dating Isabella Rossellini, after filming Blue Velvet.Lynch and Rossellini broke up in 1991, and Lynch developed a relationship with Mary Sweeney, with whom he had one son, Riley Lynch, in 1992. Sweeney also worked as long-time film editor/producer to Lynch and co-wrote and produced The Straight Story. The two married in May 2006, but divorced later in July. Lynch married actress Emily Stofle, who starred in his 2006 film Inland Empire, in February 2009. Transcendental meditation In December 2, 2005, Lynch told the Washington Post that he had been practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique twice a day, for 20 minutes each time, for 32 years. William Booth, "Yogi Bearer: Dark Films Aside, David Lynch Brims With the Light of Transcendental Meditation", Washington Post, December 2, 2005 He was initiated into the Transcendental Meditation technique in 1973 in Los Angeles "David Lynch thinks we're all lightbulbs. What?" by a teacher he thought "looked like Doris Day". David Lynch, transcending Lynch advocates the use of this meditation technique in bringing peace to the world. In July 2005, he launched the David Lynch Foundation For Consciousness-Based Education and Peace Alex Williams, "David Lynch's Shockingly Peaceful Inner Life", New York Times, December 31, 2006, section 9, p. 1 David Lynch Foundation For Consciousness-Based Education established to help finance scholarships for students in middle and high schools who are interested in learning the Transcendental Meditation technique, and to fund research on the technique and its effects on learning. He promotes his vision on college campuses with ongoing tours that began in September 2005. Stratton Aivalikes, "Lynch tour draws interest at other schools", Washington Square News (NYU student newspaper), October 5, 2005 Lynch is working for the building and establishment of seven buildings, in which 8,000, salaried people will practice advanced meditation techniques, "pumping peace for the world." He estimates the cost at $7 billion. As of December 2005, he had spent $400,000 of personal money, and raised $1 million in donations. In December 2006, the New York Times reported that he continued to have that goal. Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr formed half a Beatles reunion on April 4, 2009 at “Change Begins Within,” a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall for the David Lynch Foundation. The concert’s lineup included Donovan, Sheryl Crow, Eddie Vedder, Moby, Bettye LaVette, Ben Harper, and Mike Love of the Beach Boys. Jon Pareles, "Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr Reunite at Radio City", New York Times, April 4, 2009, Arts Section Lynch's book, Catching the Big Fish (Tarcher/Penguin 2006), discusses the impact of the Transcendental Meditation technique on his creative process. He is donating all author's royalties to the David Lynch Foundation. Other interests Lynch maintains an interest in other art forms. He described the twentieth century artist Francis Bacon as "to me, the main guy, the number one kinda hero painter". He continues to present art installations and stage designs. In his spare time, he also designs and builds furniture. He started building furniture from his own designs as far back as his art school days. He built sheds during the making of Eraserhead, and many of the sets and furniture used in that movie are made by Lynch. He also made some of the furniture for Fred Madison's house in Lost Highway. Lynch was the subject of a major art retrospective at the Fondation Cartier, Paris from March May 3-27 2007. The show was entitled The Air is on Fire and included numerous paintings, photographs, drawings, alternative films and sound work. New site-specific art installations were created specially for the exhibition. A series of events accompanied the exhibition including live performances and concerts. BBC NEWS | Entertainment | David Lynch's dark arts laid bare Some of Lynch's art include photographs of dissected chickens and other animals as a "Build your own Chicken" toy ad. Between 1983 and 1992, Lynch wrote and drew a weekly comic strip called The Angriest Dog in the World for the L.A. Reader. The drawings in the panels never change — just the captions. The comic strip originated from a time in Lynch's life when he was filled with anger. Lynch has also been involved in a number of musical projects, many of them related to his films. Most notably he produced and wrote lyrics for Julee Cruise's first two albums, Floating into the Night (1989) and The Voice of Love (1993), in collaboration with Angelo Badalamenti who composed the music and also produced. Lynch has also worked on the 1998 Jocelyn Montgomery album Lux Vivens. He has also composed bits of music for Wild at Heart, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, Mulholland Drive, and Rabbits. In 2001 he released BlueBob, a rock album performed by Lynch and John Neff. The album is notable for Lynch's unusual guitar playing style: he plays "upside down and backwards, like a lap guitar", and relies heavily on effects pedals. http://www.lynchnet.com/articles/bug.html Most recently Lynch has composed several pieces for Inland Empire, including two songs, "Ghost of Love" and "Walkin' on the Sky" in which he makes his public debut as a singer. Lynch designed his personal website, a site exclusive to paying members, where he posts short videos and his absurdist series Dumbland, plus interviews and other items. The site also features a daily weather report, where Lynch gives a brief description of the weather in Los Angeles, where he resides. As of December, 2008, this weather report (usually no longer than 30 seconds) is also being broadcast on his personal YouTube-channel David Lynch - Daily Weather Report. David Lynch - Daily Weather Report An absurd ringtone ("I like to kill deer") from the website was a common sound bite on The Howard Stern Show in early 2006. Lynch is an avid coffee drinker and even has his own line of special organic blends available for purchase on his website. Called "David Lynch Signature Cup", the coffee has been advertised via flyers included with several recent Lynch-related DVD releases, including Inland Empire and the Gold Box edition of Twin Peaks. The self-mocking tag-line for the brand is "It's all in the beans ... and I'm just full of beans." David Lynch Signature Cup flyer, included with the Twin Peaks Definitive Gold Box Edition DVD set, October 2007, the digitally remastered Easerhead DVD in 2006, and in other Lynch DVD releases in 2005-2007. Filmography Features Year Film Oscars BAFTA Golden Globe Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins 1977 Eraserhead 1980 The Elephant Man 8 7 3 4 1984 Dune 1 1986 Blue Velvet 1 2 1990 Wild at Heart 1 1 1 1992 Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me 1997 Lost Highway 1999 The Straight Story 1 2 2001 Mulholland Drive 1 2 1 4 2006 Inland Empire Short films Six Men Getting Sick (1966) - available on The Short Films of David Lynch DVD Absurd Encounter with Fear (1967) - available on The Lime Green Set DVD Fictitious Anacin Commercial (1967) - available on The Lime Green Set DVD The Alphabet (1968) - available on The Short Films of David Lynch DVD The Grandmother (1970) - available on The Short Films of David Lynch DVD The Amputee (1974) - available on The Short Films of David Lynch DVD The Cowboy and the Frenchman (1988) - available on The Short Films of David Lynch DVD Industrial Symphony No. 1: The Dream of the Broken Hearted (1990) - available on The Lime Green Set DVD Premonitions Following an Evil Deed (1995) - available on The Short Films of David Lynch DVD Darkened Room (2002) - available on the Dynamic 1 DVD Ballerina (2006) - available on the Inland Empire DVD Boat (2007) - available on the Dynamic 1 DVD Bug Crawls (2007) - available on the Dynamic 1 DVD Scissors (2008) - available on The Lime Green Set DVD TV and digital Twin Peaks (TV series, 30 episodes) (1990-91) On the Air (TV series, 7 episodes) (1992) Hotel Room (TV series, 3 episodes) (1993) Rabbits (Online series) (2002) - most of the episodes available on The Lime Green Set DVD Dumbland (Online series, 8 episodes) (2002) - available on The Lime Green Set DVD Out Yonder (Online series) (200?) - one episode available on the Dynamic 1 DVD and two episodes on The Lime Green Set DVD Shot in the Back of the Head (2009) - music video for the song from Moby's summer 2009 album Wait for Me. References SourcesLynch on Lynch, a book of interviews with Lynch, conducted, edited, and introduced by filmmaker Chris Rodley (Faber & Faber Ltd., 1997, ISBN 0-571-19548-2; revised edition published by Farrar Straus & Giroux, 2005, ISBN 0-571-22018-5).The Passion of David Lynch: Wild at Heart in Hollywood by Martha Nochimson (University of Texas Press, 1997, ISBN 0-292-75565-1).The Complete Lynch by David Hughes (Virgin Virgin, 2002, ISBN 0-7535-0598-3)Weirdsville U.S.A.: The Obsessive Universe of David Lynch by Paul A. Woods (Plexus Publishing. UK, Reprint edition, 2000, ISBN 0-85965-291-2).David Lynch (Twayne's Filmmakers Series) by Kenneth C. Kaleta (Twayne Publishers, 1992, ISBN 0-8057-9323-2).Pervert in the Pulpit: Morality in the Works of David Lynch by Jeff Johnson (McFarland & Company, 2004, ISBN 0-7864-1753-6).Catching the Big Fish: Meditation, Consciousness, and Creativity by David Lynch. (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2006, ISBN 1585425400 / 978-1585425402)Snowmen'' by David Lynch, (Foundation Cartier pour l'art contemporain, Paris, 2008 ISBN 978-3-86521-467-6). External links David Lynch Foundation : Education : Transcendental Meditation Dugpa.com Weekly News regarding David Lynch, Lynch Films on DVD, and Lynch Related Music Releases] World of David Lynch - Virtual journey through the movies of David Lynch. The City of Absurdity - The Mysterious World of David Lynch, contains information on his films, paintings and other projects, also interviews, photo galleries, etc. TwinPeaksFireWalkWithMe.com - A David Lynch/Twin Peaks informational site/blog Bibliography of books and articles about Lynch via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center Ronnie Rocket Screenplay David Lynch article November 2007 Film Threat interview Wired interview Guardian interview | David_Lynch |@lemmatized david:55 keith:1 lynch:226 born:1 january:4 american:7 film:110 director:17 screenwriter:1 producer:9 painter:5 cartoonist:1 composer:4 video:9 performance:5 artist:9 receive:5 three:8 academy:8 award:13 nomination:8 best:13 elephant:7 man:13 blue:20 velvet:19 mulholland:13 drive:13 also:30 screenplay:6 win:9 cannes:5 festival:10 venice:2 lengthy:1 career:4 employ:1 distinctive:1 unorthodox:1 approach:4 narrative:3 making:3 dubbed:1 lynchian:1 become:12 instantly:1 recognizable:1 many:7 audience:6 critic:8 worldwide:3 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6,807 | Parallax | A simplified illustration of the parallax of an object against a distant background due to a perspective shift. When viewed from "Viewpoint A", the object appears to be in front of the blue square. When the viewpoint is changed to "Viewpoint B", the object appears to have moved in front of the red square. This animation is an example of parallax. As the viewpoint moves side to side, the objects in the distance appear to move more slowly than the objects close to the camera. Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference of orientation of an object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines. The term is derived from the Greek παράλλαξις (parallaxis), meaning "alteration". Nearby objects have a larger parallax than more distant objects when observed from different positions, so parallax can be used to determine distances. In astronomy, parallax is the only direct method by which distances to objects (typically stars) beyond the Solar System can be measured. The Hipparcos satellite has used the technique for over 100,000 nearby stars. This provides the basis for all other distance measurements in astronomy, the cosmic distance ladder. Here, the term "parallax" is the angle or semi-angle of inclination between two sightlines to the star. Parallax also affects optical instruments such as binoculars, microscopes, and twin-lens reflex cameras which view objects from slightly different angles. Many animals, including humans, have two eyes with overlapping visual fields to use parallax to gain depth perception; this process is known as stereopsis. Distance measurement in astronomy Stellar parallax On an interstellar scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the Earth causes nearby stars to appear to move relative to more distant stars. By observing parallax, measuring angles and using geometry, one can determine the distance to various objects. When the object in question is a star, the effect is known as stellar parallax. Stellar parallax is most often measured using annual parallax, defined as the difference in position of a star as seen from the Earth and Sun, i. e. the angle subtended at a star by the mean radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The parsec (3.26 light-years) is defined as the distance for which the annual parallax is 1 arcsecond. Annual parallax is normally measured by observing the position of a star at different times of the year as the Earth moves through its orbit. Measurement of annual parallax was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closest stars. The first successful measurements of stellar parallax were made by Friedrich Bessel in 1838 for the star 61 Cygni using a heliometer. . Stellar parallax remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods. Accurate calculations of distance based on stellar parallax require a measurement of the distance from the Earth to the Sun, now based on radar reflection off the surfaces of planets. . This image demonstrates parallax. The Sun is visible above the streetlight. The reflection in the water shows a virtual image of the Sun and the streetlight. The location of the virtual image is below the surface of the water and thus simultaneously offers a different vantage point of the streetlight, which appears to be shifted relative to the stationary, background Sun. The angles involved in these calculations are very small and thus difficult to measure. The nearest star to the Sun (and thus the star with the largest parallax), Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of 0.77233 ± 0.00242 arcsec. This angle is approximately the angle subtended by an object about 2 centimeters in diameter located about 5.3 kilometers away. In 1989, the satellite Hipparcos was launched primarily for obtaining parallaxes and proper motions of nearby stars, increasing the reach of the method tenfold. Even so, Hipparcos is only able to measure parallax angles for stars up to about 1,600 light-years away, a little more than one percent of the diameter of our galaxy. The European Space Agency's Gaia mission, due to launch in 2011 and come online in 2012, will be able to measure parallax angles to an accuracy of 10 microarcseconds, thus mapping nearby stars (and potentially planets) up to a distance of tens of thousands of light-years from earth. Computation Stellar parallax motion Distance measurement by parallax is a special case of the principle of triangulation, which states that one can solve for all the sides and angles in a network of triangles if, in addition to all the angles in the network, the length of at least one side has been measured. Thus, the careful measurement of the length of one baseline can fix the scale of an entire triangulation network. In parallax, the triangle is extremely long and narrow, and by measuring both its shortest side (the motion of the observer) and the small top angle (always less than 1 arcsecond, leaving the other two close to 90 degrees), the length of the long sides (in practice considered to be equal) can be determined. Assuming the angle is small (see derivation below), the distance to an object (measured in parsecs) is the reciprocal of the parallax (measured in arcseconds): For example, the distance to Proxima Centauri is 1/0.772=. Lunar parallax As parallax, in general, is the difference in the angular position of two points relative to each other, as seen from different viewing positions, so lunar parallax (often short for lunar horizontal parallax or lunar equatorial horizontal parallax), is a special case of parallax. The diagram (above) for stellar parallax can illustrate lunar parallax as well, if the diagram is taken to be scaled right down and slightly modified. Instead of 'near star', read 'Moon', and instead of taking the circle at the bottom of the diagram to represent the size of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, take it to be the size of the Earth's globe, and of a circle around the Earth's surface. Then, the lunar (horizontal) parallax amounts to the difference in angular position, relative to the background of distant stars, of the Moon as seen from two different viewing positions on the Earth:- one of the viewing positions is the place from which the Moon can be seen directly overhead at a given moment (that is, viewed along the vertical line in the diagram); and the other viewing position is a place from which the Moon can be seen on the horizon at the same moment (that is, viewed along one of the diagonal lines, from an Earth-surface position corresponding roughly to one of the blue dots on the modified diagram). The lunar (horizontal) parallax can alternatively be defined as the angle subtended at the distance of the Moon by the radius of the Earth Astronomical Almanac, e.g. for 1981: see Glossary; for formulae see Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 1992, p.400 -- equal to angle p in the diagram when scaled-down and modified as mentioned above. The lunar horizontal parallax at any time depends on the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth. The Earth-Moon linear distance varies continuously as the Moon follows its perturbed and approximately elliptical orbit around the Earth. The range of the variation in linear distance is from about 56 to 63.7 earth-radii, corresponding to horizontal parallax of about a degree of arc, but ranging from about 61.4' to about 54'. Astronomical Almanac e.g. for 1981, section D The Astronomical Almanac and similar publications tabulate the lunar horizontal parallax and/or the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth on a periodical e.g. daily basis for the convenience of astronomers (and formerly, of navigators), and the study of the way in which this coordinate varies with time forms part of lunar theory. Diagram of daily lunar parallax Parallax can also be used to determine the distance to the Moon. One way to determine the lunar parallax from one location is by using a lunar eclipse. A full shadow of the Earth on the Moon has an apparent radius of curvature equal to the difference between the apparent radii of the Earth and the Sun as seen from the Moon. This radius can be seen to be equal to 0.75 degree, from which (with the solar apparent radius 0.25 degree) we get an Earth apparent radius of 1 degree. This yields for the Earth-Moon distance 60 Earth radii or 384,000 km. This procedure was first used by Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus, and later found its way into the work of Ptolemy. The diagram at right shows how daily lunar parallax arises on the geocentric and geostatic planetary model in which the Earth is at the centre of the planetary system and does not rotate. It also illustrates the important point that parallax need not be caused by any motion of the observer, contrary to some definitions of parallax that say it is, but may arise purely from motion of the observed. Another method is to take two pictures of the Moon at exactly the same time from two locations on Earth and compare the positions of the Moon relative to the stars. Using the orientation of the Earth, those two position measurements, and the distance between the two locations on the Earth, the distance to the Moon can be triangulated: Example of lunar parallax: Occultation of Pleiades by the Moon This is the method referred to by Jules Verne in From the Earth to the Moon: Up till then, many people had no idea how one could calculate the distance separating the Moon from the Earth. The circumstance was exploited to teach them that this distance was obtained by measuring the parallax of the Moon. If the word parallax appeared to amaze them, they were told that it was the angle subtended by two straight lines running from both ends of the Earth's radius to the Moon. If they had doubts on the perfection of this method, they were immediately shown that not only did this mean distance amount to a whole two hundred thirty-four thousand three hundred and forty-seven miles (94,330 leagues), but also that the astronomers were not in error by more than seventy miles (≈ 30 leagues). Solar parallax The fact that stellar parallax was so small that it was unobservable at the time was used as the main scientific argument against heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far enough away, but for various reasons such gigantic distances involved seemed entirely implausible. After Copernicus proposed his heliocentric system, with the Earth in revolution around the Sun, it was possible to build a model of the whole solar system without scale. To ascertain the scale, it is necessary only to measure one distance within the solar system, e.g., the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (now called an astronomical unit, or AU). When found by triangulation, this is referred to as the solar parallax, the difference in position of the Sun as seen from the Earth's centre and a point one Earth radius away, i. e., the angle subtended at the Sun by the Earth's mean radius. Knowing the solar parallax and the mean Earth radius allows one to calculate the AU, the first, small step on the long road of establishing the size and expansion age of the visible Universe. A primitive way to determine the distance to the Sun in terms of the distance to the Moon was already proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in his book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon. He noted that the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a right triangle (right angle at the Moon) at the moment of first or last quarter moon. He then estimated that the Moon, Earth, Sun angle was 87°. Using correct geometry but inaccurate observational data, Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was slightly less than 20 times farther away than the Moon. The true value of this angle is close to 89° 50', and the Sun is actually about 390 times farther away. He pointed out that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent angular sizes and therefore their diameters must be in proportion to their distances from Earth. He thus concluded that the Sun was around 20 times larger than the Moon; this conclusion, although incorrect, follows logically from his incorrect data. It does suggest that the Sun is clearly larger than the Earth, which could be taken to support the heliocentric model. Although these results were incorrect due to observational errors, they were based on correct geometric principles of parallax, and became the basis for estimates of the size of the solar system for almost 2000 years, until the transit of Venus was correctly observed in 1761 and 1769. Measuring Venus transit times to determine solar parallax This method was proposed by Edmond Halley in 1716, although he did not live to see the results. The use of Venus transits was less successful than had been hoped due to the black drop effect, but the resulting estimate, 153 million kilometers, is just 2% above the currently accepted value, 149.6 million kilometers. Much later, the Solar System was 'scaled' using the parallax of asteroids, some of which, like Eros, pass much closer to Earth than Venus. In a favourable opposition, Eros can approach the Earth to within 22 million kilometres. . Both the opposition of 1901 and that of 1930/1931 were used for this purpose, the calculations of the latter determination being completed by Astronomer Royal Sir Harold Spencer Jones. . Also radar reflections, both off Venus (1958) and off asteroids, like Icarus, have been used for solar parallax determination. Today, use of spacecraft telemetry links has solved this old problem. Dynamic or moving-cluster parallax The open stellar cluster Hyades in Taurus extends over such a large part of the sky, 20 degrees, that the proper motions as derived from astrometry appear to converge with some precision to a perspective point north of Orion. Combining the observed apparent (angular) proper motion in seconds of arc with the also observed true (absolute) receding motion as witnessed by the Doppler redshift of the stellar spectral lines, allows estimation of the distance to the cluster (151 light-years) and its member stars in much the same way as using annual parallax. Dynamic parallax has sometimes also been used to determine the distance to a supernova, when the optical wave front of the outburst is seen to propagate through the surrounding dust clouds at an apparent angular velocity, while its true propagation velocity is known to be the speed of light. Derivation For a right triangle, where is the parallax, is approximately the average distance from the Sun to Earth, and is the distance to the star. Using small-angle approximations (valid when the angle is small compared to 1 radian), so the parallax, measured in arcseconds, is If the parallax is 1", then the distance is This defines the parsec, a convenient unit for measuring distance using parallax. Therefore, the distance, measured in parsecs, is simply , when the parallax is given in arcseconds. Similar derivations are in most astronomy textbooks. See, e. g., . Parallax error Precise parallax measurements of distance have an associated error. However this error in the measured parallax angle does not translate directly into an error for the distance, except for relatively small errors. The reason for this is that an error toward a smaller angle results in a greater error in distance than an error toward a larger angle. However, an approximation of the distance error can be computed by where d is the distance and p is the parallax. The approximation is far more accurate for parallax errors that are small relative to the parallax than for relatively large errors. Visual perception Because the eyes of humans and other highly evolved animals are in different positions on the head, they present different views simultaneously. This is the basis of stereopsis, the process by which the brain exploits the parallax due to the different views from the eye to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects. Animals also use motion parallax, in which the animal (or just the head) moves to gain different viewpoints. For example, pigeons (whose eyes do not have overlapping fields of view and thus cannot use stereopsis) bob their heads up and down to see depth. . Parallax and measurement instruments If an optical instrument — e.g., a telescope, microscope, or theodolite — is imprecisely focused, its cross-hairs will appear to move with respect to the object focused on if one moves one's head horizontally in front of the eyepiece. This is why it is important, especially when performing measurements, to focus carefully in order to eliminate the parallax, and to check by moving one's head. Also, in non-optical measurements the thickness of a ruler can create parallax in fine measurements. To avoid parallax error, one should take measurements with one's eye on a line directly perpendicular to the ruler so that the thickness of the ruler does not create error in positioning for fine measurements. A similar error can occur when reading the position of a pointer against a scale in an instrument such as a galvanometer. To help the user avoid this problem, the scale is sometimes printed above a narrow strip of mirror, and the user positions his eye so that the pointer obscures its own reflection. This guarantees that the user's line of sight is perpendicular to the mirror and therefore to the scale. Parallax can cause a speedometer reading to appear different to a car's passenger than to the driver. Photogrammetric parallax Aerial picture pairs, when viewed through a stereo viewer, offer a pronounced stereo effect of landscape and buildings. High buildings appear to 'keel over' in the direction away from the centre of the photograph. Measurements of this parallax are used to deduce the height of the buildings, provided that flying height and baseline distances are known. This is a key component to the process of photogrammetry. Parallax error in photography Parallax error can be seen when taking photos with many types of cameras, such as twin-lens reflex cameras and those including viewfinders (such as rangefinder cameras). In such cameras, the eye sees the subject through different optics (the viewfinder, or a second lens) than the one through which the photo is taken. As the viewfinder is often found above the lens of the camera, photos with parallax error are often slightly lower than intended, the classic example being the image of person with his or her head cropped off. This problem is addressed in single-lens reflex cameras, in which the viewfinder sees through the same lens through which the photo is taken (with the aid of a movable mirror), thus avoiding parallax error. In computer graphics In many early graphical applications, such as video games, the scene was constructed of independent layers that were scrolled at different speeds when the player/cursor moved. Some hardware had explicit support for such layers, such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. This gave some layers the appearance of being farther away than others and was useful for creating an illusion of depth, but only worked when the player was moving. Now, most games are based on much more comprehensive three-dimensional graphic models, although portable game systems (DS, PSP) still often use parallax. In naval gunfire Owing to the positioning of gun turrets on a warship, each has a slightly different perspective of the target relative to the ship itself. Therefore, the ship's system for aiming its guns must compensate for parallax in order to assure that fire from each turret converges on the target. As a metaphor In a philosophic/geometric sense: An apparent change in the direction of an object, caused by a change in observational position that provides a new line of sight. The apparent displacement, or difference of position, of an object, as seen from two different stations, or points of view. In contemporary writing parallax can also be the same story, or a similar story from approximately the same time line, from one book told from a different perspective in another book. The word and concept feature prominently in James Joyce's 1922 novel, Ulysses. Orson Scott Card also used the term when referring to Ender's Shadow as compared to Ender's Game. The metaphor is invoked in the magnum opus of Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek in his work The Parallax View. Žižek borrowed the concept of "parallax view" from the Japanese philosopher and literary critic Kojin Karatani. "The philosophical twist to be added (to parallax), of course, is that the observed distance is not simply subjective, since the same object which exists 'out there' is seen from two different stances, or points of view. It is rather that, as Hegel would have put it, subject and object are inherently mediated so that an 'epistemological' shift in the subject's point of view always reflects an ontological shift in the object itself. Or—to put it in Lacanese—the subject's gaze is always-already inscribed into the perceived object itself, in the guise of its 'blind spot,' that which is 'in the object more than object itself', the point from which the object itself returns the gaze. Sure the picture is in my eye, but I am also in the picture." The word is used in the title of Alan J. Pakula's 1974 movie The Parallax View, in which a reporter (Warren Beatty) investigates an assassination. The word in this case refers to a fictional corporation portrayed in the film. The word is used in the song "Roll the Bones" from the album of the same name by the Canadian progressive rock trio Rush. In these lyrics, parallax is used to point out how differing points of view do not change the nature of certain facts or truths. References General references . . See also Disparity Triangulation, wherein a point is calculated given its angles from other known points Trilateration, wherein a point is calculated given its distances from other known points Trigonometry Xallarap External links Instructions for having background images on a web page use parallax effects Actual parallax project measuring the distance to the moon within 2.3% BBC's Sky at Night programme: Patrick Moore demonstrates Parallax using Cricket. (Requires RealPlayer) Definition of "parallax" at http://reference.dictionary.com "What is parallax? | Parallax |@lemmatized simplified:1 illustration:1 parallax:101 object:25 distant:4 background:4 due:5 perspective:4 shift:4 view:19 viewpoint:5 appear:10 front:4 blue:2 square:2 change:4 b:1 move:12 red:1 animation:1 example:5 side:6 distance:51 slowly:1 close:4 camera:8 apparent:10 displacement:2 difference:7 orientation:2 along:3 two:15 different:19 line:10 sight:3 measure:19 angle:29 semi:2 inclination:2 term:4 derive:2 greek:1 παράλλαξις:1 parallaxis:1 meaning:1 alteration:1 nearby:5 large:7 observe:5 position:20 use:31 determine:9 astronomy:4 direct:1 method:7 typically:1 star:22 beyond:1 solar:11 system:10 hipparcos:3 satellite:2 technique:1 provide:3 basis:4 measurement:17 cosmic:1 ladder:1 sightlines:1 also:13 affect:1 optical:4 instrument:4 binoculars:1 microscope:2 twin:2 lens:6 reflex:3 slightly:5 many:4 animal:4 include:2 human:2 eye:8 overlap:2 visual:2 field:2 gain:3 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6,808 | Geography_of_Oman | Oman is a country situated in Southwest Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and Persian Gulf, between Yemen and United Arab Emirates (UAE). Location Oman is located in the southeastern quarter of the Arabian Peninsula and, according to official estimates, covers a total land area of approximately 300,000 square kilometers; foreign observer estimates, however, are about 212,000 square kilometers. The land area is composed of varying topographic features: valleys and desert account for 82 percent of the land mass; mountain ranges, 15 percent; and the coastal plain, 3 percent. The sultanate is flanked by the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, and the Rub al Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia, all of which contributed to Oman's isolation. Historically, the country's contacts with the rest of the world were by sea, which not only provided access to foreign lands but also linked the coastal towns of Oman. The Rub al Khali, difficult to cross even with modern desert transport, formed a barrier between the sultanate and the Arabian interior. The Al Hajar Mountains, which form a belt between the coast and the desert from the Musandam Peninsula (Ras Musandam) to the city of Sur at Oman's easternmost point, formed another barrier. These geographic barriers kept the interior of Oman free from foreign military encroachments. Geographic coordinates: Geographical regions Detailed map of Oman Topographic map of Oman. Natural features divide the country into seven distinct areas: Ruus al Jibal, including the northern Musandam Peninsula; the Al Batinah coastal plain; the Muscat-Matrah coastal area; the Oman interior, comprising Jabal al Akhdar (Green Mountain), its foothills, and desert fringes; the barren coastline south to Dhofar; Dhofar region in the south; and the offshore island of Masirah. Ruus al Jibal The northernmost area, Ruus al Jibal, extends from the Musandam Peninsula to the boundary with the United Arab Emirates (UAE) at Hisn al Diba. It borders the Strait of Hormuz, which links the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman, and is separated from the rest of the sultanate by a strip of territory belonging to the UAE. This area consists of low mountains forming the northernmost extremity of the Al Hajar al Gharbi (Western Al Hajar) Mountains. Two inlets, Elphinstone (Khawr ash Shamm) and Malcom (Ghubbat al Ghazirah), cleave the coastline about one third of the distance from the Strait of Hormuz and at one point are separated by only a few hundred meters of land. The coastline is extremely rugged, and the Elphinstone Inlet, sixteen kilometers long and surrounded by cliffs 1,000 to 1,250 meters high, has frequently been compared with fjords in Norway. Al Batinah The UAE territory separating Ruus al Jibal from the rest of Oman extends almost as far south as the coastal town of Shinas. A narrow, well-populated coastal plain known as Al Batinah runs from the point at which the sultanate is reentered to the town of As Sib, about 140 kilometers to the southeast. Across the plains, a number of wadis, heavily populated in their upper courses, descend from the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains to the south. A ribbon of oases, watered by wells and underground channels (falaj), extends the length of the plain, about ten kilometers inland. Muscat-Matrah coastal area South of As Sib, the coast changes character. For about 175 kilometers, from As Sib to Ras al Hadd, it is barren and bounded by cliffs almost its entire length; there is no cultivation and little habitation. Although the deep water off this coast renders navigation relatively easy, there are few natural harbors or safe anchorages. The two best are at Muscat and Matrah, where natural harbors facilitated the growth of cities centuries ago. Oman interior West of the coastal areas lies the tableland of central Oman. The Al Hajar Mountains form two ranges: the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains and the Al Hajar ash Sharqi (Eastern Al Hajar) Mountains. They are divided by the Wadi Samail (the largest wadi in the mountain zone), a valley that forms the traditional route between Muscat and the interior. The general elevation is about 1,200 meters, but the peaks of the high ridge known as Al Jabal al Akhdar (Green Mountain)--which is considered a separate area but is actually part of the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains--rise to more than 3,000 meters in some places. Al Jabal al Akhdar is the only home of the Arabian tahr, a unique species of wild goat. In the hope of saving this rare animal, Sultan Qabus ibn Said has declared part of Al Jabal al Akhdar a national park. Behind the Al Hajar al Gharbi Mountains are two inland regions, Az Zahirah and inner Oman, separated by the lateral range of the Rub al Khali. Adjoining the Al Hajar ash Sharqi Mountains are the sandy regions of Ash Sharqiyah and Jalan, which also border the desert. Dhofar region Dhofar region extends from Ras ash Sharbatat to the border of Yemen. Its exact northern limit has never been defined, but the territory claimed by the sultan includes the Wadi Mughshin, about 240 kilometers inland. Its capital, Salalah, was the permanent residence of Sultan Said ibn Taimur Al Said and the birthplace of the present sultan, Qabus ibn Said. The highest peaks are about 1,000 meters. At their base lies a narrow, pebbly desert adjoining the Rub al Khali to the north. Coastal tract, and island of Masirah The desolate coastal tract from Jalan to Ras Naws has no specific name. Low hills and wastelands meet the sea for long distances. Midway along this coast and about fifteen kilometers offshore is the barren Masirah island. Stretching about seventy kilometers, the island occupies a strategic location near the entry point to the Gulf of Oman from the Arabian Sea. Because of its location, it became the site of military facilities used first by the British and then by the United States, following an access agreement signed in 1980 by the United States and Oman. Climate SeaWiFS captured this dust cloud blowing out over the Arabian Sea from Oman. March 12, 2000 With the exception of Dhofar region, which has a strong monsoon climate and receives warm winds from the Indian Ocean, the climate of Oman is extremely hot and dry most of the year. Summer begins in mid-April and lasts until October. The highest temperatures are registered in the interior, where readings of more than 53°C in the shade are common. On the Al Batinah plain, summer temperatures seldom exceed 47°C, but, because of the low elevation, the humidity may be as high as 90 percent. The mean summer temperature in Muscat is 33°C, but the gharbi (literally, western), a strong wind that blows from the Rub al Khali, can raise temperatures from the towns on the Gulf of Oman by 6°C to 10°C. Winter temperatures are mild and pleasant, ranging between 18°C and 26 degrees. Precipitation on the coasts and on the interior plains ranges from twenty to 100 millimeters a year and falls during mid- and late winter. Rainfall in the mountains, particularly over Al Jabal al Akhdar, is much higher and may reach 900 millimeters. Because the plateau of Al Jabal al Akhdar is porous limestone, rainfall seeps quickly through it, and the vegetation, which might be expected to be more lush, is meager. However, a huge reservoir under the plateau provides springs for low-lying areas. In addition, an enormous wadi channels water to these valleys, making the area agriculturally productive in years of good rainfall. Dhofar, benefiting from a southwest monsoon between June and September, receives heavier rainfall and has constantly running streams, which make the region Oman's most fertile area. Oman was hit by Cyclone Gonu on June 6. Large areas in the capital area region in the Governorate of Muscat and in Amerat and Quriyat were severely affected. Gonu first hit the southern city of Sur late on June 5, 2007. Oman is one of the few countries with no National Red Crescent or Red Cross Society. Area and boundaries Area: 309,500 km² Border countries: Saudi Arabia 676 km, United Arab Emirates 410 km, Yemen 288 km Coastline: 2,092 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km) exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Island territory: Khuriya Muriya Islands, Masirah Island Resources and land use Natural resources: petroleum, copper, asbestos, some marble, limestone, chromium, gypsum, natural gas, frankincense Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 5% forests and woodland: 0% other: 95% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 580 km² (1993 est.) Environmental concerns Natural hazards: Summer winds often raise large sandstorms and dust storms in the interior during periodic droughts. Following rain, Wadis can fill with rainwater water and vast tracts of land can be flooded. Environment - current issues: Soil salinity is rising. There is beach pollution from oil spills. There are very limited natural fresh water resources Geographical note: Oman is in a strategic location on Musandam Peninsula adjacent to Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil See also Oman References External links Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs | Geography_of_Oman |@lemmatized oman:26 country:5 situate:1 southwest:2 asia:1 border:5 arabian:7 sea:7 gulf:7 persian:2 yemen:3 united:5 arab:3 emirate:2 uae:4 location:4 locate:1 southeastern:1 quarter:2 peninsula:5 accord:1 official:1 estimate:2 cover:1 total:1 land:10 area:16 approximately:1 square:2 kilometer:9 foreign:4 observer:1 however:2 compose:1 vary:1 topographic:2 feature:2 valley:3 desert:6 account:1 percent:4 mass:1 mountain:12 range:5 coastal:10 plain:7 sultanate:4 flank:1 rub:5 al:44 khali:5 empty:1 saudi:2 arabia:2 contribute:1 isolation:1 historically:1 contact:1 rest:3 world:2 provide:2 access:2 also:3 link:3 town:4 difficult:1 cross:2 even:1 modern:1 transport:1 form:6 barrier:3 interior:8 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6,809 | Cryonics | Cryonics is the low-temperature preservation of humans and animals that can no longer be sustained by contemporary medicine until resuscitation may be possible in the future. Currently, human cryopreservation is not reversible, which means that it is not currently possible to bring people out of cryopreservation. The rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by the current legal or medical definitions will not necessarily be dead by future standards—the most stringent standard being the information-theoretic definition of death ; and that such people could be brought out of cryopreservation in the future. In the United States, cryonics can only be legally performed on humans after they have been pronounced legally dead. The word cryonics is derived from the Greek word κρύος (kryos), meaning cold. Note that "cryonics" is often mistaken for the concept of suspended animation. Cryonics is not a panacea for future immortality. Cryonics advocates point out that prognosis for cryonics patients is variable, with braindead patients having little chance of meaningful recovery even with foreseeable cryonics technology, while patients who are vitrified immediately after irreversible cardiac arrest is ascertained would fare the best. Most proponents of cryonics see it as a speculative medical technology, no different in principle from the defibrillator or advanced cardiac life support. Premises of cryonics The central premise of cryonics is that memory, personality, and identity are stored in cellular structures and chemistry, principally in the brain. While this view is widely accepted in medicine, and brain activity is known to stop and later resume under certain conditions, it is not generally accepted that current methods preserve the brain well enough to permit revival in the future. Cryonics advocates point to studies showing that high concentrations of cryoprotectant circulated through the brain before cooling can prevent structural damage from ice, preserving the fine cell structures of the brain in which memory and identity presumably reside. To its detractors, the justification for the actual practice of cryonics is unclear, given present limitations of preservation technology. Currently cells, tissues, blood vessels, and some small animal organs can be reversibly cryopreserved. Some very small animals, such as water bears, can naturally survive preservation at cryogenic temperatures. Wood frogs can survive for a few months in a partially frozen state a few degrees below freezing, but this is not true cryopreservation. Cryonics advocates counter that demonstrably reversible preservation is not necessary to achieve the present-day goal of cryonics, which is preservation of basic brain information that encodes memory and personal identity. There is good reason to believe that current cryonics procedures can preserve the anatomical basis of mind . Preservation of this information is said to be sufficient to prevent information-theoretic death until future repairs might be possible. Obstacles to success Preservation injury Long-term cryopreservation requires cooling to near 77.15 Kelvin, the boiling point of liquid nitrogen. It is a common mistaken belief that cells will lyse (burst) due to the formation of ice crystals within the cell, but this only occurs if the freezing rate exceeds the osmotic loss of water to the extracellular space (and it is virtually impossible to cool a large tissue that quickly). However, damage from freezing can still be serious; ice may still form between cells, causing mechanical and chemical damage. Cryonics organizations use cryoprotectants to reduce this damage. Cryoprotectant solutions are circulated through blood vessels to remove and replace water inside cells with chemicals that prevent freezing. This can reduce damage greatly, but freezing of whole people still causes injuries that are not reversible with present technology. When used at high concentrations, cryoprotectants stop ice formation completely. Cooling and solidification without freezing is called vitrification. The first cryoprotectant solutions able to vitrify at very slow cooling rates while still being compatible with tissue survival were developed in the late 1990s by cryobiologists Gregory Fahy and Brian Wowk for the purpose of banking transplantable organs. These solutions were adopted for use in cryonics by the Alcor Life Extension Foundation, for which they are believed to permit vitrification of some parts of the human body, especially the brain. This has allowed animal brains to be vitrified, warmed back up, and examined for ice damage using light and electron microscopy. No ice crystal damage was found. The Cryonics Institute also uses a vitrification solution developed by their staff cryobiologist, Dr. Yuri Pichugin, applying it principally to the brain. Vitrification in cryonics is different than vitrification in mainstream cryobiology because vitrification in cryonics is not reversible with current technology. It is only structural vitrification. When successful it can prevent freezing injury in some body parts, but at the price of toxicity caused by cryoprotectant chemicals. The nature of this toxicity is still poorly understood. Cryonicists assume that toxicity is more subtle and repairable than obvious structural damage that would otherwise be caused by freezing. If, for example, toxicity is due to denatured proteins, those proteins could be repaired or replaced. Ischemic injury Ischemia means inadequate or absent blood circulation that deprives tissue of oxygen and nutrients. At least several minutes of ischemia is a typical part of cryonics because of the common legal requirement that cryonics procedures do not begin until after blood circulation stops. The heart must stop beating so that legal death can be declared. When there is advance notice of impending clinical death, it is sometimes possible to deploy a team of technicians to perform a “standby”. The team artificially restores blood circulation and breathing using techniques similar to CPR as soon as possible after the heart stops. The aim is to keep tissues alive after legal death by analogy to conventional medical procedures in which viable organs and tissues are obtained for transplant from legally deceased donors. Legal death does not mean that all the cells of the body have died. Often in cryonics the brain is without oxygen for many minutes at warm temperatures, or even hours if the heart stops unexpectedly. This causes ischemic injury to the brain and other tissues that makes resuscitation impossible by present medical technology. Cryonicists justify preservation under such conditions by noting recent advances that allow brain resuscitation after longer periods of ischemia than the traditional 4 to 6 minute limit, and persistence of brain structure and even some brain cell function after long periods of clinical death. They argue that definitions of death change as technology advances, and the early stages of what is called “death” today is actually a form of ischemic injury that will be reversible in the future. They claim that personal survival during long periods of clinical death is determined by information theoretic criteria. Revival Those who believe that revival may someday be possible generally look toward advanced bioengineering, molecular nanotechnology, Nanofactory Collaboration http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/Nanofactory nanomedicine, Robert A. Freitas Jr., Nanomedicine, Landes Bioscience; Vol I (1999), Vol IIA (2003) http://www.nanomedicine.com or mind uploading as key technologies. Revival requires repairing damage from lack of oxygen, cryoprotectant toxicity, thermal stress (fracturing), freezing in tissues that do not successfully vitrify, and reversing the effects that caused the patient's death. In many cases extensive tissue regeneration will be necessary. Hypothetical revival scenarios generally envision repairs being performed by vast numbers of microscopic organisms or devices. These devices would restore healthy cell structure and chemistry at the molecular level, ideally before warming. More radically, mind transfer has also been suggested as a possible revival approach if and when technology is ever developed to scan the memory contents of a preserved brain. It has often been written that cryonics revival will be a last-in-first-out process. In this view, preservation methods will get progressively better until eventually they are demonstrably reversible, after which medicine will begin to reach back and revive people cryopreserved by more primitive methods. Revival of people cryopreserved by the current combination of neurovitrification and deep-cooling (technically not "freezing", as cryoprotectant inhibits ice crystallization) may require centuries, if it is possible at all. It has been claimed that if technologies for general molecular analysis and repair are ever developed, then theoretically any damaged body could be “revived.” Survival would then depend on whether preserved brain information was sufficient to permit restoration of all or part of the personal identity of the original person, with amnesia being the final dividing line between life and death. Neuropreservation Neuropreservation is cryopreservation of the brain, often within the head, with surgical removal and disposal (usually cremation) of the rest of the body. Neuropreservation, sometimes called “neuro,” is one of two distinct preservation options in cryonics, the other being "whole body" preservation. In some neuropreservation cases, only the brain is cryopreserved. This can come about because the cryonics practitioner chooses to preserve just the brain or where the brain has been removed by a medical examiner as part of autopsy procedures. Neuropreservation is motivated by the brain's role as the primary repository of memory and personal identity. (For instance, spinal cord injury victims, organ transplant patients, and amputees retain their personal identity.) It is also motivated by the belief that reversing any type of cryonic preservation is so difficult and complex that any future technology capable of it must by its nature be capable of generalized tissue regeneration, including growth of a new body around a repaired brain. Some suggested revival scenarios for whole body patients even involve discarding the original body and regenerating a new one because tissues are so badly damaged by the preservation process. These considerations, along with lower costs, easier transportation in emergencies, and the specific focus on brain preservation quality, have motivated many cryonicists to choose neuropreservation. The advantages and disadvantages of neuropreservation are often debated among cryonics advocates. Critics of neuropreservation note that the body is a record of much life experience, including learned motor skills (muscle memory). While few cryonicists doubt that a revived neuro patient would be the same person, there are wider questions about how a regenerated body might feel different from the original. Partly for these reasons (as well as for better public relations), the Cryonics Institute preserves only whole bodies. Some proponents of neuropreservation agree with these concerns, but still feel that lower costs and better brain preservation justify concentrating preservation efforts on the brain. About three-quarters of the patients stored at Alcor are neuropreservation patients. Although the American Cryonics Society no longer offers the neuropreservation option, about half of the American Cryonic Society’s patients are "neuros". Financial issues Costs of cryonics vary greatly, ranging from $28,000 for cryopreservation by the Cryonics Institute, to $155,000 for whole body cryopreservation for the American Cryonics Society’s most expensive plan. Alcor’s whole body preservation is priced at $150,000 (or $80,000 for neuropreservation of the head alone) plus a ~$500 annual membership fee during life by Alcor. Modern Marvels: Deep Freeze. The History Channel. After payment of an initiaton fee, ACS full members pay an annual fee of $300 currently. To some extent these cost differences reflect differences in how fees are quoted. The Cryonics Institute fee doesn’t include “standby” (a team that begins procedures at bedside), transportation costs, or funeral director expenses outside of Michigan, which must be purchased as extras. CI Members wanting Standby and Transport from cryonics professionals can contract for additional payment to the Florida-based company Suspended Animation, Inc. While cryonics is sometimes suspected of being greatly profitable, the high expenses of doing cryonics are well documented. The expenses are comparable to major transplant surgeries. The largest single expense, especially for whole body cases, is the money that must be set aside to generate interest to pay for maintenance in perpetuity. The most common method of paying for cryonics is life insurance, which spreads the cost over many years. Cryonics advocates are quick to point out that such insurance is especially affordable for young people. It has been claimed that cryonics is “affordable for the vast majority” of people in the industrialized world who really want it and plan for it in advance. Philosophical and ethical considerations Cryonics is based on a view of dying as a process that can be stopped in the minutes, and perhaps hours, following clinical death. If death is not an event that happens suddenly when the heart stops, this raises philosophical questions about what exactly death is. In 2005 an ethics debate in the medical journal, Critical Care, noted “…few if any patients pronounced dead by today’s physicians are in fact truly dead by any scientifically rigorous criteria.” Cryonics proponent Thomas Donaldson has argued that “death” based on cardiac arrest or resuscitation failure is a purely social construction used to justify terminating care of dying patients. In this view, legal death and its aftermath are a form of euthanasia in which sick people are abandoned. Philosopher Max More suggested a distinction between death associated with circumstances and intention versus death that is absolutely irreversible. Absolutely irreversible death has also been called information-theoretic death, which implies destruction of the brain to such an extent that the original information content can no longer be recovered. Bioethicist James Hughes has written that increasing rights will accrue to cryonics patients as prospects for revival become clearer, noting that recovery of legally dead persons has precedent in the discovery of missing persons. Ethical and theological opinions of cryonics tend to pivot on the issue of whether cryonics is regarded as interment or medicine. If cryonics is interment, then religious beliefs about death and afterlife may come into consideration. Resuscitation may be deemed impossible by those with religious beliefs because the soul is gone, and according to most religions only God can resurrect the dead. Cryonics advocates complain that theological dismissal of cryonics because it is interment is a circular argument because calling cryonics "interment" presumes a priori that cryonics cannot work. They believe future technical advances will validate their view that cryonics patients are recoverable, and therefore never really dead. If cryonics is regarded as medicine, with legal death as a mere enabling mechanism, then cryonics is a long-term coma with uncertain prognosis. It is continuing to care for sick people when others have given up. Alcor has published a vigorous Christian defense of cryonics, including excerpts of a sermon by Lutheran Reverend Kay Glaesner. Noted Christian commentator John Warwick Montgomery has defended cryonics. In 1969, a Roman Catholic priest consecrated the cryonics capsule of Ann DeBlasio, one of the first cryonics patients. Many followers of Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov see cryonics as an important step in the Common Cause project (reference: Fedorov seminar in Moscow, Russia on 25.11.2006) and compatible with Orthodox Christianity. At the request of the American Cryonics Society, in 1995, Philosopher Charles Tandy, Ph.D. authored a paper entitled “Cryonic-Hibernation in Light of the Bioethical Principles of Beauchamp and Childress.” Dr. Tandy considered the four bioethical factors or principles articulated by philosophers Beauchamp and Childress as they apply to cryonics. These four principles are 1) respect for autonomy; 2) nonmaleficence; 3) beneficence; and 4) justice. Tandy concluded that in respect to all four principles “biomedical professionals have a strong (not weak) and actual (not prima facie, but binding) obligation to help insure cryonic-hibernation of the cryonics patient.” History Benjamin Franklin suggested in a famous 1773 letter that it might be possible to preserve human life in a suspended state for centuries. However, the modern era of cryonics began in 1962 when Michigan college physics teacher Robert Ettinger proposed in a privately published book, “The Prospect of Immortality”, that freezing people may be a way to reach future medical technology. Even though freezing a person is apparently fatal, Ettinger argued that what appears to be fatal today may be reversible in the future. He applied the same argument to the process of dying itself, saying that the early stages of clinical death may be reversible in the future. Combining these two ideas, he suggested that freezing recently deceased people may be a way to save lives. Slightly before Ettinger’s book was complete, Evan Cooper (writing as Nathan Duhring) privately published a book called Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now that independently suggested the same idea. Cooper founded the Life Extension Society (LES) in 1964 to promote freezing people. Ettinger came to be credited as the originator of cryonics, perhaps because his book was republished by Doubleday in 1964 on recommendation of Isaac Asimov and Fred Pohl, and received more publicity. Ettinger also stayed with the movement longer. Nevertheless, cryonics historian R. Michael Perry has written “Evan Cooper deserves the principal credit for forming an organized cryonics movement.” Cooper’s Life Extension Society became the seed tree for cryonics societies throughout the country where local cryonics advocates would get together as a result of contact through the LES mailing list. The actual word “cryonics” was invented by Karl Werner in 1965 in conjunction with the founding of the Cryonics Society of New York (CSNY) by Curtis Henderson and Saul Kent that same year. This was followed by the founding of the Cryonics Society of Michigan (CSM) and Cryonics Society of California (CSC) in 1966, and Bay Area Cryonics Society (BACS) in 1969 (renamed the American Cryonics Society, or ACS, in 1985). Neither CSNY nor CSC are currently in operation. CSM eventually became the Immortalist Society, a non-profit affiliate of the Cryonics Institute (CI), a cryonics service organization founded by Ettinger in 1976. CI now has more cryonics patients than any other organization. Although there was at least one earlier aborted case, it is generally accepted that the first person frozen with intent of future resuscitation was Dr. James Bedford, a 73-year-old psychology professor frozen under crude conditions by CSC on January 12, 1967. The case made the cover of a limited print run of Life Magazine before the presses were stopped to report the death of three astronauts in the Apollo 1 fire instead. Cryonics suffered a major setback in 1979 when it was discovered that nine bodies stored by CSC in a cemetery in Chatsworth, California, had thawed due to depletion of funds. "Mistakes Were Made", This American Life, 18 April 2008. Some of the bodies had apparently thawed years earlier without notification. The head of CSC was sued, and negative publicity slowed cryonics growth for years afterward. Of seventeen documented cryonics cases between 1967 and 1973, only James Bedford remains cryopreserved today. Strict financial controls and requirements adopted in response to the Chatsworth scandal have resulted in the successful maintenance of almost all cryonics cases since that era. The largest cryonics organization today, in terms of membership, was established by Fred and Linda Chamberlain in 1972 as the Alcor Society for Solid State Hypothermia (ALCOR). In 1977 the name was changed to the Alcor Life Extension Foundation. In 1982, the Institute for Advanced Biological Studies (IABS) founded by Mike Darwin and Steve Bridge in Indiana merged with Alcor. During the 1980s Darwin worked with UCLA cardiothoracic surgery researcher Jerry Leaf at Alcor to develop a medical model for cryonics procedures. They pioneered the first consistent use of a cryonics procedure now known as a “standby”, in which a team waits to begin life support procedures at the bedside of a cryonics patient as soon as possible after the heart stops. The oldest incorporated cryonics society still extant is the American Cryonics Society (ACS). This tax-exempt 501(c)(3) membership organization was incorporated in 1969 as the Bay Area Cryonics Society (BACS) by a group of cryonics advocates that included two prominent Bay Area physicians, Dr. M. Coleman Harris and Dr. Grace Talbot. The first suspensions under BACS auspices were performed in 1974 by Trans Time, Inc., a for-profit company started by BACS members. BACS researcher Dr. Paul Segall, working with Jerry Leaf of CryoVita, developed a medical model to induce hypothermia shortly after pronouncement of death. Dr. Segall later went on to pioneer blood substitutes for use in both cryonic suspension and in mainstream medicine. Cryonics received new support in the 1980s when MIT engineer Eric Drexler started publishing papers and books foreseeing the new field of molecular nanotechnology. His 1986 book, Engines of Creation, included an entire chapter on cryonics applications. Cryonics advocates saw the nascent field of nanotechnology as vindication of their long held view that molecular repair of injured tissue was theoretically possible. In the late 1980s Alcor member Dick Clair (who was dying of AIDS) sued for, and ultimately won for everyone, the right to be cryonically preserved in the State of California. Alcor’s membership expanded tenfold within a decade, with a 30% annual growth rate between 1988 and 1992. Alcor was disrupted by political turmoil in 1993 when a group of activists left to start the CryoCare Foundation, and associated for-profit companies CryoSpan, Inc. (headed by Paul Wakfer) and BioPreservation, Inc. (headed by Mike Darwin). Darwin and collaborators made many technical advances during this time period, including a landmark study documenting high quality brain preservation by freezing with high concentrations of glycerol. CryoCare ceased operations in 1999 when they were unable to renew their service contract with BioPreservation. CryoCare’s two patients stored at CryoSpan were transferred to Alcor. Several ACS patients stored at CryoSpan were transferred to CI. There have been numerous, often transient, for-profit companies involved in cryonics. For-profit companies were often paired or affiliated with non-profit groups they served. Some of these companies, with non-profits they served in parentheses, were Cryonic Interment, Inc. (CSC), Cryo-Span Corporation (CSNY), Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation (CSC and CSNY), Manrise Corporation (Alcor), CryoVita, Inc. (Alcor), BioTransport, Inc. (Alcor), Trans Time, Inc. (BACS), Soma, Inc. (IABS), CryoSpan, Inc. (CryoCare and ACS), BioPreservation, Inc. (CryoCare and ACS), Kryos, Inc. (ACS), Suspended Animation, Inc. (CI, ACS, and Alcor). Trans Time and Suspended Animation are the only for-profit cryonics organizations that still exist. The cryonics field seems to have largely consolidated around three non-profit groups, Alcor, Cryonics Institute (CI), and the American Cryonics Society (ACS), all deriving significant income from bequests and donations. A newly formed non-profit group called the Cryonics Society was formally incorporated in 2006 but is devoted solely to promotion and public education of the cryonics concept. As research in the 1990s revealed in greater detail the damaging effects of freezing, there was a trend to use higher concentrations of glycerol cryoprotectant to prevent freezing injury. In 2001 Alcor began using vitrification, a technology borrowed from mainstream organ preservation research, in an attempt to completely prevent ice formation during cooling. Initially the technology could only be applied to the head when separated from the body. In 2005 Alcor began treating the whole body with their vitrification solution in a procedure called "neurovitrification with whole body cryoprotection". In the same year, the Cryonics Institute began treating the head of their whole body patients with their own vitrification solution. The Cryonics Institute maintains 91 human patients (along with about 52 pets) at its Clinton Township, Michigan facility. A significant number of these cryopreserved humans and pets came to the CI facility through contract with the American Cryonics Society. Alcor currently maintains 85 cryonics patients in Scottsdale, Arizona. There are support groups in Europe, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia. There is also a small cryonics facility in Russia storing four neuropatients called KrioRus, and plans for a facility in Australia. There are also plans for a multi-acre facility to be built in an undisclosed location in the United States. This facility is to be named Timeship and will be built along a futuristic design emphasizing security and safety developed by renowned architect Stephen Valentine . Culture Cryonics in popular culture Procedures similar to cryonics have been featured in innumerable science fiction stories to aid space travel, or as means to transport a character from the past into the future. In addition to accomplishing whatever the character's primary task is in the future, he or she must cope with the strangeness of a new world, which may contain only traces of their previous surroundings. This prospect of alienation is often cited as a major reason for the unpopularity of cryonics. Notable early science fiction short stories featuring human cryopreservation, deliberate or accidental, include Jack London's first published work "A Thousand Deaths" (1899), H.P. Lovecraft's "Cool Air" (1928), and Edgar Rice Burroughs' "The Resurrection of Jimber-Jaw" (1937). In the 1886 short story "Hilda Silfverling, A Fantasy" by Lydia Maria Child, the main character is preserved by cryonics and revived after the passage of a hundred years. Many of the subjects in these stories are unwilling ones, although a 1939 short story by Neil R. Jones called "The Jameson Satellite", in which the subject has himself deliberately preserved in space after death, has been credited with giving Robert Ettinger the seed of the idea of cryonics, when he was a teenager. Ettinger would later write a science fiction story called The Penultimate Trump published in 1948, in which the explicit idea of cryopreservation of legally-dead persons for future repair of medical causes of death, is promulgated. Full text of Ettinger's "Penultimate Trump" short story: Accessed June 8, 2007 Relatively few stories have been published concerning the primary objective and definition of cryonics. Influential novels with this theme include the early The Door Into Summer by Robert A. Heinlein (1954), The Age of the Pussyfoot (1966) by Fred Pohl and Ubik by Philip K. Dick (1968). Also included are national best-seller The First Immortal by James Halperin, Tomorrow and Tomorrow by Charles Sheffield, Chiller by Sterling Blake (aka Gregory Benford), Ralph’s Journey by David Pizer, Formerly Brandewyne by Jude Liebermann, and I Was a Teenage Popsicle by Bev Katz Rosenbaum. ISBN 0425211800 Publisher: BERKLEY JAM A fictional book about cryonics specifically for children is 21st Century Kids by Shannon Vyff. Domovoi Butler from the Artemis Fowl series was frozen after his death and kept frozen over night in the third book, thereafter being revived by fairy magic. Fictional application of cryonics as rescue after freezing in space has continued since The Jameson Satellite in 1931. Arthur C. Clarke's 3001: The Final Odyssey reveals that Frank Poole, murdered by HAL 9000 in 2001: A Space Odyssey was cryopreserved by his exposure to space, and found and revived a thousand years later. The Larry Niven short story "Wait It Out" depicts a sort of emergency self-cryopreservation by men marooned on Pluto. The 1992 Hugo-winning novel A Fire Upon the Deep by Vernor Vinge features a protagonist who is resuscitated by a superintelligence, thousands of years after a spaceship accident. The popular Halo series often involves freezing characters in small refrigerator like devices, to prevent aging during the process of space travel. However, this is different than modern applications of the procedure, as it is not used when a person is dying. Movies featuring cryonics for medical purposes include the Woody Allen comedy, Sleeper, and the films Late for Dinner, Abre los Ojos (remade as Vanilla Sky) and Wes Craven's Chiller. One of the most famous movies regarding a cryonics-like process was 1992's Forever Young, starring Mel Gibson. Although not about cryonics per se, the Ron Howard film Cocoon has been hailed by cryonics advocates as expressing the values motivating cryonics better than any other film. Cryonics is featured in the movies Alien and Aliens where the ships crew enter "cryo-sleep" so they can travel through space great distances without aging. A form of "cryo-stasis" is featured in the film Demolition Man where criminals are frozen in a "Cryo-penitentiary" and given neural implants to alter their characters and remove violent tendencies. More recently cryonics has featured in the Austin Powers spoof series of films where Dr. Evil and Austin Powers were both cryonically frozen between the 1960s and the 1990s. During the freezing process, Dr. Evil's cat, Mr. Bigglesworth, went completely bald due to feline complications of the freezing process. "The Defenseless Dead," also by Larry Niven, explores the societal effects of using cryonically-frozen people as a source for organ transplants. In the film Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back, the character Han Solo is captured and cryonically frozen in carbonite. His later revival in Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi leaves him disoriented and temporarily blind. On television, producer David E. Kelley wrote well-researched portrayals of cryonics for the TV shows L.A. Law (1990 episode ), Picket Fences (1994 episode ), and Boston Legal (2005 episode ). In each case, there was a dying plaintiff petitioning a court for the right to elective cryopreservation. Cryonics was also featured in an episode of Miami Vice called "The Big Thaw", the episode "When We Dead Awaken" of seaQuest DSV, the last two television works of Dennis Potter, Karaoke and Cold Lazarus, and the anime Cowboy Bebop. The long-running British series TV Doctor Who featured cryonics in its 1985 story Revelation of the Daleks. The story imagined that laws and regulations would be made making it virtually impossible to get bodies back from storage for revival. The idea was that there would be little incentive for those that came later to revive the best and brightest from the past as they would then be in direct competition with them. Consequently, the bodies were used for darker purposes. Cryonics was also satirized by the comedy cartoon series Futurama, whose premise surrounds Fry, a pizza delivery boy from the 20th century, who is cryogenically frozen on New Year's Eve, 1999, and wakes up one thousand years in the future, to find earth drastically changed. In the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Space Seed", a number of genetically enhanced humans from the 20th century, who were preserved cryonically in an unmanned space ship, are discovered and awakened by the Enterprise crew. A similar instance appears in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Neutral Zone". In that episode, three humans from the late 20th century, who were preserved cryonically in an unmanned space capsule after they perished, are discovered and awakened by the Enterprise crew. Captain America was placed unwillingly in a form of cryogenic suspension, according to Marvel Comics, when he was entombed in ice, preserving him, mind and body, for an indeterminable amount of years in the mainstream Marvel continuity (he was frozen in 1945 and unfrozen in the sixties, but thanks to the sliding timescale of the Marvel Universe, he's always been unfrozen about ten to fifteen years ago), and nearly sixty years in the Ultimate Marvel timeline, during which time each version was revived. His arch-nemesis the Red Skull was the recipient of a similar treatment in the Heroes Reborn universe. In the comic book Transmetropolitan, people whose heads were preserved in cryogenic stasis are routinely revived by a government program and given a cloned body. These people, known as Revivals, are overwhelmed by the dystopian future in which they have awoken and distraught by the death of every person they have ever known, and they often break down; they are generally ignored by society and are left to fend for themselves. The most famous cryopreserved patient is baseball player Ted Williams. The popular urban legend that Walt Disney was cryopreserved is false; he was cremated, and interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery http://www.snopes.com/disney/info/wd-ice.htm . Robert A. Heinlein, who wrote enthusiastically of the concept, was cremated and had his ashes distributed over the Pacific Ocean. Timothy Leary was a long-time cryonics advocate, and signed up with a major cryonics provider. He changed his mind, however, shortly before his death, and so was not cryopreserved. Cryonics was the inspiration for the song "Cryogenic" by the electronic rock group TheSwimmingPools. In the South Park two part episode entitled, "Go God Go" the character Eric Cartman is desperately awaiting the launch of the Wii. To pass the time quicker, Cartman has himself frozen into a mountain side to be reawakened at the launch of the Wii. An avalanche covers his body and he is never found by his friends or family. He sits in suspended animation for more than 500 years until he is unfrozen by the Unified Atheist League, one of three groups of atheists that then control the world. The subculture of cryonicists Cryonicists have been able to form cryonics societies in highly populated areas (see history section), have regular meetings, publish magazines and hold conferences. Saul Kent, Evan Cooper, Jerry White, Dr. M. Coleman Harris, as well as Fred and Linda Chamberlain were active in organizing cryonics conferences in the early years of cryonics. The magazines of the cryonics organizations have also helped keep members of the cryonics community informed about events and common problems. On July 24, 1988, a Ph.D. in computer science named Kevin Brown started an electronic mailing list called CryoNet that became a powerful tool of communication for the cryonics community. Numerous other mailing lists and web forums for discussing cryonics and the affairs of particular organizations have since appeared, but CryoNet remains a central point of contact for cryonicists. Cryonicists have also had a common jargon, including their use of the words patient, deanimation and suspension. The phrase cryonic suspension to describe cryopreservation is falling into disfavor, partly because the abbreviation suspension is too easily misunderstood. As in other subcultures, some members of the community can have strong feelings about the use of "politically correct" cryonics language. See also Alcor Life Extension Foundation American Cryonics Society Cryonics Institute Cryonics Society Cryptobiosis Hibernation Immortality Institute Immortalist Society Indefinite lifespan Information theoretical death KrioRus Life extension Nanomedicine Neuropreservation Rejuvenation (aging) Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence (SENS) Super cooling Suspended animation Vitrification References External links Cryonics FAQ Ralph Merkle's introduction to cryonics CryoNet Alcor Life Extension Foundation Cryonics Institute American Cryonics Society Cryonics Europe Cryonics Society of Canada Cryonics Society - Resources and Advocacy Depressed Metabolism (cryonics technology blog) Immortality Institute Cryonics Cryonics UK Finnish Cryonics Society "Mistakes Were Made", This American Life, 18 April 2008. 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6,810 | Mecca | Mecca (, also spelled Makkah (; Makka (in full: Makkah al-Mukarrama ) is the holiest meeting site of the Islamic religion. Culturally, the city is modern, cosmopolitan and ethnically diverse. "http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/4584058.stm," BBC News. Hoyle, Ben. "British architects to change the face of Mecca," The Times. November 29, 2008. Fattah, Hassan M.Islamic Pilgrims Bring Cosmopolitan Air to Unlikely City, New York Times. January 20, 2005. Islamic tradition attributes the beginning of Mecca to Ishmael's descendants. In the 7th century, the Islamic prophet Muhammad proclaimed Islam in the city, by then an important trading center, and the city played an important role in the early history of Islam. After 966, Mecca was led by local sharifs, until 1924, when it came under the rule of the Saudis. Mecca at Microsoft Encarta In its modern period, Mecca has seen a great expansion in size and infrastructure. The modern day city is located in and is the capital of Saudi Arabia's Makkah Province, in the historic Hejaz region. With a population of 1.7 million (2008), the city is located inland from Jeddah, in a narrow valley, and above sea level. Etymology Mecca is the original English translation of the Arabic . Historically, the city has also been called Becca. Wehr, Hans: "Arabic-English Dictionary", fourth edition (compact version), page 85. Penrice, John: "A Dictionary and Glossary of the Koran", page 19. In the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government and others began promoting the spelling Makkah (in full form, Makkah al-Mukarramah), which more closely resembles the actual Arabic pronunciation. This spelling is starting to be taken up by many organizations, including the United Nations, United Nations. Typical document illustrating Makkah spelling. United States Department of State, U.S. Department of State Background Note: Saudi Arabia. and the British Foreign Office, ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1101396253177 British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Typical document illustrating Makkah spelling. but the spelling Mecca remains in common use. Another alternative is Meccah. Six Months in Meccah, John Keane, Tinsley Brothers, 1881. Government Mecca is governed by the Municipality of Mecca, headed by a mayor (Also known as Amin) appointed by the Saudi Government. The current mayor of the city is Osama Al-Bar. A municipal council of fourteen locally elected members is responsible for the functioning of the municipality. Mecca is the capital of Makkah Province, which includes neighboring Jeddah. The governor was Prince Abdul Majeed bin Abdul Aziz from 2000 until his death in 2007. On May 16, 2007, Prince Khalid al Faisal was appointed as the new governor. History 1787 Turkish artwork of the Holy Mosque and related religious sites (Jabal al-Nur) Early history According to Islamic tradition, the history of Mecca goes back to Ibrahim (ابراهيم, Abraham) when he built the Kaaba with the help of his son Ismā'īl (اسماعيل, Ishmael), around 2000 BC. The inhabitants were stated to have fallen away from monotheism through the influence of the Amelkites. Historians state that the Kaaba later became the repository of 360 idols and tribal gods of all of Arabia's nomadic tribes. Until the 7th century, Mecca's most important god would remain to be Hubal, having been placed there by the ruling Quraysh tribe. Hawting, p. 44 Islamic World, p. 20 Ptolemy may have called the city "Macoraba", though this identification is controversial. P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, p134-135. In the 5th century, the Quraysh took control of Mecca, and became skilled merchants and traders. In the 6th century they joined the lucrative spice trade as well, since battles in other parts of the world were causing trade routes to divert from the dangerous sea routes to the relatively more secure overland routes. The Byzantine Empire had previously controlled the Red Sea, but piracy had been on the increase. Another previous route, that from the Persian Gulf via the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, was also being threatened by exploitation from the Sassanid Empire, as well as being disrupted by the Lakhmids, the Ghassanids, and the Roman–Persian Wars. Mecca's prominence as a trading center surpassed the cities of Petra and Palmyra. Britannica By the middle of the 6th century, there were three major settlements in northern Arabia, all along the southwestern coast that borders the Red Sea, in a habitable region between the sea and the great desert to the east. This area, known as the Hejaz, featured three settlements grown around oases, where water was available. In the center of the Hejaz was Yathrib, later renamed as Medina. south of Yathrib was the mountain city Ta’if, northwest of which lay Mecca. Though the area around Mecca was completely barren, Mecca was the wealthiest and most important of the three settlements. Islamic histories state that it had abundant water via the Zamzam Well, which was the site of the holiest shrine in Arabia, the Kaaba, and was also at the crossroads of major caravan routes.. The harsh conditions of the Arabian peninsula usually meant a constant state of conflict between the tribes, but once a year they would declare a truce and converge upon Mecca in an annual pilgrimage. This journey was intended for religious reasons, to pay homage to the shrine, and to drink from the Well of Zamzam. However, it was also the time each year that disputes would be arbitrated, debts would be resolved, and trading would occur at Meccan fairs. These annual events gave the tribes a sense of common identity and made Mecca extremely important throughout the peninsula. Lapidus, Ira. History of Islamic Societies, pp. 16–17 Muhammad's great-grandfather had been the first to equip a camel caravan, and they became a regular part of the town's economy. Alliances were struck between the merchants in Mecca, and the local nomadic tribes, who would bring leather, livestock, and metals which were mined in the local mountains. Caravans would then be loaded up in Mecca, and would take the goods to the cities in Syria and Iraq. Islamic World, pp. 17–18 Islamic tradition claims that goods from other continents also flowed through Mecca. From Africa and the Far East towards Syria supposedly flowed spices, leather, medicine, cloth, and slaves; and in return Mecca was to have received money, weapons, cereals, and wine, which were distributed throughout Arabia. The Meccans signed treaties with both the Byzantines and the Bedouins, and negotiated safe passage for caravans, which included such things as water and pasture rights. These further increased Mecca's political power as well as economic, and Mecca became the center of a loose confederation of client tribes, which included those of the Banu Tamim. Other forces such as the Abyssinian, Ghassan, and Lakhm were in decline, and Meccan influence was the primary binding force in Arabia in the late 6th century. Muhammad Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, and thus Islam has been inextricably linked with Mecca ever since. Muhammad was born in a minor faction, the Hashemites, of the ruling Quraysh tribe. Islamic tradition states that he began receiving divine revelations there in 610 AD, and began to preach monotheism against Meccan animism. After enduring persecution for 13 years, Muhammad emigrated (see Hijra) in 622 with his followers to Yathrib (later called Medina). The conflict between the Quraysh and the Muslims, however, continued: the two fought in the Battle of Badr, where Muslims defeated the Quraysh outside Medina; whilst the Meccans overcame the Muslims at the Battle of Uhud. Overall, however, Meccan efforts to annihilate Islam were unsuccessful, and during the Battle of the Trench in 627, the combined armies of Arabia were unable to defeat Muhammad. Lapidus, p. 32 The Ottoman Empire, including Mecca In 628, Muhammad and his followers peacefully marched to Mecca, attempting to enter the city for pilgrimage. Instead, however, both Muslims and Meccans entered into the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, whereby Muslims and Quraysh would cease fighting and Muslims would be allowed into the city the following year. Two years later the Quraysh violated the truce, but instead of continuing their fight, the city of Mecca shortly surrendered to Muhammad, who declared amnesty for the inhabitants and gave generous gifts to the leading Quraysh. Mecca was cleansed of all its idols and cult images in the Kaaba. Muhammad declared Mecca as the holiest site in Islam ordaining it as the center of Muslim pilgrimage, one of the faith's five pillars. Despite his conquest, however, Muhammad chose to return to Medina, leaving behind Attab bin Usaid to govern the city. Muhammad's other activities in Arabia led to the unification of the peninsula, putting an end to the wars that had disrupted life in the city for so long. Muhammad died in 632, but with the sense of unity that he had passed on to the Arabians, Islam began a rapid expansion, and within the next few hundred years stretched from North Africa well into Asia. As the Islamic Empire grew, Mecca continued to attract pilgrims not just from Arabia, but now from all across the Empire, as Muslims sought to perform the annual Hajj. Mecca also attracted a year-round population of scholars, pious Muslims who wished to live close to the Kaaba, and local inhabitants who served the pilgrims. Due to the difficulty and expense of the Hajj, pilgrims arrived by boat at Jeddah, and came overland, or joined the annual caravans from Syria or Iraq. Medieval and pre-modern times The First Saudi State, Including Mecca Mecca was never the capital of any of the Caliphates including the Ottoman Empire. Muslim rulers did, however, contribute to its upkeep. During the reign of Umar and Uthman Ibn Affan, concerns of flooding caused the caliphs to bring in Christian engineers to build barrages in the high-lying quarters, and also to construct dykes and embankments to protect the area round the Kaaba. "Makka - The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods", Encyclopaedia of Islam In Islamic history, Muhammad's emigration to Medina established the city as the first capital of an Islamic state. When the Umayyad Caliphate took power they moved the capital to Damascus, Syria, and then the Abbasid Caliphate moved the capital to Baghdad, Iraq. The center of the Islamic Empire remained at Baghdad for nearly 500 years, and flourished into a center of research and commerce. In the 13th century, the Mongols invaded Baghdad and sacked the city. This event was one of the most detested events in Islamic history. Soon after the Battle of Baghdad, the Mongols rampaged west and conquered Syria. The next city to quickly emerge as the center of power in the Islamic state was Cairo, in Egypt. When the Ottoman Empire came into prominence the capital was moved to Constantinople. However, Mecca remained a prominent trading center. Pilgrims arriving for the Hajj often financed their journey by bringing goods to sell in the Meccan markets, and acquiring goods there which they could sell when they returned home. Lapidus, p. 328 Mecca re-entered Islamic political history briefly when it was held by Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, an early Muslim who opposed the Umayyad caliphs. The Caliph Yazid I besieged Mecca in 683. Ummayads: The First Muslim Dynasty, retrieved November 26, 2007. Thereafter the city figured little in politics, it was a city of devotion and scholarship. For centuries it was governed by the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca. In 930, Mecca was attacked and sacked by Qarmatians, a millenarian Ismaili Muslim sect led by Abu Tahir Al-Jannabi and centered in eastern Arabia. Mecca The Black Death pandemic hit Mecca in 1349. The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death) In 1517, the Sharif of Mecca, Barakat bin Muhammed, acknowledged the supremacy of the Ottoman Caliph, but maintained a great degree of local autonomy. Mecca - LoveToKnow 1911 Mecca in 1850 The city was captured in 1802 by the First Saudi State (also known as Wahhabis), and the Saudis held Mecca until 1813. This was a massive blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, who had exercised sovereignty over the holy cities since 1517, and the lethargic Ottomans were finally moved to action. The task of bringing Mecca back under Ottoman control was assigned to their powerful viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam, 1500–1818 who successfully returned Mecca following the victory at Mecca in 1813. In 1818, the Wahhabis were again defeated, but some of the Al Saud clan lived on to found the Second Saudi State that lasted until 1891, and later the present Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia In June 1916, During the Arab Revolt, the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali revolted against the Ottoman Empire from Mecca and it was the first city captured by his forces following Battle of Mecca (1916). Sharif Hussein declared a new state, Kingdom of Hejaz, and declared Mecca as the capital of the new kingdom. Following the Battle of Mecca (1924), the Sharif of Mecca was overthrown by the Saudis, and Mecca was incorporated into Saudi Arabia. View of Mecca 1910 On November 20, 1979 two hundred armed Islamist dissidents led by Saudi preacher Juhayman al-Otaibi seized the Grand Mosque. They claimed that the Saudi royal family no longer represented pure Islam and that the mosque, and the Kaaba, must be held by those of the true faith. The rebels seized tens of thousands of pilgrims as hostages and barricaded themselves in the mosque. The siege lasted two weeks, and resulted in several hundred deaths and significant damage to the shrine, especially the Safa-Marwa gallery. While it was the Pakistani forces that carried out the bloodless assault, they were assisted with weapons and planning by a small team of advisors from The French GIGN commando unit. On July 31, 1987, during an anti-US demonstration by pilgrims, 402 people were killed (275 Iranian pilgrims, 85 Saudis [including policemen], and 45 pilgrims from other countries) and 649 wounded (303 Iranian pilgrims, 145 Saudis [including policemen] and 201 pilgrims from other countries) after the Saudi police opened fire against the unarmed demonstrators. Geography Mecca's skyline, 2008 The Zamzam well was once an important source of fresh water. Today it serves pilgrims who visit the Grand Mosque. Mecca is at an elevation of above sea level, and approximately inland from the Red Sea. Islamic World, p. 13 The city is situated between mountains, which has defined the contemporary expansion of the city. The city centers on the Masjid al-Haram area, whose altitude is lower than most of the city. The area around the mosque comprises the old city. The main avenues are Al-Mudda'ah and Sūq al-Layl to the north of the mosque, and As-Sūg Assaghīr to the south. As the Saudis expanded the Grand Mosque in the center of the city, where there were once hundreds of houses are now replaced with wide avenues and city squares. Traditional homes are built of local rock and are generally two to three stories. The total area of Mecca metro today stands over . Mecca Municipality Central Mecca lies in a corridor between mountains, which is often called the "hollow of Mecca." Mecca's location was also important for trade, and it was the stop for important trade routes. In pre-modern Mecca, the city exploited a few chief sources of water. The first were local wells, such as the Zamzam Well, that produced generally brackish water. The second source was the spring of Ayn Zubayda. The sources of this spring are the mountains of J̲abal Saʿd (Jabal Sa'd) and Jabal Kabkāb, which lie a few kilometers east of Ḏj̲abal ʿArafa (Djabal 'Arafa) or about east southeast of Mecca. Water was transported from it using underground channels. A very sporadic third source was rainfall which was stored by the people in small reservoirs or cisterns. The rainfall, as scant as it is, also presents the threat of flooding and has been a danger since earliest times. According to Al-Kurdī, there had been 89 historic floods by 1965, including several in the Saudi period. In the last century the most severe one occurred in 1942. Since then, dams have been constructed to ameliorate the problem. Climate Unlike other Saudi Arabian cities, Mecca retains its warm temperature in winter, which can range from at midnight to in the afternoon. Summer temperatures are considered very hot and break the mark in the afternoon dropping to in the evening. Rain usually falls in Mecca in small amounts between November and January. Cityspaces Mecca houses the Masjid al-Haram, the largest mosque in the world. The mosque surrounds the Kaaba, the place which Muslims turn towards while offering daily Salah (prayer) and considered by Muslims to be the holiest place on Earth. The mosque is also commonly known as the Haram or Grand Mosque. Orientation Saudi authorities are considering renovating the mosque to triple the mosque's 900,000 capacity, making it one of the largest buildings in the world. Jarvis, Alice-Azania. "Foster and Hadid in running to remake Mecca," The Independent. November 28, 2008. The current structure covers an area of including the outdoor and indoor praying spaces and can accommodate up to 4 million worshippers during the Hajj period. The recent expansion of the city provided many modern landmarks such as the huge towers of Abraj Al-Bait, with height of . MECCA | Abraj Al-Bait Towers | 1,952' Pinnacle / 1,509' Roof | 76 FLOORS - SkyscraperPage Forum The construction of the towers will be completed in 2009, being one of the world's tallest buildings. The site of the towers is located across the street from the entrance to the Grand Mosque. As a historic city, Mecca owns hundreds of historical landmarks such as the Kaaba, Muslims believe it was built by Abraham and his son Ishmael. The Zamzam Well is a further example. The Qishla of Mecca used to be one of the most notable structures for Mecca, The Qishla was an Ottoman castle facing the Grand Mosque and defending the city from any possible attack. However, the Saudi government removed the structure, giving free space for new hotels and business buildings around the Mosque. WikiMapia - About the Qishla and its location Economy The Meccan economy has been heavily dependent on the annual pilgrimage. As one scholar put it, "[Meccans] have no means of earning a living but by serving the hajjis." Economy generated from hajj, in fact, not only powers the Meccan economy but has historically had far reaching effects on the economy of the Hejaz and Nejd regions. The income was generated in a number of ways. One method was taxing the pilgrims. Taxes especially increased during the Great Depression, and many of these taxes existed as late as 1972. With rise of oil income, however, all unnecessary charges have been abolished. Another way the Hajj generates income is through services to pilgrims. For example, the Saudi national airline, Saudi Arabian Airlines, generates 12% of its income from the pilgrimage. Fares paid by pilgrims to reach Mecca by land also generate income; as do the hotels and lodging companies that house them. The city takes in more than $100 million, while the Saudi government spends about $50 million on services for the Hajj. There are some industries and factories in the city, but Mecca no longer plays a major role in Saudi Arabia's economy, which is mainly based on oil exports. Mecca. World Book Encyclopedia. 2003 edition. Volume M. P.353 The few industries operating in Mecca include textiles, furniture, and utensils. The majority of the economy is service oriented. Water is scarce and food must be imported via Shu'eyba water plant and Jeddah. Nevertheless, many industries have been set up in Mecca. Various types of enterprises that have existed since 1970: corrugated iron manufacturing, copper smithies, carpentry shops, upholstering establishments, vegetable oil extraction plants, sweets manufacturies, flour mills, bakeries, poultry farms, frozen food importing, photography processing, secretarial establishments, ice factories, bottling plants for soft drinks, barber shops, book shops, travel agencies and banks. The city has grown substantially in the 20th and 21st centuries, as the convenience and affordability of jet travel has increased the number of pilgrims participating in the Hajj. Thousands of Saudis are employed year-round to oversee the Hajj and staff the hotels and shops that cater to pilgrims; these workers in turn have increased the demand for housing and services. The city is now ringed by freeways, and contains shopping malls and skyscrapers. Health care Health care is provided by the government. There are five hospitals in Mecca: Ajyad Hospital, King Abdul Aziz Hospital, Al Noor Hospital, Sheesha Hospital and Hira Hospital. There are also many walk-in clinics available for both residents and pilgrims. Culture Mecca's culture has been affected by the large number of pilgrims that arrive annually, and thus boasts a rich cultural heritage. The first press was brought to Mecca in 1885 by Osman Nuri Paşa, an Ottoman Wali. During the Hashemite period, it was used to print the city's official gazette, al-Ḳibla. The Saudi regime expanded this press into a larger operation, introducing the new Saudi official gazette Umm al-Ḳurā. Henceforth presses and printing techniques were introduced in the city from around the Middle East, mostly via Jeddah. Jeddah is served by one major Arabic-language newspaper, Shams. However, other Saudi and international newspapers are also provided in Mecca such as the Saudi Gazette, Medina, Okaz and Al-Bilad. The first three are Mecca's (and other Saudi cities') primary newspapers focusing mainly on issues that affect the city, with over a million readers. Many television stations serving the city area include Saudi TV1, Saudi TV2, Saudi TV Sports, Al-Ekhbariya, Arab Radio and Television Network and hundreds of cable, satellite and other speciality television providers. In pre-modern Mecca the most common sports were impromptu wrestling and foot races. Football is the most popular sport in Mecca, the city hosting some of the oldest sport clubs in Saudi Arabia such as, Al-Wehda FC (established in 1945). King Abdulaziz Stadium is the largest stadium in Mecca with capacity of 33,500. Religious significance The vast majority of Meccans are Sunni Muslims, with a minority of Shiite Pilgrims. Riyadh Newspaper - Friday 30 May 2003 No. 12761 Year 39 The Qur'an enjoins Muslims to face the sacred precincts of Mecca during the Salah. Initially though, the direction of the Qibla was toward the Al-Aqsa Mosque (Masjid al-Aqsa), Jerusalem (the First of the Two Qiblas). This tradition has roots in Muhammad's adoption of the Kaaba as a physical focus of the new Muslim community, and the direction of prayer, qibla, from the 7th century until the present day. The determination of this sacred direction gave rise to an important study in medieval Islam, distinct and separate from mainstream Islamic tradition of mathematical geography and cartography. "Makka - As the centre of the world", Encyclopaedia of Islam The cultural environment of today's Mecca has been influenced by a religious movement that began in central Arabia in the mid-18th century. This movement is commonly known as the Wahhabi movement. It has been also influenced by the Shafi`i school. Also, the conflict between liberals and religious scholars made a major impact on the Society of Mecca. The Kaaba is the site for many Islamic religious activities. Since the 7th century, Mecca has hosted millions of Muslim pilgrims from all over the world in their way to Hajj. This merge with pilgrims has also a major impact on the society and the religion of Meccans. Entry forbidden for Non-Muslims Non-Muslims are not permitted to enter Mecca by Saudi law. http://www.themiddleeastnow.com/saudioppression.html "Non-Muslim Bypass:" Non-Muslims are not permitted to enter Mecca.The Saudi government uses the following verse as a Qur’an confirmation for this law; however, there are other interpretations to this verse (in particular, People of the Book would usually not be regarded as pagans): Aslan, R. (2005). No God But God. Heinemann, UK. p.94 "O you who believe(in Allâh's Oneness and His Messenger Muhammad صلي الله عليه و سلم)! Verily, the Mushrikun(polytheists, pagans, idolaters, disbelievers in the Oneness of Allâh, and in the Message of Muhammad صلي الله عليه و سلم) are Najasun (impure). So let them not come near Al-Masjiadal-Harâm (at Makkah) after this year; and if you fear poverty, Allâh will enrich you if He wills, out of His Bounty. Surely, Allâh is All-Knowing, All-Wise." -- Qur’an, 9:28 The existence of cities closed to non-Muslims and the mystery of the Hajjs aroused intense curiosity in people from around the world. Some have disguised themselves as Muslims and entered the city of Mecca and then the Grand Mosque to experience the Hajj for themselves. The most famous account of a foreigner's journey to Mecca is A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, written by Sir Richard Francis Burton. Sir Richard Francis Burton: A Pilgrimage to Mecca, 1853 Burton traveled as a Qadiriyyah Sufi from Afghanistan; his name, as he signed it in Arabic below his frontispiece portrait for The Jew The Gypsy and El Islam was al-Hajj 'Abdullah. Individuals who use fake certificates of Muslim identity to enter may be arrested and prosecuted by Saudi authorities. Landmarks The Kaaba is the ancient stone building towards which all Muslims pray. Muslims believe that it dates back to the time of Abraham in 2000 BC. All pilgrims are required to walk counter-clockwise around the Kaaba seven times starting at the Black Stone, in a ritual called the Tawaf. Muslims believe that the Zamzam Well was revealed to Hagar (هاجر), mother of Ishmael. She was desperately seeking water for her infant son, but could find none. Mecca is located in a hot dry valley with few other sources of water. According to tradition, the water of the Zamzam well is divinely blessed. It is believed to satisfy both hunger and thirst, and cure illness. The water is served to the public through coolers stationed throughout the Masjid al-Haram and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina. Cuisine The Sagga Meccan residents are a mix of several different ethnicities and nationalities. This mixture of races has impacted significantly on Mecca's traditional cuisine. Like other Saudi cities, The Nejd Kabsa is the most traditional lunch for Meccans. The Yemeni Mandi is also popular as a lunch meal. Grilled meats such as shawarma, kofta and kebab have a good market in Mecca. During Ramadan, sambousak and ful are the most popular meals during dusk. These meals are almost always found in Lebanese, Syrian, and Turkish restaurants. During Ramadan also but long years ago, a slave man called Sagga used to provide mineral water for people during dusk. The Saggas also used to provide grape juice. Today, Saggas are rich businesspeople, providing sweets such as baklava and basbosa, along with juice. International food is also popular in the city. American chains such as McDonald's, Burger King, Domino's Pizza and KFC are popular. Language The Mecca City area has a distinctive regional speech pattern called the Hejazi dialect, alternatively known as Meccan or Makkawi. It is often considered to be one of the most recognizable accents within the Arabic language. The Hejazi dialect also contains fairly recent borrowings from other Arabic dialects, including Levantine and Egyptian Arabic. Pronunciations in Hejazi differ from other Gulf dialects in some respects. The Classical Arabic qaaf (ق) is pronounced as /g/ sound, as in "get". Hijazi Arabic is also conservative with respect to the sound of the pronunciation of the letter ğim (ج), which is very close to the two sounds considered, by specialists, to be the best candidates for the way it was pronounced in Classical Arabic, namely, the voiced palatal plosive /ɟ/ and the palatalized velar stop /gʲ/. This stands in contrast with many dialects in the region which use /g/ or /ʒ/ for ğim instead. Some speakers replace the interdental /θ/ with /t/ or /s/. Demographics Population density in Mecca is very high. Most long-term residents of Mecca live in the Old City, and many work in the industry known locally as the Hajj Industry. As Iyad Madani, Saudi Arabia's minister for Hajj was quoted as saying, "We never stop preparing for the Hajj." A new National Geographic Special on PBS "Inside Mecca" Year-round, pilgrims stream into the city to perform the rites of Umrah, and during the last weeks of Dhu al-Hijjah, on average 4 million Muslims arrive in the city to take part in the rites known as Hajj. Pilgrims are of different ethnicities and backgrounds, mainly from Africa, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe and the Middle East, of whom many have remained and become residents of the city. As a result, Mecca is much more ethnically diverse than most Saudi cities and its culture more eclectic in nature. Added to the traditional diversity, the oil-boom of the past 50 years has brought hundreds of thousands of working immigrants. Education Formal education started to be developed in late Ottoman period continuing slowly into and Hashimite times. The first major attempt to improve the situation was made by a Jeddah merchant, Muhammad ʿAlī Zaynal Riḍā, who founded the Madrasat al-Falāḥ in Mecca in 1911-12 that cost £400,000. The school system in Mecca has many public and private schools for both males and females. As of 2005, there were 532 public and private schools for males and another 681 public and private schools for female students. Statistical information department of the ministry of education:Statistical summary for education in Saudi Arabia (AR) The medium of instruction in both public and private schools is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language, but some private schools founded by foreign entities such as International schools use the English language for medium of instruction. They also allow the mixing between males and females while other schools do not. For higher education, the city has only one university, Umm Al-Qura University, which was established in 1949 as a college and became a public university in 1979. Communications Telecommunications in the city were emphasized early under the Saudi reign. King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (Ibn Saud) pressed them forward as he saw them as a means of convenience and better governance. While in King Husayn's time there were about 20 telephones in the entire city; in 1936 the number jumped to 450, totalling about half the telephones in the country. During that time telephone lines were extended to Jeddah and Ta’if, but not to the capital Riyadh. By 1985, Mecca, like other Saudi cities, possessed the most modern telephone, telex, radio and TV communications. "Makka - The Modern City", Encyclopaedia of Islam Limited radio communication was established within the Hejaz region under the Hashimites. In 1929, wireless stations were set up in various towns of the region, creating a network that would become fully functional by 1932. Soon after World War II, the existing network was greatly expanded and improved. Since then, radio communication has been used extensively in directing the pilgrimage and addressing the pilgrims. This practice started in 1950, with the initiation of broadcasts the Day of Arafat, and increased until 1957, at which time Radio Makka became the most powerful station in the Middle East at 50 kW. Later, power was increased to 450 kW. Music was not immediately broadcast, but gradually introduced. Transportation Transportation facilities related to the Hajj or Umrah are the main services available. Mecca has only the small Mecca East Airport with no airline service, so most pilgrims access the city through the Hajj terminal of King Abdulaziz International Airport or the Jeddah Seaport, both of which are in Jeddah. The city lacks any public transportation options for residents and visitors, both during and outside of the pilgrimage season. The main transportation options available for travel within and around the city are either personal vehicles or private taxis. Currently there is a metro system announced completed in 2011. 5 metro lines are planned for carrying pilgrims easier to the religious sites. It should be a system where the rolling stock is hanging on a two lane track above. Notes References Arc. "Mecca." Trifter.com. 18 Feb. 2009. <http://www.trifter.com/Asia-&-Pacific/Saudi-Arabia/Mecca.538297>. Encyclopedia Watt, W. Montgomery. "Makka - The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 6 June 2008 Winder, R.B. "Makka - The Modern City." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 6 June 2008 Further reading External links High Resolution Images of Mecca by Daawah.com Holy Makkah Municipality Official website (in Arabic) Saudi Information Resource - Holy Mecca Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al Madinah and Meccah, by Richard Burton be-x-old:Мэка | Mecca |@lemmatized mecca:116 also:26 spell:2 makkah:10 makka:7 full:2 al:34 mukarrama:1 holy:8 meeting:1 site:7 islamic:26 religion:2 culturally:1 city:66 modern:10 cosmopolitan:2 ethnically:2 diverse:2 http:3 news:2 bbc:2 co:1 uk:2 hi:1 stm:1 hoyle:1 ben:1 british:3 architect:1 change:1 face:3 time:11 november:5 fattah:1 hassan:1 pilgrim:26 bring:7 air:1 unlikely:1 new:8 york:1 january:2 tradition:7 attribute:1 beginning:1 ishmael:4 descendant:1 century:13 prophet:1 muhammad:19 proclaim:1 islam:16 important:9 trading:4 center:12 play:2 role:2 early:7 history:9 lead:5 local:7 sharifs:2 come:4 rule:1 saudi:47 microsoft:1 encarta:1 period:7 see:2 great:5 expansion:4 size:1 infrastructure:1 day:3 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6,811 | Mad_(magazine) | Mad is an American humor magazine founded by editor Harvey Kurtzman and publisher William Gaines in 1952. The last surviving title from the notorious and critically acclaimed EC Comics line, the magazine offers satire on all aspects of American life and pop culture, politics, entertainment, and public figures. Its format is divided into a number of recurring segments such as TV and movie parodies, as well as freeform articles. Mads mascot, Alfred E. Neuman, is typically the focal point of the magazine's cover, with his face often replacing a celebrity or character that is lampooned within the issue. Comics historian Tom Spurgeon picked Mad as the medium's top series of all time, writing, "At the height of its influence, MAD was The Simpsons, The Daily Show and The Onion combined." http://www.comicsreporter.com/index.php/cr_sunday_feature_the_top_ten_all_time_best_comics_series/ Graydon Carter chose it as the sixth best magazine of any sort ever, describing Mads mission as being "ever ready to pounce on the illogical, hypocritical, self-serious and ludicrous" before concluding, "Nowadays, it’s part of the oxygen we breathe." GOOD Magazine | Goodmagazine - The 51 Best* Magazines Ever- Words By Graydon Carter, GOOD magazine / Introduction By Bigshot Editor Graydon Carter Joyce Carol Oates called it "wonderfully inventive, irresistibly irreverent and intermittently ingenious American." Garner, Dwight; "Collateral Damage," The New York Times, July 17, 2007 Monty Python's Terry Gilliam wrote, "Mad became the Bible for me and my whole generation." Gilliam, Terry, Gilliam on Gilliam, Faber & Faber, 1999 Critic Roger Ebert wrote: I learned to be a movie critic by reading Mad magazine... Mad's parodies made me aware of the machine inside the skin—of the way a movie might look original on the outside, while inside it was just recycling the same old dumb formulas. I did not read the magazine, I plundered it for clues to the universe. Pauline Kael lost it at the movies; I lost it at Mad magazine. Foreword to Mad About the Movies, Mad Books, ISBN 1563894599 Rock singer Patti Smith said more succinctly, "After Mad, drugs were nothing." Neuman's Own - New York Times-By MAUD LAVIN Published: September 14, 2003 History The first issue of Mad. With issue 24 (July, 1955), Mad switched to a magazine format. The "extremely important message" was "Please buy this magazine!" Debuting in August 1952 (cover-dated October-November), Mad began as a comic book published by EC. Written almost entirely by Harvey Kurtzman, the first issue also featured illustrations by Kurtzman himself, along with Wally Wood, Will Elder, Jack Davis and John Severin. Wood, Elder and Davis were the three main illustrators throughout the 23-issue run of the book. After nine bi-monthly issues, Mad became a monthly with the April 1954 issue. In 1955, with issue 24, the comic book converted to magazine format. Kurtzman quit in 1956 and was replaced by Al Feldstein in issue #29. Feldstein would bring aboard staffers such as Don Martin, Frank Jacobs, Mort Drucker, Antonio Prohias, and Dave Berg. When Feldstein retired in 1984, he was replaced by the team of Nick Meglin and John Ficarra, who co-edited Mad for the next two decades. After Meglin retired in 2004, Ficarra continued to edit the magazine. Gaines sold his company in the early 1960s to the Kinney Parking Company, which would also acquire National Periodicals (aka DC Comics) and Warner Bros. by the end of that decade. Gaines was named a Kinney board member, and was largely permitted to run Mad as he saw fit without corporate interference. Markstein, Don. Toonopedia: Mad Following Gaines's death, Mad became more ingrained within the Time Warner corporate structure. Eventually, the magazine was obliged to abandon its long-time home at 485 Madison Avenue (printed as "MADison" Avenue in the masthead), and in the mid-1990s it moved into DC Comics' offices at the same time DC relocated to 1700 Broadway. In 2001, the magazine broke its long-standing taboo and began running advertising. The outside revenue allowed for the introduction of color printing and improved paper stock. Some black-and-white material, however, remains in each issue. In its earliest incarnation, new issues of the magazine appeared erratically, between four and seven times a year. By the end of 1958, Mad had settled on an unusual eight-times-a-year schedule, which lasted almost four decades. Gaines felt the atypical timing was necessary to maintain the magazine's level of quality. Mad then began producing additional issues, until it reached a traditional monthly schedule with the January 1997 issue. With its 500th issue (June 2009), amid company-wide cutbacks at Time Warner, the magazine regressed to a quarterly publication. George Gene Gustines. "Sad News for Mad Fans" The New York Times; January 23, 2009 Influence Though there are antecedents to Mad’s style of humor in print, radio and film, Mad became a pioneering example of it. Throughout the 1950s, Mad featured groundbreaking parodies combining a sentimental fondness for the familiar staples of American culture—such as Archie and Superman—with a keen joy in exposing the fakery behind the image. Its approach was described by Dave Kehr in The New York Times: Kehr, Dave. "When Unmanly Men Met Womanly Women," The New York Times, August 20, 2006. Bob and Ray, Kovacs and Freberg all became contributors to Mad. In 1977, Tony Hiss and Jeff Lewis wrote in The New York Times about the then 25-year-old publication's initial effect: The skeptical generation of kids it shaped in the 1950s is the same generation that in the 1960s opposed a war and didn't feel bad when the United States lost for the first time and in the 1970s helped turn out an Administration and didn't feel bad about that either... It was magical, objective proof to kids that they weren't alone, that in New York City on Lafayette Street, if nowhere else, there were people who knew that there was something wrong, phony and funny about a world of bomb shelters, brinkmanship and toothpaste smiles. Mads consciousness of itself, as trash, as comic book, as enemy of parents and teachers, even as money-making enterprise, thrilled kids. In 1955, such consciousness was possibly nowhere else to be found. In a Mad parody, comic-strip characters knew they were stuck in a strip. Darnold Duck, for instance, begins wondering why he has only three fingers and has to wear white gloves all the time. He ends up wanting to murder every other Disney character. G.I. Schmoe tries to win the sexy Asiatic broad by telling her, "O.K., baby! You're all mine! I gave you a chance to hit me witta gun butt... But naturally, you have immediately fallen in love with me, since I am a big hero of this story." Mike Lynch Cartoons: 1977 NY Times: 25 Years of Mad Magazine UPDATED Mad is often credited with filling a vital gap in political satire in the 1950s to 1970s, when Cold War paranoia and a general culture of censorship prevailed in the United States, especially in literature for teens. Activist Tom Hayden said, "My own radical journey began with Mad Magazine." Jan Herman. "MAD Magazine + Tom Hayden = SDS" The Huffington Post December 5, 2007 The rise of such factors as cable television and the Internet have diminished the influence and impact of Mad, although it remains a widely distributed magazine. In a way, Mads power has been undone by its own success: what was subversive in the 1950s and 1960s is now commonplace. However, its impact on three generations of humorists is incalculable, as can be seen in the frequent references to Mad on the animated series The Simpsons. Mad Collector Resource Center: On the Lighter Side Mads satiric net was cast wide. The magazine often featured parodies of ongoing American culture, including advertising campaigns, the nuclear family, the media, big business, education and publishing. In the 1960s and beyond, it satirized such burgeoning topics as the sexual revolution, hippies, the generation gap, psychoanalysis, gun control, pollution, the Vietnam War and recreational drug use. The magazine gave equal time, generally negative, to counterculture drugs such as cannabis and LSD, as well as towards mainstream drugs such as tobacco and alcohol. Mad always satirized Democrats as mercilessly as it did Republicans. It also ran a good deal of less-topical material on such varied subjects as fairy tales, nursery rhymes, greeting cards, sports, small talk, poetry, marriage, comic strips, awards shows, cars and many other areas of general interest. Absolutely Mad, Graphic Imaging Technology, 2006. In 2007, the Los Angeles Times''' Robert Boyd wrote, "All I really need to know I learned from Mad magazine", going on to assert: Plenty of it went right over my head, of course, but that's part of what made it attractive and valuable: Things that go over your head can make you raise your head a little higher. :The magazine instilled in me a habit of mind, a way of thinking about a world rife with false fronts, small print, deceptive ads, booby traps, treacherous language, double standards, half truths, subliminal pitches and product placements; it warned me that I was often merely the target of people who claimed to be my friend; it prompted me to mistrust authority, to read between the lines, to take nothing at face value, to see patterns in the often shoddy construction of movies and TV shows; and it got me to think critically in a way that few actual humans charged with my care ever bothered to. The Daily News Online > This Day > Born under a Mad sign In 1994, Brian Siano (The Humanist) discussed the eye-opening aspects of Mad: For the smarter kids of two generations, Mad was a revelation: it was the first to tell us that the toys we were being sold were garbage, our teachers were phonies, our leaders were fools, our religious counselors were hypocrites, and even our parents were lying to us about damn near everything. An entire generation had William Gaines for a godfather: this same generation later went on to give us the sexual revolution, the environmental movement, the peace movement, greater freedom in artistic expression, and a host of other goodies. Coincidence? You be the judge. "Tales from the Crypt: Comic Books and Censorship," The Skeptical Eye | Humanist | Find Articles at BNET.com Pulitzer Prize–winning art comics maven Art Spiegelman said, "The message Mad had in general is, 'The media is lying to you, and we are part of the media.' It was basically... 'Think for yourselves, kids.'" William Gaines offered his own view: when asked to cite Mads philosophy, his boisterous answer was, "We must never stop reminding the reader what little value they get for their money!" Supreme Court cases One of hundreds of Mad Magazine images that aggravated copyright holders, but were ultimately upheld in court. The magazine has been involved in various legal actions over the decades, some of which have reached the United States Supreme Court. The most far-reaching was Irving Berlin et al. v. E.C. Publications, Inc.. In 1961, a group of music publishers representing songwriters such as Irving Berlin, Richard Rodgers and Cole Porter filed a $25 million lawsuit against Mad for copyright infringement following "Sing Along With Mad," a collection of parody lyrics "sung to the tune of" many popular songs. The publishing group hoped to establish a legal precedent that only a song's composers retained the right to parody that song. The U.S. District Court ruled largely in favor of Mad in 1963, affirming its right to print 23 of the 25 song parodies under dispute. An exception was found in the cases of two parodies, "Always" (sung to the tune of "Always") and "There's No Business Like No Business" (sung to the tune of "There's No Business Like Show Business"). Relying on the same verbal hooks ("always" and "business"), these were found to be overly similar to the originals. The music publishers appealed the ruling, but the U.S. Court of Appeals not only upheld the pro-Mad decision in regard to the 23 songs, it stripped the publishers of their limited victory regarding the remaining two songs. The publishers again appealed, but the Supreme Court refused to hear it, thus allowing the decision to stand. Jacobs, Frank. The Mad World of William M. Gaines, Lyle Stuart, 1972. Judge's ruling in Irving Berlin et al. v. E.C. Publications, Inc. This precedent-setting case established the rights of parodists and satirists to mimic the meter of popular songs. However, the "Sing Along With Mad" songbook was not the magazine's first venture into musical parody. In 1960, Mad had published "My Fair Ad-Man," a full advertising-based spoof of the hit Broadway musical My Fair Lady. In 1959, "If Gilbert & Sullivan wrote Dick Tracy" was one of the speculative pairings in "If Famous Authors Wrote the Comics". Mad was one of several parties that filed "friend of the court" briefs with the Supreme Court in support of 2 Live Crew and its disputed song parody, during the 1993 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. case. http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/index.php?date=2008/03/07 In 1966, a series of copyright infringement lawsuits against the magazine regarding ownership of the Alfred E. Neuman image eventually reached the Supreme Court. New York's Federal Appellate Court had invalidated all previous copyrights, thus establishing Mads right to the character. This decision was also allowed to stand. Reidelbach, Maria. Completely Mad, New York: Little Brown, 1991. ISBN 0-316-73890-5 AdvertisingMad was long noted for its absence of advertising, enabling it to skewer the materialist culture without fear of reprisal. For decades, it was the most successful American magazine to publish ad-free, beginning with issue #33 (April 1957) and continuing through issue #402 (February 2001). As a comic book, Mad had run the same advertisements as EC's line, and the magazine later made a deal with Moxie soda that involved inserting the Moxie logo into various articles. Mad ran a limited number of ads in its first two years as a magazine, helpfully labeled "real advertisement" to differentiate the real from the parodies. The last authentic ad published under the original Mad regime was for Famous Artists School; two issues later, the inside front cover of issue #34 had a parody of the same ad. After this transitional period, the only promotions to appear in Mad for decades were house ads for Mads own books and specials, subscriptions, and promotional items such as ceramic busts, T-shirts, or a line of Mad jewelry. Mad explicitly promised that it would never make its mailing list available. Kurtzman and Feldstein wanted the magazine to solicit advertising, feeling this could be accomplished without compromising Mads content or editorial independence. Kurtzman remembered Ballyhoo, a boisterous 1930s humor publication that made an editorial point of mocking its own sponsors. Feldstein went so far as to propose an in-house Mad ad agency and produce a "dummy" copy of what an issue with ads could look like. But Bill Gaines was intractable, telling 60 Minutes, "We long ago decided we couldn't take money from Pepsi-Cola and make fun of Coca-Cola." Gaines' motivation in eschewing ad dollars was less philosophical than practical: "We'd have to improve our package. Most advertisers want to appear in a magazine that's loaded with color and has super-slick paper. So you find yourself being pushed into producing a more expensive package. You get bigger and fancier and attract more advertisers. Then you find you're losing some of your advertisers. Your readers still expect the fancy package, so you keep putting it out, but now you don't have your advertising income, which is why you got fancier in the first place—and now you're sunk." Recurring featuresMad is known for many regular and semi-regular recurring features in its pages, including "Spy vs. Spy", "The Lighter Side Of..." and its television and movie parodies. Alfred E. Neuman First cover appearance of Alfred E. Neuman The image most closely associated with the magazine is that of Alfred E. Neuman, the boy with misaligned eyes, a gap-toothed smile and the perennial motto "What, me worry?" Mad first used the boy's face in November, 1954, and his first iconic full-cover appearance, in which he was identified by name and sported his "What, me worry?" motto, was on the cover of issue #30 (December 1956). While the original image was a popular humorous graphic for many decades before Mad adopted it, the face is now permanently associated with Mad.Contributors and controversyMad has provided an ongoing showcase for many long-running satirical writers and artists and has fostered an unusual group loyalty. Although several of the contributors earn far more than their Mad pay in fields such as television and advertising, they have steadily continued to provide material for the publication. Toonopedia: Jack Davis Among the notable artists were the aforementioned Davis, Elder and Wood, as well as Mort Drucker, George Woodbridge and Paul Coker. Writers such as Dick DeBartolo, Stan Hart, Frank Jacobs, Tom Koch, and Arnie Kogen appeared regularly in the magazine's pages. In several cases, only infirmity or death has ended a contributor's run at Mad. Within the industry, Mad was known for the uncommonly prompt manner in which its contributors were paid. Publisher Gaines would typically write a personal check and give it to the artist upon receipt of the finished product. Wally Wood said, "I got spoiled... Other publishers don't do that. I started to get upset if I had to wait a whole week for my check." Another lure for contributors was the annual "Mad Trip," an all-expenses-paid tradition that began in 1960. The editorial staff was automatically invited, along with freelancers who had qualified for an invitation by selling a set amount of articles or pages during the previous year. Gaines was strict about enforcing this quota, and one year, longtime writer and frequent traveller Arnie Kogen was bumped off the list. Later that year, Gaines' mother died, and Kogen was asked if he would be attending the funeral. "I can't," said Kogen, "I don't have enough pages." Over the years, the Mad crew traveled to such locales as France, Kenya, Russia, Hong Kong, Monte Carlo, England, Amsterdam, Tahiti, Morocco, Italy, Greece, and Germany. Although Mad was an exclusively freelance publication, it achieved a remarkable stability, with numerous contributors remaining prominent for decades. http://journalism.nyu.edu/pubzone/bullpen/john_ficarra/backgrounder/ Critics of the magazine felt that this lack of turnover eventually led to a formulaic sameness, although there is little agreement on when the magazine peaked or plunged. It appears to be largely a function of when the reader first encountered Mad. Proclaiming the precise moment that began the magazine's irreversible decline has long been sport. Mad poked fun at the tendency of readers to accuse the magazine of declining in quality at various different points in its history, depending on the age of the critic, in its "Untold History of Mad Magazine," a self-referential faux history in the 400th issue. According to the Untold History: The second issue of Mad goes on sale on December 9, 1952. On December 11, the first-ever letter complaining that Mad "just isn't as funny and original like it used to be" arrives. Among the most frequently-cited "downward turning points" are: creator/editor Harvey Kurtzman's departure in 1957; the magazine's mainstream success; adoption of recurring features starting in the early 1960s; the magazine's absorption into a more corporate structure in 1968 (or the mid-1990s); founder Gaines' death in 1992; the magazine's publicized "revamp" in 1997; or the arrival of paid advertising in 2001. Mad has been criticized for its overreliance on a core group of aging regulars throughout the 1970s and 1980s and then criticized again for an alleged downturn as those same creators began to leave, die, retire or contribute less frequently. It has been proposed that Mad is more susceptible to this criticism than many media because a sizable percentage of its readership turns over regularly as it ages, as Mad focuses greatly on current events and a changing popular culture. The magazine's art director, Sam Viviano, has suggested that historically, Mad was at its best "whenever you first started reading it." Evanier, Mark, MAD Art, 2002, Watson-Guptill Publications, ISBN 0-8230-3080-6, pg. 216 Among the loudest of those who insist the magazine is no longer funny are supporters of Harvey Kurtzman, who had the good critical fortune to leave Mad after just 28 issues, before his own formulaic tendencies might have become oppressive. This also meant Kurtzman suffered the bad creative and financial timing of departing before the magazine became a runaway success. http://www.time.com/time/columnist/corliss/article/0,9565,633658-4,00.html However, just how much of that success was due to the original Kurtzman template that he left for his successor, and how much should be credited to the Al Feldstein system and the depth of the post-Kurtzman talent pool, can be argued without resolution. During Kurtzman's final two-plus years at EC, Mad appeared erratically (ten issues appeared in 1954, followed by eight issues in 1955 and four issues in 1956). Feldstein was less well regarded creatively, but kept the magazine on a regular schedule, leading to decades of success. (Kurtzman and Will Elder returned to Mad for a short time in the mid-1980s as an illustrating team.) Many of the magazine's mainstays began slowing, retiring or dying in the 1980s. Newer contributors who appeared in this period include Anthony Barbieri, Scott Bricher, Tom Bunk, John Caldwell, Desmond Devlin, Drew Friedman, Barry Liebmann, Kevin Pope, Scott Maiko, Hermann Mejia, Tom Richmond, Andrew J. Schwartzberg, Mike Snider, Greg Theakston, Rick Tulka and Bill Wray. On April 1, 1997, the magazine publicized an alleged "revamp," ostensibly designed to reach an older, more sophisticated readership. However, Salon 's David Futrelle opined that such content was very much a part of Mads past: The October 1971 issue, for example, with its war crimes fold-in and back cover "mini-poster" of "The Four Horsemen of the Metropolis" (Drugs, Graft, Pollution and Slums). With its Mad Pollution Primer. With its "Reality Street" TV satire, taking a poke at the idealized images of interracial harmony on Sesame Street. ("It's a street of depression,/ Corruption, oppression!/ It's a sadist's dream come true!/ And masochists, too!") With its "This is America" photo feature, contrasting images of heroic astronauts with graphic photos of dead soldiers and junkies shooting up. I remember this issue pretty well; it was one of the ones I picked up at a garage sale and read to death. I seem to remember asking my parents what "graft" was. One of the joys of Mad for me at the time was that it was always slightly over my head. From "Mad's Up-Dated Modern Day Mother Goose" I learned about Andy Warhol, Spiro Agnew and Timothy Leary ("Wee Timmy Leary/ Soars through the sky/ Upward and Upward/ Till he's, oh, so, high/ Since this rhyme's for kiddies/ How do we explain/ That Wee Timmy Leary/ Isn't in a plane?"). From "Greeting Cards for the Sexual Revolution" I learned about "Gay Liberationists" and leather-clad "Sex Fetishists." I read the Mad versions of a whole host of films I never in a million years would have been allowed to see: Easy Rider ("Sleazy Riders"), Midnight Cowboy ("Midnight Wowboy"), Five Easy Pieces ("Five Easy Pages.") I learned about the John Birch Society and Madison Avenue. Futrelle, David. "Son of Mad." Salon, April 8, 1997. Mad has continued to receive complaints from fans and foes alike, sometimes over its perceived failings, sometimes because of controversial content, but generally over its decision to accept advertising. These accusers sometimes invoke the late publisher Bill Gaines, asserting that he would "turn over in his grave" if he knew of the magazine's sellout. The editors have a ready answer, pointing out that such protests are completely invalid – because Gaines was cremated. Richmond, Tom. The Mad Blog: "Remembering William M. Gaines." Some of "The Usual Gang of Idiots"Mad is known for the stability and longevity of its talent roster, billed as "The Usual Gang of Idiots," with several creators enjoying 30-, 40- and even 50-year careers in the magazine's pages. According to the "Mad Magazine Contributor Appearances" website, close to 700 contributors have received bylines in at least one issue of Mad but fewer than three dozen of those have contributed to 200 issues or more. Slaubaugh, Mike; "Mad Magazine Contributor Appearances" Al Jaffee has appeared in the most issues (445 as of October 2008). The other six contributors to have appeared in more than 300 issues of Mad are Sergio Aragones, Dick DeBartolo, Mort Drucker, Dave Berg, Paul Coker Jr. and Frank Jacobs. (The list calculates appearances by issue only, not by separate articles; e.g. if two "Spy vs Spy" episodes by Prohias appeared in a given issue, his total would have increased by one.) Each of the following contributors (including those noted above) has created over 150 articles for the magazine: Writers: Dick DeBartolo Desmond Devlin Stan Hart Frank Jacobs Tom Koch Arnie Kogen Larry Siegel Lou Silverstone Mike Snider Writer-Artists: Sergio Aragones Dave Berg John Caldwell Don Edwing Al Jaffee Don Martin Paul Peter Porges Antonio Prohías Artists: Bob Clarke Paul Coker Jack Davis Mort Drucker Jack Rickard Angelo Torres Wally Wood George Woodbridge Photographer: Irving Schild The editorial staff, notably Charlie Kadau, John Ficarra and Joe Raiola, also have dozens of articles under their own bylines, as well as substantial creative input into many others. Other notable contributors Among the irregular contributors with just a single Mad byline to their credit are Charles M. Schulz, Chevy Chase, "Weird Al" Yankovic, Andy Griffith, Will Eisner, Kevin Smith, J. Fred Muggs, Boris Vallejo, Sir John Tenniel, Jean Shepherd, Winona Ryder, Thomas Nast, Jimmy Kimmel, Jason Alexander, Walt Kelly, Rep. Barney Frank, Tom Wolfe, Steve Allen, Jim Lee, Jules Feiffer, Donald Knuth, and Richard Nixon, who remains the only President credited with writing a Mad article. Slaubaugh, Mike; "Mad Magazine Contributor Appearances" Contributing just twice are such luminaries as Tom Lehrer, Gustave Doré, Danny Kaye, Stan Freberg, Mort Walker and Leonardo da Vinci. (Mr. da Vinci's check is still waiting in the Mad offices for him to pick it up.) Frank Frazetta (3 bylines), Ernie Kovacs (11), Bob and Ray (12), and Sid Caesar (4) appeared slightly more frequently. In its earliest years, before amassing its own staff of regulars, the magazine frequently used outside "name" talent. Often, Mad would simply illustrate the celebrities' preexisting material. In the 2000s, the magazine ran occasional guest articles in which notables from show business or comic books have participated. In 2008, the magazine got national coverage Mad Magazine Uses Pulitzer Winners to Tweak Bush - New York Times for its article "Why George W. Bush is in Favor of Global Warming." Each of the piece's ten punchlines was illustrated by a different Pulitzer Prize–winning editorial cartoonist. Reprints and foreign editions Beginning in 1955, William M. Gaines began presenting reprints of material for Mad in black-and-white paperbacks, the first being The Mad Reader. Many of these featured new covers by Mad cover artist Norman Mingo. This practice continued into the 2000s, with more than 100 Mad paperbacks published. Gaines made a special effort to keep the entire line of paperbacks in print at all times, and the books were frequently reprinted in new editions with different covers.Mad also frequently repackaged its material in a long series of "Super Special" format magazines, beginning in 1958 with two concurrent annual series entitled The Worst from Mad and More Trash from Mad. Various other titles have been used through the years. These reprint issues were sometimes augmented by exclusive features such as posters, stickers and, on a few occasions, recordings on flexi-disc, or comic book–formatted inserts reprinting material from the 1952–55 era. One steady form of revenue has come from foreign editions of the magazine. Mad has been published in local versions in many countries, beginning with the United Kingdom in 1959, and Sweden in 1960. Each new market receives access to the publication's back catalog of articles and is also encouraged to produce its own localized material in the Mad vein. However, the sensibility of the American Mad has not always translated to other cultures, and many of the foreign editions have had short lives or interrupted publications. The Swedish, Danish, Italian and Mexican Mads were each published on three separate occasions; Norway has had four runs cancelled. United Kingdom (35 years), Brazil (33 years), and the Netherlands (32 years) produced the longest uninterrupted Mad variants. Current foreign editions Germany, 1968–1995, 1998–present; Brazil, 1974–1983, 1984–2000, 2000-2006, 2008–present; Australia, 1980–present; South Africa, 1985–present; Hungary, 1997–present; Mexico, 2005–present; Spain, 2006–present; Finland, 1970–1972, 1982–2005, 2006–present Past foreign editions United Kingdom, 1959–1994; UK edition cover images; (read about MAD UK) Sweden, 1960–1992, 1996–2002; Germany, 1967–1995, 1998– Denmark, 1962–1971, 1979–1997, 1998–2002; Netherlands, 1964–1996; France, 1965, 1992; Canada (Quebec), 1991–1992 (Past material in a "collection album" with Croc, another Quebec humor magazine); Argentina, 1977–1982; Norway, 1971–1972, 1981–1993, 1995, 2002–2003; Italy, 1971, 1984, 1992; Mexico, 1977–1983, 1984–1986, 1993–1998; Caribbean, 1977–1983; Greece, 1978–1985, 1995–1999; Iceland, 1985; Taiwan, 1990; Israel, 1994–1995; Turkey, 2000–2003. Some of the foreign editions have spoofed material that is completely unfamiliar to American audiences, or is not in keeping with Mad's general avoidance of obscenity. An overseas example of both can be seen in the Swedish Mad parody of Fucking Åmål (known in English-speaking countries as Show Me Love). Cover of Swedish Mad #322 Mad Kids Between 2006-2009, the magazine published 14 issues of Mad Kids, a spinoff publication aimed at a younger demographic. Reminiscent of Nickelodeon's newsstand titles, it emphasized current kids' entertainment (i.e. Yu-Gi-Oh, Naruto, High School Musical), albeit with an impudent voice. Much of the content of Mad Kids had originally appeared in the parent publication; reprinted material was chosen and edited to reflect grade schoolers' interests. But the quarterly magazine also included newly-commissioned articles and cartoons, as well as puzzles, bonus inserts, a calendar, and the other activity-related content that is common to kids' magazines. MAD Kids - MAD Magazine Comics for Kids on KOL Imitators and variantsMad has had many imitators through the years. The three longest-lasting of these were Cracked, Sick, and Crazy. However, most were short-lived. Some of the early comic book competitors were "Nuts!" , "Get Lost", "Whack", "Riot", "Flip", "'Eh!", "From Here to Insanity", and "Madhouse"; only the last of these lasted as many as eight issues, and some were canceled after an issue or two. Many of these titles appeared in the mid-to-late 1950s, but as the decades went by, more imitators surfaced and vanished, with titles such as Wild, Blast, Parody, Grin and Gag!Most of these productions aped the format of Mad right down to choosing a synonym for the word Mad as their title. Many featured a cover mascot along the lines of Alfred E. Neuman. Even EC Comics joined the parade with a sister humor magazine, Panic, produced by future Mad editor Al Feldstein. In 1967, Marvel Comics produced the first of 13 issues of Not Brand Echh, which parodied their own superhero titles as well as DC's; the series owed its inspiration and format to the original "Mad" comic books of a decade earlier. From 1973–1976, DC Comics published Plop! which featured Mad stalwart Sergio Aragonés and frequent cover art by Basil Wolverton, but was less slavish in its Mad mimicry, relying more on one-page gags and horror-based comedy. Other U.S. humor magazines of note include former Mad editor Harvey Kurtzman's Humbug, Trump and Help!, as well as the National Lampoon, Spy Magazine, and The Onion. However, these titles had their own distinct editorial approach, and did not directly imitate Mad. Of all the competition, only the National Lampoon ever threatened Mad 's hegemony as America's top humor magazine, in the early-to-mid-1970s. However, this was also the period of Mad's greatest sales figures. Both magazines peaked in sales at the same time. The Lampoon topped one million sales once, for a single issue in 1974. Mad crossed the two-million mark with an average 1973 circulation of 2,059,236, then improved to 2,132,655 in 1974.<ref name=slau>[http://users.ipfw.edu/slaubau/madcirc.htm Slaubaugh, Mike; "Mad Magazine Circulation Figures"]</ref> Gaines reportedly kept in his office a voodoo doll into which he would stick pins labeled with each imitation of his magazine, removing a pin only when the copycat had ceased publishing. At the time of Gaines' death in 1992, only the pin for Cracked remained. Mouth Shut: "A Mad Look at Mad" Other media Over the years, Mad has branched out from print into other media. During the Gaines years, the publisher had an aversion to exploiting his fanbase and expressed the fear that substandard Mad products would offend them. He was known to personally issue refunds to anyone who wrote to the magazine with a complaint. Among the few outside Mad items available in its first 40 years were cufflinks, a T-shirt designed like a straitjacket (complete with lock), a small ceramic Alfred E. Neuman bust, and a picture of Neuman, suitable for framing, that was for decades regularly advertised on the letters page with misleading slogans such as "Only 1 Left!" (The joke being that the picture was so undesirable that only one had left their office since the last ad.) After Gaines' death came an overt absorption into the Time-Warner publishing umbrella, with the result that Mad merchandise began to appear more frequently. Items were displayed in the Warner Bros. Studio Stores, and in 1994 The Mad Style Guide was created for licensing use. Recordings Mad has sponsored or inspired a number of recordings. In 1959, Bernie Green "with the Stereo Mad-Men" recorded the album Musically Mad for RCA Victor, featuring music inspired by Mad and an image of Alfred E. Neuman on the cover Corliss, Richard; "That Old Feeling: What, Me Fifty?" ; time.com; December 31, 2002 ; it has been reissued on CD. That same year, The Worst from Mad #2 included an original recording, "Meet the Staff of Mad," on a cardboard 33 rpm record. Two additional albums of novelty songs were released in 1962–63: "Mad 'Twists' Rock 'N' Roll" and "Fink Along with Mad." The latter album featured a song titled "It's a Gas," which punctuated an instrumental track with belches (along with a saxophone break by an uncredited King Curtis). Dr. Demento featured this gaseous performance on his radio show in Los Angeles in the early 1970s. Mad included some of these tracks as plastic-laminated cardboard inserts and (later) flexi-discs with their reprinted "Mad Specials." A number of original recordings also were released in this way in the 1970s and early 1980s, such as "Gall in the Family Fare" (a parody of All in the Family), a single entitled "Makin' Out," the octuple-grooved track "It's a Super Spectacular Day," which had eight possible endings, the spoken word Meet the Staff insert, and a six-track, 30-minute Mad Disco EP (from the 1980 Special of the same title) that included a disco version of "It's a Gas." The last turntable-playable recording Mad packaged with its magazines was "A Mad Look at Graduation," in a 1983 Special. A CD-ROM containing several audio tracks was included with issue #350 (October 1996). Rhino Records compiled a number of Mad-recorded tracks as Mad Grooves (1996). MAD and Alfred E. Neuman FAQ at collectmad.com Stage show A successful off-Broadway production, The Mad Show, was staged in 1966, featuring sketches written by Mad personnel (as well as an uncredited assist by Stephen Sondheim). The cast album is available on CD. Gaming In 1979, a very successful board game was released. The Mad Magazine Game was an absurdist version of Monopoly in which the first player to lose all his money and go bankrupt was the winner. Profusely illustrated with artwork by the magazine's contributors, the game included a $1,329,063-bill that could not be won unless one's name was "Alfred E. Neuman." It also featured a deck of cards (called "Card cards") with bizarre instructions, such as "If you can jump up and stay airborne for 37 seconds, you can lose $5,000. If not, jump up and lose $500." In 1980 a second game was released: the Mad Magazine Card Game by Parker Brothers. In it, the player who first loses all their cards is declared the winner. The game is fairly similar to UNO by Mattel. Film and television Also in 1980, following the success of the National Lampoon–backed Animal House, Mad lent its name to a similar risque comedy film, Up the Academy. It was such a commercial debacle and critical failure that Mad successfully arranged for all references to the magazine (including a cameo by Alfred E. Neuman) to be removed from future TV and video releases of the film. Mad also devoted two pages to an attack on the movie, titled Throw Up the Academy. The spoof's ending collapsed into a series of interoffice memos between the writer, artist, editor and publisher, all bewailing the fact that they'd been forced to satirize such a terrible film. An early 1970s Mad television pilot using selected material from the magazine was not picked up. In 1995, a sketch TV show produced by Quincy Jones using the magazine's logo and characters debuted: MADtv, which aired comedy segments in a fashion similar to Saturday Night Live and SCTV. However, there is no editorial connection between the sketch comedy series and the magazine, which are unrelated in style. Don Martin's cartoon characters and the "Spy vs. Spy" cartoons were animated as bumpers during the show's early years. "Spy vs. Spy" sequences have also been seen in TV ads for Mountain Dew soda. Computer software In the 1980s, three Spy vs. Spy computer games, in which players could set traps for each other, were made for various computer systems such as the Commodore 64. While the original game took place in a nondescript building, the sequels transposed the action to a polar setting and a desert island. In 1996, Mad #350 included a CD-ROM featuring Mad-related software as well as three audio files. "Mad CD Bytes: Mad Bungles Bundle with Release of First CD-ROM: 27 Megabytes of Dubious Material in PC-Only Format", idio, September 18, 1996. In 1999, Broderbund Software/The Learning Company released Totally Mad, a Microsoft Windows 95/98 compatible CD-ROM set collecting the magazine's content from #1 through #376 (December 1998), plus over 100 Mad Specials including most of the recorded audio inserts, thus becoming one of the first magazines to make a comprehensive archival release available in digital form (others such as National Geographic, Rolling Stone and The New Yorker have done the same). The seven discs of Totally Mad were divided chronologically, from "The Earliest Years: 1952–1960" and "The Early Years, but Not the Earliest: 1961–1968" through "The RELATIVELY Late, but not as Late as, the Latest Years: 1988–1994" and "The Latest Years: 1995–1998." The product's "Totally" claim was misleading, since it omitted a handful of articles due to problems clearing the rights on some book excerpts and text taken from recordings, such as Andy Griffith's "What It Was, Was Football." Some of this deleted material can be viewed at Collect Mad. "Articles Mysteriously Missing from the Totally Mad CD ROM" In 2006, Graphic Imaging Technology's DVD-ROM Absolutely Mad updated the original Totally Mad content through 2005. A single seven-gigabyte disc, it includes more than 600 issues and specials, and is missing the same deleted material from the 1999 collection. It differs from the earlier release in that it is Macintosh compatible. All the printed content can be read on any platform for which a PDF viewer is available, whereas Totally Mad had used a special viewer program that was compatible only with Microsoft Windows. Absolutely Mad also includes numerous video clips including interviews with the editorial staff, several "Spy vs. Spy" segments from MADtv and the "Spy vs. Spy" Mountain Dew commercials. It is missing the audio music files that had been included on Totally Mad. See also List of Mad Magazine Issues List of Mad's movie spoofs List of Mad's TV shows spoofs Studio cards MADtv It's A Super-Spectacular Day - a novelty record released with the Summer 1980 issue 43-Man Squamish Notes References Evanier, Mark, Mad Art, Watson Guptil Publications, 2002, ISBN 0-8230-3080-6 Reidelbach, Maria, Completely Mad, Little Brown, 1991, ISBN 0-316-73890-5 External links Official Mad website at dccomics.com, with: The magazine's own semi-spurious "Untold History of Mad Magazine" 50th anniversary poster featuring over 100 "Usual Gang of Idiots" caricatures Lists of all-time contributor totals, covers by artist, circulation figures and more MADkids website Origins of Alfred E. Neuman Mad at the FBI Official German Mad Magazine Website NCS Awards Daniel Pinkwater: "On First Looking into Kurtzman's Mad | Mad_(magazine) |@lemmatized mad:184 american:8 humor:7 magazine:91 found:1 editor:7 harvey:5 kurtzman:15 publisher:10 william:6 gaines:23 last:7 surviving:1 title:11 notorious:1 critically:2 acclaim:1 ec:5 comic:21 line:6 offer:2 satire:3 aspect:2 life:2 pop:1 culture:7 politics:1 entertainment:2 public:1 figure:4 format:8 divide:2 number:5 recur:4 segment:3 tv:7 movie:9 parody:18 well:11 freeform:1 article:15 mads:11 mascot:2 alfred:12 e:16 neuman:14 typically:2 focal:1 point:5 cover:16 face:4 often:6 replace:3 celebrity:2 character:6 lampoon:5 within:3 issue:45 historian:1 tom:10 spurgeon:1 pick:4 medium:7 top:3 series:8 time:29 write:12 height:1 influence:3 simpson:2 daily:2 show:12 onion:2 combine:2 http:5 www:2 comicsreporter:1 com:6 index:2 php:2 graydon:3 carter:3 choose:3 sixth:1 best:3 sort:1 ever:6 describe:2 mission:1 ready:2 pounce:1 illogical:1 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6,812 | Lunar_calendar | A lunar calendar is a calendar that is based on cycles of the moon phase. The only widely used purely lunar calendar is the Islamic calendar or Hijri calendar, whose year always consists of 12 lunar months. A feature of a purely lunar year, on the Islamic calendar model, is that the calendar ceases to be linked to the seasons, and drifts each year by 11 days (or 12 days in case of leap year), and comes back to the position it had in relation to the solar year approximately every 33 Islamic years. It is used predominantly for religious purposes. In Saudi Arabia it is also used for commercial purposes. Most lunar calendars, except the Hijri, are in fact lunisolar calendars. That is, months are kept on a lunar cycle, but then intercalary months are added to bring the lunar cycles into synchronisation with the solar year. Because there are about twelve lunations (synodic months) in a solar year, this period (354.37 days) is sometimes referred to as a lunar year. Lunisolar calendars Most lunar calendars are, in fact, lunisolar; such as the Chinese, Hebrew, and Hindu calendars, and most calendar systems used in antiquity. All these calendars have a variable number of months in a year. The reason for this is that a year is not evenly divisible by an exact number of lunations, so without the addition of intercalary months the seasons would drift each year. This results in a thirteen-month year every two or three years. Some lunar calendars are calibrated by annual natural events which are affected by lunar cycles as well as the solar cycle. An example of this is the lunar calendar of the Banks Islands which includes three months in which the edible palolo worm mass on the beaches. These events occurs at the last quarter of the lunar month, as the reproductive cycle of the palolos is synchronised with the moon. R.H.Codrington. The Melanesians: Their anthropology and folklore (1891) Oxford, Clarendon Press Start of the lunar month Lunar calendars differ as to which day is the first day of the year. For some lunar calendars, such as the Chinese calendar, the first day of a month is the day when an eclipse moon appears in a particular time zone. Many other lunar calendars are based on the first sighting of a lunar crescent. Length of the lunar month The length of a month orbit/cycle is difficult to predict and varies from its average value. Because observations are subject to uncertainty and weather conditions, and astronomical methods are highly complex, there have been attempts to create fixed arithmetical rules. The average length of the synodic month is 29.530589 days. This means the length of a month is alternately 29 and 30 days (termed respectively hollow and full). It takes this long to complete a single revolution round the earth. Robinson, Neal. Islam; A Concise Introduction. Richmond; Curzon Press. 1999 The distribution of hollow and full months can be determined using continued fractions, and examining successive approximations for the length of the month in terms of fractions of a day. In the list below, after the number of days listed in the numerator, an integer number of months as listed in the denominator have been completed: 29 / 1 (error: 1 day after about 2 months) 30 / 1 (error: 1 day after about 2 months) 59 / 2 (error: 1 day after about 33 months) 443 / 15 (error: 1 day after about 30 years) 502 / 17 (error: 1 day after about 70 years) 1447 / 49 (error: 1 day after about 3 millennia) 25101 / 850 (error: dependent on change of synodic month value) These fractions can be used in the construction of lunar calendars, or in combination with a solar calendar to produce a lunisolar calendar. The 49-month cycle was proposed as the basis of an alternative Easter computation by Isaac Newton around 1700 Reform of the Julian Calendar as Envisioned by Isaac Newton by Ari Belenkiy and Eduardo Vila Echagüe (pdf); Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London (vol 59, no 3, pp. 223-254). . The tabular Islamic calendar's 360-month cycle is equivalent to 24×15 months minus a correction of one day. Old English 13-month lunar year In England, a calendar of thirteen months of 28 days each, plus one extra day, known as "a year and a day" was still in use up to Tudor times. This would be a hybrid calendar that had substituted regular weeks of seven days for actual quarter-lunations, so that one month had exactly four weeks, regardless of the actual moon phase. The "lunar year" is here considered to have 364 days, resulting in a solar year of "a year and a day". As a religious tradition, the thirteen-month years survived among European peasants for more than a millennium after the adoption of the Julian Calendar and now the Gregorian Calendar. The "Edwardian" (probably Edward II, late 13th or early 14th century) ballad of Robin Hood for example has "How many merry months be in the year? / There are thirteen, I say ...", amended by a Tudor editor to "...There are but twelve, I say....". Robert Graves in the introductions to Greek Myths comments on this with "Thirteen, the number of the sun's death-month, has never lost its evil reputation among the superstitious." Even in the late 20th century, British financial institutions were still administering lunar mortgages, requiring an annual adjustment. See also Tabular Islamic Calendar Computus Celtic calendar New Era Epact - length of time representing the difference between the lunar and solar years Jose Arguelles Harmonic Convergence References External links Lunar calendar and eclipse predictor Moon calendar for 1200 different places in the world - years AD 1000 to 4000 Google Gadget - Lunar Calendar for different places in the world Lunar calendar in English Examples of some lunar calendars, including the Ba Ila and Banks Islands calendars | Lunar_calendar |@lemmatized lunar:28 calendar:37 base:2 cycle:9 moon:5 phase:2 widely:1 use:7 purely:2 islamic:5 hijri:2 whose:1 year:26 always:1 consist:1 month:31 feature:1 model:1 cease:1 link:2 season:2 drift:2 day:24 case:1 leap:1 come:1 back:1 position:1 relation:1 solar:7 approximately:1 every:2 predominantly:1 religious:2 purpose:2 saudi:1 arabia:1 also:2 commercial:1 except:1 fact:2 lunisolar:4 keep:1 intercalary:2 add:1 bring:1 synchronisation:1 twelve:2 lunation:3 synodic:3 period:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 chinese:2 hebrew:1 hindu:1 system:1 antiquity:1 variable:1 number:5 reason:1 evenly:1 divisible:1 exact:1 without:1 addition:1 would:2 result:2 thirteen:5 two:1 three:2 calibrate:1 annual:2 natural:1 event:2 affect:1 well:1 example:3 bank:2 island:2 include:2 edible:1 palolo:1 worm:1 mass:1 beach:1 occur:1 last:1 quarter:2 reproductive:1 palolos:1 synchronise:1 r:1 h:1 codrington:1 melanesians:1 anthropology:1 folklore:1 oxford:1 clarendon:1 press:2 start:1 differ:1 first:3 eclipse:2 appear:1 particular:1 time:3 zone:1 many:2 sighting:1 crescent:1 length:6 orbit:1 difficult:1 predict:1 varies:1 average:2 value:2 observation:1 subject:1 uncertainty:1 weather:1 condition:1 astronomical:1 method:1 highly:1 complex:1 attempt:1 create:1 fixed:1 arithmetical:1 rule:1 mean:1 alternately:1 term:2 respectively:1 hollow:2 full:2 take:1 long:1 complete:2 single:1 revolution:1 round:1 earth:1 robinson:1 neal:1 islam:1 concise:1 introduction:2 richmond:1 curzon:1 distribution:1 determine:1 continued:1 fraction:3 examine:1 successive:1 approximation:1 list:3 numerator:1 integer:1 denominator:1 error:7 millennium:2 dependent:1 change:1 construction:1 combination:1 produce:1 propose:1 basis:1 alternative:1 easter:1 computation:1 isaac:2 newton:2 around:1 reform:1 julian:2 envision:1 ari:1 belenkiy:1 eduardo:1 vila:1 echagüe:1 pdf:1 note:1 record:1 royal:1 society:1 london:1 vol:1 pp:1 tabular:2 equivalent:1 minus:1 correction:1 one:3 old:1 english:2 england:1 plus:1 extra:1 know:1 still:2 tudor:2 hybrid:1 substitute:1 regular:1 week:2 seven:1 actual:2 exactly:1 four:1 regardless:1 consider:1 tradition:1 survive:1 among:2 european:1 peasant:1 adoption:1 gregorian:1 edwardian:1 probably:1 edward:1 ii:1 late:2 early:1 century:2 ballad:1 robin:1 hood:1 merry:1 say:2 amend:1 editor:1 robert:1 graf:1 greek:1 myths:1 comment:1 sun:1 death:1 never:1 lose:1 evil:1 reputation:1 superstitious:1 even:1 british:1 financial:1 institution:1 administer:1 mortgage:1 require:1 adjustment:1 see:1 computus:1 celtic:1 new:1 era:1 epact:1 represent:1 difference:1 jose:1 arguelles:1 harmonic:1 convergence:1 reference:1 external:1 predictor:1 different:2 place:2 world:2 ad:1 google:1 gadget:1 ba:1 ila:1 |@bigram saudi_arabia:1 lunisolar_calendar:3 intercalary_month:2 synodic_month:3 evenly_divisible:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 continued_fraction:1 isaac_newton:2 julian_calendar:2 gregorian_calendar:1 robin_hood:1 external_link:1 |
6,813 | Cairn | One of many cairns marking British mass graves at the site of the Battle of Isandlwana. A cairn (carn in Irish, carnedd in Welsh, càrn in Scots Gaelic) is a manmade pile of stones, often in a conical form. They are usually found in uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops or near waterways. Purpose In modern times cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient times they were erected as sepulchral monuments, or used for practical and astronomical uses. They are built for several purposes: They may mark a burial site, and may memorialize the dead. They may mark the summit of a mountain. Placed at regular intervals, they indicate a path across stony or barren terrain or across glaciers. The Inuit erect human-shaped cairns, or inunnguaq as milestones or directional markers in the Canadian Arctic. In North America, cairns may mark buffalo jumps or "drive lanes." In North America, cairns may be used for astronomy. In Norse Greenland, cairns were used as a hunting implement to direct reindeers towards cliffs Arneborg 2004 In the Canadian Maritimes cairns were used as lighthouse-like holders for fires that guided boats, as in the novel The Shipping News. In North America, cairns are often petroforms in the shapes of turtles or other animals. In the United Kingdom, they are often large Bronze Age structures which frequently contain burial cists In parks exhibiting fantastic rock formations, such as the Grand Canyon, tourists often construct simple cairns in reverence of the larger counterparts. They may have a strong aesthetic purpose, for example in the art of Andy Goldsworthy. They may be used to commemorate events: anything from a battle site, to the place where a cart tipped over. Some are merely places where farmers have collected stones removed from a field. They vary from loose, small piles of stones to elaborate feats of engineering. In some places, games are regularly held to find out who can build the most beautiful cairn. Cairns along hiking trails are often maintained by groups of hikers adding a stone when they pass. History The word derives from the Scottish Gaelic (and Irish) càrn which has a much broader meaning, and can refer to various types of hills and natural stone piles. The term tends to be used most frequently in reference to Scotland, but is used elsewhere. Cairns can be found all over the world in alpine or mountainous regions, and also in barren desert and tundra areas as well as on coasts. A cairn to mark the summit of a mountain. Starting in the Bronze Age, cists were sometimes interred into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased. The stones may have been thought to deter grave robbers and scavengers. A more sinister explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising. It is noteworthy that there is a Jewish tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave whenever you visit, as a token of respect. (Flowers are not usually placed on graves in the Orthodox Jewish tradition.) Stupas in India and Tibet etc. probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a Buddhist saint or lama. In Scotland, it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of the hill to place on a cairn. In such a fashion, cairns would grow ever larger. An old Scots Gaelic blessing is Cuiridh mi clach air do chàrn, i.e. 'I'll put a stone on your cairn'. In the Faroe Islands (which are plagued by frequent fogs and heavy rain, and have some of the highest seacliffs in the world) cairns are a common navigational marker over rugged and hilly terrain. In North Africa, they are sometimes called kerkour. Cairns are also common on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. A cairn marking the peak of Bald Mountain, Adirondacks. Today, cairns are often used to mark hiking trails or cross-country routes in mountain regions at or above the tree line. Most are small, a foot or less in height, but a few are built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow. A large cairn was built atop a hill next to I-476 in Radnor, Pennsylvania, to symbolize the area's Welsh origins and to beautify the visual imagery along the highway. Radnor Township website, Gateway Enhancement Strategy It is traditional for each person passing by a cairn to add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the destructive effects of severe winter weather. Often the habit is to only add to the top, and to use a smaller stone than the previous top stone, resulting in a precarious stack of tiny pebbles. In Scandinavia, cairns are still used as sea marks. They are indicated in navigation charts and maintained as part of the marking system. To increase visibility they are usually painted white. Scotland and Ireland The Duan Eireanach, an ancient Irish poem, describes the erection of a family cairn; and the Senchus Mor, a collection of early Irish laws, prescribes a fine of three three-year-old heifers for "not erecting the tomb of thy chief." Meetings of the tribes were held at them, and the inauguration of a new chief took place on the cairn of one of his predecessors. It is mentioned in the Annals of the Four Masters that, in 1225, the O'Connor was inaugurated on the cairn of Fraech, the son of Fiodhach of the red hair. In medieval times cairns are often referred to as boundary marks, though probably not originally raised for that purpose. In a charter by King Alexander II of Scots (1221), granting the lands of Burgyn to the monks of Kinloss, the boundary is described as passing "from the great oak in Malevin as far as the Rune Pictorum", which is explained as "the Carne of the Pecht's fieldis." In Scottish Highland districts small cairns used to be erected—even in recent times—at places where the coffin of a distinguished person was "rested" on its way to the churchyard. Memorial cairns are still occasionally erected, as, for instance, the cairn raised in memory of the prince consort at Balmoral, and "Maule's Cairn", in Glenesk, erected by the earl of Dalhousie in 1866, in memory of himself and certain friends specified by name in the inscription placed upon it. Cairns as people Inuksuit at the Foxe Peninsula (Baffin Island), Canada The practice is common in English, cairns are sometimes referred to by their anthropomorphic qualities. In German and Dutch, a cairn is known as Steinmann and Stenenman respectively, meaning literally "stone man". A form of the Inuit inukshuk is also meant to represent a human figure, and is called an inunguak ("imitation of a person"). In Italy, especially the Italian Alps, a cairn is an "Ometto", or a "small man". Other names and traditions In some regions, piles of rocks used to mark hiking trails are called "ducks" or "duckies". These are typically smaller cairns, so named because some would have a "beak" pointing in the direction of the route. An expression "two rocks do not make a duck" reminds hikers that just one rock resting upon another could be the result of accident or nature rather than intentional trail marking. The Finnish name for a cairn used as sea mark is "kummeli" which is derived from the Swedish word "kummel". A traditional heap-like stone structure similar to a cairn is called ovoo in Mongolia. It primarily serves religious purposes, and finds use in both Tengriist and Buddhist ceremonies. In areas of ancient Dalmatia, as Herzegovina and Krajina, they are known by the Serbian word gromila. Cairns in legend Cairns in Sedona, Arizona, USA, where New Agers claim they mark "vortices" In the mythology of ancient Greece, cairns were associated with Hermes, the god of overland travel. According to one legend, Hermes was put on trial by Hera for slaying her favorite servant, the monster Argus. All of the other gods acted as a jury, and as a way of declaring their verdict they were given pebbles, and told to throw them at whichever person they deemed to be in the right, Hermes or Hera. Hermes argued so skillfully that he ended up buried under a heap of pebbles, and this was the first cairn. Sea cairns Similar structures can be found in water, especially in Scandinavia (there called kuml or kummel), often for the purposes of navigation (sea marks). They are indicated in navigation charts and maintained as part of the marking system. To increase visibility they are usually painted white. In English, however, structures in/below water are not generally called "cairns". See also Cairn Terrier Cist Chambered cairn Clava cairn Court cairn Dolmen Hörgr Inukshuk Kerb Kurgan Ovoo Petroforms Stele Stupa Tumulus References External links Pretanic World - Chart of Neolithic, Bronze Age and Celtic Stone Structures Notes On Building A Cairn (pdf), by Dave Goulder for the DSWA, Dry Stone Walling Association of Great Britain. Practical notes to help those embarking on a cairn-building project. Stories as cairns in life (LifeCairn). | Cairn |@lemmatized one:4 many:1 cairn:51 mark:13 british:1 mass:1 graf:2 site:3 battle:2 isandlwana:1 carn:1 irish:4 carnedd:1 welsh:2 càrn:2 scot:3 gaelic:3 manmade:1 pile:4 stone:16 often:11 conical:1 form:2 usually:4 find:5 upland:1 moorland:1 mountaintops:1 near:1 waterway:1 purpose:6 modern:1 time:4 erect:7 landmark:1 ancient:4 sepulchral:1 monument:1 use:14 practical:2 astronomical:1 us:1 build:5 several:1 may:8 burial:2 memorialize:1 dead:2 summit:2 mountain:4 place:10 regular:1 interval:1 indicate:3 path:1 across:2 stony:1 barren:2 terrain:2 glacier:1 inuit:2 human:2 shaped:1 inunnguaq:1 milestone:1 directional:1 marker:2 canadian:2 arctic:1 north:4 america:3 buffalo:1 jump:1 drive:1 lane:1 astronomy:1 norse:1 greenland:1 hunt:1 implement:1 direct:1 reindeer:1 towards:1 cliff:1 arneborg:1 maritimes:1 lighthouse:1 like:2 holder:1 fire:1 guide:1 boat:1 novel:1 shipping:1 news:1 petroforms:2 shape:1 turtle:1 animal:1 united:1 kingdom:1 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eireanach:1 poem:1 describe:2 erection:1 family:1 senchus:1 mor:1 collection:1 early:1 law:1 prescribe:1 fine:1 three:2 year:1 heifer:1 tomb:1 thy:1 chief:2 meeting:1 tribe:1 inauguration:1 new:2 take:1 predecessor:1 mention:1 annals:1 four:1 master:1 connor:1 inaugurate:1 fraech:1 son:1 fiodhach:1 red:1 hair:1 medieval:1 boundary:2 though:1 originally:1 raise:2 charter:1 king:1 alexander:1 ii:1 grant:1 land:1 burgyn:1 monk:1 kinloss:1 great:2 oak:1 malevin:1 far:1 rune:1 pictorum:1 explain:1 carne:1 pecht:1 fieldis:1 highland:1 district:1 even:1 recent:1 coffin:1 distinguished:1 rest:2 way:2 churchyard:1 memorial:1 occasionally:1 instance:1 memory:2 prince:1 consort:1 balmoral:1 maule:1 glenesk:1 earl:1 dalhousie:1 certain:1 friend:1 specify:1 name:4 inscription:1 upon:2 cairns:2 people:1 inuksuit:1 foxe:1 peninsula:1 baffin:1 canada:1 practice:1 english:2 anthropomorphic:1 quality:1 german:1 dutch:1 know:2 steinmann:1 stenenman:1 respectively:1 mean:2 literally:1 man:2 inukshuk:2 represent:1 figure:1 inunguak:1 imitation:1 italy:1 especially:2 italian:1 alp:1 ometto:1 hiking:1 duck:2 ducky:1 typically:1 beak:1 point:1 direction:1 expression:1 two:1 make:1 remind:1 another:1 could:1 accident:1 nature:1 rather:1 intentional:1 finnish:1 kummeli:1 swedish:1 kummel:2 heap:2 ovoo:2 mongolia:1 primarily:1 serve:1 religious:1 tengriist:1 ceremony:1 dalmatia:1 herzegovina:1 krajina:1 serbian:1 gromila:1 legend:2 sedona:1 arizona:1 usa:1 agers:1 claim:1 vortex:1 mythology:1 greece:1 associate:1 hermes:4 god:2 overland:1 travel:1 accord:1 trial:1 hera:2 slay:1 favorite:1 servant:1 monster:1 argus:1 act:1 jury:1 declare:1 verdict:1 give:1 tell:1 throw:1 whichever:1 deem:1 right:1 argue:1 skillfully:1 end:1 bury:1 first:1 water:2 kuml:1 however:1 see:1 terrier:1 cist:1 chamber:1 clava:1 court:1 dolmen:1 hörgr:1 kerb:1 kurgan:1 stele:1 tumulus:1 external:1 link:1 pretanic:1 neolithic:1 celtic:1 note:2 pdf:1 dave:1 goulder:1 dswa:1 dry:1 wall:1 association:1 britain:1 help:1 embark:1 building:1 project:1 story:1 life:1 lifecairn:1 |@bigram battle_isandlwana:1 scot_gaelic:2 hike_trail:2 scottish_gaelic:1 barren_desert:1 faroe_island:1 hilly_terrain:1 scottish_highland:1 peninsula_baffin:1 baffin_island:1 hiking_trail:1 external_link:1 neolithic_bronze:1 |
6,814 | Free-running_sleep | Free-running sleep experiments can involve any organism which sleeps. Freerunning sleep is sleep which is not adjusted, entrained, to the 24-hour cycle in nature nor to any artificial cycle. Such experiments are used in the study of circadian and other rhythms in biology. Subjects are shielded from all time cues, often by a constant light protocol, by a constant dark protocol or by the use of light/dark conditions to which the organism cannot entrain such as the ultrashort protocol of one hour dark and two hours light. Also, limited amounts of food can be made available at short intervals so as to avoid entrainment to mealtimes. Subjects are thus forced to live by their internal circadian "clocks". The individual's or animal's circadian phase can be known only by the monitoring of some kind of output of the circadian system, the internal "body clock". The researcher can precisely determine, for example, the daily cycles of gene-activity, body temperature, blood pressure, hormone secretion and/or sleep and activity/alertness. Alertness in humans can be determined by many kinds of verbal and non-verbal tests; activity in animals by observation, for example of wheel-running in rodents. When animals or people freerun, experiments can be done to see what sort of signals, known as zeitgeber, are effective in entrainment. Also, much work has been done to see how long or short a circadian cycle the different organisms can be entrained to. For example, some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day. In recent studies funded by the U.S. space industry, it has been shown that most humans can be entrained to a 23.5 hour day and to a 24.65 hour day. The effect of unintended time cues is called masking. If morning rush traffic can be heard from outside, if researchers or maintenance staff appear at the same time each day, an experiment can be ruined by masking. Free-running in humans Non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome, also referred to as free running disorder (FRD) or Non-24, is one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders in humans. It affects more than half of people who are totally blind (clinically known as NLP, no light perception) and a small number of sighted individuals. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine Review: Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders: Part II, Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder, Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder, Free-Running Disorder, and Irregular Sleep-Wake Rhythm. PDF, 18 pages. November 2007. Among blind people, the cause is the inability to register, and therefore to entrain to, light cues. The many blind people who do entrain to the 24-hour light/dark cycle have eyes with functioning retinas including operative non-visual light-sensitive cells. These ganglion cells, which contain melanopsin, convey their signals to the "circadian clock" via the retinohypothalamic tract (not the optic nerve), linking the retina to the pineal gland. Among sighted individuals, FRD usually first appears in the teens or early twenties. As with delayed sleep-phase disorder (DSPS or DSPD), in the absence of neurological damage due to trauma or stroke, cases almost never appear after the age of 30. FRD affects many more sighted males than sighted females. A quarter of sighted individuals with FRD also have an associated psychiatric condition, and a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS. The term free-running sleep has occasionally been used by non-scientists to indicate intentional facilitation of the natural sleep/wake cycle. In this context, free-running sleep means that a person chooses to sleep when sleepy and to awaken spontaneously (specifically without an alarm clock or reference to the time of day). A decision to prioritize a natural sleep schedule over all other schedules can create conflicts with employment and social obligations. References External links A collection of articles about sleep by Piotr A. Wozniak, July 2000 | Free-running_sleep |@lemmatized free:6 run:5 sleep:19 experiment:4 involve:1 organism:3 freerunning:1 adjust:1 entrain:8 hour:9 cycle:6 nature:1 artificial:1 use:3 study:2 circadian:8 rhythm:4 biology:1 subject:2 shield:1 time:4 cue:3 often:1 constant:2 light:7 protocol:3 dark:4 condition:2 cannot:1 ultrashort:1 one:2 two:1 also:4 limited:1 amount:1 food:1 make:1 available:1 short:2 interval:1 avoid:1 entrainment:2 mealtime:1 thus:1 force:1 live:1 internal:2 clock:4 individual:4 animal:4 phase:4 know:3 monitoring:1 kind:2 output:1 system:1 body:2 researcher:2 precisely:1 determine:2 example:3 daily:1 gene:1 activity:3 temperature:1 blood:1 pressure:1 hormone:1 secretion:1 alertness:2 human:4 many:3 verbal:2 non:5 test:1 observation:1 wheel:1 running:2 rodent:1 people:4 freerun:1 see:2 sort:1 signal:2 zeitgeber:1 effective:1 much:1 work:1 long:1 different:1 day:6 recent:1 fund:1 u:1 space:1 industry:1 show:2 effect:1 unintended:1 call:1 masking:1 morning:1 rush:1 traffic:1 hear:1 outside:1 maintenance:1 staff:1 appear:3 ruin:1 mask:1 wake:3 syndrome:1 refer:1 disorder:7 frd:4 affect:2 half:1 totally:1 blind:3 clinically:1 nlp:1 perception:1 small:1 number:1 sighted:5 american:1 academy:1 medicine:1 review:1 part:1 ii:1 advance:1 delay:1 irregular:1 pdf:1 page:1 november:1 among:2 cause:1 inability:1 register:1 therefore:1 eye:1 function:1 retina:2 include:1 operative:1 visual:1 sensitive:1 cell:2 ganglion:1 contain:1 melanopsin:1 convey:1 via:1 retinohypothalamic:1 tract:1 optic:1 nerve:1 link:2 pineal:1 gland:1 usually:1 first:1 teen:1 early:1 twenty:1 delayed:1 dsps:2 dspd:1 absence:1 neurological:1 damage:1 due:1 trauma:1 stroke:1 case:1 almost:1 never:1 age:1 male:1 female:1 quarter:2 associate:1 psychiatric:1 previously:1 symptom:1 term:1 occasionally:1 scientist:1 indicate:1 intentional:1 facilitation:1 natural:2 context:1 mean:1 person:1 choose:1 sleepy:1 awaken:1 spontaneously:1 specifically:1 without:1 alarm:1 reference:2 decision:1 prioritize:1 schedule:2 create:1 conflict:1 employment:1 social:1 obligation:1 external:1 collection:1 article:1 piotr:1 wozniak:1 july:1 |@bigram entrain_hour:5 circadian_rhythm:3 optic_nerve:1 pineal_gland:1 alarm_clock:1 external_link:1 |
6,815 | William_M._Tweed | William Marcy Tweed (April 3, 1823 – April 12, 1878), known as "Boss Tweed," was an American politician most famous for his leadership of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine that played a major role in the politics of 19th century New York. At the height of his influence, Tweed was the third-largest landowner in New York City, a director of the Erie Railway, the Tenth National Bank, and the New-York Printing Company, as well as proprietor of the Metropolitan Hotel. Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, and the New York City Board of Advisors in 1856. In 1858, Tweed became the "Grand Sachem" of the Tammany Hall. He was elected to the New York State Senate in 1867. Tweed was convicted for stealing between 40 million and 200 million dollars "Boss Tweed", Gotham Gazette, New York, 4 July 2005. (based on the inflation or devaluation rate of the dollar since 1870 of 2.7%, this is between 1.5 billion and 8 billion 2009 dollars) from New York City taxpayers through political corruption. He died in the Ludlow Street Jail. Early life William Marcy Tweed was born April 3, 1823, on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Son to a chair-maker of Scottish-Irish descent, Tweed made his entrance into politics when he organized the Americus Fire Company No. 6 (also known as the "big six") as a volunteer fire company. Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, the New York City Board of Advisors in 1856, and the New York State Senate in 1867. Financiers Jay Gould and Big Jim Fisk made Tweed a director of the Erie Railroad, and Tweed in turn arranged favorable legislation for them. Tweed and Gould became the subjects of political cartoons by Thomas Nast in 1869. Scandal Tweed-le-dee and Tilden-dumA Harper's Weekly cartoon depicts Tweed as a police officer saying to two boys, "If all the people want is to have somebody arrested, I'll have you plunderers convicted. You will be allowed to escape, nobody will be hurt, and then Tilden will go to the White House and I to Albany as Governor." By 1870 Tweed, as commissioner of public works, led a ring that controlled the municipal government of New York City. Paine 1974, p. 140. He and his his associates—Peter Barr Sweeny (park commissioner), Richard B. Connolly (controller of public expenditures), and Mayor A. Oakey Hall—defrauded the taxpayers of many millions of dollars. In the words of Albert Bigelow Paine, "their methods were curiously simple and primitive. There were no skilful manipulations of figures, making detection difficult ... Connolly, as Controller, had charge of the books, and declined to show them. With his fellows, he also 'controlled' the courts and most of the bar." Paine 1974, p. 143. Contractors working for the city—"Ring favorites, most of them—were told to multiply the amount of each bill by five, or ten, or a hundred, after which, with Mayor Hall's 'O. K.' and Connolly's indorsement, it was paid ... through a go-between, who cashed the check, settled the original bill and divided the reminder ... between Tweed, Sweeny, Connolly and Hall". Paine 1974, p. 144. In consequence of the Ring's corrupt practices the construction cost of the New York County Courthouse, begun in 1861, grew to nearly $13 million (about $178 million in today's dollars, and nearly twice the cost of the Alaska Purchase in 1867). http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=211 "A carpenter was paid $360,751 (roughly $4.9 million today) for one month's labor in a building with very little woodwork ... a plasterer got $133,187 ($1.82 million) for two days' work". Tweed's downfall began in April 1870 when he refused to authorize the Orange Parade, an annual Protestant celebration. City Sheriff James O'Brien, whose support for Tweed had fluctuated during Tammany's "reign", gave The New York Times evidence of embezzlement in light of the Protestant-Catholic riot that ensued on parade day. The newspaper was reportedly offered $5 million to not publish the evidence. In a subsequent interview, Tweed's only reply was, "Well, what are you going to do about it?" Accounts in The New York Times and political cartoons drawn by Thomas Nast and published in Harper's Weekly resulted in the election of numerous opposition candidates in 1871. Regarding Nast's cartoons, Tweed reportedly said, "Stop them damned pictures. I don't care so much what the papers say about me. My constituents don't know how to read, but they can't help seeing them damned pictures!" lazio Imprisonment, escape, and death In October 1871, Tweed was arrested and held on $8 million bail. The efforts of political reformers William H. Wickham (1875 New York City mayor) and Samuel J. Tilden (later the 1876 Democratic presidential nominee) resulted in Tweed's trial and conviction in 1873. Tweed was given a 12-year prison sentence, which was reduced by a higher court and he served one year. He was then re-arrested on civil charges, sued by New York State for $6 million and held in debtor's prison until he could post $3 million as bail. On December 4, 1875, Tweed escaped and fled to Spain where he worked as a common seaman on a Spanish ship. The U.S. government discovered his eventual destination of Spain and arranged for his arrest as soon as he reached the Spanish border. He was delivered to authorities in New York City on November 23, 1876, and was returned to prison. bioguide.congress.gov He was recognized in Spain, from political cartoons showing his corruption. However, the Spanish constables did not recognize the significance of the cartoon and therefore believed they had apprehended a notorious child kidnapper. Tweed died in the Ludlow Street Jail on April 12, 1878 from severe pneumonia. He was buried in the Brooklyn Green-Wood Cemetery. Ackerman 2005:28 An 1869 tobacco label featuring Tweed Contributions In studies of Tweed and the Tammany Hall organization, historians have emphasized the thievery and conspiratorial nature of Boss Tweed along the Upper West Side, and securing land for the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Certain aspects of Tammany Hall's activities (aid to the sick and unemployed, advocacy for tenants and workers) foreshadowed later developments in the U.S. labor movement and Social Security. Despite having grafted millions from the public treasury, Tweed made many improvements to the city of New York including the widening of Broadway between 34th Street and 59th Street and the construction of many buildings in Manhattan. Tweed also fought for the state legislature of New York to donate to private charities of all religious denominations, subsidize Catholic schools, orphanages, and hospitals, and keep the King James Bible available in schools. From 1869 to 1871, under Tweed's influence, the state of New York spent more on charities than for the entire time period from 1852 to 1868 combined. Tweed also pushed through funding for a teachers college and prohibition of corporal punishment in schools, as well as salary increases for school teachers. Portrayals in popular culture The role of Boss Tweed was originated by Noah Beery, Sr. in the 1945 original Broadway production of "Up In Central Park". Boss Tweed was portrayed by Jim Broadbent in the 2002 film Gangs of New York. ] Bill Tweed appears in Pete Hamill's novel, Forever, not as a villain, but a defender of the rights of minorities and helped those in need. Notes References Ackerman, Kenneth D. Boss Tweed. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2005. "Boss Tweed", Gotham Gazette, New York, 4 July 2005. Sante, Luc. Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York. Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 2003. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. High Beam Encyclopedia. 22, November 2008, <http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Tweed-Wi.html> Paine, Albert B. (1974). Th. Nast, His Period and His Pictures. Princeton: Pyne Press. ISBN 087861-079-0 (The original edition, published in 1904, is now in the public domain.) Further reading Lynch, Denis T. Boss Tweed The story of a grim generation. Blue Ribbon Books NY first print 1927 copyright Boni & Liveright Inc. Mandelbaum, Seymour J. Boss Tweed's New York, 1965. ISBN 0471566527 Ackerman, Kenneth D. Boss Tweed: The Rise and Fall of the Corrupt Politician Who Conceived the Soul of New York, 2006. Hershkowitz, Leo. Tweed's New York: Another Look, 1977. 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6,816 | Geotechnical_engineering | Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment. Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and materials; determining their physical/mechanical and chemical properties that are relevant to the project considered, assessing risks posed by site conditions; designing earthworks and structure foundations; and monitoring site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction. A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to define the required material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to determine their engineering properties including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls. A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks, and/or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be built. Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of various sizes such as high-rise buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial building, and smaller structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based design. Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, dikes, levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste and sanitary landfills. Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties. Ocean engineering can involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms. The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are closely related, and have large areas of overlap. However, the field of geotechnical engineering is a specialty of engineering, where the field of engineering geology is a specialty of geology. History Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and as construction material for buildings. First activities were linked to irrigation and flood control, as demonstrated by traces of dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE that were found in ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent, as well as around the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Arappa in the Indus valley. As the cities expanded, structures were erected supported by formalized foundations; Ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed and the discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on past experience. Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French Royal Engineer, recognized the "natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose. A rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type. Classical geotechnical mechanics began in 1773 with Charles Coulomb's (a physics) introduction of mechanics to soil problems. Using the laws of friction and cohesion to determine the true sliding surface behind a retaining wall, Coulomb inadvertently defined a failure criteria for soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's theory of a 2D stress state, the Mohr-Coulomb theory was developed, a graphical construction still used today. Other relevant developments during this period include: Henry Darcy's defining of hydraulic conductivity; Joseph Boussinesq's (a mathematician and physicist) theory of stress distribution; William Rankine's simplification of Coulomb's earth pressure theory; and Albert Atterberg's examination of clay consistency. Modern geotechnical engineering began in 1925 with the publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl Terzaghi (a civil engineer and geologist). Generally recognized as the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi's research on the settlement of clays and failure due to piping beneath dams was considered groundbreaking. Soil Mechanics, Lambe,T.William and Whitman,Robert V., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, John Wiley & Sons., 1969. ISBN 0-471-51192-7 Practicing engineers Geotechnical engineers are typically graduates of a four-year civil engineering program and often hold a masters degree. Geotechnical engineers are typically licensed and regulated as Professional Engineers (PEs) in most states; currently only California and Oregon have licensed geotechnical engineering specialties. In the United States, state governments will typically license engineers who have graduated from an ABET accredited school, completed several years of work experience, and passed the professional engineering examination. Soil mechanics A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids. In geotechnical engineering, soils are considered a three-phase material composed of: rock or mineral particles, water and air. The voids of a soil, the spaces in between mineral particles, contain the water and air. The engineering properties of soils are affected by four main factors: the predominant size of the mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the grain size distribution, and the relative quantities of mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are defined as particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter. Soil properties The following properties of soils are used by geotechnical engineers in analysis of site conditions and design of earthworks, retaining structures, and foundations. Unit Weight Total unit weight: Cumulative weight of the solid particles, water and air in the material per unit volume. Note that the air phase is often assumed to be weightless. Dry unit weight: Weight of the solid particles of the soil per unit volume. Saturated unit weight: Weight of the soil when all voids are filled with water such that no air is present per unit volume. Note that this is typically assumed to occur below the water table. Porosity Ratio of the volume of voids (containing air and/or water) in a soil to the total volume of the soil expressed as a percentage. A porosity of 0% implies that there is neither air nor water in the soil. void ratio is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solid particles in a soil. Void ratio is mathematically related to the porosity and is more commonly used in geotechnical formulae than porosity. Permeability A measure of the ability of water to flow through the soil, expressed in units of velocity. Consolidation As a noun, the state of the soil with regards to prior loading conditions; soils can be underconsolidated, normally consolidated or over-consolidated. As a verb, the process by which water is forced out of a soil matrix due to loading, causing the soil to deform, or decrease in volume, with time. Shear strength Amount of shear stress a soil can resist without failing. Atterberg Limits Liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit, related to the plasticity of a soil. Used in estimating other engineering properties of a soil and in soil classification. Geotechnical investigation Geotechnical engineers perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying (and sometimes adjacent to) a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures, and for repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. A geotechnical investigation will include surface exploration and subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used to obtain data about sites. Subsurface exploration usually involves soil sampling and laboratory testing of the soil samples retrieved. Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as an engineer walking around on the site to observe the physical conditions at the site. Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology is typically completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist. To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form of subsurface exploration is required. Methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining samples, and determining physical properties of the soils and rock include test pits, trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes), borings, and cone penetration tests (CPT) or standard penetration test (SPT). CPT allows continuous recording of soil changes with depth, whereas SPT only records major changes at discrete steps of 150 mm (6 in); however, SPT allows soil sampling for laboratory testing. Borings come in two main varieties, large-diameter and small-diameter. Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense, but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to visually and manually examine the soil and rock stratigraphy in-situ. Small-diameter borings are frequently used to allow a geologist or engineer to examine soil or rock cuttings from the drilling operation, to retrieve soil samples at depth, and to perform in-place soil tests. A cone penetration test is typically performed using an instrumented probe with a conical tip, pushed into the soil hydraulically. A basic CPT instrument reports tip resistance and frictional resistance along the friction sleeve, which is located just above the tip. CPT data has been correlated to soil properties. Sometimes instruments other than the basic CPT probe are used. Geophysical exploration is also sometimes used; geophysical techniques used for subsurface exploration include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), using surface-wave methods and/or downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar). Soil sampling Soil samples are obtained in either "disturbed" or "undisturbed" condition; however, "undisturbed" samples are not truly undisturbed. A disturbed sample is one in which the structure of the soil has been changed sufficiently that tests of structural properties of the soil will not be representative of in-situ conditions, and only properties of the soil grains can be accurately determined. An undisturbed sample is one where the condition of the soil in the sample is close enough to the conditions of the soil in-situ to allow tests of structural properties of the soil to be used to approximate the properties of the soil in-situ. In general, methods intended to collect undisturbed samples cost more than disturbed samples. It should be noted that the discussion of soil disturbance is almost entirely in reference to clay and silty-clay soils. Sands can only be collected undisturbed using very expensive ground freezing techniques, and are rarely practiced. A variety of soil samplers exist to meet the needs of different engineering projects and budgets. Small projects, those predicting minor stress changes and straightforward topography, can be suitably designed with disturbed samples. Projects involving large stress changes or complicated topography will require undisturbed samples for stress-strain-strength testing in a laboratory. Speaking terrestrially, the standard penetration test (SPT), which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used for the collection of undisturbed samples. More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, can be employed for research quality soil sample collection, but it has a limited depth of recovery. Offshore soil collection introduces many difficult variables. In shallow water, work can be done off a barge. In deeper water a ship will be required. Deepwater soil samplers are normally variants of Kullenberg-type samplers, a modification on a basic gravity corer using a piston (Lunne and Long, 2006). Seabed samplers are also available, which push the collection tube slowly into the soil. Laboratory tests A wide variety of laboratory tests can be performed on soils to measure a wide variety of soil properties. Some soil properties are intrinsic to the composition of the soil matrix and are not affected by sample disturbance, while other properties depend on the structure of the soil as well as its composition, and can only be effectively tested on relatively undisturbed samples. Some soil tests measure direct properties of the soil, while others measure "index properties" which provide useful information about the soil without directly measuring the property desired. Some of the more commonly performed laboratory tests include: Atterberg limits, California bearing ratio, hydraulic conductivity, consolidation, particle-size analysis, soil compaction, triaxial shear, unconfined compression, density index (called relative density in USA) and water content tests.. Foundations A building's foundation transmits loads from buildings and other structures to the earth. Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and/or bedrock at the site. In general, geotechnical engineers: 1) estimate the magnitude and location of the loads to be supported; 2) develop an investigation plan to explore the subsurface; 3) determine necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing (e.g., consolidation test, triaxial shear test, vane shear test, standard penetration test); and 4) design the foundation in the safest and most economical manner. The primary considerations for foundation support are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations. Bearing capacity is the ability of the site soils to support the loads imposed by buildings or structures. Settlement occurs under all foundations in all soil conditions, though lightly loaded structures or rock sites may experience negligible settlements. For heavier structures or softer sites, both overall settlement relative to unbuilt areas or neighboring buildings, and differential settlement under a single structure, can be concerns. Of particular concern is settlement which occurs over time, as immediate settlement can usually be compensated for during construction. Ground movement beneath a structure's foundations can occur due to shrinkage or swell of expansive soils due to climatic changes, frost expansion of soil, melting of permafrost, slope instability, or other causes. All these factors must be considered during design of foundations. Many building codes specify basic foundation design parameters for simple conditions, frequently varying by jurisdiction, but such design techniques are normally limited to certain types of construction and certain types of sites, and are frequently very conservative. In areas of shallow bedrock, most foundations may bear directly on bedrock; in other areas, the soil may provide sufficient strength for the support of structures. In areas of deeper bedrock with soft overlying soils, deep foundations are used to support structures directly on the bedrock; in areas where bedrock is not economically available, stiff "bearing layers" are used to support deep foundations instead. Shallow foundations Example of a slab-on-grade foundation. Shallow foundations are a type of foundation that transfers building load to the very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer. Shallow foundations typically have a depth to width ratio of less than 1. Footings Footings (often called "spread footings" because they spread the load) are structural elements which transfer structure loads to the ground by direct areal contact. Footings can be isolated footings for point or column loads, or strip footings for wall or other long (line) loads. Footings are normally constructed from reinforced concrete cast directly onto the soil, and are typically embedded into the ground to penetrate through the zone of frost movement and/or to obtain additional bearing capacity. xasds Slab foundations A variant on spread footings is to have the entire structure bear on a single slab of concrete underlying the entire area of the structure. Slabs must be thick enough to provide sufficient rigidity to spread the bearing loads somewhat uniformly, and to minimize differential settlement across the foundation. In some cases, flexure is allowed and the building is constructed to tolerate small movements of the foundation instead. For small structures, like single-family houses, the slab may be less than 30 cm thick; for larger structures, the foundation slab may be several meters thick. Slab foundations can be either slab-on-grade foundations or embedded foundations, typically in buildings with basements. Slab-on-grade foundations must be designed to allow for potential ground movement due to changing soil conditions. Deep foundations Piledriving for a bridge in Napa, California. Deep foundations are used for structures or heavy loads when shallow foundations cannot provide adequate capacity, due to size and structural limitations. They may also be used to transfer building loads past weak or compressible soil layers. While shallow foundations rely solely on the bearing capacity of the soil beneath them, deep foundations can rely on end bearing resistance, frictional resistance along their length, or both in developing the required capacity. Geotechnical engineers use specialized tools, such as the cone penetration test, to estimate the amount of skin and end bearing resistance available in the subsurface. There are many types of deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts, caissons, piers, and earth stabilized columns. Large buildings such as skyscrapers typically require deep foundations. For example, the Jin Mao Tower in China uses tubular steel piles about 1m (3.3 feet) driven to a depth of 83.5m (274 feet) to support its weight. In buildings that are constructed and found to undergo settlement, underpinning piles can be used to stabilise the existing building. Lateral earth support structures A retaining wall is a structure that holds back earth. Retaining walls stabilize soil and rock from downslope movement or erosion and provide support for vertical or near-vertical grade changes. Cofferdams and bulkheads, structures to hold back water, are sometimes also considered retaining walls. The primary geotechnical concern in design and installation of retaining walls is that the retained material is attempting to move forward and downslope due to gravity. This creates soil pressure behind the wall, which can be analysed based on the angle of internal friction (φ) and the cohesive strength (c) of the material and the amount of allowable movement of the wall. This pressure is smallest at the top and increases toward the bottom in a manner similar to hydraulic pressure, and tends to push the wall forward and overturn it. Groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system causes an additional horizontal hydraulic pressure on the wall. Gravity Walls Gravity walls depend on the size and weight of the wall mass to resist pressures from behind. Gravity walls will often have a slight setback, or batter, to improve wall stability. For short, landscaping walls, gravity walls made from dry-stacked (mortarless) stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units) are commonly used. Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity walls such as: geosynthetic or steel-reinforced backfill soil with precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks), crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with soil or free draining gravel) or soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods). For reinforced-soil gravity walls, the soil reinforcement is placed in horizontal layers throughout the height of the wall. Commonly, the soil reinforcement is geogrid, a high-strength polymer mesh, that provide tensile strength to hold soil together. The wall face is often of precast, segmental concrete units that can tolerate some differential movement. The reinforced soil's mass, along with the facing, becomes the gravity wall. The reinforced mass must be built large enough to retain the pressures from the soil behind it. Gravity walls usually must be a minimum of 30 to 40 percent as deep (thick) as the height of the wall, and may have to be larger if there is a slope or surcharge on the wall. Cantilever walls Prior to the introduction of modern reinforced-soil gravity walls, cantilevered walls were the most common type of taller retaining wall. Cantilevered walls are made from a relatively thin stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing; converting horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their stability against high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall. Cantilever walls resist lateral pressures by friction at the base of the wall and/or passive earth pressure, the tendency of the soil to resist lateral movement. Basements are a form of cantilever walls, but the forces on the basement walls are greater than on conventional walls because the basement wall is not free to move. Excavation shoring Shoring of temporary excavations frequently requires a wall design which does not extend laterally beyond the wall, so shoring extends below the planned base of the excavation. Common methods of shoring are the use of sheet piles or soldier beams and lagging. Sheet piles are a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the ground, and are driven prior to excavation. Soldier beams are constructed of wide flange steel H sections spaced about 2-3 m apart, driven prior to excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber or steel sheeting (lagging) is inserted behind the H pile flanges. In some cases, the lateral support which can be provided by the shoring wall alone is insufficient to resist the planned lateral loads; in this case additional support is provided by walers or tie-backs. Walers are structural elements which connect across the excavation so that the loads from the soil on either side of the excavation are used to resist each other, or which transfer horizontal loads from the shoring wall to the base of the excavation. Tie-backs are steel tendons drilled into the face of the wall which extend beyond the soil which is applying pressure to the wall, to provide additional lateral resistance to the wall. Earth structures Pavements Embankments Reservoirs Engineered Slopes Slope stability Simple slope slip section. Slope stability is the analysis of soil covered slopes and its potential to undergo movement. Stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A previously stable slope may be initially affected by preparatory factors, making the slope conditionally unstable. Triggering factors of a slope failure can be climatic events can then make a slope actively unstable, leading to mass movements. Mass movements can be caused by increases in shear stress, such as loading, lateral pressure, and transient forces. Alternatively, shear strength may be decreased by weathering, changes in pore water pressure, and organic material. Geosynthetics A collage of geosynthetic products. Geosynthetics is the umbrella term used to describe a range of synthethic products used to aid in solving some geotechnical problems. The term is generally regarded to encompass four main products; geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required, this is not to say that they are indestructible. Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end use. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection and coastal engineering Related articles See also Civil engineering Deep Foundations Institute Effective stress Geology Engineering geology Rock mass classifications Seismology Landfill Land reclamation List of publications in geotechnical engineering Soil physics Soil science Mechanically stabilized earth Karl von Terzaghi Sediment control Notes References Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0 Bowles, J. (1988), Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7 Cedergren, Harry R. (1977), Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8 Kramer, Steven L. (1996), Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-374943-6 Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A., (1979), Groundwater, Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-365312-9 Lunne, T. & Long, M.,(2006), Review of long seabed samplers and criteria for new sampler design, Marine Geology, Vol 226, p. 145-165 Mitchell, James K. & Soga, K. (2005), Fundamentals of Soil Behavior 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-46302-3 Rajapakse, Ruwan., (2005), "Pile Design ans Construction", 2005. ISBN 0-9728657-1-3 Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory Geotechnical Engineering : an environmental perspective, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30402-4 NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.01, Soil Mechanics, US Government Printing Office NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.02, Foundations and Earth Structures, US Government Printing Office NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1983) Design Manual 7.03, Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization and Special Geotechnical Construction, US Government Printing Office Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4 Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., & Fam, M.A. (2001), "Soils and Waves: Particulate Materials Behavior, Characterization and Process Monitoring", Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-49058-6 | Geotechnical_engineering |@lemmatized boston:1 big:1 dig:1 present:3 geotechnical:32 challenge:1 urban:1 environment:2 engineering:39 branch:1 civil:5 concern:5 behavior:3 earth:12 material:14 include:15 investigate:1 exist:3 subsurface:10 condition:16 determine:8 physical:4 mechanical:1 chemical:1 property:23 relevant:2 project:6 consider:6 assess:1 risk:2 pose:1 site:16 design:23 earthwork:7 structure:34 foundation:49 monitor:1 construction:10 typical:1 begin:4 review:2 need:3 define:3 required:2 follow:2 investigation:7 soil:112 rock:11 fault:2 distribution:3 bedrock:7 area:9 interest:1 interact:1 propose:1 gain:1 understanding:1 take:2 place:5 assessment:1 human:2 natural:2 hazard:1 earthquake:2 landslide:1 sinkhole:1 liquefaction:1 debris:1 flow:3 fall:1 engineer:17 type:10 pavement:2 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6,817 | Nim | Nim is a two-player mathematical game of strategy in which players take turns removing objects from distinct heaps. On each turn, a player must remove at least one object, and may remove any number of objects provided they all come from the same heap. Variants of Nim have been played since ancient times. The game is said to have originated in China (it closely resembles the Chinese game of "Jianshizi", or "picking stones"), but the origin is uncertain; the earliest European references to Nim are from the beginning of the 16th century. Its current name was coined by Charles L. Bouton of Harvard University, who also developed the complete theory of the game in 1901, but the origins of the name were never fully explained. The name is probably derived from German nimm! meaning "take!", or the obsolete English verb nim of the same meaning. It should also be noted that rotating the word NIM by 180 degrees results in WIN (see Ambigram). Nim is usually played as a misère game, in which the player to take the last object loses. Nim can also be played as a normal play game, which means that the person who makes the last move (i.e., who takes the last object) wins. This is called normal play because most games follow this convention, even though Nim usually does not. Normal play Nim (or more precisely the system of nimbers) is fundamental to the Sprague-Grundy theorem, which essentially says that in normal play every impartial game is equivalent to a Nim heap that yields the same outcome when played in parallel with other normal play impartial games (see disjunctive sum). It is important to note that while all normal play impartial games can be assigned a nim value, that is not the case under the misère convention. Only tame games can be played using the same strategy as misère nim. A version of Nim is played–and has symbolic importance–in the French New Wave film Last Year at Marienbad (1961). Illustration A normal play game may start with heaps of 3, 4 and 5 objects: In order to win always leave an even total number of 1's, 2's, and 4's. Sizes of heaps Moves A B C 3 4 5 I take 2 from A 1 4 5 You take 3 from C 1 4 2 I take 1 from B 1 3 2 You take 1 from B 1 2 2 I take entire A heap leaving two 2's. 0 2 2 You take 1 from B 0 1 2 I take 1 from C leaving two 1's. (In misère play I would take 2 from C leaving (0, 1, 0).) 0 1 1 You take 1 from B 0 0 1 I take entire C heap and win. Mathematical theory Nim has been mathematically solved for any number of initial heaps and objects; that is, there is an easily-calculated way to determine which player will win and what winning moves are open to that player. In a game that starts with heaps of 3, 4, and 5, the first player will win with optimal play, whether the misère or normal play convention is followed. The key to the theory of the game is the binary digital sum of the heap sizes, that is, the sum (in binary) neglecting all carries from one digit to another. This operation is also known as exclusive or (xor) or vector addition over GF(2). Within combinatorial game theory it is usually called the nim-sum, as will be done here. The nim-sum of x and y is written x ⊕ y to distinguish it from the ordinary sum, x + y. An example of the calculation with heaps of size 3, 4, and 5 is as follows: Binary Decimal 0112 310 Heap A 1002 410 Heap B 1012 510 Heap C --- 0102 210 The nim-sum of heaps A, B, and C, 3 ⊕ 4 ⊕ 5 = 2 An equivalent procedure, which is often easier to perform mentally, is to express the heap sizes as sums of distinct powers of 2, cancel pairs of equal powers, and then add what's left: 3 = 0 + 2 + 1 = 2 1 Heap A 4 = 4 + 0 + 0 = 4 Heap B 5 = 4 + 0 + 1 = 4 1 Heap C --- 2 = 2 What's left after cancelling 1s and 4s In normal play, the winning strategy is to finish every move with a Nim-sum of 0, which is always possible if the Nim-sum is not zero before the move. If the Nim-sum is zero, then the next player will lose if the other player does not make a mistake. To find out which move to make, let X be the Nim-sum of all the heap sizes. Take the Nim-sum of each of the heap sizes with X, and find a heap whose size decreases. The winning strategy is to play in such a heap, reducing that heap to the Nim-sum of its original size with X. In the example above, taking the Nim-sum of the sizes is X = 3 ⊕ 4 ⊕ 5 = 2. The Nim-sums of the heap sizes A=3, B=4, and C=5 with X=2 are A ⊕ X = 3 ⊕ 2 = 1 B ⊕ X = 4 ⊕ 2 = 6 C ⊕ X = 5 ⊕ 2 = 7 The only heap that is reduced is heap A, so the winning move is to reduce the size of heap A to 1 (by removing two objects). As a particular simple case, if there are only two heaps left, the strategy is to reduce the number of objects in the bigger heap to make the heaps equal. After that, no matter what move your opponent makes, you can make the same move on the other heap, guaranteeing that you take the last object. When played as a misère game, Nim strategy is different only when the normal play move would leave no heap of size 2 or larger. In that case, the correct move is to leave an odd number of heaps of size 1 (in normal play, the correct move would be to leave an even number of such heaps). In a misère game with heaps of sizes 3, 4 and 5, the strategy would be applied like this: A B C Nim-sum 3 4 5 0102=210 I take 2 from A, leaving a sum of 000, so I will win. 1 4 5 0002=010 You take 2 from C 1 4 3 1102=610 I take 2 from B 1 2 3 0002=010 You take 1 from C 1 2 2 0012=110 I take 1 from A 0 2 2 0002=010 You take 1 from C 0 2 1 0112=310 The normal play strategy would be to take 1 from B, leaving an even number (2) heaps of size 1. For misère play, I take the entire B heap, to leave an odd number (1) of heaps of size 1. 0 0 1 0012=110 You take 1 from C, and lose. The previous strategy for a misère game can be easily implemented in Python. def nim_misere(heaps): """Computes next move for Nim in a misère game, returns tuple (chosen_heap, nb_remove)""" X = reduce(lambda x,y: x^y, heaps) if X == 0: # Will lose unless all non-empty heaps have size one for i in range(len(heaps)): if heaps[i] > 0: # Empty any (non-empty) heap chosen_heap, nb_remove = i, heaps[i] break else: sums = [t^X < t for t in heaps] chosen_heap = sums.index(True) nb_remove = heaps[chosen_heap] - (heaps[chosen_heap]^X) heaps_twomore = 0 for i in range(len(heaps)): n = heaps[i]-nb_remove if chosen_heap == i else heaps[i] if n>1: heaps_twomore += 1 # If move leaves no heap of size 2 or larger, leave an odd number of heaps of size 1 if heaps_twomore == 0: chosen_heap = heaps.index(max(heaps)) heaps_one = sum([t==1 for t in heaps]) # even? make it odd; odd? keep it odd nb_remove = heaps[chosen_heap]-1 if heaps_one%2==0 else heaps[chosen_heap] return chosen_heap, nb_remove Proof of the winning formula The soundness of the optimal strategy described above was demonstrated by C. Bouton. Theorem. In a normal Nim game, the first player has a winning strategy if and only if the nim-sum of the sizes of the heaps is nonzero. Otherwise, the second player has a winning strategy. Proof: Notice that the nim-sum (⊕) obeys the usual associative and commutative laws of addition (+), and also satisfies an additional property, x ⊕ x = 0 (technically speaking, the nonnegative integers under ⊕ form an Abelian group of exponent 2). Let x1, ..., xn be the sizes of the heaps before a move, and y1, ..., yn the corresponding sizes after a move. Let s = x1 ⊕ ... ⊕ xn and t = y1 ⊕ ... ⊕ yn. If the move was in heap k, we have xi = yi for all i ≠ k, and xk > yk. By the properties of ⊕ mentioned above, we have t = 0 ⊕ t = s ⊕ s ⊕ t = s ⊕ (x1 ⊕ ... ⊕ xn) ⊕ (y1 ⊕ ... ⊕ yn) = s ⊕ (x1 ⊕ y1) ⊕ ... ⊕ (xn ⊕ yn) = s ⊕ 0 ⊕ ... ⊕ 0 ⊕ (xk ⊕ yk) ⊕ 0 ⊕ ... ⊕ 0 = s ⊕ xk ⊕ yk (*) t = s ⊕ xk ⊕ yk. The theorem follows by induction on the length of the game from these two lemmata. Lemma 1. If s = 0, then t ≠ 0 no matter what move is made. Proof: If there is no possible move, then the lemma is vacuously true (and the first player loses the normal play game by definition). Otherwise, any move in heap k will produce t = xk ⊕ yk from (*). This number is nonzero, since xk ≠ yk. Lemma 2. If s ≠ 0, it is possible to make a move so that t = 0. Proof: Let d be the position of the leftmost (most significant) nonzero bit in the binary representation of s, and choose k such that the dth bit of xk is also nonzero. (Such a k must exist, since otherwise the dth bit of s would be 0.) Then letting yk = s ⊕ xk, we claim that yk < xk: all bits to the left of d are the same in xk and yk, bit d decreases from 1 to 0 (decreasing the value by 2d), and any change in the remaining bits will amount to at most 2d−1. The first player can thus make a move by taking xk − yk objects from heap k, then t = s ⊕ xk ⊕ yk (by (*)) = s ⊕ xk ⊕ (s ⊕ xk) = 0. The modification for misère play is demonstrated by noting that the modification first arises in a position that has only one heap of size 2 or more. The normal play strategy is for the player to reduce this to size 0 or 1, leaving an even number of heaps with size 1, and the misère strategy is to do the opposite. From that point on, all moves are forced. Other variations of Nim The subtraction game S(1,2,...,k) In another game which is commonly known as Nim (but is better called the subtraction game S(1,2,...,k)), an upper bound is imposed on the number of objects that can be removed in a turn. Instead of removing arbitrarily many objects, a player can only remove 1 or 2 or ... or k at a time. This game is commonly played in practice with only one heap (for instance with k = 3 in the game Thai 21 on Survivor: Thailand, where it appeared as an Immunity Challenge). Bouton's analysis carries over easily to the general multiple-heap version of this game. The only difference is that as a first step, before computing the Nim-sums, we must reduce the sizes of the heaps modulo k + 1. If this makes all the heaps of size zero (in misère play), the winning move is to take k objects from one of the heaps. In particular, in a play from a single heap of n objects, the second player can win iff n ≡ 0 (mod k+1) (in normal play), or n ≡ 1 (mod k+1) (in misère play). This follows from calculating the nim-sequence of S(1,2,...,k), , from which the strategy above follows by the Sprague-Grundy theorem. The 21 game The game "21" is played as a misère game with any number of players who take turns saying a number. The first player says "1" and each player in turn increases the number by 1, 2, or 3, but may not exceed 21; the player forced to say "21" loses. This can be modeled as a subtraction game with a heap of 21–n objects. A multiple-heap rule In another variation of Nim, besides removing any number of objects from a single heap, one is permitted to remove the same number of objects from each heap. Circular Nim Yet another variation of Nim is 'Circular Nim', where any number of objects are placed in a circle, and two players alternately remove 1, 2 or 3 adjacent objects. For example, starting with a circle of ten objects, . . . . . . . . . . three objects be taken in the first move _ . . . . . . . _ _ then another three _ . _ _ _ . . . _ _ then one _ . _ _ _ . . _ _ _ but then three objects cannot be taken out in one move. Grundy's game In Grundy's game, another variation of Nim, a number of objects are placed in an initial heap, and two players alternately divide a heap into two nonempty heaps of different sizes. Thus, 6 objects may be divided into piles of 5+1 or 4+2, but not 3+3. Grundy's game can be played as either misère or normal play. Greedy Nim See Greedy Nim. See also zero game star (game) fuzzy game solved board games Subtract a square Dr. NIM Nimrod (computing) Octal games References W. W. Rouse Ball: Mathematical Recreations and Essays, The Macmillan Company, 1947. John D. Beasley: The Mathematics of Games, Oxford University Press, 1989. Elwyn R. Berlekamp, John H. Conway, and Richard K. Guy: Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays, Academic Press, Inc., 1982. C. L. Bouton: Nim, a game with a complete mathematical theory, Annals of Mathematics 3 (1901-02), 35-39. Manfred Eigen and Ruthild Winkler: Laws of the Game, Princeton University Press, 1981. Walter R. Fuchs: Computers: Information Theory and Cybernetics, Rupert Hart-Davis Educational Publications, 1971. G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright: An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, Oxford University Press, 1979. Edward Kasner and James Newman: Mathematics and the Imagination, Simon and Schuster, 1940. M. Kaitchik: Mathematical Recreations, W. W. Norton, 1942. Donal D. Spencer: Game Playing with Computers, Hayden Book Company, Inc., 1968. External links Nim-Game in Javascript IE7 and FF3 compatible The hot game of Nim – Nim theory and connections with other games at cut-the-knot Nim and 2-dimensional SuperNim at cut-the-knot Pearls Before Swine Nim-Game in Flash iPhone Nim Game (Opens iTunes) Play Nim with yours friends. - Brasilian site - Mathemathical games. Ultimate Nim: The Use of Nimbers, Binary Numbers and Subpiles in the Optimal Strategy for Nim The Game of Nim | Nim |@lemmatized nim:54 two:9 player:22 mathematical:6 game:51 strategy:16 take:31 turn:5 remove:10 object:25 distinct:2 heap:75 must:3 least:1 one:9 may:4 number:21 provide:1 come:1 variant:1 play:37 since:3 ancient:1 time:2 say:5 originate:1 china:1 closely:1 resemble:1 chinese:1 jianshizi:1 picking:1 stone:1 origin:2 uncertain:1 early:1 european:1 reference:2 beginning:1 century:1 current:1 name:3 coin:1 charles:1 l:2 bouton:4 harvard:1 university:4 also:7 develop:1 complete:2 theory:8 never:1 fully:1 explain:1 probably:1 derive:1 german:1 nimm:1 meaning:2 obsolete:1 english:1 verb:1 note:3 rotate:1 word:1 degree:1 result:1 win:14 see:4 ambigram:1 usually:3 misère:16 last:5 loses:2 normal:17 mean:1 person:1 make:11 move:26 e:2 call:3 follow:6 convention:3 even:6 though:1 precisely:1 system:1 nimbers:2 fundamental:1 sprague:2 grundy:5 theorem:4 essentially:1 every:2 impartial:3 equivalent:2 yield:1 outcome:1 parallel:1 disjunctive:1 sum:24 important:1 assign:1 value:2 case:3 tame:1 use:2 version:2 symbolic:1 importance:1 french:1 new:1 wave:1 film:1 year:1 marienbad:1 illustration:1 start:3 order:1 always:2 leave:16 total:1 size:28 heaps:4 b:14 c:17 entire:3 would:6 mathematically:1 solve:2 initial:2 easily:3 calculated:1 way:2 determine:1 open:1 first:8 optimal:3 whether:1 key:1 binary:5 digital:1 neglect:1 carry:2 digit:1 another:6 operation:1 know:2 exclusive:1 xor:1 vector:1 addition:2 gf:1 within:1 combinatorial:1 x:19 write:1 distinguish:1 ordinary:1 example:3 calculation:1 decimal:1 procedure:1 often:1 easy:1 perform:1 mentally:1 express:1 power:2 cancel:2 pair:1 equal:2 add:1 finish:1 possible:3 zero:4 next:2 lose:4 mistake:1 find:2 let:5 whose:1 decrease:3 reduce:7 original:1 particular:2 simple:1 big:1 matter:2 opponent:1 guarantee:1 different:2 large:2 correct:2 odd:6 apply:1 like:1 previous:1 implement:1 python:1 def:1 computes:1 return:2 tuple:1 lambda:1 unless:1 non:2 empty:3 range:2 len:2 break:1 else:3 index:2 true:2 n:6 max:1 keep:1 proof:4 formula:1 soundness:1 describe:1 demonstrate:2 winning:3 nonzero:4 otherwise:3 second:2 notice:1 obeys:1 usual:1 associative:1 commutative:1 law:2 satisfy:1 additional:1 property:2 technically:1 speak:1 nonnegative:1 integer:1 form:1 abelian:1 group:1 exponent:1 xn:4 yn:4 corresponding:1 k:16 xi:1 yi:1 xk:14 yk:11 mention:1 induction:1 length:1 lemma:4 vacuously:1 definition:1 produce:1 position:2 leftmost:1 significant:1 bit:6 representation:1 choose:1 dth:2 exist:1 claim:1 left:1 change:1 remain:1 amount:1 thus:2 modification:2 arise:1 opposite:1 point:1 force:2 variation:4 subtraction:3 commonly:2 well:1 upper:1 bound:1 impose:1 instead:1 arbitrarily:1 many:1 practice:1 instance:1 thai:1 survivor:1 thailand:1 appear:1 immunity:1 challenge:1 analysis:1 general:1 multiple:2 difference:1 step:1 compute:2 modulo:1 single:2 iff:1 mod:2 calculate:1 sequence:1 increase:1 exceed:1 model:1 rule:1 besides:1 permit:1 circular:2 yet:1 place:2 circle:2 alternately:2 adjacent:1 ten:1 three:3 cannot:1 divide:2 nonempty:1 pile:1 either:1 greedy:2 star:1 fuzzy:1 board:1 subtract:1 square:1 dr:1 nimrod:1 octal:1 w:4 rouse:1 ball:1 recreation:2 essay:1 macmillan:1 company:2 john:2 beasley:1 mathematics:3 oxford:2 press:4 elwyn:1 r:2 berlekamp:1 h:2 conway:1 richard:1 guy:1 academic:1 inc:2 annals:1 manfred:1 eigen:1 ruthild:1 winkler:1 princeton:1 walter:1 fuchs:1 computer:2 information:1 cybernetics:1 rupert:1 hart:1 davis:1 educational:1 publication:1 g:1 hardy:1 wright:1 introduction:1 edward:1 kasner:1 james:1 newman:1 imagination:1 simon:1 schuster:1 kaitchik:1 norton:1 donal:1 spencer:1 hayden:1 book:1 external:1 link:1 javascript:1 compatible:1 hot:1 connection:1 cut:2 knot:2 dimensional:1 supernim:1 pearl:1 swine:1 flash:1 iphone:1 opens:1 itunes:1 friend:1 brasilian:1 site:1 mathemathical:1 ultimate:1 subpiles:1 |@bigram closely_resemble:1 exclusive_xor:1 nim_sum:15 heap_heap:4 associative_commutative:1 nonnegative_integer:1 xn_yn:3 xk_yk:9 yk_xk:5 xk_xk:1 rupert_hart:1 simon_schuster:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 cut_knot:2 pearl_swine:1 |
6,818 | Lamorna | Lamorna () is a small fishing village on the Penwith peninsula in Cornwall, England. It is effectively a small congregation of houses clustered around a natural harbour. At the end of the nineteenth century it became popular as a subject among many of the painters of the Newlyn School, including, particularly, the artist S J "Lamorna" Birch, who lived there in a small cottage. It has a pub, "The Wink", whose name alludes to the other occupation of its inhabitants in days gone by, smuggling, "the wink" being the indication that contraband could be obtained. The pub is the subject of a novel by Martha Grimes, entitled The Lamorna Wink. A small pottery, Lamorna Pottery, was founded in 1947 by Christopher James Ludlow (known as Jimmy) and Derek Wilshaw. Newlyn School of Art In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Lamorna became a popular muse for painters of the Newlyn School, with a small colony led by Samuel John "Lamorna" Birch and included painters such as Alfred Munnings, Laura Knight and Harold Knight lived and painted there. This period is dramatised in the novel Summer in February by Jonathan Smith. Lamorna also housed the jeweler Ella Naper and her husband, the painter Charles, who built Trewoofe house there. Lamorna in song Lamorna has been immortalised in the song Way Down to Lamorna, about a wayward husband receiving his comeuppance from his wife. The song, beloved of many Cornish singers. This may refer to local geography as there was an Albert Square, which features in the first line of the song, in nearby Penzance (near the current Albert Street) in Victorian times. 'Jorey’s Jingle', a horse drawn vehicle, used to run from Albert Square, Penzance to Lamorna Cove which was three miles South West. Dialect Index | Lamorna . Another theory is that it may actually hail from Manchester, where there is a Pomona Dock, near an Albert Square Cornish Folk Songs 'Twas down in Albert Square, I never shall forget, Her eyes they shone like diamonds And the evening it was wet, wet, wet. Her hair hung down in curls, She was a charming rover, And we rode all night In the pale moonlight Away down to Lamorna Lamorna Cove was the title of a poem by W. H. Davies published in 1929 Lamorna Stone Granite taken from Lamorna cove has been used world wide for construction, most famously the Thames Embankment. Stone from the cove was also used to construct the nearby church of St Buryan, whose 92 foot wrought granite tower is an imposing local landmark often used as a line of sight by fisherman coming into port. External links Photographs taken at Lamorna Cove by Cornwall resident Ian Lewis - 4th Ocotber 2007 References | Lamorna |@lemmatized lamorna:17 small:5 fishing:1 village:1 penwith:1 peninsula:1 cornwall:2 england:1 effectively:1 congregation:1 house:3 cluster:1 around:1 natural:1 harbour:1 end:1 nineteenth:2 century:2 become:2 popular:2 subject:2 among:1 many:2 painter:4 newlyn:3 school:3 include:2 particularly:1 artist:1 j:1 birch:2 live:2 cottage:1 pub:2 wink:3 whose:2 name:1 allude:1 occupation:1 inhabitant:1 day:1 go:1 smuggle:1 indication:1 contraband:1 could:1 obtain:1 novel:2 martha:1 grime:1 entitle:1 pottery:2 found:1 christopher:1 james:1 ludlow:1 know:1 jimmy:1 derek:1 wilshaw:1 art:1 late:1 early:1 twentieth:1 muse:1 colony:1 lead:1 samuel:1 john:1 alfred:1 munnings:1 laura:1 knight:2 harold:1 paint:1 period:1 dramatise:1 summer:1 february:1 jonathan:1 smith:1 also:2 jeweler:1 ella:1 naper:1 husband:2 charles:1 build:1 trewoofe:1 song:5 immortalise:1 way:1 wayward:1 receive:1 comeuppance:1 wife:1 beloved:1 cornish:2 singer:1 may:2 refer:1 local:2 geography:1 albert:5 square:4 feature:1 first:1 line:2 nearby:2 penzance:2 near:2 current:1 street:1 victorian:1 time:1 jorey:1 jingle:1 horse:1 drawn:1 vehicle:1 use:4 run:1 cove:5 three:1 mile:1 south:1 west:1 dialect:1 index:1 another:1 theory:1 actually:1 hail:1 manchester:1 pomona:1 dock:1 folk:1 twas:1 never:1 shall:1 forget:1 eye:1 shine:1 like:1 diamond:1 evening:1 wet:3 hair:1 hang:1 curl:1 charming:1 rover:1 ride:1 night:1 pale:1 moonlight:1 away:1 title:1 poem:1 w:1 h:1 davy:1 publish:1 stone:2 granite:2 take:2 world:1 wide:1 construction:1 famously:1 thames:1 embankment:1 construct:1 church:1 st:1 buryan:1 foot:1 work:1 tower:1 impose:1 landmark:1 often:1 sight:1 fisherman:1 come:1 port:1 external:1 link:1 photograph:1 resident:1 ian:1 lewis:1 ocotber:1 reference:1 |@bigram nineteenth_century:1 newlyn_school:3 lamorna_birch:2 twentieth_century:1 horse_drawn:1 lamorna_cove:4 external_link:1 |
6,819 | Graph_theory | A drawing of a graph In mathematics and computer science, graph theory is the study of graphs: mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects from a certain collection. A "graph" in this context refers to a collection of vertices or 'nodes' and a collection of edges that connect pairs of vertices. A graph may be undirected, meaning that there is no distinction between the two vertices associated with each edge, or its edges may be directed from one vertex to another; see graph (mathematics) for more detailed definitions and for other variations in the types of graphs that are commonly considered. The graphs studied in graph theory should not be confused with "graphs of functions" and other kinds of graphs. Please refer to Glossary of graph theory for some basic definitions in graph theory. History The Königsberg Bridge problem The paper written by Leonhard Euler on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg and published in 1736 is regarded as the first paper in the history of graph theory. This paper, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula relating the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology. More than one century after Euler's paper on the bridges of Königsberg and while Listing introduced topology, Cayley was led by the study of particular analytical forms arising from differential calculus to study a particular class of graphs, the trees. This study had many implications in theoretical chemistry. The involved techniques mainly concerned the enumeration of graphs having particular properties. Enumerative graph theory then rose from the results of Cayley and the fundamental results published by Pólya between 1935 and 1937 and the generalization of these by De Bruijn in 1959. Cayley linked his results on trees with the contemporary studies of chemical composition. The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in a paper published in 1878 in Nature. One of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four color problem: "Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?" This problem was first posed by Francis Guthrie in 1852 and its first written record is in a letter of De Morgan addressed to Hamilton the same year. Many incorrect proofs have been proposed, including those by Cayley, Kempe, and others. The study and the generalization of this problem by Tait, Heawood, Ramsey and Hadwiger led to the study of the colorings of the graphs embedded on surfaces with arbitrary genus. Tait's reformulation generated a new class of problems, the factorization problems, particularly studied by Petersen and Kőnig. The works of Ramsey on colorations and more specially the results obtained by Turán in 1941 was at the origin of another branch of graph theory, extremal graph theory. The four color problem remained unsolved for more than a century. A proof produced in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, which involved checking the properties of 1,936 configurations by computer, was not fully accepted at the time due to its complexity. A simpler proof considering only 633 configurations was given twenty years later by Robertson, Seymour, Sanders and Thomas. The autonomous development of topology from 1860 and 1930 fertilized graph theory back through the works of Jordan, Kuratowski and Whitney. Another important factor of common development of graph theory and topology came from the use of the techniques of modern algebra. The first example of such a use comes from the work of the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, who published in 1845 his Kirchhoff's circuit laws for calculating the voltage and current in electric circuits. The introduction of probabilistic methods in graph theory, especially in the study of Erdős and Rényi of the asymptotic probability of graph connectivity, gave rise to yet another branch, known as random graph theory, which has been a fruitful source of graph-theoretic results. Drawing graphs Graphs are represented graphically by drawing a dot for every vertex, and drawing an arc between two vertices if they are connected by an edge. If the graph is directed, the direction is indicated by drawing an arrow. A graph drawing should not be confused with the graph itself (the abstract, non-graphical structure) as there are several ways to structure the graph drawing. All that matters is which vertices are connected to which others by how many edges and not the exact layout. In practice it is often difficult to decide if two drawings represent the same graph. Depending on the problem domain some layouts may be better suited and easier to understand than others. Graph-theoretic data structures There are different ways to store graphs in a computer system. The data structure used depends on both the graph structure and the algorithm used for manipulating the graph. Theoretically one can distinguish between list and matrix structures but in concrete applications the best structure is often a combination of both. List structures are often preferred for sparse graphs as they have smaller memory requirements. Matrix structures on the other hand provide faster access for some applications but can consume huge amounts of memory . List structures Incidence list The edges are represented by an array containing pairs (ordered if directed) of vertices (that the edge connects) and possibly weight and other data. Vertices connected by an edge are said to be adjacent. Adjacency list Much like the incidence list, each vertex has a list of which vertices it is adjacent to. This causes redundancy in an undirected graph: for example, if vertices A and B are adjacent, A's adjacency list contains B, while B's list contains A. Adjacency queries are faster, at the cost of extra storage space. Matrix structures Incidence matrix The graph is represented by a matrix of size |V| (number of vertices) by |E| (number of edges) where the entry [vertex, edge] contains the edge's endpoint data (simplest case: 1 - connected, 0 - not connected). Adjacency matrix This is the n by n matrix A, where n is the number of vertices in the graph. If there is an edge from some vertex x to some vertex y, then the element is 1 (or in general the number of xy edges), otherwise it is 0. In computing, this matrix makes it easy to find subgraphs, and to reverse a directed graph. Laplacian matrix or Kirchhoff matrix or Admittance matrix This is defined as D − A, where D is the diagonal degree matrix. It explicitly contains both adjacency information and degree information. Distance matrix A symmetric n by n matrix D whose element is the length of a shortest path between x and y; if there is no such path = infinity. It can be derived from powers of A: Problems in graph theory Enumeration There is a large literature on graphical enumeration: the problem of counting graphs meeting specified conditions. Some of this work is found in Harary and Palmer (1973). Subgraphs, induced subgraphs, and minors A common problem, called the subgraph isomorphism problem, is finding a fixed graph as a subgraph in a given graph. One reason to be interested in such a question is that many graph properties are hereditary for subgraphs, which means that a graph has the property if and only if all subgraphs have it too. Unfortunately, finding maximal subgraphs of a certain kind is often an NP-complete problem. Finding the largest complete graph is called the clique problem (NP-complete). A similar problem is finding induced subgraphs in a given graph. Again, some important graph properties are hereditary with respect to induced subgraphs, which means that a graph has a property if and only if all induced subgraphs also have it. Finding maximal induced subgraphs of a certain kind is also often NP-complete. For example, Finding the largest edgeless induced subgraph, or independent set, called the independent set problem (NP-complete). Still another such problem, the minor containment problem, is to find a fixed graph as a minor of a given graph. A minor or subcontraction of a graph is any graph obtained by taking a subgraph and contracting some (or no) edges. Many graph properties are hereditary for minors, which means that a graph has a property if and only if all minors have it too. A famous example: A graph is planar if it contains as a minor neither the complete bipartite graph (See the Three-cottage problem) nor the complete graph . Another class of problems has to do with the extent to which various species and generalizations of graphs are determined by their point-deleted subgraphs, for example: The reconstruction conjecture Graph coloring Many problems have to do with various ways of coloring graphs, for example: The four-color theorem The strong perfect graph theorem The Erdős–Faber–Lovász conjecture (unsolved) The total coloring conjecture (unsolved) The list coloring conjecture (unsolved) The Hadwiger conjecture (graph theory) (unsolved) Route problems Hamiltonian path and cycle problems Minimum spanning tree Route inspection problem (also called the "Chinese Postman Problem") Seven Bridges of Königsberg Shortest path problem Steiner tree Three-cottage problem Traveling salesman problem (NP-complete) Network flow There are numerous problems arising especially from applications that have to do with various notions of flows in networks, for example: Max flow min cut theorem Visibility graph problems Museum guard problem Covering problems Covering problems are specific instances of subgraph-finding problems, and they tend to be closely related to the clique problem or the independent set problem. Set cover problem Vertex cover problem Applications Applications of graph theory are primarily, but not exclusively, concerned with labeled graphs and various specializations of these. Structures that can be represented as graphs are ubiquitous, and many problems of practical interest can be represented by graphs. The link structure of a website could be represented by a directed graph: the vertices are the web pages available at the website and a directed edge from page A to page B exists if and only if A contains a link to B. A similar approach can be taken to problems in travel, biology, computer chip design, and many other fields. The development of algorithms to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in computer science. There, the transformation of graphs is often formalized and represented by graph rewrite systems. They are either directly used or properties of the rewrite systems(e.g. confluence) are studied. A graph structure can be extended by assigning a weight to each edge of the graph. Graphs with weights, or weighted graphs, are used to represent structures in which pairwise connections have some numerical values. For example if a graph represents a road network, the weights could represent the length of each road. A digraph with weighted edges in the context of graph theory is called a network. Networks have many uses in the practical side of graph theory, network analysis (for example, to model and analyze traffic networks). Within network analysis, the definition of the term "network" varies, and may often refer to a simple graph. Many applications of graph theory exist in the form of network analysis. These split broadly into three categories. Firstly, analysis to determine structural properties of a network, such as the distribution of vertex degrees and the diameter of the graph. A vast number of graph measures exist, and the production of useful ones for various domains remains an active area of research. Secondly, analysis to find a measurable quantity within the network, for example, for a transportation network, the level of vehicular flow within any portion of it. Thirdly, analysis of dynamical properties of networks. Graph theory is also used to study molecules in chemistry and physics. In condensed matter physics, the three dimensional structure of complicated simulated atomic structures can be studied quantitatively by gathering statistics on graph-theoretic properties related to the topology of the atoms. For example, Franzblau's shortest-path (SP) rings. In chemistry a graph makes a natural model for a molecule, where vertices represent atoms and edges bonds. This approach is especially used in computer processing of molecular structures, ranging from chemical editors to database searching. Graph theory is also widely used in sociology as a way, for example, to measure actors' prestige or to explore diffusion mechanisms, notably through the use of social network analysis software. See also Gallery of named graphs Glossary of graph theory List of graph theory topics Publications in graph theory Related topics Graph property Algebraic graph theory Conceptual graph Data structure Disjoint-set data structure Entitative graph Existential graph Graph data structure Graph algebras Graph coloring Graph drawing Graph equation Graph rewriting Logical graph Loop Null graph Quantum graph Spectral graph theory Strongly regular graphs Tree data structure Algorithms Bellman-Ford algorithm Dijkstra's algorithm Ford-Fulkerson algorithm Kruskal's algorithm Nearest neighbour algorithm Prim's algorithm Depth-first search Breadth-first search Subareas Algebraic graph theory Geometric graph theory Extremal graph theory Probabilistic graph theory Topological graph theory Related areas of mathematics Combinatorics Group theory Knot theory Ramsey theory Generalizations Hypergraph Abstract simplicial complex Prominent graph theorists Berge, Claude Bollobás, Béla Chung, Fan Dirac, Gabriel Andrew Erdős, Paul Euler, Leonhard Faudree, Ralph Graham, Ronald Harary, Frank Heawood, Percy John Kőnig, Dénes Lovász, László Nešetřil, Jaroslav Rényi, Alfréd Ringel, Gerhard Robertson, Neil Seymour, Paul Szemerédi, Endre Thomassen, Carsten Turán, Pál Tutte, W. T. Tyshkevich, Regina Notes References . . English edition, Wiley 1961; Methuen & Co, New York 1962; Russian, Moscow 1961; Spanish, Mexico 1962; Roumanian, Bucharest 1969; Chinese, Shanghai 1963; Second printing of the 1962 first English edition, Dover, New York 2001. . . . . External links Online textbooks Graph Theory with Applications (1976) by Bondy and Murty Encyclopaedia Britannica, Graph Theory Phase Transitions in Combinatorial Optimization Problems, Section 3: Introduction to Graphs (2006) by Hartmann and Weigt An Introduction to Graph Algorithms 1999 by Waltraut Ute Lorch based on Dr Michael Dinneen's lecture notes Digraphs: Theory Algorithms and Applications 2007 by Jorgen Bang-Jensen and Gregory Gutin Graph Theory, by Reinhard Diestel Other resources More people and publications at: Graph Theory Resources Graph theory tutorial Image gallery: graphs GraphViz open source software to produce graph images from a description of the graph GUESS Graph Exploration System( Open Source GPL ) JGraphT an open source Java graph theory library Annas an Open source Java graph and algorithm library Boost Graph Library (BGL) an open source C++ graph theory library QuickGraph an open source C# graph theory library based on the design of the BGL Ruby Graph Library (RGL) an open source Ruby graph theory library based on the design of the BGL LEMON another open source C++ graph theory library NetworkX an open source Python graph theory library Graph theory applied to computer/social networks Concise, annotated list of graph theory resources for researchers GTAD (Graph Toolkit for Algorithms and Drawings) C++ graph library | Graph_theory |@lemmatized drawing:3 graph:141 mathematics:4 computer:7 science:2 theory:49 study:14 mathematical:1 structure:23 use:11 model:3 pairwise:2 relation:1 object:1 certain:3 collection:3 context:2 refer:3 vertex:22 node:1 edge:19 connect:6 pair:2 may:5 undirected:2 mean:4 distinction:1 two:4 associate:1 direct:4 one:7 another:7 see:3 detailed:1 definition:3 variation:1 type:1 commonly:1 consider:2 confuse:2 function:1 kind:3 please:1 glossary:2 basic:1 history:2 königsberg:4 bridge:4 problem:43 paper:5 write:3 leonhard:2 euler:4 seven:2 publish:4 regard:1 first:7 well:1 vandermonde:1 knight:1 carry:1 analysis:8 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6,820 | Assault | Assault is a crime of violence against another person. In some jurisdictions, including Australia and New Zealand, assault refers to an act that causes another to apprehend immediate and personal violence, while in other jurisdictions, such as the United States, assault may refer only to the threat of violence caused by an immediate show of force. Arkansas Code, Title 5, Chapter 13, Subchapter 2, § 205-207 California Penal Code, Part 1, Chapter 9, § 240 On the other hand, in Canada, assault can be simply just touching another without their consent. Assault is often defined to include not only violence, but any physical contact with another person without their consent. In common law jurisdictions, including England and Wales and the United States, battery is the crime that represents the unlawful physical contact, though this distinction does not exist in all jurisdictions. Exceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. In most jurisdictions, the intention to cause grievous bodily harm (or its equivalent) may amount to the mental requirement to prefer a charge of murder in circumstances where the harm inflicted upon the victim proves fatal. Cunningham [1982] AC 566 At common law criminal assault was an attempted battery. The elements of battery are (1) a volitional act An act is volitional if it is purposeful and deliberate as opposed to reflexive or involuntary. For example. a person who has restless leg syndrome kicks his wife while asleep. The contact, although, harmful, would not constitute battery because the act was not wilful. (2) done for the purpose of causing an harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur and (3) which causes such contact. A criminal battery may also be committed if the harmful or offensive contact is due to the criminal negligence of the defendant. Thus throwing a rock at someone for the purpose of hitting him is a battery if the rock in fact strikes the person and is an assault if the rock misses. The fact that the person may have been unaware that the rock had been thrown at him is irrelevant under this definition of assault. Some jurisdictions have incorporated the definition of civil assault into the definition of the crime making it a criminal assault to intentionally place another person in "fear" of a harmful or offensive contact. "Fear" means merely apprehension - awareness rather than any emotional state. Therefore, if you see the rock in flight and realize that you are in danger of being hit then the element of "fear" has been met even if the prospect of being hit by a rock does not frighten you. Aggravated assault Aggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon. A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person: attempts to cause serious bodily injury to another person causes such injury purposely, knowingly, or recklessly in circumstances where the person has exhibited indifference to human life attempts or causes bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon. Aggravated assault is usually differentiated from simple assault by the offender's intent (i.e., to murder, to rape etc.), the extent of the injury to the victim, or the use of a deadly weapon, although legal definitions vary between jurisdictions. For example, North Carolina has the offense of assault with a deadly weapon with intent to kill inflicting serious bodily injury. North Carolina uses the word "assault" generically to include both actual assaults and batteries. The aggravating elements are clearly spelled out in the name of the crime. Sentences for aggravated assault are generally more severe, reflecting the greater degree of harm or malice intended by the perpetrator. In many cases, the perpetrator is sentenced to life in prison, or consecutive life terms depending on how many counts of assault he or she is convicted of. There have been a few rare cases where a perpetrator who assaults someone with a deadly weapon receives the death penalty depending on how much bodily harm has been inflicted onto the victim. The average sentence for aggravated assault in the United States ranges between 1and 8 years in prison per count/charge. General defenses to assaults Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault: Consent Consent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault. (RvG ref 6. 1980): see R v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75) . This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include; surgery, activities within the rules of a game (Burnes), bodily adornment (R v Wilson), or horseplay (Jones and others). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish Law, consent is not a defense for assault. Arrest and other official acts Police officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of effecting an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary. Punishment In some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial caning and other forms of corporal punishment are a part of the legal system. The officers who physically administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault. Some states also permit the use of less severe corporal punishment for children in school and at home by their parents. In English law, s58 Children Act 2004, limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault under s39 Criminal Justice Act 1988. Prevention of crime This may or may not involve self defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence. Defense of property Some states allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a lawful excuse to damaging property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some states, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that he felt threatened by the intruder's presence. Canada The expression assault is defined by section 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code. Similar to the United States, there are many different ways in which an assault can occur. Generally an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person. An assault can also occur when a person attempts to assault another or threatens to do so without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed. The force used must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. Therefore, in certain circumstances, a “tap”, “pinch”, “push”, or other minor physical action can be considered an assault. An accidental application of force is not an assault. The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. Assault The offence is created by section 266 of the Code. Assault with a weapon Section 267(a) of the Code. Assault causing bodily harm See assault causing bodily harm. Aggravated assault Section 268 of the Code. Assaulting a peace officer, etc. Section 270 of the Code. Sexual assault Section 271 of the Code. Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm Section 272 of the Code. Aggravated sexual assault See aggravated sexual assault. India In India, Whoever makes any gesture, or any preparation intending or knowing it to be likely that such gesture or preparation will cause any person present to apprehend that he who makes that gesture or preparation is about to use criminal force to that person, is said to commit as assault. However, mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to his gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault. Nigeria Chapter 29 of Part V of the Criminal Code Act (sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault. Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Pacific Islands Marshall Islands The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code. A person is guilty of this offence if he unlawfully offers or attempts, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another. Republic of Ireland Section 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences Against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm. United Kingdom Assaults on customs and excise officers, etc. Section 16(1)(a) of the Customs and Excise Managment Act 1979 (c.2) provides that it is an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of "assault" in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP [1976] Crim LR 121, DC. Attacks on internationally protected persons Section 1(1)(a) of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978 (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on "protected persons" (including Heads of State). Attacks on UN Staff workers Section 1(2)(a) of the United Nations Personnel Act 1997 (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff. England and Wales Common assault and battery There are two offences: common assault and battery. A person commits the offence strictly known as assault or common assault if he intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. (It is submitted that "violence" in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile). Confusingly, the terms "assault" and "common assault" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as s 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988. Causing a person to apprehend violence can be committed by way of action or words: R v. Ireland [1997] AC 147. Of course, words can also mean that otherwise threatening actions are rendered not capable of being an assault, as in the case of Tuberville v. Savage (1669) 1 Mod 3, T. In that case, the plaintiff told the defendant (while putting his hand on his sword) that he would not stab him, because the circuit judge was visiting town for the local assizes. On that basis, the defendant was deemed to have known that he was not about to be injured, and it was held that no assault had been committed by the plaintiff (so as to justify the defendant's allegedly pre-emptive strike). The "immediacy" required has been the subject of some debate. The leading case, again, is R v. Ireland [1998] AC 147. The House of Lords held that the making of silent telephone calls could amount to an assault, if it caused the victim to believe that physical violence might be used against him in the immediate future. One example of "immediacy" adopted by the House in that case was that a man who said, "I will be at your door in a minute or two," might (in the circumstances where those words amounted to a threat) be guilty of an assault. A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in the magistrates court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a Defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the Defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed. Aggravated assaults Assault occasioning actual bodily harm The offence of assault occasioning actual bodily harm is created by section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Assault with intent to rob The penalty for assault with intent to rob is provided by section 8(2) of the Theft Act 1968. Racially or religiously aggravated common assault This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. If an assault is prosecuted as being racially or religiously aggravated, then it is triable either way and the maximum penalty in this case is up to two years' imprisonment, or a fine, or both. Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. Assault with intent to resist arrest This offence is created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. The offender may intend to resist either his own or someone else's arrest. This offence is also triable either way, and punishable by up to two years' imprisonment. Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty This offence is created by section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996 and is triable only in the magistrates court, so the maximum sentence is twelve months' imprisonment. The "starting sentence," however, is a short custodial sentence, and it is considered a more serious offence than common assault. The constable (normally a police officer) must be acting "in the execution of his duty" for this offence to be made out. If he exceeds the remit of his duty (e.g. acts unlawfully in assaulting the Defendant), the offence will not be made out. The Defendant does not actually have to be aware that the person he is assaulting is a constable (Forbes (1865) 10 Cox CC 362). The fact that the victim is a police officer is not, in itself, an aggravating factor which would justify more serious charge. The criteria for a charge under under section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 do not distinguish between members of the public and police officers as the victim. Under section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996, it is an offence for a person to assault either: a constable acting in the execution of their duty; or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty. This is a summary offence which carries a maximum penalty of six months' imprisonment and/or a fine. According to R (Fullard) v Woking Magistrates' Court (2005) EWHC 2922 (Admin) a constable cannot be acting in the execution of their duty when unlawfully on private property. Thus, if the officer is not acting under the authority of a warrant, acting under a statutory or common law power of entry, or in hot pursuit, the person lawfully in possession of land is entitled to withdraw permission for the officer to remain. Should the officer refuse to leave, the officer will cease to be "acting in the execution of their duty". To make an effective withdrawal of permission, clear words must be used. Merely directing offensive remarks at the officer which amount to 'go away' will not necessarily withdraw any implied permission to enter or remain. Further, when properly required to leave, the officer must be allowed a reasonable opportunity to leave. However, once the opportunity to leave voluntarily has passed, it will not be an assault for the land owner to use reasonable force to cause the officer to leave. However, motive may aggravate when the purpose of the assault is an intent to resist or prevent lawful arrest. Under section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861, this is a hybrid offence, which carries a maximum penalty on indictment of two years' imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine. This offence may also be used for assaults on store detectives or members of the public exercising a right to apprehend or detain an alleged offender committing an arrestable offence. Assault on a prison custody officer This offence is created by section 90(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (c.53). Assault on a secure training centre custody officer This offence is created by section 13(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (c.33). Assault on officer saving wreck This offence is created by section 37 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Sexual assault This offence is created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent. Offences which do not require an assault The law of England and Wales recognises offences of personal injury which can be committed otherwise than by an assault. In particular, although they may be committed by an assault, it is not a necessary ingredient of either inflicting grievous bodily harm contrary to section 20 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 or causing grievous bodily harm with intent contrary to section 18 of that Act: R v. Burstow; R v. Ireland [1998] AC 147, per Lord Steyn at p. 160. Scotland Assault In Scots Law, assault is defined as an "attack upon the person of another". MacDonald, Criminal Law (5th edn, 1948) p.155 The distinction in Scotland between assault and battery is not made, although as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a physical attack on another's person, as demonstrated in Atkinson v. HM Advocate 1987 SCCR 534 where the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter wearing a ski mask, it being upheld that "an assault may be constituted by threatening gestures sufficient to produce alarm". There are a number of 'aggravating factors' which may increase a charge of common assault to aggravated assault, such as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or Hamesaken - to assault a person in his own home. The mens rea for assault is simply "evil intent" MacDonald, op. cit, p.155; Smart v. HM Advocate 1975 JC 30 , however this has been held to mean no more than that assault "cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently" as upheld in Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992 where it was found that a "hold up" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence. Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty Section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. Northern Ireland Common assault and battery (summary offence) See section 42 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Aggravated assault and battery (summary offence) See section 43 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Common assault See section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Assault occasioning actual bodily harm See section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Assault with intent to resist arrest This offence is created by section 7(1)(b) of the Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 (c.28) (N.I.). Formerly this offence was created by s.38 of OAPA 1861. Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty Section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c.32) provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. This offence was formerly created by section 7(1)(a) of the Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 (c.28) (N.I.), which was repealed by the 1998 Act. United States American common law has defined assault as an attempt to commit a battery. Assault is typically treated as a misdemeanor and not as a felony (unless it involves a law enforcement officer). The more serious crime of aggravated assault is treated as a felony. Four elements were required at common law: The apparent, present ability to carry out; An unlawful attempt; To commit a violent injury; Upon another. Simple assault can be distinguished without the intent of injury upon another person. Simple assault can consist simply of the violation of one's personal space or touching in a way the victim deemed inappropriate. (i.e. one's personal space consists of arm's reach.) As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states. Modern American statutes define assault as: an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another; or, negligently causing bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon. Some states also define assault as an attempt to menace (or actual menacing) by placing another person in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. States vary whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double inchoate offense. In some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense, with the result that the misdemeanor is treated as a petty misdemeanor. Furthermore, the crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault are human. Thus, there is no assault if an ox gores a man. However, the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats the fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes, under certain limited circumstances. See H.R. 1997 / P.L. 108-212 Some possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof are: A defendant could argue that since he was drunk, he could not form the specific intent to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail since only involuntary intoxication is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions. A defendant could also argue that he was engaged in mutually consensual behavior. Ancient Greece Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, "hubris" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich. Violations of the law against hubris included what would today be termed assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities, in particular anal sex with a man or a boy; or the theft of public or sacred property. MacDowell (1976) p. 25. Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, Meidias punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second when (in Against Konon) a defendant allegedly assaulted a man and crowed over the victim. Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, "outrageous treatment", in general. The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Ate, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of his/her hubris, or great pride, that leads to his/her death or downfall. Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence". See also Affray Battery (crime) Assault (tort) Street fighting Domestic violence Gay-bashing Hate crime Mayhem Misdemeanor Offences against the Person Act 1861 Terrorist threats Rape Sexual Assault References External links A guide to the non fatal offences against the person Crime prevention: theory & practice H.R. 1997 / P.L. 108-212 Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 Practical Criminal Consideration in Assault Cases What is an assault in Canada? | Assault |@lemmatized assault:148 crime:18 violence:14 another:20 person:56 jurisdiction:14 include:8 australia:1 new:1 zealand:1 refers:1 act:59 cause:23 apprehend:5 immediate:4 personal:6 united:7 state:14 may:21 refer:3 threat:5 show:1 force:13 arkansas:1 code:11 title:1 chapter:3 subchapter:1 california:1 penal:1 part:3 hand:2 canada:4 simply:4 touch:2 without:5 consent:11 often:3 define:9 physical:6 contact:9 common:20 law:16 england:6 wale:5 battery:18 represent:2 unlawful:4 though:3 distinction:2 exist:2 exception:1 cover:1 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6,821 | AMD_K6 | AMD K6 logo The K6 microprocessor was launched by AMD in 1997. The main advantage of this particular microprocessor is that it was designed to fit into existing desktop designs for Pentium branded CPUs. It was marketed as a product which could perform as well as its Intel Pentium II equivalent but at a significantly lower price. The K6 had a considerable impact on the PC market and presented Intel with a serious competition. Background The AMD K6 architecture. The AMD K6 is a superscalar Pentium-class microprocessor, manufactured by AMD, which superseded the K5. It was co-developed by Vinod Dham, lead designer of the Pentium processor. The AMD K6 is based on the Nx686 microprocessor that NexGen was designing when it was acquired by AMD. Despite the name implying a design evolving from the K5, it is in fact a totally different design that was created by the NexGen team and adapted after the AMD purchase. The K6 processor included a feedback dynamic instruction reordering mechanism, MMX instructions, and a floating-point unit (FPU). It was also made pin-compatible with Intel's Pentium, enabling it to be used in the widely available "Socket 7"-based motherboards. Like the Nx686 and Nx586 before it, the K6 translated the Pentium compatible x86 instruction set to RISC-like micro-instructions. A later variation of the K6 CPU, K6-2, added floating point-based SIMD instructions, called 3DNow!. The K6 was originally launched in April 1997, running at speeds of 166 and 200 MHz. It was followed by a 233 MHz version later in 1997. Initially, the AMD K6 processors used a Pentium II-based performance rating (PR2) to designate their speed. The PR2 rating was dropped because the rated frequency of the processor was the same as the real frequency. The release of the 266 MHz version of this chip was not until the second quarter of 1998 when AMD was able to move to the 0.25 micrometre manufacturing process. The lower voltage and higher multiplier of the K6-266 meant that it was not 100% compatible with some Socket 7 motherboards, similar to the later K6-2 processors. The final iteration of the K6 design was released in May 1998 running at 300 MHz. Many viewed the K6 and the acquisition of NexGen as the moment that AMD was put back into the Intel compatible processor market. The actual K6 AMD had been designing was anemic compared to NexGen's design. With the buyout of NexGen, AMD was able to come back into the game with a processor that could perform competitively with Intel's Pentium II. Models Original K6 (Model 6) K6 "Little Foot" (Model 7) K6 (Model 6) 8.8 million transistors in 350 nm L1-Cache: 32 + 32 KB (Data + Instructions) MMX Socket 7 Front side bus: 66 MHz First release: April 2, 1997 VCore: 2.9 V (166/200) 3.2/3.3 V (233) Clockrate: 166, 200, 233 MHz K6 "Little Foot" (Model 7) CPUID: Family 5, Model 7, Stepping 0 8.8 million transistors in 250 nm L1-Cache: 32 + 32 KB (Data + Instructions) MMX Socket 7 Front side bus: 66 MHz First release: January 6, 1998 VCore: 2.2 V Clockrate: 200, 233, 266, 300 MHz References External links AMD: Mobile AMD-K6 Processor Intel's Enemy No. 1: The AMD K6 CPU AMD K6, first of an impressive dynasty Technical overview of the AMD-K6 series Pictures of AMD-K6 chips at CPUShack.com AMD K6 technical specifications technical dissection of the 6th generation x86 CPUs | AMD_K6 |@lemmatized amd:20 logo:1 microprocessor:4 launch:2 main:1 advantage:1 particular:1 design:8 fit:1 exist:1 desktop:1 pentium:8 brand:1 cpu:4 market:3 product:1 could:2 perform:2 well:1 intel:6 ii:3 equivalent:1 significantly:1 low:2 price:1 considerable:1 impact:1 pc:1 present:1 serious:1 competition:1 background:1 architecture:1 superscalar:1 class:1 manufacture:1 supersede:1 co:1 develop:1 vinod:1 dham:1 lead:1 designer:1 processor:8 base:4 nexgen:5 acquire:1 despite:1 name:1 imply:1 evolve:1 fact:1 totally:1 different:1 create:1 team:1 adapt:1 purchase:1 include:1 feedback:1 dynamic:1 instruction:7 reorder:1 mechanism:1 mmx:3 floating:1 point:2 unit:1 fpu:1 also:1 make:1 pin:1 compatible:4 enable:1 use:2 widely:1 available:1 socket:4 motherboards:2 like:2 translate:1 set:1 risc:1 micro:1 late:2 variation:1 add:1 float:1 simd:1 call:1 originally:1 april:2 run:2 speed:2 mhz:8 follow:1 version:2 later:1 initially:1 performance:1 rating:2 designate:1 drop:1 rated:1 frequency:2 real:1 release:4 chip:2 second:1 quarter:1 able:2 move:1 micrometre:1 manufacturing:1 process:1 voltage:1 high:1 multiplier:1 meant:1 similar:1 final:1 iteration:1 may:1 many:1 view:1 acquisition:1 moment:1 put:1 back:2 actual:1 anemic:1 compare:1 buyout:1 come:1 game:1 competitively:1 model:6 original:1 little:2 foot:2 million:2 transistor:2 nm:2 cache:2 kb:2 data:2 front:2 side:2 bus:2 first:3 vcore:2 v:3 clockrate:2 cpuid:1 family:1 step:1 january:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 mobile:1 enemy:1 impressive:1 dynasty:1 technical:3 overview:1 series:1 picture:1 cpushack:1 com:1 specification:1 dissection:1 generation:1 |@bigram intel_pentium:3 cache_kb:2 vcore_v:2 clockrate_mhz:2 external_link:1 |
6,822 | Canadian_football | Diagram of a Canadian football field. Footballs and a helmet at a CFL team practice. Canadian football is a form of gridiron football played chiefly in Canada in which two teams of twelve players each compete for territorial control of a field of play long and wide (100 m × 60 m), Table of exact conversions yards1510152024253035404565110feet31530404560727590105120135195330metres attempting to advance a pointed prolate spheroid ball into the opposing team's scoring area (end zone). In Canada, the term football is used to refer to Canadian football and American football collectively, or either sport specifically, depending on the context. The two sports have shared origins and are closely related, but with significant differences. Rugby football in Canada had its origins in the early 1860s, and over time, the unique game known as Canadian football developed. Both the Canadian Football League (CFL), the sport's top professional league, and Football Canada, the governing body for amateur play, trace their roots to 1884 and the founding of the Canadian Rugby Football Union. Currently active teams such as the Toronto Argonauts and Hamilton Tiger-Cats have similar longevity. The CFL is the most popular and only major professional Canadian football league. Its championship game, the Grey Cup, is the country's single largest sporting event and is watched by nearly one third of Canadian television households. Canadian football is also played at the high school, junior, collegiate, and semi-professional levels: the Canadian Junior Football League and Quebec Junior Football League are large leagues for players aged 18–22, many post-secondary institutions compete in Canadian Interuniversity Sport for the Vanier Cup, and senior leagues such as the Alberta Football League have grown in popularity in recent years. Great achievements in Canadian football are enshrined in the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. Other organizations across Canada perform senior league Canadian football during the summer. One example is the Maritime Football League. MFL, provides a safe and enjoyable post high school, community based, competitive-developmental tackle football league for athletes living in the Maritime Provinces of Canada History A game between the Hamilton Tigers and an unknown Ottawa team, 1910. A game between the 4th Canadian Armoured Division Atoms and 1st Canadian Army Red and Blue Bombers, in Utrecht, Netherlands, October 1945. Touchdown monument outside the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in Hamilton, Ontario. The first documented gridiron football match was a game played at University College, University of Toronto on November 9, 1861. A football club was formed at the university soon afterwards, although its rules of play at this stage are unclear. In 1864, at Trinity College, Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland and Frederick A. Bethune devised rules based on rugby football. However, modern Canadian football is widely regarded as having originated with a game of rugby played in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians. The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, the first recorded non-university football club in Canada. This rugby-football soon became popular at Montreal's McGill University. McGill challenged Harvard University to a game, in 1874. It is through this varsity play, that the game now known as American football entered the United States. gridiron football - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Predecessors of the Canadian Football League include the Canadian Rugby Football Union (CRFU), and the Canadian Rugby Union. The CRFU, original forerunner to the current Canadian Football League, was established in 1882. As the rules of American football are very similar to Canadian football, the CFL has maintained a close relationship with its American counterpart, the National Football League (NFL). Many American players come to the CFL after failed bids to catch on in the NFL or play in the NFL after playing in the CFL (Joe Theismann, Warren Moon, Doug Flutie, Mervyn Fernandez). League play Canadian football is played at several levels in Canada. The professional league in which the sport is played is the eight-team Canadian Football League (CFL), and its champion is awarded the Grey Cup, the oldest trophy in professional football. The CFL regular season begins in June, and play-offs are completed by mid-November. In cities with outdoor stadiums such as Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Montreal, Hamilton, and Regina, low temperatures and icy field conditions can seriously affect the outcome of a game. Amateur football is governed by Football Canada. At the university level, 27 teams play in four conferences under the auspices of Canadian Interuniversity Sport; the CIS champion is awarded the Vanier Cup. Junior football is played by many after high school before joining the university ranks. There are twenty junior teams in three divisions in the Canadian Junior Football League competing for the Canadian Bowl. The Quebec Junior Football League includes teams from Ontario and Quebec who battle for the Manson Cup. Semi-professional leagues have grown in popularity in recent years, with the Alberta Football League becoming especially popular. The Northern Football Conference formed in Ontario in 1954 also has surged in popularity as College players that do not continue to or get drafted to a professional team but still want to continue playing football. The Ontario champion plays against the Alberta Football league champion for a "National Championship".The Canadian Major Football League is the governing body for the semi-professional game. The field The Canadian football field is long and wide with end zones deep. At each goal line is a set of high goalposts, which consist of two uprights joined by a 18½-foot long crossbar which is above the goal line. The goalposts may be H-shaped (both posts fixed in the ground) although in the higher-calibre competitions the tuning-fork design (supported by a single curved post behind the goal line, so that each post starts above the ground) is preferred. The sides of the field are marked by white sidelines, the goal line is marked in white, and white lines are drawn laterally across the field every from the goal line. Play of the game Teams advance across the field through the execution of quick, distinct plays, which involve the possession of a brown, prolate spheroid ball with ends tapered to a point. The ball has two one-inch-wide white stripes. Kickoff Play begins with one team place-kicking the ball from its own line. Both teams then attempt to catch the ball. The player who recovers the ball may run while holding the ball, or throw the ball to a teammate, so long as the throw is not forward. Stoppage of play Play stops when the ball carrier's knee, elbow, or any other body part aside from the feet and hands, is forced to the ground (a tackle); when a touchdown (see below) or a field goal is scored; when the ball leaves the playing area by any means (being carried, thrown, or fumbled out of bounds); or when the ball carrier is in a standing position but can no longer move. If no score has been made, the next play starts from scrimmage. Scrimmage Before scrimmage, an official places the ball at the spot it became dead, but no nearer than from the sideline or from the goal line. The line parallel to the goal line passing through the ball (line from sideline to sideline for the length of the ball) is referred to as the line of scrimmage. This line is a sort of "no-man's land"; players must stay on their respective sides of this line until the play has begun again. For a scrimmage to be valid the team in possession of the football must have seven players, excluding the quarterback, within one yard of the line of scrimmage. The defending team must stay a yard or more back from the line of scrimmage. Live play Montreal Alouettes quarterback Anthony Calvillo looks down field with the ball during the 93rd Grey Cup game at BC Place. Edmonton's Commonwealth Stadium: the largest venue in the Canadian Football League and the only one with a natural grass playing surface. On the field at the beginning of a play are two teams of twelve (unlike eleven in American football). The team in possession of the ball is the offence and the team defending is referred to as the defence. Play begins with a backwards pass through the legs (the snap) by a member of the offensive team, to the quarterback or punter. If the quarterback or punter receives the ball, he may then do any of the following: run with the ball, attempting to run farther down field (gaining yardage). The ball-carrier may run in any direction he sees fit (including backwards). drop-kick the ball, dropping it onto the ground and kicking it on the bounce. (This play is exceedingly rare in both Canadian and American football, although in the Canadian game it is sometimes used as a last-second "desperation play" if the team is behind by less than three points.) pass the ball laterally or backwards to a teammate. This play is known as a lateral, and may come at any time on the play. A pass which has any amount of forward momentum is a forward pass (see below); forward passes are subject to many restrictions which do not apply to laterals. hand-off—hand the ball off to a teammate, typically a halfback or the fullback. punt the ball; dropping it in the air and kicking it before it touches the ground. When the ball is punted, only opposing players (the receiving team), the kicker, and anyone behind the kicker when he punted the ball are able to touch the ball, or even go within five yards of the ball until it is touched by an eligible player (the No Yards rule, which is applied to all kicking plays). place the ball on the ground for a place kick throw a forward pass, where the ball is thrown to a receiver located farther down field (closer to the opponent's goal) than the thrower is. Forward passes are subject to the following restrictions: They must be made from behind the line of scrimmage Only one forward pass may be made on a play The pass must be made in the direction of an eligible receiver. Each play constitutes a down. The offence must advance the ball at least ten yards towards the opponents' goal line within three downs or forfeit the ball to their opponents. Once ten yards have been gained the offence gains a new set of three downs (rather than the four downs given in American football). Downs do not accumulate. If the offensive team completes on their first play, they lose the other two downs and are granted another set of three. If a team fails to gain ten yards in two downs they usually punt the ball on third down or try to kick a field goal (see below), depending on their position on the field. Change in possession The ball changes possession in the following instances: If the offence scores a field goal; the defence has the right to claim possession either by starting from scrimmage at their own line, or by receiving a kickoff. If the offence scores a touchdown, the scoring team must kickoff from their own line. This also applies when the defence scores on a turnover which is returned for a touchdown — technically, they become the offence until the conclusion of the play, and the scoring team must still kickoff. If the defence scores on a safety, they have the right to claim possession. If one team kicks the ball; the other team has the right to recover the ball and attempt a return. If a kicked ball goes out of bounds, or the kicking team scores a single or field goal as a result of the kick, the other team likewise gets possession. If the offence fails to make ten yards in three plays, the defence takes over on downs. If the offence attempts a forward pass and it is intercepted by the defence; the defence takes possession immediately (and may try and advance the ball on the play). Note that incomplete forward passes (those which go out of bounds, or which touch the ground without being first cleanly caught by a player) result in the end of the play, and are not returnable by either team. If the offence fumbles (a ball carrier drops the football, or has it dislodged by an opponent, or if the intended player fails to catch a lateral pass or a snap from centre, or a kick attempt is blocked by an opponent), the ball may be recovered (and advanced) by either team. If a fumbled ball goes out of bounds, the team whose player last touched it is awarded possession at the spot where it went out of bounds. A fumble by the offence in their own end zone, which goes out of bounds, results in a safety. When the first half ends, the team which kicked to start the first half may receive a kickoff to start the second half. Rules of contact There are many rules to contact in this type of football. First, the only player on the field who may be legally tackled is the player currently in possession of the football (the ball carrier). Second, a receiver, that is to say, an offensive player sent down the field to receive a pass, may not be interfered with (have his motion impeded, be blocked, etc.) unless he is within one yard of the line of scrimmage (as opposed to in American football). Any player may block another player's passage, so long as he does not hold or trip the player he intends to block. The kicker may not be contacted after the kick but before his kicking leg returns to the ground (this rule is not enforced upon a player who has blocked a kick), and the quarterback, having already thrown the ball, may not be hit or tackled. Infractions and penalties Infractions of the rules are punished with penalties, typically a loss of yardage of 5, 10 or against the penalized team. Minor violations such as offside (a player from either side encroaching into scrimmage zone before the play starts) are penalized five yards, more serious penalties (such as holding) are penalized , and severe violations (such as face-masking) of the rules are typically penalized . Depending on the penalty, the penalty yardage may be assessed from the original line of scrimmage, the spot the violation occurred, or the place the ball ended after the play. Penalties on the offence may, or may not, result in a loss of down; penalties on the defence may result in a first down being automatically awarded to the offence. For particularly severe conduct, the game official(s) may eject players (ejected players may be substituted for), or in exceptional cases, declare the game over and award victory to one side or the other. Penalties do not affect the yard line which the offence must reach in order to reach first down (unless the penalty results in a first down being awarded); if a penalty against the defence results in the first down yardage being attained, then the offence is awarded a first down. Penalties may occur before a play starts (such as offsides), during the play (such as holding), or in a dead-ball situation (such as unsportsmanlike conduct). Penalties never result in a score for the offence (a penalty by the defence committed in their end zone is not ruled a touchdown); on rare occasions, penalties against the offence in their own end zone may result in a safety being scored by the defence. If the penalty yardage, once assessed would move the ball into an end zone (or further than half the distance between the end zone and the spot the penalty is assessed from), a penalty of half-the-distance is assessed instead. Note that in Canadian football (unlike American football), no scrimmage may start inside either one-yard line. In most cases, the non-penalized team will have the option of declining the penalty; in which case the results of the previous play stand as if the penalty had not been called. One notable exception to this rule is if the kicking team on a 3rd down punt play is penalized before the kick occurs; the receiving team may not decline the penalty and take over on downs. (After the kick is made, change of possession occurs and subsequent penalties are assessed against either the spot where the ball is caught, or the runback). Kicking Canadian football distinguishes three ways of kicking the ball: Place kick Kicking a ball held on the ground by a teammate, or, on a kickoff (resuming play following a score), placed on a tee. Drop kick Kicking a ball after bouncing it on the ground. Although rarely used today, it has the same status in scoring as a place kick. This play is part of the game's rugby heritage, and was largely made obsolete when the ball with pointed ends was adapted. Unlike the American game, Canadian rules allow a drop kick to be attempted at any time by any player, but the move is very rare. Punt Kicking the ball after it has been released from the kicker's hand and before it hits the ground. Punts may not score a field goal, even if one should travel through the uprights. As with drop kicks, players may punt at any time. On punts and field goal attempts (but not kickoffs), members of the kicking team, other than the kicker and any teammates who are onside (behind the kicker at the time of the kick), may not approach within five yards of the ball until it has been touched by the receiving team. Scoring The methods of scoring are: Touchdown Achieved when the ball is in possession of a player in the opponent's goal area, or when the ball in the possession of a player crosses or touches the plane of the opponent's goal-line, worth 6 points (5 points until 1956). A touchdown in Canadian football is often referred to as a "major score" or simply a "major." Conversion (or Convert) After a touchdown, the team that scored attempts one scrimmage play from any point between the hash marks on or outside the opponents' line. If they make what would normally be a field goal, they score one point; what would normally be a touchdown scores two points (a "two-point conversion"). No matter what happens on the convert attempt, play then continues with a kickoff (see below). Field goal Scored by a drop kick or place kick (except on a kickoff) when the ball, after being kicked and without again touching the ground, goes over the cross bar and between the goal posts (or between lines extended from the top of the goal posts) of the opponent's goal, worth three points. Safety Scored when the ball becomes dead in the possession of a team in its own goal area, or when the ball touches or crosses the dead-line, or side-line-in-goal and touches the ground, a player, or some object beyond these lines as a result of the team scored against making a play. It is worth two points. This is different from a single (see below) in that the team scored against begins with possession of the ball. The most common safety is on a third down punt from the end zone, in which the kicker decides not to punt and keeps the ball in his team's own goal area. The ball is then turned over to the receiving team (who gained the two points), and they begin their first down possession play from their own line on their side of the field. Single Scored when the ball becomes dead in the possession of a team in its own goal area, or when the ball touches or crosses the dead-line, or side-line-in-goal, and touches the ground, a player, or some object beyond these lines as a result of the ball having been kicked from the field of play into the goal area by the scoring team. It is worth one point. This is different from a Safety (see above) in that team scored against receives possession of the ball after the score. Officially, the single is called a rouge (French for "red") but is often referred to as a single. The exact derivation of the term is unknown but it has been thought that, in early Canadian football, the scoring of a single was signalled with a red flag. Resumption of play Resumption of play following a score is conducted under procedures which vary with the type of score. Following a touchdown and convert attempt (successful or not), play resumes with the scoring team kicking off from its own line (45-yard line in amateur leagues). Following a field goal, the non-scoring team may choose for play to resume either with a kickoff as above, or by scrimmaging the ball from its own line. Following a safety, the scoring team may choose for play to resume in either of the above ways, or it may choose to kick off from its own line. Following a single or rouge, play resumes with the non-scoring team scrimmaging from its own line, unless the single is awarded on a missed field goal, in which case the non-scoring team scrimmages from either the line or the yard line from which the field goal was attempted, whichever is greater. Game timing Montreal Alouettes cheerleaders entertain the crowd during a timeout in a game against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats at Molson Stadium, Montreal, 2006. The game consists of two 30-minute halves, each of which is divided into two 15-minute quarters. The clock counts down from 15:00 in each quarter. Timing rules change when there are three minutes remaining in a half. A short break interval occurs after the end of each quarter (a longer break at halftime), and the two teams then change goals. In the first 27 minutes of a half, the clock stops when: points are scored, the ball goes out of bounds, a forward pass is incomplete, the ball is dead and a penalty flag has been thrown, the ball is dead and teams are making substitutions (e.g., possession has changed, punting situation, short yardage situation), the ball is dead and a player is injured, or the ball is dead and a captain calls a time-out. The clock starts again when the referee determines the ball is ready for scrimmage, except for team time-outs (where the clock starts at the snap), after a time count foul (at the snap) and kickoffs (where the clock starts not at the kick but when the ball is first touched after the kick). In the last three minutes of a half, the clock stops whenever the ball becomes dead. On kickoffs, the clock starts when the ball is first touched after the kick. On scrimmages, when it starts depends on what ended the previous play. The clock starts when the ball is ready for scrimmage except that it starts on the snap when on the previous play the ball was kicked off, the ball was punted, the ball changed possession, the ball went out of bounds, there were points scored, there was an incomplete forward pass, there was a penalty applied (not declined), or there was a team time-out. The clock does not run during convert attempts in the last three minutes of a half. If the 15 minutes of a quarter expire while the ball is live, the quarter is extended until the ball becomes dead. If a quarter's time expires while the ball is dead, the quarter is extended for one more scrimmage. A quarter cannot end while a penalty is pending: after the penalty yardage is applied, the quarter is extended one scrimmage. Note that the non-penalized team has the option to decline any penalty it considers disadvantageous, so a losing team cannot indefinitely prolong a game by repeatedly committing penalties. Players The University of Alberta Golden Bears (yellow and white, offence) are first-and-ten at their line against the Calgary Dinos (red and black, defence) in a CIS football game at McMahon Stadium in 2006. The twelve players of each side and the umpire (one of seven officials) are shown. The Golden Bears are in a one-back offence with five receivers. Offense The offensive positions found in Canadian football have, for the most part, evolved throughout the years, and are not officially defined in the rules. However, among offensive players, the rules recognize three different types of players: Down linemen Down linemen are players who, at the start of every play, line up at the line of scrimmage; once in their stance they may not move until the play begins. The offence must have at least seven players lined up at the line of scrimmage on every play. The exception to this rule is the player (typically the centre) who snaps the ball to the quarterback. Linemen generally do not run with the ball (unless they recover it on a fumble) or receive a hand-off or lateral pass, but there is no rule against it. Interior linemen (that is, excluding the two players at either end of the scrimmage line) are ineligible receivers; they may not receive a forward pass either. (The two offensive ends on the line of scrimmage may receive forward passes.) Backs Backs line up behind the linemen; they may run with the ball, receive handoffs, laterals, and forward passes. They may also be in motion before the play starts. Specific offensive positions include: Backs/Receivers Quarterback Generally the leader of the offence. Calls all plays to teammates, receives the ball off of snap, and initiates the action usually by running the ball himself, passing the ball to a receiver, or handing the ball off to another back. Fullback Multiple roles including pass protection, receiving, and blocking for the running back. On short yardage situations may also carry the ball. Running back/Tailback As the name implies, the main runner on the team. Also an eligible receiver and blocker on pass plays. Wide receiver Lines up on the line of scrimmage, usually at a distance from the centre. Runs down the field in order to catch a forward pass from the quarterback. Slotback Similar to the wide receiver, but lines up closer to the offensive line. Down linemen Centre Snaps the ball to the quarterback. Most important pass blocker on pass plays. Calls offensive-line plays. Left/right guard Stands to the left and right of the centre helps protect the quarterback, Usually very good run blockers to open holes up the middle for runners. Left/right tackle Stands on the ends of the offensive line, The biggest men on the line, usually well over 300 pounds (140 kg). Usually very good pass blockers. Offensive lineman Collective name for centre, guards, and tackles. Defence BC Lions quarterback Dave Dickenson calls out a play at the line of scrimmage in a game against the Saskatchewan Roughriders at BC Place. The Lions (wearing orange jerseys) have extra blockers in to counter a blitzing Saskatchewan defence. The rules do not constrain how the defence may arrange itself (other than the requirement that they must remain one yard behind the line of scrimmage until the play starts). Cornerback Covers the wide receivers on most plays. Safety Covers deep. Last line of defence, can offer run support or blitz. Defensive halfback Covers the slotback and helps contain the run from going to the outside. Defensive back Collective term for cornerback, safety, and defensive halfback. Nose tackle Lineman across from centre, tries to get past the offensive-line or take double team and open holes for blitzes. Defensive tackle Inside defensive linemen try to break through the offensive line and open holes for linebackers. Defensive end Main rushing lineman. Rushes the quarterback and try to contain rushers behind the line of scrimmage. Middle linebacker Lines up across from the centre 3 to back. Quarterback of the defence. Calls plays for lineman and linebackers. Weak-side linebacker Lines up on the short side of field, and can drop into pass coverage or contain. Strong-side linebacker Lines up on the opposite side and usually rushes. Special teams Special teams generally refers to kicking plays, which typically involve a change in possession. Holder Receives the snap on field goal tries and converts; places the ball in position and holds it to be kicked by the kicker. This position is generally filled by a reserve quarterback; occasionally the starting quarterback or punter will fill in as holder. Kicker Kicks field goals, converts, kick-offs Punter Punts ball, usually on third downs Returners Fast, agile runners who specialize in fielding punts and kickoffs, attempting to advance them for better field position or a score. See also Comparison of Canadian and American football Glossary of Canadian football List of football teams in Canada Notes and references Bibliography Stebbins, Robert A. (1993) Canadian Football: The View from the Helmet. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars Press. 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6,823 | Nuremberg | Nuremberg ( ) is a city in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia. It is situated on the Pegnitz river and the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and is Franconia's largest city. It is located about 170 kilometres north of Munich, at 49.27° N 11.5° E. The population (as of January 2006) is 500,132. Nuremberg and its closest suburbs make up an urban area of 1,020,000 (2001) habitants. History Middle Ages Old fortifications of Nuremberg From 1050 to 1571, the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade routes. It is often referred to as having been the 'unofficial capital' of the Holy Roman Emperor, particularly because Reichstage (Imperial Diets) and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the administrative structure of the empire. In 1219 Nuremberg became an Imperial Free City under Emperor Frederick II. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. In 1298, the Jews of the town were accused of having desecrated the host and 698 were slain in one of the many Rintfleisch Massacres. Behind the massacre in 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz River. Jews had been settled in that flood-prone area, but as the city leaders realized, this center of town was crucial to its future development. Hence, the Jewish population had to be removed. This area is now the place of the City Market, Frauenkirche and Rathaus (City Hall). Early modern age Nuremberg in 1493 (from the Nuremberg Chronicle). De revolutionibus, 1543 Jews being exiled from Nuremberg, 1670. The cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the center of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, the religious Peace of Nuremberg, by which the Lutherans gained important concessions, was signed there. In 1632 during the Thirty Years' War, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein. The city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the nineteenth century, when it grew as an industrial center. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Nuremberg was practically bankrupt. In 1806 with the Holy Roman Empire formally being dissolved, Nuremberg passed to Bavaria. The Bavarian state took over the city's debts and guaranteed their amortization. The first German railway, from Nuremberg to nearby Fürth, was opened in 1835. Nazi era Nuremberg party rally 1935 Nuremberg held great significance during the Nazi Germany era. Because of the city's relevance to the Holy Roman Empire and its position in the centre of Germany, the Nazi Party chose the city to be the site of huge Nazi Party conventions–the Nuremberg rallies. The rallies were held annually from 1927 to 1938 in Nuremberg. After Hitler's rise to power in 1933 the Nuremberg rallies became huge state propaganda events, a center of Nazi ideals. At the 1935 rally, Hitler specifically ordered the Reichstag to convene at Nuremberg to pass the anti-Semitic Nuremberg Laws which revoked German citizenship for all Jews. A number of premises were constructed solely for these assemblies, some of which were not finished. Today many examples of Nazi architecture can still be seen in the city. The city was also the home of the Nazi propagandist Julius Streicher, the publisher of Der Stürmer. During World War II, Nuremberg was the headquarters of Wehrkreis (military district) XIII, and an important site for military production, including airplanes, submarines, and tank engines. A subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located here. Extensive use was made of slave labour. Christine O'Keefe. Concentration Camps The city was severely damaged in Allied strategic bombing from 1943-1945. On January 2, 1945, the medieval city centre was systematically bombed by the Royal Air Force and the U.S. Army Air Forces and about ninety percent of it was destroyed in only one hour, with 1,800 residents killed and roughly 100,000 displaced. In February 1945, additional attacks followed. In total, about 6,000 Nuremberg residents are estimated to have been killed in air raids. Despite this, the city was rebuilt after the war and was to some extent, restored to its pre-war appearance including the reconstruction of some of its medieval buildings. Neil Gregor, Haunted City. Nuremberg and the Nazi Past (New Haven, 2008 Defendants in the dock at Nuremberg Trials Nuremberg Trials Between 1945 and 1946, German officials involved in the Holocaust and other war crimes were brought before an international tribunal in the Nuremberg Trials. The Soviet Union had wanted these trials to take place in Berlin, but Nuremberg was chosen as the site for the trials for specific reasons: It was located in the American occupation zone The Palace of Justice was spacious and largely undamaged (one of the few that had remained largely intact despite extensive Allied bombing of Germany). The already large courtroom was reasonably easily expanded by the removal of the wall at the end opposite the bench, thereby incorporating the adjoining room. A large prison was also part of the complex. The city had been the location of the Nazi Party's Nuremberg rallies and the laws stripping Jews of their citizenship were passed there. There was symbolic value in making it the place of Nazi demise. As a compromise, it was agreed that Berlin would become the permanent seat of the International Military Tribunal and that the first trial (several were planned) would take place in Nuremberg. Due to the Cold War, subsequent trials never took place. The same courtroom in Nuremberg was the venue of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals, organised by the United States as occupying power in the area. Economy Hl. Geistspital, Holy Spirit Hospital Nuremberg for many people is still associated with its traditional gingerbread (Lebkuchen) products, sausages, and handmade toys. Pocket watches — Nuremberg eggs — were made here in the sixteenth century by Peter Henlein. In the nineteenth century Nuremberg became the "industrial heart" of Bavaria with companies such as Siemens and MAN establishing a strong base in the city. Nuremberg is still an important industrial center with a strong standing in the markets of Central and Eastern Europe. Items manufactured in the area include electrical equipment, mechanical and optical products, motor vehicles, and printed materials. The city is also strong in the fields of automation, energy, and medical technology. Siemens is still the largest industrial employer in the Nuremberg region but a good third of German market research agencies is also located in the city. The Nuremberg International Toy Fair is the largest of its kind in the world. The city also hosts several specialist hi-tech fairs every year, attracting experts from every corner of the globe. Culture Towers of Saint Sebald and the Castle as seen from Saint Lorenz. Nuremberg was an early center of humanism, science, printing, and mechanical invention. The city contributed much to the science of astronomy. In 1471 Johannes Mueller of Königsberg (Bavaria), later called Regiomontanus, built an astronomical observatory in Nuremberg and published many important astronomical charts. In 1515, Albrecht Dürer, a native of Nuremberg, mapped the stars of the northern and southern hemispheres, producing the first printed star charts, which had been ordered by Johannes Stabius. Around 1515 Dürer also published the "Stabiussche Weltkarte", the first perspective drawing of the terrestrial globe. Perhaps most famously, the main part of Nicolaus Copernicus' work was published in Nuremberg in 1543. Printers and publishers have a long history in Nuremberg. Many of these publishers worked with well-known artists of the day to produce books that could also be considered works of art. In 1470 Anton Koberger opened Europe's first print shop in Nuremberg. In 1493, he published the Nuremberg Chronicles, also known as the World Chronicles (Schedelsche Weltchronik), an illustrated history of the world from the creation to the present day. It was written in the local Franconian dialect by Hartmann Schedel and had illustrations by Michael Wohlgemuth, Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, and Albrecht Dürer. Others furthered geographical knowledge and travel by map making. Notable among these was navigator and geographer Martin Behaim, who made the first world globe. Sculptors such as Veit Stoss and Peter Vischer are also associated with Nuremberg. Composed of prosperous artisans, the guilds of the Meistersingers flourished here. Richard Wagner made their most famous member, Hans Sachs, the hero of his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel was born here and was organist of St. Sebaldus Church. Nuremberg is also famous for its Christmas market, which draws well over a million shoppers each year. The market is famous for its handmade ornaments and delicacies. Main sights View over old Nuremberg from Spittlertor-TowerDutzendteich and Kongresshalle in the backgroundThe Frauenkirche (Church of our lady) as seen from the Hauptmarkt The southern part of the old town, known as Lorenzer Seite, is separated from the north by the river Pegnitz and encircled to the south by the city walls. Nuremberg Castle: the three castles that tower over the city including central burgraves' castle, with Free Reich's buildings to the east, the Imperial castle to the west. Heilig-Geist-Spital. In the centre of the city, on the bank of the river Pegnitz, stands the Hospital of the Holy Spirit. Founded in 1332, this is one of the largest hospitals of the Middle Ages. Lepers were kept here at some distance from the other patients. It now houses elderly persons and a restaurant. Hauptmarkt, which provides a picturesque setting and famous market for gingerbread. Nuremberg's star attraction is the Gothic Schöner Brunnen (Beautiful Fountain) which was erected around 1385 but subsequently replaced with a replica (the original fountain is kept in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum). The unchanged Renaissance bridge Fleischbrücke crosses the Pegnitz nearby. The following churches are located inside the city walls: St. Sebaldus Church, St. Lorenz, Frauenkirche (Our Lady's Church), Saint Klara, Saint Martha, Saint Jakob, Saint Egidien, and Saint Elisabeth. Gothic St Lorenz-Kirche (St. Lorenz church, St. Lorenz), one of the most important buildings in Nuremberg. The main body was built around 1270-1350. The church of the former Katharinenkloster is preserved as a ruin, the Cartause is integrated into the building of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum and the choir of the former Franzikanerkirche is part of a modern building. The Walburga Chapel and the Romanesque Doppelkapelle (Chapel with two floors) are part of Nuremberg Castle. The Johannisfriedhof is a medieval cemetery, containing many old graves (Albrecht Dürer, Willibald Pirckheimer, and others). The Rochusfriedhof or the Wöhrder Kirchhof are near the Old Town. The Tiergarten Nürnberg is a zoo stretching over more than 60 ha in the Nürnberger Reichswald. It is the home of Flocke, an orphan polar bear cub who in 2008 became a major attraction and a figure of a large publicity campaign for Nuremberg's metropolitan region. There is also a medieval market just inside the city walls, selling handcrafted goods. The German National Railways Museum (an Anchor Point of ERIH, The European Route of Industrial Heritage) is located in Nuremberg. The Nuremberg Ring (now welded within an iron fence) is said to bring good luck to those that touch it. Transport The city's location next to numerous highways, railways, and a waterway has contributed to its rising importance for trade with Eastern Europe. Motorways Nuremberg is conveniently located at the junction of several important Autobahn routes. The A3 (Netherlands-Frankfurt-Würzburg-Vienna) passes in a south-easterly direction along the north-east of the city. The A9 (Berlin-Munich) passes in a north-south direction on the east of the city. The A6 (France-Saarbrücken-Prague) passes in an east-west direction to the south of the city. Finally, the A73 begins in the south-east of Nuremberg and travels north-west through the city before continuing towards Fürth and Bamberg. Railways Class 101 locomotive at Nuremberg Hauptbahnhof Nürnberg Hauptbahnhof is a stop for IC and ICE trains on the German long-distance railway network. The Nuremberg–Ingolstadt–Munich High-Speed line with 300 km/h operation opened May 28 2006, and was fully integrated into the rail schedule on December 10 2006. Travel times to Munich have been reduced to as little as one hour. Airport Nuremberg Airport has flights to major German cities and many European destinations, as well as connecting flights worldwide, for example via Frankfurt or Vienna. Air Berlin uses Nuremberg Airport as the airline's hub, especially in the winter season. City and regional transport Nuremberg U-Bahn train The first segment of the Nuremberg U-Bahn metro system was opened in 1972. The system, along with trams and buses, are operated by the VAG Nürnberg (Verkehrsaktiengesellschaft Nürnberg or Nuremberg Transport Corporation), itself a member of the VGN (Verkehrsverbund Großraum Nürnberg or Greater Nuremberg Transport Network). There is also a Nuremberg S-Bahn suburban metro railway and a regional train network, both centred on Nuremberg Central Station. Since 2008, Nuremberg has the first U-Bahn in Germany (U3) that works without driver. It also is the first subway system worldwide in which both driver-operated trains and computer-controlled trains share tracks. Canals Nuremberg is an important port on the Main-Danube Canal. Sport Football 1. FC Nuremberg, known locally as Der Club, was founded in 1900 and is steeped in tradition. The team plays in the Second Bundesliga. The official colours of the association are red and white, but the traditional colours are red and black. The current president is Michael A. Roth. They play in the EasyCredit Stadium, which was rebuilt for the World Cup in 2006 and accommodates 46,780. German Champion: 1920, 1921, 1924, 1925, 1927, 1936, 1948, 1961, 1968 German Cup: 1935, 1939, 1962, 2007 Sister cities Worldwide, Nuremberg is twinned with the following cities: Nice, France, since 1954 Kraków, Poland, since 1979 Skopje, Macedonia, since 1982 Glasgow, Scotland, since 1985 San Carlos, Nicaragua, since 1985 Gera, Germany, since 1988, renewed 1997 Prague, Czech Republic, since 1990 Kharkiv, Ukraine, since 1990 Hadera, Israel, since 1995 Shenzhen, China since 1997 (For this reason, Shenzhen set its European Contact Agency in Nuremberg) Antalya, Turkey, since 1997 Kavala, Greece, since 1998 Atlanta, United States, since 1998 Venice, Italy, since 1999 Partner cities Apart from the official twin towns (sister cities), there are a number of municipalities with which Nuremberg maintains "cordial relations": Klausen / Chiusa, Italy 1970 Kalkudah, Sri Lanka 2005 Verona, Italy 2006 Kronstadt/Brasov, Romania 2006 Bologna, Italy 2006 Bar, Montenegro 2006 Cordoba, Spain 2008 There is also economic co-operation with other regions or towns, such as: Changping, China 2006 Nuremberg districts Several old villages now belong to the city of Nuremberg, for example Großgründlach, Kraftshof, Thon, and Neunhof in the north-west; Ziegelstein in the north-east, Altenfurt and Fischbach in the south-east; and Katzwang, Kornburg in the south. Langwasser is a modern suburb. Famous citizens Chaya Arbel (Israeli composer) Hans Behaim the Elder Ernst von Bibra Peter Bucher Albrecht Dürer Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach Hermann Kesten (writer) Kaspar Hauser Peter Henlein Anton Koberger Adam Kraft (sculptor and architect) Kunz Lochner Max Morlock Johann Pachelbel Conrad Paumann Hans Sachs Hartmann Schedel Alexander Schreiner organist, Mormon Tabernacle Veit Stoss Peter Vischer the Elder Johann Christoph Volckamer who authored here his Hesperides. Johann Philipp von Wurzelbauer See also Nuremberg Trials Nuremberg Rally Christkindlesmarkt, Nuremberg Nürnberger Bratwürste Lebkuchen (gingerbread, specialty of Nuremberg) Tinsel (invented in Nuremberg) Triumph of the Will of Leni Riefenstahl Nuremberg Toy Museum ("Spielzeugmuseum") :de:Geschichte der Stadt Nürnberg (History of the City of Nuremberg, in German) Germanisches Nationalmuseum Labour Exchange Headquarters ("Arbeitsamt", now "Agentur für Arbeit") Norisring Racetrack, where Pedro Rodriguez died in 1971 List of mayors of Nuremberg Nuremberg Underground References External links English website of the city Tramway in Nuremberg 49 digitized objects on Nuremberg in The European Library Aerial photos of Nuremberg: NÜRNBERGLUFTBILD Illustrated chronicles of two Nuremberg foundations set up to care for indigent and elderly craftspeople, which lasted from the 14th to the 19th century. , with English glossary of vocations | Nuremberg |@lemmatized nuremberg:90 city:44 german:12 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6,824 | Economy_of_Italy | The economy of Italy has changed dramatically since the end of World War II. From an agriculturally based economy, it has developed into an industrial country ranked by both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund as the world's seventh largest economy in USD exchange-rate terms and tenth largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) by World Bank, IMF and the CIA World Factbook. More recently, Italy has faced sluggish economic growth and reduced international competitiveness. The country belongs to the Group of Seven (G7) industrialized nations; it is a member of the European Union and the OECD. Italy's economic strength is in the processing and the manufacturing of goods, primarily in small and medium-sized family-owned firms. The country has been less successful in terms of developing world class multinational corporations. In addition, the small and medium-sized firms typically manufacture products that are technologically moderately advanced and therefore increasingly face crushing international competition. Italy's economic growth ranged from 1% in 1996 to a 3.7% peak in 2000, which was above the EU projected growth rate of 3.10%, but nevertheless remained one of the lowest among industrialised countries. Since 2002, growth has been gradually slowing, reaching recession twice, in 2003 and in 2008. A 2005 report of The Economist, entitled Addio, dolce vita ("Farewell, sweet life") parallels current status of Italian economy to that of the Republic of Venice in 1797, a country with "many attractions" but living "a slow, long decline". Italy was called "the real sick man of Europe". Labour Following the 2003 "Biagi law", a controversial labour reform, unemployment has been steadily decreasing, reaching 6.2% in 2007, the lowest rate since the 1970s. In the south the average unemployment rate is far higher than the national average, but, in recent years, progress was made nonetheless, with the unemployment rate falling from 23.7% in 1999 to 11.2% in 2007 for Campania, and from 24.5% to 13% for Sicily. There is a significant underground economy, especially in the south where it partially offsets the high official unemployment rate, absorbing substantial numbers of people, working for low wages and without standard social benefits and protections. Unions claim to represent 40% of the work force. Most Italian unions are grouped in three major confederations: the CGIL, the CISL, and the UIL, which together claim 35% of the work force. These confederations formerly were associated with important political parties (respectively the Italian Communist Party, the Christian Democracy and the Italian Socialist Party), but they have formally terminated such ties. Nowadays, the three often coordinate their positions before confronting management or lobbying the government. The three major confederations have an important consultative role on national social and economic issues. Among their major agreements are a 4-year wage moderation agreement signed in 1993, a reform of the pension system in 1995, and an employment pact, introducing steps for labor market flexibility in economically depressed areas, in 1996. The CGIL, CISL, and UIL are affiliates of the International Trade Union Confederation. Of the three unions, CGIL is the strongest in numbers. CGIL once single-handedly organized a three-million people rally in Rome. Italy's employers are represented by Confindustria, the Italian Employers' Federation. Primary sector The northern part of Italy produces primarily grains, rice, maize corn, sugar beets, soybeans, meat, fruits and dairy products, while the south specializes in producing fruits, vegetables, oil and durum wheat. Italy, depending on the year, is the first or the second largest producer of wine in the world Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations data and one of the leading in olive oil, fruits (apples, oranges, lemons, pears, apricots, peaches, cherries, strawberries, kiwi), flowers and vegetables. According to the Agriculture Census, there were 2.6 million farms in 2000 (down from 3 million in 1990,) covering 19.6 million hectares. The vast majority (94.7%) are family-operated and small, averaging only 5 hectares in size. Of the total surface area in agricultural use (forestry excluded,) grain fields take up 31%, olive tree orchards 8.2%, vineyards 5.4%, citrus orchards 1%, other orchards 3.8%, sugarbeets 1.7%, and horticulture 2.4%. The remainder is primarily dedicated to pastures (25.9%) and feed grains (11.6%.) Livestock includes 6 million head of cattle, 8.6 million head of swine, 6.8 million head of sheep, and 0.9 million head of goats. The most famous Italian wines are probably the Tuscan Chianti and Piedmontese Pinot Grigio. Other famous wines are Barbaresco, Barolo and Barbera (Piedmont), Brunello di Montalcino (Tuscany), Montepulciano d'Abruzzo (Abruzzo) and Nero d'Avola (Sicily). Quality goods in which Italy specialises are often DOC or 'of controlled origin'. This DOC certificate, which is attributed by the European Union, ensures that the origins and work that goes into a product are recognised. This certification is considered important by producers and consumers alike, in order to avoid confusion with low-quality mass-produced ersatz products, such as Cambozola, a German copy of Gorgonzola. Mineral resources and energy Italy has few natural resources. With much of the land unsuited for farming, it is a net food importer. There are no substantial deposits of iron, coal, or oil. Proven natural gas reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic, have grown in recent years and constitute the country's most important mineral resource. Most raw materials needed for manufacturing and more than 80% of the country's energy sources are imported. Industry In Italy there are many important car industries, like Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Ferrari (here is pictured the new Fiat 500 in Turin) Industrial sectors have long been concentrated in northern areas of Piemonte, Lombardia, and Veneto. The region supplies easy access to the rest of Europe, hydroelectricity from the Alps, and workable, flat land. The FIAT factory, for example, is located in Turin. Most Italian industries, often of small size, are located in the "industrial triangle" (Milan, Turin, Genoa) and in some centres of Northeast and Emilia Romagna. Italy is known also for its fashion houses, such as Versace, Valentino, Fendi, Gucci, Prada, Roberto Cavalli, Sergio Rossi, Dolce & Gabbana, Benetton, and Armani. FIAT is an automaker specializing in utilitarian and luxury vehicles, with the brands FIAT, Lancia, Alfa Romeo, Ferrari and Maserati. The Piemontese group has struggled in recent times due to high input costs and declining market share, although a recent revival has seen a return to profit . Manufacturers like Piaggio and Ducati produce motorcycles. Italy has a substantial home appliance construction industry, especially in Lombardy (Candy), Marche (Merloni, Indesit) and Northeastern regions. A quarterly report prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit on behalf of Barclays Wealth in 2007 estimated that there were 2,800,000 dollar millionaires in Italy. (page 7) North-South divide Naples There exists a regional economic disparity between the Mezzogiorno and the rest of Italy, especially compared to northern Italy. This disparity was apparent at the time of unification, although some scholars claim it became more pronounced after unification, where it resulted in a long-standing political issue known as "the Southern Question". Some cite the northern House of Savoy's support for the modernization and expansion of its own region's industrial base at the expense of the southern regions. Other scholars attributed the Mezzogiorno'''s economic misery primarily to its population's amoral familism'': like other southern European regions, the inability to conceive the modern concept of communitary common good beyond direct tribal-like family interests. Edward C. Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society Although throughout modern history southern Italy has been less affluent than northern Italy, at times southern Italy had prosperous and advanced areas, culturally and economically wealthier than northern or central Italy, mainly prior to the Renaissance. Southern Italy was a leader in European cultural and political affairs. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples played a major role in European affairs and exhibited many signs of prosperity. By the middle of the 13th century, due to fiscal policies that prevented the growth of a strong merchant class, the region became economically backward compared to the other Italian states. Benedetto Croce, History of the Kingdom of Naples, 1970 . Unlike the rest of Italy, which experienced the rise of many small, independent and prosperous city states, all enterprise in the comparatively large kingdom centred on the capital city of Naples. The outlying areas, cursed with generally poor agricultural conditions, fell further behind. Sicily's trade fell primarily under Catalan control and by the 14th century finances of the kingdom fell primarily into Tuscan hands. With the Spanish conquest, the kingdom continued to be repressed and exploited by foreign rule until the late 18th century and even when Bourbon rule meant a native court and a time of enlightenment for some sectors of the society. According to some historians, during the time of the Bourbons the area around Naples became relatively productive. It was the first place in Italy to build a railway, even though it was mainly for royal (not commercial) use, and the local manufacturing base was growing. Following unification with the rest of the Italian peninsula in 1861, factory technology (which the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies had gained from the British) was taken away to Piedmont, Lombardy and Liguria. After unification southern Italy experienced a huge demographic expansion which provoked mass emigration, especially between 1892 and 1921. Dennis Mack Smith (1997). Modern Italy; A Political History. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472108956, pp. 209-210. Apart from Veneto, no other region contributed so much to the Italian diaspora. In addition, corruption was such a large problem that the prime-minister Giovanni Giolitti once conceded that places existed "where the law does not operate at all". (Smith (1997), pp. 199.) One study released in 1910 examined tax rates in north, central and southern Italy indicated that northern Italy with 48% of the nation's wealth paid 40% of the nation's taxes, while the south with 27% of the nation's wealth paid 32% of the nation's taxes. (Smith (1997), pp. 211.) Several natural disasters (earthquakes and landslides) also occurred during this period, often killing hundreds of people at a time. Giolitti's administration poor response to a major earthquake in Messina in 1908 was blamed for the high number of casualties. The management of the aftermath of the Messina earthquake infuriated Southern Italians who claimed that Giolitti favoured the rich North over them. + Gross Domestic Product in Italy (2006) Macroregion GDP /cap € (PPS) GDP total €North-Western Italy 29,800 476,665 millionNorth-Eastern Italy 29,200 334,294 millionCentral Italy 27,300 320,051 millionSouthern Italy 16,300 235,530 millionInsular Italy 16,600 113,441 million After the rise of Fascism, Benito Mussolini set himself the task of defeating the already powerful criminal organizations flowering in Sicily and the South. Economically, Fascist policy aimed at the creation of an Italian empire and Southern Italian ports were strategic for all commerce towards the colonies. Naples enjoyed a demographic and economic rebirth, mainly thanks to the interest of the King Victor Emmanuel III who was born there. During the 1950s, the regional policy the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno was set up to help raise the living standards in the South to those of the North. The Cassa aimed to do this in two ways: by land reforms creating 120,000 new small farms, and through the "Growth Pole Strategy" whereby 60% of all government investment would go to the South, thus boosting the Southern economy by attracting new capital, stimulating local firms, and providing employment. As a result the South became increasingly subsidized and dependent, incapable of generating growth itself. Even today, regional disparities persist. Southern Italy continues to be the least prosperous area of Italy. Problems still include corruption, organized crime and high unemployment T. Astarita, Between Salt Water and Holy Water: A History of Southern Italy, 2005 . Southern Italy includes 37% of Italy's population, occupies 40% of its land area, but only produces 24% of its gross domestic product. This does not, however, include the large underground black economy reported to be as high as 30% of GDP. Southern Italy at the Millennium: The Outlook for Southern Italy in the Year 2000, by Clark N. Ellis Italian exports Italian exports in 2005 Italy's major exports are precision machinery, motor vehicles (utilitaries, luxury vehicles, motorcycles, scooters), chemicals and electric goods, but the country's more famous exports are in the fields of food and clothing. Italy's closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 59% of its total trade. Italy's largest EU trade partners, in order of market share, are Germany (19%), France (13%), and the Netherlands (6%). See also Economy of Europe Economy of Italy under Fascism, 1922-1943 External links Banca D'Italia (Italy's Central Bank) National Institute of Statistic (ISTAT) (in Italian) International Cooperation Center for Statistics (ICSTAT) OECD's Italy country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Italy The Italian portal about patents and intellectual property References | Economy_of_Italy |@lemmatized economy:9 italy:47 change:1 dramatically:1 since:3 end:1 world:7 war:1 ii:1 agriculturally:1 base:3 develop:2 industrial:4 country:10 rank:1 bank:3 international:5 monetary:1 fund:1 seventh:1 large:7 usd:1 exchange:1 rate:7 term:3 tenth:1 purchase:1 power:1 parity:1 ppp:1 imf:1 cia:1 factbook:1 recently:1 face:2 sluggish:1 economic:8 growth:7 reduced:1 competitiveness:1 belong:1 group:3 seven:1 industrialize:1 nation:6 member:1 european:6 union:7 oecd:3 strength:1 processing:1 manufacturing:3 good:4 primarily:6 small:6 medium:2 size:3 family:3 owned:1 firm:3 less:2 successful:1 class:2 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6,825 | Middle_East | Political & transportation map of the Middle East today The Middle East (or, formerly more common, the Near East ) is a region that spans southwestern Asia and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The term "Middle East" was popularized around 1900 in the United Kingdom. The corresponding adjective to Middle East is Middle-Eastern and the derived noun is Middle-Easterner. The history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, and throughout its history the Middle East has been a major centre of world affairs. The Middle East is also the historical origin of three of the world’s major monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Middle East generally has an arid and hot climate, with several major rivers providing for irrigation to support agriculture in limited areas. Many countries located around the Persian Gulf have large quantities of crude oil. Etymology The term "Middle East" may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office. Beaumont (1988), p. 16 It became more widely known and used after American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan popularized the term. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, a rivalry which would become known as "The Great Game". Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Melman, Billie. The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing: 6 The Middle East / Arabia, Cambridge Collections Online. Retrieved January 8, 2006. Palmer, Michael A. Guardians of the Persian Gulf: A History of America's Expanding Role in the Persian Gulf, 1833-1992. New York: The Free Press, 1992. ISBN 0-02-923843-9 p. 12-13. He labeled the area surrounding the Persian Gulf as the Middle East, and said that after the Suez Canal, it was the most important passage for Britain to control in order to keep the Russians from advancing towards India.<ref>Laciner, Dr. Sedat. "Is There a Place Called ‘the Middle East’?", The Journal of Turkish Weekly]", June 2, 2006. Retrieved January 10, 2007.</ref> Mahan first used the term in his article "The Persian Gulf and International Relations", published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar; it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. Naval force has the quality of mobility which carries with it the privilege of temporary absences; but it needs to find on every scene of operation established bases of refit, of supply, and in case of disaster, of security. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, and the Persian Gulf. Adelson (1995), p. 22-23 Mahan's article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled "The Middle Eastern Question", written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. In this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of the "Middle East" to include "those regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India." Adelson (1995), p. 24 With the series end in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, marking its acceptance into general usage. Adelson (1995), p. 26 Until World War II, many people continued to refer to areas centered around Turkey and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean as the "Near East", while the "Far East" centered on China. The Middle East then meant the area from Mesopotamia to Burma, namely the area between the Near East and the Far East. In the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command in Cairo for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term "Middle East" gained broader usage in Europe and the United States. For example, in 1946 American scholars founded the Middle East Institute in Washington, D.C. Criticism and usage Many have criticized the term Middle East for what they see as Eurocentrism, because it was originally used by Europeans and their descendants (Mahan was American) and reflects the geographical position of the region from a European perspective (although Europeans consider themselves to be in "The West"). Today, the term is used by Europeans and non-Europeans alike, unlike the similar term Mashreq, used exclusively in Arabic-language contexts. The description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, "Near East" was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while "Middle East" referred to Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Turkestan, and the Caucasus. In contrast, "Far East" referred to the countries of East Asia: China, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, etc. Some critics advise using an alternative, geographically descriptive term, such as "Western Asia." The official United Nations designation of the area is "Western Asia". United Nations Statistical office "Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings" Accessed March 30, 2009 With the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the use of "Near East" declined in English. "Middle East" came to be applied to the re-emerging nations of the Islamic world. A variety of academic disciplines, including archaeology and ancient history, retained the term "Near East". It is used to describe an area coterminous with the contemporary term Middle East. (See Ancient Near East). The United States government first officially used "Middle East" in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, which pertained to the Suez Crisis. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles defined the Middle East as "the area lying between and including Libya on the west and Pakistan on the east, Syria and Iraq on the North and the Arabian peninsula to the south, plus the Sudan and Ethiopia." In 1958, the State Department explained that the terms "Near East" and "Middle East" were interchangeable. It then defined the region as including only Egypt, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar. The Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous. It instructs: Use Middle East unless Near East is used by a source in a story. Mideast is also acceptable, but Middle East is preferred. Goldstein, Norm. The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. New York: Basic Books, 2004. ISBN 0465004881 p. 156 At the United Nations, the numerous documents and resolutions about the Middle East are specifically concerned with the Arab-Israeli conflict, in particular the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and, therefore, with the four states of the Levant. Analysts at the UN occasionally use the term Near East when referring to this region. Translations There are terms similar to "Near East" and "Middle East" in other European languages, but since it is a relative description, the meanings depend on the country and are generally different from usage in English. In German, the term "Naher Osten" (Near East) is still in common use (nowadays the term "Mittlerer Osten" is more and more common in press texts translated from English sources, albeit having a distinct meaning). Other examples are: Russian - Ближний Восток or "Blizhniy Vostok", Bulgarian - Близкия Изток, Polish - Bliski Wschód, or Croatian Bliski istok (meaning Near East in all the four Slavic languages) remains as the only appropriate term for the region. French Moyen-Orient, Spanish Oriente Medio or Medio Oriente, and Italian Medio Oriente. In Italian, the expression "Vicino Oriente" (Near East) was also widely used to refer to Turkey, and "Estremo Oriente" (Far East or Extreme East) to refer to all of Asia east of Middle East . Perhaps due to the influence of the Western press, the Arabic equivalent of “Middle East,” “الشرق الأوسط” (“ash-sharq-l-awsat”), has become standard usage in the mainstream Arabic press, with the same geographic definition as the term “Middle East” in North American and Western European usage. The Persian equivalent for Middle East is خاورمیانه (Khāvarmiyāneh). Territories and regions Country, with flag Area(km²) Population Density(per km²) Capital GDP (Total) Per capita Currency Government Official languages Anatolia: Turkey1 783,562 72,334,256 91 Ankara $937.1 billion (2008) $13,447 (2008) Turkish lira Parliamentary Democracy Turkish Arabian Peninsula: 665 656,397 987 Manama $28.5 billion (2009) $35,895 (2009) Bahraini Dinar Constitutional monarchy Arabic 17,820 3,100,000 119 Kuwait City $151.5 billion (2007) $42,506 (2009) Kuwaiti dinar Constitutional Hereditary Arabic 212,460 3,200,000 13 Muscat $73 billion (2007) $27,852 (2007) Omani Rial Absolute monarchy Arabic 11,437 793,341 69 Doha $117.3 billion (2009) $96,275 (2009) Qatari Riyal Monarchy Arabic 1,960,582 23,513,330 12 Riyadh $636.3 billion (2009) $24,936 (2009) Riyal Absolute monarchy Arabic 82,880 5,432,746 30 Abu Dhabi $200.5 billion (2009) $40,039 (2009) UAE dirham Federal Constitutional Monarchy Arabic, English 527,970 18,701,257 35 Sanaá $60.7 (2007) $2,562 (2007) Yemeni rial Republic Arabic Caucasus: Armenia 29,800 2,968,586 111.7 Yerevan $19.298 billion (2008) $5,437 (2008) Armenian dram Presidential republic Armenian Azerbaijan 86,600 8,621,000 97 Baku $65.523 billion (2007) $7,618 (2007) Azerbaijani manat Presidential republic Azerbaijani Georgia 20,460 4,630,841 99.3 Tbilisi $20.516 billion (2007) $4,694 (2007) Georgian lari Presidential democratic republic Georgian Iranian Plateau: 1,648,195 71,208,000 42 Tehran $872 billion (2009) $11,763 (2009) Iranian rial Islamic Republic Persian Levant: 9,250 792,604 90 Nicosia $21.4 billion (2007) $27,100 (2007) Euro Republic Greek, Turkish, Cypriot Maronite Arabic Gaza Strip 360 1,376,289 3,823 Gaza $5 billion (includes West Bank) (2006) $1,100 (includes West Bank) (2006) Israeli new sheqel Palestinian National Authority Hamas Arabic 437,072 24,001,816 55 Baghdad $102.3 billion (2007) $3,600 (2007) Iraqi dinar Parliamentary Democracy (Developing) Arabic, Kurdish 20,770 7,029,529 290 Jerusalem2 $200.9 billion (2008) $28,245 (2008) Israeli new sheqel Parliamentary democracy Hebrew, Arabic, English 92,300 5,307,470 58 Amman $32.4 billion (2009) $5,406 (2009) Jordanian dinar Constitutional monarchy Arabic, English, French 10,452 3,677,780 354 Beirut $48.9 billion (2009) $12,704 (2009) Lebanese pound Republic Arabic, French, English, Armenian 185,180 17,155,814 93 Damascus $99.2 billion (2009) $4,871 (2009) Syrian pound Presidential republic Arabic West Bank 5,8603 2,500,0005 4323,4 Ramallah Israeli new sheqel Palestinian National Authority Fatah Arabic North Africa: 1,001,449 77,498,000 74 Cairo $477.2 billion (2009) $6,234 (2009) Egyptian pound Semi-presidential republic (democracy) ArabicSource: The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 15 July 2008. Notes: 1 The figures for Turkey includes Eastern Thrace, which is not a part of Anatolia. 2 Under Israeli law. The UN doesn't recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. 3 Includes the whole of the West Bank, according to the pre-1967 boundaries. 4 In addition, there are around 400,000 Israeli settlers in the West Bank, of which half are in East-Jerusalem. Greater Middle East Country, with flag Area(km²) Population Density(per km²) Capital GDP (Total) Per capita Currency Government Official languages Iranian Plateau: 647,500 31,889,923 46 Kabul $35 billion (2007) $1,000 (2007) Afghani Islamic Republic Persian, Pashto 880,940 169,300,000 206 Islamabad $505 billion (2007) $3,320 (2007) Pakistani Rupee Islamic Republic Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, English North Asia: 2,724,900 15,217,711 5.4 Astana $168 billion (2007) $10,837 (2007) Kazakhstani tenge Presidential republic Kazakh, Russian 447,400 27,372,000 59 Tashkent $64 billion (2007) $2,389 (2007) Uzbekistani som Presidential republic Uzbek 488,100 5,110,023 9.9 Ashgabat $27 billion (2007) $5,171 (2007) Turkmenistani manat Presidential republic Turkmen 143,100 7,215,700 45 Dushanbe $12 billion (2007) $1,842 (2007) Somoni Unitary presidential republic Tajik 199,900 5,356,869 26 Bishkek $11 billion (2007) $2,000 (2007) Kyrgyzstani som Unitary presidential republic Kyrgyz, Russian North Africa: 2,381,740 33,333,216 14 Algiers $224.7 billion (2007) $6,500 (2007) Algerian dinar Presidential republic Arabic 446,550 33,757,175 70 Nouakchott $6 billion (2007) $2,011 (2007) Ouguiya Military junta Arabic 163,610 10,102,000 62 El Aaiun Moroccan dirham Arabic 1,759,540 6,036,914 3 Tripoli $74.8 billion (2007) $12,300 (2007) Libyan dinar Jamahiriya Arabic 446,550 33,757,175 70 Rabat $125.3 billion (2007) $4,100 (2007) Moroccan dirham Constitutional monarchy Arabic 163,610 10,102,000 62 Tunis $77 billion (2007) $7,500 (2007) Tunisian dinar Republic Arabic Northeast Africa: 23,200 496,374 34 Djibouti $1.641 billion $2,070 Djiboutian franc Parliamentary republic Arabic, French, Somali, Afar 117,600 4,401,009 37 Asmara $3.622 billion $746 Nakfa Transitional Government Tigrinya, Arabic 637,661 9,588,666 13 Mogadishu $5.26 billion $600 Somali shilling Semi-presidential republic Somali, Arabic 2,505,813 39,379,358 14 Khartoum $107.8 billion (2007) $2,552 (2007) Sudanese pound Dictatorship (democracy) ArabicSource: The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 15 July 2008. History The Temple Mount in Jerusalem The Imam Ali Mosque, an important shrine in Najaf The Middle East lies at the juncture of Eurasia and Africa and of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. It is the birthplace and spiritual center of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Yezidi, and in Iran, Mithraism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and the Bahá'í Faith. Throughout its history, the Middle East has been a major center of world affairs; it is a strategically, economically, politically, culturally, and religiously sensitive area. The earliest civilizations, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, originated in the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley regions of the ancient Near East, as well as the civilizations of the Levant, Iran (called Persia by western nations), and Arabian Peninsula. The Near East was first unified under the Achaemenid Empire; followed by the Macedonian Empire; and Iranian empires, namely the Parthian and Sassanid Empires. The Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages, or Islamic Golden Age, first unified the entire Middle East as a distinct region and created the dominant ethnic identity and language that persists today. The Turkic Seljuk, Ottoman and Safavid empires later successively dominated the region. The modern Middle East began after World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, allied with the defeated Central Powers, was partitioned into separate nations. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948, and the departure of European powers, notably Britain and France, that had had political influence in the region. They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States. In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks of crude oil gave it new strategic and economic importance. Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates having large quantities of oil. Goldschmidt (1999), p. 8 Estimated oil reserves, especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world. The international oil cartel OPEC is dominated by Middle Eastern countries. During the Cold War, the Middle East was a theater of ideological and political struggle between the two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union, as they competed to influence regional allies. Beside political issues of territory and strategic relations, there was "ideological conflict" between the two systems. Among many important areas of contention, or perhaps more accurately, of anxiety, Louise Fawcett identified first, the desires of the superpowers to gain strategic advantage in the region; and second, the region's possession of two thirds of the world's oil reserves, in a context where oil was becoming increasingly vital to the economy of the Western world [...] Louise, Fawcett. International Relations of the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, New York, 2005) Within this framework, the United States sought to divert the Arab world from Soviet influence. Throughout the 20th and into the 21st century, the region has experienced both periods of relative peace and tolerance and periods of conflict and war. Current issues include the Iraq War, Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and the Iranian nuclear program. Demographics Ethnic groups Various ethnic and religious types in the Middle East, 19th century The Middle East is home to numerous ethnic groups, including Arabs, Turks, Persians, Jews, Armenians, Kurds, Assyrians, Azeris, Circassians, Berbers, Somalis, Greeks, Samaritans, Turkmens, Pashtuns, Baluch, Habesha (mainly Eritrean habesha), and Nubians. Religions The Middle East is diverse with a multiplicity of religions, most of which originated there. Islam in its many forms has by far the most adherents in the Middle East. Other faiths, such as Judaism and Christianity, are also important, not only for people of that faith in the area, but because the faiths were carried widely through the centuries to people in other nations, who believe they have a stake in the historic territory of the faiths. There are also important minority religions, such as Bahá'í, Yazdanism, Zoroastrianism. Languages Languages of the Middle East span many different families, including Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, and Altaic. Arabic in its numerous varieties and Persian are most widely spoken in the region, with Arabic being the most widely spoken language in the Arab countries. Other native languages spoken in the region include Syriac (a form of Aramaic); Azeri, Berber languages, Circassian, Persian, Gilaki language and Mazandarani languages, Hebrew in its numerous varieties, Kurdish, Luri, Turkish and other Turkic languages, Somali and Greek. In Turkey, Kurdish, Syriac, Dimli (or Zaza), Azeri, Kabardian, and Gagauz languages are spoken, in addition to the Turkish language. Several modern South Arabian languages are also spoken. English is also spoken, especially among the middle and upper class, in countries such as Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Iraq, and Kuwait. French is spoken in Algeria, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, and Egypt. Urdu is spoken in many Middle Eastern countries, such as Arab states the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and Qatar, which have large numbers of Pakistani immigrants. The largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East is found in Israel, where Romanian is spoken by 5% of the population. According to the 1993 Statistical Abstract of Israel there were 250,000 Romanian speakers in Israel, at a population of 5,548,523 (census 1995). Reports of about 300,000 Jews that left the country after WW2 Otherwise, Romanian is spoken mostly as a secondary language by people from Arab-speaking countries who studied in Romania. It is estimated that almost half a million Middle Eastern Arabs studied in Romania during the 1980s. Evenimentul Zilei Russian language is also spoken by a significant portion of the Israeli population, due to emigration in the late 1990s. Arabic and central Asian countries also have Russian speakers, from the influence of the Soviet Union after WWII and proximity to present-day Russia. Economy Burj Al Arab, the world's tallest hotel, located in Dubai. Middle Eastern economies range from nations being very poor (such as Gaza and Yemen) to extremely wealthy nations (such as UAE and Saudi Arabia). Overall, , according to the CIA World Factbook, all nations in the Middle East are maintaining a positive rate of growth. According to the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook Database of April 2008, the three largest Middle Eastern economies in 2007 were Turkey ($ 663,419,000,000), Saudi Arabia ($ 376,029,000,000) and Iran ($ 294,089,000,000), in terms of Nominal GDP. IMF, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008: Nominal GDP list of countries in 2007: Turkey ($ 887,964,000,000), Iran ($ 752,967,000,000) and Saudi Arabia ($ 564,561,000,000) had the largest economies in terms of GDP-PPP. IMF, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008: GDP-PPP list of countries in 2007: When it comes to per capita (PPP)-based income, the three highest-ranking countries are Qatar ($80,900), Kuwait ($39,300) and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) ($37,300). The lowest-ranking country in the Middle East in terms of per capita income (PPP) is the autonomous Palestinian Authority of Gaza and the West Bank ($1,100). The economic structure of Middle Eastern nations are different in the sense that while some nations are heavily dependent on export of only oil and oil-related products (such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait), others have a highly diverse economic base (such as Turkey and Egypt). Industries of the Middle Eastern region include oil and oil-related products, agriculture, cotton, cattle, dairy, textiles, leather products, surgical instruments, defence equipment (guns, ammunition, tanks, submarines, fighter jets, UAVs, and missiles). Banking is also an important sector of the economies, especially in the case of UAE and Bahrain. With the exception of Turkey, Egypt, Lebanon and Israel, tourism has been a relatively undeveloped area of the economy, due in part to the socially conservative nature of the region as well as political turmoil in certain regions of the Middle East. In recent years, however, countries such as the UAE, Bahrain, and Jordan have begun attracting greater number of tourists due to improving tourist facilities and the relaxing of tourism-related restrictive policies. Unemployment is notably high in the Middle East and North Africa region, particularly among young people aged 15–29, a demographic representing 30% of the region’s total population. The total regional unemployment rate in 2005, according to the International Labor Organization, was 13.2%, and among youth is as high as 25%, up to 37% in Morocco and 73% in Syria. See also Fertile Crescent Greater Middle East History of the Middle East List of conflicts in the Middle East Middle East Institute Middle East Studies Association of North America Middle East Youth Initiative Maayan Middle East poetry magazine Near East Central Asia Orientalism Western Asia Timeline of Middle Eastern History Waithood Notes References External links "Middle East - Articles by Region" - Council on Foreign Relations: "A Resource for Nonpartisan Research and Analysis" "Middle East - Interactive Crisis Guide" - Council on Foreign Relations: "A Resource for Nonpartisan Research and Analysis" Middle East Department University of Chicago LibraryMiddle East Economic Digest: "The leading information source on business in the Middle East" - magazine website Middle East News from Yahoo! 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6,826 | Gene_therapy | Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat a disease, such as a hereditary disease in which a deleterious mutant allele is replaced with a functional one. Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success. Antisense therapy is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods. Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein. Background On September 14, 1990 at the U.S. National Institutes of Health, W. French Anderson M.D. and his colleagues R. Michael Blaese, M.D., C. Bouzaid, M.D., and Kenneth Culver, M.D., performed the first approved gene therapy procedure on four-year old Ashanthi DeSilva. Born with a rare genetic disease called severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), she lacked a healthy immune system, and was vulnerable to every passing germ or infection. Children with this illness usually develop overwhelming infections and rarely survive to adulthood; a common childhood illness like chickenpox is life-threatening. Ashanthi led a cloistered existence — avoiding contact with people outside her family, remaining in the sterile environment of her home, and battling frequent illnesses with massive amounts of antibiotics. In Ashanthi's gene therapy procedure, doctors removed white blood cells from the child's body, let the cells grow in the laboratory, inserted the missing gene into the cells, and then infused the genetically modified blood cells back into the patient's bloodstream. Whether the therapy strengthened Ashanthi's immune system is unclear, because the study did not have a control arm and she continued to receive standard therapy for her condition during the study. Moreover, the white blood cells treated genetically only work for a few months, after which the process must be repeated (VII, Thompson [First] 1993). As of early 2007, she was still in good health, and she was attending college. Some would state that the study is of great importance despite its indefinite results, if only because it demonstrated that gene therapy could be practically attempted without adverse consequences. The road to the first approved gene therapy procedure was rocky and fraught with controversy. The biology of human gene therapy is very complex, and there are many techniques that still need to be developed and diseases that need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion. Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, muscular dystrophy and sickle cell anemia. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering them to the correct site on the comparatively large human genome. Today, most gene therapy studies are aimed at cancer. Types of gene therapy Gene therapy may be classified into the following types: Germ line gene therapy In the case of germ line gene therapy, germ cells, i.e., sperm or eggs, are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which are ordinarily integrated into their genomes. Therefore, the change due to therapy would be heritable and would be passed on to later generations. This new approach, theoretically, should be highly effective in counteracting genetic disorders. However, many jurisdictions prohibit this for application in human beings, at least for the present, for a variety of technical and ethical reasons. Somatic gene therapy In the case of somatic gene therapy, therapeutic genes are transferred into the somatic cells of a patient. Any modifications and effects will be restricted to the individual patient only, and will not be inherited by the patient's offspring. Broad methods There are a variety of different methods to replace or repair the genes targeted in gene therapy. Human Genome Project Information: Gene Therapy A normal gene may be inserted into a nonspecific location within the genome to replace a nonfunctional gene. This approach is most common. An abnormal gene could be swapped for a normal gene through homologous recombination. The abnormal gene could be repaired through selective reverse mutation, which returns the gene to its normal function. The regulation (the degree to which a gene is turned on or off) of a particular gene could be altered.'Vectors in gene therapy Viruses All viruses bind to their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hijacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of the virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Some types of viruses physically insert their genes into the host's genome (a defining feature of retroviruses, the family of viruses that includes HIV, is that the virus will introduce the enzyme reverse transcriptase into the host and thus use its RNA as the "instructions"). This incorporates the genes of that virus among the genes of the host cell for the life span of that cell. Doctors and molecular biologists realized that viruses like this could be used as vehicles to carry 'good' genes into a human cell. First, a scientist would remove the genes in the virus that cause disease. Then they would replace those genes with genes encoding the desired effect (for instance, insulin production in the case of diabetics). This procedure must be done in such a way that the genes which allow the virus to insert its genome into its host's genome are left intact. This can be confusing, and requires significant research and understanding of the virus' genes in order to know the function of each. An example:A virus is found which replicates by inserting its genes into the host cell's genome. This virus has two genes- A and B. Gene A encodes a protein which allows this virus to insert itself into the host's genome. Gene B causes the disease this virus is associated with. Gene C is the "normal" or "desirable" gene we want in the place of gene B. Thus, by re-engineering the virus so that gene B is replaced by gene C, while allowing gene A to properly function, this virus could introduce the required gene - gene C into the host cell's genome without causing any disease. All this is clearly an oversimplification, and numerous problems exist that prevent gene therapy using viral vectors, such as: trouble preventing undesired effects, ensuring the virus will infect the correct target cell in the body, and ensuring that the inserted gene doesn't disrupt any vital genes already in the genome. However, this basic mode of gene introduction currently shows much promise and doctors and scientists are working hard to fix any potential problems that could exist. Retroviruses The genetic material in retroviruses is in the form of RNA molecules, while the genetic material of their hosts is in the form of DNA. When a retrovirus infects a host cell, it will introduce its RNA together with some enzymes, namely reverse transcriptase and integrase, into the cell. This RNA molecule from the retrovirus must produce a DNA copy from its RNA molecule before it can be integrated into the genetic material of the host cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed reverse transcription. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called reverse transcriptase. After this DNA copy is produced and is free in the nucleus of the host cell, it must be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. That is, it must be inserted into the large DNA molecules in the cell (the chromosomes). This process is done by another enzyme carried in the virus called integrase. Now that the genetic material of the virus is incorporated and has become part of the genetic material of the host cell, it can be said that the host cell is now modified to contain a new gene. If this host cell divides later, its descendants will all contain the new genes. Sometimes the genes of the retrovirus do not express their information immediately. One of the problems of gene therapy using retroviruses is that the integrase enzyme can insert the genetic material of the virus in any arbitrary position in the genome of the host- it randomly shoves the genetic material into a chromosome. If genetic material happens to be inserted in the middle of one of the original genes of the host cell, this gene will be disrupted (insertional mutagenesis). If the gene happens to be one regulating cell division, uncontrolled cell division (i.e., cancer) can occur. This problem has recently begun to be addressed by utilizing zinc finger nucleases or by including certain sequences such as the beta-globin locus control region to direct the site of integration to specific chromosomal sites. Gene therapy trials using retroviral vectors to treat X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) represent the most successful application of gene therapy to date. More than twenty patients have been treated in France and Britain, with a high rate of immune system reconstitution observed. Similar trials were halted or restricted in the USA when leukemia was reported in patients treated in the French X-SCID gene therapy trial. To date, four children in the French trial and one in the British trial have developed leukemia as a result of insertional mutagenesis by the retroviral vector. All but one of these children responded well to conventional anti-leukemia treatment. Gene therapy trials to treat SCID due to deficiency of the Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) enzyme continue with relative success in the USA, Britain, Italy and Japan. Adenoviruses Adenoviruses are viruses that carry their genetic material in the form of double-stranded DNA. They cause respiratory, intestinal, and eye infections in humans (especially the common cold). When these viruses infect a host cell, they introduce their DNA molecule into the host. The genetic material of the adenoviruses is not incorporated (transient) into the host cell's genetic material. The DNA molecule is left free in the nucleus of the host cell, and the instructions in this extra DNA molecule are transcribed just like any other gene. The only difference is that these extra genes are not replicated when the cell is about to undergo cell division so the descendants of that cell will not have the extra gene. As a result, treatment with the adenovirus will require readministration in a growing cell population although the absence of integration into the host cell's genome should prevent the type of cancer seen in the SCID trials. This vector system has shown real promise in treating cancer and indeed the first gene therapy product to be licensed to treat cancer is an adenovirus. Adeno-associated viruses Adeno-associated viruses, from the parvovirus family, are small viruses with a genome of single stranded DNA. The wild type AAV can insert genetic material at a specific site on chromosome 19 with near 100% certainty. But the recombinant AAV, which does not contain any viral genes and only the therapeutic gene, does not integrate into the genome. Instead the recombinant viral genome fuses at its ends via the ITR (inverted terminal repeats) recombination to form circular, episomal forms which are predicted to be the primary cause of the long term gene expression. There are a few disadvantages to using AAV, including the small amount of DNA it can carry (low capacity) and the difficulty in producing it. This type of virus is being used, however, because it is non-pathogenic (most people carry this harmless virus). In contrast to adenoviruses, most people treated with AAV will not build an immune response to remove the virus and the cells that have been successfully treated with it. Several trials with AAV are on-going or in preparation, mainly trying to treat muscle and eye diseases; the two tissues where the virus seems particularly useful. However, clinical trials have also been initiated where AAV vectors are used to deliver genes to the brain. This is possible because AAV viruses can infect non-dividing (quiescent) cells, such as neurons in which their genomes are expressed for a long time. Envelope protein pseudotyping of viral vectors The viral vectors described above have natural host cell populations that they infect most efficiently. Retroviruses have limited natural host cell ranges, and although adenovirus and adeno-associated virus are able to infect a relatively broader range of cells efficiently, some cell types are refractory to infection by these viruses as well. Attachment to and entry into a susceptible cell is mediated by the protein envelope on the surface of a virus. Retroviruses and adeno-associated viruses have a single protein coating their membrane, while adenoviruses are coated with both an envelope protein and fibers that extend away from the surface of the virus. The envelope proteins on each of these viruses bind to cell-surface molecules such as heparin sulfate, which localizes them upon the surface of the potential host, as well as with the specific protein receptor that either induces entry-promoting structural changes in the viral protein, or localizes the virus in endosomes wherein acidification of the lumen induces this refolding of the viral coat. In either case, entry into potential host cells requires a favorable interaction between a protein on the surface of the virus and a protein on the surface of the cell. For the purposes of gene therapy, one might either want to limit or expand the range of cells susceptible to transduction by a gene therapy vector. To this end, many vectors have been developed in which the endogenous viral envelope proteins have been replaced by either envelope proteins from other viruses, or by chimeric proteins. Such chimera would consist of those parts of the viral protein necessary for incorporation into the virion as well as sequences meant to interact with specific host cell proteins. Viruses in which the envelope proteins have been replaced as described are referred to as pseudotyped viruses. For example, the most popular retroviral vector for use in gene therapy trials has been the lentivirus Simian immunodeficiency virus coated with the envelope proteins, G-protein, from Vesicular stomatitis virus. This vector is referred to as VSV G-pseudotyped lentivirus, and infects an almost universal set of cells. This tropism is characteristic of the VSV G-protein with which this vector is coated. Many attempts have been made to limit the tropism of viral vectors to one or a few host cell populations. This advance would allow for the systemic administration of a relatively small amount of vector. The potential for off-target cell modification would be limited, and many concerns from the medical community would be alleviated. Most attempts to limit tropism have used chimeric envelope proteins bearing antibody fragments. These vectors show great promise for the development of "magic bullet" gene therapies. Non-viral methods Non-viral methods present certain advantages over viral methods, with simple large scale production and low host immunogenicity being just two. Previously, low levels of transfection and expression of the gene held non-viral methods at a disadvantage; however, recent advances in vector technology have yielded molecules and techniques with transfection efficiencies similar to those of viruses. Naked DNA This is the simplest method of non-viral transfection. Clinical trials carried out of intramuscular injection of a naked DNA plasmid have occurred with some success; however, the expression has been very low in comparison to other methods of transfection. In addition to trials with plasmids, there have been trials with naked PCR product, which have had similar or greater success. This success, however, does not compare to that of the other methods, leading to research into more efficient methods for delivery of the naked DNA such as electroporation, sonoporation, and the use of a "gene gun", which shoots DNA coated gold particles into the cell using high pressure gas. Oligonucleotides The use of synthetic oligonucleotides in gene therapy is to inactivate the genes involved in the disease process. There are several methods by which this is achieved. One strategy uses antisense specific to the target gene to disrupt the transcription of the faulty gene. Another uses small molecules of RNA called siRNA to signal the cell to cleave specific unique sequences in the mRNA transcript of the faulty gene, disrupting translation of the faulty mRNA, and therefore expression of the gene. A further strategy uses double stranded oligodeoxynucleotides as a decoy for the transcription factors that are required to activate the transcription of the target gene. The transcription factors bind to the decoys instead of the promoter of the faulty gene, which reduces the transcription of the target gene, lowering expression. Additionally, single stranded DNA oligonucleotides have been used to direct a single base change within a mutant gene. The oligonucleotide is designed to anneal with complementarity to the target gene with the exception of a central base, the target base, which serves as the template base for repair. This technique is referred to as oligonucleotide mediated gene repair, targeted gene repair, or targeted nucleotide alteration. Lipoplexes and polyplexes To improve the delivery of the new DNA into the cell, the DNA must be protected from damage and its entry into the cell must be facilitated. To this end new molecules, lipoplexes and polyplexes, have been created that have the ability to protect the DNA from undesirable degradation during the transfection process. Plasmid DNA can be covered with lipids in an organized structure like a micelle or a liposome. When the organized structure is complexed with DNA it is called a lipoplex. There are three types of lipids, anionic (negatively charged), neutral, or cationic (positively charged). Initially, anionic and neutral lipids were used for the construction of lipoplexes for synthetic vectors. However, in spite of the facts that there is little toxicity associated with them, that they are compatible with body fluids and that there was a possibility of adapting them to be tissue specific; they are complicated and time consuming to produce so attention was turned to the cationic versions. Cationic lipids, due to their positive charge, were first used to condense negatively charged DNA molecules so as to facilitate the encapsulation of DNA into liposomes. Later it was found that the use of cationic lipids significantly enhanced the stability of lipoplexes. Also as a result of their charge, cationic liposomes interact with the cell membrane, endocytosis was widely believed as the major route by which cells uptake lipoplexes. Endosomes are formed as the results of endocytosis, however, if genes can not be released into cytoplasm by breaking the membrane of endosome, they will be sent to lysosomes where all DNA will be destroyed before they could achieve their functions. It was also found that although cationic lipids themselves could condense and encapsulate DNA into liposomes, the transfection efficiency is very low due to the lack of ability in terms of “endosomal escaping”. However, when helper lipids (usually electroneutral lipids, such as DOPE) were added to form lipoplexes, much higher transfection efficiency was observed. Later on, it was figured out that certain lipids have the ability to destabilize endosomal membranes so as to facilitate the escape of DNA from endosome, therefore those lipids are called fusogenic lipids. Although cationic liposomes have been widely used as an alternative for gene delivery vectors, a dose dependent toxicity of cationic lipids were also observed which could limit their therapeutic usages. The most common use of lipoplexes has been in gene transfer into cancer cells, where the supplied genes have activated tumor suppressor control genes in the cell and decrease the activity of oncogenes. Recent studies have shown lipoplexes to be useful in transfecting respiratory epithelial cells, so they may be used for treatment of genetic respiratory diseases such as cystic fibrosis. Complexes of polymers with DNA are called polyplexes. Most polyplexes consist of cationic polymers and their production is regulated by ionic interactions. One large difference between the methods of action of polyplexes and lipoplexes is that polyplexes cannot release their DNA load into the cytoplasm, so to this end, co-transfection with endosome-lytic agents (to lyse the endosome that is made during endocytosis, the process by which the polyplex enters the cell) such as inactivated adenovirus must occur. However, this isn't always the case, polymers such as polyethylenimine have their own method of endosome disruption as does chitosan and trimethylchitosan. Hybrid methods Due to every method of gene transfer having shortcomings, there have been some hybrid methods developed that combine two or more techniques. Virosomes are one example; they combine liposomes with an inactivated HIV or influenza virus. This has been shown to have more efficient gene transfer in respiratory epithelial cells than either viral or liposomal methods alone. Other methods involve mixing other viral vectors with cationic lipids or hybridising viruses. Dendrimers A dendrimer is a highly branched macromolecule with a spherical shape. The surface of the particle may be functionalized in many ways and many of the properties of the resulting construct are determined by its surface. In particular it is possible to construct a cationic dendrimer, i.e. one with a positive surface charge. When in the presence of genetic material such as DNA or RNA, charge complimentarity leads to a temporary association of the nucleic acid with the cationic dendrimer. On reaching its destination the dendrimer-nucleic acid complex is then taken into the cell via endocytosis. In recent years the benchmark for transfection agents has been cationic lipids. Limitations of these competing reagents have been reported to include: the lack of ability to transfect a number of cell types, the lack of robust active targeting capabilities, incompatibility with animal models, and toxicity. Dendrimers offer robust covalent construction and extreme control over molecule structure, and therefore size. Together these give compelling advantages compared to existing approaches. Producing dendrimers has historically been a slow and expensive process consisting of numerous slow reactions, an obstacle that severely curtailed their commercial development. The Michigan based company Dendritic Nanotechnologies discovered a method to produce dendrimers using kinetically driven chemistry, a process that not only reduced cost by a magnitude of three, but also cut reaction time from over a month to several days. These new "Priostar" dendrimers can be specifically constructed to carry a DNA or RNA payload that transfects cells at a high efficiency with little or no toxicity. Major developments in gene therapy 2002 and earlier New gene therapy approach repairs errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes. This technique has the potential to treat the blood disorder thalassaemia, cystic fibrosis, and some cancers. See Subtle gene therapy tackles blood disorder at NewScientist.com (October 11, 2002). Researchers at Case Western Reserve University and Copernicus Therapeutics are able to create tiny liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane. See DNA nanoballs boost gene therapy at NewScientist.com (May 12, 2002). Sickle cell disease is successfully treated in mice. See Murine Gene Therapy Corrects Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease from March 18, 2002, issue of The Scientist. The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID (severe combined immune deficiency or "bubble boy" disease) held from 2000 and 2002 was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition. Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany. In 1993 Andrew Gobea was born with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Genetic screening before birth showed that he had SCID. Blood was removed from Andrew's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, containing stem cells. The allele that codes for ADA was obtained and was inserted into a retrovirus. Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which they entered and inserted the gene into the stem cells' chromosomes. Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andrew's blood system via a vein. Injections of the ADA enzyme were also given weekly. For four years T-cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene. After four years more treatment was needed. 2003 In 2003 a University of California, Los Angeles research team inserted genes into the brain using liposomes coated in a polymer called polyethylene glycol (PEG). The transfer of genes into the brain is a significant achievement because viral vectors are too big to get across the "blood-brain barrier." This method has potential for treating Parkinson's disease. See Undercover genes slip into the brain at NewScientist.com (March 20, 2003). RNA interference or gene silencing may be a new way to treat Huntington's. Short pieces of double-stranded RNA (short, interfering RNAs or siRNAs) are used by cells to degrade RNA of a particular sequence. If a siRNA is designed to match the RNA copied from a faulty gene, then the abnormal protein product of that gene will not be produced. See Gene therapy may switch off Huntington's at NewScientist.com (March 13, 2003). 2006 Scientists at the National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Maryland) have successfully treated metastatic melanoma in two patients using killer T cells genetically retargeted to attack the cancer cells. This study constitutes the first demonstration that gene therapy can be effective in treating cancer. In March 2006 an international group of scientists announced the successful use of gene therapy to treat two adult patients for a disease affecting myeloid cells. The study, published in Nature Medicine, is believed to be the first to show that gene therapy can cure diseases of the myeloid system. In May 2006 a team of scientists led by Dr. Luigi Naldini and Dr. Brian Brown from the San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy (HSR-TIGET) in Milan, Italy reported a breakthrough for gene therapy in which they developed a way to prevent the immune system from rejecting a newly delivered gene. Similar to organ transplantation, gene therapy has been plagued by the problem of immune rejection. So far, delivery of the 'normal' gene has been difficult because the immune system recognizes the new gene as foreign and rejects the cells carrying it. To overcome this problem, the HSR-TIGET group utilized a newly uncovered network of genes regulated by molecules known as microRNAs. Dr. Naldini's group reasoned that they could use this natural function of microRNA to selectively turn off the identity of their therapeutic gene in cells of the immune system and prevent the gene from being found and destroyed. The researchers injected mice with the gene containing an immune-cell microRNA target sequence, and spectacularly, the mice did not reject the gene, as previously occurred when vectors without the microRNA target sequence were used. This work will have important implications for the treatment of hemophilia and other genetic diseases by gene therapy. 2007 On 1 May 2007 Moorfields Eye Hospital and University College London's Institute of Ophthalmology announced the world's first gene therapy trial for inherited retinal disease. The first operation was carried out on a 23 year-old British male, Robert Johnson, in early 2007. BBC NEWS | Health | Gene therapy first for poor sight Leber's congenital amaurosis is an inherited blinding disease caused by mutations in the RPE65 gene. The results of the Moorfields/UCL trial were published in New England Journal of Medicine in April 2008. They researched the safety of the subretinal delivery of recombinant adeno associated virus (AAV) carrying RPE65 gene, and found it yielded positive results, with patients having modest increase in vision, and, perhaps more importantly, no apparent side-effects. Problems and ethics For the safety of gene therapy, the Weismann barrier is fundamental in the current thinking. Soma-to-germline feedback should therefore be impossible. However, there are indications that the Weissman barrier can be breached. One way it might possibly be breached is if the treatment were somehow misapplied and spread to the testes and therefore would infect the germline against the intentions of the therapy. Some of the problems of gene therapy include: Short-lived nature of gene therapy – Before gene therapy can become a permanent cure for any condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be long-lived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any long-term benefits. Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy. Immune response – Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues, the immune system has evolved to attack the invader. The risk of stimulating the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always a possibility. Furthermore, the immune system's enhanced response to invaders it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients. Problems with viral vectors – Viruses, the carrier of choice in most gene therapy studies, present a variety of potential problems to the patient —toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may recover its ability to cause disease. Multigene disorders – Conditions or disorders that arise from mutations in a single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some of the most commonly occurring disorders, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, and diabetes, are caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially difficult to treat effectively using gene therapy. Chance of inducing a tumor (insertional mutagenesis) - If the DNA is integrated in the wrong place in the genome, for example in a tumor suppressor gene, it could induce a tumor. This has occurred in clinical trials for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) patients, in which hematopoietic stem cells were transduced with a corrective transgene using a retrovirus, and this led to the development of T cell leukemia in 3 of 20 patients. Deaths have occurred due to gene therapy, including that of Jesse Gelsinger. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml#status In popular culture In the TV series Dark Angel gene therapy is mentioned as one of the practices performed on transgenics and their surrogate mothers at Manticore, and in the episode Prodigy, Dr. Tanaka uses a groundbreaking new form of gene therapy to turn Jude, a premature, vegetative baby of a crack/cocaine addict, into a boy genius. Gene therapy is a crucial plot element in the video game Metal Gear Solid, where it has been used to enhance the battle capabilities of enemy soldiers. Gene therapy plays a major role in the sci-fi series Stargate Atlantis, as a certain type of alien technology can only be used if one has a certain gene which is given to the members of the team through gene therapy. Gene therapy also plays a major role in the plot of the James Bond movie Die Another Day. The Yellow Bastard from Frank Miller's Sin City was also apparently the recipient of gene therapy. In the The Dark Knight Strikes Again, Dick Grayson, the first Robin, becomes a victim of extensive gene therapy for years by Lex Luthor to become The Joker. Gene therapy plays a recurring role in the present-time sci-fi television program ReGenesis, where it is used to cure various diseases, enhance athletic performance and produce vast profits for bio-tech corporations. (e.g. an undetectable performance-enhancing gene therapy was used by one of the characters on himself, but to avoid copyright infringement, this gene therapy was modified from the tested-to-be-harmless original, which produced a fatal cardiovascular defect) Gene therapy is the basis for the plot line of the film I Am Legend''. Gene therapy is an important plot key in the game Bioshock where the game contents refer to plasmids and [gene] splicers. The book Next by Michael Crichton unravels a story in which fictitious biotechnology companies which experiment with gene therapy are involved. In the television show Alias, a breakthrough in molecular gene therapy is discovered, whereby a patient's body is reshaped to identically resemble someone else. Protagonist Sydney Bristow's best friend was secretly killed and her "double" resumed her place. See also Antisense therapy DNA Genetic engineering Predictive Medicine Full Genome Sequencing Life extension List of life extension related topics Technology assessment Therapeutic gene modulation Pharmacological gene therapy References Tinkov, S., Bekeredjian, R., Winter, G., Coester, C., Polyplex-conjugated microbubbles for enhanced ultrasound targeted gene therapy,2008 AAPS Annual Meeting and Exposition, 16-20 November, Georgia World Congress Center, Atlanta, GA, USA, (http://www.aapsj.org/abstracts/AM_2008/AAPS2008-000838.PDF) External links Gene Therapy: Molecular Bandage? University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center The American Society of Gene Therapy The European Society of Gene Therapy 2003 news relating to gene therapy Research Group at Cambridge, UK working on overcoming current hurdles to successful gene therapy Council for Responsible Genetics Molecular Medicine and Gene Therapy at Lund University Dossier on gene therapy and clinical trials Gene Therapy Net The startpoint for all the information about gene therapy Cancer-genetherapy.com Site focusing on cancer gene therapy Gene Therapy Review. | Gene_therapy |@lemmatized gene:188 therapy:93 insertion:1 individual:2 cell:90 tissue:4 treat:21 disease:23 hereditary:1 deleterious:1 mutant:2 allele:2 replace:7 functional:4 one:17 although:5 technology:4 still:3 infancy:1 use:43 success:6 antisense:3 strictly:1 form:9 genetically:5 mediate:3 often:1 consider:1 together:3 method:21 adenovirus:11 vector:26 new:13 insert:14 introduce:9 modified:1 dna:39 human:10 treatment:7 successful:4 make:5 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6,827 | Hit_by_pitch | Joe Crede of the Chicago White Sox after being hit by a pitch. In baseball, hit by pitch (HBP), or hit batsman (HB), refers to the batter being hit in some part of the body by a pitch from the pitcher. Per baseball official rule 6.08(b), a batter becomes a baserunner and is awarded first base when he or his equipment (except for his bat): is touched by a pitched ball outside of the strike zone, and he attempts to avoid it (or had no opportunity to avoid it), and he did not swing at the pitch. The Official Site of Major League Baseball: Official info: Official Rules If all these conditions are met, the ball is dead, and other baserunners advance if they are forced to vacate their base by the batter taking first. Rule 5.09(a) further clarifies that a hit by pitch is also called when a pitch touches a batter's clothing. The Official Site of Major League Baseball: Official info: Official Rules In the case where a batter swings and the pitch hits him anyway, the ball is dead and a strike is called. The Official Site of Major League Baseball: Official info: Official Rules If the batter does not attempt to avoid the pitch, he is not awarded first base, and the pitch is ruled a strike if in the strike zone and a ball if out of the strike zone. In practice, umpires rarely make this call. Perhaps the most famous instance of a non-hit by pitch was on May 31, 1968, when Don Drysdale hit Dick Dietz with a pitch that would have forced in a run and ended Drysdale's scoreless innings streak at 44. Umpire Harry Wendelstedt ruled that Dietz made no effort to avoid the pitch, Dietz proceeded to fly out, and Drysdale's scoreless streak continued to a then-record 58 2/3 innings. The Official Site of The Atlanta Braves: News: Atlanta Braves News A hit by pitch can also be called on a pitch that has touched the ground. Such a bouncing pitch is like any other, and if a batter is hit by such a pitch, he will be awarded first unless he made no attempt to avoid it. A batter hit by a pitch is not credited with a hit or at bat, but is credited with a time on base and a plate appearance; therefore, being hit by a pitch does not increase or decrease a player's batting average but does increase his on-base percentage. A batter hit by a pitch with the bases loaded is also credited with an RBI per MLB rule 10.04(a)(2). Divisions Of The Code A pitch ruled a hit by pitch is recorded as a ball in the pitcher's pitch count, since by definition the ball must be outside the strike zone and not have been swung at. The rule awarding first base to a batter hit by a pitch was instituted in 1887. Baseball Rules Chronology: 1845-1899 | BaseballLibrary.com Tactical use Inside pitching is a common and legal tactic in baseball, and many players make use of brushback pitches, or pitches aimed underneath the chin, commonly referred to as 'chin music', to keep players away from the plate. "Headhunter" is a common term for pitchers who have a reputation for throwing these kinds of pitches. However, throwing at a batter intentionally is illegal, and can be very dangerous. When an umpire believes a pitcher has thrown at a batter intentionally, a warning is issued to the pitcher and the managers of both teams. From that point on, any pitch thrown at a batter can cause the pitcher and the manager (if believed to have ordered the beanball) of the offending team to be ejected immediately from the game. Serious offenses such as a ball thrown at the head (called a beanball) can result in the immediate ejection of the pitcher, and the manager if he ordered the beanball, even without a warning. Often, if a player is acting rude or unsportsmanlike, or having an extraordinarily good day, the pitcher may intentionally hit the batter, disguising it as a pitch that accidentally slipped his control. Managers may also order a pitcher to throw such a pitch (sometimes called a "plunking"). These pitches are often aimed at the lower back and slower than normal, designed to send a message more than anything else. The opposing team usually hits a batter in retaliation for this act. The plunkings generally end there because of umpire warnings, but in some cases things can get out of hand, and sometimes they lead to the batter charging the mound, bench-clearing brawls, and several ejections. Such plunking duels are more common in the American League than in the National League, because in the NL the pitchers must bat for themselves and open themselves up to direct retaliation (although hitting a fellow pitcher is a serious breach of baseball etiquette). Miscellaneous The all-time record for a player being hit by a pitch is held by Hughie Jennings, who was hit by 287 pitches between 1891 and 1903. The modern-day record is held by Craig Biggio of the Houston Astros, who had 285 as of the end of the 2007 season when he retired. Prior to Biggio, the modern-day record belonged to Don Baylor, who was hit 267 times. The all-time single-season record also belongs to Jennings, who was hit 51 times during the 1896 season. Ron Hunt of the 1971 Montreal Expos was hit 50 times during that year. The single-game record is three, held by Rey Ordonez. Hit by a Pitch Records by Baseball Almanac The career pitching record for most hit batsmen is 205 by Hall-of-Famer Walter Johnson. The season record is 54 by Phil Knell in 1891, and the game record is six, held by Ed Knouff and John Grimes. Hit by Pitch Records by Baseball Almanac On May 1, 1974, Pittsburgh pitcher Dock Ellis, believing that his team needed motivation, decided to hit every batter in the Cincinnati Reds lineup. Ellis hit Pete Rose, Joe Morgan, and Dan Driessen, tried to hit Tony Perez but ended up walking him, and threw two pitches at Johnny Bench's head before he was removed from the game. Urban Legends Reference Pages: Dock Ellis LSD No-Hitter To date, only one Major League player has died as a result of being struck by a pitch: Ray Chapman of the Cleveland Indians was hit in the head by Carl Mays on August 16, , and died the next morning. It is possible, however, to suffer serious injuries as a result of being hit by a pitch, even when wearing a helmet. On August 18, , Red Sox batter Tony Conigliaro was hit almost directly in the left eye by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels. His cheekbone was shattered, he nearly lost the sight of the eye, was unable to play for over a year, and never regained his earlier batting ability. (Batting helmets at that time were not required to have an "ear flap"; indeed, it was not until that all major league batters were required to wear helmets with side protection.) On September 28, , Kirby Puckett, the superstar outfielder of the Minnesota Twins, was struck in the cheek by a Dennis Eckersley fastball, breaking his jaw and loosening two teeth. It would be his last game; during spring training the following year he developed a glaucoma that ended his career. Most recently, Mike Piazza, then of the New York Mets, was hit in the head by a pitch from Julian Tavarez of the St. Louis Cardinals on September 10, 2005. His helmet shattered, and he suffered a concussion. Other relatively minor injuries that are possible include broken fingers or hands, broken feet, broken ribs, injuries to the knee, or groin injuries. On April 26, 2008, umpire Kerwin Danley was behind home plate umpiring a game between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Colorado Rockies, when Danley was hit in the head by a 96 mph Brad Penny fastball that went over the head of catcher Russell Martin. Danley was carried off the field in an ambulance, but play would resume. Danley's mother was at the game sitting in the box seats where Frank McCourt and his wife usually sit. She rode in the ambulance with him. During the 6th inning Vin Scully reported that Danley was doing well. Legal consequences Since inside pitching is a legitimate tactic in baseball, courts have recognized that being hit by a pitch is an inherent risk of the game, so that players cannot sue for any resulting injuries. On April 6, 2006, in a case arising from a game involving community college baseball teams, the Supreme Court of California ruled that baseball players in California assume the risk of being hit by baseballs even if the balls were intentionally thrown so as to cause injury. Avila v. Citrus Community College Dist., 38 Cal. 4th 148 (2006). In the court's words: "For better or worse, being intentionally thrown at is a fundamental part and inherent risk of the sport of baseball. It is not the function of tort law to police such conduct." Popular culture In the 1989 film Major League it was announced of a fictional New York Yankees pitcher: "The Duke led the American League this year in saves, ERA, and hit batsmen. This guy once threw at his own kid at a father-son game." Satirical newspaper The Onion ran a story entitled "Craig Biggio Blames Media Pressure For Stalling At 285 Hit-By-Pitches" as Biggio closed in on the record of 287 hit-by-pitches. In The Simpsons episode "Homer at the Bat," Homer Simpson is hit in the head by a pitch while playing for the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant softball team, rendering him unconscious, but forcing in the winning run. In "Cheers" the slow-witted bartender known as "Coach" in one episode claimed to hold a minor league record for being hit by pitches. Being hit was a skill he cultivated, saying it was just as good as a hit. See also MLB All-Time Hit Batsmen List External links - List of all-time HBP leaders Article on changing HBP rates in The Hardball Times. References | Hit_by_pitch |@lemmatized joe:2 crede:1 chicago:1 white:1 sox:2 hit:45 pitch:44 baseball:15 hbp:3 batsman:4 hb:1 refers:1 batter:19 part:2 body:1 pitcher:13 per:2 official:11 rule:12 b:1 become:1 baserunner:1 award:4 first:5 base:7 equipment:1 except:1 bat:5 touch:3 ball:8 outside:2 strike:8 zone:4 attempt:3 avoid:5 opportunity:1 swing:3 site:4 major:6 league:10 info:3 condition:1 meet:1 dead:2 baserunners:1 advance:1 force:3 vacate:1 take:1 clarifies:1 also:6 call:6 clothing:1 case:3 anyway:1 practice:1 umpire:6 rarely:1 make:4 perhaps:1 famous:1 instance:1 non:1 may:5 drysdale:3 dick:1 dietz:3 would:3 run:3 end:5 scoreless:2 inning:3 streak:2 harry:1 wendelstedt:1 effort:1 proceed:1 fly:1 continue:1 record:14 atlanta:2 brave:2 news:2 ground:1 bouncing:1 like:1 unless:1 credit:3 time:10 plate:3 appearance:1 therefore:1 increase:2 decrease:1 player:8 batting:2 average:1 percentage:1 load:1 rbi:1 mlb:2 division:1 code:1 count:1 since:2 definition:1 must:2 institute:1 chronology:1 baseballlibrary:1 com:1 tactical:1 use:2 inside:2 pitching:3 common:3 legal:2 tactic:2 many:1 brushback:1 aim:2 underneath:1 chin:2 commonly:1 refer:1 music:1 keep:1 away:1 headhunter:1 term:1 reputation:1 throw:10 kind:1 however:2 intentionally:5 illegal:1 dangerous:1 believe:3 warning:3 issue:1 manager:4 team:6 point:1 cause:2 order:3 beanball:3 offend:1 eject:1 immediately:1 game:10 serious:3 offense:1 thrown:1 head:7 result:3 immediate:1 ejection:2 even:3 without:1 often:2 act:2 rude:1 unsportsmanlike:1 extraordinarily:1 good:3 day:3 disguise:1 accidentally:1 slip:1 control:1 sometimes:2 plunk:1 low:1 back:1 slow:2 normal:1 design:1 send:1 message:1 anything:1 else:1 oppose:1 usually:2 retaliation:2 plunkings:1 generally:1 thing:1 get:1 hand:2 lead:2 charge:1 mound:1 bench:2 clearing:1 brawl:1 several:1 plunking:1 duel:1 american:2 national:1 nl:1 open:1 direct:1 although:1 fellow:1 breach:1 etiquette:1 miscellaneous:1 hold:5 hughie:1 jennings:2 modern:2 craig:2 biggio:4 houston:1 astros:1 season:4 retire:1 prior:1 belong:2 baylor:1 single:2 ron:1 hunt:1 montreal:1 expo:1 year:4 three:1 rey:1 ordonez:1 almanac:2 career:2 hall:1 famer:1 walter:1 johnson:1 phil:1 knell:1 six:1 ed:1 knouff:1 john:1 grime:1 pittsburgh:1 dock:2 elli:3 need:1 motivation:1 decide:1 every:1 cincinnati:1 reds:1 lineup:1 pete:1 rise:1 morgan:1 dan:1 driessen:1 try:1 tony:2 perez:1 walk:1 two:2 johnny:1 remove:1 urban:1 legends:1 reference:2 page:1 lsd:1 hitter:1 date:1 one:2 die:2 ray:1 chapman:1 cleveland:1 indian:1 carl:1 august:2 next:1 morning:1 possible:2 suffer:2 injury:6 wear:2 helmet:4 red:1 conigliaro:1 almost:1 directly:1 left:1 eye:2 fastball:3 jack:1 hamilton:1 california:3 angel:1 cheekbone:1 shatter:2 nearly:1 lose:1 sight:1 unable:1 play:3 never:1 regain:1 earlier:1 ability:1 require:2 ear:1 flap:1 indeed:1 side:1 protection:1 september:2 kirby:1 puckett:1 superstar:1 outfielder:1 minnesota:1 twin:1 cheek:1 dennis:1 eckersley:1 break:1 jaw:1 loosen:1 teeth:1 last:1 spring:1 train:1 following:1 develop:1 glaucoma:1 recently:1 mike:1 piazza:1 new:2 york:2 mets:1 julian:1 tavarez:1 st:1 louis:1 cardinal:1 concussion:1 relatively:1 minor:2 include:1 broken:3 finger:1 foot:1 rib:1 knee:1 groin:1 april:2 kerwin:1 danley:5 behind:1 home:1 los:1 angeles:1 dodger:1 colorado:1 rockies:1 mph:1 brad:1 penny:1 go:1 catcher:1 russell:1 martin:1 carry:1 field:1 ambulance:2 resume:1 mother:1 sit:2 box:1 seat:1 frank:1 mccourt:1 wife:1 ride:1 vin:1 scully:1 report:1 well:1 consequence:1 legitimate:1 court:3 recognize:1 inherent:2 risk:3 cannot:1 sue:1 resulting:1 arise:1 involve:1 community:2 college:2 supreme:1 assume:1 avila:1 v:1 citrus:1 dist:1 cal:1 word:1 bad:1 fundamental:1 sport:1 function:1 tort:1 law:1 police:1 conduct:1 popular:1 culture:1 film:1 announce:1 fictional:1 yankee:1 duke:1 save:1 era:1 guy:1 kid:1 father:1 son:1 satirical:1 newspaper:1 onion:1 story:1 entitle:1 blame:1 medium:1 pressure:1 stall:1 close:1 simpson:2 episode:2 homer:2 springfield:1 nuclear:1 power:1 plant:1 softball:1 render:1 unconscious:1 winning:1 cheer:1 witted:1 bartender:1 know:1 coach:1 claim:1 skill:1 cultivate:1 say:1 see:1 list:2 external:1 link:1 leader:1 article:1 change:1 rate:1 hardball:1 |@bigram white_sox:1 league_baseball:3 scoreless_inning:1 atlanta_brave:2 batting_average:1 anything_else:1 craig_biggio:2 houston_astros:1 montreal_expo:1 baseball_almanac:2 hall_famer:1 cincinnati_reds:1 tony_perez:1 johnny_bench:1 urban_legends:1 red_sox:1 tony_conigliaro:1 kirby_puckett:1 minnesota_twin:1 dennis_eckersley:1 mike_piazza:1 los_angeles:1 angeles_dodger:1 colorado_rockies:1 frank_mccourt:1 vin_scully:1 supreme_court:1 homer_simpson:1 slow_witted:1 external_link:1 |
6,828 | Integer_factorization | In number theory, integer factorization is the breaking down of a composite number into smaller non-trivial divisors, which when multiplied together equal the original integer. When the numbers are very large, no efficient integer factorization algorithm is publicly known; a 2005 effort by F. Bahr, M. Boehm, J. Franke, T. Kleinjung factored a 193-digit number (RSA-640) utilizing 30 2.2GHz-Opteron-CPU years over a span of 5 months. RSA-640 is factored! The presumed difficulty of this problem is at the heart of certain algorithms in cryptography such as RSA. Many areas of mathematics and computer science have been brought to bear on the problem, including elliptic curves, algebraic number theory, and quantum computing. Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. The hardest instances of these problems (for currently known techniques) are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers. When they are both large, randomly chosen, and about the same size (but not too close), even the fastest prime factorization algorithms on the fastest computers can take enough time to make the search impractical. Prime decomposition By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer greater than one has a unique prime factorization. However, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic gives no insight into how to obtain an integer's prime factorization; it only guarantees its existence. Given an algorithm for integer factorization, one can factor any integer down to its constituent prime factors by repeated application of this algorithm. Practical applications The hardness of this problem, to use a term from computational complexity theory describing the difficulty of efficiently solving specific computational problems, lies at the heart of several important cryptographic systems. A fast integer factorization algorithm would mean that the RSA public-key algorithm is not secure. Some cryptographic systems, such as the Rabin public-key algorithm and the Blum Blum Shub pseudo-random number generator can make a stronger guarantee — any means of breaking them can be used to build a fast integer factorization algorithm; if integer factorization is hard, then they are strong. In contrast, it may turn out that there are attacks on the RSA problem more efficient than integer factorization, though none is currently published. A similar hard problem with cryptographic applications is the discrete logarithm problem. Even in the absence of cryptographic systems based on its hardness, integer factorization also has many positive applications in algorithms. For example, once an integer n is placed in its prime factorization representation, it enables the rapid computation of multiplicative functions on n. It can also be used to save storage, since any multiset of prime numbers can be stored without loss of information as its product; this was exploited, for example, by the Arecibo message. Current state of the art A team at the German Federal Agency for Information Technology Security (BSI) holds the record for factorization of semiprimes in the series proposed by the RSA Factoring Challenge sponsored by RSA Security. On May 9, 2005, this team announced factorization of RSA-200, a 663-bit number (200 decimal digits), using the general number field sieve. The same team later announced factorization of RSA-640, a smaller number containing 193 decimal digits (640 bits), on November 4, 2005. Both factorizations required several months of computer time using the combined power of 80 AMD Opteron CPUs. Difficulty and complexity If a large, b-bit number is the product of two primes that are roughly the same size, then no algorithm has been published that can factor in polynomial time, i.e., that can factor it in time O(bk) for some constant k. There are published algorithms that are faster than O((1+ε)b) for all positive ε, i.e., sub-exponential. The best published asymptotic running time is for the general number field sieve (GNFS) algorithm, which, for a b-bit number n, is: For an ordinary computer, GNFS is the best published algorithm for large n (more than about 100 digits). For a quantum computer, however, Peter Shor discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in polynomial time. This will have significant implications for cryptography if a large quantum computer is ever built. Shor's algorithm takes only O(b3) time and O(b) space on b-bit number inputs. In 2001, the first 7-qubit quantum computer became the first to run Shor's algorithm. It factored the number 15. When discussing what complexity classes the integer factorization problem falls into, it's necessary to distinguish two slightly different versions of the problem: The function problem version: given an integer N, find an integer d with 1 < d < N that divides N (or conclude that N is prime). This problem is trivially in FNP and it's not known whether it lies in FP or not. This is the version solved by most practical implementations. The decision problem version: given an integer N and an integer M with 1 ≤ M ≤ N, does N have a factor d with 1 < d < M? This version is useful because most well-studied complexity classes are defined as classes of decision problems, not function problems. This is a natural decision version of the problem, analogous to those frequently used for optimization problems, because it can be combined with binary search to solve the function problem version in a logarithmic number of queries. It is not known exactly which complexity classes contain the decision version of the integer factorization problem. It is known to be in both NP and co-NP. This is because both YES and NO answers can be trivially verified given the prime factors (we can verify their primality using the AKS primality test, and that their product is N by multiplication). In fact, providing we require the factors to be listed in order, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic will guarantee that there is only one possible string that will be accepted; this shows that the problem is in both UP and co-UP. Lance Fortnow. Computational Complexity Blog: Complexity Class of the Week: Factoring. September 13, 2002. http://weblog.fortnow.com/2002/09/complexity-class-of-week-factoring.html It is known to be in BQP because of Shor's algorithm. It is suspected to be outside of all three of the complexity classes P, NP-complete, and co-NP-complete. If it could be proved that it is in either NP-Complete or co-NP-Complete, that would imply NP = co-NP. That would be a very surprising result, and therefore integer factorization is widely suspected to be outside both of those classes. Many people have tried to find classical polynomial-time algorithms for it and failed, and therefore it is widely suspected to be outside P. In contrast, the decision problem "is N a composite number?" (or equivalently: "is N a prime number?") appears to be much easier than the problem of actually finding the factors of N. Specifically, the former can be solved in polynomial time (in the number n of digits of N) with the AKS primality test. In addition, there are a number of probabilistic algorithms that can test primality very quickly in practice if one is willing to accept the small possibility of error. The ease of primality testing is a crucial part of the RSA algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with. Factoring algorithms Special-purpose A special-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends on the properties of its unknown factors: size, special form, etc. Exactly what the running time depends on varies between algorithms. For example, trial division is considered special purpose because the running time is roughly proportional to the size of the smallest factor. Trial division Pollard's rho algorithm Algebraic-group factorisation algorithms amongst which are Pollard's p − 1 algorithm, Williams' p+1 algorithm and Lenstra elliptic curve factorization Fermat's factorization method Euler's factorization method Special number field sieve General-purpose A general-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored. This is the type of algorithm used to factor RSA numbers. Most general-purpose factoring algorithms are based on the congruence of squares method. Dixon's algorithm Continued fraction factorization (CFRAC) Quadratic sieve General number field sieve Shanks' square forms factorization (SQUFOF) Other notable algorithms Shor's algorithm, for quantum computers Notes References Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.4: Factoring into Primes, pp. 379–417. Chapter 5: Exponential Factoring Algorithms, pp. 191–226. Chapter 6: Subexponential Factoring Algorithms, pp. 227–284. Section 7.4: Elliptic curve method, pp. 301–313. External links A collection of links to factoring programs Factoris, On Line Factorization Program Richard P. Brent, "Recent Progress and Prospects for Integer Factorisation Algorithms", Computing and Combinatorics", 2000, pp.3-22. download Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, Nitin Saxena, "PRIMES is in P." Annals of Mathematics 160(2): 781-793 (2004). August 2005 version PDF is a public-domain integer factorization program for Windows. It claims to handle 80-digit numbers. See also the web site for this program MIRACL http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM is an integer factorization Java applet that uses the Elliptic Curve Method and the Self Initializing Quadratic Sieve. The RSA Challenge Numbers - a factoring challenge, no longer active. Eric W. Weisstein, “RSA-640 Factored” MathWorld Headline News, November 8, 2005 Qsieve, a suite of programs for integer factorization. It contains several factorization methods like Elliptic Curve Method and MPQS. Source code by Paolo Ardoino, Three known algorithms and C source code. Factorization Source Code: by Paul Herman & Ami Fischman, C++ source code for many factorization algorithms including Pollard Rho & Shor's. | Integer_factorization |@lemmatized number:28 theory:3 integer:25 factorization:31 break:2 composite:2 small:4 non:1 trivial:1 divisor:1 multiply:1 together:1 equal:1 original:1 large:6 efficient:2 algorithm:39 publicly:1 know:7 effort:1 f:1 bahr:1 boehm:1 j:1 franke:1 kleinjung:1 factor:21 digit:6 rsa:13 utilize:1 opteron:2 cpu:2 year:1 span:1 month:2 presumed:1 difficulty:3 problem:22 heart:2 certain:1 cryptography:2 many:4 area:1 mathematics:2 computer:9 science:1 bring:1 bear:1 include:2 elliptic:5 curve:5 algebraic:2 quantum:5 compute:2 give:6 length:1 equally:1 hard:4 instance:1 currently:2 technique:1 semiprimes:2 product:4 two:3 prime:14 randomly:1 choose:1 size:5 close:1 even:2 fast:5 take:2 enough:1 time:13 make:2 search:2 impractical:1 decomposition:1 fundamental:3 theorem:3 arithmetic:3 every:1 positive:3 great:1 one:4 unique:1 however:2 insight:1 obtain:1 guarantee:3 existence:1 constituent:1 repeated:1 application:4 practical:2 hardness:2 use:9 term:1 computational:3 complexity:9 describe:1 efficiently:1 solve:5 specific:1 lie:2 several:3 important:1 cryptographic:4 system:3 would:3 mean:2 public:3 key:2 secure:1 rabin:1 blum:2 shub:1 pseudo:1 random:1 generator:1 strong:2 build:2 contrast:2 may:2 turn:1 attack:1 though:1 none:1 publish:5 similar:1 discrete:1 logarithm:1 absence:1 base:2 also:3 example:3 n:17 place:1 representation:1 enable:1 rapid:1 computation:1 multiplicative:1 function:4 save:1 storage:1 since:1 multiset:1 store:1 without:1 loss:1 information:2 exploit:1 arecibo:1 message:1 current:1 state:1 art:2 team:3 german:1 federal:1 agency:1 technology:1 security:2 bsi:1 hold:1 record:1 series:1 propose:1 factoring:8 challenge:3 sponsor:1 announce:2 bit:5 decimal:2 general:6 field:4 sieve:6 later:1 contain:3 november:2 require:2 combined:1 power:1 amd:1 b:5 roughly:2 polynomial:4 e:2 bk:1 constant:1 k:1 ε:2 sub:1 exponential:2 best:2 asymptotic:1 running:3 gnfs:2 ordinary:1 peter:1 shor:6 discover:1 significant:1 implication:1 ever:1 space:1 input:1 first:2 qubit:1 become:1 run:3 discuss:1 class:8 fall:1 necessary:2 distinguish:1 slightly:1 different:1 version:9 find:4 divide:1 conclude:1 trivially:2 fnp:1 whether:1 fp:1 implementation:1 decision:5 useful:1 well:1 study:1 define:1 natural:1 analogous:1 frequently:1 optimization:1 combine:1 binary:1 logarithmic:1 query:1 exactly:2 np:8 co:5 yes:1 answer:1 verify:2 primality:5 aks:1 test:3 multiplication:1 fact:1 provide:1 list:1 order:1 possible:1 string:1 accept:2 show:1 lance:1 fortnow:2 blog:1 week:2 september:1 http:2 weblog:1 com:2 html:1 bqp:1 suspect:3 outside:3 three:2 p:6 complete:4 could:1 prove:1 either:1 imply:1 surprising:1 result:1 therefore:2 widely:2 people:1 try:1 classical:1 fail:1 equivalently:1 appear:1 much:1 easy:1 actually:1 specifically:1 former:1 ak:1 addition:1 probabilistic:1 quickly:1 practice:1 willing:1 possibility:1 error:1 ease:1 testing:1 crucial:1 part:1 start:1 algorithms:1 special:5 purpose:6 depend:3 property:1 unknown:1 form:2 etc:1 varies:1 trial:2 division:2 consider:1 proportional:1 pollard:3 rho:2 group:1 factorisation:2 amongst:1 williams:1 lenstra:1 fermat:1 method:7 euler:1 solely:1 type:1 congruence:1 square:2 dixon:1 continue:1 fraction:1 cfrac:1 quadratic:2 shank:1 squfof:1 notable:1 note:1 reference:1 donald:1 knuth:1 programming:1 volume:1 seminumerical:1 third:1 edition:1 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:1 section:2 pp:5 chapter:2 subexponential:1 external:1 link:2 collection:1 program:5 factoris:1 line:1 richard:1 brent:1 recent:1 progress:1 prospect:1 combinatorics:1 download:1 manindra:1 agrawal:1 neeraj:1 kayal:1 nitin:1 saxena:1 prim:1 annals:1 august:1 pdf:1 domain:1 window:1 claim:1 handle:1 see:1 web:1 site:1 miracl:1 www:1 alpertron:1 ar:1 ecm:1 htm:1 java:1 applet:1 self:1 initialize:1 longer:1 active:1 eric:1 w:1 weisstein:1 mathworld:1 headline:1 news:1 qsieve:1 suite:1 like:1 mpqs:1 source:4 code:4 paolo:1 ardoino:1 c:2 paul:1 herman:1 ami:1 fischman:1 |@bigram integer_factorization:14 elliptic_curve:5 prime_factorization:4 computational_complexity:2 pseudo_random:1 discrete_logarithm:1 arecibo_message:1 decimal_digit:2 amd_opteron:1 shor_algorithm:4 primality_test:2 np_complete:4 rsa_algorithm:1 donald_knuth:1 volume_seminumerical:1 seminumerical_algorithm:1 addison_wesley:1 external_link:1 manindra_agrawal:1 http_www:1 java_applet:1 w_weisstein:1 |
6,829 | Broch | Dun Carloway broch, Lewis, Scotland A Broch is an Iron Age drystone hollow-walled structure of a type found only in Scotland. Brochs include some of the most sophisticated examples of drystone architecture ever created, and belong to the classification "complex Atlantic Roundhouse" devised by Scottish archaeologists in the 1980s. Their origin is a matter of some controversy: the theory that they were essentially defensive military structures is not accepted by many modern archaeologists, and the notion that they were farmhouses is ridiculed by some others. They were almost certainly originally roofed and although most stand alone in the landscape, some examples exist of brochs surrounded by clusters of smaller dwellings. __TOC__ Origin and definition The word broch is derived from Old Norse borg meaning "fort". Various other English language derivatives have also been used including brough, borough and borve. Armit (2003) p. 13. A precise definition has proven to be elusive as they are the most spectacular of a complex class of roundhouse buildings found throughout "Atlantic Scotland". The Shetland Amenity Trust list about 120 sites in Shetland as candidate brochs, perhaps an overestimate, while The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historic Monuments of Scotland identify a total of 571 candidate broch sites throughout the country. Researcher Euan MacKie has proposed a much smaller total for Scotland of 104. Armit (2003) p. 16. The origin of brochs is a subject of continuing research. Sixty years ago most archaeologists believed that brochs were built by an influx of immigrants who had been displaced and pushed northward first by the intrusions of Belgic tribes into south-east England towards the end of the second century BC and later by the Roman invasion of southern England from AD 43 onwards. Yet there was never any doubt that the hollow-walled broch tower was a purely Scottish invention, or that even the kinds of pottery found within them that most resembled south English styles were local hybrid forms. The first of the modern review articles on the subject (MacKie 1965) MacKie, E. W. (1965) 'The origin and development of the broch and wheelhouse building cultures of the Scottish Iron Age'. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 31, pages 93-146. did not, as is commonly believed, advocate the view that brochs were built by immigrants but rather that a hybrid culture of a small number of immigrants and the native population of the Hebrides produced them in the first century BC from earlier, simpler promontory forts. This view contrasts for example with that of Sir Lindsay Scott who argued Scott, Sir Lindsay (1947), ‘The problem of the brochs’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 13, pages 1-36. —following Childe (1935) Childe, V. G. (1935) The Prehistory of Scotland. London. —for a wholesale migration into Atlantic Scotland of people from south-west England. Even this 1965 theory has fallen from favour, mainly because in the 1970s there was a general move away from 'diffusionist' explanations in archaeology towards those involving indigenous development. However, the increasing number (albeit still pitifully few) of radiocarbon dates for the primary use of brochs (as opposed to their later, secondary use) still suggest that most of the towers were built in the 1st centuries BC and AD. Parker Pearson, M. & Sharples, N. et al. (1999) Between land and sea: excavations at Dun Vulan, South Uist. Sheffield. A few such dates may be earlier, notably Old Scatness Broch in Shetland, where a sheep bone dating to 390–200 BC has been reported Dockrill, S. J., Outram, Z. and Batt, C. M. (2006) Time and place: a new chronology for the origin of the broch based on the scientific dating programme at the Old Scatness Broch, Shetland, PSAS, v. 136, p. 89-110, ISSN 0081-1564 The other broch claimed to be substantially older than the 1st century BC is Crosskirk in Caithness but a new review of the evidence suggests that it cannot plausibly be assigned a date earlier than the 1st centuries BC/AD MacKie, E. W. (2007) The Roundhouses, Brochs and Wheelhouses of Atlantic Scotland c. 700 BC - AD 500: architecture and material culture. Part 2 The Mainland and the Western Islands. British Archaeological Reports British Series (forthcoming). Oxford. For the C14 dates for the Shetland sites see Shetland Amenity Trust Retrieved 14 August 2007. Distribution Global overview of the distribution of brochs. The distribution of brochs is centred on northern Scotland. Caithness and the Northern Isles have the densest concentrations, but there are also a great many examples in the Hebrides and Sutherland. Although mainly concentrated in the northern Highlands and the Islands, some examples occur in the borders (for example Edin's Hall Broch), on the west coast of Dumfries and Galloway and near Stirling. This small group of southern brochs has never been satisfactorily explained. Purposes The original interpretation of brochs, favoured by nineteenth century antiquarians, was that they were defensive structures, places of refuge for the community and their livestock. From the 1930s to the 1960s, archaeologists like V. Gordon Childe and John Hamilton Hamilton, J.R.C. (1968) Excavations at Clickhimin, Shetland. Edinburgh. regarded them as castles where local landowners held sway over a subject population. These theories fell from favour among Scottish archaeologists in the 1980s, due to a lack of supporting archaeological evidence. These archaeologists suggested that defensibility was never a major concern in the siting of a broch, and have argued that they may have been the "stately homes" of their time, objects of prestige and very visible demonstrations of superiority for important families (Armit 2003). Once again, however, there is a lack of archaeological proof for this reconstruction. Brochs' close groupings and sheer numbers in many areas may indeed suggest that they had a primarily defensive or even offensive function. Some of them were sited beside precipitous cliffs and were protected by large ramparts: a good example is at Burland near Gulberwick in Shetland. Often they are at key strategic points. In Shetland they cluster round narrow stretches of water: the broch of Mousa, for instance, is directly opposite another at Burraland in Sandwick. In Orkney there are about a dozen on the facing shores of Eynhallow Sound , and many at the exits and entrances of the great harbour of Scapa Flow. In Sutherland quite a few are placed along the sides and at the mouths of deep valleys. Writing in 1956 John Stewart suggested that brochs were forts put up by a military society to scan and protect the countryside and seas. Stewart, J. (1956) An Outline of Shetland Archaeology, Lerwick : Shetland Times Ltd. Some archaeologists are now inclined to consider broch sites individually, doubting that there ever was a single common purpose for which every broch was constructed. There are differences between the various areas in which brochs are found, with regard to position, dimensions and likely status. For example, the broch 'villages' which occur at a few places in Orkney have no parallel in the Western Isles. Structures Brochs vary from 5 to 15 metres (16—50 ft) in internal diameter, with 3 metre (10 ft) thick walls. On average, the walls only survive to a few metres. There are five extant examples of towers with significantly higher walls: Dun Carloway on Lewis, Dun Telve and Dun Troddan in Glenelg, Mousa in Shetland and Dun Dornaigil in Sutherland, all of whose walls exceed 6.5 m (21 ft) in height. Armit (2003) p. 55. Mousa's walls are the best preserved and are still 13 m tall, however it is not clear how many brochs originally stood this high. A frequent characteristic is that the walls are galleried (the outer and inner wall skins are separate but tied together with linking stone slabs, with an open space between). These linking slabs may in some cases have served as steps to higher floors. Beside the door, it is normal for there to be a cell breaking off from the passage; this is known as the guard cell. It has been found in some Shetland brochs that guard cells in entrance passageways are close to large door-check stones. Though there was much argument in the past, it is now generally accepted that brochs were roofed, probably with a conical timber framed roof covered with a locally sourced thatch. The evidence for this assertion is still fairly scanty, though excavations at Dun Bharabhat, Lewis, have supported this interpretation. The main difficulty with this interpretation continues to be the potential source of structural timber, though bog and driftwood may have been plentiful sources. The remains of Feranch broch, Sutherland On the islands of Orkney and Shetland there are very few cells at ground floor. However, most brochs have scarcements (ledges) which would have allowed the construction of a very sturdy wooden first floor (first spotted by the antiquary George Low in Shetland in 1774), and excavations at Loch na Berie on the Isle of Lewis show signs of a further, second floor (eg stairs on the first floor, which head upwards). Some brochs such as Dun Dornaigill and Culswick in Shetland have unusual triangular lintels above the entrance door. "Dun Dornaigil" The Megalithic Portal. Retrieved 11 May 2008. "Culswick" RockStanza. Retrieved 11 May 2008. As in the case of Old Scatness in Shetland (near Jarlshof and Burroughston on Shapinsay, brochs were sometimes located close to arable land and a source of water (some have wells or natural springs rising within their central space). Hogan, C. Michael (Oct. 7, 2007) Burroughston Broch The Megalithic Portal. Retrieved 11 May 2008. Sometimes, on the other hand, they were sited in wilderness areas (e.g. Levenwick and Culswick in Shetland, Castle Cole in Sutherland). Brochs are often built beside the sea (Carn Liath, Sutherland); sometimes they are on islands in lochs (e.g. Clickimin in Shetland). About 20 Orcadian broch sites include small settlements of stone buildings surrounding the main tower. Examples include Howe, near Stromness, Gurness Broch in the north west of Mainland, Orkney, Midhowe on Rousay and Lingro near Kirkwall. There are "broch village" sites in Caithness, but elsewhere they are unknown. Armit (2003) p. 95-106. Most brochs are unexcavated Armit (2003) p. 51 notes that of 140 Atlantic roundhouses in the Outer Hebrides only 14 have been "at least partially excavated". but many of those that have been properly examined show that they continued in use for many centuries, although the interiors were often modified and changed, and they underwent many phases of habitation and abandonment. The end of the broch period par excellence seems to have come around AD 200-300. Dun Telve broch, Glenelg The skills involved in broch building are currently being explored by drystone dyker Irwin Campbell Irwin Campbell brochbuild.co.uk. Retrieved 11 May 2008. and AOC Archaeology Ltd., based in Edinburgh. See also Atlantic Roundhouses Broch of Mousa Crannog Hill fort Dun Tower house Nuraghe Round tower References and footnotes General references Armit, I. (1991) The Atlantic Scottish Iron Age: five levels of chronology, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. v. 121, p. 181-214, ISSN 0081-1564 Armit, I. (1996) The Archaeology of Skye and the Western Isles, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-0640-8 Armit, I. (2003) Towers in the North: The Brochs of Scotland, Stroud : Tempus, ISBN 0-7524-1932-3 Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I. (eds) (2002) In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland, Stroud : Tempus, ISBN 0-7524-2517-X Fojut, N. (1982) Towards a Geography of Shetland Brochs, Glasgow Archaeological Journal, v. 9, p. 38-59, ISSN 0305-8980 Harding, D.W. (2000) The Hebridean Iron Age: Twenty Years’ Research, University of Edinburgh Department of Archaeology, Occasional Paper No. 20, ISSN: 0144-3313 Harding, D.W. (2004) The Iron Age in Northern Britain, London : Routledge, ISBN 0-415-30150-5 Hingley, R (1992) Society in Scotland from 700 BC to 200 AD, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. v. 122, p. 7-53, ISSN 0081-1564. Specific references and notes Further reading MacKie, E W 1992 The Iron Age semibrochs of Atlantic Scotland: a case study in the problems of deductive reasoning. Archaeol Journ 149 (1991), 149-81. MacKie, E W 1995a Gurness and Midhowe brochs in Orkney: some problems of misinterpretation. Archaeol Journ 151 (1994), 98-157. MacKie, E W 1995b The early Celts in Scotland. Miranda Green (ed) The Celtic World. Routledge, London: 654-70. MacKie, E W 1997 Dun Mor Vaul re-visited, J.N.G. Ritchie (ed) The Archaeology of Argyll. Edinburgh: 141-80. MacKie, E W 1998 Continuity over three thousand years of northern prehistory: the ‘tel’ at Howe, Orkney. Antiq Journ 78, 1-42. MacKie, E W 2000 The Scottish Atlantic Iron Age: indigenous and isolated or part of a wider European world? 99-116 in Jon C Henderson (ed) The Prehistory and Early History of Atlantic Europe. BAR International Series 861: Oxford. MacKie, E W 2002a Excavations at Dun Ardtreck, Skye, in 1964 and 1965. Proc Soc Antiq Scot 131 (2000), 301-411. MacKie, E W 2002b The Roundhouses, Brochs and Wheelhouses of Atlantic Scotland c. 700 BC - AD 500: architecture and material culture. Part 1 The Orkney and Shetland Isles. British Archaeological Reports British Series 342. Oxford. MacKie, E. W. 2005 119. Scottish brochs at the start of the new millennium, 11-31 in Turner, Val E, Nicholson, Rebecca A, Dockrill, S J & Bond, Julie M (eds.) Tall stories? Two millennia of brochs. Lerwick. Hunter, Mollie, The Stronghold, an historical novel about the building of the first broch. External links "Towers of stone – the brochs of Scotland", from The Scotsman, February 27, 2006. Database of Iron Age Brochs in Shetland, Licenced under the GNU Free Documentation License Pretanic World - Chart of Neolithic, Bronze Age and Celtic Stone Structures Glenelg Brochs Shetlopedia: Brochs of Shetland | Broch |@lemmatized dun:13 carloway:2 broch:26 lewis:4 scotland:16 iron:9 age:10 drystone:3 hollow:2 walled:1 structure:5 type:1 find:5 brochs:36 include:4 sophisticated:1 example:10 architecture:3 ever:2 create:1 belong:1 classification:1 complex:2 atlantic:11 roundhouse:6 devise:1 scottish:7 archaeologist:7 origin:5 matter:1 controversy:1 theory:3 essentially:1 defensive:3 military:2 accept:2 many:8 modern:2 notion:1 farmhouse:1 ridicule:1 others:1 almost:1 certainly:1 originally:2 roof:3 although:3 stand:2 alone:1 landscape:1 exist:1 surround:2 cluster:2 small:5 dwelling:1 definition:2 word:1 derive:1 old:5 norse:1 borg:1 meaning:1 fort:4 various:2 english:2 language:1 derivative:1 also:3 use:4 brough:1 borough:1 borve:1 armit:9 p:9 precise:1 prove:1 elusive:1 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6,830 | Aedui | A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the relative position of the Aedui tribe. Aedui, Haedui or Hedui (Gr. Aidouoi), were a Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar (Saone) and Liger (Loire), in today's France. The statement in Strabo (ii. 3. 192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or and Nièvre. According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century BC. Before Caesar's time they had attached themselves to the Romans, and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their neighbours on the other side of the Arar, with whom they were continually quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with the assistance of a Germanic chieftain named Ariovistus, the Aedui sent Diviciacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the senate for help, but his mission was unsuccessful. On his arrival in Gaul (58 BC), Caesar restored their independence. In spite of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (B. G. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia were glad to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun). In 21, during the reign of Tiberius, they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus Ann. iii. 43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of jus honorum. The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, "judgment-worker"), who was elected annually, possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontier. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui. Its possible that the Aedui adopted many of the governmental practices of the Romans, such as the electing of magistrates and other officials. Or perhaps this was a natural development in their political system. It is thought other Celtic tribes, such as the Remi and the Baiocasses, also elected their leaders. See also List of peoples of Gaul References A. E. Desjardins, Geographie de la Gaule, ii. (1876-1893) T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899). Sources | Aedui |@lemmatized map:1 gaul:5 century:2 bc:3 show:2 relative:1 position:1 aedui:8 tribe:2 haedui:1 hedui:1 gr:1 aidouoi:1 gallic:2 people:3 gallia:1 lugdunensis:1 inhabit:1 country:2 arar:3 saone:1 liger:1 loire:2 today:1 france:1 statement:1 strabo:1 ii:2 dwell:1 dubis:1 doubs:1 incorrect:1 territory:1 thus:1 include:1 great:1 part:2 modern:2 department:1 saône:1 et:1 côte:1 nièvre:1 accord:2 livy:1 v:1 take:1 expedition:1 bellovesus:1 italy:1 caesar:5 time:2 attach:1 roman:4 honour:1 title:1 brother:1 kinsman:1 sequani:1 neighbour:1 side:1 continually:1 quarrel:1 invade:1 subjugate:1 assistance:1 germanic:1 chieftain:1 name:2 ariovistus:1 send:1 diviciacus:1 druid:1 rome:1 appeal:1 senate:1 help:1 mission:1 unsuccessful:1 arrival:1 restore:1 independence:1 spite:1 join:1 coalition:1 b:1 g:1 vii:1 surrender:1 vercingetorix:1 alesia:1 glad:1 return:1 allegiance:1 augustus:1 dismantle:1 native:2 capital:1 bibracte:1 mont:1 beuvray:1 substitute:1 new:1 town:1 half:2 gaulish:1 augustodunum:3 autun:1 reign:1 tiberius:1 revolt:1 julius:1 sacrovir:1 seize:1 soon:1 put:1 gaius:1 silius:1 tacitus:1 ann:1 iii:1 first:1 receive:1 emperor:1 claudius:1 distinction:1 jus:1 honorum:1 oration:1 eumenius:1 plead:1 restoration:1 school:1 place:1 district:1 neglect:1 chief:1 magistrate:2 call:1 vergobretus:1 mommsen:1 judgment:1 worker:1 elect:2 annually:1 possess:1 power:1 life:1 death:1 forbidden:1 go:1 beyond:1 frontier:1 certain:1 clientes:1 small:1 community:1 also:3 dependent:1 upon:1 possible:1 adopt:1 many:1 governmental:1 practice:1 electing:1 official:1 perhaps:1 natural:1 development:1 political:1 system:1 think:1 celtic:1 remi:1 baiocasses:1 leader:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 e:1 desjardins:1 geographie:1 de:1 la:1 gaule:1 r:1 holmes:1 conquest:1 source:1 |@bigram et_loire:1 la_gaule:1 |
6,831 | Jihad | Jihad (; ), an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād is a noun meaning "struggle." Jihad appears frequently in the Qur'an and common usage as the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of Allah (al-jihad fi sabil Allah)". , Jihad, p.571 , Jihad, p.419 A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid, the plural is mujahideen. A minority among the Sunni scholars sometimes refer to this duty as the sixth pillar of Islam, though it occupies no such official status. John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, pp.93 In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, Jihad is one of the 10 Practices of the Religion. According to scholar John Esposito, Jihad requires Muslims to "struggle in the way of God" or "to struggle to improve one's self and/or society." Esposito (2003), p.93 pg 174-176 Jihad is directed against Satan's inducements, aspects of one's own self, or against a visible enemy. pg. 17 The four major categories of jihad that are recognized are Jihad against one's self (Jihad al-Nafs), Jihad of the tongue (Jihad al-lisan), Jihad of the hand (Jihad al-yad), and Jihad of the sword (Jihad as-sayf). Islamic military jurisprudence focuses on regulating the conditions and practice of Jihad as-sayf, the only form of warfare permissible under Islamic law, and thus the term Jihad is usually used in fiqh manuals in reference to military combat. Usage of the term The term "Jihad" used without any qualifiers is generally understood in the West to be referring to holy war on behalf of Islam. In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can simply mean striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things. Esposito (2002a), p.26 The relative importance of these two forms of jihad is a matter of controversy. Greater Jihad Within Islamic belief, Muhammad is said to have regarded the inner struggle for faith the "greater jihad", prioritizing it over physical fighting in defense of the Ummah, or members of the global Islamic community. One famous hadith has the prophet saying: "We have returned from the lesser jihad (battle) to the greater jihad (jihad of the soul)." JOIN THE CARAVAN Imam Abdullah Azzam Muslim scholar Mahmoud Ayoub states that "The goal of true jihad is to attain a harmony between islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (righteous living)." Mahmoud M. Ayoub, Islam: Faith and History, pp. 68-69) Greater jihad can be compared to the struggle that Christians refer to as "resisting sin", i.e. fighting temptation, doubt, disbelief, or detraction. The greater jihad is about holding fast against any ideas and practices that run contrary to the Muhammad's revelations (Qur'an), sayings (Hadith) and the examples set by how he lived his life (Sunnah). This concept of jihad has does not correspond to any military action. In Modern Standard Arabic, jihad is one of the correct terms for a struggle for any cause, violent or not, religious or secular (though كفاح kifāḥ is also used). For instance, Mahatma Gandhi's struggle for Indian independence is called a "jihad" in Modern Standard Arabic (as well as many other dialects of Arabic); the terminology is applied to the fight for women's liberation. In modern times, Pakistani scholar and professor Fazlur Rahman Malik has used the term to describe the struggle to establish "just moral-social order", Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur'an, (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980), pp. 63-64. while President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia has used it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country. Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Weiner, 1996), pp. 116-17 Lesser Jihad (Jihad bil Saif) Within Islamic jurisprudence jihad is the only form of warfare permissible under Islamic law, and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, non-Islamic leaders or non-Muslim combatants, but there are other ways to perform jihad as well, including civil disobedience. The primary aim of jihad as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. R. Peters (1977), pp.3-5 In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the rules associated with armed warfare are covered at great length. Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas. More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam. Although some Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression. Jihad has also been applied to offensive, aggressive warfare, as exemplified by Muhammad's own policies and the entire subsequent history of the spread of Islam. From the first generation of Islam, jihad ideology inspired the conquest of non-Muslim populations, forcing them to submit to Muslim rule or accept outright conversion (although conversion was not generally demanded of "Peoples of the Book," this too could be forcibly imposed on non-"Peoples of the Book"). Jihad ideologies also inspired internal civil conflict, as can be seen in early movements like the Kharijites and the contemporary Egyptian Islamic Jihad organization (which assassinated Anwar Al Sadat) as well as Jihad organizations in Lebanon, the Gulf states, and Indonesia. When used to describe warfare between Islamic groups or individuals, such as al-Qaeda's attacks on civilians in Iraq, perpetrators of violence often cite collaboration with non-Islamic powers as a justification. Terrorist attacks like that of September 11, 2001, which was planned and executed by radical Islamic fundamentalists, have not been sanctioned by more centrist groups of Muslims. John K. Roth, Ethics, p.775 This kind of terrorism has been condemned by Muslims all around the world. see e.g. , and The word itself has been recorded in English since 1869, in the Muslim sense, and has been used for any doctrinal jihad since c. 1880. Oxford English Dictionary Controversy Controversy has arisen over whether use of the term jihad without further explanation refers to jihad of the sword, and whether some have used confusion over the definition of the term to their advantage. What Does Jihad Mean? "For example, Yasir Arafat's May 1994 call in Johannesburg for a "jihad to liberate Jerusalem" was a turning point in the peace process; Israelis heard him speak about using violence to gain political ends and questioned his peaceable intentions. Both Arafat himself and his aides then clarified that he was speaking about a "peaceful jihad" for Jerusalem." Middle East historian Bernard Lewis argues that "the overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists, and traditionalists [i.e., specialists in the hadith] ... understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense." Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 72. Scholar David Cook writes: In reading Muslim literature -- both contemporary and classical -- one can see that the evidence for the primacy of spiritual jihad is negligible. Today it is certain that no Muslim, writing in a non-Western language (such as Arabic, Persian, Urdu), would ever make claims that jihad is primarily nonviolent or has been superseded by the spiritual jihad. Such claims are made solely by Western scholars, primarily those who study Sufism and/or work in interfaith dialogue, and by Muslim apologists who are trying to present Islam in the most innocuous manner possible. Cook, David, Understanding Jihad, University of California Press, 2005, p.165-6 And according to Douglas Streusand, "in hadith collections, jihad means armed action; for example, the 199 references to jihad in the most standard collection of hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari, all assume that jihad means warfare." Muhammad ibn Isma'il Bukhari, The Translation of the Meaning of Sahih al-Bukhari, trans. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 8 vols. (Medina: Dar al-Fikr: 1981), 4:34-204. Quoted in Douglas Streusand, `What Does Jihad Mean?` Middle East Quarterly, September 1997. Some fundamentalist Muslim traditionalists see that the world is divided into two houses: the House of Islamic Peace (Dar al-Salam), in which Muslim governments rule and Muslim law prevails, and the House of War (Dar al-Harb), the rest of the world, still inhabited. The presumption is that by natural law these domains will compete and fighting is inevitable therefore the duty of jihad will continue, interrupted only by truces, until all the world either adopts the Muslim faith or submits to Muslim rule. Those who fight in the jihad qualify for rewards in both worlds — treasure in this one, paradise in the next. For most of the recorded history of Islam, from the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad onward, the word jihad was used in a primarily military sense. Lewis, Bernard, The Crisis of Islam, 2001 Chapter 2 Nevertheless, the hadith is there, and the fact remains that ideas regarding which hadith are to be considered "controversial" are more often than not based upon the preconceived ideology of certain factions rather than the consensus of the ummah, or even historical or theological exegesis. Furthermore, all of the greatest saints (wali) of Islam and the majority of the ummah have supported Muhammad's interpretation of jihad according to this hadith, as well as that of the Qur'an itself, as being critical to daily religious practice in which the believer is urged to engage in struggle (jihad) within oneself (nafs) against the incessant promptings of the evil one. Muhaiyaddeen, M. R. Bawa: Islam & World Peace: Explanations of a Sufi Fellowship Press, Philadelphia 1987 A number of Islamic scholars have distinguished jihad, as legitimate struggle, from fasad, as illegitimate violence and troublemaking, and argue that terrorism should be called fasad, not jihad. History of Jihad Origins The beginnings of Jihad are traced back to the words and actions of Muhammad and the Qu’ran. Rudolph Peters, Jihād (The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World); http://www.oxfordislamicstudies/MainSearch.html (accessed February 17, 2008) This word of Allah explicitly encourages the use of Jihad against non-Muslims. Jonathon P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2003 Sura 25, verse 52 states: “Therefore, do not obey the disbelievers, and strive against them with this, a great striving.” http://www.submission.org/suras/sura25.html It was, therefore, the duty of all Muslims to strive against those who did not believe in Allah and took offensive action against Muslims. The Qu’ran, however, never uses the term Jihad for fighting and combat in the name of Allah; qital is used to mean “fighting.” The struggle for Jihad in the Qu’ran was originally intended for the nearby neighbors of the Muslims, but as time passed and more enemies arose, the Qu’ranic statements supporting Jihad were updated for the new adversaries. The first documentation of the law of Jihad was written by ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Awza’i and Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani. The document grew out of debates that had surfaced ever since Muhammad's death. Early Instances of Jihad The first forms of military Jihad occurred after the migration (hijra) of Muhammad and his small group of followers to Medina from Mecca and the conversion of several inhabitants of the city to Islam. The first revelation concerning the struggle against the Meccans was surah 22, verses 39-40: William M. Watt: Muhammad at Medina, p.4; q.v. the Tafsir regarding these verses There were several reasons for Muhammad and his followers to fight the Meccans: Adel Th. Khoury: Was sagt der Koran zum Heiligen Krieg?, pp.89-107 For one, Muslims were defending themselves against the Meccans' attack. According to this surah 2, verse 190 was revealed: The Muslims had - at least partially - provoked the Meccans to attack them by robbing the goods of their caravans. William M. Watt: Muhammad at Medina, p.4; William M. Watt: Kurze Geschichte des Islam, p.81; Albrecht Noth: Früher Islam. In: Ulrich Haarmann: Geschichte der arabischen Welt, p.37; Rudi Paret: Der Koran. Kommentar und Konkordanz, 22:39 However, this was inevitable, for the Emigrants (the Muslims who had fled from Mecca to Yathrib/Medina) had lost all of their goods because of the Meccans and needed a livelihood. Rudi Paret: Mohammed und der Koran. Geschichte und Verkündung des arabischen Propheten, p.128 They robbed goods from Meccan caravans, which was considered justified at that time. At this time, Muslims had been persecuted and oppressed by the Meccans. Adel Th. Khoury: Was sagt der Koran zum Heiligen Krieg?, p.91 There were still Muslims who couldn't flee from Mecca and were still oppressed because of their faith. Surah 4, verse 75 is referring to this fact: The Meccans also refused to let the Muslims enter Mecca and by that denied them access to theKa'aba. Surah 8, verse 34: The main focus of Muhammad’s later years was increasing the number of allies as well as the amount of territory under Muslim control. David Cook, Understanding Jihad; University of California Press: CA, 2005 The Qu’ran is unclear as to whether Jihad is acceptable only in defense of the faith from wrong-doings or in all cases. Major battles in the history of Islam arose between the Meccans and the Muslims; one of the most important to the latter was the Battle of Badr in 624 AD. This Muslim victory over polytheists showed “demonstration of divine guidance and intervention on behalf of Muslims, even when outnumbered.” The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Badr, Battle of; http://oxfordislamicstudies.com/MainSearch.html (accessed February 17, 2008) Other early battles included battles in Uhud (625), Khandaq (627), Mecca (630) and Hunayn (630). These battles, especially Uhud and Khandaq, were unsuccessful in comparison to the Battle of Badr.. In relating this battle, the Qu’ran states that Allah sent an “unseen army of angels” that helped the Muslims defeat the Meccans. John L. Esposito, Islam, the Straight Path; Oxford University Press: New York,2005 Jihad and the Crusades The European crusaders conquered much of the territory held within the Islamic state, dividing it into four kingdoms, the most important being the state of Jerusalem. The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing Jerusalem and the Holy Land (former Christian territory) from Muslim rule and were originally launched in response to a call from the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire for help against the expansion of the Muslim Seljuk Turks into Anatolia. There was little drive to retake the lands from the crusaders, save the few attacks made by the Egyptian Fatimids. This changed, however, with the coming of Zangi, ruler of what is today northern Iraq. He took Edessa, which triggered the Second Crusade, which was little more than a 47-year stalemate. The stalemate was ended with the victory of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known in the west as Saladin) over the forces of Jerusalem at the Horns of Hattin in 1187. It was during the course of the stalemate that a great deal of literature regarding Jihad was written. While amassing his armies in Syria, Saladin had to create a doctrine which would unite his forces and make them fight until the bitter end, which would be the only way they could re-conquer the lands taken in the First Crusade. He did this through the creation of Jihad propaganda. It stated that any one who would abandon the Jihad would be committing a sin that could not be washed away by any means. It also put his amirs at the center of power, just under his rule. While this propaganda was successful in uniting his forces for a time, the fervor burned out quickly. Much of Saladin's teachings were rejected after his death. Richard P. Bonney, Jihad: From Qu'ran to Bin Laden; Palgrave Macmillan: Hampshire, 2004 Islamic Spain and Portugal Medieval Spain was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back treasure and slaves. In raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves. Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i.e. "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a Berber, Muslim dynasty that was founded in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Libya, together with Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain). The Almohads, who declared an everlasting Jihad against the Christians, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. The Almohads Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137-138. The Forgotten Refugees Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. Sephardim Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16-17. Indian subcontinent Sir Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic Jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects." In particular the records kept by al-Utbi, Mahmud al-Ghazni's secretary, in the Tarikh-i-Yamini document several episodes of bloody military campaigns. In 1527, Babur ordered a Jihad against Rajputs at the battle of Khanwa. Publicly addressing his men, he declared the forthcoming battle a Jihad. His soldiers were facing a non-Muslim army for the first time ever. This, he said, was their chance to become either a Ghazi (soldier of Islam) or a Shaheed (Martyr of Islam). The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb waged a Jihad against those identified as heterodox within India's Islamic community, such as Shi'a Muslims. The Shade of Swords Jihad and the Conflict between Islam and Christianity M. J. Akbar K. S. Lal: Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, 1973 Tamerlane Timur Lenk, a 14th century Turco-Mongol conqueror of much of western and central Asia, thought of himself as a ghazi, although his wars were also against Muslim states. Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World, by Justin Marozzi Fulani jihads The Fula or Fulani jihads, were a series of independent but loosely connected events across West Africa between the late 17th century and European colonization, in which Muslim Fulas took control of various parts of the region. Usman dan Fodio (Fulani leader) Between 1750 and 1900, between one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History Caucasus In 1784, Imam Sheikh Mansur, a Chechen warrior and Muslim mystic, led a coalition of Muslim Caucasian tribes from throughout the Caucasus in a ghazavat, or holy war, against the Russian invaders. Sufism in the Caucasus Sheikh Mansur was captured in 1791 and died in the Schlusselburg Fortress. Avarian Islamic scholar Ghazi Muhammad preached that Jihad would not occur until the Caucasians followed Sharia completely rather than following a mixture of Islamic laws and adat (customary traditions). By 1829, Mullah began proselytizing and claiming that obeying Sharia, giving zakat, prayer, and hajj would not be accepted by Allah if the Russians were still present in the area. He even went on to claim that marriages would become void and children bastards if any Russians were still in the Caucasus. In 1829 he was proclaimed imam in Ghimry, where he formally made the call for a holy war. In 1834, Ghazi Muhammad died at the battle of Ghimri, and Imam Shamil took his place as the premier leader of the Caucasian resistance. Imam Shamil succeeded in accomplishing what Sheik Mansur had started: to unite North Caucasian highlanders in their struggle against the Russian Empire. He was a leader of anti-Russian resistance in the Caucasian War and was the third Imam of Dagestan and Chechnya (1834-1859). Imam Shamil of Dagestan Tough lessons in defiant Dagestan Mahdists in Sudan During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion? Slave trade in the Sudan in the nineteenth century and its suppression in the years 1877-80. Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi was a religious leader, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi - the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will appear at end times - in 1881, and declared a Jihad against Ottoman rulers. He declared all "Turks" infidels and called for their execution. Holt, P.M., The Mahdist State in Sudan, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1958, p.51 The Mahdi raised an army and led a successful religious war to topple the Ottoman-Egyptian occupation of Sudan. Victory created an Islamic state, one that quickly reinstituted slavery. In the West he is most famous for defeating and later killing British general Charles George Gordon, in the fall of Khartoum. US Library of Congress, A Country Study: Sudan Wahabbists The Saudi Salafi sheiks were convinced that it was their religious mission to wage Jihad against all other forms of Islam. In 1801 and 1802, the Saudi Wahhabists under Abdul Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud attacked and captured the holy Shia cities of Karbala and Najaf in Iraq, massacred the Shiites and destroyed the tombs of the Shiite Imam Husayn and Ali bin Abu Talib. In 1802 they occupied Taif where they massacred the population. In 1803 and 1804 the Wahhabis captured Mecca and Medina, destroying monuments and various holy Muslim sites and shrines, such as the shrine built over the tomb of Fatima Zahra, the daughter of Muhammad, and even intended to destroy the grave of Muhammad himself. The Destruction of Holy Sites in Mecca and Medina Saudi Arabia - THE SAUD FAMILY AND WAHHABI ISLAM Nibras Kazimi, A Paladin Gears Up for War, The New York Sun, November 1, 2007 John R Bradley, Saudi's Shi'ites walk tightrope, Asia Times, March 17, 2005 Amir Taheri, Death is big business in Najaf, but Iraq's future depends on who controls it, The Times, August 28, 2004 Ottoman Empire Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman the Magnificent began a series of military conquests in Europe. Life Span of Suleiman The Magnificent, 1494-1566 On August 29, 1526, he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1516–26) at the battle of Mohács. In its wake, Hungarian resistance collapsed and the Ottoman Empire became the preeminent power in Central and Eastern Europe. Kinross, 187. In July 1683 Sultan Mehmet IV proclaimed a Jihad and the Turkish grand vizier, Kara Mustafa Pasha, laid siege to the Vienna with an army of 138,000 men. Ottoman Dhimmitude Supply of Slaves The living legacy of jihad slavery On November 14, 1914, in Constantinople, capital of the Ottoman Empire, the religious leader Sheikh-ul-Islam declares Jihad on behalf of the Ottoman government, urging Muslims all over the world - including in the Allied countries - to take up arms against Britain, Russia, France and Serbia and Montenegro in World War I. The Middle East during World War One On the other hand, Sheikh Hussein ibn Ali, the Emir of Mecca, refused to accommodate Ottoman requests that he endorse this jihad, a requirement that was necessary were a jihad to become popular, on the grounds that:'the Holy War was doctrinally incompatible with an aggressive war, and absurd with a Christian ally: Germany' T. E. Lawrence, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom, Jonathan Cape, London (1926) 1954 p. 49. Afghanistan Ahmad Shah, founder of the Durrani Empire, declared a jihad against the Marathas, and warriors from various Pashtun tribes, as well as other tribes answered his call. The Third battle of Panipat (January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies who numbered as many as 100,000 troops each, was waged along a twelve-kilometre front, and resulted in a decisive victory for Ahmad Shah. for a detailed account of the battle fought see Chapter VI of The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan by H.G. Keene. Available online at In response to the Hazara uprising of 1892, the Afghan Emir Abdur Rahman declared a "Jihad" against the Shiites. The large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was severely massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi, "thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were sold as slaves in the markets of Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir". Until the 20th century, some Hazaras were still kept as slaves by the Pashtuns; although Amanullah Khan banned slavery in Afghanistan during his reign, Afghan Constitution: 1923 the tradition carried on unofficially for many more years. Afghan History: kite flying, kite running and kite banning By Mir Hekmatullah Sadat The First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–42) was one of Britain’s most ill-advised and disastrous wars. William Brydon was the sole survivor of the invading British army of 16,500 soldiers and civilians. First Afghan War - Battle of Kabul and Retreat to Gandamak As in the earlier wars against the British and Soviets, Afghan resistance to the American invaders took the traditional form of a Muslim holy war against the infidels. Reason to hope Canadians don't repeat history in Afghanistan, Alan G. Jamieson, The Edmonton Journal, July 31 2006 During September 2002, the remnants of the Taliban forces began a recruitment drive in Pashtun areas in both Afghanistan and Pakistan to launch a renewed "jihad" or holy war against the pro-Western Afghan government and the U.S-led coalition. Pamphlets distributed in secret during the night also began to appear in many villages in the former Taliban heartland in southeastern Afghanistan that called for jihad. Small mobile training camps were established along the border with Pakistan by al-Qaeda and Taliban fugitives to train new recruits in guerrilla warfare and terrorist tactics, according to Afghan sources and a United Nations report. Most of the new recruits were drawn from the madrassas or religious schools of the tribal areas of Pakistan, from which the Taliban had originally arisen. As of 2008, the insurgency, in the form of a Taliban guerrilla war, continues. Alhough there is no evidence that the CIA directly supported the Taliban or Al Qaeda, some basis for military support of the Taliban was provided when, in the early 1980s, the CIA and the ISI (Pakistan's Interservices Intelligence Agency) provided arms to Afghan mujahideens resisting the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Turning Out Guerrillas and Terrorists to Wage a Holy War, New York Times, March 18, 2002 and the ISI assisted the process of gathering radical Muslims from around the world to fight against the Soviets. Osama Bin Laden was one of the key players in organizing training camps for the foreign Muslim volunteers. The U.S. poured funds and arms into Afghanistan, and "by 1987, 65,000 tons of U.S.-made weapons and ammunition a year were entering the war." Rashid, Taliban (2000) Algeria In 1830, Algeria was invaded by France; French colonial domination over Algeria supplanted what had been domination in name only by the Ottoman Empire. Within two years, `Abd al-Qādir was made an amir and with the loyalty of a number of tribes began a jihad against the French. He was effective at using guerrilla warfare and for a decade, up until 1842, scored many victories. He was noted for his chivalry. On December 21, 1847, Abd al-Qādir was forced to surrender. Abd al Qadir, Library of Congress Abd al-Qadir is recognized and venerated as the first hero of Algerian independence. Not without cause, his green and white standard was adopted by the Algerian liberation movement during the War of Independence and became the national flag of independent Algeria. The Algerian Civil War (1991–2002) was an armed conflict between the Algerian government and various Islamist rebel groups which began in 1991. By 1997, the organized jihad in Algeria had disintegrated into criminal thuggery and Algeria was wracked by massacres of intense brutality and unprecedented size. Algeria Centrifugal Tendencies In The Algerian Civil War, Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) Views of Jihad of different Muslim groups Sunni view of Jihad Jihad has been classified either as al-jihād al-akbar (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (nafs), or al-jihād al-asghar (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting (this is similar to the shiite view of jihad as well). Gibril Haddad has analyzed the basis for the belief that internal jihad is the "greater jihad", Jihad al-akbar. Haddad identifies the primary historical basis for this belief in a pair of similarly worded hadeeth, in which Mohammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against non-Muslims to a greater jihad of struggle against lust. Although Haddad notes that the authenticity of both hadeeth is questionable, he nevertheless concludes that the underlying principle of superiority internal jihad does have a reliable basis in the Qur'an and other writings. ] On the other hand, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya did believe that "internal Jihad" is important Documentation of "Greater Jihad" hadith but he suggests those hadith as weak which consider "Jihad of the heart/soul" to be more important than "Jihad by the sword". Jihad in the Hadith, Peace with Realism, April 16, 2006 Contemporary Islamic scholar Abdullah Yusuf Azzam has argued the hadith is not just weak but "is in fact a false, fabricated hadith which has no basis. It is only a saying of Ibrahim Ibn Abi `Abalah, one of the Successors, and it contradicts textual evidence and reality." JOIN THE CARAVAN Muslim jurists explained there are four kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God): Majid Khadduri: War and Peace in the Law of Islam, p.56 Jihad of the heart (jihad bil qalb/nafs) is concerned with combatting the devil and in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil. This type of Jihad was regarded as the greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar). Jihad by the tongue (jihad bil lisan) is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue. Jihad by the hand (jihad bil yad) refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action. Jihad by the sword (jihad bis saif) refers to qital fi sabilillah (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war), the most common usage by Salafi Muslims and offshoots of the Muslim Brotherhood. Some contemporary Islamists have succeeded in replacing the greater jihad, the fight against desires, with the lesser jihad, the holy war to establish, defend and extend the Islamic state. Understanding Jihad, February, 2005 Sufic view of Jihad The Sufic view classifies "Jihad" into two; the "Greater Jihad" and the "Lesser Jihad". Muhammad put the emphasis on the "greater Jihad" by saying that "Holy is the warrior who is at war with himself". In this sense external wars and strife are seen but a satanic counterfeit of the true "jihad" which can only be fought and won within; no other Salvation existing can save man without the efforts of the man himself being added to the work involved of self-refinement. In this sense it is the western view of the Holy Grail which comes closest to the Sufic ideal; for to the Sufis Perfection is the Grail; and the Holy Grail is for those who after they become perfect by giving all they have to the poor then go on to become "Abdal" or "changed ones" like Enoch who was "taken" by God because he "walked with God". (Genesis:5:24) here the "Holy Ones" gain the surname "Hadrat" or "The Presence". Jihad as warfare The Qur’an asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states: Javed Ahmed Ghamidi divides just warfare into two types: Against injustice and oppression Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:, see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth. There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the Companions of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the Companions while others translate it for the whole Muslim nation. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur'an (tafsir), commentary on verse 2:143. As in Qur'an: Similarly, proponents of Companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" present following verse to argue that the Companions were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Qur'an: Following is the first verse of the Qur’an in which the Companions of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca, were given permission to fight back if they were attacked: The reason for this directive in Medina instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes: Directive of warfare The directive of the Jihad given to Muslims in Qur'an is: These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering Hajj, but the Qur’an goes on to say that they should continue to fight them until persecution is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of Arabia. Initially Muslims were required to fulfill this responsibility even if the enemy was 10 times stronger. Afterwards, the Qur'an reduced the burden of this responsibility. As in Qur'an: Some interpret above verses that Jihad never becomes obligatory unless the military might of the Muslims is up to a certain level. In the times of Muhammad, when large scale conversions took place in the later phase, the Qur'an reduced the Muslim to enemy ratio to 1:2. It seems that Muslims should not only consolidate their moral character, but it is also imperative for them to build their military might if they want to wage Jihad when the need arises. The Qur’an gave a similar directive to Muslims of Muhammad times in the following words: While other scholars consider the later command of ratio 1:2 only for a particular time. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi. Tafhim al-Qur'an. Verse 8:66 A policy was adopted regarding the extent of requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr, Uhud and Tabuk, the responsibility was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant. As in Qur'an: Qur'an also states that turning backs in the battle field, except for tactical purposes, is a big sin and will bring wrath of God. Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 450-1 As in Qur'an: The driving force Islamic scholars agree that Jihad should not be undertaken to gratify one’s whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only and only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words. As in Qur'an: Prophet Muhammad, at various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Qur’an: Abu Musa Ash‘ari (rta) narrates that once a person came to the Prophet (sws) and said that some people fight for the spoils of war, some for fame and some to show off their valor; he then asked the Prophet (sws): “Which one of them fights in the way of Allah”. The Prophet (sws) replied: “Only that person fights in the way of Allah who sets foot in the battlefield to raise high the name of Allah”. Sahih Bukhari 2810 Abu Hurayrah (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “I swear by the Almighty that a person who is wounded in the way of Allah – and Allah knows full well who is actually wounded in His way – he would be raised on the Day of Judgement such that his colour be the colour of blood with the fragrance of musk around him”. Sahih Bukhari 2803 Ibn Jabr narrates from the Prophet (sws): “A person whose feet become dust ridden because of [striving] in the way of Allah will never be touched by the flames of Hell”. Sahih Bukhari 2811 Sahal Ibn Sa‘ad says that the Prophet (sws) once said: “To reside in a border area for a day to protect [people] against an enemy [invasion] is better than this world and everything it has”. Sahih Bukhari 2892. Similarly as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Qur'an states: Ethical limits Islamic Law, based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad. Qur'an forbids fighting in sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of Haram. But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure. Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), pp. 479-80 It is stated in Qur'an: Observance of treaties and pacts is stressed in Qur'an. When some Muslims were still in Mecca, and they couldn't migrate to Medina, the Qur'an stated: Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad: Abu Sa‘id (rta) narrates from the Prophet (sws): “On the Day of Judgment, to proclaim the traitorship of a traitor and the betrayal of a person who betrayed his words, a flag shall be hoisted which would be as high as [the extent of his] traitorship”, and [the Prophet (sws) also said]: “Remember that no traitor and betrayer of promises is greater than the one who is the leader and ruler of people”. Sahih Muslim 1738 Objectives of warfare According to verses , the Qur'an implies two objectives: Uproot fitnah () or persecution Establish supremacy of God, through Islam, in the world Against persecution Directives for action against persecution and unbelief: Also: Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive. Concept of Dar Al-Islam and Dar Al-Harb, Islamonline.net. Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Qur’an should be fought with: When asked what to do in the event that Muslims did not have a state, Muhammad directed Muslims to dissociate themselves from all other groups: I asked: If there is no state or ruler of the Muslims? He replied: In this situation, dissociate yourself from all groups, even if you have to chew the roots of a tree at the time of your death. Sahih Bukhari 7084 Supremacy of Islam in the Arabian peninsula It is stated in Qur'an: After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were subdued first, and had been granted amnesty because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God. Muhammad exiled the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa to Khyber and that of Banu Nadir to Syria. Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 40-2 / Ibid. vol. 3, pp. 151-160 The power they wielded at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds. Ibid., pp. 40-2 / Ibid., pp. 151-160 Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi and Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf were put to death in their houses. Ibid., pp. 43-8 / Ibn Sa‘ad, al-Tabaqatu’l-Kubra, vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1960), p. 28 The tribe of Banu Qurayza was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab. Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 180-2 When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Qur’an about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the Torah. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors. Deuteronomy, 20:10-14 Caesar E. Farah. Islam: Beliefs and Observances, pp.52 In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed. Ibn Hisham, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru’l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 188-9 John Esposito writes that Muhammad's use of warfare in general was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord. John Esposito(2005), Islam: The Straight Path, p.15 No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of At-Tawba, the final judgement, was declared against them: This directive related to both the Jews and the Christians. The punishment mentioned in these verses is a show of lenience to them because they were originally adherents to monotheism. The story holds that they did not benefit from this lenience because, after Muhammad's death, they once again resorted to fraud and treachery. Sahih Bukhari, 2730 Abu Yusuf, Kitab al-kharaj, Fasl fi’l-Fay wa al-Khiraj, (1302 AH), p. 42 Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Futuhu’l-Buldan, (Qumm: Manshurat al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), p. 73 Ibn Athir, Al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh, 1st ed., vol. 2, (Beirut: Dar Beirut, 1965), p. 112 Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of Najran were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Qur’an about them: When the polytheists of Arabia had been similarly subdued, it was proclaimed in At-Tawba that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution of their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Qur’an: After the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries. The names of these heads of state are: 1. Negus of Abyssinia, 2. Maqawqas of Egypt, 3. Khusro Parvez of Persia, 4. Qaysar of Rome, 5. Mundhar Ibn Sawi of Bahrain, 6. Hudhah Ibn ‘Ali of Yamamah, 7. Harith Ibn Abi Shamr of Damascus, 8. Jayfar of Amman, see Muhammad as a diplomat Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the Companions launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to remain alive: to accept faith or to accept a life of subjugation by paying Jizya. None of these nations were considered to be adherents to polytheism, otherwise they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia. Warfare in Muslim societies History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to legitimate wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia) each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. In the Ottoman empire, the concept of ghaza was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler Mehmed II is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople (Christian Byzantium) by justifying ghaza as a basic duty. Later Ottoman rulers would apply ghaza to justify military campaigns against the Persian Safavid dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies had been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against giaurs or heretics — often meaning each other. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be officially reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style: the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used Sultan ul-Mujahidin. The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in western Africa were established by a series of offensive wars. http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/uniform/usman1804.htm The commands inculcated in the Quran (in five suras from the period after Muhammad had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (Jizya) were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Muslims constantly to make war on the infidels (originally only polytheists who claimed to be monotheists, not "People of the Book", Jesus is seen as the last of the precursors of the Prophet Muhammed; the word infidel had different historical uses, notably used by the Crusaders to refer to the Muslims they were fighting against). It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Muslims who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnis and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early caliphate. Some proclaimed Jihad by claiming themselves as mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese Mahommed Ahmad in 1882. Non-Muslim opinions Modern Views The United States Department of Justice has used its own ad hoc definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities: "As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, governments deemed to be enemies of the fundamentalist version of Islam." http://www.milnet.com/2nd-indictment-hayat-dist-court.pdf "As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking." http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/padilla/uspad111705ind.pdf in the indictment against several individuals including José Padilla. In her book [[Muhammad: a Biography of the Prophet (book)|Muhammad: a Biography of the Prophet]], B.A. Robinson writes: "Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle." Maxime Rodinson, an Orientalist, wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle – two ingredients common to many ideological movements." Maxime Rodinson. Muhammad. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351. In English-speaking countries, especially the United States, the term jihadist, technically a derogatory term for mujahid, is frequently used to describe militant Islamic groups, including but not restricted to Islamic terrorism. See also Fasad Islamic military jurisprudence Itmam al-hujjah Mujahidin, cognate Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad Aslim Taslam Hirabah Political and military aspects Islam as a political movement Islamism Militant Islam Muhammad as a general Islamic conquests List of wars in the Muslim world Related concepts Church Militant Crusade Crusade, modern Holy war Inquisition Just war Martial arts Mortification Proselytism Religious wars Zealot Philosophers of Jihad doctrine Ibn Taymiyyah Ibn Abdul Wahhab Najdi Syed Ahmed Barelwi and Maulvi Ismail Hasan al-Banna Sayyid Qutb Abdul Ala Maudoodi Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami Abdullah Yusuf Azzam Osama bin Laden Fazlur Rahman Malik Javed Ahmed Ghamidi References Further reading Djihad in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Alfred Morabia, Le Ğihâd dans l’Islâm médiéval. “Le combat sacré” des origines au XIIe siècle, Albin Michel, Paris 1993 Rudolph Peters: Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam Nicola Melis, “A Hanafi treatise on rebellion and ğihād in the Ottoman age (XVII c.)”, in Eurasian Studies, Istituto per l’Oriente/Newham College, Roma-Napoli-Cambridge, Volume II; Number 2 (December 2003), pp. 215–226. Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History, “Religion and Society”, Mouton, The Hague 1979. Andrew G. Bostom, ed.: "The Legacy of Jihad: Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims" Muhammad Hamidullah: Muslim Conduct of State Muhammad Hamidullah: Battlefields of the Prophet Muhammad John Kelsay: Just War and Jihad Reuven Firestone: Jihad. The Origin of Holy War in Islam Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Ronald Messier: The Jihad and Its Times Majid Khadduri: War And Peace in the Law of Islam Bernard Lewis: The Political Language of Islam Abul Ala Maududi: Jihad Fil Islam Javed Ahmad Ghamidi: Mizan'' Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti, Tolleranza e guerra santa nell’Islam, “Scuola aperta”, Sansoni, Firenze 1974 J. Turner Johnson, The Holy War Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions, Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pa. 1997 Sources and external links Jihad News Jihad in Islam Jihad and Terrorism Jihad and Muslim Support for Suicide Bombings Concept of Peace Jihad And Condemnation of Terrorism in Islam Jihad, Oxford Islamic Studies Center Jihad, Encarta Encyclopedia Jihad, Encyclopædia Britannica EtymologyOnLine Why the bombers are so angry at us Jihãd by Suhas Majumdar Explaining the Concept of Jihad | Jihad |@lemmatized jihad:183 islamic:42 term:12 religious:9 duty:5 muslim:94 arabic:8 word:12 jihād:4 noun:1 meaning:5 struggle:21 appear:3 frequently:2 qur:35 common:3 usage:4 idiomatic:1 expression:1 strive:6 way:12 allah:14 al:60 fi:5 sabil:1 p:26 person:7 engage:3 call:12 mujahid:2 plural:1 mujahideen:2 minority:1 among:5 sunni:4 scholar:16 sometimes:2 refer:5 sixth:1 pillar:2 islam:55 though:2 occupy:2 official:1 status:1 john:8 esposito:7 straight:3 path:3 pp:18 twelver:1 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6,832 | Adalbert_of_Prague | This article is about St Adalbert of Prague. For other uses, see Adalbert (disambiguation). Saint Adalbert, Czech: ; , (c. 956 – April 23, 997), a bishop of Prague, was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians. He was later made the patron saint of Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Prussia and White Croatia. Birth and youth Adalbert (Vojtěch) was born into a noble Czech family of Prince Slavník and his wife Střezislava in Libice nad Cidlinou, Bohemia. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary gives his year of birth as 939. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0550160108, p.7 His father was a rich and independent ruler of the Zličan princedom that rivaled Prague (see Slavník's dynasty). Adalbert had five full brothers: Soběbor (Slavnik's heir), Spytimír, Pobraslav, Pořej, Čáslav and a half-brother Radim (Gaudentius) from his father's liaison with another woman. Radim chose a clerical career as did Adalbert, and took the name Gaudentius. Adalbert was a well-educated man, having studied for about ten years (970-80) in Magdeburg under Saint Adalbert of Magdeburg. Upon the death of his mentor, he took the name Adalbert. Gifted and industrious, Adalbert soon became well-known all over Europe. Religious acts In 980 Adalbert finished his studies at Magdeburg school and returned to Prague, where he became a priest. In 981 his father, Prince Slavnik, and both his mentors died. Saint Adalbert. In 982, still not yet thirty years old, Adalbert became the Bishop of Prague. Although Adalbert descended from a rich family and could afford comfort and luxury, he lived poorly of his own free will. He was noted for charity, austerity, and zealous service to the Church. His duty was difficult even in baptized Bohemia, as the pagan creed was deeply embedded in the peoples' minds. Adalbert complained of polygamy and idolatry, which still were not unusual among the Czechs. He also strongly resented the participation of baptized Christians in the slave trade. In 989 he resigned from his bishop's cloth and left Prague. He went to Rome and lived as a hermit in St. Alexis Benedictine monastery. Four years later, in 993, Pope John XV sent him back to Bohemia. Adalbert became the Bishop again. That time he founded a monastery in Břevnov, near Prague, the first one in the Czech lands. Nonetheless, the nobility there continued to oppose his ministry. Also, according to Cosmas' chronicle, high clerical office was a burden to Adalbert, and in 994 he offered it to Strachkvas who was Přemyslid and Duke Boleslav's brother. Strachkvas, nevertheless, refused. In 995 Slavniks' former rivalry with the Přemyslids resulted in the storming of Libice and a cruel murder of four (or five) of Adalbert's brothers. All this was done by the will of Boleslav II of Bohemia, and the key executioners were his confederates from a powerful clan of Vršovci. Thus the Zličan princedom became part of the Přemyslids' estate. Adalbert damned the Vrśovci in church and predicted that they would be severely persecuted. After the tragedy he could not stay in Bohemia and escaped from Prague, despite the Pope's call for him to return to his episcopal see. Strachkvas was eventually appointed to be his successor. However, when he was going to assume the Bishop office in Prague, he suddenly died during the ceremony itself. Circumstances of his death are still unclear. As for Adalbert, he went to Hungary and baptized Géza of Hungary and his son Stephen in the city of Esztergom. Then he went to Poland where he was cordially welcomed by Bolesław I the Brave. After the short visit Adalbert went to Prussia with a Christian mission. Mission and martyrdom in Prussia Saint Adalbert being killed by Prussians, part of Gniezno Doors Adalbert of Prague had already in 977 entertained the idea of becoming a missionary in Prussia. After he had converted Hungary, he was sent by the Pope to convert the heathen Prussians. Boleslaus the Brave, duke of Poland (later king), sent soldiers with Adalbert. The bishop and his followers - including his half-brother Radim (Gaudentius) - entered Prussian territory and went along the Baltic Sea coast to Gdańsk. It was a standard procedure of Christian missionaries to try to chop down sacred oak trees (see Iconoclasm), which they had done in many other places, including Saxony. Because the trees were worshipped and the spirits who were believed to inhabit the trees were feared for their powers, this was done to demonstrate to the non-Christians that no supernatural powers protected the trees from the Christians. When they did not heed warnings to stay away from the sacred oak groves, Adalbert was executed for sacrilege, which his co-religionists interpreted as martyrdom, in April 997 on the Baltic Sea coast east of Truso (currently Elbląg, Elbing), or near Tenkitten and Fischhausen (see external link map St. Albrecht) It is recorded that his body was bought back for its weight in gold by Boleslaus the Brave. Canonization and memory St. Adalbert (Vojtěch) and his brother Gaudentius (Radim) monument in Libice (Czech Republic) Silver coffin of St. Wojciech (Cathedral in Gniezno) A few years later Adalbert was canonized as Saint Adalbert of Prague. His life has been written about in Vita Sancti Adalberti Pragensis by various writers, the earliest being traced to imperial Aachen and Liège/Lüttich's bishop Notger von Lüttich, although it was assumed for many years that the Roman monk John Canaparius wrote the first Vita in 999. Another famous biographer of Adalbert was Saint Bruno of Querfurt who wrote his hagiography in 1001–1004. Notably, Bohemian rulers (i.e., Přemyslids) initially refused to ransom Saint Adalbert's body from the Prussians who murdered him, so it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by Saint Adalbert's belonging to the Slavniks family; it highlights the strength of the two clans' conflict. Thus Saint Adalbert's bones were stored in Gniezno and helped Boleslaus the Brave to improve Poland's position in Europe. It is said that in 1039 the Bohemian duke Břetislav I retrieved the bones of Saint Adalbert from Gniezno and moved them to Prague. According to another version, he took only part of the bones, while the rest of Saint Adalbert's relics (including the skull) were hidden by the Poles (according to Roczniki Polskie) and found in 1127. In 1928, one of the arms of Saint Adalbert, which Bolesław I had given to Otto III in the year 1000, was added to the bones preserved in Gniezno. Today Saint Adalbert has two graves, and which bones are authentic is still not clear. For example, the saint has two skulls - one in Prague, a second in Gniezno (stolen in 1923). April 1997 was the thousandth anniversary of Saint Adalbert's martyrdom. It was commemorated in the Czech Republic, Poland, Germany, Russia and other countries. Representatives of Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Evangelical churches pilgrimaged to Gniezno, to the saint's tomb. John Paul II visited Gniezno and held a ceremonial divine service in which heads of seven European states and about a million believers took part. In Kaliningrad Oblast, near Beregovoe village (former Tenkitten), where Adalbert's death hypothetically took place, a ten-meter cross was established. See also History of the Czech lands in the Middle Ages History of Poland (966–1385) Congress of Gniezno Gniezno Doors References Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0-140-51312-4. External links Map of Prussia from c 1660 with St. Albrecht location between Tenkitten and Fischhausen, west of Königsberg. | Adalbert_of_Prague |@lemmatized article:1 st:6 adalbert:38 prague:13 us:1 see:6 disambiguation:1 saint:18 czech:7 c:2 april:3 bishop:7 martyr:1 effort:1 convert:3 baltic:3 prussian:5 later:4 make:1 patron:1 bohemia:6 poland:6 hungary:4 prussia:5 white:1 croatia:1 birth:2 youth:1 vojtěch:2 bear:1 noble:1 family:3 prince:2 slavník:2 wife:1 střezislava:1 libice:3 nad:1 cidlinou:1 chamber:2 biographical:2 dictionary:3 give:2 year:7 isbn:2 p:1 father:3 rich:2 independent:1 ruler:2 zličan:2 princedom:2 rival:1 dynasty:1 five:2 full:1 brother:6 soběbor:1 slavnik:2 heir:1 spytimír:1 pobraslav:1 pořej:1 čáslav:1 half:2 radim:4 gaudentius:4 liaison:1 another:3 woman:1 choose:1 clerical:2 career:1 take:5 name:2 well:2 educate:1 man:1 study:2 ten:2 magdeburg:3 upon:1 death:3 mentor:2 gift:1 industrious:1 soon:1 become:6 know:1 europe:2 religious:1 act:1 finish:1 school:1 return:2 priest:1 die:2 still:4 yet:1 thirty:1 old:1 although:2 descend:1 could:2 afford:1 comfort:1 luxury:1 live:2 poorly:1 free:1 note:1 charity:1 austerity:1 zealous:1 service:2 church:3 duty:1 difficult:1 even:1 baptize:1 pagan:1 creed:1 deeply:1 embed:1 people:1 mind:1 complain:1 polygamy:1 idolatry:1 unusual:1 among:1 also:3 strongly:1 resent:1 participation:1 baptized:2 christian:5 slave:1 trade:1 resign:1 cloth:1 leave:1 go:6 rome:1 hermit:1 alexis:1 benedictine:1 monastery:2 four:2 pope:3 john:4 xv:1 send:3 back:2 time:1 found:1 břevnov:1 near:3 first:2 one:3 land:2 nonetheless:1 nobility:1 continue:1 oppose:1 ministry:1 accord:3 cosmas:1 chronicle:1 high:1 office:2 burden:1 offer:1 strachkvas:3 přemyslid:1 duke:3 boleslav:2 nevertheless:1 refuse:2 slavniks:2 former:2 rivalry:1 přemyslids:3 result:1 storming:1 cruel:1 murder:2 ii:2 key:1 executioner:1 confederate:1 powerful:1 clan:2 vršovci:1 thus:2 part:4 estate:1 damn:1 vrśovci:1 predict:1 would:1 severely:1 persecute:1 tragedy:1 stay:2 escape:1 despite:1 call:1 episcopal:1 eventually:1 appoint:1 successor:1 however:1 assume:2 suddenly:1 ceremony:1 circumstance:1 unclear:1 géza:1 son:1 stephen:1 city:1 esztergom:1 cordially:1 welcome:1 bolesław:2 brave:4 short:1 visit:2 mission:2 martyrdom:3 kill:1 gniezno:10 door:2 already:1 entertain:1 idea:1 missionary:2 heathen:1 boleslaus:3 king:1 soldier:1 follower:1 include:3 enter:1 territory:1 along:1 sea:2 coast:2 gdańsk:1 standard:1 procedure:1 try:1 chop:1 sacred:2 oak:2 tree:4 iconoclasm:1 many:2 place:2 saxony:1 worship:1 spirit:1 believe:1 inhabit:1 fear:1 power:2 demonstrate:1 non:1 supernatural:1 protect:1 heed:1 warning:1 away:1 grove:1 execute:1 sacrilege:1 co:1 religionist:1 interpret:1 east:1 truso:1 currently:1 elbląg:1 elbing:1 tenkitten:3 fischhausen:2 external:2 link:2 map:2 albrecht:2 record:1 body:2 buy:1 weight:1 gold:1 canonization:1 memory:1 monument:1 republic:2 silver:1 coffin:1 wojciech:1 cathedral:1 canonize:1 life:1 write:3 vita:2 sancti:1 adalberti:1 pragensis:1 various:1 writer:1 early:1 trace:1 imperial:1 aachen:1 liège:1 lüttich:2 notger:1 von:1 roman:1 monk:1 canaparius:1 famous:1 biographer:1 bruno:1 querfurt:1 hagiography:1 notably:1 bohemian:2 e:1 initially:1 ransom:1 purchase:1 pole:2 fact:1 may:1 explain:1 belonging:1 highlight:1 strength:1 two:3 conflict:1 bone:5 store:1 help:1 improve:1 position:1 say:1 břetislav:1 retrieve:1 move:1 version:1 rest:1 relic:1 skull:2 hide:1 roczniki:1 polskie:1 find:1 arm:1 otto:1 iii:1 add:1 preserve:1 today:1 graf:1 authentic:1 clear:1 example:1 second:1 steal:1 thousandth:1 anniversary:1 commemorate:1 germany:1 russia:1 country:1 representative:1 catholic:1 greek:1 orthodox:1 evangelical:1 pilgrimaged:1 tomb:1 paul:1 hold:1 ceremonial:1 divine:1 head:1 seven:1 european:1 state:1 million:1 believer:1 kaliningrad:1 oblast:1 beregovoe:1 village:1 hypothetically:1 meter:1 cross:1 establish:1 history:2 middle:1 age:1 congress:1 reference:1 attwater:1 donald:1 catherine:1 rachel:1 penguin:2 edition:1 new:1 york:1 book:1 location:1 west:1 königsberg:1 |@bigram adalbert_prague:3 saint_adalbert:13 patron_saint:1 chamber_biographical:2 biographical_dictionary:2 adalbert_magdeburg:1 benedictine_monastery:1 bolesław_brave:1 baltic_sea:2 heed_warning:1 oak_grove:1 external_link:2 czech_republic:2 canonize_saint:1 vita_sancti:1 bruno_querfurt:1 kaliningrad_oblast:1 attwater_donald:1 catherine_rachel:1 |
6,833 | Compactification_(mathematics) | In mathematics, compactification is the process or result of enlarging a topological space to make it compact. The methods of compactification are various, but each is a way of controlling points from "going off to infinity" by in some way adding "points at infinity" or preventing such an "escape". An example Consider the real line with its ordinary topology. This space is not compact; in a sense, points can go off to infinity to the left or to the right. It is possible to turn the real line into a compact space by adding a single "point at infinity" which we will denote by ∞. The resulting compactification can be thought of as a circle (which is compact as a closed and bounded subset of the Euclidean plane). Every sequence that ran off to infinity in the real line will then converge to ∞ in this compactification. Intuitively, the process can be pictured as follows: first shrink the real line to the open interval (-,π) on the x-axis; then bend the ends of this interval upwards (in positive y-direction) and move them towards each other, until you get a circle with one point (the topmost one) missing. This point is our new point ∞ "at infinity"; adding it in completes the compact circle. A bit more formally: we represent a point on the unit circle by its angle, in radians, going from -π to π for simplicity. Identify each such point θ on the circle with the corresponding point on the real line tan(θ/2). This function is undefined at the point π/2, since tan(π/2) is undefined there; we will identify this point with our point ∞. Since tangents and inverse tangents are both continuous, our identification function is a homeomorphism between the real line and the unit circle without ∞. What we have constructed is called the Alexandroff one-point compactification of the real line, discussed in more generality below. It is also possible to compactify the real line by adding two points, +∞ and -∞; this results in the extended real line. Definition An embedding of a topological space X as a dense subset of a compact space is called a compactification of X. It is often useful to embed topological spaces in compact spaces, because of the special properties compact spaces have. Embeddings into compact Hausdorff spaces may be of particular interest. Since every compact Hausdorff space is a Tychonoff space, and every subspace of a Tychonoff space is Tychonoff, we conclude that any space possessing a Hausdorff compactification must be a Tychonoff space. In fact, the converse is also true; being a Tychonoff space is both necessary and sufficient for possessing a Hausdorff compactification. The fact that large and interesting classes of non-compact spaces do in fact have compactifications of particular sorts makes compactification a common technique in topology. Alexandroff one-point compactification For any topological space X the (Alexandroff) one-point compactification αX of X is obtained by adding one extra point ∞ (often called a point at infinity) and defining the open sets of the new space to be the open sets of X together with the sets of the form G U {∞}, where G is an open subset of X such that X \ G is closed and compact. The one-point compactification of X is Hausdorff if and only if X is Hausdorff and locally compact. Stone–Čech compactification Of particular interest are Hausdorff compactifications, i.e., compactifications in which the compact space is Hausdorff. A topological space has a Hausdorff compactification if and only if it is Tychonoff. In this case, there is a unique (up to homeomorphism) "most general" Hausdorff compactification, the Stone–Čech compactification of X, denoted by βX. The space βX is characterized by the universal property that any continuous function from X to a compact Hausdorff space K can be extended to a continuous function from βX to K in a unique way. More explicitly, βX is a compact Hausdorff space containing X such that the induced topology on X by βX is the same as the given topology on X, and for any continuous map f:X → K, where K is a compact Hausdorff space, there is a unique continuous map g:βX → K for which g restricted to X is identically f. The Stone–Čech compactification can be constructed explicitly as follows: let C be the set of continuous functions from X to the closed interval [0,1]. Then each point in X can be identified with an evaluation function on C. Thus X can be identified with a subset of [0,1]C, the space of all functions from C to [0,1]. Since the latter is compact by Tychonoff's theorem, the closure of X as a subset of that space will also be compact. This is the Stone–Čech compactification. Projective space Real projective space RPn is a compactification of Euclidean space Rn. For each possible "direction" in which points in Rn can "escape", one new point at infinity is added (but each direction is identified with its opposite). The Alexandroff one-point compactification of R we constructed in the example above is in fact homeomorphic to RP1. Note however that the projective plane RP2 is not the one-point compactification of the plane R2 since more than one point is added. Complex projective space CPn is also a compactification of Cn; the Alexandroff one-point compactification of the plane C is (homeomorphic to) the complex projective line CP1, which in turn can be identified with a sphere, the Riemann sphere. Passing to projective space is a common tool in algebraic geometry because the added points at infinity lead to simpler formulations of many theorems. For example, any two different lines in RP2 intersect in precisely one point, a statement that is not true in R2. Compactification and discrete subgroups of Lie groups In the study of discrete subgroups of Lie groups, the quotient space of cosets is often a candidate for more subtle compactification to preserve structure at a richer level than just topological. For example modular curves are compactified by the addition of single points for each cusp, making them Riemann surfaces (and so, since they are compact, algebraic curves). Here the cusps are there for a good reason: the curves parametrize a space of lattices, and those lattices can degenerate ('go off to infinity'), often in a number of ways (taking into account some auxiliary structure of level). The cusps stand in for those different 'directions to infinity'. That is all for lattices in the plane. In n-dimensional Euclidean space the same questions can be posed, for example about GLn(R)/GLn(Z). This is harder to compactify. There is a general theory, the Borel-Serre compactification, that is now applied. Other compactification theories The theories of ends of a space and prime ends. Some 'boundary' theories such as the collaring of an open manifold, Martin boundary, Shilov boundary and Fürstenberg boundary. The Bohr compactification of a topological group arises from the consideration of almost periodic functions. One can compactify a topological ring by forming a projective line with inversive ring geometry. The Baily-Borel compactification of a quotient of a hermitean symmetric space. | Compactification_(mathematics) |@lemmatized mathematics:1 compactification:29 process:2 result:3 enlarge:1 topological:8 space:36 make:3 compact:20 method:1 various:1 way:4 control:1 point:30 go:4 infinity:11 add:7 prevent:1 escape:2 example:5 consider:1 real:10 line:12 ordinary:1 topology:4 sense:1 left:1 right:1 possible:3 turn:2 single:2 denote:2 think:1 circle:6 closed:2 bound:1 subset:5 euclidean:3 plane:5 every:3 sequence:1 run:1 converge:1 intuitively:1 picture:1 follow:2 first:1 shrink:1 open:5 interval:3 π:5 x:21 axis:1 bend:1 end:3 upwards:1 positive:1 direction:4 move:1 towards:1 get:1 one:14 topmost:1 miss:1 new:3 complete:1 bit:1 formally:1 represent:1 unit:2 angle:1 radian:1 simplicity:1 identify:6 θ:2 corresponding:1 tan:2 function:8 undefined:2 since:6 tangent:2 inverse:1 continuous:6 identification:1 homeomorphism:2 without:1 construct:3 call:3 alexandroff:5 discuss:1 generality:1 also:4 compactify:3 two:2 extended:1 definition:1 embedding:1 dense:1 often:4 useful:1 embed:1 special:1 property:2 embeddings:1 hausdorff:13 may:1 particular:3 interest:2 tychonoff:7 subspace:1 conclude:1 possess:2 must:1 fact:4 converse:1 true:2 necessary:1 sufficient:1 large:1 interesting:1 class:1 non:1 compactifications:3 sort:1 common:2 technique:1 αx:1 obtain:1 extra:1 define:1 set:4 together:1 form:2 g:5 u:1 close:1 locally:1 stone:4 čech:4 e:1 case:1 unique:3 general:2 βx:6 characterize:1 universal:1 k:5 extend:1 explicitly:2 contain:1 induced:1 give:1 map:2 f:2 restrict:1 identically:1 let:1 c:5 evaluation:1 thus:1 latter:1 theorem:2 closure:1 projective:7 rpn:1 rn:2 opposite:1 r:2 homeomorphic:2 note:1 however:1 complex:2 cpn:1 cn:1 sphere:2 riemann:2 pass:1 tool:1 algebraic:2 geometry:2 added:1 lead:1 simpler:1 formulation:1 many:1 different:2 intersect:1 precisely:1 statement:1 discrete:2 subgroup:2 lie:2 group:3 study:1 quotient:2 cosets:1 candidate:1 subtle:1 preserve:1 structure:2 rich:1 level:2 modular:1 curve:3 compactified:1 addition:1 cusp:3 surface:1 good:1 reason:1 parametrize:1 lattice:3 degenerate:1 number:1 take:1 account:1 auxiliary:1 stand:1 n:1 dimensional:1 question:1 pose:1 gln:2 z:1 hard:1 theory:4 borel:2 serre:1 apply:1 prime:1 boundary:4 collaring:1 manifold:1 martin:1 shilov:1 fürstenberg:1 bohr:1 arise:1 consideration:1 almost:1 periodic:1 ring:2 inversive:1 baily:1 hermitean:1 symmetric:1 |@bigram topological_space:5 angle_radian:1 π_π:1 compact_hausdorff:5 tychonoff_space:4 locally_compact:1 stone_čech:4 čech_compactification:4 hausdorff_topological:1 closed_interval:1 tychonoff_theorem:1 projective_plane:1 algebraic_geometry:1 dimensional_euclidean:1 gln_r:1 |
6,834 | Jacob_Abendana | Jacob Abendana (1630-September 12, 1695), was hakham of London from 1680 until his death. Jacob was eldest the son of Joseph Abendana and brother to Isaac Abendana. Though his family originally lived in Hamburg, Germany, Jacob and his brother were both born in Spain. At some point in time, his family moved to Amsterdam where he studied at the De los Pintos rabbinical academy in Rotterdam. In 1655 he was appointed hakham of that city. On May 3, 1655, Abendana delivered a famous memorial sermon on the Cordovan martyrs Marranos Nunez and Almeyda Bernal who had been burned at the stake. Several years later, with his brother, Isaac, Jacob published the Bible commentary Miklal Yofi by Solomon ben Melekh which included his own commentary, Lekket Shikchah (Gleanings), on the Pentateuch, the Book of Joshua, and part of the Book of Judges. This was published by subscription in Amsterdam in 1660 with a second edition in 1685. Having gone to Leyden seeking subscribers, Jacob met Anton Hulsius with whom he helped in his studies. Hulsius tried to convert Jacob to Christianity which began a life long correspondence between the two. The Abendana brothers similarly impressed other Christian scholars, such as Johannes Buxtorf (Basel), Johann Coccejus (Leyden), and Jacob Golius (Leyden). With Hulsius, Jacob entered into a polemical discussion of the verse in the Book of Haggai: "The latter splendor of this house shall be greater than the former" (2:9), which Hulsius attempted to prove was a reference to the Church. The debate lasted via correspondence from September 24, 1659 to June 16, 1660. Abendana responded with a Spanish translation of Rabbi Judah Halevi's Kuzari in 1663. Hulsius eventually published the correspondence between the two in 1669. In 1675, Jacob addressed the community at the dedication of the new synagogue in Amsterdam. Five years later, in 1680, he was brought to London to succeed Joshua da Silva as Hakham of London where he served for 15 years as the hakham of the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue in London. Over the following years, he completed a Spanish-language translation of the Mishnah, along with the commentaries of Maimonides and Obadiah of Bertinoro. The work was frequently cited by Christian theologians, though it was never published. Jacob Abendana died childless in London in 1695 and was buried in the Portuguese cemetery at Mile End. Source Abendana, Jacob in The Jewish encyclopedia : a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the present day'', New York ; London : Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1901-06, volume 1, p 53. | Jacob_Abendana |@lemmatized jacob:11 abendana:8 september:2 hakham:4 london:6 death:1 eldest:1 son:1 joseph:1 brother:4 isaac:2 though:2 family:2 originally:1 live:1 hamburg:1 germany:1 bear:1 spain:1 point:1 time:2 move:1 amsterdam:3 study:2 de:1 los:1 pintos:1 rabbinical:1 academy:1 rotterdam:1 appoint:1 city:1 may:1 deliver:1 famous:1 memorial:1 sermon:1 cordovan:1 martyr:1 marrano:1 nunez:1 almeyda:1 bernal:1 burn:1 stake:1 several:1 year:4 later:2 publish:4 bible:1 commentary:3 miklal:1 yofi:1 solomon:1 ben:1 melekh:1 include:1 lekket:1 shikchah:1 gleanings:1 pentateuch:1 book:3 joshua:2 part:1 judge:1 subscription:1 second:1 edition:1 go:1 leyden:3 seek:1 subscriber:1 meet:1 anton:1 hulsius:5 help:1 try:1 convert:1 christianity:1 begin:1 life:1 long:1 correspondence:3 two:2 similarly:1 impress:1 christian:2 scholar:1 johannes:1 buxtorf:1 basel:1 johann:1 coccejus:1 golius:1 enter:1 polemical:1 discussion:1 verse:1 haggai:1 latter:1 splendor:1 house:1 shall:1 great:1 former:1 attempt:1 prove:1 reference:1 church:1 debate:1 last:1 via:1 june:1 respond:1 spanish:3 translation:2 rabbi:1 judah:1 halevi:1 kuzari:1 eventually:1 address:1 community:1 dedication:1 new:2 synagogue:2 five:1 bring:1 succeed:1 da:1 silva:1 serve:1 portuguese:2 following:1 complete:1 language:1 mishnah:1 along:1 maimonides:1 obadiah:1 bertinoro:1 work:1 frequently:1 cite:1 theologian:1 never:1 die:1 childless:1 bury:1 cemetery:1 mile:1 end:1 source:1 jewish:2 encyclopedia:1 descriptive:1 record:1 history:1 religion:1 literature:1 custom:1 people:1 early:1 present:1 day:1 york:1 funk:1 wagnalls:1 company:1 volume:1 p:1 |@bigram eldest_son:1 burn_stake:1 isaac_jacob:1 da_silva:1 funk_wagnalls:1 |
6,835 | Binomial_distribution | Also see: Negative binomial distribution. In probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent yes/no experiments, each of which yields success with probability p. Such a success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli experiment or Bernoulli trial. In fact, when n = 1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance. A binomial distribution should not be confused with a bimodal distribution. It is frequently used to model number of successes in a sample of size n from a population of size N. Since the samples are not independent (this is sampling without replacement), the resulting distribution is a hypergeometric distribution, not a binomial one. However, for N much larger than n, the binomial distribution is a good approximation, and widely used. Examples An elementary example is this: Roll a standard die ten times and count the number of sixes. The distribution of this random number is a binomial distribution with n = 10 and p = 1/6. As another example, assume 5% of a very large population to be green-eyed. You pick 100 people randomly. The number of green-eyed people you pick is a random variable X which approximately follows a binomial distribution with n = 100 and p = 0.05 (strictly a hypergeometric distribution). Specification Probability mass function In general, if the random variable K follows the binomial distribution with parameters n and p, we write K ~ B(n, p). The probability of getting exactly k successes in n trials is given by the probability mass function: for k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n and where is the binomial coefficient (hence the name of the distribution) "n choose k", also denoted C(n, k), <sub>n</sup>Ck, or nCk. The formula can be understood as follows: we want k successes (pk) and n − k failures (1 − p)n − k. However, the k successes can occur anywhere among the n trials, and there are C(n, k) different ways of distributing k successes in a sequence of n trials. In creating reference tables for binomial distribution probability, usually the table is filled in up to n/2 values. This is because for k > n/2, the probability can be calculated by its complement as So, one must look to a different k and a different p (the binomial is not symmetrical in general). However, its behavior is not arbitrary. There is always an integer m that satisfies As a function of k, the expression ƒ(k; n, p) is monotone increasing for k < m and monotone decreasing for k > m, with the exception of one case where (n + 1)p is an integer. In this case, there are two maximum values for m = (n + 1)p and m − 1. m is known as the most probable (most likely) outcome of Bernoulli trials. Note that the probability of it occurring can be fairly small. Cumulative distribution function The cumulative distribution function can be expressed as: where is the "floor" under x, i.e. the greatest integer less than or equal to x. It can also be represented in terms of the regularized incomplete beta function, as follows: For k ≤ np, upper bounds for the lower tail of the distribution function can be derived. In particular, Hoeffding's inequality yields the bound and Chernoff's inequality can be used to derive the bound Mean, variance, and mode If X ~ B(n, p) (that is, X is a binomially distributed random variable), then the expected value of X is and the variance is This fact is easily proven as follows. Suppose first that we have exactly one Bernoulli trial. We have two possible outcomes, 1 and 0, with the first having probability p and the second having probability 1 − p; the mean for this trial is given by μ = p. Using the definition of variance, we have Now suppose that we want the variance for n such trials (i.e. for the general binomial distribution). Since the trials are independent, we may add the variances for each trial, giving The mode of X is the greatest integer less than or equal to (n + 1)p; if m = (n + 1)p is an integer, then m − 1 and m are both modes. Algebraic derivations of mean and variance We derive these quantities from first principles. Certain particular sums occur in these two derivations. We rearrange the sums and terms so that sums solely over complete binomial probability mass functions (pmf) arise, which are always unity We apply the definition of the expected value of a discrete random variable to the binomial distribution The first term of the series (with index k = 0) has value 0 since the first factor, k, is zero. It may thus be discarded, i.e. we can change the lower limit to: k = 1 We've pulled factors of n and k out of the factorials, and one power of p has been split off. We are preparing to redefine the indices. We rename m = n − 1 and s = k − 1. The value of the sum is not changed by this, but it now becomes readily recognizable The ensuing sum is a sum over a complete binomial pmf (of one order lower than the initial sum, as it happens). Thus Variance It can be shown that the variance is equal to (see: Computational formula for the variance): In using this formula we see that we now also need the expected value of X 2: We can use our experience gained above in deriving the mean. We know how to process one factor of k. This gets us as far as (again, with m = n − 1 and s = k − 1). We split the sum into two separate sums and we recognize each one The first sum is identical in form to the one we calculated in the Mean (above). It sums to mp. The second sum is unity. Using this result in the expression for the variance, along with the Mean (E(X) = np), we get Using falling factorials to find E(X2) We have But So Thus Relationship to other distributions Sums of binomials If X ~ B(n, p) and Y ~ B(m, p) are independent binomial variables, then X + Y is again a binomial variable; its distribution is Bernoulli distribution The Bernoulli distribution is a special case of the binomial distribution, where n=1. Symbolically, X ~ B(1,p) has the same meaning as X ~ Bern(p). Normal approximation Binomial PDF and normal approximation for n = 6 and p = 0.5. If n is large enough, the skew of the distribution is not too great, and a suitable continuity correction is used, then an excellent approximation to B(n, p) is given by the normal distribution Various rules of thumb may be used to decide whether n is large enough. One rule is that both np and n(1 − p) must be greater than 5. However, the specific number varies from source to source, and depends on how good an approximation one wants; some sources give 10. Another commonly used rule holds that the above normal approximation is appropriate only if everything within 3 standard deviations of its mean is within the range of possible values, that is if The following is an example of applying a continuity correction: Suppose one wishes to calculate Pr(X ≤ 8) for a binomial random variable X. If Y has a distribution given by the normal approximation, then Pr(X ≤ 8) is approximated by Pr(Y ≤ 8.5). The addition of 0.5 is the continuity correction; the uncorrected normal approximation gives considerably less accurate results. This approximation is a huge time-saver (exact calculations with large n are very onerous); historically, it was the first use of the normal distribution, introduced in Abraham de Moivre's book The Doctrine of Chances in 1733. Nowadays, it can be seen as a consequence of the central limit theorem since B(n, p) is a sum of n independent, identically distributed Bernoulli variables with parameter p. For example, suppose you randomly sample n people out of a large population and ask them whether they agree with a certain statement. The proportion of people who agree will of course depend on the sample. If you sampled groups of n people repeatedly and truly randomly, the proportions would follow an approximate normal distribution with mean equal to the true proportion p of agreement in the population and with standard deviation σ = (p(1 − p)n)1/2. Large sample sizes n are good because the standard deviation, as a proportion of the expected value, gets smaller, which allows a more precise estimate of the unknown parameter p. Poisson approximation The binomial distribution converges towards the Poisson distribution as the number of trials goes to infinity while the product np remains fixed. Therefore the Poisson distribution with parameter λ = np can be used as an approximation to B(n, p) of the binomial distribution if n is sufficiently large and p is sufficiently small. According to two rules of thumb, this approximation is good if n ≥ 20 and p ≤ 0.05, or if n ≥ 100 and np ≤ 10. NIST/SEMATECH, '6.3.3.1. Counts Control Charts', e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, <http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pmc/section3/pmc331.htm> [accessed 25 October 2006] Limits of binomial distributions As n approaches ∞ and p approaches 0 while np remains fixed at λ > 0 or at least np approaches λ > 0, then the Binomial(n, p) distribution approaches the Poisson distribution with expected value λ. As n approaches ∞ while p remains fixed, the distribution of approaches the normal distribution with expected value 0 and variance 1 (this is just a specific case of the Central Limit Theorem). Generating binomial random variates Luc Devroye, Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1986. See especially Chapter X, Discrete Univariate Distributions. See also Bean machine / Galton box Beta distribution Hypergeometric distribution Multinomial distribution Negative binomial distribution Poisson distribution SOCR Normal distribution Binomial proportion confidence interval References External links Web Based Binomial Probability Distribution Calculator (does not require java) Binomial Probabilities Simple Explanation SOCR Binomial Distribution Applet CAUSEweb.org Many resources for teaching Statistics including Binomial Distribution "Binomial Distribution" by Chris Boucher, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. Binomial Distribution Properties and Java simulation from cut-the-knot | Binomial_distribution |@lemmatized also:6 see:6 negative:2 binomial:37 distribution:54 probability:14 theory:1 statistic:2 discrete:3 number:7 success:8 sequence:2 n:53 independent:5 yes:1 experiment:3 yield:2 p:36 failure:2 call:1 bernoulli:8 trial:11 fact:2 basis:1 popular:1 test:1 statistical:2 significance:1 confuse:1 bimodal:1 frequently:1 use:13 model:1 sample:7 size:3 population:4 since:4 without:1 replacement:1 result:3 hypergeometric:3 one:12 however:4 much:1 large:8 good:4 approximation:12 widely:1 examples:1 elementary:1 example:4 roll:1 standard:4 die:1 ten:1 time:2 count:2 six:1 random:8 another:2 assume:1 green:2 eyed:2 pick:2 people:5 randomly:3 variable:8 x:17 approximately:1 follow:6 strictly:1 specification:1 mass:3 function:8 general:3 k:26 parameter:4 write:1 b:8 get:4 exactly:2 give:7 coefficient:1 hence:1 name:1 choose:1 denote:1 c:2 sub:1 sup:1 ck:1 nck:1 formula:3 understood:1 want:3 pk:1 occur:3 anywhere:1 among:1 different:3 way:1 distribute:2 create:1 reference:2 table:2 usually:1 fill:1 value:11 calculate:3 complement:1 must:2 look:1 symmetrical:1 behavior:1 arbitrary:1 always:2 integer:5 satisfy:1 expression:2 ƒ:1 monotone:2 increase:1 decreasing:1 exception:1 case:4 two:5 maximum:1 know:2 probable:1 likely:1 outcome:2 note:1 fairly:1 small:3 cumulative:2 express:1 floor:1 e:6 great:4 less:3 equal:4 represent:1 term:3 regularized:1 incomplete:1 beta:2 np:8 upper:1 bound:3 low:3 tail:1 derive:4 particular:2 hoeffding:1 inequality:2 chernoff:1 mean:8 variance:11 mode:3 binomially:1 distributed:1 expect:3 easily:1 prove:1 suppose:4 first:7 possible:2 second:2 μ:1 definition:2 may:3 add:1 algebraic:1 derivation:2 quantity:1 principle:1 certain:2 sum:14 rearrange:1 solely:1 complete:2 pmf:2 arise:1 unity:2 apply:2 expected:3 series:1 index:2 factor:3 zero:1 thus:3 discard:1 change:2 limit:4 pull:1 factorial:2 power:1 split:2 prepare:1 redefine:1 rename:1 become:1 readily:1 recognizable:1 ensue:1 order:1 initial:1 happen:1 show:1 computational:1 need:1 experience:1 gain:1 process:1 u:1 far:1 separate:1 recognize:1 identical:1 form:1 mp:1 along:1 fall:1 find:1 relationship:1 special:1 symbolically:1 meaning:1 bern:1 normal:10 pdf:1 enough:2 skew:1 suitable:1 continuity:3 correction:3 excellent:1 various:1 rule:4 thumb:2 decide:1 whether:2 specific:2 varies:1 source:3 depend:2 commonly:1 hold:1 appropriate:1 everything:1 within:2 deviation:3 range:1 following:1 wish:1 pr:3 approximate:2 addition:1 uncorrected:1 considerably:1 accurate:1 huge:1 saver:1 exact:1 calculation:1 onerous:1 historically:1 introduce:1 abraham:1 de:1 moivre:1 book:1 doctrine:1 chance:1 nowadays:1 consequence:1 central:2 theorem:2 identically:1 ask:1 agree:2 statement:1 proportion:5 course:1 group:1 repeatedly:1 truly:1 would:1 true:1 agreement:1 σ:1 allow:1 precise:1 estimate:1 unknown:1 poisson:5 converges:1 towards:1 go:1 infinity:1 product:1 remain:3 fix:3 therefore:1 λ:4 sufficiently:2 accord:1 nist:2 sematech:1 control:1 chart:1 handbook:2 method:1 http:1 www:1 itl:1 gov:1 pmc:1 htm:1 access:1 october:1 approach:6 least:1 generate:1 variate:2 luc:1 devroye:1 non:1 uniform:1 generation:1 new:1 york:1 springer:1 verlag:1 especially:1 chapter:1 univariate:1 bean:1 machine:1 galton:1 box:1 multinomial:1 socr:2 confidence:1 interval:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 base:1 calculator:1 require:1 java:2 simple:1 explanation:1 applet:1 causeweb:1 org:1 many:1 resource:1 teach:1 include:1 chris:1 boucher:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 property:1 simulation:1 cut:1 knot:1 |@bigram binomial_distribution:21 probability_distribution:2 random_variable:5 binomial_coefficient:1 cumulative_distribution:2 distributed_random:1 expected_value:3 de_moivre:1 deviation_σ:1 poisson_distribution:4 http_www:1 nist_gov:1 springer_verlag:1 external_link:1 wolfram_demonstration:1 cut_knot:1 |
6,836 | Head_of_state | Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a monarchy, republic, federation, commonwealth or other kind of state. His or her role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's constitution and laws. In nation states the head of state is often thought of as the official "leader" of the nation. Charles de Gaulle described the role he envisaged for the French president when he wrote the modern French constitution, stating the head of state should embody "the spirit of the nation" for the nation itself and the world: une certaine idée de la France (a certain idea about France). Today many countries expect their head of state to embody national values in a similar fashion. Constitutional models In protocolary terms, states are distinguished as monarchy or republic depending on the style (and usually mode of accession, see below) of their head of state, a typical constitutional provision, but as such this is not defining for the actual political system, which often evolves significantly within either or can remain unaltered in other respects despite a transition from monarchy to republic (or, rarer, vice versa). Different state constitutions (fundamental laws) establish different political systems, but four major types of heads of state can be distinguished: the non-executive head of state system, in which the head of state does not hold any executive power and mainly plays a symbolic role on behalf of the state; the parliamentary system, in which the head of state possesses executive power but the exercise of this power is done on the advice of a cabinet; the presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and actively exercises executive power; and, the semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares exercise with a head of government called the non-executive head of state model. Its holders are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of "His/Her Majesty's Government" or "His/Her Excellency's Government." Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The King of Sweden, since the passage of the modern Swedish constitution (the Instrument of Government) in the mid 1970s, no longer has any of the parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to Swedish kings, but still receives formal cabinet briefings monthly in the royal palace. In contrast, the only contact the Irish president has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the Taoiseach (prime minister) to the President. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach (prime minister's office). Parliamentary system Queen Elizabeth II, one of the world's best known and longest serving heads of state. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer of the state, possessing executive power (hence the description of the United Kingdom monarch's government as His/Her Majesty's Government; a term indicating that all power belongs to the sovereign and the government acts on Her Majesty's behalf, not parliament's). In reality however, due to a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a prime minister, or President of the Government, who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability requires that someone be chosen from parliament who has parliament's support (or, at least, not parliament's opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives parliament the right to vote down the government, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. Governments are thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to parliament, with the government in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English Parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the passage of a law in the parliament of each of the Commonwealth realms, due to the independence of each country's monarchy in personal union. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain). In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. For example, the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy was sufficiently ambiguous and outdated by the 1920s to give King Victor Emmanuel III leeway to appoint Benito Mussolini to power in controversial circumstances. Some Commonwealth parliamentary systems combine a body of written constitutional law, unwritten constitutional precedent, Orders-in-Council, letters patent, etc. that may give a head of state or their representative additional powers in unexpected circumstances (such as the dismissal of Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam by Governor-General Sir John Kerr.) Other examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, due either to ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Léopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) Presidential system George Washington, the first president of the United States, set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican governments. Note: "presidential" in this context does not automatically imply a president but any head of state – elected, hereditary, or dictatorial – who presides. It is sometimes called the "imperial model," without regard for the monarchic title emperor, rather referring to the luster. Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not just in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is sometimes known as a "presidential system" because the government is answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive answerability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America). In this case the debate centres on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgement on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not answerability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system. Some presidential systems may also include a prime minister, but, as with the other ministers, they are responsible to the president, not the legislature. In many such instances the office is of minimal political importance, sometimes even held by some administrative technocrat rather than a politician. A prime minister in a presidential system lacks the constitutional and political dominance of a prime minister in a parliamentary system and is often seen as simply a politically junior figure who may run the mechanics of government while allowing the president to set the broad national agenda. Presidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of the United States, Brazil and Mexico; this is generally attributed to the influence of the United States Constitution, as the United States served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état, as seen in South American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g. Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship apply their stated constitutional models in name only and not in political theory or practice. In the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the real center of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations (Lincoln, Garfield and McKinley) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Semi-presidential systems President Charles de Gaulle was responsible for establishing the semi-presidential system of France. Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic agenda. Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag. Single-party states Since real political power belongs to the head of the sole legal party, in certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former USSR and its constitutive Soviet republics, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the head of the legislative "soviet" branch of power was considered the head of state. In the Soviet Union this office carried such titles as "Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR," "Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council" and "Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets" in the case of Soviet Russia (until 1922). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khruschov never headed the Supreme Soviet but ruled as Secretary General of party and prime minister. This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il Sung, the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of president "in eternity" (while all real power, as party leader, itself not formally created for 4 years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il, initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China. Complications with categorisation While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the cabinet. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the legislature, has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model. And the power of the monarch of the Commonwealth realms to dismiss any of his or her governments at will would suggest that any of the realms should nominally belong to the semi-presidential category also. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. In practice no Commonwealth realms monarch has forced a government from office since the early nineteenth century, while, in reality, the Greek republic, even before the powers of the President of the Republic were curtailed in 1986, operated as a standard parliamentary system. Unless and until a Prince of Liechtenstein exercises the theoretical powers that office now possesses, the principality would still remain categorised as a parliamentary system. Another complication exists with South Africa, in which the President is in fact elected by the legislature (similar, in principle, to a prime minister) but also holds the title of President, serves for a fixed term, and is expected to be the nation's head of state. Nauru and Botswana are similar. Panama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the military. Roles of the head of state Often depending on which constitutional category (above) a head of state belongs to, they may have some or all of the roles listed below, and various other ones. Symbolic role A large portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, with Prince Philip, hanging in a Canadian courthouse. One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in monarchies this extends to the sovereign being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state, and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians." Buckingham Palace: The Queen and Commonwealth: Canada: The Queen's role in Canada In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to mediaeval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state begins to believe that he is the only symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag, constitution, founding father(s) etc. A modern champion in this field was Adolf Hitler, the Nazi Führer. Other common iconic presences, especially of monarchs, are on coins, stamps, and banknotes; more discreet variations see them represented by a mention and/or signature. Furthermore, various institutions, monuments, and the like, are named for current or previous heads of state, such as streets and squares, schools, charitable and other organisations; in monarchies (e.g. Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective 'royal' on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate. In general, the active duties amount to a ceremonial role. Thus in diplomatic affairs, heads of state are often the first person to greet an important foreign visitor. They may also assume a sort of informal host role during the VIP's visit, inviting the visitor to a state dinner at his or her mansion or palace, or some other equally hospitable affair. At home, they are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions, expositions, celebrations, military parades and remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting parts of the country, enterprises, care facilities (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table etc.), sometimes performing a symbolic act such as cutting a ribbon or pushing a button at an opening, christening something with champagne, laying the first stone, and so on. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage. As the potential for such invitations is enormous, such duties are often in part delegated: to such persons as a spouse, other members of the dynasty, a vice-president —for whom this is often the core of their public role— or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without giving protocollary offence) just a military or other aide. For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the prime minister), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne. Chief diplomatic officer The head of state accredits his or her country's ambassadors, High Commissioners or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs (such as papal nuncio), through sending formal Letter of Credence to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts. Without that accreditation, they cannot take up a role and receive the highest diplomatic status. However, there are provisions in international law to perform the same diplomatic functions, or at least part of them, such as accrediting, with a lower title with the head of government, or functioning within another mission. The head of state also signs international treaties on behalf of the state, or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, usually rests with the legislature. In Canada, Australia and New Zealand, these roles of the head of state have been taken over by the vice-regal representative. Example 1: Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states: The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys. Example 2: Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states: The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states. Chief executive officer In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Italy and the United Kingdom. The few exceptions include the Czech Republic, Ireland and Sweden, where executive authority is explicitly vested in the cabinet. Example 1 (presidential system): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states: The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. Example 2 (constitutional monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953: Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers. Example 3 (constitutional monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900: The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth. Example 4 (republican parliamentary system): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece: The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and by the government. Chief appointments officer The head of state appoints most or all the key officials in the government and civil service, including members of the cabinet, the prime minister or equivalent, key judicial figures, and all major office holders. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government (e.g. prime minister) is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice. Some countries have alternative provisions: under Article 4 of the Instrument of Government, 1974, the constitution of Sweden grants to the parliamentary speaker the role of formally appointing the prime minister. In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time a British monarch unilaterally selected the UK's prime minister was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II chose Sir Alec Douglas-Home to succeed Harold Macmillan as her chief advisor in that country. In Canada, a similar situation took place wherein Governor General Lord Byng of Vimy appointed Arthur Meighen after William Lyon Mackenzie King refused to resign the premiership. Governor-General of Australia Sir John Kerr appointed Malcolm Fraser as caretaker prime minister after dismissing Gough Whitlam. In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the President's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to parliamentary confirmation (in the case of the US, the Senate has to approve cabinet nominees and judicial appointments by simple majority). The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the President on the advice of the Taoiseach (prime minister); in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of his government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, convention calls for cabinet secretaries to resign on their own initiative when called to do so. Example 1 (semi-presidential system): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states: The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly. Example 2 (parliamentary system): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland: The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann [the lower house], appoint the Taoiseach [prime minister]. Legislative roles Most countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of parliament. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure Royal Assent. Example 1 (presidential system): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states: Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated... Example 2 (parliamentary system): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states: The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers. In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with the Royal Prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum. If he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever. Military role United States President Ronald Reagan reviews a line of troops at the recommissioning ceremony for the USS New Jersey. A head of state is generally the literal, or notional, commander-in-chief of a state's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command. Example 1: Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. Example 2: Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states: The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen. Constitution Act, 1867 In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency the head of state may hold the ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written or conventional laws, exercise their authority on the advice of their ministers, meaning de facto decision making on military manoeuvers lies with the cabinet. The monarch or president will, however, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; in the case of a female sovereign her consort and other members of the royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primate of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces. In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups-d'etat, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these, and revolutionary, regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose office in legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform. Summoning and dissolving the legislature A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is done on the advice of the head of government (e.g. Prime Minister) or cabinet. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term parliaments, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost the confidence of parliament, some heads of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, where one is requested, forcing the head of government's resignation. Example: Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states: The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach [Prime Minister] who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann Other prerogatives Right of pardon Granting nobility, knighthood and various titles and other honours Selection and various types and styles of Heads of State Various heads of state use a multitude of different styles and titles, often with many variations in content under diverse constitutions, even in a given state. In numerous cases, two or more of the following peculiar types apply, not counting the primary duo monarchy-republic. There are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal or death of a sitting head of state. In a monarchy, the Monarch is the Head of State. This is a relatively recent phenomenon; until the last few decades a sovereign was seen as the personal embodiment of the state ("L'etat c'est moi", so to speak), and therefore could not be head of himself or herself (hence many constitutions from the 19th century and earlier make no mention of a "head of state"). Though some still maintain that calling a Monarch Head of State is incorrect, it has now become a widespread political convention to attach the label to Monarchs, regardless of their political position. The Emperor of Japan is defined as a symbol, not head, of state by the post-war constitution (contrasting with the former divine status) but is treated as an imperial head of state under diplomatic protocol (even ranking above kings) and retains Shinto mystique. For the numerous styles in past and present monarchies, in most cases commonly -though often not quite accurately- rendered as King or Emperor, but also many other (e.g. Grand duke, Sultan), see Prince, princely state and monarchy. In a republic, the head of state is nowadays usually styled President, and usually their permanent constitutions provide for election, but many have or had other titles and even specific constitutional positions (see below), and some have used simply 'head of state' as their only formal title. Shared and substitute heads of state Interim Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council). In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. Delegation Three portraits of Queen Elizabeth II illustrating her different positions as sovereign. Left: as Queen of New Zealand, wearing the Order of New Zealand, the Queen's Service Order, and the sash and the star of the New Zealand Order of Merit; centre: as Queen of Canada, wearing the Sovereign's insignia of the Order of Canada and the Order of Military Merit; right: as Queen of the United Kingdom, wearing the insignia of the Order of the Garter and the Royal Family Orders of King George V and King George VI. In cases where one person is head of state of multiple sovereign countries there may be need to appoint a permanent representative in each (except in the head of state's country of primary residence). Examples are all but one of the Commonwealth realms, where their king or queen resides in another of the Crown's kingdoms, the United Kingdom, and so is represented in the others by a crown-appointed governor-general (unhyphenated in Canada as "Governor General"), as well as Andorra, which is headed by two non-resident co-princes, one of which is also the President of France. In Commonwealth realms the Governor-General may fulfill many of the roles of a head of state, but is typically not, either legally or conventionally, regarded as the head of state, but rather as an appointed representative of the head of state mandated to act in his or her place, even when the monarch is present in the country. Some governors-general are considered de facto heads of state because, though not the de jure (juridical or legal) head of state, in practice they function like a head of state in most or all jurisdictions. In diplomatic situations, governors-general, if treated as de facto heads of state, are sometimes accorded a status akin to a head of state, but that is by tradition and on a case by case and person by person basis, not automatic. At state banquets, for example, toasts are made to the monarch (e.g. "Her Majesty the Queen of Australia"), never to a governor-general, except insofar as a personal toast may be proposed subsequently to "Governor-General and Mrs. Smith" as hosts of, or guests at, the banquet. Similarly, letters of credence may contain the name of the head of state, not the governor-general, even if it is the latter who signs and receives them. In 2005, Canada, Australia and New Zealand changed their policies and now all Letter of Credence address solely the Governor-General of the relevant nation, not to Queen Elizabeth II. The Office of the Prime Minister of Canada stated in its press release announcing the changes to the Letters of Credence and Recall, issued 29 December 2004, that "in international diplomatic practice, Letters of Credence are formal diplomatic instruments that are presented by High Commissioners and Ambassadors to the Head of State of the host country... Letters of Credence and Recall presented by foreign High Commissioners and Ambassadors to Canada will now be addressed to the Governor General directly." This wording implies that the government of Canada, as least during the premiership of Paul Martin, regarded the Governor General as the Canadian Head of State. Prime Minister of Canada: Canada updates diplomatic practice Similarly, a 2004 report issued by the Canadian Standing Committee on Government Operations and Estimates recognised that the nation is a constitutional monarchy, however described the 1947 Letters Patent as having devolved all powers of the sovereign to the Governor General, making the latter head of state, and then continued to refer to the Governor General as head of state throughout the report. The Standing Committee on Government Operations and Estimates: Second Report: The Governor General of Canada:Role, Duties and Funding for Activities That same year, the then Governor General, Adrienne Clarkson, attended a ceremony in France to recognize Canada's involvement at Juno Beach in the D-Day landings of 1944. Her office stated that she was present as Canada's head of state, and thus the Governor General was treated as the senior official in attendance, over even the Queen who was also present at the ceremony. While laying wreaths, the ceremony commentator stated that the Governor General was laying a wreath on behalf of Canada, whereas the Queen was laying a wreath on behalf of the Commonwealth. Rideau Hall later retracted the assertion that the Governor General attended as head of state, saying that it was an error of a junior official, but this did not explain the unusual shift in protocol observed at the ceremony itself. In opposition to this thinking, in the opening of his first speech in the Canadian House of Commons as Prime Minister, Stephen Harper stated: "I'd like to acknowledge and thank a number of people. First of all I'd would like to pay tribute to our head of state, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II." Prime Minister backs the Speech from the Throne As well, the Governor General of Canada's website now refers to the Queen of Canada as Canada's head of state. Governor General of Canada: Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General However, the Canadian Letters of Credence and Recall continue to be issued in the name of, and addressed to the Governor General alone. In the case of Andorra, two Co-Princes act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the President of France, residing in France, and the other is the Bishop of Urgell, residing in Spain. Each Co-Prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title. As a colony or other dependent state or territory lacks the authority to vest in a true head of state of its own, it either has no comparable office, simply receiving those roles exercised by the paramount powers (in person or, most of the time, through an appointed representative, often styled (Lieutenant-)governor, but also various other titles, on the Cook Islands even simply King/Queen's Representative) or has one, such as a formerly sovereign dynasty, but under a form of metropolitan guardianship, such as protection, vassal or tributary status. Extraordinary arrangements In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a lesser role (legitimating the power taken over behind the throne) or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman Dictator) or eliminated by of new 'provisionary' regime (sincere or clinging to power), often a collective of the junta type, with endlessly varying names and composition, or simply find itself under military authority as imposed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost). Theocratic, Ecclesiocratic and other 'pious' Heads of State Since Antiquity, various dynasties -or individual rulers- claimed to have received the right to rule by divine authority, such as a mandate of heaven. Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, e.g., both the Egyptian Pharaoh and the Great Inca allegedly were descended from their respective sun gods. In pagan Rome, during the Principate, the title divus ('divine') was conferred, notably posthumously, on the Princeps (commonly rendered as Emperor after the separate, not reserved title Imperator, but constitutionally a republican office, rather a head of government; formally the two eponymous consuls remained the joint heads of state), a symbolically crucial legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty. In Christianity (Roman Catholicism, and in some cases continued by Protestant faiths): The Pope as Sovereign Pontiff, first, of the politically important Papal States; after the Italian unification ultimately just over Vatican City. Various lower clerics (but mainly prelates) qualified as prince of the church (see there, e.g., prince-bishop); one case of a grand master of a sovereign order remains, but it has been vested ex officio in the pope. In the Church of England the reigning monarch also holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as Supreme Governor of the Church of England, but that is pure caesaropapism (ironically anti-papist in origin): the state commands the church, which has no power over the state. In Islam: Caliphs were the spiritual and temporal, absolute successors of the Prophet Mohammed, but gradually lost political power. Various political Muslim leaders since styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Imam of rare theocratic Muslim states known as imamates; notably: the present sultanate of Oman (`Uman) was ruled 661 - 1811/1821 by the Ibadi community under a religious leader styled Imam al-Muslimin "Imam of the Muslims"), a member of the Azd clan, with several interruptions under foreign rulers; in 1784 while Imam rule continued, Muscat and Oman became a de facto sovereign state under a secular Al ´Bu Sa`id ruler; 3 October 1868 - January 1871 Imam rule was briefly restored. in Yemen, and with suzerainty over other parts of the Arabian peninsula in (Lower) `Asir, under the Idris dynasty, the religious style of Imam was combined with the temporal ruler style of Sheikh from 1830. Since 1909 the higher style (assumed by the last of four Shaikhs) of Emir was used until 20 November 1930 when the shaikhdom was incorporated into Hejaz-Nejd (which became modern Saudi Arabia) in Nejd the Emirs (1744 - 1817) were, from 15 January 1902, also Imams and Protectors of the Wahhabis (fundamentalist sect of Sunni Islam) the Adal Imams 1526 - 1548 ruled the later British Somalia and Somaliland (an interlude between Ottoman and other foreign regimes). In some of the 19th-century Jihad states of the upper Niger (Mali), the Massina/Sise Jihad state, its successor states in Segu and Massina after its conquest, and the Tijaniyya Jihad state (though these leaders had a variety of actual powers, and were also often styled Almamy or Caliph; the last fama of the Samori Empire (formerly Wassulu) till its extinction by French colonization. after the 1813 annexation into tsarist Russia by the Treaty of Gulistan, there was a nationalist 1828 - 1859 Imamate of Daghestan until its 1859 reincorporatation into the Russian Empire. Sheikh, e.g., of the Sunni Sanusi order in Cyrenaica (Libya) since 1843, styled Emir since 25 October 1920 In the Islamic Republic of Iran the rahbar (Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei) and a council of guardians, all Shiah clerics, hold the highest offices in terms of political power (hence some consider it a theocracy), above the elected (sometimes lay) President, who is formally the constitutional head of government. The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading an offshoot of Shiite Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continues to the present day. In Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as 'servant' of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a (prime) minister under a figure head of state, ruling 'in the name of' the patron god(ess), e.g., Patmanabha Dasa (i.e., servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore. In Buddhism: the Dalai Lama (a reincarnated Buddha) was the political and spiritual leader ('god-king') of Tibet before annexation by the government of the People's Republic of China. Outer Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial Genghis Khan-dynasty, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles in several languages, see Khutughtu; replaced on 20 May 1924 by a Communist republic (which assigned the Head of State role to chairmanships), later democratised. City states and crowned republics The polis in Antiquity (actual Greek and many parallels, e.g., Italian) and the equivalent city states in the feudal era, and in some cases even much later, (many in Italy, the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the Mayan civilization, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but 'reigned' as sovereign dukes. The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine 'republican' and 'monarchic' characteristics The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning 'lieutenant', i.e. or governor, originally for the Habsburg monarchs Multiple or collective Heads of State in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal triumvirates, Directoire, and even to date Switzerland (seven-member Federal Council, each acting in turn as ceremonial chief of state); Bosnia and Herzegovina (three member presidium, from three different nations); San Marino (two "Captains-regent"); condominium (external shared sovereignty): monarchic as in Andorra (president of France and bishop of Urgell, Spain, co-princes), mixed as the former Anglo-French New Hebrides (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner). In the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled Consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office. Such arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolical, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm). European Union The European Union is not a state, but has a lot of the trappings of a state. Among its institutions, the European council acts as a collective head of state inside a semi-presidential system, while the president of the European Commission acts as the head of cabinet (the European commission). Unique cases and titles Though "president" and various monarchic titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes (usually republics), the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning "leader" in the national language, such as Nazi Germany's single party chief and head of state and government, Adolf Hitler Führer (see that article for equivalents). In 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means "head of state" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constitutive part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President. There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was Chairman of the People's Republic of China, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the President of the People's Republic of China. In North Korea, Kim Il-sung was named "eternal president" following his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, the duties of the head of state are constitutionally delegated to the Supreme People's Assembly whose chairman is "Head of State for foreign affairs" and performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by Kim Jong-il, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea. There is debate as to whether Samoa is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office. In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (still known as "Guide of the Revolution"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya ("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both his creatures. Sometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo (b. 1924 - d. 1989), was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as Chef d'état (literal French for 'Head of State') until 5 May 1960; in Uganda, military coup leader since 25 January 1971 Idi Amin was formally styled military head of State till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) President. Sometimes a state chooses to use a descriptive term instead of a specific style, possibly even by abolishing an existing one. Thus when the 18 September 1921 proclaimed Independence of the Rif, under an Emir (ambivalent word, either general or ruler; full Arabic style Amir ar-Rif 18 September 1921 - 1 February 1923) Sayyidi Muhammad bin `Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi; known as Abd el-Krim (b. 1882 - d. 1963) transformed itself on 1 February 1923 into the Rif Republic (Dawlat al-Jumhuriyya ar-Rifiyya, in Arabic means circa 'people's state of the Rif'), the same incumbent Head of State was now re-styled Ra'is ad-Dawla (a literal Arabic translation of "head of state") till it was dissolved, in 1926 by Franco-Spanish forces. When Iraq, which the British had cut out of the Ottoman Empire by force, became a separate state, yet not truly independent but a League of Nations mandate, it first had a Chairman of the Council of State (11 November 1920 - 23 August 1921 Saiyid Abdul Rahman al-Haydari) until the establishment of the Hashemite kingdom, only later it was made fully independent; when it was declared a republic, it had a Chairman of Sovereignty Council (14 July 1958 - 8 February 1963 Muhammad Najib al-Rubai) before its first president. In certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate the imperfect statehood, e.g. Sardar-i-Riyasat in Kashmir after its accession to India; PLO-leader Yasser Arafat was styled 5 July 1994 the first "President of the Palestinian National Authority" after an agreement with the military occupying power Israel allowed a Palestinian National Authority as a transitional status including Palestinian interim self-governing and a phased transfer of powers and territories (towns and areas of the West Bank), still awaiting the outcome of bumpy negotiations -he was at various times put under a form of Israeli arrest while in office - on its permanent status, which could end in a Palestinian State. Legitimacy & Term in office The position of head of state (within, or as well as, the state) can be established in different ways, and based on different legitimations. Force is often the true origin of power, but to keep the victor’s right, formal legitimacy must be found, even if by fictitious claim of continuity such as forged descent or legacy from a previous dynasty There have also been true cases of granting sovereignty, such as dynastic splits (not just by laws of succession, also by deliberate acts); this is usually forced, such as self-determination granted after nationalist revolts, or the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon by testament leaving his realm to Rome (to avoid a disastrous conquest) Under theocracy, divine status (as the Pharaoh's; compare Roman divus and mandate of heaven as in imperial China) can render earthly authority under divine law, theoretically unchallengeable; on the other hand, it can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, giving the priesthood that voices and interprets it a tool for political influence, control or even dominance (thus Pharaoh Echnaton's reforms were undone by the Amun-priesthood after his death, possibly even elimination); often there is no clear model, so over time power can be disputed, as between the Pope and Holy Roman emperor in the Investiture conflict, as the temporal power seeks to guarantee its legitimation, including a formal ceremony during the coronation (such as unction; often crucial for popular support), by controlling key nominations in the clergy The notion of a social contract holds that the nation (the whole people, or just the electorate) gives a mandate, as through acclamation or election Individual heads of state may acquire their position in a number of constitutional ways: The position of a Monarch is usually hereditary, but often with constitutional restrictions, or even considerable liberty for the incumbent or some body convening after his demise to chose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legal descendants of the state religion or even parliamentary permission. Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either: directly: through popular election; this can be made a fiction under the formula of popular acclamation; the electorate can be very selective, such as the patrician families and/or the professional corporations of a city state, or by the warriors in the case of a 'tribal' type war chief or a Roman general proclaimed by his legions. indirectly: by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors, as in the United States as an exclusive prerogative: the heads of states of the constitutive monarchies of a federation choose the head of state for the federation as a whole from among themselves, as in two modern federations: the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. The Pope, head of the Roman Catholic Church (as such the 'Holy See' is diplomatically recognised) and also head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by cardinals (appointed by previous Popes) under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave. a head of state can be entitled to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell (succeeded by his son Richard) A head of state may however seize power by force or revolution. This is not to be confused with the notion of an authoritarian or other totalitarian ruler, which rather concerns the oppressive nature of power once acquired, and therefore applies only if he is the true chief executive. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania; in Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Another type of extra-constitutional imposition, often also changing the constitution, is by a foreign power (state or alliance), either benign or, more often, rather for its own interest, such as establishing a branch of their own or a friendly dynasty. Apart from violent ousting, a head of state's position can also be lost in several ways: death (by natural causes, attentate, execution, on the battlefield or other), even in case of an unlawful killing expiration of the term of office under various (nearly always republican and/or elective) constitutions abdication or resignation, which is legally a voluntary act (though it can be the result of overpowering political or other pressure); in some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament (e.g. King Edward VIII) abolition of the post by constitutional change of the institutions (occasionally on the contrary, a transitory clause provides the last incumbent may end his term) or even ending the existence of the state as such while generally a head of state enjoys the widest form of inviolability, in some states the exceptions to this includes impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative and/or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke his mandate on exceptional grounds: this may be a common crime, a political sin, an act by which he violates such provisions as the established religion (which is mandatory for the monarch) by similar procedure his original mandate may be declared invalid a referendum, either provided in the constitution or simply considered the sovereign will of the people if the state does not enjoy full and true sovereignty, he may be validly discarded by a protector or suzerain liege serious violation of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a (disputable) valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the Security Council of the UN or certain alliances may do formal declaration of incapacity to rule, usually on such medical grounds as insanity or coma; this may either result in suspension (see below) or termination of his mandate All ways of ending a head of state's term may carry a risk for the next incumbent, usually by contesting the validity of the procedure, but sometimes even after death in the case of pretenders. Former heads of state Puyi, the last emperor of China, abdicated from the throne in 1912 (and was briefly restored in 1917), but was allowed to keep his titles and palace until 1924. He worked as a gardener in his later life as an ordinary Chinese citizen in Communist China. A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as King Leopold III of Belgium who left the throne to his son after winning (but not in both linguistic communities of the country) a referendum; he retained a full royal household but no constitutional or representative role at all. In the case of Napoleon I Bonaparte, the Italian principality of Elba, chosen for his luxurious imprisonment after the remains of his Grande Armée (following the disastrous Russian campaign) had finally been defeated in 1814, was transformed into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours ('100 days' escape and reseizure of power in France) convinced the allies, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke those gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena. By tradition a deposed monarch who has not freely abdicated, though no longer head of state, is allowed to use their monarchical title as a courtesy title for their lifetime. Hence, though he ceased to be Greek king in 1973 (in a disputed referendum during the Regime of the Colonels), or in 1974 (in a referendum after the reestablishment of democracy), it is still standard to refer to the deposed king as Constantine II of Greece. However none of his descendants will be entitled to be called King of the Hellenes (not King of Greece) after his death. Some states dispute the international acceptance of the right of their deposed monarchs to be referred to by their former title. It remains however the generally accepted formula, with most states declining to get involved in disputes between governments and deposed monarchs and simply stating that they are doing no more than recognising tradition, not supporting claims to a defunct throne. Other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being so referred to by former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport. Statistics Main article: Records of heads of state Current (as in early 2009) World's longest serving current head of state: King Rama IX of Thailand (since 9 June 1946- 62.5 years.) World's longest serving current republican head of state: President Omar Bongo of Gabon (since 28 November 1967- 41 years). History Oldest Head of State (elected by legislature): Sandro Pertini elected President of Italy in 1978. He left office in 1985, aged 88 and 9 months. Oldest Head of State elected in a popular election: Éamon de Valera, re-elected President of Ireland aged 84 in 1966. Longest serving Head of State of the 20th century: Emperor Hirohito of Japan, reigned for 63 years (1926 - 1989). See also Head of government List of state leaders by year List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence List of current heads of state and government Air transports of heads of state and government List of heads of state educated in the United States Official residence World Leaders Political pensioner Notes Sources, References and External links Pauly-Wissowa in German, on Antiquity Rulers.org List of rulers throughout time and places WorldStatesmen History and incumbents of states and minor polities worldwide Regnal Chronologies King lists worldwide (this link is not working, 9/27/08) RoyalArk quite elaborate on many non-European monarchies Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German) | Head_of_state |@lemmatized head:179 state:269 generic:1 term:15 individual:6 collective:6 office:40 serve:8 chief:23 public:5 representative:15 monarchy:28 republic:39 federation:8 commonwealth:15 kind:1 role:29 generally:8 include:13 personify:1 continuity:3 legitimacy:4 exercise:15 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6,837 | Berkeley_DB | Berkeley DB (BDB) is a computer software library that provides a high-performance embedded database, with bindings in C, C++, Java, Perl, Python, Ruby, Tcl, Smalltalk, and other programming languages. BDB stores arbitrary key/data pairs as byte arrays, and supports multiple data items for a single key. BDB can support thousands of simultaneous threads of control or concurrent processes manipulating databases as large as 256 terabytes, on a wide variety of operating systems including most Unix-like and Windows systems, and real-time operating systems. Origin Berkeley DB originated at the University of California, Berkeley as part of the transition (1986 to 1994) from 4.3BSD to 4.4BSD and of the effort to remove AT&T-encumbered code. In 1996 Netscape requested that the authors of Berkeley DB improve and extend the library, then at version 1.86, to suit Netscape's requirements for an LDAP server and for use in the Netscape browser. That request led to the creation of Sleepycat Software. This company was acquired by Oracle Corporation in February 2006, which continues to develop and sell Berkeley DB. Since its initial release, Berkeley DB has gone through various versions, breaking (API, ABI and/or file-level) compatibility several times. The FreeBSD and OpenBSD operating systems still ship with Berkeley DB 1.8x for compatibility reasons; Linux-based operating systems sometimes ship several versions to accommodate for applications still using older interfaces/files. Berkeley DB is redistributed under the Sleepycat Public License, an OSI- and FSF-approved license. The product ships with complete source code, build script, test suite, and documentation. The code quality and general utility along with the free software/open source license has led to its use in a multitude of free software/open source programs. Those who don't wish to abide by the terms of the Sleepycat Public License have the option of purchasing another proprietary license for redistribution from Oracle Corporation. This technique is called dual licensing. Berkeley DB includes compatibility interfaces for some historic Unix database libraries: dbm, ndbm and hsearch (a System V library for creating in-memory hash tables). Architecture Berkeley DB has an architecture notably more simple than that of other database systems like Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle. For example, it does not provide support for network access — programs access the database using in-process API calls. It does not support SQL or any other query language, nor does it support table schemas or table columns. A program accessing the database is free to decide how the data is to be stored in a record. Berkeley DB puts no constraints on the record's data. The record and its key can both be up to four gigabytes long. Despite having a simple architecture, Berkeley DB supports many advanced database features such as ACID transactions, fine-grained locking, hot backups and replication. Editions Berkeley DB comes in three different editions: Berkeley DB Berkeley DB Java Edition Berkeley XML DB Each edition has separate database libraries, despite the common branding. The first is the traditional Berkeley DB, written in C. Berkeley DB Java Edition comprises a pure Java database. Its design resembles that of Berkeley DB without replicating it exactly. It does not offer all the features that traditional Berkeley DB has. However, it has the advantage of being written in pure Java, not requiring any native code; it also has a different architecture, which gives it different performance and concurrency characteristics, which may be advantageous or dis-advantageous depending on the application. It provides two APIs -- one which is based on the Java Collections Framework (an object persistence approach); and one based on the traditional Berkeley DB API. Note that traditional Berkeley DB also supports a Java API, but it does so via JNI and thus requires an installed native library. The Berkeley XML DB database specialises in the storage of XML documents, supporting XQuery queries. It is implemented as an additional layer on top of Berkeley DB. It supports multiple language bindings, including C and Java (although the latter uses JNI and thus is not a pure Java solution). Programs that use Berkeley DB Berkeley DB provides the underlying storage and retrieval system of several LDAP servers, database systems, and many other proprietary and free/open source applications. Notable software that use Berkeley DB for data storage include: Asterisk PBX - A free/open source PBX. Bogofilter – A free/open source spam filter that saves its wordlists using Berkeley DB. Carbonado – An open source relational database access layer. Cfengine – A free/open source configuration management system, developed by Mark Burgess of Oslo University College. Citadel – A free/open source groupware platform that keeps all of its data stores, including the message base, in Berkeley DB. Cyrus IMAP Server – A free/open source IMAP and POP3 server, developed by Carnegie Mellon University GRAMPS - "Genealogical Research and Analysis Management Programming System", free genealogy software. Jabberd2 – A Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol server J-ISIS (Java ISIS) - A new version of Winisis dtabase programme (of Unesco) being developed for library use KDevelop – An IDE for Linux and other Unix-like operating systems KLibido – A free/open source Newsgroup reader tailored for binary downloads Movable Type (until version 4.0) – A proprietary weblog publishing system developed by California-based Six Apart memcachedb - A memcached interface to BerkeleyDB MySQL database system – Prior to v5.1, MySQL included a BDB data storage backend. OpenLDAP – A free/open source implementation of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) Postfix – A fast, secure, easy-to-administer MTA for Linux/Unix systems Redland – A RDF Application Framework can use BDB for persistent storage (triplestore) RPM – The RPM Package Manager uses Berkeley DB to retain its internal database of packages installed on a system Spamassassin – An anti-spam application Subversion – A version control system designed specifically to replace CVS Sun Grid Engine – A free/open source distributed resource management system; the most popular batch-queueing job scheduler for server farms. GlusterFS - A cluster filesystem which leverages industry-standard commodity hardware to build highly scalable, non-stop storage systems. Licensing Oracle Corporation makes versions 2.0 and higher of Berkeley DB available under a dual license. This license is a 2-clause BSD license with an additional copyleft clause similar to the GNU GPL version 2's Section 3, requiring source code of an application using Berkeley DB to be made available for a nominal fee. Thus, the license depends on how a particular application that uses Berkeley DB is distributed to the public. Software that is not distributed can use the Sleepycat License, as can free software. Proprietary software can use Berkeley DB only under a commercial license agreement between Oracle and the application's publisher. External links Oracle Berkeley DB Site Berkeley DB The Berkeley DB Book by Himanshu Yadava Discovering Berkeley DB — a simple introduction to BDB. 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6,838 | Frank_Herbert | Franklin Patrick Herbert, Jr. (October 8, 1920 – February 11, 1986) was a critically acclaimed and commercially successful American science fiction author. Although also a short story author, he is best known for his novels "During the next decade, he was an infrequent contributor to the sf magazines, producing fewer than 20 short stories (which nevertheless constituted a majority of his short fiction; he never made a significant impact with work below novel length). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, Clute & Nicholls. , most notably Dune and its five sequels. The Dune saga, set in the distant future and taking place over millennia, deals with themes such as human survival and evolution, ecology, and the intersection of religion, politics and power. Dune itself is the "best-selling science fiction novel of all time," and the series is widely considered to be among the classics in the genre. Touponce, William F. (1988), Frank Herbert, Boston, Massachusetts: Twayne Publishers imprint, G. K. Hall & Co, pg. 119, ISBN 0-8057-7514-5. Locus ran a poll of readers on April 15, 1975 in which Dune "was voted the all-time best science-fiction novel...It has sold over ten million copies in numerous editions." Biography Frank Herbert was born October 8, 1920 in Tacoma, Washington to Frank Patrick Herbert Sr. and Eileen McCarthy Herbert. He graduated from high school in 1938, and in 1939 he lied about his age in order to get his first newspaper job at the Glendale Star. There was a temporary hiatus in his career as he served in the U.S. Navy's Seabees for six months as a photographer during World War II until he was given a medical discharge. He married Flora Parkinson in San Pedro, California in 1941. They had a daughter, Penny (b. February 16, 1942), but divorced in 1945. After the war he attended the University of Washington, where he met Beverly Ann Stuart at a creative writing class in 1946. They were the only students in the class who had sold any work for publication; Herbert had sold two pulp adventure stories to magazines, the first to Esquire in 1945, and Stuart had sold a story to Modern Romance magazine. They married in Seattle, Washington on June 20, 1946. They had two sons, Brian Patrick Herbert (b. June 29, 1947, Seattle, Washington), a best-selling novelist, and Bruce Calvin Herbert (b. June 26, 1951, Santa Rosa, California). In 1947 Frank Herbert sold his first science fiction story, "Looking for Something", to Startling Stories. Frank Herbert did not graduate from college, according to his son, Brian, because he wanted to study only what interested him and so did not complete the required courses. After leaving college he returned to journalism and worked at the Seattle Star and the Oregon Statesman; he was also a writer and editor for the San Francisco Examiner's California Living magazine for a decade. His career as a novelist began with the publication of The Dragon in the Sea in 1955, where he used the environment of a 21st century submarine as a way to explore sanity and madness. The book predicted worldwide conflicts over oil consumption and production. It was a critical success but not a major commercial one. Florence, Oregon, with sand dunes that served as an inspiration for the Dune saga Herbert began researching Dune in 1959 and was able to devote himself more wholeheartedly to his writing career because his wife returned to work full time as an advertising writer for department stores, becoming the main breadwinner during the 1960s. Herbert later related in an interview with Willis E. McNeilly that the novel originated when he was supposed to do a magazine article on sand dunes in the Oregon Dunes near Florence, Oregon, but he became too involved in it and ended up with far more raw material than needed for a single article. The article, entitled "They Stopped the Moving Sands," was never written, but it did serve as the seed for the ideas that led to Dune. Dune took six years of research and writing to complete. Far longer than commercial science fiction of the time was supposed to be, it was serialized in Analog magazine in two separate parts ("Dune World" and "Prophet of Dune"), in 1963 and 1965. It was then rejected by nearly twenty book publishers before finally being accepted. One editor prophetically wrote back "I might be making the mistake of the decade, but..." before rejecting the manuscript. Chilton, a minor publishing house in Philadelphia known mainly for its auto-repair manuals, gave Herbert a $7,500 advance, and Dune was soon a critical success. It won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1965 and shared the Hugo Award in 1966 with ...And Call Me Conrad by Roger Zelazny. Dune was the first major ecological science fiction novel, containing a multitude of sweeping, inter-relating themes and multiple character viewpoints, a method that ran through all Herbert's mature work. The book was not an instant bestseller. By 1968 Herbert had made $20,000 from it, far more than most science fiction novels of the time were generating, but not enough to let him take up full-time writing. However, the publication of Dune did open doors for him. He was the Seattle Post-Intelligencer's education writer from 1969 to 1972 and lecturer in general studies and interdisciplinary studies at the University of Washington (1970 – 1972). He worked in Vietnam and Pakistan as social and ecological consultant in 1972. In 1973 he was director-photographer of the television show The Tillers. By 1972, Herbert retired from writing for newspapers and became a full-time writer. During the 1970s and 1980s, Herbert enjoyed considerable commercial success as an author. He divided his time between homes in Hawaii and Washington's Olympic Peninsula; his home on the peninsula was intended to be an "ecological demonstration project". - Chronology During this time he wrote numerous books and pushed ecological and philosophical ideas. He continued his Dune saga, following it with Dune Messiah, Children of Dune, and God Emperor of Dune. Other highlights were The Dosadi Experiment, The Godmakers, The White Plague and the books he wrote in partnership with Bill Ransom: The Jesus Incident, The Lazarus Effect, and The Ascension Factor which were sequels to Destination: Void. Herbert's change in fortune was shaded by tragedy. In 1974, Beverly underwent an operation for cancer. She lived ten more years, but her health was adversely impacted by the surgery. In the midst of this, Herbert was the featured speaker at the Octocon II science fiction convention at the El Rancho Tropicana in Santa Rosa, California in October 1978. Beverly Herbert died on February 7, 1984, the same year that Heretics of Dune was published. In his afterword to 1985's Chapterhouse Dune, Frank Herbert wrote a moving eulogy for his wife of 38 years. 1984 was a tumultuous year in Herbert's life. In the same year that his wife died, his career took off with the release of David Lynch's film version of Dune. Despite high expectations, a big-budget production design and an A-list cast, the movie drew mostly poor reviews in the United States. However, despite a disappointing response in the USA, the film was a critical and commercial success in Europe and Japan. After Beverly's death, Herbert married Theresa Shackleford in 1985, the year he published Chapterhouse Dune, which tied up many of the saga's story threads (though ending on a cliffhanger intended to lead into his planned Dune 7). This would be Herbert's final single work (the anthology Eye was also published that year, and Man of Two Worlds was published in 1986). He died of a massive pulmonary embolism while recovering from surgery for pancreatic cancer on February 11, 1986 in Madison, Wisconsin age 65. Ideas and themes Frank Herbert used his science fiction novels to explore complex "With its blend (or sometimes clash) of complex intellectual discourse and Byzantine intrigue, Dune provided a template for FH's more significant later works. Sequels soon began to appear which acrried on the arguments of the original in testingly various manners and with an intensity of discourse seldom encountered in the sf field. Dune Messiah (1969) elaborates the intrigue at the cost of other elements, but Children of Dune (1976) recaptures much of the strength of the original work and addresses another recurrent theme in FH's work - the evolution of Man, in this case into SUPERMAN;..." "Frank Herbert," The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. ideas involving philosophy, religion, psychology, politics and ecology, which have inspired many of his readers to become interested in these areas. The underlying thrust in Frank Herbert's work was his fascination with the question of human survival and evolution. Frank Herbert has attracted a sometimes fanatical fanbase, many of whom have tried to read everything Frank Herbert has written, fiction or non-fiction, and see Frank Herbert as something of an authority on the subject matters of his books. Indeed such was the devotion of some of his readers that Frank Herbert was at times asked if he was starting a cult, Omni Magazine, June 1980 something he was very much against. There are a number of key themes in Herbert's work: A concern with leadership. He especially explored the human tendency to slavishly follow charismatic leaders. He delved deeply into both the flaws and potentials of bureaucracy and government. Herbert was probably the first science fiction author to popularize ideas about ecology and systems thinking. He stressed the need for humans to think both systematically and long term. The relationship between religion, politics and power. Human survival and evolution: Herbert writes of the Fremen, the Sardaukar, and the Dosadi, who are molded by their terrible living conditions into dangerous super-races. Human possibilities and potential: Herbert offered Mentats, the Bene Gesserit and the Bene Tleilax as different visions of human possibilities. The nature of sanity and madness. Frank Herbert was interested in the work of Thomas Szasz and the anti-psychiatry movement. Often, Herbert questions, "What is sane?", and while there are clearly insane behaviors and psychopathies as evinced by characters (Piter De Vries for instance), it is often suggested that "normal" and "abnormal" are relative terms which humans are sometimes ill-equipped to apply to one another, especially on the basis of statistical regularity. The possible effects and consequences of consciousness altering chemicals, such as the spice in the Dune saga. How language shapes thought. More specifically, Frank Herbert was influenced by Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics. Sociobiology. How our instincts unconsciously influence our behavior and society. Learning, teaching and thinking. Frank Herbert carefully refrained from offering his readers firm answers to many of the questions he explored. Status and impact in science fiction Dune and the Dune saga constitute one of the world's best-selling science fiction series and novels; Dune in particular has received widespread critical acclaim, winning the Nebula Award in 1965 and sharing the Hugo Award in 1966, and is frequently considered one of the best science fiction novels ever, if not the best. "His dominant intellectual impulse was not to mystify or set himself up as a prophet, but the opposite – to turn what powers of analysis he had (and they wree considerable) over to his audience. And this impulse is as manifest in Dune, which many people consider the all-time best science fiction novel, as it is in his computer book, Without Me You're Nothing. ppg 2, Touponce 1988 According to contemporary Robert A. Heinlein, Herbert's opus was "powerful, convincing, and most ingenious." Dune is also considered a landmark novel for a number of reasons: Like Heinlein's 1961 Stranger in a Strange Land, Herbert's 1963 novella and 1965 novel, Dune, represented a move toward a more literary approach to the science fiction novel. Before this period, it was often said that all a science fiction novel needed to be successful was a great technological idea. Characterization and great story took a distant second place. Dune is a landmark of soft science fiction. Herbert deliberately suppressed technology in his Dune universe so he could address the future of humanity, rather than the future of humanity's technology. Dune considers the way humans and their institutions might change over time. Dune was the first major ecological science fiction novel. Frank Herbert was a great popularizer of scientific ideas; many of his fans credit Frank Herbert for introducing them to philosophy and psychology. In Dune he helped popularize the term ecology and some of the field's concepts, vividly imparting a sense of planetary awareness. Gerald Jonas explains in the New York Times Book Review: "So completely did Mr. Herbert work out the interactions of man and beast and geography and climate that Dune became the standard for a new sub-genre of 'ecological' science fiction." As popularity of Dune rose, Herbert embarked on a lecture tour of college campuses, explaining how the environmental concerns of Dune's inhabitants were analogous to our own. Dune is considered truly epic world building. The Library Journal reports that "Dune is to science fiction what The Lord of the Rings is to fantasy." Frank Herbert imagined every facet of his creation. He lovingly included glossaries, quotes, documents, and histories, to bring his universe alive to his readers. No science fiction novel before it had such a deeply realized reality. Herbert wrote more than twenty novels after Dune that are regarded as being of variable quality. Books like The Green Brain, The Santaroga Barrier seemed to hark back to the days before Dune, when a good technological idea was all that was needed to drive a sci-fi novel. And some fans of the Dune saga are critical of the follow-up novels as being subpar. Herbert never again equalled the critical acclaim he received for Dune. Neither his sequels to Dune nor any of his other books won a Hugo or Nebula Award, although almost all of them were New York Times Bestsellers. Some felt that Children of Dune was almost too literary and too dark to get the recognition it may have deserved; others felt that The Dosadi Experiment lacked an epic quality that fans had come to expect. Also largely overlooked because of the concentration on "Dune" was Herbert's 1973 novel, Hellstrom's Hive, with its minutely worked-out depiction of a human society modeled on social insects, which could be counted a major utopia/dystopia. Malcolm Edwards in the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction wrote: Much of Herbert's work makes difficult reading. His ideas were genuinely developed concepts, not merely decorative notions, but they were sometimes embodied in excessively complicated plots and articulated in prose which did not always match the level of thinking ... His best novels, however, were the work of a speculative intellect with few rivals in modern science fiction. Film adaptations A film of the novel, Dune, was directed by David Lynch in 1984. Although panned by many fans and film critics, Frank Herbert was pleased with the movie. It has done well on video and DVD. The Sci Fi Channel produced a commercially successful 2000 television miniseries called Frank Herbert's Dune. The Dune saga continued with a sequel miniseries in 2003 entitled Frank Herbert's Children of Dune, which combined the novels Dune Messiah and Children of Dune. Production is underway at Paramount Pictures for a new film based on Dune, directed by Peter Berg and with the participation of Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. The studio hopes the remake will be a "tentpole film," and potentially lead to a new franchise based on Herbert's series. HT Syndication. "Peter Berg to direct Dune adaptation." Hindustan Times. 18 March 2008. Continuation of the Dune series In recent years, Frank Herbert's son Brian Herbert and author Kevin J. Anderson have added to the Dune universe, stating that they in part used notes left behind by Frank Herbert and discovered over a decade after his death. Brian Herbert and Anderson have written two prequel trilogies (Prelude to Dune and Legends of Dune) exploring the history of the Dune universe before the events within Dune, as well as two post-Chapterhouse Dune novels that complete the original series (Hunters of Dune and Sandworms of Dune) based on Frank Herbert's own Dune 7 outline. Bibliography Books about Frank Herbert and Dune Cliffs Notes on Herbert's Dune & Other Works, by L David Allen, Lincoln, NE: Cliffs Notes, 1975, ISBN 0-8220-1231-6 Frank Herbert, by Timothy O'Reilly Serial publication: none First edition: New York: Frederick Ungar, 1980. Starmont Reader's Guide 5: Frank Herbert, by David M Miller, Mercer Island, WA: Starmont, 1980, ISBN 0-916732-16-9 The Dune Encyclopedia, compiled and edited by Dr. Willis E. McNelly, New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1984 (trade paper), ISBN 0-425-06813-7 (US edition). The Maker of Dune, edited by Timothy O'Reilly, New York: Berkeley Publishing Group, 1987 (trade paper). Dune Master: A Frank Herbert Bibliography, by Daniel JH Levack and Mark Willard, Westport, CT: Meckler, 1988, ISBN 0-88736-099-8 SparkNotes: Dune, Frank Herbert, by Jason Clarke, New York: Spark Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1-58663-510-7 Dreamer of Dune : The Biography of Frank Herbert, by Brian Herbert, New York: Tor Books, 2003. The Science of Dune, by Kevin R. Grazier, PhD, Dallas, TX: BenBella Books, 2008, ISBN 1933771283 The Science of Dune (January 2008) - SmartPopBooks.com References External links Official website for Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson Internet Book Database of Fiction bibliography Arabic and Islamic themes in Frank Herbert's Dune novels Study by Tim O'Reilly of Frank Herbert's work up to the Jesus Incident; one of the more in-depth studies of Frank Herbert's thoughts and ideas Article on the inspirations for Dune | Frank_Herbert |@lemmatized franklin:1 patrick:3 herbert:73 jr:1 october:3 february:4 critically:1 acclaim:3 commercially:2 successful:3 american:1 science:27 fiction:29 author:5 although:3 also:5 short:3 story:8 best:10 know:2 novel:27 next:1 decade:4 infrequent:1 contributor:1 sf:2 magazine:7 produce:2 nevertheless:1 constitute:2 majority:1 never:3 make:4 significant:2 impact:3 work:19 length:1 encyclopedia:4 clute:1 nicholls:1 notably:1 dune:81 five:1 sequel:5 saga:8 set:2 distant:2 future:3 take:5 place:2 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6,839 | John_Rutsey | John Howard Rutsey (1953 – May 11, 2008) from Ontario, Canada was a former drummer, most recognized for being a co-founding member of Rush along with Alex Lifeson and Jeff Jones (who was replaced by Geddy Lee). Rutsey played drums in Rush from summer 1968 until July 1974. It was during this time that he played on the "Not Fade Away"/"You Can't Fight It" single and the band's eponymous debut LP. According to the Rush biography Contents Under Pressure: 30 Years of Rush at Home & Away written by Martin Popoff, Lee and Lifeson both acknowledged that during the writing and recording sessions for the band's debut album Rutsey was given the role of chief lyricist, however, come time to record the songs Rutsey did not deliver any lyrics. In interviews, Lee and Lifeson have both said that Rutsey was dissatisfied with what he had written and tore up the lyric sheets. Soon after the band released its debut album, Rutsey left the band, apparently due to health concerns related to diabetes, which may have posed potential problems with extended tours. Rush frequently asked questions nimitz.net Accessed May 14, 2008 His eventual replacement was Neil Peart. Rutsey maintained a low media profile after leaving the band. In a 1991 Rockline interview, Lifeson remarked, "John's still around. I see John quite often. He gave up playing shortly after he left the band and went into bodybuilding. He competed on an amateur level for a while, doing that for a few years, and has sort of been in and out of that, but he still works out, and I work out with him a few times a week at a local gym - at a Gold's, here in Toronto." In a more recent interview on the VH1 Classic show "Hangin' With," Alex revealed that he had not seen John since around 1990. On May 11, 2008, Rutsey died in his sleep of an apparent heart attack, related to complications from diabetes. Rutsey's family wished to keep the funeral a private affair, although an obituary posted in the Toronto Star on May 15 suggested those wishing to pay tribute to Rutsey could do so by making a donation to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation of Ontario. Power Windows News John Rutsey's Death Accessed May 15, 2008 After Rutsey's death, former bandmates Lee and Lifeson released this statement: "Those years spent in our teens dreaming of one day doing what we continue to do decades later are special. Although our paths diverged many years ago, we smile today, thinking back on those exciting times and remembering John's wonderful sense of humour and impeccable timing." Associated Press, May 20, 2008 References </references> | John_Rutsey |@lemmatized john:6 howard:1 rutsey:12 may:7 ontario:2 canada:1 former:2 drummer:1 recognize:1 co:1 founding:1 member:1 rush:5 along:1 alex:2 lifeson:5 jeff:1 jones:1 replace:1 geddy:1 lee:4 play:3 drum:1 summer:1 july:1 time:4 fade:1 away:2 fight:1 single:1 band:6 eponymous:1 debut:3 lp:1 accord:1 biography:1 content:1 pressure:1 year:4 home:1 write:2 martin:1 popoff:1 acknowledge:1 writing:1 recording:1 session:1 album:2 give:2 role:1 chief:1 lyricist:1 however:1 come:1 record:1 song:1 deliver:1 lyric:2 interview:3 say:1 dissatisfy:1 tear:1 sheet:1 soon:1 release:2 leave:3 apparently:1 due:1 health:1 concern:1 relate:2 diabetes:3 pose:1 potential:1 problem:1 extended:1 tour:1 frequently:1 ask:1 question:1 nimitz:1 net:1 access:2 eventual:1 replacement:1 neil:1 peart:1 maintain:1 low:1 medium:1 profile:1 rockline:1 remark:1 still:2 around:2 see:2 quite:1 often:1 shortly:1 go:1 bodybuilding:1 compete:1 amateur:1 level:1 sort:1 work:2 week:1 local:1 gym:1 gold:1 toronto:2 recent:1 classic:1 show:1 hangin:1 reveal:1 since:1 die:1 sleep:1 apparent:1 heart:1 attack:1 complication:1 family:1 wish:2 keep:1 funeral:1 private:1 affair:1 although:2 obituary:1 post:1 star:1 suggest:1 pay:1 tribute:1 could:1 make:1 donation:1 juvenile:1 research:1 foundation:1 power:1 windows:1 news:1 death:2 bandmates:1 statement:1 spend:1 teen:1 dream:1 one:1 day:1 continue:1 decade:1 later:1 special:1 path:1 diverge:1 many:1 ago:1 smile:1 today:1 think:1 back:1 exciting:1 remember:1 wonderful:1 sense:1 humour:1 impeccable:1 timing:1 associate:1 press:1 reference:2 |@bigram alex_lifeson:1 geddy_lee:1 lee_lifeson:3 neil_peart:1 complication_diabetes:1 pay_tribute:1 juvenile_diabetes:1 former_bandmates:1 |
6,840 | Geography_of_Nepal | Geographic regions Sandwiched between two Asian giants--China and India--Nepal traditionally has been characterized as "a yam caught between two rocks." Noted for its majestic Himalayas, which in Sanskrit means "the abode of snow", Nepal is very mountainous and hilly. Its shape is roughly rectangular, about 800 kilometers long and about 100 to 200 kilometers wide, and comprises a total of 147,181 square kilometers of land. It is slightly larger than Bangladesh or the state of Arkansas. Nepal is a landlocked country, surrounded by India on three sides and by China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) to the north. It is separated from Bangladesh by an approximately 15 kilometer wide strip of India's state of West Bengal, and from Bhutan by the 88 kilometer wide Sikkim, also an Indian state. Such a confined geographical position is hardly enviable. Nepal is almost totally dependent on India for transit facilities and access to the sea--that is, the Bay of Bengal--even for most of the goods coming from China. Geographic coordinates: The Land For a small country, Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity, rising from the tropical Terai Plain -- the northern rim of the Gangetic Plain situated at about 100 meters above sea level in the south -- above the perpetual snow line at about 5,500 meters to some 90 peaks over 7,000 meters and eight over 8,000 meters including Mount Everest, locally known as Sagarmatha. North of the Himalaya, Nepal extends to the fringes of the high and arid Tibetan Plateau. Nepal commonly is divided into three east-west physiographic belts: The Terai, the Hills and the Mountain Region. It is also divided into three major drainage systems: in the east the Koshi, in the center the Gandaki/Narayani, and in the west the Karnali. The Terai Region The Terai or Madhesh region begins at the Indian border and includes the northermost part of the flat, intensively farmed Gangetic Plain called the Outer Terai. This is culturally an extension of northern India with Hindi, Awadhi,Bhojpuri and Maithili spoken more than Nepali, however it was annexed to Nepal by conquest and by treaty with the British. Rivers including the large Koshi, Narayani (called the Gandak in India), and Karnali meander across the Terai after breaking through the ranges to the north. These and smaller rivers rising south of the main Himalaya are prone to flooding during the summer monsoon. The Outer Terai ends at the first range of foothills called the Siwaliks. This range has a forested alluvial belt along its base, marshy with springs fed by groundwater percolating down from higher elevations. Before the use of DDT the alluvial zone was dangerously infested with malaria. Nepal's rulers used it as a defensive frontier called the char kose jhadi (twelve kilometer forest). Beyond the alluvial belt, the Siwaliks rise as high as 1,000 meters, steepest on their southern flanks because of faults. This range is composed of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that quickly absorb rainfall. This is unsuited to agriculture so there is very little population. However in several places north of the Siwaliks there are dun valleys or the Inner Terai. Among these are Surkhet, Dang and Deukhuri in western Nepal and the Rapti Valley (Chitwan) in central Nepal. These valleys were also malarial and lightly populated until DDT was used to suppress mosquitos, but they had significant agricultural potential that was exploited to some degree by the Tharu ethnic group who were resistant to malaria. After DDT was used to suppress malaria in the 1950s, farmers from the hills began settling in these valleys to the detriment of the Tharus. The Terai ends and the Hills begin at a higher range of foothills called the Mahabharat Range. The Hill Region Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (Pahar in Nepali) is mostly between 1,000 and 4,000 meters in altitude. This region begins at the Mahabharat Lekh (Leser Himalaya) where a fault system called the Main Boundary Thrust creates an escarpment 1,000 to 1,500 meters high, rising to the crest of this range generally at about 2,000, occasionally up to 3,000 meters. The abrupt south-facing slope is nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hill regions. Northern slopes of the Mahabharats are gentler and moderately well populated. North of this range, valleys as high as 2,000 meters are densely populated by rice-growing, Nepali-speaking Hindus and by Newar merchants who also speak Newari. The increasingly urbanized Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys are part of this region. Hillsides up to about 3,000 meters are instead occupied by indigenous "janjati" ethnic groups natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects. There are Magars and Kham Magars west of Pokhara, Gurungs south of the Annapurnas, Thamangs north of Kathmandu, Rai and Limbu further east. Upland staple crops are maize, millet, barley and potatoes rather than rice. Temperate and subtropical fruits are grown as cash crops. Marijuana is grown and processed into hashish, or was until international pressure forced the government to stop being the middleman operating government monopoly stores in urban centers. There is increasing reliance on animal husbandry with elevation, using land above 3,000 meters for summer grazing and moving herds of sheep and goats to lower elevations in winter. Except for the rice-growing lower valleys, the hills are in chronic food deficit. Many menfolk are employed in the Terai, in India or overseas to earn cash for imported grain. The Hill region ends dramatically where the main Himalayan Range abruptly rises thousands of meters into the realm of perpetual snow. The Mountain Region Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. (annotated version) The Mountain Region (Parbat in Nepali) is abruptly elevated thousands of meters into the zone of perpetual snow along the Main Central Thust fault zone. South of this fault system, "hills" do not greatly exceed treeline at about 3,500 meters. North of it the Himalayas rise as a virtual wall above the snowline at 5,000 to 5,500 meters to some 90 peaks over 7,000 meters (22,965') and eight giants exceeding 8,000 meters (26,246'), including Mount Everest at 8,848 meters and Kanchenjunga at 8,598 meters. Cutting between the various subranges of the Himalaya and north of them are alpine, often semi-arid valleys including Humla, Jumla, Mustang, Manang District and Khumbu that are lightly populated by people with Tibetan affinities called Bhotiya or Bhutia, the famous Sherpas in the Kumbu valley near Mount Everest. Bhote traditionally grazed yaks, grew cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes, barley and millet, and traded across the mountains, e.g. Tibetan salt for rice from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since the 1950s these mountain peoples have also found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism. Bhote language and culture extend north into Tibet proper, with the international border following the Himalayan crest in eastern Nepal. In central and western Nepal the border mostly follows lower (~6,000 meter) ranges tens of kilometers north of the highest peaks, the watershed between the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins. Climate Satellite image of Nepal in October 2002 Nepal has a great deal of variation in climate. Its latitude is about the same as that of Florida, so the low elevation Terai has a tropical and subtropical climate. Above the Terai, the climate is completely different due to higher elevations. The east-west-trending Himalayan ranges to the north and the monsoonal alteration of wet and dry seasons also contribute to local variations in climate. Scholar Sharad Singh Negi identifies five climatic zones in Nepal based on altitude: a tropical and subtropical zone below 1,200 meters (the frost limit in winter), a cool temperate zone between 1,200 and 2,400 meters (where there is at least occasional snowfall in winter), a cold zone between 2,400 and 3,600 meters (tree line), a subarctic zone from 3,600 to 4,400 meters, and an arctic zone above 4,400 meters. In terms of natural vegetational regimes or distribution patterns, altitude again plays a significant role. Below 1,200 meters, the dominant form of vegetation consists of tropical and subtropical forests that have evolved in response to the monsoonal climate. Altitude also affects annual rainfall or precipitation patterns. Up to about 3,000 meters, annual rainfall totals increase with elevation, but above this they decrease with elevation and latitude. Two other patterns can be discerned. First, given the northwestward movement of the moisture-laden summer monsoon (June to September), the amount of annual rainfall generally decreases from east to west, although there are exceptional areas such as the Pokhara Valley in Central Nepal with higher rainfall due to generally lower "hills" to the south and the main Himalayan Range immediately to the north that stops the northward passage of moist air. Second, adabiatic effects increase rainfall on south- and east-facing mountain slopes, with a rain shadow on northern sides. This reaches its climax in the inner Himalayan region and on the Tibetan Plateau. Eastern Nepal receives approximately 2,500 millimeters of rain annually, the Kathmandu area gets about 1,400 millimeters, and western Nepal about 1,000 millimeters. The towering Himalayas play a critical role, blocking the northwesterly advances of moist, tropical air from the Bay of Bengal, and ultimately leading to its conversion to rain in the summer. In the winter, this range prevents the outbursts of cold air from Inner Asia from reaching southern Nepal and northern India, thus ensuring warmer winters in these regions than otherwise would be the case. In addition, there are seasonal variations in the amount of rainfall, depending on the monsoon cycle. Bishop divides the monsoon cycle into four seasons: premonsoon, summer monsoon, postmonsoon, and winter monsoon. The premonsoon season generally occurs during April and May; it is characterized by the highest temperatures, reaching 40 °C during the day in the Terai Region and other lowlands. The hills and mountains, however, remain cool. The summer monsoon, a strong flow of moist air from the southwest, follows the premonsoon season. For the vast majority of southern Asians, including Nepalese, the term monsoon is synonymous with the summer rainy season, which makes or breaks the lives of hundreds of millions of farmers on the subcontinent. Even though the arrival of the summer monsoon can vary by as much as a month, in Nepal it generally arrives in early June, is preceded by violent lightning and thunderstorms, and lasts through September, when it begins to recede. The plains and lower Himalayas receive more than 70% of their annual precipitation during the summer monsoon. The amount of summer monsoon rain generally declines from southeast to northwest as the maritime wedge of air gradually becomes thinner and dryer. Although the success of farming is almost totally dependent on the timely arrival of the summer monsoon, it periodically causes such problems as landslides; subsequent losses of human lives, farmlands, and other properties (not to mention great difficulty in the movement of goods and people); and heavy flooding in the plains. Conversely, when prolonged breaks in the summer monsoon occur, severe drought and famine often result. The postmonsoon season begins with a slow withdrawal of the monsoon. This retreat leads to an almost complete disappearance of moist air by mid-October, thus ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two biggest and most important Hindu festivals-- Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)--arrive during this period, about one month apart. The postmonsoon season lasts until about December. After the postmonsoon, comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow, which is marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. The amount of precipitation resulting from the northeast land trade winds varies considerably but increases markedly with elevation. The secondary winter precipitation in the form of snowfalls in the Himalayas is important for generating a sufficient volume of spring and summer meltwaters, which are critical for irrigation in the lower hills and valleys where agriculture predominates. Winter precipitation is also are indispensable for the success of winter crops, such as wheat, barley, and numerous vegetables. River system Nepal can be divided into three major river systems from east to west: the Koshi River basin, the Narayani River basin (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali River basin. All ultimately become major tributaries of the Ganges River in northern India. After rising inside Tibet or in the Transhimalayan Ranges along the border, they cross the main Himalaya and Lesser Himalaya in deep gorges and then deposit their heavy loads of sediments and debris on the plains, thereby nurturing them and renewing their alluvial soil fertility. Once they reach the Tarai Region, they often overflow their banks onto wide floodplains during the summer monsoon season, periodically shifting their courses. Besides providing fertile alluvial soil, the backbone of the agrarian economy, these rivers present great possibilities for hydroelectric and irrigation development. To date Nepal has not made extensive use of its hydrolelectric resourses. All of them make use of the natural elevation differences, diverting water from the river and running it through turbines further downstream. The latest one is the Kali Gandaki hydroelectricity project a few km north of Tansen. Building dams in Nepal has remained a disputed issue, mainly because of the high risk of earthquakes in the region. None of the river systems support any significant commercial navigation facility. Rather, the deep gorges formed by the rivers represent immense obstacles to establishing the broad transport and communication networks needed to develop an integrated national economy. As a result, the economy in Nepal has remained fragmented. Because Nepal's rivers have not been harnessed for transportation, most settlements in the Hill and Mountain regions remain isolated from each other. As of 1991, trails remained the primary transportation routes in the hills. Nepal's towns, villages, rivers and peaks The eastern part of the country is drained by the Koshi River, which has seven tributaries. It is locally known as the Sapt Kosi, which means seven Kosi rivers (Tamur, Likhu Khola, Dudh, Sun, Indrawati, Tama, and Arun). The principal tributary is the Arun, which rises about 150 kilometers inside the Tibetan Plateau. The Narayani River or Gandak drains the central part of Nepal and also has seven major tributaries (Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli). The Kali Gandaki, which flows between the Dhaulagiri Himal and the Annapurna Himal (Himal is the Nepali variation of the Sanskrit word Himalaya), is the main river of this drainage system. The river system draining the western part of Nepal is the Karnali. Its three immediate tributaries are the Bheri, Seti, and Karnali rivers, the latter being the major one. The Maha Kali, which also is known as the Kali and which flows along the Nepal-India border on the west side, and the (West)Rapti River also are considered tributaries of the Karnali. Area and boundaries Area Total: 147,181 km² Land: 143,181 km² Water: 4,000 km² Area - comparative Roughly 1⅔ Tasmania's size Roughly twice New Brunswick's size Slightly less than twice Scotland's size Slightly larger than Arkansas Land boundaries Total: 2,926 km Border countries: China 1,236 km, India 1,690 km Coastline 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims None (landlocked) Elevation extremes Lowest point: Kanchan Kalan 70 m Highest point: Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) 8,848 m Resources and land use Natural resources Quartz, water, timber, hydropower, scenic beauty, small deposits of lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore Land use Arable land: 21.68% Permanent crops: 0.64% Other: 77.68% (2001) Irrigated land 11,350 km² (1998 est.) Forests 25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about 36,360 km² (14,039 mi²) is covered with forest according to FAO figures from 2005. FAO estimates that around 9.6% of Nepal's forest cover consists of "primary forest" which is relatively intact. About 12.1% Nepal's forest is classified as "protected" while about 21.4% is "conserved" according to FAO. About 5.1% Nepal's forests are classified as "production forest." Between 2000-2005, Nepal lost about 2640 km² of forest. Nepal's 2000-2005 total deforestation rate was about 1.4% per year meaning it lost an average of 530 km² of forest annually. Nepal's total deforestation rate from 1990-2000 was 920 km² or 2.1% per year. The 2000-2005 true deforestation rate in Nepal, defined as the loss of primary forest, is -0.4% or 70 km² per year. FAO Forestry Department Nepal Country Page Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation Nepal Forestry Information in Nepal Environmental concerns Natural hazards Severe thunderstorms, flooding, landslides, drought, and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons Environment - current issues Deforestation (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions Environment - international agreements Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands Signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation Geography - note Landlocked; strategic location between China and India; contains eight of world's 10 highest peaks References See also Nepal List of mountains in Nepal 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6,841 | Empire_State_Building | The Empire State Building is a 102-story Art Deco skyscraper in New York City at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street. Its name is derived from the nickname for the state of New York. It stood as the world's tallest building for more than forty years, from its completion in 1931 until construction of the World Trade Center's North Tower was completed in 1972. Following the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001, the Empire State Building once again became the tallest building in New York City and New York State. The Empire State Building has been named by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate. White, Norval & Willensky, Elliot; AIA Guide to New York City, 4th Edition; New York Chapter, American Institute of Architects; Crown Publishers. 2000. p.226. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it was ranked number one on the List of America's Favorite Architecture according to the AIA. The building is owned and managed by W&H Properties. W&H Properties – Empire State Building The Empire State Building is the second tallest skyscraper in the Americas (surpassed only by Chicago's Sears Tower) and the 5th tallest in the World. It is also the 4th tallest freestanding structure in the Americas and the 5th tallest in the world. History The present site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thomson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. The block was occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in the late 19th century, and was frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York. Design and construction The Empire State Building was designed by Gregory Johnson and his architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs, for the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio, as a basis. Reynolds Building. Retrieved November 15, 2008. Cincinnati Skyscrapers, Waymarketing.com The building was actually designed from the top down. "Thirteen Months to Go", Geraldine B. Wagner, 2003, Quintet Publishing Ltd., pg. 32 The general contractors were The Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York. A worker bolts beams during construction; the Chrysler Building can be seen in the background. Excavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started symbolically on March 17—St.Patrick's Day—per Al Smith's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction. about.com – Empire State Building Trivia and Cool Facts Governor Smith's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of the world's tallest building. Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signalling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932. Tower Lights History Retrieved 2007-12-16 Opening The building's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space went unrented. The building's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal, the Port Authority Bus Terminal, and Penn Station are all several blocks away. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, do not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building". NYT Travel: Empire State Building "A Renters' Market in London." August 18, 2008. The building would not become profitable until 1950. The famous 1951 sale of The Empire State Building to Roger L. Stevens and his business partners was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real-estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for a record $51 million. At the time, that was the highest price ever paid for a single structure in real-estate history. —New York: A Documentary Film. Imelda Marcos, wife of Philippines ex-president Ferdinand Marcos, was offered the property in the 1980s when the couple decided to buy New York real estate. She rejected it at $750 million on account of its being "too ostentatious". Dirigible (airship) terminal The building's distinctive Art Deco spire was originally designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles. The 102nd floor was originally a landing platform with a dirigible gangplank. A particular elevator, traveling between the 86th and 102nd floors, was supposed to transport passengers after they checked in at the observation deck on the 86th floor. However, the idea proved to be impractical and dangerous after a few attempts with airships, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the size of the building itself. A large broadcast tower was added to the top of the spire in 1953. 1945 plane crash Crash by a U.S. Army B-25 bomber on July 28, 1945 At 9:40 a.m. on Saturday, July 28, 1945, a B-25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. 14 people were killed in the incident. "Empire State Building Withstood Airplane Impact" "Plane Hits Building – Woman Survives 75-Story Fall" Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded. guinnessworldrecords.com Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long-pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the accident. Height Records and Comparisons The Empire State Building remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free-standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967. The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 41 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1972. With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the third-tallest building in the Americas, currently surpassed only by the Sears Tower and the Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago. When measured by pinnacle height, the Empire State Building is currently the fifth tallest freestanding structure in the Americas, surpassed only by the CN Tower, the Sears Tower, Trump International Hotel and Tower and the John Hancock Center. When measured to its pinnacle height (including the Antenna), the John Hancock Center is approximately 28 ft (8.5 m) taller than the pinnacle of the Empire State Building, although its highest habitable floor, roof and structural height are lower. 1 World Trade Center, currently under construction in New York City, is expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion. The Chicago Spire is also expected to exceed the height of the Empire State Building upon completion, but its construction has been halted due to financial problems. Suicides Over the years, more than thirty people have committed suicide from the top of the building. iht.com The first suicide occurred even before its completion, by a worker who had been laid off. The fence around the observatory terrace was put up in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three-week span. Compass American Guides: Manhattan, 4th Edition. Reavill, Gil and Zimmerman, Jean P. 160. In 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto the 85th floor and left with only a broken hip. The building was also the site of suicides in 2004 and 2006. The most recent suicide was by a lawyer who leapt from the 69th floor on Friday, April 13, 2007. New York Daily News Architecture Street level view of the Empire State Building The Empire State Building rises to at the 102nd floor, and including the pinnacle, its full height reaches (443.09 m). The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing . It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd-floor observatory. Atop the tower is the pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top. The Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 102nd floor. It has a total floor area of ; the base of the Empire State Building is about . The building houses 1,000 businesses, and has its own zip code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second-largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. The building was completed in one year and 45 days. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 86th floor, where an observation deck is located. The building has of pipe, of electrical wire, Empire State Building: Official Internet Site and about 9,000 faucets. It is heated by low-pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately . The exterior of the building was built using Indiana limestone panels. The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build. A series of setbacks causes the building to taper with height. Unlike most of today's skyscrapers, the Empire State Building features an art deco design, typical of pre-World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators. The lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contains eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963, depicting the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven. Long-term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building's electrical system. Floodlights Empire State Building - A Night View from GE Building with red and green lights for Christmas Normal white lighting In 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night, in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick's Day and Christmas. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname "Ol' Blue Eyes". After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes. thevillager.com The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. esbnyc.com Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The building is illuminated in tennis-ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September. It was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game on November 9, 2006, and again on April 3, 2007 when the women's basketball team played in the national championship game. espn.com In 1995, the building was lit up in blue, red, green and yellow for the release of Microsoft's Windows 95 operating system, which was launched with a $300 million campaign. Washington Post The building has also been known to be illuminated in purple and white in honor of graduating students from New York University. The building was lit green for three days in honor of the Islamic holiday of Eid ul-Fitr in October 2007. The lighting, the first for a Muslim holiday, is intended to be an annual event Empire State Building Goes Green for Muslim Holiday and was repeated in 2008. And in December 2007, the building was lit yellow to signify the home video release of The Simpsons Movie. Empire State adorns yellow to celebrate The Simpsons Movie From April 25—27, 2008 the building was lit in lavender, pink, and white in celebration of international pop diva Mariah Carey's accomplishments in the world of music and the release of her eleventh studio album E=MC2. In late October 2008, the building was lit green in honor of the fifth anniversary of the acclaimed Broadway Musical Wicked by Kerry Ellis and Stephen Schwartz. http://www.broadway.com/Empire-State-Building-Goes-Green-for-Wicked-Birthday-Final-Yellow-Brick-Road-Cast-Announced/broadway_news/5013909 Observation decks The Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th-floor observation deck offers impressive 360-degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high-traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. https://www.esbnyc.com/tickets/index.cfm?CFID=28691766&CFTOKEN=35278567 The lines to enter the observation decks, according to the building's website, are "as legendary as the building itself." For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line. New York Skyride View from Macy's The Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction, located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Skyride (or NY Skyride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The theatrical presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes. Since its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, [[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek'''s]] Scotty, as the airplane's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After September 11th, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9/11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original. Broadcast stations New York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, nearly all of the city's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Condé Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from just across the Hudson River in New Jersey. Communications devices for broadcast stations are located at the top of the Empire State Building. Broadcasting began at Empire on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, and—in 1934—RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the Empire antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4). NBC's FM station (WEAF-FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the Empire until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York television stations to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began. Other television broadcasters then joined RCA at Empire, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas were constructed ringing the 102nd floor observation area. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms in order to accommodate the stations moving back uptown. As of 2007, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations: TV: WCBS-TV 2, WNBC-TV 4, WNYW 5, WABC-TV 7, WWOR-TV 9 Secaucus, WPIX-TV 11, WNET 13 Newark, WNYE-TV 25, WPXN-TV 31, WXTV 41 Paterson, WNJU 47 Linden, and WFUT-TV 68 Newark FM: WXRK 92.3, WPAT-FM 93.1 Paterson, WNYC-FM 93.9, WPLJ 95.5, WPTX 95.9, WQXR-FM 96.3, WQHT-FM 97.1, WSKQ-FM 97.9, WRKS-FM 98.7, WBAI 99.5, WHTZ 100.3 Newark, WCBS-FM 101.1, WRXP 101.9, WWFS 102.7, WKTU 103.5 Lake Success, WAXQ 104.3, WWPR-FM 105.1, WCAA 105.9 Newark, WLTW 106.7, and WBLS 107.5 Empire State Building Run-Up The Empire State Building Run-Up is a foot race from ground level to the 86th-floor observation deck that has been held annually since 1978. Its participants are referred to both as runners and as climbers, and are often tower running enthusiasts. The race covers a vertical distance of 1,050 feet (320 m) and takes in 1,576 steps. The record time is 9 minutes and 33 seconds, achieved by Australian professional cyclist Paul Crake in 2003, NYRR Empire State Building Run-Up Crowns Dold and Walsham as Champions, New York Road Runners Empire State Building – Past Race Winners at a climbing rate of 6,593 ft (2,010 m) per hour. Tenants Notable tenants of the building include: Alitalia, Suite 3700 "Foreigners flocking to 350 Fifth Avenue." Real Estate Weekly. June 30, 2004. "FAQ." Alitalia (United States website). Retrieved September 4, 2008. "Claims and Suggestions." Alitalia (United States website). Retrieved September 4, 2008. Croatian National Tourist Board, Suite 4003 Home page. Croatian National Tourist Board. Retrieved September 4, 2008. Filipino Reporter, Suite 601 "Contact." Filipino Reporter. Retrieved September 4, 2008. Human Rights Watch, 34th Floor "Contact." Human Rights Watch. Retrieved September 4, 2008. Polish Cultural Institute in New York, Suite 4621 Home Page. Polish Cultural Institute in New York. Retrieved September 4, 2008. Senegal Tourist Office, Suite 3118 "Information." Senegal Tourist Office. Retrieved September 4, 2008. TAROM, Suite 1410<ref>"Travel Agencies for plane tickets to Romania." Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved September 4, 2008.</ref> The King's College, Suite 1500 Former tenants include: China National Tourist Office (now located at 370 Lexington Avenue) "Contact Us." China National Tourist Office. Retrieved September 4, 2008. National Film Board of Canada (now located at 1123 Broadway) "Contact us." National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved September 4, 2008. Nathaniel Branden Institute In Answer to Ayn Rand by Nathaniel Branden at his ex-wife's website Gallery References Further reading Aaseng, Nathan. (1999). Construction: Building the Impossible. Minneapolis, MN: Oliver Press. ISBN 1-881-50859-5. Bascomb, Neal. (2003). Higher: A Historic Race to the Sky and the Making of a City. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50660-0. Goldman, Jonathan. (1980). The Empire State Building Book. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-24455-X. James, Theodore, Jr. (1975). The Empire State Building. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-060-12172-6. Kingwell, Mark. (2006). Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10622-X. Macaulay, David. (1980). Unbuilding. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-29457-6. Pacelle, Mitchell. (2001). Empire: A Tale of Obsession, Betrayal, and the Battle for an American Icon. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-40394-6. Tauranac, John. (1995). The Empire State Building: The Making of a Landmark. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-19678-6. Wagner, Geraldine B. (2003). Thirteen Months to Go: The Creation of the Empire State Building. San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 1-592-23105-5. Willis, Carol (ed). (1998). Building the Empire State. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-73030-1. See also World's tallest free standing structure on land History of tallest skyscrapers List of skyscrapers List of tallest buildings by U.S. state External links Empire State Building, official Web site Commercial Construction.com Lighting Schedule Empire State Building Trivia Empire State Building Information The Construction of the Empire State Building, 1930-1931, New York Public Library VIVA2, The Skyscraper Museum's online archive of over 500 construction photographs of the Empire State Building. |- |- | Empire_State_Building |@lemmatized empire:61 state:65 building:108 story:7 art:4 deco:4 skyscraper:10 new:43 york:37 city:13 intersection:1 fifth:4 avenue:3 west:1 street:7 name:2 derive:1 nickname:2 stand:3 world:24 tallest:5 forty:1 year:10 completion:5 construction:16 trade:10 center:12 north:5 tower:19 complete:4 follow:1 destruction:4 become:5 tall:11 american:5 society:1 civil:1 engineer:1 one:7 seven:3 wonder:2 modern:1 floor:29 interior:1 designate:2 landmark:3 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6,842 | Elvis_Costello | Elvis Costello (born Declan Patrick MacManus, 25 August 1954) is an English singer-songwriter. He came to prominence as an early participant in London's pub rock scene in the mid-1970s, and later became associated with the punk rock and New Wave musical genres, before establishing his own unique voice in the 1980s. Steeped in wordplay, the vocabulary of Costello's lyrics is broader than that of most popular songs. His work has drawn on many diverse musical genres; critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote, "Costello, the pop encyclopedia, can reinvent the past in his own image". Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Get Happy!! [Ryko Bonus Tracks], Allmusic. Accessed 17 September 2007. Biography Costello was born Declan Patrick MacManus His full given name is often listed as Declan Patrick Aloysius MacManus; however, Aloysius was not one of his names at birth, being added years later, around the time of the release of King of America (typically, it was a tongue-in-cheek gesture, Aloysius being one of the middle names of the character played by doomed English comic Tony Hancock in Hancock's Half Hour). At that time he also toyed with the idea of dropping his stage name Elvis Costello, in favour of performing under his real name Declan MacManus. in St Mary's Hospital, Paddington in London, the son of Mary Ablett the daughter of James and Mary Ablett(née Mutch) and Ross MacManus, a musician and bandleader. Elvis Costello Biography (1954-) He is of Irish heritage. Interview with Elvis Costello Costello lived in Twickenham, attending what is now St Mark's Catholic Secondary School in neighbouring Hounslow. Paul Inglis, "The Rise And Rise Of Elvis Costello", The Elvis Costello Home Page. Accessed 17 September 2007. With a musically inclined father (his father sang with The Joe Loss Orchestra), Costello's first broadcast recording was alongside his dad in a television commercial for R. White's Lemonade ("I'm a Secret Lemonade Drinker"). His father wrote and sang the song; Costello provided backing vocals. The ad won a silver award at the 1974 International Advertising Festival. Costello moved with his Liverpool-born mother to Birkenhead in 1971. It was there that he formed his first band, a folk duo called Rusty with Allan Mayes. After completing secondary school at St. Francis Xavier's College, he moved back to London where he next formed a band called Flip City, Flip City -- the True Story , Flip City website. Accessed 17 September 2007. which had a style very much in the pub rock vein. They were active from 1974 through early 1976. Around this time, Costello adopted the stage name D.P. Costello. His father had performed under the name Day Costello, and Elvis has said in interviews that he took this name as a tribute to his father. To support himself, he worked a number of office jobs, most famously at the Elizabeth Arden cosmetics firm – immortalised in the lyrics of "I'm Not Angry" as the "vanity factory" – where he worked as a data entry clerk. He worked for a short period as a computer operator at the Midland Bank computer centre in Bootle, Liverpool. He continued to write songs, and began actively looking for a solo recording contract. On the basis of a demo tape, he was signed to noted independent label Stiff Records. His manager at Stiff, Jake Riviera, suggested a name change, combining Elvis Presley's first name and Costello, his paternal grandmother's maiden name. Elvis Costello, interview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air from WHYY, National Public Radio, WHYY-FM, Philadelphia, 28 February 1989 (rebroadcast 14 September 2007). Accessed 16 September 2007. 1970s Costello was initially marketed as a punk artist when he first began releasing records in 1977. In fact, he was one of a number of emerging acts who fused punk's anger and energy with a much greater musical scope and sophistication, and to whom the term New Wave was soon applied. Costello's first single for Stiff was "Less Than Zero" b/w "Radio Sweetheart", released on 25 March 1977. Two months later, his debut album, My Aim Is True (1977), was released to reasonable commercial success (No. 14 in the UK and, later, Top 40 in the US) with Costello appearing on the cover in what became his trademark oversize glasses, bearing a striking resemblance to a menacing Buddy Holly. A highlight of the album was the country-influenced ballad "Alison", featuring an enigmatic yet typically biting Costello lyric. Stiff's records were initially distributed only in the UK, which meant that Costello's first album and singles were initially available in the US as imports only. In an attempt to change this, Costello was arrested for busking outside a London convention of CBS Records executives, "protesting" that no US record company had yet seen fit to release Elvis Costello records in the United States. Costello signed to CBS' Columbia Records label in the US a few months later. Costello's backing on the debut album was provided by American West Coast band Clover, a roots/country outfit living in England whose members would later go on to join Huey Lewis and the News and The Doobie Brothers. Later in 1977, Costello formed his own permanent backing band, The Attractions, consisting of Steve Nieve (born Steve Nason; piano), Bruce Thomas (bass guitar), and Pete Thomas (drums; unrelated to Bruce Thomas). He released his first major hit single, "Watching the Detectives", which was recorded with Nieve and the pair of Steve Goulding (drums) and Andrew Bodnar (bass), both members of Graham Parker's backing band The Rumour (whom he had used to audition for The Attractions). Elvis Costello, Cardiff, 1979 On December 17, 1977, Costello and The Attractions appeared as the musical guest act on the episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Miskel Spillman (an elderly woman who won SNL'''s "Anybody Can Host" contest, where an ordinary person gets chosen to host an episode of Saturday Night Live) as a last minute fill-in for the Sex Pistols, but Costello ended up causing some controversy himself. He did not appear on the show again until 1989. Following a whirlwind tour with other Stiff artists (captured on the Live Stiffs album, notable for Costello's recording of the Burt Bacharach/Hal David standard "I Just Don't Know What to Do With Myself") the band recorded the frenetic, raucous This Year's Model (1978). Some of the more popular tracks include the British hit "(I Don't Want To Go To) Chelsea" and the subversively anthemic "Pump It Up". His U.S. record company saw Costello as such a priority that his last name replaced the word "Columbia" on the label of the disc's original pressing. A tour of the U.S. and Canada also saw the release of the much bootlegged Canadian promo-only "Live at the El Mocambo", recorded at a Toronto rock club, which finally saw an official release as part of the 2 1/2 Years box set in 1993. It was during the ensuing United States tour that Costello met and developed a relationship with former Playboy model, Bebe Buell (mother of Liv Tyler). Their on-again-off-again courtship would last until 1984 and would allegedly become a deep well of inspiration for some of Costello's most lovelorn songs. 1979 would arguably see the peak of Costello's commercial success with the release of Armed Forces (originally to have been titled 'Emotional Fascism', a phrase that appeared on the LP's inner sleeve). Both the album and the single "Oliver's Army" went to #2 in the UK. Costello also found time in 1979 to produce the debut album for 2 Tone ska revival band, The Specials. Costello's standing in the U.S. was bruised for a time when in March 1979, during a drunken argument with Stephen Stills and Bonnie Bramlett in a Columbus, Ohio Holiday Inn hotel bar, the singer referred to James Brown as a "jive-ass nigger", then upped the ante by pronouncing Ray Charles a "blind, ignorant nigger". Greil Marcus, "Elvis Costello Explains Himself", Rolling Stone, 2 September 1982. Accessed 17 September 2007. http://sweepingthenation.blogspot.com/2007/06/illustrated-guide-to-elvis-costello.html A contrite Costello apologised at a New York City press conference a few days later, claiming that he had been drunk and had been attempting to be obnoxious in order to bring the conversation to a swift conclusion, not anticipating that Bramlett would bring his comments to the press. According to Costello, "it became necessary for me to outrage these people with about the most obnoxious and offensive remarks that I could muster." In his liner notes for the expanded version of Get Happy!!, Costello writes that some time after the incident he had declined an offer to meet Charles out of guilt and embarrassment, though Charles himself had forgiven Costello ("Drunken talk isn't meant to be printed in the paper"). In a Rolling Stone interview with Greil Marcus, he recounts an incident when Bruce Thomas was introduced to Michael Jackson as Costello's bass player and Jackson said, "I don't dig that guy...". Costello worked extensively in Britain's Rock Against Racism campaign both before and after this and also produced the debut album of The Specials whose multi-racial line-up was a very public statement about integration. This incident inspired his Get Happy!! song "Riot Act". ELVIS COSTELLO - RIOT ACT / DON'T LET ME BE MISUNDERSTOOD, More Things website. Accessed 17 September 2007. 1980s The soul-infused Get Happy!! would be the first, and—along with King of America—possibly most successful, of Costello's many experiments with genres beyond those he is normally associated with. The single, "I Can't Stand Up For Falling Down" was an old Sam and Dave song (though Costello increased the tempo considerably). The brevity of the songs (20 tracks in under 50 minutes) suited the band's new style (the Thomas' typically melodic rhythm section and Nieve's reasonable impersonation of Booker T. Jones) as well as the frantic and alcohol-fuelled conditions under which it was written and recorded. Lyrically, the songs are full of Costello's signature wordplay, to the point that he later felt he had become something of a self-parody and toned it down on later releases. He has mockingly described himself in interviews as "rock and roll's Scrabble champion." The only 1980 appearance in North America was at the Heatwave festival in August near Toronto. 1981's Trust, despite its eclecticism ("Different Finger" had a distinct country feel) had a more pop sound than Get Happy!! Still, overall the album was clearly affected by the growing tensions within the band, particularly between Bruce and Pete Thomas. In the U.S., the single "Watch Your Step" was released and played live on Tom Snyder's Tomorrow show, and received airplay on FM rock radio. In the UK, the single "Clubland" scraped the lower reaches of the charts; follow-up single "From A Whisper To A Scream" (a duet with Glenn Tilbrook of Squeeze) became the first Costello single in over 4 years to completely miss the charts. Following Trust, Costello released Almost Blue, an album of country music cover songs written by the likes of Hank Williams ("Why Don't You Love Me (Like You Used To Do?)"), Merle Haggard ("Tonight The Bottle Let Me Down") and Gram Parsons ("How Much I Lied"). The album was a tribute to the country music he had grown up listening to, especially George Jones. Some avid fans dismissed the album because it was inconsistent with earlier recordings. It was not a country-rock album (a la The Byrds or Eagles), which might have been more palatable to his established audience and to reviewers, but rather an undiluted country album. It received mixed reviews, some of which accused Costello of growing soft. Perhaps in anticipation of the inevitable accusations of apostasy, the first pressings of the record in the UK bore a sticker with the message: "WARNING: This album contains country & western music and may cause offence to narrow minded listeners". Almost Blue did spawn a surprise UK hit single in a version of George Jones's "Good Year For The Roses" (written by Jerry Chesnut), which reached #6.Imperial Bedroom (1982) marked a much darker, almost baroque sound for Costello, due in part to the production of Geoff Emerick, famed for engineering several Beatles records. Imperial Bedroom remains one of his most critically acclaimed records, but again failed to produce any hit singles. Costello has said he disliked the marketing pitch for the album, weak ads consisting only of the phrase "Masterpiece?". Imperial Bedroom also featured Costello's song "Almost Blue"; jazz singer and trumpeter Chet Baker would later perform and record a version of this song. 1983 saw another sidetrack with the pop-soul of Punch the Clock, featuring female backing vocals (Afrodiziak) and a four-piece horn section (The TKO Horns), alongside The Attractions. Clive Langer (who co-produced with Alan Winstanley), provided Costello with a melody which eventually became "Shipbuilding", an oblique look at the political contradictions of the Falklands War: the controversial military build-up provided jobs for Britain's struggling shipyards. The song featured a trumpet solo by Chet Baker. Prior to the release of Costello's own version, a version of the song was a minor UK hit for former Soft Machine drummer and political activist Robert Wyatt. Equally political was "Pills And Soap" — a UK hit for Costello himself under the pseudonym of "The Imposter" — an attack on the changes in British society brought on by Thatcherism, released to coincide with the run-up to the 1983 UK general election. (The electorate was seemingly unswayed). Punch the Clock also generated an international hit in the single "Everyday I Write the Book", aided by a prophetic music video featuring lookalikes of the Prince and Princess of Wales undergoing domestic strife in a suburban home. The song became Costello's first Top 40 hit single in the U.S. Also in the same year, Costello provided vocals on a version of the Madness song "Tomorrow's Just Another Day" released as a B-side on the single of the same name. Tensions within the band were beginning to tell, and Costello announced his retirement and the disbandment of the group shortly before they were to record Goodbye Cruel World (1984). Costello would later say of this record that they had "got it as wrong as you can in terms of the execution". The record was poorly received upon its initial release, and even many ardent Costello fans see Goodbye as his weakest album (the liner notes to the 1995 Rykodisc re-release, penned by Costello, begin with the words "Congratulations!, you've just purchased our worst album"). Costello's retirement, although short-lived, was accompanied by two compilations, Elvis Costello: The Man in the UK, Europe and Australia, and The Best of Elvis Costello & The Attractions in the U.S. In 1985, he appeared in the Live Aid benefit concert in England, singing the Beatles' "All You Need is Love" as a solo artist. (The event was overrunning and Costello was asked to "ditch the band"). Costello introduced the song as an old northern folk song, and the audience was invited to sing the chorus. In the same year Costello teamed up with friend T-Bone Burnett for a single called "The People's Limousine" under the moniker of The Coward Brothers. That year, Costello also produced Rum, Sodomy, and the Lash for the Irish punk/folk band The Pogues. It was then that he met his second wife, Pogues bassist Cait O'Riordan. By 1986, Costello was preparing to make a comeback. Working in the U.S. with Burnett, a band containing a number of Elvis Presley's sidemen (including James Burton and Jerry Scheff), and minor input from the Attractions, he produced King of America an acoustic-guitar-driven album with a country sound. Around this time he legally changed his name back to Declan MacManus, adding Aloysius as an extra middle name. The Attractions felt understandably insecure about the ease with which they could be dropped considering their boss had cut a new album largely without them, and was planning to undertake a major tour showcasing the King of America material with his new musical partners. To allay their fears, Costello retooled his upcoming tour to allow for multiple nights in each city; playing one night with The Confederates (James Burton et al.), one night with The Attractions, and one night solo acoustic. In May 1986, Costello performed at Self Aid, a benefit concert held in Dublin that focused on the problem of chronic unemployment which was widespread in Ireland at that time. Later that year, he returned to the studio with the Attractions and recorded Blood and Chocolate, which was lauded for a post-punk fervour not heard since 1978's This Year's Model. It also marked the return of producer Nick Lowe, who had produced Costello's first five albums. While Blood and Chocolate failed to chart a hit single of any significance, it did produce what has since become one of Costello's signature concert songs – "I Want You". It is on this album that Costello adopted the alias "Napoleon Dynamite", the name he later attributed to the character of the emcee that he played during the vaudeville-style tour to support Blood and Chocolate. (The pseudonym had previously been used in 1982, when the B-side single "Imperial Bedroom" was credited to 'Napoleon Dynamite & The Royal Guard', and was later appropriated by the 2004 film Napoleon Dynamite, which does not have anything to do with Costello). In 1989, Costello, with a new contract with Warner Bros., released Spike, which spawned his biggest single in America, the Top Twenty hit "Veronica", one of several songs Costello co-wrote with Paul McCartney in that timeframe (see "Collaborations" section below). 1990s In 1991, having grown a long beard, Costello released Mighty Like a Rose, which featured the single "The Other Side of Summer". He also found time to co-compose and co-produce, with Richard Harvey, the title and incidental music for the mini-series G.B.H. by Alan Bleasdale. This entirely instrumental, and largely orchestral soundtrack garnered a BAFTA, for 'Best Music for a TV Series' for the pair. In 1993, Costello tested the classical music waters with a critically acclaimed collaboration with the Brodsky Quartet 1993 Review of "The Juliet Letters" by Bradley Smith, accessed May 2009 on The Juliet Letters. Costello returned to rock and roll the following year with a project that reunited him with The Attractions, Brutal Youth. In 1995, Costello released Kojak Variety, an album of cover songs recorded 5 years earlier, and followed in 1996 with an album of songs originally written for other artists, All This Useless Beauty. This was the final album of original material that he issued under his Warner Bros. contract. In the spring of 1996, Costello played a series of intimate club dates, backed only by Nieve on the piano, in support of All This Useless Beauty. An ensuing summer and fall tour with the Attractions proved to be the death knell for the band. With relations between Costello and bassist Bruce Thomas at a breaking point, Costello announced that the current tour would be the Attractions' last. The quartet performed their final U.S. show in Seattle, Washington on 1 September 1996, before wrapping up their tour in Japan. To fulfill his contractual obligations to Warner Bros., Costello released a greatest hits album titled Extreme Honey (1997). It contained an original track titled "The Bridge I Burned", featuring Costello's son, Matt, on bass. In the intervening period, Costello also served as artistic chair for the 1995 Meltdown Festival, which gave him the opportunity to explore his increasingly eclectic musical interests. His involvement in the festival yielded a one-off live EP with jazz guitarist Bill Frisell, which featured both cover material and a few of his own songs. In 1998, Costello signed a unique multi-label contract with Polygram Records, sold by its parent company the same year to become part of the Universal Music Group. Costello released his new work on what he deemed the suitable imprimatur within the family of labels. His first new release as part of this contract involved a collaboration with Burt Bacharach. Their work had commenced earlier, in 1996, on a song called "God Give Me Strength" for the movie Grace of My Heart. This led the pair to write and record Painted From Memory, released under his new contract in 1998, on the Mercury Records label. They also recorded an updated version of Bacharach's song "I'll Never Fall in Love Again" for the soundtrack to Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me, with both appearing in the film to perform the song. He also wrote "I Throw My Toys Around" for The Rugrats Movie and performed it with No Doubt. 1998 also brought a collaboration with Paddy Moloney (The Chieftains) on "The Long Journey Home" on the soundtrack of the PBS/Disney mini-series of the same name. The soundtrack was a Grammy winner that year. In 1999, Costello contributed a version of "She", released in 1974 by Charles Aznavour and Herbert Kretzmer, for the soundtrack of the film Notting Hill, with Trevor Jones producing. For the 25th anniversary of Saturday Night Live, Costello was invited to the program, where he re-enacted his abrupt song-switch: This time, however, he interrupted the Beastie Boys' "Sabotage", and they acted as his backing group for "Radio Radio." 2000 to present Costello performing with The Imposters in 2005. In 2000 Costello appeared at the Town Hall Theatre, New York, in Steve Nieve's opera Welcome to the Voice, alongside Ron Sexsmith and John Flansburgh of They Might Be Giants. In 2001, Costello was announced as the featured "artist in residence" at UCLA (although he ended up making fewer appearances than expected) and wrote the music for a new ballet. He produced and appeared on an album of pop songs for opera singer, Anne Sofie von Otter. In 2002 he released a new album, When I Was Cruel, on Island Records, and toured with a new band, the Imposters (essentially the Attractions but with a different bass player, Davey Faragher, formerly of Cracker). On 23 February 2003, Costello, along with Bruce Springsteen, Steve Van Zandt, and Dave Grohl performed a version of The Clash's "London Calling" at the 45th Grammy Awards ceremony, in honor of Clash frontman Joe Strummer, who had died in December of the previous year. In March 2003, Elvis Costello & The Attractions were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In May, his engagement to Canadian jazz singer and pianist Diana Krall was announced. September saw the release of North, an album of piano-based ballads concerning the breakdown of his former marriage, and his falling in love with singer Diana Krall. In 2004, the song "Scarlet Tide" (co-written by Costello and T-Bone Burnett and used in the film Cold Mountain) was nominated for an Academy Award; he performed it at the awards ceremony with Alison Krauss, who also sang the song on the official soundtrack. Costello co-wrote many songs on Krall's 2004 CD, The Girl in the Other Room, the first of hers to feature several original compositions. In July 2004 Costello's first full-scale orchestral work, Il Sogno, was performed in New York. The work, a ballet after Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, was commissioned by Italian dance troupe Aterballeto, and received critical acclaim from the classical music critics, while being scorned by the popular music press. Costello's hand prints on the European Walk of Fame, Rotterdam While composing it, Costello deliberately avoided listening to the previous interpretations by Mendelssohn and Britten in order to ensure his own originality. A range of musical moods and styles are used to represent the different elements of the cast—satirical pomp for the courtiers, jazz for the faeries, and for Bottom a deliberately intrusive brass band motif. Performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas, the recording was released on CD in September by Deutsche Grammophon. Costello released another album that same month: The Delivery Man, recorded in Oxford, Mississippi, and released on Lost Highway Records. Mainly blues, country, and folk, The Delivery Man received early acclaim as one of Costello's best albums, and continues Costello's personal quest to release an album on each of Universal's record labels. In July 2005, a CD recording of a collaboration with Marian McPartland on her show Piano Jazz was released. It featured Costello singing six jazz standards and two of his own songs, accompanied by McPartland on piano. In November 2005 Costello started recording a new album with Allen Toussaint and producer Joe Henry. The River in Reverse was released in the UK on the Verve label on 29 May 2006. In 2006 the studio recording of Nieve's opera Welcome to the Voice, for Deutsche Grammophon, Costello interpreted the character of Chief of Police, with Barbara Bonney, Robert Wyatt, Sting and Amanda Roocroft. Also released in 2006 was a live recording of a concert with the Metropole Orkest at the North Sea Jazz Festival, entitled My Flame Burns Blue. In 2007 Nieve's opera Welcome to the Voice was released on CD by Deutsche Grammophon, reaching #2 in the Billboard classical charts. The soundtrack for House M.D. featured Elvis Costello's interpretation of "Beautiful" by Christina Aguilera, as well as appearing in the second episode of Series 2. Costello has been commissioned to write a chamber opera by the Danish Royal Opera, Copenhagen, on the subject of Hans Christian Andersen's infatuation with Swedish soprano Jenny Lind, called The Secret Songs. Some of the songs were previewed on the Opera's main stage in October 2005. However, since Costello has repeatedly missed deadlines, plans have been changed: extracts from the projected opera will be interspersed with songs from The Juliet Letters for performance in the Opera's studio theatre (Takelloftet) in March 2007. It will be directed by Kasper Bech Holten and will feature Danish soprano Sine Bundgaard as Lind. On 6 May 2008, Fender Musical Instruments released Elvis Costello Jazzmaster, an exact representation of the late 1960s heavily modified Fender Jazzmaster guitar he had used to record his first 1977 album, My Aim Is True, honouring one of the most recognised Jazzmaster players. Uniquely Costello inspired features include a post 1968 neck design, a walnut stain finish and a tremolo with easier and greater travel, essential for that "Watching the Detectives" tone, or what Costello called that 'spy movie' sound. This signature release comes during the 50th anniversary of Fender's introduction of the Jazzmaster guitar, which first appeared in 1958. On 22 April 2008, Momofuku was released on Lost Highway Records, the same imprint that released his last studio album, The Delivery Man. The album was, at least initially, released exclusively on vinyl (with a code to download a digital copy of the album). That summer, in support of the album, Costello toured with The Police on the final leg of their 2007/2008 Reunion Tour. On 5 February 2008 it was announced Costello would play a homecoming gig at the Liverpool Philharmonic Hall on 25 June. Elvis Costello Show at the Phil On 28 June 2008, Costello gave his first performance in Poland, appearing with the Imposters for the closing gig of the Malta theatre festival in Poznań. In July 2008, Costello (as Declan McManus) was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Music from the University of Liverpool. In November 2008, Costello was the Chief of Police in Welcome to the Voice on the stage of the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, with Sting, Joe Sumner of Fiction Plane (Sting's son) and Sylvia Schwartz. Costello is the host for a Sundance Channel series entitled Spectacle in which Costello will talk and perform with stars in various fields. It airs on Wednesdays, beginning 3 December 2008. Sundancechannel.com, Series' homepage, 15 November, 2008 Costello was featured on Fall Out Boy's 2008 album Folie à Deux, providing vocals on the track "What a Catch, Donnie", along with other artists who are friends with the band. Costello appeared in Stephen Colbert's television special A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All; in the program, he was eaten by a bear, but later saved by Santa Claus. The special was first aired on November 23, 2008. http://ccinsider.comedycentral.com/cc_insider/2008/11/a-colbert-christmas-premieres-sunday.html In March 2009, it was announced that Costello would release a new Album, The Secret, The Profane, and the Sugarcane on June 9. The album is a collaboration with T-Bone Burnett, and will be his first for Starbuck's Hear label. Personal life Costello has been married three times. In 1974, MacManus married Mary Burgoyne. The couple had a son, Matthew, and divorced in 1984. In 1986, Costello married Cait O'Riordan, then bassist for the band The Pogues. The couple split at the end of 2002. Costello became engaged to singer Diana Krall in May 2003. In December, Costello and Krall married at the London estate of Sir Elton John. Their twin sons Dexter Henry Lorcan and Frank Harlan James were born 6 December 2006 in New York City. Collaborations In addition to his major recorded collaborations with Bacharach, the Brodsky Quartet, and von Otter, Costello has frequently been involved in other collaborations. In 1987, Costello began a long-running songwriting collaboration with Paul McCartney. They wrote a number of songs together, including: "Back On My Feet", the B-side of McCartney's 1987 single "Once Upon A Long Ago", later added as a bonus track on the 1993 re-issue of McCartney's Flowers in the Dirt Costello's "Veronica" and "Pads, Paws and Claws" from Spike (1989) "So Like Candy" and "Playboy to a Man" from Mighty Like a Rose (1991) McCartney's "My Brave Face", "Don't Be Careless Love", "That Day Is Done" and "You Want Her Too" from Flowers in the Dirt (1989) "The Lovers That Never Were" and "Mistress and Maid" from Off the Ground (1993). "Shallow Grave" from All This Useless Beauty (1996). Costello talked about their collaboration: When we sat down together he wouldn't have any sloppy bits in there (meaning the songs). That was interesting. The ironic part is, if it sounds like he wrote it, I probably did and vice versa. He wanted to do all the ones with lots of words and all on one note, and I'm the one trying to work in the "Please Please Me" harmony all over the place. In 1987, he appeared on the HBO special Roy Orbison and Friends, A Black and White Night, which featured his long-time idol Roy Orbison, and was invited back to Saturday Night Live for the first time since 1977. "Pump It Up", one of Costello's songs, appears on Rock Band 2. In 1988 Costello co-wrote At the Other End (of the Telescope) with Aimee Mann; this song appears on the Til Tuesday album "Everything's Different Now" In 2005 Costello performed with Green Day frontman Billie Joe Armstrong at a Elvis Costello concert special. The songs they played together were "Alison", "No Action", "Basket Case" and "Good Riddance (Time of your Life)". In 2007 Costello collaborated with the Argentinean/Uruguayan electro-tango band Bajofondo on the song "Fairly Right" from the album Mar Dulce. In 2008 Costello collaborated with Fall Out Boy on the track What A Catch, Donnie from their album Folie a Deux. In Jenny Lewis' 2008 release, Acid Tongue, Costello provided vocals for the song "Carpetbaggers" Artistic significance Costello has worked with Paul McCartney, Tony Bennett, Lucinda Williams, Lee Konitz, Brian Eno, and Rubén Blades, just a few of the artists not mentioned above. Costello has inadvertently made himself capable of challenging Kevin Bacon's role in a musical version of the Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon game, as his associations span the gamut in the music industry. Costello is also a music fan, and often champions the works of others in print. He has written several pieces for the magazine Vanity Fair, including the summary of what a perfect weekend of music would be. His collaboration with Bacharach honoured Bacharach's place in pop music history. Costello also appeared in documentaries about singers Dusty Springfield, Brian Wilson, Wanda Jackson, and Memphis, Tennessee-based Stax Records. He has also interviewed one of his own influences, Joni Mitchell. In 2004, Rolling Stone Magazine ranked him #80 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Discography Rykodisc/Demon reissues From 1993 to 1995, Rykodisc Records (US) and Demon Records (UK) reissued Costello's pre-Warner Bros. catalogue with bonus tracks for each album as well as a greatest hits compilation and the live album Live at the El Mocambo. This licensing deal ended in 2000. Rhino reissues Starting in 2001, Rhino Records began an eighteen double-disc reissue program for Costello's back catalogue prior to his Polygram/Universal contract. Except for the compilation, each of the reissues presented the remastered original album on one disc, and a separate bonus disc of B-sides, outtakes, live tracks, alternate versions and/or demos of songs. The project featured the direct participation and guidance of Elvis Costello himself, who wrote new liner notes for each album consisting of his thoughts on the music as well as anecdotes and reminiscences from the time. They were released in batches of three, with the exception of King of America, The Juliet Letters, and The Very Best of Elvis Costello, the last being an unaltered re-release of the Polygram compilation of 1999, which arrived in the stores singularly. The reissue dates are as follows: 17 April 2001: The Very Best of Elvis Costello 11 August 2001: My Aim Is True, Spike, All This Useless Beauty 19 February 2002: This Year's Model, Blood and Chocolate, Brutal Youth 19 November 2002: Armed Forces, Imperial Bedroom, Mighty Like a Rose 9 September 2003: Get Happy!!, Trust, Punch the Clock 3 August 2004: Almost Blue, Goodbye Cruel World, Kojak Variety 26 April 2005: King of America 21 March 2006: The Juliet LettersThe Almost Blue and Kojak Variety bonus discs were particularly notable as each contained, essentially, an entire new album's worth of material also performed but either not issued, or released as B-sides on singles originally. The Kojak bonus disc also included ten songs of the 'George Jones' tape, cover songs Costello intended to induce the famed country singer to perform on a subsequent album. The Get Happy bonus disc was also of note, with 30 additional tracks, bringing the total for the two disc set to 50 songs. Costello's early single on Stiff can be found on the Ultimate Stiff Records Discography site: http://www.buythehour.se/stiff/ Universal reissues In August 2006, three months after the conclusion of Rhino's reissue series (My Aim Is True through The Juliet Letters), Universal Music Enterprises announced their purchase of the early Elvis Costello catalogue. This licensing acquisition covers from My Aim Is True through King of America, excluding the Warner Bros. albums (Spike through All This useless Beauty). These albums had all been re-released on Rhino, a Warner Music Group subsidiary. The press release says, "[l]eading the industry in online marketing with a dedicated department that manages its digital and mobile business, UMe also expects to mine Costello's catalog for ringtones, digital box sets, and more." Press release on Marketwire. UMe announced that they would be reissuing the albums on their Hip-O Select label. Costello is quoted in the press release as saying, "[I]t's great to be able to do this through a company that has not only enjoyed major success with reissues but has done them with a genuine emphasis on quality." Press release on Marketwire. This reissue series will mark the fourth release of his Stiff/Radar/Demon catalogue (released by Columbia Records in the U.S.) on compact disc. Tribute albums 1998: Bespoke Songs, Lost Dogs, Detours & Rendezvous – (various artists) 2002: Almost You: The Songs of Elvis Costello – (various artists) 2003: The Elvis Costello Songbook – Bonnie Brett 2004: A Tribute to Elvis Costello – Patrik Tanner 2004: Davis Does Elvis – Stuart Davis 2008: Every Elvis Has His Impersonators: 7 Homemade Remade Elvis Costello Songs - Elastic No-No Band Filmography 1979 film debut as "Earl Manchester" in Americathon 1984 as "Henry Scully" in UK TV series Scully 1984 as "Stone Deaf A&R Man" in UK TV series "The Comic Strip Presents", episode "The Bullshitters" (directed by Stephen Frears) 1985 as inept magician "Rosco de Ville" in the Alan Bleasdale film No Surrender 1987 as "Hives the Butler" in the Alex Cox film Straight to Hell, starring Joe Strummer and Courtney Love 1994, 1996 as himself in The Larry Sanders Show 1997 as himself in Spiceworld 1999 as himself in Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me, performing the song "I'll Never Fall In Love Again" with Burt Bacharach 1999 as himself in 200 Cigarettes 2000 as himself in Sans plomb 2001 as a public defender and a teacher in Prison Song 2001 as himself in the final episode of 3rd Rock from the Sun 2002 as himself (voice) in "How I Spent My Strummer Vacation", an episode of The Simpsons 2003 Academy Award nomination for best original song "The Scarlet Tide" in Cold Mountain 2003 as "Ben" in the Frasier episode "Farewell, Nervosa" 2003 as guest host on Late Show with David Letterman 2003 as himself in I Love Your Work 2004 performing the Cole Porter song "Let's Misbehave" in De-Lovely 2004 as himself on Two and a Half Men 2005 as himself in the American situation comedy Two and a Half Men 2006 as himself in Putting the River in Reverse 2006 as himself in Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby 2006 as himself in Delirious 2008 as himself in Late Show With David Letterman 2008 as himself in A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All 2009 as himself in 30 Rock, where Jack Donaghy said he was an international art thief in hiding References Costello, Elvis. A Singing Dictionary''. London: Plangent Visions Music; New York, N.Y.: Exclusive selling agent for the United States and Canada, Warner Bros. Publications, 1980. ISBN 0-7692-1505-X. Sheet music, chords, and lyrics for works 1977–1980. External links ElvisCostello.com Official Elvis Costello Lost Highway Records Artist Page Elvis Costello 50 minutes video interview. 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6,843 | Cavalry | The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat, it represents the mobility and offensive power of the armed forces. A soldier in the cavalry is known as a cavalryman. The designation was not usually extended to any military force that used other animals, such as camels or mules. Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot were in the 17th and early 18th centuries known as dragoons, a class of mounted troops which later evolved into cavalry proper while retaining their historic title. From earliest times cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, making it an "instrument which multiplied the fighting value of even the smallest forces, allowing them to outflank and avoid, to surprise and overpower, to retreat and escape according to the requirements of the moment." p.4, Rodger A man fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare often overlooked by modern day observers is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. The mobility and shock value of the cavalry was greatly appreciated and exploited in the Ancient and Middle Ages armed forces, and some consisted mostly of the cavalry troops, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia, notably the Mongol armies. In Europe cavalry became increasingly armoured cavalry and eventually became known for the mounted knights. During the 17th century cavalry in Europe lost most of its armour, and by the mid-19th century only some regiments retained the cuirass. In the period between the World Wars much of the cavalry troops were motorised and mechanised or reformed as tank troops, However some cavalry still served during the Second World War, notably in the Red Army. Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Role of cavalry In many modern armies, the term cavalry is still often used to refer to units that are a combat arm of the armed forces which in the past filled the traditional horse-borne land combat light cavalry roles. These include scouting, skirmishing with enemy reconnaissance elements to deny them knowledge of own disposition of troops, forward security, offensive reconnaissance by combat, defensive screening of friendly forces during retrograde movement, retreat, restoration of command and control, deception, battle handover and passage of lines, relief in place, linkup, breakout operations, and raiding. The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is generally filled by units with the "armored" designation. History Assyrian cavalry Origins Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots. The chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. p.1, Menon The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt as well as Assyrian and Babylonian royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. Cavalry techniques were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Persian Parthians and Sarmatians. The photograph above right shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour’s hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. French Republican Guard - May 8, 2005 celebrations As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20). But large horses were still very exceptional at this time. Excepting a few ineffective trials of scythed chariots, the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in civilized nations by the time of the Persian defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great, but chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph, for chariot racing. The southern British met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, but a century later, in the Roman conquest of Britain chariots were obsolete even in Britannia. Ancient Greece and Macedon Warrior's departure; an Athenian amphora dated 550–540 BC. Cavalry have played a relatively minor role in Ancient Greece, with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The Macedonian kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the hetairoi (Companion cavalry) of Philip II and Alexander the Great. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian combined arms army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry. There were also the Ippiko (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. They wore leather armour or chainmail and hat. They were medium cavalry, rather than heavy cavalry. They were good scouts, skirmishers, and chasers. The effectiveness of this combined-arms system was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquest of Persia, Bactria, and northwestern India. Roman Republic and Early Empire Tombstone of a Roman auxiliary trooper from Cologne, Germany. Second half 1st C. AD The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the Equites — men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls, Iberians, and Numidians, the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts. Julius Caesar himself was known for his admiration in his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to Cohorte Equitates. Early Emperors maintained an ala of Bataviand cavalry as their bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba. For the most part, Roman cavalry during the Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the showing force. This does not mean that its utility could be underestimated, though, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. In some occasions it also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia. After defeats such as the Battle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians. They would begin to substantially increase both the numbers and the training standards of the cavalry in their employ, just as nearly a thousand years earlier the first Iranians to reach the Iranian Plateau introduced the Assyrians to a similar reform. Nonetheless, they would continue rely on mainly their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry. Reenactor showing Roman military equestrian. Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period In the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Parthians and their Iranian Sassanid successors. Both, but especially the latter, were famed for the cataphract (fully-armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman-Persian wars. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and clibanarii. http://www.historynet.com/mhq/blromespersianmirage/ The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the fourth and fifth centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, The raised rear part of a saddle was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored Cataphracts began to be deployed in eastern Europe and the near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late Roman cavalry tradition and the mounted nobility of the Germanic invaders both contributed to the development of mediaeval knightly cavalry. Arabs Arab camel cavalry Early organized Arab cavalry under the Rashidun caliphate was a light cavalry armed with lance and sword, its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear. Armor was relatively light. The Muslims' light cavalry during the later years of Islamic conquest of Levant became the most powerful section of army. The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at the Battle of Yarmouk (636 A.D.) in which Khalid ibn Walid, knowing the importance and ability of his cavalry, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage and disengage and turn back and attack again from the flank or rear. A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria. Early Muslim historians have given it the name Mutaharrik tulai'a( متحرك طليعة ), or the Mobile guard. This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against any Byzantine army. With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy. p.239, Muir A Mamluk cavalryman The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty over the control of Central Asia. Chinese infantry were routed by Arab cavalry near the bank of the River Talas. Later Mamluks were trained as cavalry soldiers. Mamluks were to follow the dictates of al-furusiyya, tradition of al-furusiyya is defined by principles of horsemanship, chivalry, and the mutual dependence of the rider and the horse a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds. Asia Central Asia The Indian literature contains numerous references to the cavalry forces of the Central Asian horse nomads like the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas. Numerous Puranic texts refer to an ancient invasion of India (16th c. BC) p. 182–183, Pargiter. by the cavalry forces of five nations, called five hordes (pañca.ganan) or Kśatriya hordes (Kśatriya ganah), which had captured the throne of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic king Bahu Harivamsa 14.1–19; Vayu Purana 88.127–43; Brahma Purana (8.35–51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123–141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15–21), Padama Purana (6.21.16–33) etc. Ottoman Horse Archer. Hungarian horse archer. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources numerously attest that Kamboja cavalry was frequently requisitioned in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were requisitioned in ancient wars " War in Ancient India, 1944, p 178, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar - Military art and science. . J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e the Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen" . Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p 257, American Oriental Society; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India: As ... , 1972, p 201, Edward Washburn Hopkins - Caste; Mahabharata 10.18.13; cf: Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin - History; Cf also: A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p 129, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet. Mahabharata (950 c BC) p.182, Pargiter speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas, all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj. MBH 1.185.13; Felicitation Volume Presented to Professor Sripad Krishna Belvalkar, 1957, p 260, Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Shripad Krishna Belvalkar. Mahabharata and Vishnudharmotari Purana especially styles the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc as "Ashva.yuddha.kushalah" (expert cavalrymen). Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; See also: Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500–700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p 64, professor Sen Sarma etc. In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura. Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 238, Dr B. C. Law - Kshatriyas; The Battle of Kurukshetra, 1987, p 389, Maggi Lidchi-Grassi - Kurukshetra (India). Herodotus (484 c BC – 425 c BC) ) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e. Gandharans/Kambojans of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids) from the twentieth strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486-465 BC), which he led against the Hellas. Herodotus, Book VII 65, 70, 86, 187. Similarly, the men of the Mountain Land from north of Kabol-River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela with a cavalry and fifteen elephants. History of Persian Empire, p 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3-6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 216, Dr Raychaudhury. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalry-men (asva-yuddha-Kushalah). Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14 Kumbhakonam Edition; See also: Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500–700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p 64, prof Sen Sarma; etc.; Kashmir Polity, C. 600-1200 A.D. 1986, p 237, V. N. Drabu - Political Science. On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. the "horsemen" Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hundu Times, 1943, p 145, Dr K. P. Jayaswal. and their land was known as "Home of Horses". i.e: Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam. See: Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p 124; See also: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 238, Dr B. C. - Kshatriyas; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 351, Dr Buddha Prakash - India. They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1967, p 49, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of the Kambojas. "Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" (Asvanam ayatanam), et cette reputation bien etablie valnut peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d’assakenoi (du skt asva “cheval”)" (See: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; See also: Hindu Polity, A Contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216–20, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee;; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p 100 - History; East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157–58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9–10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Buareau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Poros, 1967, p 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271–72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218–19, S Kirpal Singh etc. These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander (326 c BC) during latter’s campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander’s historians. These highlanders, designated as "parvatiya Ayudhajivinah" in Panini's Astadhyayi, Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91; India as Known to Panini, 1953, pp 424, 436–39, 455–457, Dr V. S. Aggarwala. were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord. See: History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 225, Dr Buddha Prakash; Raja Poros, 1990, p 9, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala. The Sanskrit drama Mudra-rakashas by Visakha Dutta and the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's (320 C BC – 298 c BC) alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). In Sanskrit: asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat the ruler of Magadha and placed Vhandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan Dynasty in Northern India. The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa play of Sanskrit Poet Kalidasa. Kālidāsa, 1960, p 141, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar. Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II (Vikaramaditya) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta Dynasty. Crimean Tatar soldier fighting with the soldier of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Europe's steppe frontier was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century. As late as mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces in 8th/10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province. Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December, 1939, p 511 Dr H. C. Ray. History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp 182–83, Dr R. C. Majumdar. Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 625. Dynastic History of Magadha, 1977, p 208. Epigraphia Indiaca, XVIII, p 304ff. Ancient Kambojas were constituted into military Sanghas and Srenis (Corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata amply attest for us. They are attested to be living as Ayuddha-jivi or Shastr-opajivis (Nation-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its military services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations. Xiongnu or Hun, Tujue, Avars, Kipchaks, Mongols, Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted peoples that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of Tsarist Russia. In eastern Europe, Russia, and out onto the steppes, cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 1600s and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led. This needs a re-write — the chronology is all over the place. Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements early on with the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), including Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tufan in 638. East Asia A bas-relief of a soldier and horse with saddle and stirrups, from the tomb of Chinese Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626-649), c. 650 Further east, the military history of China, specifically northern China, held a long tradition of intense military exchange between Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted "barbarians" of the north. The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy. In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao, the ancient Chinese ruler of the former State of Jin territory, ordered his military commanders and troops to adopt the trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills. Ebrey, 29-30. Soon afterwards the cavalry tactics employed by the State of Zhao forced their enemies in the other Warring States to adopt the same techniques in order to mount any effective attack against their swift movements on the battlefield. Ebrey, 30. The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot-riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC-1050 BC). Ebrey, 29. By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force. The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow was invented in China in the 4th century BC; Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 41. it was written by the Song Dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD) that massed missile fire of crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges. Peers, 130.we can right anything The Qianlong Emperor in ceremonial armor on horseback, painted by Giuseppe Castiglione, dated 1739 or 1758. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires have proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage if lacking the amount of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141 BC-87 BC) went to war with the Yuezhi for this exact reason, since the Yuezhi were hording a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized-Greek region of Fergana (established a bit earlier by Alexander the Great). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin Dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD. Dien, Albert. "THE STIRRUP AND ITS EFFECT ON CHINESE MILITARY HISTORY" <ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1988_Oct/ai_6955868 "The stirrup - history of Chinese science." UNESCO Courier, October, 1988]</ref> "The invention and influences of stirrup" The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 305. The cavalry of Korea was first introduced during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon. Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the 1st century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors. Ebrey, 120. With contacts, military intercession, and sailed ventures to Korea, cavalry of Goguryeo were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士) and were similar to tanks in the age of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into Baekje, Gaya confederacy, Buyeo and against Japanese invaders with his calvalry. The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. South Asia In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta Dynasty (320-600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-stirrups. European Middle Ages Horse-mounted Normans fighting in the Bayeux Tapestry, 11th century. Although Roman cavalry had no stirrups, their horned saddle allowed the combination of a firm seat with substantial flexibility. But the introduction of the wraparound saddle during the Middle Ages provided greater efficiency in mounted shock combat and the invention of stirrup enabled a broader array of attacks to be delivered from the back of a horse. As a greater weight of man and armor could be supported in the saddle, the probability of being dismounted in combat was significantly reduced. In particular, a charge with the lance couched under the armpit would no longer turn into pole vaulting; this eventually led to an enormous increase in the impact of the charge. Last but not least, the introduction of spurs allowed better control of the mount during the "knightly charge" in full gallop. In western Europe there emerged what is considered the "ultimate" heavy cavalry, the knight. The knights and other similarly equipped mounted men-at-arms charged in close formation, exchanging flexibility for a massive, irresistible first charge. A 13th century depiction of a riding horse. Note resemblance to the modern Paso Fino. A Hussite war wagon: it enabled peasants to defeat knights The mounted men-at-arms quickly became an important force in Western European tactics, although it is worth noting that Medieval military doctrine actually employed them as part of a combined-arms force along with various kinds of foot troops. Still, Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the rank and file, and this has led early students of military history to suppose that this heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on Medieval European battlefields—a view with hardly any grounding in reality. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, while at Gisors (1188), Bannockburn (1314), and Laupen (1339), foot-soldiers proved their invulnerability to cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. However, the rise of infantry as the principal arm had to wait for the Swiss to develop their pike squares into an offensive arm instead of a defensive one; this new aggressive doctrine brought the Swiss to victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensive combined arms doctrine as evidenced in the Battle of Marignano. The introduction of missile weapons that were simpler to use, such as the crossbow and the hand cannons, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons. These missile weapons were very successfully used in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics. This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the Battle of the Dyle (891) and the Battle of Bremule (1119), but after 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed swords and poleaxes. In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position. Renaissance Europe Knighted cavalry and noblemen, painting by Jan van Eyck (ca. 1390-1441). Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to 50 percent of its numbers filled with various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in medieval and 17th century armies the proportion of cavalry seldom rose beyond twenty-five percent. Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called gendarmes and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age - that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged by either charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief. Polish winged hussar. From the 1550s onwards, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to replace a skilled horseman or a trained horse, while arquebusiers and later musketeers could be trained and kept in the field at a much lower expense in addition to being much easier to replace. The Spanish tercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The pistol was specifically developed to try and bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the caracole. The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with sword, pistol, or lance)remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before. The demi-lancers and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol reiters were among the types of cavalry that experienced their heyday in the 16th and 17th centuries. These centuries also witnessed the high-water mark of the Polish winged hussars, a force of heavy cavalry that achieved great success against Swedes, Russians, and Turks alike. Eighteenth Century Europe and Napoleonic Warfare Gardes Du Corps of the Kingdom of Hannover (Germany) in 1838. Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. First and foremost they remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but the extended linear formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), and Friedland (1807), remaining a significant factor throughout the Napoleonic Wars. Massed infantry was deadly to cavalry but also offered an excellent target for artillery. Once the bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to rout and pursue the scattered footmen. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I. 19th century By the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories: Cuirassiers, heavy cavalry Dragoons, originally mounted infantry but later regarded as medium cavalry Hussars, light cavalry Lancers or Uhlans, light cavalry armed with lances The Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava by William Simpson (1855). There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had the chasseurs à cheval; Germany had the Jäger zu Pferd; Bavaria had the Chevaulegers; and Russia had Cossacks. Britain had no cuirassiers (other than the Household Cavalry), but had Dragoon Guards regiments which were classed as heavy cavalry. In the United States Army, the cavalry were almost always dragoons. The Imperial Japanese Army had its cavalry dressed as hussars, but fought as dragoons. Union Cavalry capture Confederate guns at Culpepper. In the early American Civil War the regular United States Army mounted rifle and dragoon regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six. Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers and much easier recruitment. However, cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as scouts, raiders, and, with repeating rifles, as mounted infantry. Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Big Horn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the Indian Wars through the close of the frontier in the 1890s. 19th-century Imperial Expansion Cavalry found new success in Imperial operations (irregular warfare), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against native insurgents (unless the natives offered a fight on an equal footing, as at Tel-el-Kebir, Omdurman, etc). Cavalry "flying columns" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns—although an astute native commander (like Samori in western Africa, Shamil in the Caucasus, or any of the better Boer commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared to European forces. The British Indian Army maintained about forty regiments of cavalry, officered by British and manned by Indian sowars (cavalrymen). The legendary exploits of this branch lives on in literature and early films. Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of modern Indian and Pakistani Armies are:The charge of the 21st Lancers at Omdurman Governor General's Bodyguard (now President's Bodyguard) Skinner's Horse (now India's 1st Horse (Skinner's)) Gardner's Lancers (now India's 2nd Lancers (Gardner's)) Hodson's Horse (now India's 3rd Horse (Hodson's)) of the Bengal Lancers fame 6th Bengal Cavalry (later amalgamated with 7th Hariana Lancers to form 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry) now 18th Cavalry of the Indian Army Probyn's Horse (now Pakistani) Royal Deccan Horse (now India's The Deccan Horse) Poona Horse (now India's The Poona Horse) Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now partitioned between Pakistan and India). Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example Guides Cavalry in Pakistan. THE GUIDES CAVALRY (10th QUEEN VICTORIA'S OWN FRONTIER FORCE) The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the Second World War. Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants. The French forces included Spahis, Chasseurs d' Afrique, Foreign Legion cavalry and mounted Goumiers L'Armee d'Afrique 1830-1962, General R. Hure, Paris-Limogues 1977 . Cavalry's demise Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside Rome. At the beginning of the 20th century all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). Following their experience of the South African War of 1899 - 1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved superior to regular cavalry) the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action. In 1908 the lancer regiments resumed this impressive but obsolete weapon. Between 1881 and 1910 the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar, lancer and cuirassier regiments to dragoons with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 they reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms. Austro-Hungarian cavalry, 1898. |German Cavalryman in September 1914, German South-West Africa. In August 1914 all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both Eastern and Western Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars. The Imperial German Cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance, had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered. These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare. Once the front lines stabilised, a combination of barbed wire, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops. For the remainder of the War on the Western Front cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the Life Guards for example as a machine gun corps; and the Australian Light Horse as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign. The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West. French heavy cavalry, wearing armoured breastplate and helmet, parade through Paris on the way to battle, August 1914. Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops behind the lines in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come. Tanks, introduced on the Western Front in September 1916, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. Since mounted troops were too vulnerable and slow moving to act in effective support of the new weapon, history recorded no significant role for cavalry in mechanized warfare, and post war planning in the allied nations replaced horse cavalry with mechanized cavalry. In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops. Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war. First World War - Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003 However, even here the value of cavalry was over-rated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage. In the Middle East mounted forces (British, Indian, Turkish, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important role, though of the mounted infantry variety. Post World War I A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914-18 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the Encyclopedia Britannia) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare. The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914. Cavalry was extensively used in the Russian Civil War and the Soviet-Polish War. The last major cavalry battle was the Battle of Komarów in 1920, between Poland and the Russian Bolsheviks. Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and the North West Frontier of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry. Interestingly the post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. The US Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934 and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanised cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933. In the British Army, all cavalry regiments were mechanised between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the Royal Armoured Corps together with the Royal Tank Regiment. The thirty-nine regiments of the Indian Army were reduced to twenty-one as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I. The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them. In 1938 the process of mechanism began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units. By the end of 1940 all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanised, receiving light tanks, armoured cars or 15cwt trucks. The last horsed regiment of the Indian Army (other than the Viceregal Bodyguard and some Indian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its last mounted parade at Rawalpindi on 28 October 1939. This unit still exists (though in the Pakistan Army) with an armour TOE. During the 1930s the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations. Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (Chasseurs a' Cheval, Hussars and Spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons. The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance. World War II While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish and Soviet campaigns. A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars. Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position. Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free. However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry. Davies God's Playground Volume II pp. 324-325 Later, on the Eastern Front, the Red Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans. Davies God's Playground Volume II p. 325 (See also Polish cavalry.) A more correct term should be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, but in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, the Polish cavalry brigade order of battle of 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon, artillery, light and scout tanks, etc. Polish cavalry galloping through a bombed town during the Polish Defensive War of 1939. By the final stages of the war only the Soviet Union was still fielding mounted units in substantial numbers, some in combined mechanised and horse units. The advantage of this approach was that in exploitation mounted infantry could keep pace with advancing tanks. Other factors favouring the retention of mounted forces included the high quality of Russian Cossacks and other horse cavalry; and the relative lack of roads suitable for wheeled vehicles in many parts of the Eastern Front. Another consideration was that the logistic capacity required to support very large motorised forces exceeded that necessary for mounted troops. Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry had been dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia. Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War. 18th Indian Cavalry Regiment (later 18 Cavalry of Indian Army), fought in a dismounted role, in Tobruk as part of 9th Australian Division. The US Army's last horse cavalry action was fought by the 26th Cavalry Regiment (PS) in WWII; a small mounted regiment of Philippine Scouts, fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942. All British cavalry had been mechanised since 1942 and the last horsed US Cavalry (the Second Cavalry Division) were dismounted in March 1944. The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry near Toungoo airfield in central Burma. The Sikh sowars of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman, charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed. The last substantive and successful classical cavalry charge of the war - and the final such confirmed charge in history - was probably that made in August 1942 by a cavalry unit of the Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia (Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Russia, or CSIR) on the Eastern Front. A charge by the 3rd Dragoons Savoia Cavalry Regiment of the Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta Fast (Celere) Division was not only made, but it was successfully made. Post World War II to present day Polish 66 Air Force Squadron of 25th Aeromobile Cavalry Brigade. The Soviet Army retained horse cavalry divisions until 1955, and even at the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there was an independent horse mounted cavalry squadron in Kyrgyzstan. Carey Schofield, Inside the Soviet Army, Headline, 1991, p.133-134 Several armored divisions of the modern United States Army retain the designation of "cavalry". The United States also had "air cavalry" units equipped with helicopters, though that designation has fallen out of use, with the term Air Assault coined for that mission and modern "cavalry" being retained for ground-based mobility. While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern Irish Defence Force (IDF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with Panhard armoured cars and Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles. The Irish Defense Force has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force. United States Army Special Forces on horseback with the Northern Alliance of Afghanistan, which frequently used horses as military transport. Some engagements in late twentieth and early twenty first century guerrilla wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure. Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Examples occurred in Afghanistan, Portuguese Africa and Rhodesia. The French Army used existing mounted squadrons of Spahis to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954-62) and the Swiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973. There were reports of Chinese mounted troops in action during frontier clashes with Vietnam in the mid 1970s. The Portuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in the wars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1964-79 Rhodesian Bush War the Rhodesian Army created an elite mounted infantry unit called Grey's Scouts to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces of Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo. The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were very effective and feared by their opponents in the rebel African forces. In the 1978 to present Afghan Civil War there have been several instances of horse mounted combat. South and Central American armies maintained mounted cavalry longer than those of Europe, Asia or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid 1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops (see Jane's "Armed Forces of Latin America" by Adrian J. English). A number of armored regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Dragoon Guards or Lancers. Only the Household Cavalry squadrons maintained for ceremonial duties in London are mounted. Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the United States, British, French, Italian, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, Chilean, Portuguese, Moroccan, Nigerian, Venezuelan, Brazilian, Peruvian, Paraguayan, Polish, Argentine, Senegalese, Jordanian, Pakistani, Indian, Spanish and Bulgarian armed forces. The Army of the Russian Federation has recently reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms. The mounted President's Bodyguard of the Indian Army during a state visit by a foreign dignitary in New Delhi, India. In the United States, the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division is made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s. First Team! Horse Cavalry Detachment Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers." Western Horseman, December 2006, pp. 45-50 In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the Corps of Cadets at Texas A&M University. The French Army still has regiments with the historic designations of Cuirassiers, Hussars, Chasseurs, Dragoons and Spahis. Only the cavalry of the Republican Guard and a ceremonial fanfare (trumpeters) for the cavalry/armoured branch as a whole are now mounted. In the Canadian Army, a number of regular and reserve units have cavalry roots, including The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal), the Governor General's Horse Guards, Lord Strathcona's Horse, the Royal Canadian Dragoons, and the South Alberta Light Horse. Of these, only the Governor General's Horse Guards maintains an official ceremonial horse mounted cavalry squadron. The Honours, Flags, and Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces Both the Australian and New Zealand Armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse mounted unit. Today, the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry is reported to be the only remaining non-ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry in the world. India Polo Magazine It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamated state cavalry squadrons of Gwailior, Jodhpur, and Mysore. The 61st Cavalry together with the President's Body Guard parade in full dress uniform in New Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world. Both the Indian and Pakistan Armies maintain a number of armoured regiments with the titles of Lancers or Horse, dating back to the nineteenth century. As of 2007 the Chinese People's Liberation Army employs two battalions of horse cavalry in Xinjing Military District for border patrol work (see China-Defense.com website). In the wake of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake there have been calls to rebuild the army horse inventory for disaster relief in difficult terrain. Light and armoured cavalry Alexander the Great using armoured cavalry, fighting Persian King Darius IIIHistorically, cavalry was divided into light and armoured cavalry and Horse archers. The differences were mainly the size of the mount, and how much armor was worn by the mount and rider, and the active role they played in war. Early light cavalry (like the auxiliaries of the Roman army) were typically used to scout and skirmish and to cut down retreating infantry and for defeating enemy missile troops. Armoured cavalry like the Byzantine Cataphract were used as shock troops — they would charge the main body of the enemy and in many cases, their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term "battle cavalry". p.490, Lynn During the Gunpowder Age, armored cavalry began to approach obsolescence. However, many units retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes and the morale boost these provide to the wearers. By this time the main difference between light and battle cavalry was their training; the former was regarded as a tool for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. Since the development of armored warfare the distinction between light and heavy armor has persisted basically along the same lines. Armored cars and light tanks have adopted the reconnaissance role while medium and heavy tanks are regarded as the decisive shock troops. Social status From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high social status. This was most clearly seen in the feudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of peasants on foot. If landlords and peasants came into conflict, the peasants would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights. A Trooper of the Blues and Royals on mounted duty in Whitehall, London In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian Cossacks or the French Chasseurs d' Afrique. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their royal or imperial guards. These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards through to large formations intended for active service. The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of the Prussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter. In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies. On film Some small sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film Waterloo, which featured some 2000 cavalrymen, some of them cossacks. It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the real battle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses). Waterloo Film review by Major J G H Corrigan. Accessed 2008-02-07. A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen in The Lord of the Rings (2003); although the finished scene has substantial computer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices. Some cavalry forces Cataphract Kalmyks Mamluks Sipahi (Ottoman) Cossacks Hussars Lancers or Uhlans Cuirassier Dragoons Companions Polish winged hussars and Polish cavalry Bayreuth Dragoons Blues and Royals (British Army now part of the Household Cavalry Regiment) Life Guards (British Army now part of the Household Cavalry Regiment) Hakkapeliitta (Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War fame) Garde Républicaine (French Gendarmerie) Savoia Cavalry Governor General's Horse Guards (Canada) Chasseurs d'Afrique (French Army) Light Horse (Australian Army) Savari (Italian North African) South Alberta Light Horse (Canadian Army) Spahi (French North African) United States Cavalry Grey's Scouts (Rhodesian Army 1975 - 80) Some contemporary horse cavalry officers Brazil: Ataìde Barcelos Pereira, Regimento Osorio Canada: Akaash Maharaj, Governor General's Horse Guards France: Didier Courrèges, Cadre Noir Italy: Giulio Serafini, COMFOD 1 UK: Harry Wales, Blues and Royals USA: Edwin Ramsey, 26th Cavalry regiment See also Cavalry tactics Heavy Cavalry Light Cavalry Horses in warfare Waler horse 1st Cavalry Division (United States) Notes References Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43519-6 (hardback); ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback). Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Peers, C.J. (2006). Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC-AD 1840. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Menon, Shanti, Chariot racers of the Steppes, Discover, April, 1995 http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_n4_v16/ai_16720826 Rodger, N. A. M., The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660-1649, W W Norton & Co Ltd., 1999 ISBN 039304579X Muir, William, Annals of the Early Caliphate: From Original Sources, Smith, Elder & co., London, 1883 Pargiter, Frederick Eden, Dr., Chronology based on: Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, 1924, Reprint 1997 Lynn, John Albert, Giant of the Grand Siècle: The French Army, 1610-1715'', Cambridge University Press, 1997 Further reading External links CavalryScouts.org Napoleonic Cavalry Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms - Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry (1865) Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II) Italian Savoia Cavalry during World War 2 Society of the Military Horse Gesellschaft der Freunde der Kavallerie (German) http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Reg-Arm.html A Horse is Worth More than Riches by Jason Hribal The Horse and Mule in the British Army during WW1 | Cavalry |@lemmatized cavalry:272 french:19 cavalerie:1 second:6 oldest:1 combat:12 arm:29 soldier:13 warrior:4 fight:18 mount:48 horseback:7 represent:1 mobility:10 offensive:3 power:3 armed:3 force:59 know:11 cavalryman:10 designation:7 usually:2 extend:1 military:25 use:31 animal:2 camel:2 mule:2 infantry:44 move:3 dismount:8 foot:6 early:27 century:31 dragoon:17 class:4 mounted:40 troop:22 later:10 evolve:1 proper:1 retain:12 historic:7 title:3 time:13 advantage:4 improved:2 make:9 instrument:1 multiply:1 value:7 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6,844 | Jonathan_Meades | Jonathan (Turner) Meades (born 21 January 1947, Salisbury, England) is a British writer on food, architecture, and culture, as well as an author and broadcaster. Meades studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) c.1967. http://news.independent.co.uk/people/profiles/article2533980.ec He is an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society National Secular Society - Jonathan Meades and a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association. British Humanist Association Food writing Meades has written reviews and articles for The Times for many years, and was specifically the restaurant critic of The Times newspaper between 1986 and 2001 Meades bites recipe | Recipes - Times Online . He was voted Best Food Journalist in the 1999 Glenfiddich Awards. Wine&Dine : WINNERS OF THE GLENFIDDICH AWARDS 1999 Having thrown in the napkin in 2001 after being the Times restaurant critic for 15 years in an interview with Restaurant magazine, Meades estimated that he put on 5lb a year during his reviewing period, which works out around an ounce per restaurant. He managed to lose a third of his body weight in the course of a year. Television work He is well known to British television audiences for his series about architecture Abroad in Britain and its sequels Further Abroad with Jonathan Meades, Even Further Abroad With Jonathan Meades, Abroad Again in Britain and Abroad Again. Abroad Again in Britain These visually-innovative documentaries look at neglected forms of British architecture such as caravan parks and golf courses, and at the place that famous buildings hold in the British popular imagination. Meades' television work also includes two separate one-off documentaries about the architectural legacy of both the Third Reich, Jerry Building, and Stalin's Russia, Joe Building. Meades has also written and presented a documentary called Surreal Film (2001) for BBC Two (although the onscreen title was "tvSSFBM EHKL", the words encoded in appropriately surreal fashion) OFF THE TELLY: Reviews/2001/tvSSFBM EHKL , which sought to expound on surrealism in a manner that fitted the subject. Perhaps inevitably, given Meades' approach and his choice of topic, some found it bewildering and often psychedelic. However, it was nevertheless distinctive and humorous in a field often populated only by de rigueur and comme il faut offerings. His latest full length series Jonathan Meades : Abroad Again was shown on BBC Two in May 2007. It uses his familiar style of jaunty camera angles often showing him from behind, going down escalators, sitting on walls or even not at all as he is walking away from the camera. He talks directly to the camera and often his speeches are split up from different angles or positions. There are times of silence or with only music where shots of the building he is talking about are shown. All of these mean the programme has a very different feel to documentaries such as those of David Starkey. Equally he often uses scathing remarks to criticise other buildings such as an occasion when he refers to the Millennium Dome as a "Museum of Toxic Waste". BBC - BBC Four Documentaries - Abroad Again in Britain Documentary Magnetic North: Painting of Jonathan Meades by Manfred W. Jürgens In 2008 a two-part documentary, Magnetic North, was screened by BBC Four. In the programme, Meades celebrates the culture of northern Europe, and wonders why the North suffers in the popular imagination compared to the South. The programme features the expected stylistic flourishes and quirks of presentation now associated with the writer/presenter. It was subsequently re-edited into four half-hour episodes and shown on BBC Two. A DVD box set collecting his various Abroad... series was due for release in April 2008 but has since been postponed until September 2008. Many of Meades's documentaries can be found on Youtube. In 2008 Meades penned the introduction to the London Books reissue of the James Curtis 1938 novel about truckers and low-life They Drive By Night. Published works This is Their Life (1979) ISBN 0-86101-045-0 The Illustrated Atlas of the World's Great Buildings (1980) ISBN 0-86101-059-0 Filthy English (1984) ISBN 0-224-02145-1 (Short stories) English Extremists (Blueprint Monographs) (1988) ISBN 0-947795-68-5 Peter Knows What Dick Likes (1989) ISBN 0-586-20148-3 Pompey (1993) ISBN 0-09-930821-5 Architectural Expressions (2001) ISBN 0-471-49667-7 "The Times" Restaurant Guide 2002 ISBN 0-304-35939-4 Incest and Morris Dancing (2002) ISBN 0-304-35938-6 The Fowler Family Business (2002) ISBN 1-85702-904-6 TV works The Victorian House (1986) Channel 4 Abroad in Britain with Jonathan Meades (1990) BBC Two Further Abroad with Jonathan Meades (1994) BBC Two Jerry Building — Unholy Relics of the Third Reich (1994) BBC Two Without Walls: J'Accuse — Vegetarians (1995) Channel 4 Even Further Abroad with Jonathan Meades (1996) BBC Two Heart By-Pass, Jonathan Meades in Birmingham (1998) BBC Two Travels with Pevsner (1998) BBC Two Queen Victoria died in 1901 but is alive and well today! (2001) BBC Two Surrealism (2001) BBC Knowledge Pevsner Revisited (2001) BBC Four Meades Eats (2003) BBC Four Abroad Again in Britain (2005) BBC Four Joe Building: The Stalin Memorial Lecture (2006) BBC Four Abroad Again (2007) BBC Two Jonathan Meades: Magnetic North (2008) BBC Four References External links 'Jonathan Meades - Abroad Again' Official Website BBC Information London Books | Jonathan_Meades |@lemmatized jonathan:12 turner:1 meade:22 born:1 january:1 salisbury:1 england:1 british:6 writer:2 food:3 architecture:3 culture:2 well:3 author:1 broadcaster:1 study:1 royal:1 academy:1 dramatic:1 art:1 rada:1 c:1 http:1 news:1 independent:1 co:1 uk:1 people:1 profile:1 ec:1 honorary:1 associate:2 national:2 secular:2 society:2 distinguished:1 supporter:1 humanist:2 association:2 write:3 review:3 article:1 time:6 many:2 year:4 specifically:1 restaurant:5 critic:2 newspaper:1 bite:1 recipe:1 recipes:1 online:1 vote:1 best:1 journalist:1 glenfiddich:2 award:2 wine:1 dine:1 winner:1 throw:1 napkin:1 interview:1 magazine:1 estimate:1 put:1 period:1 work:5 around:1 ounce:1 per:1 manage:1 lose:1 third:3 body:1 weight:1 course:2 television:3 know:2 audience:1 series:3 abroad:15 britain:6 sequel:1 far:3 even:3 visually:1 innovative:1 documentary:8 look:1 neglected:1 form:1 caravan:1 park:1 golf:1 place:1 famous:1 building:7 hold:1 popular:2 imagination:2 also:2 include:1 two:13 separate:1 one:1 architectural:2 legacy:1 reich:2 jerry:2 stalin:2 russia:1 joe:2 present:1 call:1 surreal:2 film:1 bbc:21 although:1 onscreen:1 title:1 tvssfbm:2 ehkl:2 word:1 encode:1 appropriately:1 fashion:1 telly:1 seek:1 expound:1 surrealism:2 manner:1 fit:1 subject:1 perhaps:1 inevitably:1 give:1 approach:1 choice:1 topic:1 find:2 bewilder:1 often:5 psychedelic:1 however:1 nevertheless:1 distinctive:1 humorous:1 field:1 populate:1 de:1 rigueur:1 comme:1 il:1 faut:1 offering:1 late:1 full:1 length:1 show:4 may:1 use:2 familiar:1 style:1 jaunty:1 camera:3 angle:2 behind:1 go:1 escalator:1 sit:1 wall:2 walk:1 away:1 talk:2 directly:1 speech:1 split:1 different:2 position:1 silence:1 music:1 shot:1 mean:1 programme:3 feel:1 david:1 starkey:1 equally:1 scathing:1 remark:1 criticise:1 occasion:1 refer:1 millennium:1 dome:1 museum:1 toxic:1 waste:1 four:8 magnetic:3 north:4 painting:1 manfred:1 w:1 jürgens:1 part:1 screen:1 meades:1 celebrate:1 northern:1 europe:1 wonder:1 suffers:1 compare:1 south:1 feature:1 expected:1 stylistic:1 flourish:1 quirk:1 presentation:1 presenter:1 subsequently:1 edit:1 half:1 hour:1 episode:1 dvd:1 box:1 set:1 collect:1 various:1 due:1 release:1 april:1 since:1 postpone:1 september:1 youtube:1 pen:1 introduction:1 london:2 book:2 reissue:1 james:1 curtis:1 novel:1 trucker:1 low:1 life:2 drive:1 night:1 publish:1 isbn:10 illustrated:1 atlas:1 world:1 great:1 filthy:1 english:2 short:1 story:1 extremist:1 blueprint:1 monograph:1 peter:1 dick:1 like:1 pompey:1 expression:1 guide:1 incest:1 morris:1 dancing:1 fowler:1 family:1 business:1 tv:1 victorian:1 house:1 channel:2 build:1 unholy:1 relic:1 without:1 j:1 accuse:1 vegetarian:1 heart:1 pas:1 birmingham:1 travel:1 pevsner:2 queen:1 victoria:1 die:1 alive:1 today:1 knowledge:1 revisit:1 eats:1 memorial:1 lecture:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 information:1 |@bigram jonathan_meade:11 golf_course:1 third_reich:2 de_rigueur:1 david_starkey:1 toxic_waste:1 morris_dancing:1 queen_victoria:1 external_link:1 |
6,845 | Median_lethal_dose | In toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for “Lethal Dose, 50%”), LC50 (Lethal Concentration, 50%) or LCt50 (Lethal Concentration & Time) of a toxic substance or radiation is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population. LD50 figures are frequently used as a general indicator of a substance's acute toxicity. The test was created by J.W. Trevan in 1927. What is an LD50 and LC50 It is being phased out in some jurisdictions in favor of tests such as the Fixed Dose Procedure, LD50 test ban welcomed however the concept, and calculation of the median lethal dose for comparison purposes, is still widely used. As a measure of toxicity, LD50 is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration. Ernest Hodgson - A Textbook of Modern Toxicology; Wiley-Interscience 2004 (3rd Edition) Another weakness is that it measures acute toxicity only (as opposed to chronic toxicity at lower doses), and does not take into account toxic effects that do not result in death but are nonetheless serious (e.g. brain damage). There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans, and vice versa. In other words, a relatively high LD50 does not necessarily mean a substance is harmless, but a very low one is always a cause for concern. The term semilethal dose is occasionally used with the same meaning, particularly in translations from non-English-language texts, but can also refer to a sublethal dose; because of this ambiguity, it is usually avoided. Conventions The LD50 is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, such as grams of substance per kilogram of body mass. Stating it this way allows the relative toxicity of different substances to be compared, and normalizes for the variation in the size of the animals exposed (although toxicity does not always scale simply with body mass). Typically, the LD50 of a substance is given in milligrams per kilogram of body weight. In the case of some neurotoxins such as batrachotoxin, one of the most deadly toxins known, the LD50 may be more conveniently expressed as micrograms per kilogram (µg/kg)of body mass. The choice of 50% lethality as a benchmark avoids the potential for ambiguity of making measurements in the extremes, and reduces the amount of testing required. However, this also means that LD50 is not the lethal dose for all subjects; some may be killed by much less, while others survive doses far higher than the LD50. Measures such as 'LD1' and 'LD99' (dosage required to kill 1% or 99% respectively of the test population) are occasionally used for specific purposes. REGISTRY OF TOXIC EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (RTECS)COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE RTECS Lethal dosage often varies depending on the method of administration; for instance, many substances are less toxic when administered orally than when intravenously administered. For this reason, LD50 figures are often qualified with the mode of administration, e.g. "LD50 i.v." The related quantities LD50/30 or an LD50/60 are used to refer to a dose that without treatment will be lethal to 50% of the population within (respectively) 30 or 60 days. These measures are used more commonly within Radiation Health Physics, as survival beyond 60 days usually results in recovery. A comparable measurement is LCt50 which relates to lethal dosage from exposure, where C is concentration and t is time. It is often expressed in terms of mg-min/m³. ICt50 is the dose which will cause incapacitation rather than death. These measures are commonly used to indicate the comparative efficacy of chemical warfare agents, and dosages are typically qualified by rates of breathing (e.g., resting = 10 l/min) for inhalation, or degree of clothing for skin penetration. The concept of Ct was first proposed by Fritz Haber, and is sometimes referred to as Haber's Law, which assumes that exposure to 1 minute of 100 mg/m³ is equivalent to 10 minutes of 10 mg/m³ (1 × 100 = 100, as does 10 × 10 = 100). Some chemicals, such as hydrogen cyanide are rapidly detoxified by the human body, and do not follow Haber's Law. So in these cases the lethal concentration may be given simply as LC50 and qualified by a duration of exposure (e.g. 10 minutes). The Material Safety Data Sheets for toxic substances frequently use this form of the term even if the substance does follow Haber's Law. For disease-causing organisms, there is also a measure known as the median infective dose and dosage. The median infective dose (ID50) is the number of organisms received by a person or test animal qualified by the route of administration (e.g., 1,200 org/man per oral). Because of the difficulties in counting actual organisms in a dose, infective doses may be expressed in terms of biological assay, such as the number of LD50's to some test animal. In biological warfare infective dosage is the number of infective doses per minute for a cubic meter (e.g., ICt50 is 100 medium doses - min/m³). Animal rights concerns Animal-rights and animal-welfare groups, such as Animal Rights International, Thirty-Two Years of Measurable Change have campaigned against LD50 testing on animals in particular as, in the case of some substances, causing the animals to die slow, painful deaths. Several countries, including the UK, have taken steps to ban the oral LD50, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) abolished the requirement for the oral test in 2001 (see Test Guideline 401, Trends in Pharmacological Sciences Vol 22, February 22, 2001). LD50 still remains popular, despite its general weakness in providing a useful measure of toxicity. Ernest Hodgson - A Textbook of Modern Toxicology; Wiley-Interscience 2004 (3rd Edition) Examples Substance Animal, Route LD50 Reference Water rat, oral 90 mL/kg (~90,000 mg/kg) MSDS for water--JT Baker Sucrose (table sugar) rat, oral 29,700 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for sucrose Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) rat, oral 11,900 mg/kg Grain alcohol (ethanol) rat, oral 7,060 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for ethyl alcohol Table Salt rat, oral 3,000 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for sodium chloride Paracetamol (acetaminophen) rat, oral 1,944 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for 4-acetamidophenol THC (main psychoactive substance in Cannabis) rat, oral 1,270 mg/kg males; 730 mg/kg females THC Material Data Sheet Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) rat, oral 200 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for acetylsalicylic acid Caffeine rat, oral 192 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for caffeine Nicotine rat, oral 50 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for nicotine Strychnine rat, oral 16 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for strychnine Sodium cyanide rat, oral 6.4 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for sodium cyanide Aflatoxin B1 (from Aspergillus flavus) rat, oral 0.048 mg/kg Safety (MSDS) data for aflatoxin B1 Dioxin (TCDD) rat, oral 0.020 mg/kg U.S. National Toxicology Program acute toxicity studies for Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) Batrachotoxin (from poison dart frog) human, sub-cutaneous injection 0.002-0.007 mg/kg (estimated) Brief Review of Natural Nonprotein Neurotoxins Polonium 210 human, inhalation 0.00001 mg/kg (estimated) Topic 2 Toxic Chemicals and Toxic Effects Botulinum toxin (Botox) human, oral, injection 0.000001 mg/kg (estimated) By Diane O. Fleming, Debra Long Hunt. Biological Safety: principles and practices. ASM Press, 2000, p. 267. Substance Animal, Route LC50 Reference Alkyl dimethyl benzalkonium chloride (ADBAC) fish, immersion 280 μg/L See also Animal testing Reed-Muench method Other measures of toxicity Certain safety factor Fixed Dose Procedure Lowest published toxic concentration (TCLo) Lowest published lethal dose (LDLo) IC50 (50% inhibitory concentration) Draize test Indicative limit value No Observable Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) Lowest Observable Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL) Related measures TCID50 Tissue Culture Infective Dosage EID50 Egg Infective Dosage ELD50 Egg Lethal Dosage Plaque forming units (pfu) References External links Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety List of LD-50s for selected psychoactive substances | Median_lethal_dose |@lemmatized toxicology:4 median:4 lethal:12 dose:15 abbreviation:1 concentration:6 time:2 toxic:9 substance:16 radiation:2 require:3 kill:3 half:1 member:1 tested:1 population:4 figure:2 frequently:2 use:8 general:2 indicator:1 acute:3 toxicity:9 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6,846 | Classical_period_(music) | The dates of the Classical period in Western music are generally accepted as approximately 1750 to 1825. However, the term classical music is used colloquially to describe a variety of Western musical styles from the ninth century to the present, and especially from the sixteenth or seventeenth to the nineteenth . This article is about the specific period from 1750 to 1825. The Classical period falls between the Baroque and the Romantic periods. The best known composers from this period are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven; other notable names include Luigi Boccherini, Mauro Giuliani, Fernando Sor, Muzio Clementi, Johann Ladislaus Dussek, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, and Christoph Willibald Gluck. Beethoven is also sometimes regarded either as a Romantic composer or a composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic; Franz Schubert is also something of a transitional figure, as are Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Luigi Cherubini and Carl Maria von Weber. The period is sometimes referred to as the era of Viennese Classic or Classicism (), since Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Franz Schubert all worked at some time in Vienna, comprising the First Viennese School. Classicism In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and the arts, generally known as Classicism. While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style—one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity. The remarkable development of ideas in "natural philosophy" had established itself in the public consciousness with Newton's physics taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in axioms and be both well-articulated and orderly. This taste for structural clarity worked its way into the world of music, moving away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period, towards a style where a melody over a subordinate harmony — a combination called homophony — was preferred. This meant that the playing of chords, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part, became a much more prevalent feature of music. This, in turn, made the tonal structure of works more audible. The new style was also pushed forward by changes in the economic order and in social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there was a rise in the public taste for comic opera. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups and the reduction in the importance of the continuo – the harmonic fill beneath the music, often played by several instruments. One way to trace this decline of the continuo and its figured chords is to examine the decline of the term obbligato, meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of chamber music. In the Baroque world, additional instruments could be optionally added to the continuo; in the Classical world, all parts were noted specifically, though not always notated, as a matter of course, so the word "obbligato" became redundant. By 1800, the term was virtually extinct. The changes in economic situation also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in the late Baroque a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the forces available at a hunting lodge were smaller and more fixed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the Mannheim orchestra. In addition, the appetite for a continual supply of new music, carried over from the Baroque, meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one rehearsal. Indeed, even after 1790 Mozart writes about "the rehearsal", with the implication that his concerts would have only one. Since polyphonic texture was no longer the main focus of music (excluding the development section) but rather a single melodic line with accompaniment, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for dynamics and phrasing. The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement. Forms such as the concerto and sonata were more heavily defined and given more specific rules, whereas the symphony was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn). The concerto grosso (a concerto for more than one musician) began to be replaced by the solo concerto (a concerto featuring only one soloist), and therefore began to place more importance on the particular soloist's ability to show off. There were, of course, some concerto grossos that remained, the most famous of which being Mozart's Sinfonia Concertante for Violin and Viola in E flat Major. Main characteristics Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music and is less complex. It is mainly homophonic – melody above chordal accompaniment (but counterpoint is by no means forgotten, especially later in the period). The music carries a softer feel due to the fact that gut strings were invented during the Classical period and they made the string instruments softer. There is an emphasis on grace and beauty of melody and form, proportion and balance, moderation and control; it is polished and elegant in character, with expressiveness and formal structure held in perfect balance. Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. Variety of keys, melodies, rhythms and dynamics (using crescendo, diminuendo and sforzando), along with frequent changes of mood and timbre were more commonplace in the Classical period than they had been in the Baroque. Melodies tended to be shorter than those of Baroque music, with clear-cut phrases and clearly marked cadences. The Orchestra increased in size and range; the harpsichord continuo fell out of use, and the woodwind became a self-contained section. As a solo instrument, the harpsichord was replaced by the piano (or fortepiano). Early piano music was light in texture, often with Alberti bass accompaniment, but it later became richer, more sonorous and more powerful. Importance was given to instrumental music – the main kinds were sonata, trio, string quartet, symphony, concerto, serenade and divertimento. Sonata form developed and became the most important form. It was used to build up the first movement of most large-scale works, but also other movements and single pieces (such as overtures). History 1730-1760 At first the new style took over Baroque forms — the ternary da capo aria and the sinfonia and concerto — but composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic layouts changed. Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. The Italian composer Domenico Scarlatti was an important figure in the transition from Baroque to Classical. His unique compositional style is strongly related to that of the early Classical period. He is best known for composing more than five hundred one-movement keyboard sonatas. Another important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck, who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornament and focused on the points of modulation and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these episodes he used changes in instrumentation, melody, and mode. Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, one of whom was Antonio Salieri. Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest success in the public estimation. The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and "worldview", goes by many names. It is sometimes called Galant, Rococo, or pre-Classical, or at other times early Classical. It is a period where some composers still working in the Baroque style flourish, though sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present — Bach, Handel, and Telemann all composed well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons C.P.E. Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form. 1760-1775 By the late 1750s there were flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies were composed and there were "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera or other vocal music was the feature of most musical events, with concertos and "symphonies" (arising from the overture) serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services. Over the course of the Classical period, "symphonies" and concertos developed and were presented independently of vocal music. The "normal" ensemble—a body of strings supplemented by winds—and movements of particular rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in Vienna. However, the length and weight of pieces was still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focused on one affect or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length was not significantly greater than Baroque movements. There was not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough. Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by C.P.E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C.P.E. Bach and Gluck are often considered to be founders of the Classical style. The first great master of the style was the composer Joseph Haydn. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych (Morning, Noon, and Evening) solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a vice-Kapellmeister and later Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many. While some suggest that he was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps George Friedrich Handel. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned — earning him the titles "father of the symphony," and "father of the string quartet." One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called Romanticism — the Sturm und Drang, or "storm and stress" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it influenced what came afterward and would eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in later decades. The "Farewell" Symphony, No. 45 in F Minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns and a long adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some this marks the beginning of the "mature" Classical style, where the period of reaction against the complexity of the late Baroque began to be replaced with a period of integration of elements of both Baroque and Classical styles. 1775-1790 Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most and also the ability to shape the forces that would play his music. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, sought to press forward the technique of building ideas in music. His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), where the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music. Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. However, a younger contemporary, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, brought his genius to Haydn's ideas and applied them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities. This meant opera, and it meant performing as a virtuoso. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn's music and later in his study of the polyphony of Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his gifts. Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource; the learning relationship moved in two directions. Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. It is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This pressed the Classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge — for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to highlight the melody taken by them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings. It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six late symphonies which helped to redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which still stand at the pinnacle of these forms. One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is Muzio Clementi, a gifted virtuoso pianist who dueled Mozart to a draw before the emperor, when they exhibited their compositions in performance. Clementi's sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in London during the 1780s. Also in London at this time was Johann Ladislaus Dussek, who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to the Broadwood's factory for piano manufacturing and as the base for composers who, while less notable than the "Vienna School", had a decisive influence on what came later. They were composers of many fine works, notable in their own right. London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant. 1790-1825 When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements—before, between, or as interludes within other works—and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central part of music-making. In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes: international publication and touring had grown explosively, concert societies were beginning to be formed, notation had been made more specific, more descriptive, and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and "London" symphonies. Composers in Paris, Rome, and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form. The moment was again ripe for a dramatic shift. During the 1790s, there emerged of a new generation of composers, born around 1770, who, while they had grown up with the earlier styles, found in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 Luigi Cherubini settled in Paris and in 1791 composed Lodoiska, an opera that rose him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the grand opera. His contemporary Étienne Méhul extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera Euphrosine et Coradin, from which followed a series of successes. The most fateful of the new generation was Ludwig van Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than the others, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and Schubert and a teacher to Franz Liszt. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of music. They studied one another's works, copied one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals. The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from "vocal" writing to "pianistic" writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring "texture" forward as an element in music. In short, the late Classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising. Direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the figured bass grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid 18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer "optional" parts that stood separately from the main score. The force of these shifts became apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name Eroica, which is Italian for "heroic", by the composer. As with Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources. Classical influence on later composers Musical eras seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old is simply felt as "old-fashioned". The Classical style did not "die" so much as transform under the weight of changes. One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering around "flatward" keys: shifts in the subdominant direction. In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of "sharpward" modulation, and sections in the minor mode were often merely for contrast. Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region. With Schubert, subdominant moves flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts. This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven contributed to this by his increasing use of the fourth as a consonance, and modal ambiguity — for example, the opening of the D Minor Symphony. Franz Schubert, Carl Maria von Weber, and John Field are among the most prominent in this generation of "Classical Romantics", along with the young Felix Mendelssohn. Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style, and they were not yet "learned" (imitating rules which were codified by others), but they directly responded to works by Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal were also quite "Classical" in number and variety, permitting similarity with Classical works. However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gathered strength in the works of each of these composers. The most commonly cited one is harmonic innovation. However, also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration: Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata was the model for hundreds of later pieces — where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. Greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the piano — which created a huge audience for sophisticated music — all contributed to the shift to the "Romantic" style. Drawing the line exactly is impossible: there are sections of Mozart's works which, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later, and composers continue to write in normative Classical styles into the 20th century. Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as Louis Spohr were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more extravagant chromaticism in their works. However, generally the fall of Vienna as the most important musical center for orchestral composition is felt to be the occasion of the Classical style's final eclipse, along with its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin visited Vienna when young, but they then moved on to other vistas. Composers such as Carl Czerny, while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived. Renewed interest in the formal balance and restraint of 18th century classical music led in the early 20th century to the development of so-called Neoclassical style, which numbered Stravinsky and Prokofiev among its proponents. See also List of Classical composers :Category:Classical era composers Further reading Roger Kamien Sixth Brief Edition "Music: An Appreciation" ISBN 978-0-07-340134-8 Charles Rosen, The Classical Style. New York: W.W. Norton, 1972. External links Pandora Radio: Classical Period Classical Net - Classical Music Reference Site Directories of composers and performers of classical.music A daily glance at this day in classical music history NMA (Neue Mozart-Ausgabe) Online - Mozart's scores | Classical_period_(music) |@lemmatized date:1 classical:41 period:22 western:3 music:52 generally:4 accept:1 approximately:1 however:9 term:3 use:13 colloquially:1 describe:1 variety:6 musical:7 style:40 ninth:1 century:7 present:5 especially:2 sixteenth:1 seventeenth:1 nineteenth:1 article:1 specific:3 fall:2 baroque:19 romantic:6 best:3 known:1 composer:32 joseph:4 haydn:28 wolfgang:3 amadeus:3 mozart:33 ludwig:3 van:3 beethoven:14 notable:3 name:3 include:1 luigi:3 boccherini:1 mauro:1 giuliani:1 fernando:1 sor:1 muzio:2 clementi:8 johann:5 ladislaus:2 dussek:2 carl:4 philipp:1 emanuel:1 bach:7 christoph:2 willibald:2 gluck:5 also:14 sometimes:5 regarded:1 either:1 part:12 transition:4 franz:5 schubert:5 something:1 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6,847 | Ceiba_pentandra | For the children's book, see The Great Kapok Tree. Kapok pod showing kapok fibres inside Kapok flowers in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) is a tropical tree of the order Malvales and the family Malvaceae (previously separated in the family Bombacaceae), native to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, northern South America, and (as the variety C. pentandra var. guineensis) to tropical west Africa. The word is also used for the fibre obtained from its seed pods. The tree is also known as the Java cotton, Java kapok, or ceiba. It is a sacred symbol in Maya mythology. The tree grows to 60-70 m (200-230 ft) tall and has a very substantial trunk up to 3 m (10 ft) in diameter with buttresses. The trunk and many of the larger branches are densely crowded with very large, robust simple thorns. The leaves are compound of 5 to 9 leaflets, each up to 20 cm (8 in) and palm like. Adult trees produce several hundred 15 cm (6 in) seed pods. The pods contain seeds surrounded by a fluffy, yellowish fiber that is a mix of lignin and cellulose. Uses Kapok seeds within fibres in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. The fibre is light, very buoyant, resilient, highly flammable and resistant to water. The process of harvesting and separating the fibre is labour-intensive and manual. It is difficult to spin but is used as an alternative to down as filling in mattresses, pillows, upholstery, teddy bears, zafus and for insulation. It was previously much used in life jackets and similar devices. Man-made materials largely replaced the fibre, until recently. The seeds produce an oil used locally in soap and that can be used as fertilizer. In Southeast Asian countries kapok has larger seed pods and the fibre which is highly flammable is used as a fuel in fire pistons, in Thailand called taban fai ตะบันไฟ. The commercial tree is most heavily cultivated in the rainforests of Asia, notably in Java (hence its nicknames), Philippines, and Malaysia, but also in South America. This tree is the official national tree of Puerto Rico and Guatemala. Ethnomedical uses Ceiba pentandra bark decoction has been used as a diuretic, aphrodisiac, and to treat headache, as well as type II diabetes. Ceiba pentandra is used as an additive to some versions of the hallucinogenic drink Ayahuasca. Ayahuasca Analogues References Germplasm Resources Information Network: Ceiba pentandra The larger seed pods of SEA kapok and its use as a fuel in fire pistons Ceiba pentandra in Brunken, U., Schmidt, M., Dressler, S., Janssen, T., Thombiano, A. & Zizka, G. 2008. West African plants - A Photo Guide. Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Frankfurt/Main. Gallery | Ceiba_pentandra |@lemmatized child:1 book:1 see:1 great:1 kapok:9 tree:8 pod:6 show:1 fibre:7 inside:1 flower:1 kolkata:2 west:4 bengal:2 india:2 ceiba:6 pentandra:6 tropical:2 order:1 malvales:1 family:2 malvaceae:1 previously:2 separate:2 bombacaceae:1 native:1 mexico:1 central:1 america:3 caribbean:1 northern:1 south:2 variety:1 c:1 var:1 guineensis:1 africa:1 word:1 also:3 use:10 obtain:1 seed:7 know:1 java:3 cotton:1 sacred:1 symbol:1 maya:1 mythology:1 grow:1 ft:2 tall:1 substantial:1 trunk:2 diameter:1 buttress:1 many:1 large:4 branch:1 densely:1 crowd:1 robust:1 simple:1 thorn:1 leaf:1 compound:1 leaflet:1 cm:2 palm:1 like:1 adult:1 produce:2 several:1 hundred:1 contain:1 surround:1 fluffy:1 yellowish:1 fiber:1 mix:1 lignin:1 cellulose:1 within:1 light:1 buoyant:1 resilient:1 highly:2 flammable:2 resistant:1 water:1 process:1 harvesting:1 labour:1 intensive:1 manual:1 difficult:1 spin:1 alternative:1 filling:1 mattress:1 pillow:1 upholstery:1 teddy:1 bear:1 zafus:1 insulation:1 much:1 life:1 jacket:1 similar:1 device:1 man:1 make:1 material:1 largely:1 replace:1 recently:1 oil:1 locally:1 soap:1 fertilizer:1 southeast:1 asian:1 country:1 fuel:2 fire:2 piston:2 thailand:1 call:1 taban:1 fai:1 ตะบ:1 นไฟ:1 commercial:1 heavily:1 cultivate:1 rainforest:1 asia:1 notably:1 hence:1 nickname:1 philippine:1 malaysia:1 official:1 national:1 puerto:1 rico:1 guatemala:1 ethnomedical:1 us:1 bark:1 decoction:1 diuretic:1 aphrodisiac:1 treat:1 headache:1 well:1 type:1 ii:1 diabetes:1 additive:1 version:1 hallucinogenic:1 drink:1 ayahuasca:2 analogue:1 reference:1 germplasm:1 resource:1 information:1 network:1 sea:1 brunken:1 u:1 schmidt:1 dressler:1 janssen:1 thombiano:1 zizka:1 g:1 african:1 plant:1 photo:1 guide:1 forschungsinstitut:1 senckenberg:1 frankfurt:1 main:1 gallery:1 |@bigram ceiba_pentandra:5 seed_pod:4 highly_flammable:2 teddy_bear:1 southeast_asian:1 puerto_rico:1 ayahuasca_analogue:1 |
6,848 | Escape_from_New_York | Escape from New York is a 1981 science fiction/action film directed and scored by John Carpenter. He also co-wrote the screenplay with Nick Castle. The film is set in the near future in a crime-ridden United States that has converted Manhattan Island in New York City into a maximum security prison. Ex-soldier and legendary fugitive "Snake" Plissken (Kurt Russell) is given 24 hours to find the President of the United States, who has been captured by inmates after Air Force One crashed on the island. Carpenter originally wrote the film in the mid-1970s as a reaction to the Watergate scandal, but no studio wanted to make it because Carpenter proved unable to articulate just how this film could relate to the Watergate scandal. After the success of Halloween, he had enough influence to get the film made and shot most of it in St. Louis, Missouri, where significant portions of the city were used in place of New York City. The film's total budget was estimated to be USD $7 million. It was a commercial hit, grossing over $50 million worldwide. It has since developed its own cult following, particularly around the anti-hero Plissken. A sequel, Escape from L.A., was released in 1996. Plot In a dystopian 1997, World War III is nearing an end, both the United States and the still existent Soviet Union suffered greatly in the conflict and are both looking for a peaceful resolution. Manhattan has been turned into a maximum security prison in 1988 because of a nationwide crime increase of 400%. Surrounded by a containment wall, all inmates are sentenced to life imprisonment, and have formed gangs which control the city. Travelling to a three-way summit between the United States, the Soviet Union and China, Air Force One, the plane of the President of the United States, is hijacked by a member of a revolutionary organization opposed to the government. The militant crashes the plane into Manhattan but the President (Donald Pleasence) is safely sealed in an escape pod and survives. The inmates quickly find him and take him hostage, cutting off one of his fingers to present as evidence and ordering all soldiers to leave Manhattan immediately or they will kill him. United States Police Force Commissioner Bob Hauk (Lee Van Cleef) offers a deal to a newly arrived prisoner, an infamous special forces-soldier-turned-criminal named "Snake" Plissken (Kurt Russell). If Snake rescues the President, and retrieves a cassette tape that contains important information on nuclear fusion, Hauk will give him a full pardon. However, Plissken must complete his mission before the international summit that the president was due to attend, which begins in 24 hours. After Plissken reluctantly agrees to attempt the rescue, Hauk secretly has him injected with microscopic explosives that will blow open his carotid arteries in 24 hours. The explosives cannot be defused until within fifteen minutes before they go off, as a way of ensuring that Snake does not abandon his mission and escape, nor find another way to remove them. If he returns with the president and the tape in time for the summit, Hauk will save him. Snake promises to kill Hauk when he returns. "Snake" Plissken (played by Kurt Russell) is escorted to the maximum security prison on Manhattan Island. Snake covertly lands atop the World Trade Center in a glider, and then locates the hijacked plane wreckage and the escape pod, but the President is gone. Snake tracks the president's life-monitor bracelet signal to the basement of an abandoned theater, only to find it on the wrist of an incoherent old man (George "Buck" Flower). He meets a friendly inmate nicknamed "Cabbie" (Ernest Borgnine), who offers to help. Cabbie takes Snake to see Brain (Harry Dean Stanton), a savvy and well-educated inmate who has made the New York Public Library his personal fortress. Brain, who knows Snake from some heists they did in the past, tells Snake that a powerful gang leader, the self-proclaimed "Duke of New York" (Isaac Hayes), has the President and plans to lead a mass escape across the mined and heavily guarded 69th Street Bridge, using the president as a human shield and hostage. When the Duke unexpectedly arrives to get a diagram of the bridge's land mines, Snake forces Brain and his girlfriend Maggie (Adrienne Barbeau) to lead him back to the Duke's compound. Snake finds the president, but his rescue fails and he is captured. While Snake is forced to fight with a giant brute (Ox Baker), Brain and Maggie trick the Duke's men into letting them have access to the president. After killing the guards, they free the president and flee to Snake's glider. Meanwhile, Snake defeats his opponent, impressing the crowd. When the Duke learns the president has escaped with Brain, he is furious, and he rounds up his gang to chase them down. In the confusion, Snake slips away and manages to catch up with Brain, Maggie and the president at the glider, but during their attempted getaway, a gang of inmates push it off the building. Snake and the others soon find Cabbie, and Snake takes the wheel of his cab, heading for the bridge. When Cabbie reveals that he has the nuclear fusion tape, the president demands it, but Snake takes it. With the Duke chasing in another car, Snake and the others drive over the mine-strewn bridge. After the cab hits a land mine, the cab is destroyed and Cabbie is killed. As the others flee on foot, Brain is killed by a mine and Maggie refuses to leave him. She attempts to hold off the Duke's car by firing at him with a handgun, and she succeeds in forcing Duke's car to crash, but he crashes into her, killing her, and he continues on foot. Snake and the president reach the containment wall, and the guards raise the president on a rope. The Duke then attacks Snake, but the president shoots the Duke, killing him. Snake is then lifted to safety, and the mini-explosives implanted in his body are deactivated with seconds to spare. As the president prepares for a televised speech, he distractedly thanks Snake for saving him. Snake asks him how he feels about the numerous men and women who died saving his life, but the president only offers half-hearted regret that visibly disgusts Snake. The president's speech commences and he offers the content of the cassette to the summit. To the president's embarrassment, the tape has been switched for a cassette of the swing song "Bandstand Boogie" (the theme from American Bandstand), Cabbie's favorite song. After Snake is pardoned, he decides he will not kill Hauk at this time and leaves the prison, tearing apart the all-important nuclear fusion tape and smiling as he leaves. Development Carpenter originally wrote the screenplay for Escape from New York in 1976, in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal. Carpenter said, "The whole feeling of the nation was one of real cynicism about the President. I wrote the screenplay and no studio wanted to make it" because, according to Carpenter, "it was too violent, too scary, too weird." He has also been inspired by the film Death Wish which was very popular at the time. He did not agree with this film's philosophy but liked how it conveyed "the sense of New York as a kind of jungle, and I wanted to make a science fiction film along these lines". Casting Avco-Embassy Pictures, the film's financial backer, preferred either Charles Bronson or Tommy Lee Jones to play the role of "Snake" Plissken to Carpenter's choice of Kurt Russell, who was trying to overcome his "lightweight" screen image which arose from his roles in several Disney comedies. Carpenter refused to cast Bronson on the grounds that he was too old, and because he worried that he could lose directorial control over the picture with an experienced actor. At the time, Russell described his character as "a mercenary, and his style of fighting is a combination of Bruce Lee, The Exterminator, and Darth Vader, with Eastwood's vocal-ness." All that matters to Snake, according to the actor, is "the next 60 seconds. Living for exactly that next minute is all there is." Pre-production Carpenter had just made Dark Star but no one wanted to hire him as a director, so he assumed that he would make it in Hollywood as a screenwriter. The filmmaker went on to do other films with the intention of making Escape later. After the success of Halloween, Avco-Embassy signed him and producer Debra Hill to a two-picture deal. The first film from this contract was The Fog. Initially, the second film that he was going to make to finish the contract was The Philadelphia Experiment, but because of script-writing problems, Carpenter rejected it in favor of this project. However, Carpenter felt that something was missing and recalls, "This was basically a straight action film. And at one point, I realized it really doesn't have this kind of crazy humor that people from New York would expect to see." He brought in Nick Castle, a friend from his film school days at University of Southern California who also played "The Shape" in Halloween. Castle invented the Cabbie character and came up with the film's ending. The film's setting proved to be a potential problem for Carpenter, who needed to create a decaying, semi-destroyed version of New York City on only a shoe-string budget. He and the film's production designer, Joe Alves rejected shooting on location in New York City because it would be too hard to make it look like a destroyed city. Carpenter suggested shooting on a movie back lot but Alves nixed that idea "because the texture of a real street is not like a back lot." They sent Barry Bernardi, their location manager (and also associate producer), "on a sort of all-expense-paid trip across the country looking for the worst city in America," producer Debra Hill remembers. Bernardi suggested East St. Louis, Illinois, because it was filled with old buildings "that exist in New York now, and [that] have that seedy run-down quality" that the team was looking for. East St. Louis, sitting across the Mississippi River from the more prosperous St. Louis, Missouri, had entire neighborhoods burned out in 1976 during a massive urban fire. Hill said in an interview, "block after block was burnt-out rubble. In some places there was absolutely nothing, so that you could see three and four blocks away." As well, Alves found an old bridge to double for the "69th St. Bridge". The filmmaker purchased the Old Chain of Rocks Bridge for one dollar from the government and then gave it back to them for a dollar, "so that they wouldn't have any liability," Hill remembers. Locations across the river in St. Louis, Missouri were also used, including Union Station and the Fox Theater, both of which have since been renovated. Production Carpenter and his crew persuaded the city to shut off the electricity to ten blocks at a time at night. He shot most of the film in the summers of 1979 and 1980. It was a tough and demanding shoot for the filmmaker as he recalls. "We'd finish shooting at about 6 am and I'd just be going to sleep at 7 when the sun would be coming up. I'd wake up around 5 or 6 pm, depending on whether or not we had dailies, and by the time I got going, the Sun would be setting. So for about two and a half months I never saw daylight, which was really strange." The gladiatorial fight to the death scene between Snake and Slag (played by professional wrestler Ox Baker) was filmed in the Grand Hall at St. Louis Union Station. In addition to shooting on location in St. Louis, Carpenter also shot parts of the film in Los Angeles. Various interior scenes were shot on a soundstage; the final scenes were shot at the Sepulveda Dam, in Sherman Oaks. New York also served as a location, as did Atlanta, in order to utilize their then futuristic-looking rapid-transit system. When it came to shooting in New York City Carpenter managed to persuade the city officials to grant access to Liberty Island. "We were the first film company in history allowed to shoot on Liberty Island at the Statue of Liberty at night. They let us have the whole island to ourselves. We were lucky. It wasn't easy to get that initial permission. They'd had a bombing three months earlier and were worried about trouble." Carpenter was interested in creating two distinct looks for the movie. "One is the police state, high tech, lots of neon, a United States dominated by underground computers. That was easy to shoot compared to the Manhattan Island prison sequences which had few lights, mainly torch lights, like feudal England." The simulated wire-frame effect Certain matte paintings were rendered by James Cameron who was at the time a special effects artist with Roger Corman's New World Pictures. As Snake pilots the glider into the city there are three screens on his control panel displaying wireframe animations of the landing target on the World Trade Center and surrounding buildings. What appears on those screens was not computer generated. Carpenter wanted hi-tech computer graphics which were very expensive at the time, even for such a simple animation. To get the animation he wanted the effects crew filmed the miniature model set of New York City they used for other scenes under black light with reflective tape placed along every edge of the model buildings. Only the tape shows up and appears to be a 3D wireframe animation. Reception Escape from New York grossed $25.2 million in American theaters in summer 1981 with a comparable gross in the international market, resulting in a $50 million box office, a revenue-production ratio of almost 7:1. The film received generally positive reviews. It received a rating of 81% on Rotten Tomatoes. Newsweek magazine commented on Carpenter, saying, "[He has a] deeply ingrained B-movie sensibility - which is both his strength and limitation. He does clean work, but settles for too little. He uses Russell well, however." In Time magazine, Richard Corliss wrote, "John Carpenter is offering this summer's moviegoers a rare opportunity: to escape from the air-conditioned torpor of ordinary entertainment into the hothouse humidity of their own paranoia. It's a trip worth taking." Vincent Canby, in his review for the New York Times, wrote, "[The film] is not to be analyzed too solemnly, though. It's a toughly told, very tall tale, one of the best escape (and escapist) movies of the season." However, in his review for the Chicago Reader, Dave Kehr, wrote "it fails to satisfy–it gives us too little of too much." Cyberpunk pioneer William Gibson credits the film as an influence on his novel Neuromancer. "I was intrigued by the exchange in one of the opening scenes where the Warden says to Snake 'you flew the Gullfire over Leningrad didn't you?' It turns out to be just a throwaway line, but for a moment it worked like the best SF where a casual reference can imply a lot." Popular videogame director Hideo Kojima has referred to the movie frequently as an influence on his work, in particular the Metal Gear series. The character Solid Snake is strongly based on Snake Plissken. In Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Snake actually uses the alias "Pliskin" to hide his real identity during the game. SEAL: I'm not an enemy. Calm down. My name is S... My name is Pliskin. Iroquois Pliskin, Lieutenant Junior Grade. (Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, Konami, 2001) J.J. Abrams, producer of the 2008 film Cloverfield, mentioned that a scene in his film, which shows the head of the Statue of Liberty crashing into a New York street, was inspired by the poster for Escape from New York. Empire magazine ranked Snake Plissken #71 in their "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters" poll. Soundtrack Media DVD releases Escape from New York was released on DVD twice by MGM (USA), and once by Momentum Pictures (UK). One MGM release is a barebones edition containing just the theatrical trailer. Another version is the Collector's Edition, a two-disc set featuring a remastered transfer with a 5.1 audio track, two commentaries (one by John Carpenter and Kurt Russell, another by producer Debra Hill and Joe Alves), a making-of featurette, the first issue of a comic book series titled John Carpenter's Snake Plissken Chronicles, and a ten-minute deleted opening sequence. MGM's special edition of the 1981 film was not released until 2003 because the original negative had disappeared. The workprint containing deleted scenes finally turned up in a Midwestern storage facility, formerly used as a salt mine. The excised scenes feature Snake Plissken robbing a bank, introducing the character of Plissken and establishing a backstory. Director John Carpenter decided to add the original scenes into the special edition release as an extra only: "After we screened the rough cut, we realized that the movie didn't really start until Snake got to New York. It wasn't necessary to show what sent him there." The film has also been released on the UMD format for Sony's Playstation Portable. Cover of movie tie-in novel Novelization In 1981, Bantam Books published a movie tie-in novelization written by Mike McQuay that adopts a lean, humorous style reminiscent of the film. The novel is significant because it includes scenes that were cut out of the film, such as the Federal Reserve Depository robbery that results in Snake's incarceration. The novel also provides motivation and backstory to Snake and Hauk — both disillusioned war veterans — deepening their relationship that was only hinted at it in the film. The novel explains how Snake lost his eye during the Battle for Leningrad in World War III, how Hauk became warden of New York, and Hauk's quest to find his crazy son who lives somewhere in the prison. The novel also fleshes out the world that these characters exist in, at times presenting a future even bleaker than the one depicted in the film. The book explains that the west coast is a no-man's land, and the country's population is gradually being driven crazy by nerve gas as a result of World War III. Remake Scottish actor Gerard Butler was close to signing a deal where he would play Snake Plissken in a remake of Carpenter's movie. Neal Moritz was to produce and Ken Nolan was to write the screenplay which would combine an original story for Plissken with the story from the 1981 movie, although Carpenter has hinted that the film might be a prequel. New Line Cinema acquired the rights to the film from co-rights holder StudioCanal, who will control the European rights, and Carpenter, who will serve as an executive producer and said, "Snake is one of my fondest creations. Kurt Russell did an incredible job, and it would be fun to see someone else try." Russell has also commented on the remake and on the casting of Butler as Plissken, saying, "I will say that when I was told who was going to play Snake Plissken, my initial reaction was 'Oh, man!' [Russell winces]. I do think that character was quintessentially one thing. And that is, American." Len Wiseman was attached to direct but he dropped out of the project and rumors were that Brett Ratner would helm the film. Since Ratner has not formally committed to the new project, the identity of the director is as yet unclear. The studio has brought Jonathan Mostow in to rewrite, with an option to direct. In addition, Gerard Butler has bowed out of his role claiming "creative differences". References External links Escape from New York at Official John Carpenter's Website | Escape_from_New_York |@lemmatized escape:15 new:25 york:22 science:2 fiction:2 action:2 film:37 direct:3 score:1 john:6 carpenter:27 also:11 co:2 write:9 screenplay:4 nick:2 castle:3 set:5 near:2 future:2 crime:2 ridden:1 united:7 state:8 convert:1 manhattan:6 island:7 city:13 maximum:3 security:3 prison:6 ex:1 soldier:3 legendary:1 fugitive:1 snake:46 plissken:16 kurt:6 russell:10 give:4 hour:3 find:8 president:24 capture:2 inmate:6 air:3 force:7 one:15 crash:5 originally:2 mid:1 reaction:2 watergate:3 scandal:3 studio:3 want:6 make:11 prove:2 unable:1 articulate:1 could:3 relate:1 success:2 halloween:3 enough:1 influence:3 get:6 shot:2 st:8 louis:7 missouri:3 significant:2 portion:1 use:7 place:3 total:1 budget:2 estimate:1 usd:1 million:4 commercial:1 hit:2 gross:3 worldwide:1 since:3 develop:1 cult:1 follow:1 particularly:1 around:2 anti:1 hero:1 sequel:1 l:1 release:7 plot:1 dystopian:1 world:7 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6,849 | Ghana | The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The word Ghana means "Warrior King," Jackson, John G. Introduction to African Civilizations, 2001. Page 201. and was the source of the name "Guinea" (via French Guinoye), which has been used to refer to the West African coast (reflected in the Gulf of Guinea). Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient kingdoms, including the Ga-Daŋmes on the eastern coast, the inland Empire of Ashanti and various Fante states along the coast and inland. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established a crown colony, Gold Coast, in 1874. MacLean, Iain. Rational Choice and British Politics: An Analysis of Rhetoric and Manipulation from Peel to Blair, 2001. Page 76. Gold Coast achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1957, becoming the first Sub-Saharan African nation to do so. Peter N. Stearns and William Leonard Langer. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged, 2001. Page 1050. The name Ghana was chosen for the new nation to reflect the ancient Empire of Ghana, which once extended throughout much of western Africa. In the Ashanti language it is spelled Gaana. History The modern Republic of Ghana is named after the medieval West African Ghana Empire, which ruled territory in the area of modern Mauritania, Mali and Senegal c. 790-1076. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570799/Ghana.html Encarta article on Ghana "the new state took its name from that of the medieval empire of Ghana" is third line down from the top. Map of Ghana Geographically, the old Ghana was approximately north and west of modern Ghana, and it controlled territories in the area of the Sénégal river and east towards the Niger rivers, in modern Senegal, Mauritania and Mali. Historically, modern Ghanaian territory was the core of the Empire of Ashanti, which was one of the most advanced states in sub-Saharan Africa in the 18-19th centuries, before colonial rule. It is said that at its peak, the King of Ashanti could field 500,000 troops. Early European contact by the Portuguese, who came to Ghana in the 15th Century, focused on extensive availability of gold, which the Sahelian kingdoms had also traded for in the Medieval period for trade north with the Islamic world. British merchants named the area the Gold Coast, later the name given to the English colony, while French merchants, impressed with the trinkets worn by the coastal people, named the area to the west "Côte d'Ivoire," or Ivory Coast. |Elmina Castle In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed the next year. Their aim was to trade in gold, ivory and slaves, consolidating their burgeoning power in the region. By 1598, the Dutch had joined them, and built forts at Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1637, they captured Elmina Castle from the Portuguese and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony). Other European traders joined in by the mid 17th century, largely English, Danes and Swedes. The coastline was dotted by more than 30 forts and castles built by Dutch, British and Danish merchants. The Gold Coast became the highest concentration of European military architecture outside of Europe. By the latter part of the 19th century, the Dutch and the British were the only traders left, and after the Dutch withdrew in 1874, Britain made the Gold Coast a protectorate. Following conquest by the British in 1896, until independence in March 1957, the territory of modern Ghana was organized as the Gold Coast, under British colonial rule. For most of central sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural expansion marked the period before 500. Farming began earliest on the southern tips of the Sahara, eventually giving rise to village settlements. Toward the end of the classical era, larger regional kingdoms had formed in West Africa, one of which was the Kingdom of Ghana, north of what is today the nation of Ghana. After its fall at the beginning of the 13th century, Akan migrants moved southward then founded several nation-states including the first great Akan empire of the Bono, which is now known as the Brong Ahafo region in Ghana. Later Akan groups such as the Ashanti federation and Fante states are thought possibly to have roots in the original Bono settlement at Bono manso. Much of the area was united under the Empire of Ashanti by the 16th century. The Ashanti government operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralized kingdom with an advanced, highly-specialized bureaucracy centered in Kumasi. The first contact between the Ghanaian peoples, the Fantes on the coastal area, and Europeans occurred in 1482. The Portuguese first landed at Elmina, a coastal city inhabited by the Fanti nation-state in 1482. During the next few centuries parts of the area were controlled by British, Portuguese, and Scandinavian powers, with the British ultimately prevailing. These nation-states maintained varying alliances with the colonial powers and each other, which resulted in the 1806 Ashanti-Fante War, as well as an ongoing struggle by the Empire of Ashanti against the British. Moves toward regional de-colonization began in 1946, and the area's first constitution was promulgated in 1951. Formed from the merger of the British colony Gold Coast, the Empire of Ashanti and the British Togoland trust territory by a UN sponsored plebiscite, Ghana became the first democratic sub-Sahara country in colonial Africa to gain its independence in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah, LIE founder and first president of the modern Ghanaian state, was not only an African anti-colonial leader but also one with a dream of a united Africa which would not drift into neo-colonialism. He was the first African head of state to espouse Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (United States), at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement." He merged the dreams of both Marcus Garvey and the celebrated African-American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of the modern day Ghana. Ghana's principles of freedom and justice, equity and free education for all, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or creed, borrow from Kwame Nkrumah's implementation of Pan-Africanism. ||Memorial to Kwame Nkrumah in Accra. The leader of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah, was overthrown by a military coup in 1966. It has been argued that this was supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency; Interview with John Stockwell in Pandora's Box: Black Power (Adam Curtis, BBC Two, 22 June 1992) http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_xxiv/s.html, http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_xxiv/s.html, http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/cia_nkrumah.php, http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=75990, On Nkrumah assassination by CIA: Gaines, Kevin (2006) American Africans in Ghana, Black expatriates and the Civil Rights era, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. that assertion remains generally unproven. A series of subsequent coups ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and the banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoring multi-party politics, was promulgated in 1992, and Rawlings was elected as president in the free and fair elections of that year and again won the elections 1996 to serve his second term. The constitution prohibited him from running for a third term. 2007 marked Ghana's Golden Jubilee, celebrating fifty years of independence since 6 March 1957. In 2009 John Atta Mills took office as president, the second time power in the country had been transferred from one legitimately elected leader to another, securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy. Regions of Ghana Regions and districts Ghana is a divided into 10 regions, subdivided into a total of 138 districts. The regions are: Government and politics Government: Ghana was created as a parliamentary democracy at independence in 1957, followed by alternating military and civilian governments. In January 1993, military government gave way to Fourth Republic after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution divides powers among a president, parliament, cabinet, Council of State, and an independent judiciary. The Government is elected by universal suffrage.<ref name=cs>"Government and Politics". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Administrative Divisions: There are ten administrative regions which are divided into 110 districts, each with its own District Assembly. Below districts are various types of councils, including fifty eight town or area councils, 108 zonal councils, and 626 area councils. 16,000 unit committees on lowest level. Accra Conference Centre Judicial System: The legal system is based on Ghanaian common law, customary (traditional) law, and the 1992 constitution. Court hierarchy consists of Supreme Court of Ghana (highest court), Court of Appeal, and High Court of Justice. Beneath these bodies are district, traditional, and local courts. Extrajudicial institutions include public tribunals. Since independence, courts are relatively independent; this independence continues under Fourth Republic. Lower courts are being redefined and reorganized under the Fourth Republic. Politics: Political parties became legal in mid-1992 after ten-year hiatus. Under the Fourth Republic, major parties are National Democratic Congress, led by Jerry John Rawlings, which won presidential and parliamentary elections in 1992; New Patriotic Party, major opposition party; People's National Convention, led by former president Hilla Limann; and (new) People's Convention Party, successor to Kwame Nkrumah's original party of same name. Foreign Relations: Since independence, Ghana has been fervently devoted to ideals of nonalignment and Pan-Africanism, both closely identified with first president, Kwame Nkrumah. Ghana favors international and regional political and economic cooperation, and is an active member of United Nations and Organization of African Unity. Ghanaian politician Kofi Annan was elected UN Secretary General in 1997 and left office on the 1st of January 2007. In 1994 President Rawlings was elected chairman of Economic Community of West African States. Economy Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Even so, Ghana remains somewhat dependent on international financial and technical assistance as well as the activities of the extensive Ghanaian diaspora. Gold, timber, cocoa, diamond, bauxite, and manganese exports are major sources of foreign exchange. The World Factbook An oilfield which is reported to contain up to of light oil was discovered in 2007. Oil exploration is ongoing and, the amount of oil continues to increase. RIGZONE - Kosmos Makes Second Oil Discovery Offshore Ghana The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 50% of GDP and employs 85% of the work force, mainly small landholders. On the negative side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the Cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. Even so, Ghana remains one of the more economically sound countries in all of Africa. Makola Market, Accra The country has since July, 2007, embarked on a currency re-denomination exercise, from Cedi (¢) to the new currency, the Ghana Cedi (GH¢). The transfer rate is 1 Ghana Cedi for every 10,000 Cedis. The Bank of Ghana has embarked upon an aggressive media campaign to educate the public about what re-denomination entails. The new Ghana Cedi is now exchanging at a rate of $1 USD =Gh¢ 0.93 Value Added Tax is a consumption tax administered in Ghana. The tax regime which started in 1998 had a single rate but since September 2007 entered into a multiple rate regime. In 1998, the rate of tax was 10% and amended in 2000 to 12.5%. However with the passage of Act 734 of 2007, a 3% VAT Flat Rate Scheme (VFRS) began to operate for the retail distribution sector. This allows retailers of taxable goods under Act 546 to charge a marginal 3% on their sales and account on same to the VAT Service. It is aimed at simplifying the tax system and increasing compliance. Geography Aburi hills Ghana's highest point is Mount Afadjato, seen here from the village of Liati Wote Ghana is a country located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, therefore giving it a warm climate. The Greenwich Meridian also passes through Ghana, specifically through the industrial city of Ghana-Tema; so it is said that Ghana is geographically closer to the "centre" of the world than any other country. The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams. Formerly, a tropical rainforest belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extended northward from the coast, but most of the rainforest was felled in the twentieth century, leaving scattered remnants, principally in the southwest, some of which are under protection. North of this belt, the land is covered by low bush, park-like savannah, and grassy plains. The climate is tropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry (see Dahomey Gap); the southwest corner, hot and humid; and the north, hot and dry. Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, extends through large portions of eastern Ghana. Demographics Kumasi Osu, Ghana The major ethnic groups are Akan 49.3%, Mole-Dagbon 15.2%, Ewe 11.7%, Ga-Dangme 7.3%, Guan 4%, Gurma 3.6%, Gurunsi 2.6%, Mande-Busanga 1%, other tribes 1.4%, other (Hausa, Zabarema, Fulani) 1.8% (2000 census). According to the 2000 government census, religious divisions are as follows: Christian 69%, Muslim 16%, African beliefs 15%. 2007 Report on International Religious Freedom - Ghana The Christianity and Islam practiced in Ghana has many aspects of traditional African religion integrated into it. Population of major cities CityPopulation Accra 2,096,653 Kumasi 1,604,909 Tamale390,730 Sekondi-Takoradi 260,651 Tema 229,106 Teshie 154,513 Cape Coast 154,204 Obuasi 147,613 Languages A street seller in Accra. More than 250 languages and dialects are spoken in Ghana. English is the country's official language and predominates government and business affairs. It is also the standard language used for educational instruction. Native Ghanaian languages are divided into two linguistic subfamilies of the Niger-Congo language family. Languages belonging to the Kwa subfamily are found predominantly to the south of the Volta River, while those belonging to the Gur subfamily are found predominantly to the north. The Kwa group, which is spoken by about 75% of the country's population, includes the Akan, Ga-Dangme, and Ewe languages. The Gur group includes the Gurma, Grusi, and Dagbani languages. Nine languages have the status of government-sponsored languages: Akan, Dagaare/Wale, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, and Nzema. Though not an official language, Hausa is the lingua-franca spoken among Ghana's Muslims, who comprise about 14% of the population. Media The media of Ghana is one of the most free in Africa, and had previously undergone a series of government overthrows by military leaders and periods of severe restriction. Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibts censorship. Constitution of Ghana, Government of Ghana. Post independence, the government and media often had a tense relationship, with private outlets closed during the military coups and strict media laws that prevent criticism of government. Anokwa, K. (1997). In Press Freedom and Communication in Africa. Erbio, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (Eds.) Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0865435513. The media freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of John Kufuor the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor was a supporter of press freedom and repealed a libel law, though maintained that the media had to act responsibly. Ghanian Media, Press Reference. The Ghanaian media has been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa, operating with little restriction on private media. The private press often carries criticism of government policy. BBC Country Profile: Ghana, BBC News. The media were vigorous in their coverage of the 2008 Ghanaian presidential election, and the Ghanaian Journalists Association (GJA) praised John Atta Mills on his election, hoping to foster a good media-government relationship. GJA congratulates President Atta Mills, Joy Radio, January 11, 2009. Education A Dora textile group in Nsawam Presently, Ghana has 18,530 primary schools, 8,850 junior secondary schools, 900 senior secondary schools, 28 training colleges, 20 technical institutions, 4 diploma-awarding institutions, 6 public universities and over 10 private universities. Most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to primary and secondary education. These numbers can be contrasted with the single university and handful of secondary and primary schools that existed at the time of independence in 1957. Ghana's spending on education has varied between 28 and 40 percent of its annual budget in the past decade. All teaching is done in English, Ghana's official language. Ghana has a 6-year primary education system beginning at the age of six, and, under the educational reforms implemented in 1987, they pass on to a 3-year junior secondary system all making up the basic education and then afterwards a three year senior secondary system. The new educational reforms programme which was introduced in 2007 has now replaced the previous system. Now the junior secondary school is now junior high school (JHS). At the end of the 3rd year of JHS, there is a Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Those continuing must complete the 4-year senior high school (SHS) program and take an admission exam to enter university. School enrollment totals over 2 million: 1.3 million primary; 550,000 middle; 300,000 secondary; 84,280 technical; 18,000 teacher training, and 89,000 in university. The shortage of places in post-secondary education is acute; one out of nine senior secondary graduates finds a place in a technical, teacher-training, or four-year university program. International rankings Organization Survey Ranking Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 91 out of 157 Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 31 out of 173 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index 69 out of 179 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 135 out of 177 Vision of Humanity Global Peace Index 40 out of 121 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report not ranked See also Commonwealth of Nations List of Ghana-related articles List of Ghana-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Africa Outline of geography Outline of Ghana United Nations References External links Government Ghana official Website The Parliament of Ghana official site National Commission on Culture official site Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Country Profile from BBC News Ghana from Encyclopaedia Britannica Ghana from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' News media Ghana Broadcasting Corporation 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6,850 | Aesthetics | Aesthetics (also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. Zangwill, Nick. "Aesthetic Judgment", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 07-24-2008. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and nature." Kelly (1998) p. ix Review by Tom Riedel (Regis University) Aesthetics is a subdiscipline of axiology, a branch of philosophy, and is closely associated with the philosophy of art. Bruyn, Professor Severyn T. "Art and Aesthetics in Action", Boston College, 2002. Retrieved 07-22-2008. Aesthetics studies new ways of seeing and of perceiving the world. Freeman, Lindsey (Phd) Remembering Debord cannon-beach.net Etymology The term esthetics 1790-, derives from the German ästhetisch (Alexander Baumgarten, c. 1750)or the French esthétique, both derived from the Greek αισθητικός (aisthetikos) "esthetic-sensitive-sentient", from αίσθηση-αισθάνομαι (aisthese-aisthanomai) "to perceive-feel-sense" Definition of aesthetic from the Online Etymology Dictionary Aesthetic judgment Judgments of aesthetic value clearly rely on our ability to discriminate at a sensory level. Aesthetics examines our affective domain response to an object or phenomenon. Many see natural beauty folded within petals of a rose. Immanuel Kant, writing in 1790, observes of a man "If he says that canary wine is agreeable he is quite content if someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say instead: It is agreeable to me," because "Everyone has his own (sense of) taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere "agreeableness" because, "If he proclaims something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from others; he then judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things." Aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination. For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely "the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition", but also our sensitivity "to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind." (Essays Moral Political and Literary. Indianapolis, Literary Classics 5, 1987.) Thus, the sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure. For Kant "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasure by engaging our capacities of reflective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once. Viewer interpretations of beauty possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of education and awareness of elite cultural values; therefore taste can be learned. Taste varies according to class, cultural background, and education. According to Kant beauty is objective and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone. The contemporary view of beauty is not based on innate qualities, but rather on cultural specifics and individual interpretations. What factors are involved in an aesthetic judgment? Judgments of aesthetic value seem often to involve many other kinds of issues as well. Responses such as disgust show that sensory detection is linked in instinctual ways to facial expressions, and even behaviors like the gag reflex. Yet disgust can often be a learned or cultural issue too; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in our physical reactions. Seeing a sublime view of a landscape may give us a reaction of awe, which might manifest physically as an increased heart rate or widened eyes. These unconscious reactions may even be partly constitutive of what makes our judgment a judgment that the landscape is sublime. Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as being beautiful. The Abuse of Beauty, Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus, judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value. Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741. We might judge a Lamborghini to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or we might judge it to be repulsive partly because it signifies for us over-consumption and offends our political or moral values. Korsmeyer, Carolyn ed. Aesthetics: The Big Questions 1998 "Part and Parcel in Animal and Human Societies". in Studies in animal and human behavior, vol. 2. pp. 115-195. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1971 (originally pub. 1950.) Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative. It is what a thing means or symbolizes for us that is often what we are judging. Modern aestheticians have asserted that will and desire were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed important aesthetics to some 20th century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, "Beauty and the Critic’s Judgment", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconscious behavior, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these, depending on exactly which theory one employs. Anthropology, especially the savanna hypothesis proposed by Gordon Orians and others, predicts that some of the positive aesthetics that people have are based on innate knowledge of productive human habitats. It had been shown that people prefer and feel happier looking at trees with spreading forms much more than looking at trees with other forms, or non-tree objects; also Bright green colors, linked with healthy plants with good nutrient qualities, were more calming than other tree colors, including less bright greens and oranges. Are different art forms beautiful, disgusting, or boring in the same way? A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. We can call a person, a house, a symphony, a fragrance, and a mathematical proof beautiful. What characteristics do they share which give them that status? What possible feature could a proof and a fragrance both share in virtue of which they both count as beautiful? What makes a painting beautiful is quite different from what makes music beautiful, which suggests that each art form has its own language for the judgement of aesthetics. Consider Clement Greenberg’s arguments in "On Modernist Painting" (1961), reprinted in Aesthetics: A Reader in Philosophy of Arts. At the same time, there is seemingly quite a lack of words to express oneself accurately when making an aesthetic judgement. An aesthetic judgement cannot be an empirical judgement. Therefore, due to impossibility for precision, there is confusion about what interpretations can be culturally negotiated. Due to imprecision in the standard English language, two completely different feelings experienced by two different people can be represented by an identical verbal expression. Wittgenstein stated this in his lectures on aesthetics and language games. A collective identification of beauty, with willing participants in a given social spectrum, may be a socially negotiated phenomenon, discussed in a culture or context. Is there some underlying unity to aesthetic judgment and is there some way to articulate the similarities of a beautiful house, beautiful proof, and beautiful sunset? Immanuel Kant, The Critique of Judgment. Defining it requires a description of the entire phenomenon, as Wittgenstein argued in his lectures on aesthetics. Likewise there has been long debate on how perception of beauty in the natural world, especially perception of the human form as beautiful, is supposed to relate to perceiving beauty in art or artefacts. This goes back at least to Kant, with some echoes even in St. Bonaventure. Aesthetics and the philosophy of art Aesthetics is used by some as a synonym for the philosophy of art, while others insist on a distinction between these closely related fields. In practice aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art or an art work. What is "art?" How best to define the term “art” is a subject of constant contention; many books and journal articles have been published arguing over even the basics of what we mean by the term “art”. Davies, 1991, Carroll, 2000, et al. Theodor Adorno claimed in 1969 “It is self-evident that nothing concerning art is self-evident.” Danto, 2003 Goodman, Artists, philosophers, anthropologists, psychologists and programmers all use the notion of art in their respective fields, and give it operational definitions that vary considerably. Furthermore, it is clear that even the basic meaning of the term "art" has changed several times over the centuries, and has continued to evolve during the 20th century as well. The main recent sense of the word “art” is roughly as an abbreviation for creative art or “fine art.” Here we mean that skill is being used to express the artist’s creativity, or to engage the audience’s aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the “finer” things. Often, if the skill is being used in a functional object, people will consider it a craft instead of art, a suggestion which is highly disputed by many Contemporary Craft thinkers. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way it may be considered design instead of art, or contrariwise these may be defended as art forms, perhaps called applied art. Some thinkers, for instance, have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with the actual function of the object than any clear definitional difference. Novitz, 1992 Art usually implies no function other than to convey or communicate an idea. Even as late as 1912 it was normal in the West to assume that all art aims at beauty, and thus that anything that wasn't trying to be beautiful couldn't count as art. The cubists, dadaists, Stravinsky, and many later art movements struggled against this conception that beauty was central to the definition of art, with such success that, according to Danto, "Beauty had disappeared not only from the advanced art of the 1960’s but from the advanced philosophy of art of that decade as well." Perhaps some notion like "expression" (in Croce’s theories) or "counter-environment" (in McLuhan’s theory) can replace the previous role of beauty. Brian Massumi brought back "beauty" into consideration together with "expression". Brian Massumi, Deleuze, Guattari and the Philosophy of Expression, CRCL, 24:3, 1997. Another concept, as important to the philosophy of art as "beauty," is that of the "sublime," elaborated upon in the twentieth century by the postmodern philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard. Perhaps (as in Kennick's theory) no definition of art is possible anymore. Perhaps art should be thought of as a cluster of related concepts in a Wittgensteinian fashion (as in Weitz or Beuys). Another approach is to say that “art” is basically a sociological category, that whatever art schools and museums and artists define as art is considered art regardless of formal definitions. This "institutional definition of art" (see also Institutional Critique) has been championed by George Dickie. Most people did not consider the depiction of a Brillo Box or a store-bought urinal to be art until Andy Warhol and Marcel Duchamp (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the art gallery), which then provided the association of these objects with the associations that define art. Proceduralists often suggest that it is the process by which a work of art is created or viewed that makes it art, not any inherent feature of an object, or how well received it is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction to society at large. Whereas if exactly the same set of words was written by a journalist, intending them as shorthand notes to help him write a longer article later, these would not be a poem. Leo Tolstoy, on the other hand, claims that what makes something art or not is how it is experienced by its audience, not by the intention of its creator. Functionalists like Monroe Beardsley argue that whether or not a piece counts as art depends on what function it plays in a particular context; the same Greek vase may play a non-artistic function in one context (carrying wine), and an artistic function in another context (helping us to appreciate the beauty of the human figure). ' See also: Classificatory disputes about art What should we judge when we judge art? Art can be difficult at the metaphysical and ontological levels as well as at the value theory level. When we see a performance of Hamlet, how many works of art are we experiencing, and which should we judge? Perhaps there is only one relevant work of art, the whole performance, which many different people have contributed to, and which will exist briefly and then disappear. Perhaps the manuscript by Shakespeare is a distinct work of art from the play by the troupe, which is also distinct from the performance of the play by this troupe on this night, and all three can be judged, but are to be judged by different standards. Perhaps every person involved should be judged separately on his or her own merits, and each costume or line is its own work of art (with perhaps the director having the job of unifying them all). Similar problems arise for music, film and even painting. Is one to judge the painting itself, the work of the painter, or perhaps the painting in its context of presentation by the museum workers? These problems have been made even more difficult by the rise of conceptual art since the 1960s. Warhol’s famous Brillo Boxes are nearly indistinguishable from actual Brillo boxes at the time. It would be a mistake to praise Warhol for the design of his boxes (which were designed by Steve Harvey), yet the conceptual move of exhibiting these boxes as art in a museum together with other kinds of paintings is Warhol's. Are we judging Warhol’s concept? His execution of the concept in the medium? The curator’s insight in letting Warhol display the boxes? The overall result? Our experience or interpretation of the result? Ontologically, how are we to think of the work of art? Is it a physical object? Several objects? A class of objects? A mental object? A fictional object? An abstract object? An event? Or simply an Act? What should art be like? Many goals have been argued for art, and aestheticians often argue that some goal or another is superior in some way. Clement Greenberg, for instance, argued in 1960 that each artistic medium should seek that which makes it unique among the possible mediums and then purify itself of anything other than expression of its own uniqueness as a form. Clement Greenberg, “On Modernist Painting”. The Dadaist Tristan Tzara on the other hand saw the function of art in 1918 as the destruction of a mad social order. “We must sweep and clean. Affirm the cleanliness of the individual after the state of madness, aggressive complete madness of a world abandoned to the hands of bandits.” Tristan Tzara, Sept Manifestes Dada. Formal goals, creative goals, self-expression, political goals, spiritual goals, philosophical goals, and even more perceptual or aesthetic goals have all been popular pictures of what art should be like. The value of art Tolstoy defined art, and not incidentally characterized its value, this way: "Art is a human activity consisting in this, that one man consciously, by means of certain external signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived through, and that other people are infected by these feelings and also experience them." The value of art, then, is one with the value of empathy. Other possible views are these: Art can act as a means to some special kind of knowledge. Art may give insight into the human condition. Art relates to science and religion. Art serves as a tool of education, or indoctrination, or enculturation. Art makes us more moral. It uplifts us spiritually. Art is politics by other means. Art has the value of allowing catharsis. In any case, the value of art may determine the suitability of an art form. Do they differ significantly in their values, or (if not) in their ability to achieve the unitary value of art? But to approach the question of the value of art systematically, one ought to ask: for whom? For the artist? For the audience? For society at large, and/or for individuals beyond the audience? Is the "value" of art different in each of these different contexts? Working on the intended value of art tends to help define the relations between art and other acts. Art clearly does have spiritual goals in many contexts, but what exactly is the difference between religious art and religion per se? The truth is complex - Art is both useless in a functional sense and the most important human activity. It has been said, that a Vogon Starship arriving at the earth and ordering its destruction would ask what use is humanity? The only justification humanity could give would be a Shakespeare play, a Rembrandt or a Bach concerto. These are the things of value which define humanity itself. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams Aesthetic universals The philosopher Denis Dutton identified seven universal signatures in human aesthetics: Denis Dutton's Aesthetic Universals summarized by Steven Pinker in The Blank Slate Expertise or virtuosity. Technical artistic skills are cultivated, recognized, and admired. Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and don't demand that it keep them warm or put food on the table. Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style. Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art. Imitation. With a few important exceptions like music and abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of the world. Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience. Imagination. Artists and their audiences entertain hypothetical worlds in the theater of the imagination. It might be objected, however, that there are rather too many exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example, the installations of the contemporary artist Thomas Hirschhorn deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specific devotional functions. 'Rules of composition' that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's 4'33" do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the works' realisation). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Increasingly, academics in both the sciences and the humanities are looking to evolutionary psychology and cognitive science in an effort to understand the connection between psychology and aesthetics. Aside from Dutton, others exploring this realm include Brian Boyd, Noel Carroll, Nancy Easterlin, David Evans, Jonathan Gottschall, Paul Hernadi, Bracha Ettinger, Patrick Hogan, Elaine Scarry, Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Wendy Steiner, Robert Storey, Frederick Turner, and Mark Turner. Criticism The philosophy of aesthetics has been criticized by some sociologists and writers about art and society. Raymond Williams argues that there is no unique aesthetic object but a continuum of cultural forms from ordinary speech to experiences that are signaled as art by a frame, institution or special event. Pierre Bourdieu also takes issue with Kant's aesthetics and argues that it represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure. History of aesthetics Bronze sculpture, thought to be either Poseidon or Zeus, National Archaeological Museum of Athens Ancient aesthetics We have examples of pre-historic art, but they are rare, and the context of their production and use is not very clear, so we can little more than guess at the aesthetic doctrines that guided their production and interpretation. Ancient art was largely, but not entirely, based on the seven great ancient civilizations: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Persia, India and China. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Greece had the most influence on the development of aesthetics in the West. This period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of corresponding skills to show musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correct proportions. Furthermore, in many Western and Eastern cultures alike, traits such as body hair are rarely depicted in art that addresses physical beauty. More in contrast with this Greek-Western aesthetic taste is the genre of grotesque. Grotesque entry in Kelly 1998, pp.338-341 Greek philosophers initially felt that aesthetically appealing objects were beautiful in and of themselves. Plato felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the universal elements of beauty were order, symmetry, and definiteness. Islamic aesthetics Islamic art is not, properly speaking, an art pertaining to religion only. The term "Islamic" refers not only to the religion, but to any form of art created in an Islamic culture or in an Islamic context. It would also be a mistake to assume that all Muslims are in agreement on the use of art in religious observance, the proper place of art in society, or the relation between secular art and the demands placed on the secular world to conform to religious precepts. Islamic art frequently adopts secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0131934554 pg. 277 According to Islam, human works of art are inherently flawed compared to the work of God; thus, it is believed by many that to attempt to depict in a realistic form any animal or person is insolence to God. This tendency has had the effect of narrowing the field of artistic possibility to such forms of art as Arabesque, mosaic, Islamic calligraphy, and Islamic architecture, as well as more generally any form of abstraction that can claim the status of non-representational art. The limited possibilities has been explored by artists as an outlet to artistic expression, and has been cultivated to become a positive style and tradition, emphasizing the decorative function of art, or its religious functions via non-representational forms such as Geometric patterns, floral patterns, and arabesques. It is a common myth that human or animal depiction is forbidden altogether in Islamic cultures. In fact, human portrayals can be found in all Islamic cultures with varying degrees of acceptance by religious authorities. It is only human representation for the purpose of worship that is uniformly considered idolatry as forbidden in Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art. The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries, Wijdan Ali, American Univ in Cairo Press, December 10 1999, ISBN 9774244761 From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art, Wijdan Ali, EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies), volume IV, issue 7, p. 1-24, 2001 The calligraphic arts grew out an effort to devote oneself to the study of the Koran. By patiently transcribing each word of the text, the writer was made to contemplate the meaning of it. As time passed, these calligraphic works began to be prized as works of art, growing increasingly elaborate in the illumination and stylizing of the text. These illuminations were applied to other works besides the Koran, and it became a respected art form in and of itself. Indian aesthetics Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically. According to Kapila Vatsyayan, "Classical Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, literature (kāvya), music, and dancing evolved their own rules conditioned by their respective media, but they shared with one another not only the underlying spiritual beliefs of the Indian religio-philosophic mind, but also the procedures by which the relationships of the symbol and the spiritual states were worked out in detail." Of particular concern to Indian drama and literature is the term rasa referring generally to the emotional flavors crafted into the work by the writer and relished by a 'sensitive spectator' or sahṛdaya. Poets like Kālidāsa were attentive to rasa, which blossomed into a fully developed aesthetic system. Even in contemporary India the term rasa denoting "flavor" is used colloquially to describe the aesthetic experiences in films; "māsala mix" describes popular Hindi cinema films which serve a balanced emotional meal, savored as rasa by the spectator. Rasa theory blossoms beginning with the Sanskrit text Nātyashāstra (nātya meaning "drama" and shāstra meaning "science of"), a work attributed to Bharata Muni where the Gods declare that drama is the 'Fifth Veda' because it is suitable for the degenerate age as the best form of religious instruction. While the date of composition varies wildly among scholars, ranging from the era of Plato and Aristotle to the seventh century CE. The Nātyashāstra presents the aesthetic concepts of rasas and their associated bhāvas in Chapters Six and Seven respectively, which appear to be independent of the work as a whole. Eight rasas and associated bhāvas are named and their enjoyment is likened to savoring a meal: rasa is the enjoyment of flavors that arise from the proper preparation of ingredients and the quality of ingredients. What rasa actually is, in a theoretical sense, is not discussed and given the Nātyashāstra's pithy wording it is unlikely the exact understanding of the original author(s) will be known. The theory of the rasas develops significantly with the Kashmiri aesthetician Ãndandavardhana's classic on poetics, the Dhvanyāloka which introduces the ninth rasa, shānta-rasa as a specifically religious feeling of peace (śānta) which arises from its bhāva, weariness of the pleasures of the world. The primary purpose of this text is to refine the literary concept dhvani or poetic suggestion, by arguing for the existence of rasa-dhvani, primarily in forms of Sanskrit including a word, sentence or whole work "suggests" a real-world emotional state or bhāva, but thanks to aesthetic distance, the sensitive spectator relishes the rasa, the aesthetic flavor of tragedy, heroism or romance. The 9th - 10th century master of the religious system known as "the nondual Shaivism of Kashmir" (or "Kashmir Shaivism") and aesthetician, Abhinavagupta brought rasa theory to its pinnacle in his separate commentaries on the Dhvanyāloka, the Dhvanyāloka-locana (translated by Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan, 1992) and the Abhinavabharati, his commentary on the Nātyashāstra, portions of which are translated by Gnoli and Masson and Patwardhan. Abhinavagupta offers for the first time a technical definition of rasa which is the universal bliss of the Self or Atman colored by the emotional tone of a drama. Shānta-rasa functions as an equal member of the set of rasas but is simultaneously distinct being the most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens it to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may not be the most appealing for most people, it is the string that gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels of the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas and particularly shānta-rasa is hinted as being as-good-as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by yogis. Chinese aesthetics Chinese art has a long history of varied styles and emphases. In ancient times philosophers were already arguing about aesthetics. Confucius emphasized the role of the arts and humanities (especially music and poetry) in broadening human nature and aiding “li” (etiquette, the rites) in bringing us back to what is essential about humanity. His opponent Mozi, however, argued that music and fine arts were classist and wasteful, benefiting the rich but not the common people. By the 4th century A.D., artists were debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well. Gu Kaizhi has 3 surviving books on this theory of painting, for example, and it's not uncommon to find later artist/scholars who both create art and write about the creating of art. Religious and philosophical influence on art was common (and diverse) but never universal; it is easy to find art that largely ignores philosophy and religion in almost every Chinese time period. Sub-Saharan African aesthetics The Great Mosque's signature trio of minarets overlooks the central market of Djenné. Unique Malian aesthetic Sub-Saharan African art existed in many forms and styles, and with fairly little influence from outside Africa. Most of it followed traditional forms and the aesthetic norms were handed down orally as well as written. Sculpture and performance art are prominent, and abstract and partially abstracted forms are valued, and were valued long before influence from the Western tradition began in earnest. The Nok culture is testimony to this. The mosque of Timbuktu shows that specific areas of Africa developed unique aesthetics. Western medieval aesthetics Surviving medieval art is largely religious in focus, and typically was funded by the State, Orthodox or Roman Catholic church, powerful ecclesiastical individuals, or wealthy secular patrons. Often the pieces have an intended liturgical function, such as chalices or churches. Medieval Art Objects were made from rare and valuable materials, such as Gold and Lapis, the cost of which was often superior to the wages of the maker. Art and aesthetic philosophy was a continuation of ancient lines of thought, with the additional use of explicit theological categories. St. Bonaventure’s “Retracing the Arts to Theology” discusses the skills of the artisan as gifts given by God for the purpose of disclosing God to mankind via four “lights”: the light of skill in mechanical arts which discloses the world of artifacts, as guided by the light of sense perception which discloses the world of natural forms, as guided by the light of philosophy which discloses the world of intellectual truth, as guided by the light of divine wisdom which discloses the world of saving truth. Saint Thomas Aquinas' aesthetic theory is arguably more famous and influential among the medieval aesthetic theories, having been explicitly used in the writing of the famous writer James Joyce as well as many other influential 20th century authors. Thomas, as with many of the other medievals, never explicitly gives an account of "beauty" in itself, but the theory is reconstructed on the basis of disparate comments in a wide array of works. His theory follows the classical model of Aristotle, but with explicit formulation of beauty as "pulchrum transcendentalis" or convertible with being among the other "transcendentals" such as "truth" and "goodness." Umberto Eco's The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas identifies the three main characteristics of beautiful things in Aquinas' philosophy as: integritas, consonantia, and claritas. Aristotle identifies the first two characteristics, with the third being an "innovation" of Aquinas in the light of Platonic/neo-Platonic and Augustinian thought. In sum, medieval aesthetic, while not a unified system, presents a unique view of beauty that deserves an in-depth treatment in the history of art. Lorsch Gospels 778–820. Charlemagne's Court School. As the medieval world shifts into the Renaissance, art again returns to focus on this world and on secular issues of human life. The philosophy of art of the ancient Greeks and Romans is re-appropriated. Modern aesthetics From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a slow revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasised beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at beauty. For Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the sense experiences, a younger sister of logic, and beauty is thus the most perfect kind of knowledge that sense experience can have. For Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but universal truth, since all people should agree that “this rose is beautiful” if it in fact is. However, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature. For Hegel all culture is a matter of "absolute spirit" coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage. Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. For Schopenhauer aesthetic contemplation of beauty is the most free that the pure intellect can be from the dictates of will; here we contemplate perfection of form without any kind of worldly agenda, and thus any intrusion of utility or politics would ruin the point of the beauty. The British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps. The intuitionists believed that aesthetic experience was disclosed by a single mental faculty of some kind. For the Earl of Shaftesbury this was identical to the moral sense, beauty just is the sensory version of moral goodness. For Wittgenstein aesthetics consisted in the description of a whole culture which is a linguistic impossibility. That which constitutes aesthetics lies out side the realm of the language game. William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745 For Hutcheson beauty is disclosed by an inner mental sense, but is a subjective fact rather than an objective one. Analytic theorists like Lord Kames, William Hogarth, and Edmund Burke hoped to reduce beauty to some list of attributes. Hogarth, for example, thinks that beauty consists of (1) fitness of the parts to some design; (2) variety in as many ways as possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of fitness; (4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment for our active energies, leading the eye on "a wanton kind of chase"; and (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws our attention and produces admiration and awe. Later analytic aestheticians strove to link beauty to some scientific theory of psychology (such as James Mill) or biology (such as Herbert Spencer). Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis Early twentieth century artists, poets and composers challenged the assumption that beauty was central to art and aesthetics. Various attempts have been made since then to define Post-modern aesthetics. This challenge, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify "beauty" into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types, where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to comedy and the Rococo. Croce suggested that “expression” is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickie suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities. Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a "counter-environment" designed to make visible what is usually invisible about a society. Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the role of the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster (art critic) attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Arthur Danto has described this reaction as "kalliphobia" (after the Greek word for beauty - 'kalos'). 'Kalliphobia in Contemporary Art' in Art Journal v. 63 no. 2 (Summer 2004) p. 24-35 Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze and Guattari. Massumi, Brian, (ed.), A Shock to Thought. Expression after Deleuze and Guattari. London & NY: Routeledge, 2002. ISBN 0-415-23804-8 Daniel Berlyne created the field of experimental aesthetics in the 1970s, for which he is still the most cited individual decades after his death. Daniel Berlyne (1924-1976): Biographical Analysis. http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/furedy/daniel_berlyne.htm Jean-François Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlike kitsch realism, "...will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing pain." Lyotard, Jean-Françoise, What is Postmodernism?, in The Postmodern Condition, Minnesota and Manchester, 1984. Lyotard, Jean-Françoise, Scriptures: Diffracted Traces, in Theory, Culture and Society, Volume 21, Number 1, 2004. Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the "Uncanny" as aesthetical affect. Freud, Sigmund, "The Uncanny" (1919). Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Work of Sigmund Freud, 17:234-36. London: The Hogarth Press Following Freud and Initial image of a Mandelbrot set zoom sequence with continuously coloured environment Merleau-Ponty, Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1964), "The Visible and the Invisible". Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-810-10457-1 Jacques Lacan approached the aesthetical object in the visual field by the notion of the gaze as lacking and as phallic "objet a" that follows the psychic "masculine" principle of separation and castration. Lacan, Jacques, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (The Seminar of Jacques Lacan Book XI), NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. ISBN 0-393-31775-7. Doyle, Laura (Ed.), Bodies of Resistance. Evaston: Northwestern University Press. 2001. ISBN 0-8101-1847-5 Aesthetics and information In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first to analyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and information theory A. Moles: Théorie de l'information et perception esthétique, Paris, Denoël, 1973 (Information Theory and aesthetical perception) F Nake (1974). Ästhetik als Informationsverarbeitung. (Aesthetics as information processing). Grundlagen und Anwendungen der Informatik im Bereich ästhetischer Produktion und Kritik. Springer, 1974, ISBN 3211812164, ISBN 9783211812167 . In the 1990s, Jürgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beauty which takes the subjectivity of the observer into account and postulates: among several observations classified as comparable by a given subjective observer, the aesthetically most pleasing one is the one with the shortest description, given the observer’s previous knowledge and his particular method for encoding the data J. Schmidhuber. Low-complexity art. Leonardo, Journal of the International Society for the Arts, Sciences, and Technology, 30(2):97–103, 1997. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1576418 J. Schmidhuber. Papers on the theory of beauty and low-complexity art since 1994: http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/beauty.html . This is closely related to the principles of algorithmic information theory and minimum description length. One of his examples: mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a short description in their formal language. Another very concrete example describes an aesthetically pleasing human face whose proportions can be described by very few bits of information J. Schmidhuber. Facial beauty and fractal geometry. Cogprint Archive: http://cogprints.soton.ac.uk , 1998 J. Schmidhuber. Simple Algorithmic Principles of Discovery, Subjective Beauty, Selective Attention, Curiosity & Creativity. Proc. 10th Intl. Conf. on Discovery Science (DS 2007) p. 26-38, LNAI 4755, Springer, 2007. Also in Proc. 18th Intl. Conf. on Algorithmic Learning Theory (ALT 2007) p. 32, LNAI 4754, Springer, 2007. Joint invited lecture for DS 2007 and ALT 2007, Sendai, Japan, 2007. http://arxiv.org/abs/0709.0674 , drawing inspiration from less detailed 15th century proportion studies by Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishes between what's beautiful and what's interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative of subjectively perceived beauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually tries to improve the predictability and compressibility of the observations by discovering regularities such as repetitions and symmetries and fractal self-similarity. Whenever the observer's learning process (which may be a predictive neural network) leads to improved data compression such that the observation sequence can be described by fewer bits than before, the temporary interestingness of the data corresponds to the number of saved bits. This compression progress is proportional to the observer's internal reward, also called curiosity reward. A reinforcement learning algorithm is used to maximize future expected reward by learning to execute action sequences that cause additional interesting input data with yet unknown but learnable predictability or regularity. The principles can be implemented on artificial agents which then exhibit a form of artificial curiosity J. Schmidhuber. Curious model-building control systems. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, Singapore, vol 2, 1458–1463. IEEE press, 1991 J. Schmidhuber. Papers on artificial curiosity since 1990: http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/interest.html J. Schmidhuber. Developmental robotics, optimal artificial curiosity, creativity, music, and the fine arts. Connection Science, 18(2):173–187, 2006 Schmidhuber's theory of beauty and curiosity in a German TV show: http://www.br-online.de/bayerisches-fernsehen/faszination-wissen/schoenheit--aesthetik-wahrnehmung-ID1212005092828.xml . Applied aesthetics As well as being applied to art aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects. Aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency This coupling was made to reinforce the learning paradigm when English-language speakers used translators to address audiences in their own country. These audiences were generally not fluent in the English language. It can also be used in topics as diverse as mathematics, gastronomy and fashion design. Aesthetic ethics Aesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautiful and attractive. John Dewey Dewey, John. (1932)'Ethics', with James Tufts. In: The Collected Works of John Dewey, 1882-1953 Edited Jo-Ann Boydston: Carbonsdale: Southern Illinois University Press. p. 275. has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reflected in our understanding of behaviour being "fair" - the word having a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable. More recently, James Page Page, James S. (2008) Peace Education: Exploring Ethical and Philosophical Foundations. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59311-889-1. has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical rationale for peace education. Truth as beauty, mathematics, analytic philosophy, and physics Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous. Why Beauty Is Truth: The History of Symmetry, Ian Stewart, 2008 References Danto, Arthur (2003), The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art. Davies, Stephen (1991), Definitions of Art. Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 4 voll., pp. XVII-521, pp. 555, pp. 536, pp. 572; 2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos; ISBN13: 978-0-19-511307-5. Covers philosophical, historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics worldwide. Novitz, David (1992), The Boundaries of Art. Further reading The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Aesthetics Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0895268337 (has significant material on Art, Science and their philosophies) Feagin and Maynard, Aesthetics; Oxford readers1997. Thomas Wartenberg, The Nature of Art. 2006. John Bender and Gene Blocker Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings in Analytic Aesthetics 1993. Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today. 2000. Benedetto Croce, Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 1902 E. S. Dallas, The Gay Science - in 2 volumes, on the aesthetics of poetry, published in 1866. Alain de Botton, The Architecture of Happiness. Pantheon, 2006. Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Esthetique De L'ephemere, Galilee, ISBN 2718606223 Terry Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990. ISBN 0-631-16302-6 Penny Florence and Nicola Foster (eds.), Differential Aesthetics. London: Ashgate, 2000. ISBN 0-7546-1493-X Hans Hofmann and Sara T Weeks; Bartlett H Hayes; Addison Gallery of American Art; Search for the real, and other essays (Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1967) OCLC 1125858 Berys Gaut and Dominic McIver Lopes (eds.), "Routledge Companion to Aesthetics". London: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 0415327989 David Goldblatt and Lee Brown, ed. Aesthetics: A Reader in the Philosophy of the Arts. 1997. Evelyn Hatcher (ed.), Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999 Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.), Art History and Visual Studies. Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-300-09789-1 Alexander J. Kent, "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal, 42(2) 182-8, 2005. Peter Kivy (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics. 2004 Carolyn Korsmeyer (ed.), Aesthetics: The Big Questions. 1998 Martinus Nijhoff, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, The Hague, 1980. Griselda Pollock, "Does Art Think?" In: Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003. 129-174. ISBN 0-631-22715-6. Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0415413745. George Santayana, The Sense of Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory. (1896) New York, Modern Library, 1955. Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton, 2001. ISBN 9780691089591 Friedrich Schiller, (1795), On the Aesthetic Education of Man. Dover Publications, 2004. Alan Singer & Allen Dunn (eds.), Literary Aesthetics: A Reader. Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2000. ISBN 978-0631208693 Władysław Tatarkiewicz, History of Aesthetics, 3 vols. (1–2, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton. Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art? John M. Valentine, Beginning Aesthetics: An Introduction To The Philosophy of Art. McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 978-0073537542 John Whitehead, Grasping for the Wind. 2001. Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521 29706 0 Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values, 1974, paperpack, or hardback first edition ISBN 0-688-00230-7 See also Aesthetes Aestheticism Aesthetic emotions Aesthetic relativism Learning Islamic Aesthetes in Christchurch, NZ (Al-Huda Islamic Charitable Trust) Anti-art Art object Beauty Classificatory disputes about art Cool (African philosophy) Gaze Golden ratio History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century) Humanistic Aestheticism Industrial Design Japanese Iki (aesthetic ideal) List of aestheticians List of topics in philosophical aesthetics Lookism Marxist aesthetics Mathematics and art Michel Tapié Neuroesthetics Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime Lyco art Perfection ("Aesthetic perfection") Physical attraction Postmodern art Psychology of art Schopenhauer's aesthetics Semiotics of Ideal Beauty Sexual attraction Sexual selection Sublime Taste (aesthetics) Theological aesthetics Ugliness Wabi-sabi External links Postscript 1980- Some Old Problems in New Perspectives An Inquiry into the Aesthetic Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation An history of aesthetics | Aesthetics |@lemmatized aesthetic:138 also:16 spell:1 æsthetics:1 commonly:1 know:3 study:10 sensory:8 sensori:1 emotional:6 value:25 sometimes:2 call:5 judgment:22 sentiment:1 taste:10 zangwill:1 nick:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:2 philosophy:24 retrieve:2 broadly:1 scholar:3 field:6 define:10 critical:1 reflection:1 art:181 culture:14 nature:4 kelly:3 p:6 ix:1 review:1 tom:1 riedel:1 regis:1 university:7 subdiscipline:1 axiology:1 branch:1 closely:3 associate:3 bruyn:1 professor:1 severyn:1 action:2 boston:1 college:1 new:7 way:9 see:12 perceive:4 world:17 freeman:1 lindsey:1 phd:1 remembering:1 debord:1 cannon:1 beach:1 net:1 etymology:2 term:8 esthetic:2 derives:1 german:3 ästhetisch:1 alexander:2 baumgarten:2 c:1 french:1 esthétique:2 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6,851 | Haggis | An uncooked small haggis Haggis is a traditional Scottish dish. There are many recipes, most of which have in common the following ingredients: sheep's 'pluck' (heart, liver and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, and traditionally boiled in the animal's stomach for approximately three hours. Haggis somewhat resembles stuffed intestines (pig intestines otherwise known as chitterlings or the kokoretsi of traditional Balkan cuisine), sausages and savoury puddings of which it is among the largest types. As the 2001 English edition of the Larousse Gastronomique puts it, "Although its description is not immediately appealing, haggis has an excellent nutty texture and delicious savoury flavour." Most modern commercial haggis is prepared in a casing rather than an actual stomach. There are also meat-free recipes for vegetarians including vegans. Haggis is traditionally served with "neeps and tatties" (, boiled and mashed separately) and a "dram" (i.e. a glass of Scotch whisky), especially as the main course of a Burns supper. However it is also often eaten with other accompaniments, or served with a Whisky-based sauce. History The haggis is frequently assumed to be Scottish in origin though there is little evidence for this, and food writer Alan Davidson states that the Ancient Romans were the first people known to have made products of the haggis type. A kind of primitive haggis is referred to in Homer's Odyssey, in book 20, when Odysseus is compared to "a man before a great blazing fire turning swiftly this way and that a stomach full of fat and blood, very eager to have it roasted quickly." Haggis was "born of necessity, as a way to utilize the least expensive cuts of meat and the innards as well" (Andrew Zimmern). Clarissa Dickson Wright repudiates the assumption of a Scottish origin for haggis, claiming that it "came to Scotland in a longship [ie. from Scandinavia] even before Scotland was a single nation." Dickson-Wright further cites etymologist Walter William Skeat as further suggestion of possible Scandinavian origins: Skeat claimed that the hag– part of the word is derived from the Old Norse hoggva or the Icelandic haggw, meaning 'to hew' or strike with a sharp weapon, relating to the chopped-up contents of the dish. One theory claims that the name "haggis" is derived from Norman French. Norman French was more guttural than normal French so that the "ch" of "hachis", i.e. "chopped", was pronounced as the "ch" in "loch", giving "haggis". Dickson Wright suggests that haggis was invented as a way of cooking quick-spoiling offal near the site of a hunt, without the need to carry along an additional cooking vessel. The liver and kidneys could be grilled directly over a fire, but this treatment was unsuitable for the stomach, intestines, or lungs. Chopping up the lungs and stuffing the stomach with them and whatever fillers might have been on hand, then boiling the assembly — likely in a vessel made from the animal's hide — was one way to make sure these parts did not go to waste. 'Haggis' is an uncommon surname and may come from Old English, meaning 'a woodsman's hut', and a Lord Haggis rode on the third crusade with Richard the Lionheart. One example is Paul Haggis, known for his work on Million Dollar Baby, Due South, Thirtysomething. Folklore In the absence of hard facts as to haggis' origins, popular folklore has provided more fanciful theories. One is that the dish originates from the days of the old Scottish cattle drovers. When the men left the highlands to drive their cattle to market in Edinburgh the women would prepare rations for them to eat during the long journey down through the glens. They used the ingredients that were most readily available in their homes and conveniently packaged them in a sheep's stomach allowing for easy transportation during the journey. Other speculations have been based on Scottish slaughtering practices. When a Chieftain or Laird required an animal to be slaughtered for meat (whether sheep or cattle) the workmen were allowed to keep the offal as their share. A frequent tale is that a "Haggis" is a small Scottish animal with one set of legs longer than the other so that it can stand on the steep Scottish Highlands without falling over. According to one poll, 33% of American visitors to Scotland believe haggis to be an animal. "American tourists believe Haggis is an animal", guardian.co.uk, 27 November 2003 Modern usage Recitation of the poem Address to a Haggis by Robert Burns is an important part of the Burns supper. Haggis is traditionally served with the Burns supper on the week of January 25, when Scotland's national poet, Robert Burns, is commemorated. He wrote the poem Address to a Haggis, which starts "Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!" During Burns's lifetime haggis was a popular dish for the poor, as it was very cheap, being made from leftover, otherwise thrown away, parts of a sheep (the most common livestock in Scotland), yet nourishing. Haggis is widely available in supermarkets in Scotland and other parts of the world (and in some parts of England) all the year round, with cheaper brands normally packed in artificial casings, rather than stomachs, just as cheaper brands of sausages are no longer stuffed into animal intestines. Sometimes haggis is sold in tins, which can simply be microwaved or oven-baked. Some supermarket haggis is largely made from pig, rather than sheep, offal. Haggis can be served in Scottish fast-food establishments deep fried in batter. Together with chips, this comprises a "haggis supper". A "haggis burger" is a patty of fried haggis served on a bun, and a "haggis bhaji" is another deep fried variant, available in some Indian restaurants in Glasgow. Higher class restaurants sometimes serve "Chicken Balmoral" or "Flying Scotsman", which is chicken breast stuffed with haggis and sometimes also wrapped in bacon. Haggis can also be used as a substitute for minced beef in various recipes. In some Scottish butchers, haggis is combined with Lorne sausage into a product colloquially known as "Braveheart" sausage. Since the 1960s various Scottish shops and manufacturers have created vegetarian haggis for those who do not eat meat. These substitute various pulses and vegetables for the meat in the dish. Since both the offal-based and the vegetarian haggis have wide variations in flavour depending on the recipe used, it would be difficult to demonstrate that the two varieties do or do not taste alike. Drinks with haggis Scotch whisky is often asserted to be the traditional accompaniment for haggis, though this may simply be because both are traditionally served at a Burns supper. Warren Edwardes of Wine for Spice notes that haggis is spicy and therefore recommends refreshing semi-sparkling wines to drink with haggis with increasing level of sweetness depending in the spiciness of the haggis: whisky, with its high alcohol level, can exaggerate peppery spice (unlike the capsaicin in chili, which it dissolves) rather than complement it. http://winewithhaggis.co.uk Wine With Haggis Haggis-maker MacSween conducted a taste-test Drinks with haggis. Retrieved on 29 May 2009 which confirmed that whisky is a proper accompaniment, and adds that lighter-bodied, tannic red wines, such as those made from the Barbera grape, are also suitable, as are strong, powerfully flavoured Belgian beers, such as Duvel and Chimay Blue. Use outside Scotland Haggis spread with oat cakes in the U.S. Haggis remains popular with expatriate Scots in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, owing to the strong connotations with Scottish culture, especially for Burns Suppers. It can easily be made in any country, but is sometimes exported from Scotland. Haggis may not be imported into the USA from the UK since the BSE crisis of 1989. This is due to haggis' offal ingredients such as sheep lungs. The British Food Standards Agency disputes these concerns, and states that there is no reason for the import of haggis to be restricted. Starting in Vancouver, British Columbia, and having since spread in popularity, Gung Haggis Fat Choy dinners, celebrating a fusion of Scottish and Chinese cultures, have been hosted since 1998. These dinners include traditional haggis as well as haggis-stuffed won tons and haggis lettuce wrap. Entertainment A haggis on a Robert Burns plate. A fictional Wild Haggis, Haggis scoticus, next to a prepared specimen, as displayed at the Glasgow Kelvingrove Gallery. Haggis is an amusing subject for many people. Along with some other foods associated with a specific country or region (such as Australia's Vegemite, Norway's lutefisk, or Finland's salmiakki), it's perceived to be loved in its home country and loathed by the rest of the world. Many tourists are also duped (or nearly duped) by Scottish pranksters attempting to lead them on a 'Wild Haggis Hunt'. The Scotsman newspaper's web site runs an annual Haggis Hunt. http://haggishunt.scotsman.com Haggis Hunt Haggis is also used in a sport called haggis hurling, throwing a haggis as far as possible. The present Guinness World Record for Haggis Hurling has been held by Alan Pettigrew for over 22 years. He threw a 1.5 lb Haggis an astonishing 180 feet, 10 inches on the island of Inchmurrin, Loch Lomond, in August 1984. Haggis hurling record. Retrieved on 29 May 2009 On October 8, 2008, competitive eater Eric "Steakbellie" Livingston set a world record by consuming 3 pounds of haggis in 8 minutes on WMMR radio in Philadelphia. Following his victory in The Masters golf tournament in 1988, Scottish golfer Sandy Lyle chose to serve Haggis at the annual Champions Dinner before the 1989 Masters. The Course. The Official Site of the Masters Tournament. Retrieved January 8, 2007. The band Enter the Haggis have it as part of their name. Similar dishes In some ways, the northeastern United States dish scrapple resembles haggis, however scrapple differs in the following ways: it uses pig offal instead of sheep offal and cornmeal instead of oatmeal; it is a meatloaf rather than a sausage; and it is fried instead of being boiled. As a result, the appearance and the flavour vary significantly. So the resemblance lies more in the fact that it is a combination of offal, grain and vegetables than in any specific ingredient or cooking style. Other similar dishes include: Asheh, a specialty of Tartus in Syria, sheep stomach and intestines stuffed with minced lamb and rice Bahur, Bulgarian sausage made from rice and pork liver and heart Balkenbrij from the Netherlands Bopis from the Philippines, made from pork minus the casing Boudin, an Acadian/Cajun sausage made with pork offal and rice Buchada (or dobradinha) from northeast of Brazil, in which goat's intestines are filled with pieces of liver, heart, blood, etc... cooked then served with white rice. Camaïot, a Balearic Islands sausage related to sobrassada made from pork offal, coarsely minced, and boiled into pork skin from the leg Chireta from Aragonese valleys of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, and Girella from Catalan valley of Pallars, both made by boiling inside sheep intestines a mixture of rice and sheep offal, mainly lungs and heart Drob de miel from Romania, an Easter specialty made from ground sheep's organs, mixed with spices and herbs and wrapped in a sheep's stomach or caul (more rarely, in a thin dough). Garnatálg, an intestine and fat dish from the northern Faroe Islands. Ghammeh (aka kroush), from Lebanon, sheep stomach stuffed with rice, garlic, onions, pine nuts, minced lamb meat and spices, usually served with a soup that has similar ingredients to the fillings. Goetta Hogs pudding or Groats Pudding from Devon & Cornwall containing oats and spiced pork offal Hurka (more precisely véres hurka, blood sausage) from Hungary. Jaternica from Slovakia, similar to the Bulgarian bahur, made with rice and mixed pork bowels. Jelito, Czech & Moravian dark black-brown non-smoked sausage made of minced pork (second-rate parts - head, fatback, liver) with blood, spices (garlic, black pepper, all-spice, cumin, marjoram, mace, garlic), salt and peeled barley or unsweetened white bun. Other and similar sausage produced during hog killing is greyish-brown jitrnice made of minced offal (liver, kidney, lung) and fat with pork broth, same assortment of spices, and bun. Filled casings (guts, approx. 20 cm long and 3 cm thick pieces) are skewered and boiled in broth. JUG-JUG from Barbados, reputed to be a corruption of haggis with the corn flour substituted for the oatmeal. Kaszanka from Poland, closely resembling haggis despite its very different ingredients of buckwheat and pig's blood Kepeninė from Lithuania made from animal's (most frequently pig's) liver, lungs and some fat, all that stuffed into pig's large intestines. Kishka, a traditional Ashkenazi Jewish kosher dish consisting of a mixture of meal, meat and spices stuffed in a beef intestine or a sewn pocket made of poultry neck skin Knipp (Speise) from Bremen and Lower Saxony, north Germany. Made with any animal leftovers, spiced with salt, pepper and thickened with cereal. Served in either a sausage or in slices usually with fried potatoes and bacon. Tastes exactly the same as Scottish haggis. Kraujiniai vėdarai from Lithuania, Samogitia made from pig's blood and wheat grains, stuffed into pig's large intestines. Lungemos (Lungmush) Norway. Similar to haggis. Pork, Beef meat, Lung and Heart. Eaten with Lefse or potatoes, mashed or boiled Mazzit from Malta made from animal's entrails Montalayo from Mexico, which is prepared from sheep or goat offal in a manner very similar to haggis Pölsa from Sweden, made from beef Saumagen from Western Germany, made with pork Slátur, an Icelandic cooked sheep's stomachs filled with blood, fat, and liver Stippgrütze from Westphalia, Germany, made from barley soup, pork or beef meat and entrails, fat, spiced with salt, piment, pepper, stuffed into a glass jar or into synthetic sausage skin. Pan-fried before served and eaten together with bread or pan-fried potatoes. Sun-Dae from Korea, made from pork and usually served with pork's heart or lung. Švargl in Croatia and Serbia, made from pork Tlačenka, from the Czech Republic. Similar to haggis, but from pork with large pieces of lean and fat meat, boiled in bladder or stomach. Tripas from Portugal made from animal's entrails and served with beans and rice. Véres hurka from Hungary made from animal's entrails, blood, pork, and rice or soaked bread rolls, fried and served with some mustard or pickles and a slice of bread. Another version known as májas hurka is made without blood and so is white in colour. Both types contain a lot of herbs and spices, especially marjoram and black pepper, so they smell fragrant but are not excessively heavy on the stomach. References External links Video Documentary of History of Haggis in America Haggis Recipe Alton Brown's Haggis Recipe Belief in the Wild Haggis | Haggis |@lemmatized uncooked:1 small:2 haggis:82 traditional:5 scottish:15 dish:10 many:3 recipe:6 common:2 following:2 ingredient:6 sheep:15 pluck:1 heart:6 liver:8 lung:9 mince:3 onion:2 oatmeal:3 suet:1 spice:13 salt:4 mixed:3 stock:1 traditionally:4 boil:9 animal:12 stomach:13 approximately:1 three:1 hour:1 somewhat:1 resemble:2 stuffed:4 intestine:11 pig:8 otherwise:2 know:5 chitterlings:1 kokoretsi:1 balkan:1 cuisine:1 sausage:13 savoury:2 pudding:3 among:1 large:4 type:3 english:2 edition:1 larousse:1 gastronomique:1 put:1 although:1 description:1 immediately:1 appeal:1 excellent:1 nutty:1 texture:1 delicious:1 flavour:3 modern:2 commercial:1 prepare:3 casing:4 rather:5 actual:1 also:7 meat:10 free:1 vegetarian:3 include:3 vegan:1 serve:14 neeps:1 tatties:1 mash:2 separately:1 dram:1 e:2 glass:2 scotch:2 whisky:5 especially:3 main:1 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6,852 | Tao_Te_Ching | The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing (), originally known as Laozi (), is a Chinese classic text. Its name comes from the opening words of its two sections: 道 dào "way," Chapter 1, and 德 dé "virtue," Chapter 38, plus 經 jīng "classic." According to tradition, it was written around the 6th century BC by the sage Laozi (or Lao Tzu, "Old Master"), a record-keeper at the Zhou Dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated. Eliade (1984), p.26 The Tao Te Ching is fundamental to the Philosophical Taoism (Dàojiā ) and strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism and Neo-Confucianism. This ancient book is also central in Chinese religion, not only for Religious Taoism (Dàojiào ) but Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts. Many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, aided by hundreds of translations into Western languages. The Wade-Giles romanization, Tao Te Ching, dates back to early English transliterations in the late 19th century, and many people continue using it, especially for words and phrases that have become well-established in English. The pinyin romanization Daodejing originated in the late 20th century, and this romanization is becoming increasingly popular, having been adopted as the official system by the Chinese government. See Daoism-Taoism romanization issue for more information. The text The Tao Te Ching has a long and complex textual history. On one hand, there are transmitted versions and commentaries that date back two millennia; on the other, there are ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts that archeologists discovered in the last century. Title "Tao Te Ching", Calligraphy by Gia-Fu Feng There are many possible translations of the book's title: Dào/Tao 道 literally means "way", or one of its synonyms, but was extended to mean "the Way". This term, which was variously used by other Chinese philosophers (including Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, and Hanfeizi), has special meaning within the context of Taoism, where it implies the essential, unnamable process of the universe. Tao also means god, and peace. Dé/Te 德 basically means "virtue" in the sense of "personal character", "inner strength", or "integrity." The semantics of this Chinese word resemble English virtue, which developed from a (now archaic) sense of "inner potency" or "divine power" (as in "healing virtue of a drug") to the modern meaning of "moral excellence" or "goodness". Compare the compound word dàodé (道德 "ethics", "ethical principles", "morals," or "morality"). Te also means love. Jīng/Ching 經 as it is used here means "canon", "great book", or "classic". Thus, Tao Te Ching can be translated as "The Classic/Canon of the Way/Path and the Power/Virtue", etc. The title Tao Te Ching is an honorific given by posterity, other titles include the amalgam Lǎozǐ Dàodé Jīng (老子道德經), the honorific Daode Zhen Jing (道德真經 "True Classic of the Way and the Power"), and the Wuqian wen ( "Five thousand character [classic]"; see next). Internal structure The received Tao Te Ching is a short text of around 5,000 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections (). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions - for commentary, or as aids to rote memorization - and that the original text was more fluidly organized. It has two parts, the Tao Ching (道經; chaps. 1–37) and the Te Ching (德經; chaps. 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original "Te Tao Ching" (see Mawangdui texts below). The written style is laconic, has few grammatical particles, and encourages varied, even contradictory interpretations. The ideas are complex; the style poetic. The Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in zhuànshū ( seal script), while later versions were written in lìshū ( clerical script) and kǎishū ( regular script) styles. Daoist Chinese Characters contains a good summary of these different calligraphies. Historical authenticity The Tao Te Ching is ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholastic debate. His name, which means "Old Master", or "old masters" has only fueled controversy on this issue. (Kaltenmark 1969:10). Laozi The first reliable reference to Laozi is his "biography" in Shiji (63, tr. Chan 1963:35-37), by Chinese historian Sima Qian (ca. 145–86 BC), which combines three stories. First, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551-479 BC). His surname was Li ( "plum"), and his personal name was Er ( "ear") or Dan ( "long ear"). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West. Second, Laozi was Lao Laizi ( "Old Come Master"), also a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the Grand Historian and astrologer Lao Dan ( "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384-362 BC) of Duke Xian (獻公) of Qin). Generations of scholars have debated the historicity of Laozi and the dating of the Tao Te Ching. Linguistic studies of the text's vocabulary and rhyme scheme point to a date of composition after the Shi Jing yet before the Zhuangzi — around the late 4th or early 3rd centuries BC. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old"; that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteen as Laozi. Some Western scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historical existence, claiming that the Tao Te Ching is actually a collection of the work of various authors. By contrast, Chinese scholars hold that it would be inconceivable within the context of ancient Chinese culture for Sima Qian the historian to have engaged in confabulation. Chinese scholars by and large accept Laozi as a historical figure, while dismissing exaggerated folkloric claims as superstitious legend. Taoists venerate Laozi as Daotsu the founder of the school of Dao, the Daode Tianjun in the Three Pure Ones, one of the eight elders transformed from Taiji in the Chinese creation myth. Principal versions Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version," which is only extant for the Te Ching, derives from a commentary attributed to Han Dynasty scholar Yan Zun (巖尊, fl. 80 BC-10 AD). The "Heshang Gong Version" is named after the legendary Heshang Gong ( "Riverside Sage") who supposedly lived during the reign (202-157 BC) of Emperor Wen of Han. This commentary (tr. Erkes 1950) has a preface written by Ge Xuan (, 164-244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to around the 3rd century AD. The "Wang Bi Version" has more verifiable origins than either of the above. Wang Bi (, 226 – 249 AD) was a famous Three Kingdoms period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching (tr. Lin 1977, Rump and Chan 1979) and the I Ching. Tao Te Ching scholarship has lately advanced from archeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. They included more than 50 partial and complete Tao Te Ching manuscripts. One written by the scribe So/Su Dan (素統) is dated 270 AD and corresponds closely with the Heshang Gong version. Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er (想爾) commentary, which had previously been lost. Mawangdui and Guodian texts In 1973, archeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dating from 168 BC. They included two nearly complete copies of the Laozi, referred to as Text A () and Text B (), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the Te Ching section before the Tao Ching. Based on calligraphic styles and imperial naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that A and B can be dated, respectively, to about the first and third decades of the 2nd century BC (Boltz 1993:284). In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo tablets, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian () in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC. The Guodian Chu Slips comprise about 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the Tao Te Ching, including 14 previously unknown verses. Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent Tao Te Ching translations (e.g., Lau 1989, Henricks 1989, Mair 1990, Henricks 2000, Allan and Williams 2000, and Roberts 2004) utilize these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds. Tao Te Ching in Chinese The Tao Te Ching was originally written in ZhuanShu calligraphy style. It is difficult to obtain modern replicas of these styles except through specialty stores via stores offering Tao Te Ching in Chinese. Most modern versions use the newspaper print style KaiShu. Interpretation and themes The passages are ambiguous, and topics range from political advice for rulers to practical wisdom for people. Because the variety of interpretation is virtually limitless, not only for different people but for the same person over time, readers do well to avoid making claims of objectivity or superiority. Also, since the book is 81 short poems, there is little need for an abridgement. Ineffability or Genesis The Way that can be told of is not an unvarying way; The names that can be named are not unvarying names. It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang; The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures, each after its kind. (chap. 1, tr. Waley) These famous first lines of the Tao Te Ching state that the Tao is ineffable i.e. Tao is nameless, goes beyond distinctions, and transcends language. In Laozi's Qingjing Jing (verse 1-8) he clarified the term Tao was nominated as he was trying to describe a state of existence before it happened and before time or space. Way or path happened to be the side meaning of Tao, ineffability would be just poetic. This is the Chinese creation myth from the primordial Tao. In the first twenty-four words in Chapter one, the author articulated an abstract cosmogony, in what would be the world outside of the cave before it took shape by Plato in his allegory of the cave. The Mysterious Female The Valley Spirit never dies It is named the Mysterious Female. And the doorway of the Mysterious Female Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang. It is there within us all the while; Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry. (chap. 6, tr. Waley) Like the above description of the ineffable Tao as "the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures", the Tao Te Ching advocates "female" (or Yin) values, emphasizing the passive, solid, and quiescent qualities of nature (which is opposed to the active and energetic), and "having without possessing". Waley's translation can also be understood as the Esoteric Feminine in that it can be known intuitively, that must be complemented by the masculine, "male" (or Yang), again amplified in Qingjing Jing (verse 9-13). Yin and Yang should be balanced, "Know masculinity, Maintain femininity, and be a ravine for all under heaven." (chap. 28, tr. Mair) Returning (Union with the Primordial) In Tao the only motion is returning; The only useful quality, weakness. For though all creatures under heaven are the products of Being, Being itself is the product of Not-being. " (chap. 40, tr. Waley) Another theme is the eternal return, or what Mair (1990:139) calls "the continual return of the myriad creatures to the cosmic principle from which they arose." There is a contrast between the rigidity of death and the weakness of life: "When he is born, man is soft and weak; in death he becomes stiff and hard. The ten thousand creatures and all plants and trees while they are alive are supple and soft, but when dead they become brittle and dry." (chap. 76, tr. Waley). This is returning to the beginning of things, or to one's own childhood. The Tao Te Ching focuses upon the beginnings of society, and describes a golden age in the past, comparable with the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Human problems arose from the "invention" of culture and civilization. In this idealized past, “the people should have no use for any form of writing save knotted ropes, should be contented with their food, pleased with their clothing, satisfied with their homes, should take pleasure in their rustic tasks." (chap. 80, tr. Waley) If the same chapter is understood in the Taoist cosmogony, the last two verses re-state the creation of beings from you (有) as in youji or Taiji which came from wu as in Wuji, a state of union with the primordial. This concept is also outlined in two other texts Xishen Jing and Qingjing Jing attributable to Laozi. Emptiness We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel; But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the wheel depends. We turn clay to make a vessel; But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the vessel depends. We pierce doors and windows to make a house; And it is on these spaces where there is nothing that the usefulness of the house depends. Therefore just as we take advantage of what is, we should recognize the usefulness of what is not. (chap. 11, tr. Waley) Philosophical vacuity is a common theme among Asian wisdom traditions including Taoism (especially Wu wei "effortless action"), Buddhism, and some aspects of Confucianism. One could interpret the Tao Te Ching as a suite of variations on the "Powers of Nothingness". This resonates with the Buddhist Shunyata philosophy of "form is emptiness, emptiness is form." Looking at a traditional Chinese landscape, one can understand how emptiness (the unpainted) has the power of animating the trees, mountains, and rivers it surrounds. Emptiness can mean having no fixed preconceptions, preferences, intentions, or agenda. Since "The Sage has no heart of his own; He uses the heart of the people as his heart." (chap. 49, tr. Waley). From a ruler's point of view, it is a laissez-faire approach: So a wise leader may say: "I practice inaction, and the people look after themselves." But from the Sage it is so hard at any price to get a single word That when his task is accomplished, his work done, Throughout the country every one says: “It happened of its own accord”. (chap. 17, tr. Waley) Knowledge and Humility Knowing others is wisdom; Knowing the self is enlightenment. Mastering others requires force; Mastering the self requires strength; He who knows he has enough is rich. Perseverance is a sign of will power. He who stays where he is endures. To die but not to perish is to be eternally present. (chap. 33, tr. Feng and English) The Tao Te Ching praises self knowledge with emphasis on that knowledge coming with humility, to the extent of dis-acknowledging this knowledge. An interpretation on this knowledge being irrational in connection with Chapter 19 of Waley's translation on "Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, And the people will be benefited a hundredfold." seem to be inaccurate stemming from Feisheng qizi which is a reverse phrase meaning the truly exalted (sheng) and intellectual (zi) never claimed they are, which might as well be abolishing the notions of exaltation and intellectuality, meaning humbleness and humility of one's enlightenment is crucial. Knowledge, like desire, should be diminished. "It was when intelligence and knowledge appeared that the Great Artifice began." (chap. 18, tr. Waley), similarly another examplar on lost in translation by a sinologist, the third and fourth stanzas reads Zihui zu You Dawei, which should be read in reverse as the first and second stanzas, that when the world is full deceit and falsehoods (Dawei), wisdom and intellectuality shall arise. Other themes Here are some other themes inferred from the "Tao Te Ching" (with examples of instances): Force begets force. One whose needs are simple can fulfill them easily. Material wealth does not enrich the spirit. Self-absorption and self-importance are vain and self-destructive. (22, 24) Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned. The harder one tries, the more resistance one creates for oneself. The more one acts in harmony with the universe (the Mother of the ten thousand things), the more one will achieve, with less effort. The truly wise make little of their own wisdom for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know. When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values. (18) Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame. (vanity) The qualities of flexibility and suppleness, especially as exemplified by water, are superior to rigidity and strength. (8, 40, 55, 78) Everything is in its own time and place. Duality of nature that complements each other instead of competing with each other — the two faces of the same coin — one cannot exist without the other. The differences of opposite polarities — e.g., the differences between male and female, light and dark, strong and weak, etc. — help us to understand and appreciate the universe. Humility is the highest virtue. Knowing oneself is a virtue. (33) Envy is our calamity; overindulgence is our plight. The more you go in search of an answer, the less you will understand. Know when it's time to stop. If you don't know then stop when you are done. (9) Interpretations in relation to religious traditions The relation between Taoism and Buddhism and Chan Buddhism is complex and fertile. Similarly, the relationship between Taoism and Confucianism is richly interwoven, historically. In 1823 the French sinologist Jean-Pierre-Abel Rémusat suggested a relationship between Abrehamic faiths and Taoism; he held that Yahweh was signified by three words in Chapter 14; yi (夷 "calm; level; barbarian"), xi (希 "rare; indiscernible; hope"), and wei (微 "tiny, small; obscure"). James Legge (1891:57-58 Texts of Taoism (SBE 39): The Tao Teh King, Part I: Chapter 14 ) dismissed this hypothetical yi-xi-wei and Yahweh connection as "a mere fancy or dream". According to Holmes Welch: It is not hard to understand the readiness of early scholars to assert that the doctrine of the Trinity was revealed in the Tao Te Ching and that its fourteenth chapter contains the syllables of "Yahveh." Even today, though these errors have been recognized for more than a century, the general notion that Lao Tzu was Christ's forerunner has lost none of its romantic appeal. (1965:7) Translations The Tao Te Ching has been translated into over 250 Western languages, mostly to English, German, and French. LaFargue, Michael and Pas, Julian. On Translating the Tao-te-ching in Kohn and LaFargue (1998), p. 277 According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved." Welch (1965), p. 7 Most translations are written by people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions, such as Taoism scholar Eugene Eoyang, claim that translators like Stephen Mitchell produce readings of the Tao Te Ching that deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4189(199007)70%3A3%3C492%3ATTCANE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7 . Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies, and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture http://www.daoistcenter.org/Articles/Articles_pdf/Kirkland.pdf http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0415263220&id=Gg0XCJcGDhYC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&ots=uBvR0I0__a&dq=Norman+J.+Girardot,+Russell+Kirkland,+%22Taoism,+the+Enduring+Tradition%22&sig=LdcJi2o--1_6e0TpafQjIaWa9_o#PPA218,M1 . Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0791436004&id=9Td7s_urErUC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&ots=ENwZI7oEjr&dq=&sig=e6D1T_Ls3owaWMd8sSdqmgN4t8s#PPP1,M1 and Johnathan Herman http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7189(199823)66%3A3%3C686%3ATTCABA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 , argue that while they are poor scholarship they meet a real spiritual need in the West. Others say that Laozi communicated colloquially and simply, and a true translation will do the same in its place and time. If Laozi attempted to communicate eternal truths, it is the translators work to do so as well. Translational difficulties The Tao Te Ching is written in classical Chinese, which can be difficult to understand completely even for well-educated native speakers of modern Chinese. Classical Chinese relies heavily on allusion to a corpus of standard literary works to convey semantic meaning, nuance, and subtext. This corpus was memorized by highly-educated people in Laozi's time, and the allusions were reinforced through common use in writing, but few people today have this type of deep acquaintance with ancient Chinese literature. Thus, many levels of subtext are potentially lost on modern translators. Furthermore, many of the words that the Tao Te Ching uses are deliberately vague and ambiguous. Since there are no punctuation marks in classical Chinese, it can be difficult to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a period a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some editors and translators argue that the received text is so corrupted (from originally being written on one-line bamboo strips linked with silk threads) that it is impossible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another. See also Daoism-Taoism romanization issue Eastern philosophy Zhuangzi (book) Huainanzi Liezi Qingjing Jing Huahujing Xishengjing References Boltz, William G. "Lao tzu Tao te ching." In Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, edited by Michael Loewe. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asian Studies. 1993. pp. 269–92. Damascene, Hieromonk, Lou Shibai, and You-Shan Tang. Christ the Eternal Tao. Platina, CA: Saint Herman Press, 1999. Eliade, Mircea. A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2. Translated by Willard R. Trask. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism. Translated by Roger Greaves. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1969. Kohn, Livia and Michael LaFargue, eds. Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching, Albany: State University of New York Press. 1998. Welch, Holmes. Taoism: The Parting of the Way (1957). Boston: Beacon Press. 1965. Klaus, Hilmar Das Tao der Weisheit 3 German translations, English + German introduction and sources (140 p.) Aachen: Hochschulverlag 548 p. 2008 Notes External links The Authorship of the Tao Te Ching, John J. Emerson Online English translations Tao Te Ching, James Legge The Tao Te Ching, Frederic H. Balfour Tao Te Ching, Stephen Mitchell The Tao Teh King, Aleister Crowley Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu, 3 translations: James Legge, D.T. Suzuki, and Dwight Goddard 老子 Lǎozǐ 道德經 Dàodéjīng new verbatim + analogous translations by Hilmar Klaus The Tao by Lao-tse, interactive character-by-character pinyin and definitions | Tao_Te_Ching |@lemmatized tao:57 te:46 ching:48 dao:2 de:1 jing:8 originally:3 know:13 laozi:20 chinese:29 classic:6 text:22 name:11 come:4 opening:1 word:10 two:9 section:3 道:2 dào:2 way:9 chapter:12 德:2 dé:2 virtue:7 plus:1 經:2 jīng:3 accord:4 tradition:4 write:15 around:5 century:8 bc:10 sage:4 lao:9 tzu:6 old:8 master:6 record:1 keeper:1 zhou:1 dynasty:2 court:1 whose:3 china:2 true:4 authorship:2 date:8 composition:2 compilation:1 still:1 debate:3 eliade:2 p:5 fundamental:2 philosophical:2 taoism:14 dàojiā:1 strongly:1 influence:2 school:2 legalism:1 neo:1 confucianism:3 ancient:4 book:12 also:9 central:1 religion:1 religious:3 dàojiào:1 buddhism:4 first:7 introduce:1 largely:1 interpret:2 use:9 taoist:3 concept:2 many:7 artist:1 include:7 poet:1 painter:1 calligrapher:1 even:4 gardener:1 source:2 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6,853 | Jutes | Jutland peninsula The Jutes, Iuti, or Iutae were a Germanic people who, according to Bede, were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of the time. Bede (1723:46). The other two being the Saxons and the Angles. They are believed to have originated from Jutland (called Iutum in Latin) in modern Denmark, Southern Schleswig (South Jutland) and part of the East Frisian coast. Bede places the homeland of the Jutes on the other side of the Angles relative to the Saxons, which would mean the northern part of the Jutland Peninsula. Tacitus portrays a people called the Eudoses living in the north of Jutland and these may have been the later Iutae. The Jutes have also been identified with the Eotenas (ēotenas) involved in the Frisian conflict with the Danes as described in the Finnesburg episode in the poem Beowulf (lines 1068–1159). Others have interpreted the ēotenas as jotuns ("ettins" in English), meaning giants, or as a kenning for "enemies". Disagreeing with Bede, some historians identify the Jutes with people called the Eucii (or Saxones Eucii) who were evidently associated with the Saxons and dependents of the Franks in 536. The Eucii may have been identical with an obscure tribe called the Euthiones and probably associated with the Saxons. The Euthiones are mentioned in a poem by Venantius Fortunatus (583) as being under the suzerainty of Chilperic I of the Franks. This identification would agree well with the later location of the Jutes in Kent, since the area just opposite of Kent on the European mainland (present-day Flanders) was part of Francia. Even if Jutes were present to the south of the Saxons in the Rhineland or near the Frisians, this does not contradict the possibility that they were migrants from Jutland. Asser in his Life of Alfred, claims that Alfred's mother, Osburga, was descended from the Jutes of the Isle of Wight, whom he identifies with the Goths. This ancestry, however, is unlikely and so may be the identification. Another modern hypothesis (the so-called "Jutish hypothesis"), accepted by the Oxford English Dictionary, states that the Jutes are identical with the Geats, a people who once lived in southern Sweden. In primary sources the Geats are referred to as Eotas, Iótas, Iútan, and Geátas. However, in both Widsith and Beowulf, the Eotenas in the Finn passage are neatly distinguished from the Geatas. It may be that the two tribal names happened to be confused, which has happened, for example, in the sources about the death of the Swedish king Östen. It is possible that the Jutes are a related people to the Geats and a Gothic people as it is mentioned in the Gutasaga that some inhabitants of Gotland left for mainland Europe (the Wielbark site in Poland is evidence of a Scandinavian migration). The Jutes, along with the Angles, Saxons and small number of Frisians, were amongst the Germanic tribes who sailed across the North Sea to raid and eventually invade Great Britain from the late 4th century onwards, either displacing, absorbing, or destroying the native Celtic peoples there. According to Bede, they ended up settling in Kent (where they became known as the Cantuarii), Hampshire (in Wessex), and the Isle of Wight (where they became known as the Uictuarii). There are a number of toponyms that attest to the presence of the Jutes in the area, such as Ytene, which Florence of Worcester states was the contemporary English name for the New Forest. While it is commonplace to detect their influences in Kent (for example, the practice of partible inheritance known as gavelkind), the Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight vanished, probably assimilated to the surrounding Saxons, leaving only the slightest of traces. One recent scholar, Robin Bush, even argued that the Jutes of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight became victims of a policy of ethnic cleansing by the West Saxons, although this has been the subject of debate amongst academics, with the counter-claim that only the aristocracy might have been wiped out. Bede is the only historical evidence and he clearly implies that this was so, in 686 CE. The culture of the Jutes of Kent is usually regarded as more advanced than that of the Saxons or Angles and early on shows signs of Roman, Frankish, and Christian influence. Funerary evidence indicates that the pagan practice of cremation ceased relatively early and jewellery recovered from graves has affinities with Rhenish styles from the Continent, perhaps suggesting close commercial connections with Francia. The Jutish king Ethelbert of Kent married the Frankish princess Bertha and introduced Christianity into parts of Britain. He was the only Jutish Bretwalda. Notes Sources Stenton, Frank M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England, 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198217161. Venerable Saint Bede (1723). The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. John Smith, trans. Printed for T. Batley and T. Meighan. 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6,854 | Married..._with_Children | Married...with Children or Married with Children was an American sitcom about a dysfunctional family living in a Chicagoland suburb that lasted 11 seasons. The show, notable for being the first prime time television series to air on Fox, debuted on April 5, 1987, and aired its final first-run broadcast on June 9, 1997. The series was created by Michael G. Moye and Ron Leavitt. The show was known for handling non-standard topics for the time period, which garnered the then-fledgling Fox network a standing among the Big Three Television Networks (i.e. ABC, CBS and NBC). The series' 11-season, 262-episode run makes it the longest-lasting live-action sitcom on the Fox network. The show's theme song is "Love and Marriage" by Frank Sinatra from the 1955 television production Our Town. The first season of the series was videotaped at ABC Television Center in Hollywood The series was produced by Embassy Television/ELP Communications, with production being assumed by successor studio Columbia Pictures Television (and eventually Columbia TriStar Television). Part of Sony Pictures Television's library, it aired in syndication on FX Network in the United States from 1999 to 2008 and began airing on Spike and TBS in 2008. It also airs on TVtropolis in Canada. On November 15, 2008 it began airing on The CW Plus. Synopsis The show follows the lives of Al Bundy, a once-glorious high school football player who scored four touchdowns in a single game for Polk High School turned hard-luck salesman of women's shoes; his wife, Peggy, a tartish, uneducated housewife with a large red bouffant hairdo, 1960s clothes, and funny walk caused by wearing high heels; Kelly, Al and Peggy's pretty, promiscuous, dim-witted daughter; and Bud, their unpopular, girl-crazy, intelligent son (and the only Bundy who ever attended college). Their neighbors are the upwardly-mobile Steve and Marcy Rhoades, who later gets re-married to Jefferson D'Arcy. Most storylines involve a scheming Al being foiled by his cartoonish dim wit and bad luck. His rivalry and loathing of Marcy also play a significant role in most episodes. The Bundy's house number is 9674 and their phone number is 555-2878 as revealed by Kelly Bundy in one episode. Characters Married with Children - The Complete First Season. see also List of Married... with Children cast members The Bundy family The creators of the show named the "Bundy" family after their favorite wrestler King Kong Bundy, though some fans mistakenly believed that the name was derived from serial killer Ted Bundy. http://www.bundyology.com/bundy.html King Kong Bundy once appeared on the show as Peg's hick inbred uncle Irwin, and again appeared as his wrestling persona, since "NO MA'AM" (National Organization of Men Against Amazonian Masterhood, a fictional club depicted on the show) were big fans of the wrestler. Al Bundy The head of the Bundy family, Al (Ed O'Neill) is doomed to fail in all aspirations because of the 'Bundy curse'. Once a promising fullback for fictional Polk High School (his proudest moment in life was scoring four touchdowns in a single game), he was on his way to college on a scholarship until he impregnated his girlfriend, married her, broke his leg, and ended up a shoe salesman at 'Gary's Shoes' in the 'New Market Mall.' Al often spends time attempting to re-capture his glory days, but is usually undermined in spectacular fashion by bad luck and poor judgment. He considers his family to be the cause of his failures, and his resentment of them (and fear of having sex with his wife) provides much of the show's humor. However, Al is still devoted to them, given that he protectively beats up Kelly's boyfriends, once threatened a male stripper that "if my wife loses anything in your pants, so will you," once gave his entire paycheck to Bud to enjoy his 18th birthday at the "nudie bar", and holds down a lousy job to put food on the table. Despite his yearning for "the touch of a beautiful woman," he always passes on those rare temptations, once explaining, "I actually kinda like my family." He frequents "nudie bars" and strip joints with his friends. The only thing that seems to consistently put him in the mood for his wife is watching her do manual labor, which virtually never happens. It is mentioned in a Season 5 episode, aired in 1990, that Al is 43. Al has extremely severe foot odor, prefers the escapism of television and bowling over his dysfunctional family, and life of drudgery and starvation (as Peg refuses to cook, she claims that she is allergic to fire, despite the fact that she smokes); and is often seen in his trademark couch-potato pose — seated on the sofa with one hand stuck under the waistband of his pants. The foot odor is not his only health problem; once in 1993, he had a bad case of dandruff. He also has terrible teeth, as noted in the episode "Tooth or Consequences," where his extremely poor dental hygiene (green, black, bleeding, and loose teeth amongst them) leads to a trip to the dentist with typical bad luck results. Al's favorite television series, the fictional Psycho Dad, was a source of joy and entertainment that Al seemingly, at times, wanted to emulate. He would hum the words to the theme song, and pretend to "shoot" his fictional gun while watching the show. Much like Al, "Psycho Dad" was tormented by his family, and was stated to kill his wife and get revenge on his children in the opening credits and during various fictional "airings" of the episode, though no video was ever shown. His other joys were Westerns, often John Wayne films, most notably "Hondo," until Peg's family ruined his recording of the movie by taping over it with a song dedicated to her. He has also referenced "Shane" when the clan ruined his enjoyment of that movie. Al also has his "faithful" 1974 Dodge Dart that invariably had failed brakes, constant break-downs and numerous other problems associated with its age. At the time of the fourth season at least, Al was still paying it off, despite it being well over 20 years old. By the eighth season, the Dart had passed one million miles. Al's Dodge actually appears to be a 1972 Plymouth Duster. In one episode Al reveals he has to work 40 hours a week {6.6 hours a day} at his shoe job. Al's house number in Chicago, IL, is 9764 (Jeopardy lane), although the actual house (seen during the opening) is in Deerfield, IL {A community of Cook County Illinois-part of Chicago's north Shore}. The producers originally wanted to cast comedian Sam Kinison as Al Bundy. However, they ultimately chose not to, due to the profaneness of Kinison's comedy routines. Kinison would later play Al's guardian angel in the episode "It's a Bundyful Life," spoofing Frank Capra's It's a Wonderful Life. The producers also considered Michael Richards for the role. http://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/michael-richards/bio/166268 Peggy Bundy Margaret "Peggy" Bundy (née Wanker) (Katey Sagal) is Al's lazy wife. She refuses to cook or clean the house, and prefers looking for new clothes to washing them. She does not even think of having a job. During the day, she likes to watch all the daytime talk shows, sitting on the beloved family couch, and eating tons of bonbons (without getting fat). Her favorite TV shows are Oprah and Donahue, but she also enjoys watching the Home Shopping Network. Peggy is a red-head with a bouffant hairdo, and usually wears 1960s, and later, 1970s-styled fashion with skin tight spandex pants and shirts, and Stiletto heels, which make her walk in a unique way. Peg was a cigarette smoker in early seasons, but soon quit. Late in the first season it is revealed she married Al on a dare although this might have been one of her sarcastic comments. In tune with Peggy's character, it was revealed in the fourth season that she did not graduate high school like she thought, failing to meet a half-credit in home economics. She got her diploma, but only by stealing Kelly's final exam, and tricking her into going to summer school. She continually spends what little money Al makes on everything from expensive clothes to useless junk, even stealing from her children to get extra cash. Her maiden name is Wanker, and her family hails from the fictitious rural Wanker County, Wisconsin, where "As Einstein put it, everyone's relative." At Peg and Al's high school reunion, her rival muttered, "Peg...Peggy Wanker...give her a tip don't bother to thank her." What is never made clear is how she managed to go to high school with Al when her parents apparently never left Wanker County. The choice of the word wanker, is likely to be a private joke http://separatedbyacommonlanguage.blogspot.com/2007/01/words-of-year-2006.html , since in British English, the word "wank" is a slang term for masturbation, and "wanker" is often used as a strong insult, applicable either to an inadequate or obnoxious person. Despite her inappropriate behavior, she generally appeals to men, including Al whenever she does work. Like Al, she would never cheat on her partner—but unlike Al, enjoys marital sex. She does not seem to mind her husband ogling other women, reading pornographic magazines, or going to strip joints—most likely because she does the same things herself with other men. Her enthusiasm has caused some of the male strip joints she visits to establish the "Bundy rule" -- where women can no longer go into the back rooms to meet the dancers. During Season 6, Katey Sagal got pregnant in real-life, so it was written into the show. However, Katey suffered a miscarriage, so in true Dallas fashion, the writers made the whole storyline into one of Al's nightmares. Katey was pregnant again twice during the series' run, but instead of writing her pregnancies into the show, the producers either used camera shots from above the stomach, or wrote episodes without the character of Peggy, explaining her absence by having her set out in search of her missing father (who appeared in a few episodes, played by veteran comic Tim Conway), and only occasionally calling home. The producers originally wanted Roseanne Barr to play Peggy Bundy, but she declined, and the producers cast Katey Sagal, who came up with Peg's final appearance, wanting to satirize the TV housewives of the '60s and '70s. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0005408/bio Kelly Bundy Kelly (Christina Applegate) is the older child in the Bundy family, born on approximately November 27, 1972 or 1973 or sometime before February 19, as noted in "Peggy Turns 300," where Kelly says her birthday is in February, but erroneously refers to herself as an "Aquarium" instead of an Aquarian (Aquarius). "Pumpkin," as Al often calls her, is a promiscuous bimbo and stereotypical "dumb blonde." She may have inherited her behavior from her mother, known as "The Big Easy" in high school. Kelly is very promiscuous; always sleeping with different men, much to Al's dismay. There is a re-occurring joke where Al escorts a young man out of his house by the scruff of the neck, only to slam the guy into the wall, before throwing him out the door. Peg has attempted to convey some of her other "values" to Kelly, most notably advice on how to avoid working. During the series' run, Kelly got progressively more stupid. Initially, she was not the stereotypical dumb blonde bimbo she eventually becomes. In one episode, a flashback to Kelly's childhood reveals her to have been a prodigious reader until she banged her head during a road trip, instantly changing her personality to prefer focusing on her "shiny, shiny shoes." In the early seasons Kelly was smarter yet rebellious, and had more self-respect.The show hints at her amazing intrinsic intellectual ability, which only exhibits itself on those rare occasions when she is not preoccupied with her social standing or with the opposite sex. For instance, she can predict the next number drawn on a roulette wheel, but only after letting her mind go blank. When properly motivated, she is able to solve complex mathematical equations, such as her calculation of the trajectory to shoot garbage bags into the D'Arcys' yard from a homemade catapult. It has been demonstrated that she can absorb a limited amount of information very well, but will forget something that she learned in the past once her limit is reached. In one episode, where Kelly appeared on a sports game show, her sports-junkie father takes advantage of that trait in order to train her for the show, filling her head with various (and somewhat useless) sports trivia. However, the plan backfires when Kelly forgets the answer to a high school football question, ironically about Al. Kelly is also known to display excellent hand-eye coordination when playing pool or performing archery. Kelly's comedic function tends to include blatant displays of naïvety and ignorance, with the typical response by the family of willfully allowing her to remain ignorant. Bud, in particular, likes to sow misconceptions in her mind. For example, she asks Bud to help her with her book report on Moby Dick, but ends up reviewing Charlotte's Web instead. Her family is surprised to learn that she earned her high school diploma in 1990—but when she receives her diploma through the mail after finishing summer school, she asks her mother to read it to her. She then worked as a model and waitress. She had become a bottle-blonde at an early age at her mother's encouragement after a boy at school liked a natural blonde more than Kelly. (Years afterward, neither can remember their own natural hair-color.) She is obsessed with boys, hair bleach, and the telephone. Kelly was not allowed to have sleepovers or birthday parties from age eight to age sixteen, thanks to an experience she had at age eight, where "the judge wanted to try her as an adult." Though she often pokes fun at her younger brother, Bud, for being an under-developed, pubescent horndog, she usually seems to be proud of him whenever he manages to get an attractive date. On at least one occasion, she has also avenged Bud by humiliating a girl that humiliated him. For a short time, Bud is her official agent, entitled to 75% (episode 1005) of her earnings. Kelly is very fond of her pets, even when unable to sufficiently care for them. Buck, the family dog, was generally considered to be hers, and she was the most upset when he died. However, when Buck was to be neutered, Al (not wanting to have Buck fixed) says "Buck is Bud's dog, and we have to get Bud's permission." When Peg asks Bud if it is okay to neuter "his" dog, Bud does not seem to care and simply says, "Sure." Her favorite comic strip is Garfield. Her less-than-stellar reading skills led to many comedic situations in which she would read the Garfield comic aloud, mispronouncing lasagne as "luh-SAG-nee." She also watches cartoons, such as Looney Tunes, under the impression that it is a nature show. Bud Bundy Bud Franklin Bundy, (David Faustino) is the second child, born on January 22 around 1974. In the first season, Bud is revealed to be in fifth grade, making him 10 or 11, but in subsequent seasons, he was aged to be within one year of Kelly, graduating high school in 1991. He was named after Al's favorite beer, Budweiser. In one episode, it was stated that the first word Bud spoke was "hooters." However, in another episode, it was "Bud want food." He believes himself to be attractive, sexy, and smooth, but often is typically caught in sexually humiliating scenarios. He is also shorter in stature than his sister, and a lot shorter than his mother. He does not appear to know how to impress women upon meeting them, and is often rejected. It is unclear when Bud lost his virginity, as it was depicted that he may have bedded women as far back as age 14, but in the fourth season, it is mentioned that he is still a virgin. Later in the series, he manages to have one-night-stands, including one with his cousin's fiancee, played by Joey Lauren Adams. He tries to get girls with the help of various alter-egos, including street rapper 'Grandmaster B' -- a persona often ridiculed by his family with the epithets 'Bed-wetter B', grasshopper B, 'Butt Wagger B', 'Cross-Dresser B', 'Grandma B', 'Grand Bastard B', 'Grand Marshall B',Ghostbuster b, More Examples etc. (Faustino has actually been featured in a few rap albums in real-life, and he also manages a nightclub.) Another alter-ego is 'Cool Bud', Bud's sexual, suave side with which he eventually 'merges', prompting him to become more 'cool'. Bud has been known to fail at romance, as those attracted to him are often undesirable. Out of the Bundys, Bud seems to be the most ashamed of the family as he often pretends not to know them. He is also arguably the most academically intelligent. He ridicules Kelly as a promiscuous dimwit, and although he quite frequently uses her ignorance to his benefit, he occasionally feels obliged to defend her when others exploit her foolishness—but he is known to scheme against his own family, such as once causing the collapse of the "Mighty Bundy Empire" Al Bundy anticipated to land a very lucrative deal with the city, to supply the Metermaid's shoes, as Kelly was dating an Alderman. Al stock-piled many useless shoes. He supports himself through a difficult science degree (once confusing the "C" in E = mc² as "Cup", as in bra cup); by being a DMV tester, once even retesting a certain man named 'Al Boondy' (Al Bundy). He makes honor roll throughout high school. He earns a scholarship in which the family accidentally spends it, thinking the bank in which Bud deposited his scholarship check made a clerical error. Bud is portrayed as the leader of his "social circle" (most of whom are stereotypical "losers"), however they move on as they are successful in finding dates. Bud remains a loner, until college. Although he is occasionally bullied and beaten by bigger men, Bud has inherited his father's talents for fist-fighting, once teaming up with Al to single-handedly beat up an entire gang of teenage punks, while helping Peg's father find a bear from Wanker County on the loose in Chicago. In two episodes, he has also assisted his fellow Bundys when they brawl with another family—Al beats up the father, Peg beats up the mother, Kelly beats up the daughter, and Bud beats up the son. On his eighteenth birthday, Bud also helped Al during a strip-club brawl. He is not above fighting dirty by smashing his opponents over the head with chairs or bottles, or hitting below the belt. Buck Buck (Played by Michael, trained by Steven Ritt Sheepdogs - Buck ) is the family dog; a Briard; voiceover by writer/producer Kevin Curran; on special episodes Buck is voiced by Cheech Marin. From season eight on, Buck's voice was provided by staff member Kim Weiskopf. He is often "heard" by the audience through voiceovers that tell what is on his mind. He is just as disgusted with the family as the others. Peggy dotes on him, sometimes even cooking for him. Though extremely lazy, Buck has a huge, insatiable sexual appetite, having at one point impregnated all the female dogs in the neighborhood. Buck died at one point in the series to allow Michael, the dog that portrayed him, to retire. (Michael died nine months later). http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1792610/bio Buck went to animal heaven, and was reincarnated as Lucky, a cocker spaniel. In later seasons, Buck/Lucky would occasionally serve as the narrator in the second half of a two-part episode, recapping the events of the first part. Lucky A character whose voice-overs were performed by staff member Kim Weiskopf, Lucky is the spaniel that the family gets after Buck dies. He is the reincarnation of Buck, but no one in the family ever realizes this. In the episode "Lez Be Friends," the Bundy kids have difficulty entertaining a depressed Lucky; it is suggested that Lucky is gay, with a leather-clad Olde English Bulldog as his companion. Peggy's mother Heard only in voice-overs by Kathleen Freeman and ground-shaking gags (making her an unseen character), she lives with the Bundys in Season 10, when she separates from Peg's father. There are vague and comical references to her gigantic weight, which is alleged to be more than 1,000 pounds. This woman is mostly the victim of Al's abrasive, behind-the-back, and hatred-filled insults. Peggy's father, Ephraim Peggy's father was played by Tim Conway, appearing occasionally in the last three seasons. It is implied that he was drunk, and held a shotgun to Al's head at Al and Peggy's wedding. (He calls Peggy by her true name "Margaret.") Unlike many other sitcoms with the father-in-law usually disapproving of the husband having married his daughter, Peg's father approves of Al so much that he held a gun to Al's head to force him to follow through on the marriage Al had drunkenly proposed to Peg, although Ephraim implied in "The Joke's on Al" that the gun wasn't loaded at the time. Ephraim, like his wife, was set to be played by Divine, who died before production. The neighbors Marcy D'Arcy Marcy D'Arcy, Marcy Rhoades from Episodes 0101–0512, (played by Amanda Bearse) is Peggy's best friend, Al's nemesis, and the family's next-door neighbor. Though she considers herself to be better than the Bundy family, Marcy often sinks to their level. She originally worked as a loan officer at the city bank (in a higher position than her husband, Steve and then as the manager of the Kyoto National Bank since the second season. But for a brief time, she was demoted to drive-up window teller as punishment for approving a loan Al could not re-pay (in fact the purpose was to make Al able to re-pay a previous loan approved by Steve, but Al instead turned this loan into his "shoe hotline" project as well, and lost it too). She wins back her old job after "frugging" on her boss's desk for 20 minutes, clad only in a slip, while the other drive-up window tellers tossed quarters at her. Initially, Marcy was a sweet, wholesome newlywed, but years of living next to the Bundys apparently warped her into a character almost as outrageous as the Bundys. She contemptuously bickered with Al, and reveled in his misery. One of the reasons for her hatred of Al is his chauvinistic and misogynistic view of women. Marcy seemed to have a disturbing dark side, and enjoys sharing her past memories with Peg, but often tends to get lost in them. At various points in the series, she is identified as a Republican who looks down on the lower-class Bundy clan, but at other times, she is portrayed as a man-hating radical feminist and environmentalist. Al's most frequent targets are Marcy's tiny chest and her chicken-like stance when she gets annoyed. In season 6 Marcy claimed she was pregnant though this was later written out of the show. Marcy had a loud, piercing laugh, which she usually displayed whenever Al suffered some misfortune. One of the running gags in the series has Marcy often mistaken for a young boy, on one occasion even being mistaken for Bruce Jenner; when she reminisces about her first training bra, Al asks "How old were you then - twenty-five?!" Despite wanting to appear prudish, Marcy is shown to be a very sexual person, and is revealed to have a rather sordid sexual history, such as the "Little Bo Peep and the Cop" game. Although Marcy and Al are usually adversaries, they often unite in common causes, such as later when Jefferson comes into the series. Their teamwork is attributable to the fact that they are both "bread-winners," giving them occasional moments of mutual understanding. Steve Rhoades Steven "Steve" Bartholomew Rhoades (David Garrison) is Marcy's first husband. Much like the name "Bundy" the creators chose the surname "Rhoades" after professional wrestler Dusty Rhodes, a good-guy character who worked opposite bad guys like King Kong Bundy. He is a banker who seems unfazed by his lower position than Marcy at the city bank. (When Marcy moves up to a high position at another bank, he gets her former job.) Steve initially condescends to the Bundys, but eventually becomes more like them, and generally turns to Al for male-bonding. Marcy was initially attracted to him because of his self-centered materialism. Steve seemed to be a fairly demure and buttoned-down character, compared to his wife and the Bundys, although he did show a dark side. As a banker, Steve took sadistic pleasure in humiliating people who bullied him in high school by making his former tormentors (many of whom were stuck in poor, dead-end jobs similar to Al's) grovel for bank loans, which he flatly refused. Steve also got his job as Dean of Bud's college by blackmailing the man who employed him as a chauffeur. Steve was written out of the show in the middle of the fourth season; Garrison had decided he no longer wanted to be tied down to a weekly television series, preferring to avoid being typecast in one role, and devote more time to his first love: stage acting. He reached an agreement with FOX to buy out the remainder of his contract. In the final episode shot, (though confusingly, not the final episode aired) in which he was a regular character, Steve is disenchanted with his and Marcy's yuppie lifestyle, and is increasingly interested in becoming an outdoorsman (a real-life interest of Garrison's). He then disappears, with the explanation that he left Marcy to become a forest ranger at Yosemite National Park. Prior to disappearing he loses his job at the bank, after, in desire to win a free trip to Hawaii, he approves a loan for Al's "shoe hotline" project which fails. His last job was as a "pooper scooper" at an exotic pet shop. In later seasons, Garrison would reprise the Steve Rhoades character on four occasions, returning to guest star in individual episodes (with Steve having pursued other careers in the meantime), as he eventually returns to professional life to become the Dean of Bud's college. This episode was to be the pilot of a spin-off series that never happened. Jefferson D'Arcy Jefferson Milhouse D'Arcy (Ted McGinley) is Marcy's second husband (original age unknown, but younger than Marcy; one episode mentioned that he celebrated his 40th birthday), a "pretty-boy" who marries her for her money. Self-centered and lazy, he is a male equivalent of Peggy. Marcy met Jefferson (a bartender) at his workplace after a bankers' convention when she got drunk, and found herself married to him the next morning; she was horrified to find out that her name was now Marcy D'Arcy (Episode 92, "Married...With Who?"). He is Al's closest friend, and often angers Marcy when he is bonding with him; unlike Steve who was more of a foil, or straight man, to Al, Jefferson tends to be very encouraging and attuned to Al's behavior. Marcy constantly bosses Jefferson around to keep him in check. However, behind her back, Jefferson often insults Marcy, ignores her orders (and has implied numerous times that he cheats on her). When Marcy's favorite squirrel Zippy dies, Jefferson tells her that he will give it a proper burial, only to punt it out of his sight when Marcy turns around. Jefferson is a member of "NO MA'AM" along with Al, wearing the trademark T-shirt, but he always keeps a clean "YES MA'AM" T-shirt on underneath, which he quickly reveals if Marcy is about to bust one of "NO MA'AM"'s activities. He seems very afraid of provoking his wife's anger, and his fear is justified—in one episode, after he angered Marcy, she kicked him in the behind so hard he had to go to the hospital to get her boot removed from his rear end. Marcy constantly hounds Jefferson to get a job. However, on the rare occasions when he actually gets one (working at the shoe store, being cast as an actor in a commercial, working as a bartender, working as an aerobics instructor, working at an auto-repair shop in some menial position, etc.), he usually ends up working with beautiful women, which prompts a jealous Marcy to make him quit and return to his de facto job as her gigolo. This tendency runs in the D'Arcy family, as Jefferson's father also worked as a gigolo, and his mother worked as an exotic dancer before she was eaten by her snake at an airport. He is easily the most financially-scheming character of the show—even more than the Bundys. Often, when Al stumbles into a unique lucrative opportunity, Jefferson typically persuades Al to take advantage of it. When Al was robbed in his shoe store, Jefferson convinced him to sue the mall while feigning psychological trauma. When Al discovered hidden shoes that he stocked away in the 1970s, Jefferson convinced him to use the shoes as a new gimmick for the store by taking advantage of the old shoes' popularity. When discovering Al's boss, Gary, was using illegal sweatshops to manufacture the shoes, Jefferson assists Al in a search for incriminating evidence. When Bud was involved in a romantic relationship with the (surprising to the characters) female Gary (played by Janet Carroll), Jefferson convinced Al to permit the relationship, so Al can milk Gary out of her money through his son. After discovering that they were in possession of private pictures of Shannon Tweed in sexually provocative manners, Jefferson convinced Al to sell it to the media. During a rare time in which Al is struck with good luck, Jefferson persuades him into a high-stakes poker game with a group of ex-criminals. Jefferson also convinced Al to go home to have sex with his wife, so Al could win a radio contest. During the course of the series, it is revealed that Jefferson spent time in prison (for selling contaminated land as a vacation spot to several people, including Al) and used to be in the CIA. Occasionally, people claim to have seen him on The Love Boat and Happy Days, a claim he always denies (Ted McGinley did, in fact, play Jefferson High School coach and teacher Roger Phillips on Happy Days later in the series, the obvious inspiration for the character's name). Ted McGinley had appeared previously as Peggy's husband, Mr. Norman Jablonski, in the second part of It's a Bundyful Life, where Al's guardian angel (Sam Kinison) shows Al what his family would have become if he was never born. The episode lightly parodies Capra's It's a Wonderful Life. Recurring characters Griff (Harold Sylvester) – First appears early in Season 9, and is a friend and co-worker of Al at the shoe store. He is also a member of Al's "NO MA'AM" organization. A divorcee, he shares many of Al's characteristics as far as work ethic and views on women go. However, Griff isn't quite as impolite and outspoken to their customers, or to their boss, Gary. He is also less callous; occasionally he feels uneasy when going along with one of Al or Jefferson's many schemes. Griff drives a GEO Metro, and is often mocked for this. However, Griff is happy because it is still more reliable than Al's 1970s Dodge. (Al says Griff's car is easier to push.) When Bud and Griff first met, Bud said Al never mentioned having a co-worker, and Griff said Al never mentioned having a son, a daughter, or a living wife, but had already annoyed him with all the times he mentioned scoring four touchdowns in one single game. Bob Rooney (E. E. Bell) – One of Al's friends from the neighborhood, and treasurer of "NO MA'AM." He works as a butcher, has a wife named Louise (who is a friend of Peggy), and played on the same football team as Al at Polk High. He is always called by both his first and last name, even by his wife, and it is spelled as one word on his bowling shirt. Bell was the only member of the extended cast to spend a lot of time on the Usenet newsgroups fielding questions from viewers. Officer Dan (Dan Tullis, Jr.) – A friend of Al's who is also in "NO MA'AM." Surprisingly, though he is part of "NO MA'AM," he often arrests them for their illegal antics. However, he does admit to his friends that he is a corrupt officer, which indicates he does help out the group now and then. In one of the times he was about to arrest them, he changes his mind and joins them when he learns they're trying to bring back "Psycho Dad". Though he was usually a cop, in season 6 Officer Dan arrives at the Bundy front door as an FBI agent looking for Steve Rhoades. Ike (Tom McCleister) – Another member of "NO MA'AM." Sergeant at Arms of the organization. Believes Elvis is still alive. The character was named after producer Kim Weiskopf's best friends's son. Miranda Veracruz de la Jolla Cardinal (Teresa Parente) – Latina local news reporter originally from "a country named after the equator" who is typically assigned to cover the pathetic news stories in which the Bundys inevitably involve themselves. She often laments the sad state of her career on-air. While she only appears in a handful of episodes throughout the series, the character seems to be quite popular with fans. The Wankers – Peggy's family, living in Wanker County ("The home of the gassy beaver"), a fictional Wisconsin county. They are more often mentioned than seen on camera. Peggy's mother is never shown (though she is heard in several episodes, voiced by Kathleen Freeman), but her father Ephraim (Tim Conway) appears in a few episodes. Mrs. Wanker's unbelievable obesity is the subject of many jokes, including one in which Al goes blind after accidentally walking in on her bathing. Other extended family members includes Uncle Otto (James 'Gypsy' Haake), Uncle Irwin (Chris Pallies (King Kong Bundy)), the Wanker Triplets (Milly de Rubio, Elena de Rubio, Eadie de Rubio), Cousin Possum Boy (John Gerard), Cousin Effie (Joey Lauren Adams), Cousin Eb (William Sanderson), Cousin Zemus (Bob Goldthwait) and his wife Cousin Ida Mae (Linda Blair), along with their six-and-a-half-year-old son, Seven (played by Shane Sweet, who was seven years old in real-life). In the UK and Australia, the word 'wanker' is a slang insult that means "someone who masturbates." It is not known whether the producers knew this, and included it as an in-joke for the benefit of British and Australian audiences, or whether the name is just a coincidence. When Peggy hears Al encouraging Kelly to get a job, she mentions a tradition of the female Wankers of having men being buried earlier for having to keep them. Gary (Janet Carroll) – The owner of Gary's Shoes and employer of Al. Gary's first appearance in the series came after Al turned her women's shoe store into a men's, assuming Gary was male and therefore wouldn't notice. (Al never saw Gary in the first twenty years he worked in the store, leading him once to doubt that Gary really existed) Gary is incredibly wealthy (she would have been in the Forbes 400, but only reached #401 because of the shoe store—her only failing business venture). In the first appearance she said she owns, among other things, men, prompting Al to offer himself but she points out she said "men." Over the course of the series she makes several more appearances, always to the chagrin of Al, and in one episode even becomes the Sugar Momma of Bud, much to the chagrin of those who still thought she was a man. However she became too possessive leading Bud to break-up with her as he puts his dignity over her money. Luke Ventura (Ritch Shydner) – A co-worker at the shoe store early in the series. He was a sly womanizer who was always seducing beautiful women and stealing Al's sales. Peg hated him while Al tolerated him. He disappears from the show after the first season, but is mentioned again in the ninth season episode "Pump Fiction," when Al learns from the shoe industry publication "Shoe News" that Luke is being given an award. Though he was portrayed to be a friend of Al's in the beginning of the series, after his disappearance, he had been spoken of as if he had since become Al's rival. Aaron Mitchell (Hill Harper) – The second co-worker of Al's at the shoe store. A young football star at Polk High, he is on the verge of marrying a wonderful woman and going to college, achieving everything that Al ever wanted. Al chooses to live his life vicariously through Aaron, until his misguided advice accidentally drive the boy to a shrewish woman named "Meg" (a young copy of Peg) and the same dismal fate which had befallen Al. Aaron appeared only in the eighth season (5 episodes). Dexter (Chi McBride) – He was the third co-worker with Al in Gary's Shoes. He was injured when a fat woman fell on him during an earthquake that was ironically caused by fat women. Ariel (Jennifer Lyons) – One of Bud's love interests. She is the quintessential dumb blonde, sporting blonde hair, large breasts, skimpy outfits and a high-pitched voice. She is not very smart and Bud is constantly thinking of new ways to con her into having sex with him. Jaclyn (Melissa De Sousa) Psycho Dad: A fictitious character and television show on Fox, that Al and the members of "NO MA'AM" (except for Griff) idolize. The show was abruptly canceled after complaints from women's group due to its high content of violence. "NO MA'AM" went to Washington D.C. to have Psycho Dad put back on the air but were unsuccessful. Shoe Woman: A recurring character who has a masculine appearance. Though only in a handful of episodes, this character is well known for her phrase - "I need shoes!". In season nine we find out that she works at the bowling alley Al and his friends go to on a Thursday, making a humorous variation of her catchphrase, "You need shoes!", to a barefoot Al. The catchphase is said in a fast-paced, masculine voice. The same actress appears in the episode "Kelly Knows Something" as "Max", another game-show contestant. Amber (Juliet Tablak) is Marcy's niece. Amber's mother sent her to live with Marcy to get her out of her bad L.A. neighborhood. Bud managed to bed her on their first encounter (and presumably more so in the following week) and tries relentlessly to bed her again, but no aveil. After season nine, Amber disappears without explanation. However, she does appear to demonstrate an attraction to Bud (remarking to Kelly in private that she thinks he is cute). Bud may have simply lost his attraction towards her when she destroyed his cyber sex simulators of her in the episode, User Friendly. Only appears in 4 episodes. Seven (Shane Sweet) Peggy's cousins (played by Bobcat Goldthwait and Linda Blair) drop off their son and leave him behind for the Bundys to take care of. He appeared on the seventh season of Married with children in a handful of episodes, then disappeared without any explanation. He was an extremely unpopular character with the fans http://www.amazon.com/Married-Children-Complete-Seventh-Season/product-reviews/B000SSQ7J2/ref=cm_cr_dp_all_helpful?ie=UTF8&coliid=&showViewpoints=1&colid=&sortBy=bySubmissionDateDescending http://www.bundyology.com/oseven.html http://www.tv.com/shane-sweet-board/seven-killed-andquotmarried-with-childrenandquot.../topic/80968-527566/msgs.html http://listoftheday.blogspot.com/2009/03/12-kids-who-killed-tv-shows.html Although in season eight, in the episode "Kelly Knows Something," Kelly is studying for a trivia show. As she learns new information, you visually see her forgetting other things. One thing that 'pops out of her head' is an image of Seven. Fox broadcast history Date Time slotApril 1987 - October 1987Sunday, 8:00 p.m.October 1987 - July 1989Sunday, 8:30 p.m.July 1989 - August 1996Sunday, 9:00 p.m.September 1996 - October 1996Saturday, 9:00 p.m.November 1996 - June 1997Sunday, 7:30 p.m. Episodes see also List of Married... with Children episodes Syndication Married...With Children has aired on cable television on FX in the past. In 2008, the Spike network reportedly paid US$12 million for broadcast rights to every episode including the unedited version of the infamous episode, I'll See You in Court. 'Married' set for Spike run. Variety, April 6, 2008. It started airing on Spike TV on September 29, 2008 with a weeklong marathon. TBS also began airing the show shortly after, acquiring the show in fall 2008. TBS has rights to air the show from 2-7am, while Spike TV has rights to broadcast the show from 7am-2am. It also began to air on TV Land in 2009, winning the 2009 "Innovator Award" on the TV Land Awards in April. Nielsen ratings 1994-1995 Season: #64 1995-1996 Season: #78 1996-1997 Season: #97 Awards Casting Society of America: 1987: Best Casting for TV - Episodic Comedy (nominated)Emmy Awards: 1987: Outstanding Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Series (for "But I Didn't Shoot the Deputy", nominated) 1988: Outstanding Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Comedy Series (for "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun", nominated) 1989: Outstanding Editing - Multi-Camera Production (for "Requiem for a Dead Barber", nominated) 1990: Outstanding Costuming for a Series (for "Raingirl", nominated) 1990: Outstanding Editing - Multi-Camera Production (for "Who'll Stop the Rain", nominated) 1991: Outstanding Costuming for a Series (for "Married... with Aliens", nominated) 1994: Outstanding Costuming for a Series (for "Take My Wife, Please", nominated) Golden Globe Awards: 1990: Best Actress - Musical or Comedy Series (Katey Sagal for playing "Peggy Bundy", nominated) 1990: Best Series - Musical or Comedy (nominated) 1991: Best Actor - Musical or Comedy Series (Ed O'Neill for playing "Al Bundy", nominated) 1991: Best Actress - Musical or Comedy Series (Sagal, nominated) 1992: Best Actor - Musical or Comedy Series (O'Neill, nominated) 1992: Best Actress - Musical or Comedy Series (Sagal, nominated) 1993: Best Actress - Musical or Comedy Series (Sagal, nominated) 2009: TV Land Awards - Innovator Award (entire cast) Controversy and edited content One episode of Married... with Children was "lost" due to the efforts of a Michigan housewife (see below); it did, however, air outside the United States since the show went into syndication. Another edited episode involved Al trying to sell his Dodge before he is contacted by a Dodge representative wanting to record the moment when the odometer on the Dodge reaches all-zeros (1 million miles) was also the source of controversy after the September 11th attacks. After meeting various people, Al is approached by two men dressed in all white tunics, holding a bundle of dynamite attached to an alarm clock. The men declare, "Look, we have no time to haggle; we need car and directions to Sears Tower." Another episode, the unaired pilot, was never shown on TV. However, it leaked online in 2008. Rakolta boycott In 1989, Terry Rakolta, a homemaker from Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, led a boycott http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1651341_1659192_1652601,00.html Married... With Children The 100 Best TV Shows Of All Time against Married... with Children after viewing the episode Her Cups Runneth Over - 0306. Bundyology - Episode "Her Cups Runneth Over" Offended by the images of an old man wearing a garter and stockings, the scene where Steve touches the panties of a mannequin dressed in S&M gear, a homosexual man wearing a tiara on his head (and Al's line, "...and they wonder why we call them "queens"), and a woman who takes off her bra in front of Al (and is shown with her arms covering her chest in the next shot), Rakolta began a letter-writing campaign to advertisers, demanding they boycott the show. After advertisers began dropping their support for the show and while Rakolta made several appearances on television talk shows, FOX executives refused to air the episode titled I'll See You In Court - 0310. Bundyology - Episode "I'll See You in Court" This episode would become known as the "Lost Episode" and was aired on FX on June 18, 2002, with some parts cut for time reasons. The episode was packaged with the rest of the third season in the January 2005 DVD release (and in the first volume of the Married...With Children Most Outrageous episode DVD set) with the parts cut from syndication put back in. During the first boycott, ratings for Married... with Children ironically rose due to interest in the show caused by Rakolta's crusade to have the show cancelled (a non-Internet example of the Streisand effect). The increased number of viewers kept the show on the air until 1997. Rakolta has been referenced twice on the show: Rock and Roll Girl - 0414, Bundyology - Episode "Rock and Roll Girl" when a newscaster mentioned the city Bloomfield Hills, and No Pot To Pease In - 0909, Bundyology - Episode "No Pot to Pease in" when a television show was made about the Bundy family and then was canceled because (according to Marcy) "some woman in Michigan didn't like it." Change in tone During the first two seasons, the show was more of a realistic view of a working-class family, in contrast to the other family sitcoms of the era, where everyone's problems are solved in a half-hour and the kids all go to college, etc. Later on, Married... became, as Ed O'Neill said, "more cartoonish and broad," and was no longer a commentary on the nuclear family. DVD releases Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released the first ten seasons of Married... with Children on DVD in Region 1 & 2 for the very first time. In Region 4, Sony has released all 11 seasons of the series. DVD NameEp #Region 1Region 2Region 4Additional Information The Complete First Season 13 October 28, 2003 April 7, 2004 October 25, 2005 Reunion special and Bonus trailers; Trailers not included on Region 4 set The Complete Second Season 22 March 16, 2004 October 26, 2004 September 22, 2008 13 Hidden Easter Eggs featuring Interviews With the Cast The Complete Third Season 23 January 25, 2005 February 10, 2005 September 22, 2008 Easter Eggs and Previews The Complete Fourth Season 23 August 30, 2005 December 22, 2005 September 22, 2008 Bonus previews; 7 Syndicated/Edited Episodes. German region 2 sets feature unedited episodes. The Complete Fifth Season 25 June 20, 2006 June 27, 2006 September 22, 2008 Bonus previews The Complete Sixth Season 26 December 19, 2006 August 17, 2006 September 22, 2008 Bonus previews The Complete Seventh Season 26 September 18, 2007 October 5, 2006 September 22, 2008 Bonus previews The Complete Eighth Season 26 March 18, 2008 December 19, 2006 October 22, 2008 Bonus previews, minisodes The Complete Ninth Season 28 August 19, 2008 February 20, 2007 October 22, 2008 Bonus previews, minisodes The Complete Tenth Season 26 March 17, 2009 March 20, 2007 March 11, 2009 The Complete Eleventh Season 24 March 11, 2009 For the most part the episodes on the North American DVD box sets are the unedited versions as seen on the FOX network, however there are some instances where scenes have been cut or the syndicated version of an episode was placed on the DVD instead. This is most noticeable in Season 4, where 7 of the 22 episodes have some type of edit. The German region 2 Season 4 set uses non-syndicated versions of these episodes, although the Dutch and French sets have the syndicated versions. The region 4 sets were delayed by three years from the release of the complete Season 1, until the release of Season 2. Sony released the region 4 editions from seasons 2-9. The DVDs are varied from the American counterparts, with some episodes intact, while others are syndicated versions. This is apparent on the Season 4 DVD, where Disc 1 contains non-syndicated episodes (differing from the Region 1 set), however Discs 2 & 3 contain the syndicated versions of some episodes. The DVD box sets from Season 3 onward do not feature the original "Love and Marriage" theme song in the opening sequence. This was done because Sony was unable to obtain the rights to the theme song. It is highly unlikely that the theme song will return in any yet to be released DVD box set. The replaced theme song was the cause of the syndicated versions of seven episodes in Season 4, as Sony falsely claimed did not have access to the original masters of these episodes, and had to use syndicated prints. This is proved wrong since they used the originals from Season 4 in "Most Outrageous" DVDs that contained some episodes. As the end credits had to be altered to credit the new theme song, certain scenes that originally ran during the end credits had to be replaced with a freeze frame. In most episodes affected, the original audio plays in the background while you see a freeze frame, however in a few cases a freeze frame is used, but the original audio is replaced with the theme song. The final season is expected to be released in the near future. http://videoeta.com/movie/93765 In the German speaking countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) all seasons have already been released (region 2). In December 2007 the Big Bundy Box - a special collection box with all seasons plus new interviews with Katey Sagal & David Faustino - was released. Big Bundy Box Released This boxset was released in Australia (Region 4) on December 3, 2008. The Australian release contained seasons 1 - 9 with two extra spots for seasons 10 - 11 . Remakes Argentina In Argentina a remake has been done under the name of Casados con Hijos. The show aired in 2005 and although it wasn't successful at first (mainly because of an inconvennient broadcast time), it was aired again during summer and it got one of the highest ratings of the year and because of that, a second season has been done for 2006. The characters are Pepe (Guillermo Francella), Moni (Florencia Peña), Coqui (Darío Lopilato) and Paola (Luisana Lopilato), all under the 'Argento' surname. It should be noted that the show's reruns had higher ratings than when the episodes were first aired. Brazil A Guerra dos Pintos (War of the Pintos) was the title of the Brazilian remake. It ran for a short time on BAND before it got cancelled in 1999 due to poor ratings. Many episodes were left unaired. The Brazilian Bundys were called "Pintos" (hence the name of the series). Pinto translates to dick in Portuguese, and is also a common Brazilian surname. The Pintos lived in Rio de Janeiro. Al's equivalent, "Zé Pinto," was a shoe salesman just like Al, and he was a former soccer player as Al was a former football player. Peggy equivalent was named "Neide Pinto," Kelly named "Kelly Pinto" and Bud was "Joca Pinto" in the series. They also had a dog named Cachorro (which means dog in Portuguese). Their neighbours, the "Fialho's," were based on the Rhoades, not the D'Arcys. The storyline was exactly the same as in the early original version. Chile In Chile, a remake was made in 2006 and 2007, with the name Casado con Hijos, and it has been getting higher ratings, beating soap operas broadcasting in the same hour. The show was broadcasted daily. The characters were Alberto "Tito" Larraín (Al), María Eugenia "Quena" Gómez de Larraín (Peggy), Ignacio "Nacho" Larraín (Bud), and Titi (Kelly). Their neighbors are Marcia Durán (Marcy) and Pablo Pinto (both Steve Rhoades and Jefferson D'Arcy). Colombia In Colombia a remake named Casados con Hijos was made on 2005. The characters are "Paco" Rocha (Al) played by Santiago Rodriguez, "Lola" (Peggy) played by Lorna Paz, Willy (Bud), and Kelly (Kelly). This version airs weekdays in the United States on MTV Tr3́s, an American MTV network aimed at Latinos, with English subtitles. Croatia The Croatian version of the show is called Bračne vode (Marriage waters). It premiered on Nova TV in September 2008. The family is called Bandić. The characters are Zvonimir "Zvonko" Bandić (Damir Lončar), Sunčica "Sunči" Bandić (Mila Elegović), Kristina "Tina" Bandić (Sonja Kovač) and Boris "Bobo" Bandić (Vid Mekinić). Their neighbours are Marica (Jadranka Đokić) and Ivan "Ivica" Kumarica (Igor Mešin). Sunči and Zvonko are 17 years in marriage. They have got two children, older Tina and younger Bobo. They are always fighting. Sunči is lazy. She likes to make jokes, mostly about Zvonko and their sex. After the poor ratings of the 1st season and extremely bad production, the network Nova TV decided to give the show one more chance, which included some changes, mostly in the cast. The core role of Zvonimir "Zvonko" Bandić was re-cast with the much suiting actor Hrvoje Zalar and the role of Kristina "Tina" Bandić was recast with a newcomer Mirela Videk. Germany After the Original Series' success in Germany, the German TV-channel RTL produced 26 episodes of Hilfe, meine Familie spinnt. The scripts and every single joke were translated. The show wasn't picked up for a second season due to bad ratings (1993). The German synchronation from Married... with Children called "Eine schrecklich nette Famillie" (a terribly nice family) Hungary In 2006, Hungarian TV network TV2 brought the license rights including scripts and hired the original producers from Sony Pictures for a remake show placed in Hungarian environment. It was entitled Egy rém rendes család Budapesten http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egy_r%C3%A9m_rendes_csal%C3%A1d_Budapesten (in English: Married with children in Budapest, loan translation: A gruesomely decent family in Budapest). The main story began with the new family called the Bándis inherit an outskirt house from their American relatives the Bundys. They filmed a whole season of 26 episodes, all of them being remade versions of the plots of the original first seasons. It was the highest budget sitcom ever made in Hungary. First it was aired on Tuesday nights, but was beaten by a new season of ER, then placed to Wednesday nights. The remake lost its viewers, but stayed on the air due to the contract between Sony and TV2. ( Index.hu In Hungarian Index.hu In Hungarian Index.hu In Hungarian ) Poland There is a sitcom called Świat według Kiepskich (The World According to the Kiepscy), which is loosely based on Married... with Children (in Poland entitled Świat według Bundych - "The World According to the Bundy"). It has been running since 1999. Although it has been cancelled for one year, during 2005–2006 period, under the fans pressure it has been brought back next year. It is still running with over 200 episodes. There are many differences between original 'Married... with Children' and 'Swiat według Kiepskich' such as the working wife, unemployed husband, half-disabled mother of the housewife, completely dumb son, a very greedy neighbour with his poshless wife and other changes like second neighbour, a fat man called 'Boczek' (Bacon). Few years before its first canncellation, the actor who played the Polish version of Al Bundy's son left the show. In real life, the actor met with unpleasant situations, in which people mistook his fictional character as himself. Despite rumours of a comeback, the actor never returned to the series. Another big change was when the actress who played the role of housewife's mother died at age of 87 in real life. The producers said that it was a great loss and her character was irreplaceable. Russia The Original Married... With Children ran on NTV for almost three years, on a daily basis, broadcasting the episodes from seasons 1-10. The show later aired on TV6. However, for unknown reasons, most episodes from season 11 were not shown. A Russian adaptation, titled Счастливы вместе (Sсhastlivy Vmeste) (Happy Together), is now airing on TNT channel across the country. Still Married, With Children, but in Russian - New York Times In April 2008, the producers announced all episodes of Married... With Children have been adapted as Schastlivy Vmeste (including all the episodes from the seldom seen 11th season) and an online contest was started where fans could submit new ideas for episodes. http://lean-m.ru/news/2008/04/14/novyi-konkurs-ot-schastlivy-vmeste (in Russian) . The character names are: Gennadiy Bukin (based on Al, played by Viktor Loginov), Dasha Bukina (based on Peggy, played by Natalya Bochkareva), Sveta Bukina (based on Kelly, played by Darya Sagalova), Roma Bukin (based on Bud, played by Aleksandr Yakin), Elena and Anatoliy Poleno (based on Marcy and Jefferson D'Arcy, played by Yulia Zaharova and Pavel Savinkov), Evgeniy Stepanov (based on Steve Rhoades, played by Aleksey Sekirin), Syoma Bukin (based on Seven, played by Ilya Butkovskoy), Baron Bukin (based on Buck, played by Bayra). Instead of living in a house, the Bukins live in an apartment on the top floor of a small building, and the Stepanovs/Polenos live in the apartment in front of theirs. Prior to the series' beginning, they could buy off the part of the building's attic for extra rooms, so apart from the lack of a cellar, the lack of a backdoor, a garage in a separate building instead of being adjacent to the house, and a balcony used instead of the yard, the layout of Bukins' flat looks like the Bundys' house. The apartment is in a mess from some fixes in the house which were never finished, and an unfortunately placed construction site outside allows people (and Baron, the family dog) to go in and out the Bukins' apartment by the balcony. Instead of wearing sixties' clothes Peggy, Dasha wears eighties-inspired clothes and has normal brown hair, which becomes red and more flamboyant as the series advances, similar to her American countrpart. Also, instead of disappearing like Seven after a few episodes, the character of Sema stays with the Bukins until the end of the series and often when he is absent from an event the whole family should attend, one of them asks "Wait, where's Sema?", to what another family member comes up with an explanation that should apply to a teenager, and not to a six years old boy (like "He went to pick up chicks on his own"). His last appearance was in the penultimate episode based on The Desperate Half-Hour. Also, the family dog Baron doesn't die and reincarnate, he remains the same until the end of the series. The episode Requiem For The Dead Briard was however adapted, with Baron being sold to a rich person by Sema instead of dying. The last name of the main characters, Bukins, is derived from the Russian word "buka", which refers to a socially inept person. The first neighbor couple, Elena and Evgeniy Stepanov, are named after married Russian comedians Evgeniy Petrosyan and Elena Stepanenko. The last name of the second neighbor couple, Poleno, means "log", which spawned some wood-based nicknames for both Elena and Anatoliy, to which Anatoliy often responds "Not this. It's Poleno, as in 'Anatoliy Poleno'". Spain Originally it was aired at public channel "La 2." The Spanish TV network Cuatro created a Spanish version called Matrimonio con Hijos (Marriage with Children). It was cancelled after only one season due to the lack of quality and good scripts. United Kingdom It was shown on ITV, and made no great impact, perhaps because of the questionable use of wholesome family comedian Russ Abbott in the lead role of Ted Butler, or perhaps because the original had already been shown on the same channel, albeit in a late-evening slot. Also, this version was considerably toned down from the original, despite the fact that British TV is in general more risque than American, and the BBC had already been showing shows similar to Married for years. The show was renamed Married for Life, in order to distinguish it from the original, which already had a cult following in the United Kingdom. Bulgaria In Bulgaria there is currently a casting. Spin-offs Married... with Children was adapted into a comic book series by NOW Comics in 1990. The episodes Top of the Heap, Radio Free Trumaine, and Enemies were meant to be spin-offs. Top of the Heap IMDb.com - Top of the Heap was the only episode of the three to get its own show. It was notable as an early sitcom starring Matt LeBlanc. The show was about Vinnie Verducci (played by LeBlanc) and his father Charlie (played by Joseph Bologna) always trying get rich quick schemes. The Verduccis were introduced in an earlier episode where Vinnie played Kelly Bundy's boyfriend and Charlie played an old friend of Al Bundy's. The end of the pilot episode shows Al breaking into their apartment and stealing their TV to replace the one he lost betting on Vinnie in a boxing match. However, the show just didn't last long and was ultimately cancelled. Radio Free Trumaine was to be about Bud Bundy's time in college with the campus radio station, with Steve Rhoades as the antagonistic Dean. The episode co-starred Keri Russell. Enemies was a Friends clone, featuring Alan Thicke, based around Kelly Bundy's social circle. In addition to those three spin-offs, a Frasier-type spin-off (i.e., picking up from where the show it spun-off from left off) about Kelly Bundy was planned but never made for two reasons: Christina Applegate turned it down, and Fox's contract stated that the two Bundy children couldn't get spin-offs. Also, series co-creator Michael G. Moye proposed a NO MA'AM spin-off, but got turned down mainly due to FOX's fears of alienating much of the female demographic. Worldwide United States': It ran on Fox for its eleven year run but it has also appeared in syndication reruns on other channels. Sony Pictures Television picked it up and Sony has only released it on DVD but never aired it on any channel. It is currently showing on Spike TV and TBS. All episodes from seasons six and seven along with some episodes from season five and eight are available to view for free on Sony owned Crackle, along with several Minisodes.Married...with Children'' is also popular in other countries around the world. Country Foreign title Translation Network(s) Notes Married...with Children None Network TenNine NetworkTV1 Reruns of the show run four times during week at 10pm and three episodes are shown from 9am Sunday on the cable network TV1. Original episodes aired on the Ten Network and later on the Nine Network. (Ten aired the show as a filler late weeknights before it was picked up by Nine and put into its Primetime schedule.) Casado con Hijos Dubbed Telefe Eine schrecklich nette Familie(An Awfully Nice Family) Dubbed ORF The show aired from March 6, 1995 until March 18, 1998 on the Pubcaster ORF. It started airing again on July 13, 2007, weekdays. Married...with Children Subtitled VTM, Ketnet, VT4 The show is currently running on the commercial network VTM and has previously been aired on the public network Ketnet and the commercial network VT4. Um amor de Família(A Lovely Family) DubbedSubtitled Sony Entertainment TelevisionPlayTV Has been running (on and off) since 1991 on different national channels. Today the show runs on Sony Entertainment Television with original sound and subtitles, the dubbed version runs on PlayTV. Женени с деца(Married with Children) Dubbed bTVFox lifeDiema The show ran its all seasons on bTV with Bulgarian dub. It was repeated on Fox life. It is currently airing on Diema with different dub, and on GTV with same dub as Fox. Married...with Children Global Television NetworkTVtropolisCMT Original episodes aired on the Global Television Network. The show ran for a short period of time on CMT during 2006–2007 and is currently being run on TVtropolis. Married...with Children Subtitled Sony Entertainment Television Today the show runs on Sony Entertainment Television and it was aired on Mega, a national channel. Bračne vode(Marriage Waters) Subtitled Croatian RadiotelevisionRTL Televizija The show runs on RTL Televizija. It was originally aired on Croatian Radiotelevision (HRT) in late 1990s. Ženatý se závazky(Married with Liabilities) Dubbed TV NovaTV Prima The family name is "Bunda," which means "coat" in Czech. The show was first aired on TV Nova and then re-run on Prima TV several times. Vore værste år(Our Worst Years) Subtitled TV3 Casado con Hijos(Married with Children) Dubbed Telesistema 11 Tuvikesed(Lovebirds) Subtitled Kanal 2 Pulmuset(Loveydoves) Subtitled MTV3Nelonen Originally shown by MTV3, currently being rerun on Nelonen. Mariés, deux enfants(Married, Two Children) Dubbed M6Comédie! The show has been seen on M6 since 1989. It also runs on the cable channel Comédie! since 2002. Eine schrecklich nette Familie(An Awfully Nice Family) Dubbed RTLProSiebenKabel1 It first ran from 1992 on RTL ("RTLplus" at that time), moving to ProSieben for the final 51 episodes, ending in 1997. It now currently airs two episodes a day Monday-Friday on Kabel1 Eine schrecklich nette Familie . The show runs in a constant loop. It runs Season 1-11 and then starts all over again. Παντρεμένοι με παιδιά(Married with Children) Subtitled ANT1Mega ChannelMacedonia TV Has been on and off the air in ANT1 channel from the nineties onwards, while Mega Channel provided the last 2 seasons never played from ANT1. The show has seen many re-runs, currently airing from Macedonia TV for the 4th time on that channel. Egy rém rendes család(A gruesomely decent family) Dubbed TV3RTL KlubViasat 3CoolTV The show has ventured from channel to channel over the years, from the now-defunct TV3 through RTL Klub to Viasat 3, where it is occasionally repeated. A cable television called CoolTV airs 3 episodes each day. Married...with Children None RTÉ TwoParamount ComedySky1RTÉ One Shown on RTÉ Two and on the UK's Paramount Comedy. In the 90'S it aired on the UK's Sky1.It disappeared in the early 2000s. Very recently on RTÉ One it appeared early January 2007 on a Late Thursday Night/Early Friday Morning at 4am and showed two episodes each time. It disappeared off of the schedule Late April 2007. Not Currently Showing on Irish Television. נשואים פלוס(Married Plus) Subtitled Bip Since 2006 the show can be seen on HOT cable television, in the channel Bip, channel 4. A shoe store in Herzliya named itself Bundy Shoes (though the shop in the series is Gary's). In the past the show was shown on Channel 2, Channel 3 and Channel 6. Sposati ... Con Figli(Married ... With Children) Dubbed FX It is nowadays on air, on satellite Sky, Channel FX. Счастливы вместе(Happy Together) NTK The Russian remake of the show, Счастливы вместе, is currently being shown on NTK (Independent Television Channel) every weekday night from 8:00-9:00. Vedęs ir turi vaikų(Married and has children) Dubbed TV3TV6 Lithuania The show periodically runs on TV3 and Tv6 Lithuania. Married...with Children Sony Entertainment TelevisionTV Azteca Runs on Sony Entertainment Television and ran on and off on TV Azteca. Married...with Children Subtitled RTL7 The show is currently being broadcast on RTL7. Married...with Children None TV2Sky TV Ran for many years on TV2, now on Sky TV. Bundy(Bundy) Subtitled TV3Viasat 4 Originally (some ten years ago on TV3) aired as Våre verste år (Our Worst Years), the show is now called Bundy and is currently in re-runs after midnight every day except weekends on TV3. Is also shown daily on Viasat 4. Matrimonio con Hijos(Marriage with Children) TV 13 - RED GLOBALSony Entertainment Television The show runs on TV 13 - RED GLOBAL from Monday to Friday at 20.00 p.m. Świat według Bundych(The World According to Bundys) Voice overed Polsat The show was aired many times on Polsat, and it is still on air there today. Its popularity spanned a sitcom with similar premise made by Polsat - Świat według Kiepskich (The World According to Kiepscy). Familia Bundy(The Bundy Family) Subtitled PRO TVPro Cinema Runs periodically on the channels PRO TV and Pro Cinema. Женаты... с детьми(Married...with Children) Dubbed TV6 (Russia) NTVDomashnyDTV The Original Married... With Children ran on NTV for almost three years, broadcasting most of the episodes from seasons 1-10. The show later aired on TV6 and the "Domashniy Channel." However, for unknown reasons, most episodes from season 11 were not shown. After being pushed into a late night schedule, the show has been dropped entirely in favour of the current Russian remake, titled Schastlivi Vmesti ("Happy Together.") Bračne vode(Marriage Waters) Subtitled Fox televizija Družina za umret(Family to die for) Subtitled Kanal A The show was aired in the early 90s and it will be aired again starting March 6 2009 Married...with Children Dubbed TV Markíza The show is being run with the Czech dubbing on TV Markíza (due to the huge similarity of the Czech and Slovak language there is no special need for a Slovak dubbing). Married...with Children M-Net The original series ran on the pay channel, M-Net. Married...with Children Dubbed TVE2Canal 300SET en VEO The original series were a classic that ran for a decade in the public national channel TVE2. Recently the Spanish TV channel Cuatro did a remake of the original series under the name Matrimonio con Hijos. Cuatro.com In Catalonia, the show also ran in Catalan as Casats... i amb fills on TV3 and is currently running on the DTT channels Canal 300 and Sony Entertainment Television en VEO. Våra värsta år(Our Worst Years) Subtitled TV3ZTVTV6 The title is a pun for the title of the long-running soap opera Days of our Lives called Våra bästa år which is Our Best Years. The show has been running repeatedly on the Kinnevik-owned channels TV3 and ZTV since the start of the show and with repeated re-runs. After several years off the air, it returned in 2006 as a part of TV6's launch schedule. Evli ve Çocuklu(Married...with Children) Star TVaTV The show ran on TRT 2 in the 80s, the making its second run on Star TV and aTV in 90s, CNBC-E with subtitles and currently on e2 in 2000s. Married...with Children None ITV4ParamountITVSky1ITV2 The show first aired on ITV between 1988 and 1996, usually on a Friday evening or in the early hours on Saturdays, where it built up a cult following. The then regional structure of ITV meant that people who were able to pick up more than one ITV region could often watch more than one episode a night. From 1996 to 1997 the programme transferred to Sky1 and later aired on ITV2 from 2004 to 2006. It recently appeared for a time on ITV4 and has been shown on cable comedy channel Paramount since 1999. The show does not currently air on UK television. Щасливі разом(Happy Together) Novij Kanal The Russian remake of the show, Счастливы вместе, is currently being shown on Novij Kanal (New Channel) every weekday night from 9:30-10:30. Married...with Children Venevision The show aired from 1994 to 1998 on Venevision. See also Unhappily Ever After Star-ving References External links Official site from Sony Pictures Television UK Official site from Sony Pictures Television Married with Children Text scripts of many episodes Bundyology: floor plans, complete history The Married... with Children set in QuickTime VR be-x-old:Шлюб... зь дзецьмі | Married..._with_Children |@lemmatized married:19 child:55 marry:44 american:7 sitcom:8 dysfunctional:2 family:50 living:3 chicagoland:1 suburb:1 last:10 season:82 show:114 notable:2 first:34 prime:1 time:35 television:31 series:49 air:56 fox:14 debut:1 april:6 final:7 run:46 broadcast:10 june:5 create:2 michael:7 g:2 moye:2 ron:1 leavitt:1 know:13 handle:1 non:4 standard:1 topic:2 period:3 garner:1 fledgling:1 network:20 standing:2 among:2 big:7 three:8 e:6 abc:2 cbs:1 nbc:1 episode:99 make:24 long:4 live:9 action:1 theme:8 song:9 love:5 marriage:9 frank:2 sinatra:1 production:6 town:1 videotape:1 center:2 hollywood:1 produce:2 embassy:1 elp:1 communication:1 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6,855 | Norns | The Norns spin the threads of fate at the foot of Yggdrasil, the tree of the world. Beneath them is the well Urðarbrunnr with the two swans that have engendered all the swans in the world. "The Norns" (1889) by Johannes Gehrts. The Norns (Old Norse: norn, plural: nornir) are a kind of dísir, The article Dis in Nordisk familjebok (1907). numerous female beings who rule the fates of the various races of Norse mythology. According to Snorri Sturluson's interpretation of the Völuspá, the three most important norns, Urðr (Wyrd), Verðandi and Skuld come out from a hall standing at the Well of Urðr (well of fate) and they draw water from the well and take sand that lies around it, which they pour over the ash Yggdrasill so that its branches will not rot. The article Nornor in Nordisk familjebok (1913). These norns are described as three powerful maiden giantesses (Jotuns) whose arrival from Jötunheimr ended the golden age of the gods. They may be the same as the maidens of Mögþrasir who are described in Vafþrúðnismál (see below). Beside these three norns, there are many other norns who arrive when a person is born in order to determine his or her future. There were both malevolent and benevolent norns, and the former caused all the malevolent and tragic events in the world while the latter were kind and protective goddesses. Recent research has discussed the relation between the myths associated with norns and valkyries and the actual travelling Völvas (seiðr-workers), women who visited newborn children in the pre-Christian Norse societies. Gods and Worshippers in the Viking and Germanic world, Tempus Publishing, 2008. Etymology The name Urðr (Wyrd, Weird) means "fate". Both Urðr and Verðandi are derived from the Old Norse verb verða, "to become". Swedish Etymological dictionary. While Urðr derives from the past tense ("that which became or happened"), Verðandi derives from the present tense of verða ("that which is happening"). Skuld is derived from the Old Norse verb skole/skulle, "need/ought to be/shall be"; its meaning is "that which should become, or that needs to occur". However, some authors consider that there is no foundation in Norse mythology for the notion that the three main norns should each be associated exclusively with the past, the present, and the future; rather, all three represent destiny as it is twined with the flow of time. Indeed, whereas the origin of the name norn is uncertain, it may derive from a word meaning "to twine" and which would refer to their twining the thread of fate. Relation to other Germanic female deities There is no clear distinction between norns, fylgjas, hamingjas and valkyries, nor with the generic term dísir. Moreover, artistic license permitted such terms to be used for mortal women in Old Norse poetry, or to quote Snorri Sturluson's Skáldskaparmál on the various names used for women: Woman is also metaphorically called by the names of the Asynjur or the Valkyrs or Norns or women of supernatural kind. Skáldskaparmál in translation by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur (1916), at Northvegr. Attribution "Mímer and Balder Consulting the Norns" (1821-1822) by H. E. Freund. There are a number of surviving Old Norse sources that relate to the norns. The most important sources are the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda. The latter contains pagan poetry where the norns are frequently referred to, while the former contains, in addition to pagan poetry, retellings, descriptions and commentaries by the 12th and 13th century Icelandic chieftain and scholar Snorri Sturluson. Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda is valuable in representing older material in poetry from which Snorri tapped information in the Prose Edda. Like, Gylfaginning, the Poetic Edda mentions the existence of many lesser norns beside the three main norns. Moreover, it also agrees with Gylfaginning by telling that they were of several races and that the dwarven norns were the daughters of Dvalin. It also suggests that the three main norns were giantesses (female Jotuns). See commentary by Bellows Fáfnismál contains a discussion between the hero Sigurd and the dragon Fafnir who is dying from a mortal wound from Sigurd. The hero asks Fafnir of many things, among them the nature of the norns. Fafnir explains that they are many and from several races: Sigurðr kvað: 12. "Segðu mér, Fáfnir, alls þik fróðan kveða ok vel margt vita, hverjar ro þær nornir, er nauðgönglar ro ok kjósa mæðr frá mögum." - Fáfnir kvað: 13. "Sundrbornar mjök segi ek nornir vera, eigu-t þær ætt saman; sumar eru áskunngar, sumar alfkunngar, sumar dætr Dvalins." Fáfnismál Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. Sigurth spake: 12. "Tell me then, Fafnir, for wise thou art famed, And much thou knowest now: Who are the Norns who are helpful in need, And the babe from the mother bring?" - Fafnir spake: 13. "Of many births the Norns must be, Nor one in race they were; Some to gods, others to elves are kin, And Dvalin's daughters some." Fafnismol in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. It appears from Völuspá and Vafþrúðnismál that the three main norns were not originally goddesses but giantesses (Jotuns), and that their arrival ended the early days of bliss for the gods, but that they come for the good of mankind. Völuspá relates that three giantesses of huge might are reported to have arrived to the gods from Jotunheim: The norns, by Arthur Rackham. 8. Tefldu í túni, teitir váru, var þeim vettergis vant ór gulli, uns þrjár kvámu þursa meyjar ámáttkar mjök ór Jötunheimum. Völuspá Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 8. In their dwellings at peace they played at tables, Of gold no lack did the gods then know,-- Till thither came up giant-maids three, Huge of might, out of Jotunheim. Völuspá in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Vafþrúðnismál probably refers to the norns when it talks of maiden giantesses who arrive to protect the people of earth as protective spirits (hamingjas) See also Bellows' commentary. : 49. "Þríar þjóðár falla þorp yfir meyja Mögþrasis; hamingjur einar þær er í heimi eru, þó þær með jötnum alask." Vafþrúðnismál Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 49. O’er people’s dwellings three descend of Mögthrasir’s maidens, the sole Hamingiur who are in the world, although with Jötuns nurtured. The lay of Vafthrúdnir in translation by Benjamin Thorpe (1866), at Northvegr. The Völuspá contains the names of the three main norns referring to them as maidens like Vafþrúðnismál probably does: 20. Þaðan koma meyjar margs vitandi þrjár ór þeim sæ, er und þolli stendr; Urð hétu eina, aðra Verðandi, - skáru á skíði, - Skuld ina þriðju; þær lög lögðu, þær líf kuru alda börnum, örlög seggja.20. Thence come the maidens mighty in wisdom, Three from the dwelling down 'neath the tree; Urth is one named, Verthandi the next,-- On the wood they scored,-- and Skuld the third. Laws they made there, and life allotted To the sons of men, and set their fates. Helgakviða Hundingsbana I The norns, by Arthur Rackham. "The norns Urðr, Verðandi, and Skuld under the world oak Yggdrasil" (1882) by Ludwig Burger. The norns visited each newly born child to allot his or her future, and in Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, the hero Helgi Hundingsbane has just been born and norns arrive at the homestead: 2. Nótt varð í bæ, nornir kómu, þær er öðlingi aldr of skópu; þann báðu fylki frægstan verða ok buðlunga beztan þykkja. - 3. Sneru þær af afli örlögþáttu, þá er borgir braut í Bráluni; þær of greiddu gullin símu ok und mánasal miðjan festu. - 4. Þær austr ok vestr enda fálu, þar átti lofðungr land á milli; brá nift Nera á norðrvega einni festi, ey bað hon halda. Helgakviða Hundingsbana I Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 2. 'Twas night in the dwelling, and Norns there came, Who shaped the life of the lofty one; They bade him most famed of fighters all And best of princes ever to be. - 3. Mightily wove they the web of fate, While Bralund's towns were trembling all; And there the golden threads they wove, And in the moon's hall fast they made them. - 4. East and west the ends they hid, In the middle the hero should have his land; And Neri's kinswoman northward cast A chain, and bade it firm ever to be. The First Lay of Helgi Hundingsbane in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Helgakviða Hundingsbana II In Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, Helgi Hundingsbane blames the norns for the fact that he had to kill Sigrún's father Högni and brother Bragi in order to wed her: 26 "Er-at þér at öllu, alvitr, gefit, - þó kveð ek nökkvi nornir valda -: fellu í morgun at Frekasteini Bragi ok Högni, varð ek bani þeira. Völsungakviða in forna Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. "Maid, not fair is all thy fortune, The Norris Typographical error for Norns, cf. the text in Old Norse. I blame that this should be; This morn there fell at Frekastein Bragi and Hogni beneath my hand. The Second Lay of Helgi Hundingsbane in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. The norns, by Arthur Rackham. Reginsmál Like Snorri Sturluson stated in Gylfaginning, people's fate depended on the benevolence or the malevolence of particular norns. In Reginsmál, the water dwelling dwarf Andvari blames his plight on an evil norn, presumably one of the daughters of Dvalin: 2. "Andvari ek heiti, Óinn hét minn faðir, margan hef ek fors of farit; aumlig norn skóp oss í árdaga, at ek skylda í vatni vaða." Reginsmál Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 2. "Andvari am I, and Oin my father, In many a fall have I fared; An evil Norn in olden days Doomed me In waters to dwell." The Ballad of Regin in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Sigurðarkviða hin skamma Another instance of Norns being blamed for an undesirable situation appears in Sigurðarkviða hin skamma, where the valkyrie Brynhild blames malevolent norns for her long yearning for the embrace of Sigurd: 7. Orð mæltak nú, iðrumk eftir þess: kván er hans Guðrún, en ek Gunnars; ljótar nornir skópu oss langa þrá." Sigurðarkviða in skamma Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 7. "The word I have spoken; soon shall I rue it, His wife is Guthrun, and Gunnar's am I; Ill Norns set for me long desire." The Short Lay of Sigurth in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Guðrúnarkviða II "Norns" (1832) from Die Helden und Götter des Nordens, oder Das Buch der sagen. Brynhild's solution was to have Gunnarr and his brothers, the lords of the Burgundians, kill Sigurd and afterwards to commit suicide in order to join Sigurd in the afterlife. Her brother Atli (Attila the Hun) avenged her death by killing the lords of the Burgundians, but since he was married to their sister Guðrún, Atli would soon be killed by her. In Guðrúnarkviða II, the Norns actively enter the series of events by informing Atli in a dream that his wife would kill him. The description of the dream begins with this stanza: "Svá mik nýliga nornir vekja," - vílsinnis spá vildi, at ek réða, - "hugða ek þik, Guðrún Gjúka dóttir, læblöndnum hjör leggja mik í gögnum." Guðrúnarkviða in forna at «Norrøne Tekster og Kvad», Norway. 39. "Now from sleep the Norns have waked me With visions of terror,-- To thee will I tell them; Methought thou, Guthrun, Gjuki's daughter, With poisoned blade didst pierce my body." Bellows' translation. Guðrúnarhvöt After having killed both her husband Atli and their sons, Guðrún blames the Norns for her misfortunes, as in Guðrúnarhvöt, where Guðrún talks of trying to escaping the wrath of the norns by trying to kill herself: 13. Gekk ek til strandar, gröm vark nornum, vilda ek hrinda stríð grið þeira; hófu mik, né drekkðu, hávar bárur, því ek land of sték, at lifa skyldak. Guðrúnarhvöt Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 13. "To the sea I went, my heart full sore For the Norns, whose wrath I would now escape; But the lofty billows bore me undrowned, Till to land I came, so I longer must live. Guthrun's Inciting in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Hamðismál A statue of the norns at St Stephen's Green. Guðrúnarhvöt deals with how Guðrún incited her sons to avenge the cruel death of their sister Svanhild. In Hamðismál, her sons' expedition to the Gothic king Ermanaric to exact vengeance is fateful. Knowing that he is about to die at the hands of the Goths, her son Sörli talks of the cruelty of the norns: 29. "Ekki hygg ek okkr vera ulfa dæmi, at vit mynim sjalfir of sakask sem grey norna, þá er gráðug eru í auðn of alin. - 30. Vel höfum vit vegit, stöndum á val Gotna, ofan eggmóðum, sem ernir á kvisti; góðs höfum tírar fengit, þótt skylim nú eða í gær deyja; kveld lifir maðr ekki eftir kvið norna." - 31. Þar fell Sörli at salar gafli, enn Hamðir hné at húsbaki. Hamðismál Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 29. "In fashion of wolves it befits us not Amongst ourselves to strive, Like the hounds of the Norns, that nourished were In greed mid wastes so grim. - 30. "We have greatly fought, o'er the Goths do we stand By our blades laid low, like eagles on branches; Great our fame though we die today or tomorrow; None outlives the night when the Norris have spoken." - 31. Then Sorli beside the gable sank, And Hamther fell at the back of the house. The Ballad of Hamther in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Sigrdrífumál The norns by C. E. Brock. Since the norns were beings of ultimate power who were working in the dark, it should be no surprise that they could be referred to in charms, as they are by Sigrdrífa in Sigrdrífumál: 17. Á gleri ok á gulli ok á gumna heillum, í víni ok í virtri ok vilisessi, á Gugnis oddi ok á Grana brjósti, á nornar nagli ok á nefi uglu. Sigrdrífumál Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. 17. On glass and on gold, and on goodly charms, In wine and in beer, and on well-loved seats, On Gungnir's point, and on Grani's breast, On the nails of Norns, and the night-owl's beak. The Ballad of The Victory-Bringer in translation by Henry Adams Bellows (1936), at Sacred Texts. Prose Edda In the part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda which is called Gylfaginning, Gylfi, the king of Sweden, has arrived at Valhalla calling himself Gangleri. There, he receives an education in Norse mythology from what is Odin in the shape of three men. They explain to Gylfi that there are three main norns, but also many others of various races, æsir, elves and dwarves: A hall stands there, fair, under the ash by the well, and out of that hall come three maids, who are called thus: Urdr, Verdandi, Skuld; these maids determine the period of men's lives: we call them Norns; but there are many norns: those who come to each child that is born, to appoint his life; these are of the race of the gods, but the second are of the Elf-people, and the third are of the kindred of the dwarves, as it is said here: Most sundered in birth I say the Norns are; They claim no common kin: Some are of Æsir-kin, some are of Elf-kind, Some are Dvalinn's daughters." Then said Gangleri: "If the Norns determine the weirds of men, then they apportion exceeding unevenly, seeing that some have a pleasant and luxurious life, but others have little worldly goods or fame; some have long life, others short." Hárr said: "Good norns and of honorable race appoint good life; but those men that suffer evil fortunes are governed by evil norns." Gylfaginning in translation by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur (1916), at Sacred Texts. The three main norns take water out of the well of Urd and water Yggdrasil: It is further said that these Norns who dwell by the Well of Urdr take water of the well every day, and with it that clay which lies about the well, and sprinkle it over the Ash, to the end that its limbs shall not wither nor rot; for that water is so holy that all things which come there into the well become as white as the film which lies within the egg-shell,--as is here said: I know an Ash standing called Yggdrasill, A high tree sprinkled with snow-white clay; Thence come the dews in the dale that fall-- It stands ever green above Urdr's Well. That dew which falls from it onto the earth is called by men honey-dew, and thereon are bees nourished. Two fowls are fed in Urdr's Well: they are called Swans, and from those fowls has come the race of birds which is so called." ...and the youngest Norn, she who is called Skuld, ride ever to take the slain and decide fights...Faroe stamp by Anker Eli Petersen depicting the norns (2003). Snorri furthermore informs the reader that the youngest norn, Skuld, is in effect also a valkyrie, taking part in the selection of warriors from the slain: These are called Valkyrs: them Odin sends to every battle; they determine men's feyness and award victory. Gudr and Róta and the youngest Norn, she who is called Skuld, ride ever to take the slain and decide fights. Legendary sagas Some of the legendary sagas also contain references to the norns. The Hervarar saga contains a poem named Hlöðskviða, where the Gothic king Angantyr defeats a Hunnish invasion led by his Hunnish half-brother Hlöðr. Knowing that his sister, the shieldmaiden Hervor, is one of the casualties, Angantyr looks at his dead brother and laments the cruelty of the norns: 32. Bölvat er okkr, bróðir, bani em ek þinn orðinn; þat mun æ uppi; illr er dómr norna." Hlöðskviða Guðni Jónsson's edition of the text with normalized spelling. “Cursed are we, brother, your killer I've become, it will never be forgotten-- grim is the doom of norns.” The Saga of Hervor & King Heidrek the Wise in translation by Peter Tunstall (2003), at Northvegr. In younger legendary sagas, such as Norna-Gests þáttr and Hrólfs saga kraka, the norns appear to have been synonymous with völvas (witches, female shamans). In Norna-Gests þáttr, where they arrive at the birth of the hero to shape his destiny, the norns are not described as weaving the web of fate, instead Norna appears plainly as a synonym of vala (völva). One of the last legendary sagas to be written down, the Hrólfs saga kraka talks of the norns simply as evil witches. When the evil half-elven princess Skuld assembles her army to attack Hrólfr Kraki, it contains in addition to undead warriors, elves and norns. This romantic representation of the norns depicts one of them (Verdandi according to the runes below) with wings, contrary to folklore. Runic inscription N 351 M The belief in the norns as bringers of both gain and loss would last beyond Christianization, as testifies the runic inscription N 351 M from the Borgund stave church: Þórir carved these runes on the eve of Olaus-mass, when he travelled past here. The norns did both good and evil, great toil ... they created for me. Translation of rune inscription N 351 M provided by Rundata. Theories A number of theories have been proposed regarding the norns. Matres and Matrones The Germanic Matres and Matrones, female deities venerated in North-West Europe from the 1st to the 5th century AD depicted on votive objects and altars almost entirely in groups of three from the first to the fifth century AD have been proposed as connected with the later Germanic dísir, valkyries, and norns, Lindow (2001:224). potentially stemming from them. Simek (2007:236) Three norns Theories have been proposed that there is no foundation in Norse mythology for the notion that the three main norns should each be associated exclusively with the past, the present, and the future; rather, all three represent destiny as it is twined with the flow of time. Moreoever, theories have been proposed that the idea that there are three main norns may be due to a late influence from Greek and Roman mythology, where there are also spinning fate goddesses (Moirae and Parcae). In popular culture The Norns are alluded to by the three principal goddess characters of manga/anime Oh My Goddess!. In order to be more easily-pronounceable in Japanese kana syllabary (which notably lacks a ð/"th" phoneme), the characters' names are Urd, Belldandy and Skuld. The Norns also make an appearance in Silicon Knights's Xbox 360 exclusive Too Human. They appear the Cyberspace realm and provide hints to the player as well as grant new abilities. Swedish Death metal band Amon Amarth's 2004 album and its eponymous song are entitled "Fate of Norns". The Norns also appear in the anime Mythical Detective Loki Ragnarok. They appear as Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld. In Demikids, Norn is the demon who appears at the beginning of the game when you name your character. She is a mythical force of time and space in her bio, but plays no integral role in the game beyond her three time maidens. The three maidens Skuld, who uses wind, Urd, who carries a scythe and uses fire, and Verdandi, who uses light magic, form together to form one powerful being called "Norn". The Norns appear in Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods. Robin Jarvis's "Tales from the Wyrd Museum" features the Nornir as Urdr, Verdandi, and Skuld living in contemporary Britain under the names of Ursula, Veronica and Celandine Webster. They also appear as the Weird Sisters in Disney's TV series Gargoyles. Norn is the name of a race of half-giants loosely based on Vikings in Guild Wars: Eye of the North Notes References Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. 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6,856 | Original_proof_of_Gödel's_completeness_theorem | The proof of Gödel's completeness theorem given by Kurt Gödel in his doctoral dissertation of 1929 (and a rewritten version of the dissertation, published as an article in 1930) is not easy to read today; it uses concepts and formalism that are outdated and terminology that is often obscure. The version given below attempts to faithfully represent all the steps in the proof and all the important ideas, while restating the proof in the modern language of mathematical logic. This outline should not be considered a rigorous proof of the theorem. Definitions and assumptions We work with first-order predicate calculus. Our languages allow constant, function and relation symbols. Structures consist of (non-empty) domains and interpretations of the relevant symbols as constant members, functions or relations over that domain. We fix some axiomatization of the predicate calculus: logical axioms and rules of inference. Any of the several well-known axiomatisations will do; we assume without proof all the basic well-known results about our formalism (such as the normal form theorem or the soundness theorem) that we need. We axiomatize predicate calculus without equality, i.e. there are no special axioms expressing the properties of equality as a special relation symbol. After the basic form of the theorem is proved, it will be easy to extend it to the case of predicate calculus with equality. Statement of the theorem and its proof In the following, we state two equivalent forms of the theorem, and show their equivalence. Later, we prove the theorem. This is done in the following steps: Reducing the theorem to sentences (formulas with no free variables) in prenex form, i.e. with all quantifiers ( and ) at the beginning. Furthermore, we reduce it to formulas whose first quantifier is . This is possible because for every sentence, there is an equivalent one in prenex form whose first quantifier is . Reducing the theorem to sentences of the form . While we cannot do this by simply rearranging the quantifiers, we show that it is yet enough to prove the theorem for sentences of that form. Finally we prove the theorem for sentences of that form. This is done by first noting that a sentence such as is either refutable or has some model in which it holds; this model is simply assigning truth values to the subpropositions from which B is built. The reason for that is the completeness of propositional logic, with the existential quantifiers playing no role. We extend this result to more and more complex and lengthy sentences, Dn (n=1,2...), built out from B, so that either any of them is refutable and therefore so is φ, or all of them are not refutable and therefore each holds in some model. We finally use the models in which the Dn hold (in case all are not refutable) in order to build a model in which φ holds. Theorem 1. Every formula valid in all structures is provable. This is the most basic form of the completeness theorem. We immediately restate it in a form more convenient for our purposes: Theorem 2. Every formula φ is either refutable or satisfiable in some structure. "φ is refutable" means by definition "¬φ is provable". Equivalence of both theorems To see the equivalence, note first that if Theorem 1 holds, and φ is not satisfiable in any structure, then ¬φ is valid in all structures and therefore provable, thus φ is refutable and Theorem 2 holds. If on the other hand Theorem 2 holds and φ is valid in all structures, then ¬φ is not satisfiable in any structure and therefore refutable; then ¬¬φ is provable and then so is φ, thus Theorem 1 holds. Proof of theorem 2: first step We approach the proof of Theorem 2 by successively restricting the class of all formulas φ for which we need to prove "φ is either refutable or satisfiable". At the beginning we need to prove this for all possible formulas φ in our language. However, suppose that for every formula φ there is some formula ψ taken from a more restricted class of formulas C, such that "ψ is either refutable or satisfiable" → "φ is either refutable or satisfiable". Then, once this claim (expressed in the previous sentence) is proved, it will suffice to prove "φ is either refutable or satisfiable" only for φ's belonging to the class C. Note also that if φ is provably equivalent to ψ (i.e., (φ≡ψ) is provable), then it is indeed the case that "ψ is either refutable or satisfiable" → "φ is either refutable or satisfiable" (the soundness theorem is needed to show this). There are standard techniques for rewriting an arbitrary formula into one which does not use function or constant symbols, at the cost of introducing additional quantifiers; we will therefore assume that all formulas are free of such symbols. In Gödel's paper, he uses a version of first-order predicate calculus which has no function or constant symbols to begin with. Next we consider a generic formula φ (which no longer uses function or constant symbols) and apply the prenex form theorem to find a formula ψ in normal form such that φ≡ψ (ψ being in normal form means that all the quantifiers in ψ, if there are any, are found at the very beginning of ψ). It follows now that we need only prove Theorem 2 for formulas φ in normal form. Next, we eliminate all free variables from φ by quantifying them existentially: if, say, x1...xn are free in φ, we form . If ψ is satisfiable in a structure M, then certainly so is φ and if ψ is refutable, then is provable, and then so is ¬φ, thus φ is refutable. We see that we can restrict φ to be a sentence, that is, a formula with no free variables. Finally, we would like, for reasons of technical convenience, that the prefix of φ (that is, the string of quantifiers at the beginning of φ, which is in normal form) begin with a universal quantifier and end with an existential quantifier. To achieve this for a generic φ (subject to restrictions we have already proved), we take some one-place relation symbol F unused in φ, and two new variables y and z.. If φ = (P)Φ, where (P) stands for the prefix of φ and Φ for the matrix (the remaining, quantifier-free part of φ) we form . Since is clearly provable, it is easy to see that is provable. Reducing the theorem to formulas of degree 1 Our generic formula φ now is a sentence, in normal form, and its prefix starts with a universal quantifier and ends with an existential quantifier. Let us call the class of all such formulas R. We are faced with proving that every formula in R is either refutable or satisfiable. Given our formula φ, we group strings of quantifiers of one kind together in blocks: We define the degree of to be the number of universal quantifier blocks, separated by existential quantifier blocks as shown above, in the prefix of . The following lemma, which Gödel adapted from Skolem's proof of the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem, lets us sharply reduce the complexity of the generic formula for which we need to prove the theorem: Lemma. Let k>=1. If every formula in R of degree k is either refutable or satisfiable, then so is every formula in R of degree k+1. Comment: Take a formula φ of degree k+1 of the form , where is the remainder of (it is thus of degree k-1). φ states that for every x there is a y such that... (something). It would have been nice to have a predicate Q' so that for every x, Q'(x,y) would be true if and only if y is the required one to make (something) true. Then we could have written a formula of degree k which is equivalent to φ, namely . This formula is indeed equivalent to φ because it states that for every x, if there is a y which satisfies Q'(x,y), then (something) holds, and furthermore, we know that there is such a y, because for every x', there is a y' which satisfies Q'(x',y'). Therefore φ follows from this formula. It is also easy to show that if the formula is false, then so is φ. Unfortunately, in general there is no such predicate Q'. However, this idea can be understood as a basis for the following proof of the Lemma. Proof. Let φ be a formula of degree k+1; then we can write it as where (P) is the remainder of the prefix of (it is thus of degree k-1) and is the quantifier-free matrix of . x, y, u and v denote here tuples of variables rather than single variables; e.g. really stands for where are some distinct variables. Let now x' and y' be tuples of previously unused variables of the same length as x and y respectively, and let Q be a previously unused relation symbol which takes as many arguments as the sum of lengths of x and y; we consider the formula Clearly, is provable. Now since the string of quantifiers does not contain variables from x or y, the following equivalence is easily provable with the help of whatever formalism we're using: And since these two formulas are equivalent, if we replace the first with the second inside Φ, we obtain the formula Φ' such that Φ≡Φ': Now Φ' has the form , where (S) and (S') are some quantifier strings, ρ and ρ' are quantifier-free, and, furthermore, no variable of (S) occurs in ρ' and no variable of (S') occurs in ρ. Under such conditions every formula of the form , where (T) is a string of quantifiers containing all quantifiers in (S) and (S') interleaved among themselves in any fashion, but maintaining the relative order inside (S) and (S'), will be equivalent to the original formula Φ'(this is yet another basic result in first-order predicate calculus that we rely on). To wit, we form Ψ as follows: and we have . Now is a formula of degree k and therefore by assumption either refutable or satisfiable. If is satisfiable in a structure M, then, considering , we see that is satisfiable as well. If is refutable, then so is which is equivalent to it; thus is provable. Now we can replace all occurrences of Q inside the provable formula by some other formula dependent on the same variables, and we will still get a provable formula. (This is yet another basic result of first-order predicate calculus. Depending on the particular formalism adopted for the calculus, it may be seen as a simple application of a "functional substitution" rule of inference, as in Gödel's paper, or it may be proved by considering the formal proof of , replacing in it all occurrences of Q by some other formula with the same free variables, and noting that all logical axioms in the formal proof remain logical axioms after the substitution, and all rules of inference still apply in the same way.) In this particular case, we replace Q(x',y') in with the formula . Here (x,y|x',y') means that instead of ψ we are writing a different formula, in which x and y are replaced with x' and y'. Note that Q(x,y) is simply replaced by . then becomes and this formula is provable; since the part under negation and after the sign is obviously provable, and the part under negation and before the sign is obviously φ, just with x and y replaced by x' and y', we see that is provable, and φ is refutable. We have proved that φ is either satisfiable or refutable, and this concludes the proof of the Lemma. Notice that we could not have used instead of Q(x',y') from the beginning, because would not have been a well-formed formula in that case. This is why we cannot naively use the argument appearing at the comment which precedes the proof. Proving the theorem for formulas of degree 1 As shown by the Lemma above, we only need to prove our theorem for formulas φ in R of degree 1. φ cannot be of degree 0, since formulas in R have no free variables and don't use constant symbols. So the formula φ has the general form: Now we define an ordering of the k-tuples of natural numbers as follows: should hold if either , or , and precedes in lexicographic order. [Here denotes the sum of the terms of the tuple.] Denote the nth tuple in this order by . Set the formula as . Then put as Lemma: For every n, . Proof: By induction on n; we have , where the latter equivalence holds by variable substitution, since the ordering of the tuples is such that . Each conjunct here obviously follows from φ. For the base case, is obviously a corollary of φ as well. So the Lemma is proven. Now if is refutable for some n, it follows that φ is refutable. On the other hand, suppose that is not refutable for any n. Then for each n there is some way of assigning truth values to the distinct subpropositions (ordered by their first appearance in ; "distinct" here means either distinct predicates, or distinct bound variables) in , such that will be true when each proposition is evaluated in this fashion. This follows from the completeness of the underlying propositional logic. We will now show that there is such an assignment of truth values to , so that all will be true: The appear in the same order in every ; we will inductively define a general assignment to them by a sort of "majority vote": Since there are infinitely many assignments affecting , either infinitely many make true, or infinitely many make it false and only finitely many make it true. In the former case, we choose to be true in general; in the latter we take it to be false in general. Then from the infinitely many n for which are assigned the same truth value as in the general assignment, we pick a general assignment to in the same fashion. This general assignment must lead to every one of the and being true, since if one of the were false under the general assignment, would also be false for every n > k. But this contradicts the fact that for the finite collection of general assignments appearing in , there are infinitely many n where the assignment making true matches the general assignment. Now from this general assignment which makes all of the true, we construct an interpretation of the language's predicates which makes φ true. The universe of the model will be the natural numbers. Each i-ary predicate should be true of the naturals precisely when the proposition is either true in the general assignment, or not assigned by it (because it never appears in any of the ). In this model, each of the formulas , is true by construction. But this implies that φ itself is true in the model, since the range over all possible k-tuples of natural numbers. So φ is satisfiable, and we are done. Intuitive explanation We may write each Bi as Φ(x1...xk,y1...ym) for some x-s which we may call "first arguments" and y-s which we may call "last arguments". Take B1 for example. Its "last arguments" are z2,z3...zm+1, and for every possible combination of k of these variables there is some j so that they appear as "first arguments" in Bj. Thus for large enough n1, Dn1 has the property that the "last arguments" of B1 appear, in every possible combinations of k of them, as "first arguments" in other Bj-s within Dn. For every Bi there is a Dni with the corresponding property. Therefore in a model which satisfies all the Dn-s, there are objects corresponding to z1, z2... and each combination of k of these appear as "first arguments" in some Bj, meaning that for every k of these objects zp1...zpk there are zq1...zqm which makes Φ(zp1...zpk,zq1...zqm) satisfied. By taking a submodel which contains only these z1, z2... objects, we have a model satisfying φ. Extensions Extension to first-order predicate calculus with equality Godel reduced a formula containing instances of the equality predicate to ones without it in an extended language. His method involves replacing a formula φ containing some instances of equality with the formula Here denote the predicates appearing in φ (with their respective arities), and φ' is the formula φ with all occurrences of equality replaced with the new predicate Eq. If this new formula is refutable, the original φ was as well; the same is true of satisfiability, since we may take a quotient of satisfying model of the new formula by the equivalence relation representing Eq. This quotient is well-defined with respect to the other predicates, and therefore will satisfy the original formula φ. Extension to countable sets of formulas Godel also considered the case where there are a countably infinite collection of formulas. Using the same reductions as above, he was able to consider only those cases where each formula is of degree 1 and contains no uses of equality. For a countable collection of formulas of degree 1, we may define as above; then define to be the closure of . The remainder of the proof then went through as before. References The first proof of the completeness theorem. The same material as the dissertation, except with briefer proofs, more succinct explanations, and omitting the lengthy introduction. External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Kurt Gödel" -- by Juliette Kennedy. 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6,857 | History_of_Ecuador | The History of Ecuador extends over a 9,000-year period. During this time a variety of cultures and territories influenced what has become the Republic of Ecuador. The history can be divided into five eras: Pre-Columbian, The Conquest, The Colonial Period, The War of Independence and the Republican Era. The beginning of the history is represented by a variety of cultures and finishes with the Incan invasion. The Incas were followed closely by the arrival of the conquistadors, the Spanish Conquests. The Spanish would found modern day Quito and Guayaquil as part of the political-administration era which lasted until the war of Independence, the rise of Gran Colombia and Simon Bolivar to the final separation of his vision into what is known today as the Republic of Ecuador. Pre-Columbian Ecuador Male figure from the Bahia Culture The present Republic of Ecuador is at the heart of the region where a variety of civilizations developed for millennia. During pre-Inca period people lived in clans, which formed great tribes, some allied with each other to form powerful confederations, as the Confederation of Quito. But none of these confederations resist the formidable momentum of the Tawantinsuyu. The invasion Inca in the fifteenth century was very painful and bloody. However, once occupied by the Quito hosts of Huayna Capac (1593-1595), the Incas developed an extensive administration and began the colonization of the region. The pre-Columbian era can be divided up into four eras Preceramic Period Formative Period Period of Regional Development Period of Integration and the Arrival of the Incas Preceramic Period The Pre Ceramic period begins with the end of the last ice age and continues through 4200bc. The Las Vegas culture and The Inga Cultures dominated this period. Las Vegas Culture The Las Vegas Culture lived on the Santa Elena Peninsula on coast of Ecuador between 9,000-6,000 bc. The skeletal remains and other finds show evidence the culture once flourished in the area. Scientists have split the culture into three phases. The earliest people were hunter-gathers and fisherman. Approximately 6,000 bc the culture were among the first to begin farming (bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria and an early type of corn/maize Zea mays L.) The best known remains of the culture are the “The Lovers of Sumpa” these bones and other items can be seen at Museo Los Amantes de Sumpa y Centro Cultural in Santa Elena. .." El Inga The Inga lived in the Sierra near present day Quito. Evidence from their archeological site El Inca date the culture to 9000-8000 BC. Several sites were excavated around 1961 and it is estimated this areas to be one of the most important in South America and existed along a once ancient trade route. Pre-Historic Civilizations in Ecuador in Ancient History is owned by Dennis Jamison. The tools used by these early nomadic hunters have provided relationships to the Clovis culture level I at Fell's Cave in southern Chile, and technological relationships to the late Pleistocene "fluted point" complexes of North America. William J. Mayer-Oakes and Robert E. Bell Science. ISSN 0036-8075 (print), 1095-9203 Formative Period During the Formative Period moved people of the region moved from the hunter-gather a simple farming into a more developed society, with permanent developments, an increase in agriculture and the use of ceramics. New cultures included the Machalilla culture, Valdivia, Chorrera in the coast; Cotocollao, The Chimba in the sierra; and Pastaza, Chiguaza in the oriental region. Valdivia Culture The Valdivia culture is the first culture where significant remains have been discovered. Their civilization dates back as early as 3500 B.C. Living in the area near The Valdivias were the first Americans to use pottery. They created bowls, jars and female statues out of clay both for everyday life and for use in religious ceremonies. They navigated the seas on rafts with sails and established a trade network with tribes in the Andes and the Amazon. Valdivia art and artifacts have been found throughout the country and an extensive collection is on display at the Museo Fianco Banco Central in Quito and the UEES in Guayaquil. Machallila Culture Succeeding the Valdivia, the Machallia Culture were a farming culture who thrived along the coast of Ecuador between the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Their ceramics are easily differentiated from the Valdivia as they were painted black or white with red stripes, figurines were rare and crudely made. These appear to be the earliest people to cultivate maize in this part of South America. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. Copyright © 2002, 2003 by Oxford University Press. Chorrera Culture Existing in the late formative period the Chorrera culture lived in the Andes and Coastal Regions of Ecuador between 1000 and 300 BC . Best known for their hollow ceramic animal and plant shaped figurines. Period of Regional Development The period of Regional Development is identified that for the first time the regional differences in the territorial or political and social organization of people that formed. Among the main towns of this period were the cultures: Jambelí, Guangala, Bahia, Tejar-Daule, La Tolita, Jama Coaque in the coast of Ecuador, in the sierras the Cerro Narrío Alausí; and in the Ecuadorian Amazon jungle the Tayos. La Bahia The figurine of the Bahia Culture (300 BC - 500 AD) La Chimba is the site of the earliest ceramic northern Andes, north of Quito, and is representative of the Formative Period in its final stage. Its inhabitants contacted several villages on the coast and the mountains, keeping close proximity to the Cotocollao culture, located on the plateau of Quito and its surrounding valleys. The Bahia culture occupied the area that stretches from the foothills of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, and from Bahía de Caráquez, to the south of Manabi. The Jama-Coaque culture inhabited areas between Cabo San Francisco in Esmeraldas, to Bahía de Caráquez, in Manabi, in an area of wooded hills and vast beaches of their immigrant who facilitated the gathering of resources of both the jungle and the ocean. La Tolita Culture The La Tolita developed in the coastal region of Southern Colombia and Northern Ecuador between 600 bc and 200 dc. A Number of archaeological sites have been discovered and show the highly artistic nature of this culture. Artifacts are characterized by gold jewelry, beautiful anthropomorphous masks and figurines that reflect a hierarchical society with complex ceremonies. Bouchard, Jean Francois & Usselmann, Pierre. Trois millénaires of civilisation between Colombia ET Equateur: The region of Tumaco the Tolita. Paris, CNRS Editions, 2003. Coe, Snow and Benson. Old America. Pre-Columbian civilizations. Barcelona, Circle of Readers, 1989. Period of Integration and the Arrival of the Inca Ingapirca Ruins near Cuenca Tribes throughout Ecuador integrated during this period. They were creating housing that allowed them to improve their living conditions and no longer be reliant on the climate. In the mountains Cosangua-Píllaro, Capuli, Piartal-Tuza, in the eastern region is Phase Yasuní while on the coast were built cultures Milagro, maintain and Huancavilca. Los Manteños The Manteños were the last of the pre-Columbian cultures in the coastal region existing between 600–1534. They were the first to witness the arrival of Spanish ships sailing in the surrounding Pacific Ocean. According to archaeological evidence and Spanish chronicles the civilization existed from Bahia de Caraquez to Cerro de Hojas in the south. They were excellent weavers, produced textiles, articles of gold, silver spondylus shells and mother of pearls. The manteños mastered the seas and created an extensive trade routes as far as Chile to the south and Western Mexico to the north. James A. Zeidler of Colorado State University The center of the culture was in the area of Manta which was named in their honor. Los Huancavilcas The Huancavilcas constitute the most important pre colombinan culture of Guayas. These warriors were noted for their appearance. Huancavilca of culture is the legend of Guayas and Quiles, which gives its name to the city of Guayaquil. Los Shyris and the Kingdom of Quito The existence of the Kingdom of Quito was formed by the Quitus, the Puruhaes and Cañari who inhabited by that time the Andean regions of Ecuador today. Their main settlement was in the area where they were later lifted the city of Quito, and its inhabitants are called Quitus. The Quitus were backward and weak, also formed a small kingdom and poorly organized, so it could not raise a vigorous existence of the invaders, and were easily defeated and subjugated by the Shyris, ancient indigenous people who joined the Kingdom of Quito. The Shyris dominated more than 700 years, and their dynasty that saw the invasions of the Inca Tupac Yupanqui. The Incas The Inca civilization expansion northward from modern-day Peru during the late fifteenth century met with fierce resistance by several Ecuadorian tribes, particularly the Cañari, in the region around modern-day Cuenca; the Cara in the Sierra north of Quito; and the Quitu, occupants of the site of the modern capital, after whom it was to be named. The conquest of Ecuador began in 1463 under the leadership of the ninth Inca, the great warrior Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui. In that year, his son Tupa took over command of the army and began his march northward through the Sierra. By 1500 Tupa's son, Huayna Capac, overcame the resistance of these populations and that of the Cara, and thus incorporated all of modern-day Ecuador into Tawantinsuyu, as the Inca empire was known. The influence of these conquerors based in Cuzco (modern-day Peru) was limited to about a half century, or less in some parts of Ecuador. During that period, some aspects of life remained unchanged. Traditional religious beliefs, for example, persisted throughout the period of Inca rule. In other areas, however, such as agriculture, land tenure, and social organization, Inca rule had a profound effect despite its relatively short duration. {Starn, Degregori, Kirk The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics; Quote by Pedro de Cieza de Leon; Published by Duke University Press, 1995} Emperor Huayna Capac became very fond of Quito, making it a secondary capital of Tawantinsuyu and living out his elder years there before his death in about 1527. Huayna Capac's sudden death from a strange disease, described by one smallpox Lovell, W. George. ""Heavy Shadows and Black Night": Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82, no. 3, The Americas before and after 1492: Current Geographical Research (Sep., 1992): 426-443. precipitated a bitter power struggle between Huascar, whose mother was Coya (meaning Empress) Mama Rahua Occillo and legetimate heir, and Atahualpa, a son who, borne to a Quitu princess, and reputedly his father's "favorite." This struggle raged during the half-decade before the arrival of Francisco Pizarro's conquering expedition in 1532. The key battle of this civil war was fought on Ecuadorian soil, near Riobamba, where Huascar's northbound troops were met and defeated by Atahualpa's southbound troops. Atahualpa's final victory over Huascar in the days just before the Spanish conquerors arrived resulted in large part from the loyalty of two of Huayna Capac's best generals, who were based in Quito along with Atahualpa. The victory remains a source of national pride to Ecuadorians as a rare case when "Ecuador" forcefully bettered a "neighboring country." Spanish Discovery and Conquest As the Inca Civil War raged, in 1531 the Spanish landed in Ecuador. Led by Francisco Pizzaro, the conquistadors learned that the conflict and disease were destroying the empire Macquarrie,K. The Last Days of the Incas. P Dippolito. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007. After receiving reinforcements in September 1532, Pizzaro set out to the newly victorious Atahualpa. Arriving Cajamarca Pizarro sent an embassy, led by Hernando de Soto with 15 horsemen and an interpreter; shortly thereafter he sent 20 more horsemen led by his brother [[Hernando Pizarro as reinforcements in case of an Inca attack. Hemming, The conquest, pp. 34–35. . Atahualpa was in awe of these men dressed in full clothing, with long beards and riding horses (an animal he had never seen). In town Pizzaro set a trap for the Inca and the Battle of Cajamarca began. The Inca forces greatly out numbered the Spanish, however the Spanish superiority of weapons, tactics and the fact that the most trusted in Inca Generals were in Cusco led to an easy defeat and the capture of the Incan Emperor. During the next year Pizzaro held Atahualpa for ransom. The Incas filled the Ransom Room with gold and silver awaiting a release that would never happen. On August 29, 1533 Atahualpa was garroted. The Spanish then set out to conquer the rest of Tawantinsuyu capturing Cuzco in November 1533. Benalcázar, Pizarro's lieutenant and fellow Extremaduran, had already departed from San Miguel with 140 foot soldiers and a few horses on his conquering mission to Ecuador. At the foot of Mount Chimborazo, near the modern city of Riobamba (Ecuador) he met and defeated the forces of the great Inca warrior Rumiñahui with the aid of Cañari tribesmen who served as guides and allies to the conquering Spaniards. Rumiñahui fell back to Quito, and, while in pursuit of the Inca army, Benalcázar encountered another, quite sizable, conquering party led by Guatemalan Governor Pedro de Alvarado. Bored with administering Central America, Alvarado had set sail for the south without the crown's authorization, landed on the Ecuadorian coast, and marched inland to the Sierra. Most of Alvarado's men joined Benalcázar for the siege of Quito. In 1533, Rumiñahui, burned the city to prevent the Spanish from taking it, thereby destroying any traces of the ancient pre-Hispanic city. In 1534 Sebastián de Belalcázar along with Diego de Almagro established the city of San Francisco de Quito on top of the ruins of the secondary Inca capital naming it in honor of Pizzaro. It was not until December 1540 that Quito received its first captain-general in the person of Francisco Pizzaro's brother, Gonzalo Pizarro. Benalcázar had also founded the city of Guayaquil in 1533, but it had subsequently been retaken by the local Huancavilca tribesmen. Francisco de Orellana, yet another lieutenant of Francisco Pizarro from the Spanish city of Trujillo, put down the native rebellion and in 1537 reestablished this city, which a century later would become one of Spain's principal ports in South America. Spanish Colonial Era Map of Royal Audience of Quito Between 1544 and 1563, Ecuador was an integral Spain's colonies in the New World under the Viceroyalty of Peru, having no administrative status independent of Lima. It remained a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1720, when it joined the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada; within the viceroyalty, however, Ecuador was awarded its own audiencia in 1563, allowing it to deal directly with Madrid on certain matters. The Quito Audiencia, which was both a court of justice and an advisory body to the viceroy, consisted of a president and several judges (oidores). The most common form in which the Spanish occupied the land was the encomienda. By the early seventeenth century, there were some 500 encomiendas in Ecuador. Although many consisted of quite sizable haciendas, they were generally much smaller than the estates commonly found elsewhere in South America. A multitude of reforms and regulations did not prevent the encomienda from becoming a system of virtual slavery of the Native Ecuadorians, estimated at about one-half the total Ecuadorian population, who lived on them. In 1589 the president of the audiencia recognized that many Spaniards were accepting grants only to sell them and undertake urban occupations, and he stopped distributing new lands to Spaniards; however, the institution of the encomienda persisted until nearly the end of the colonial period. The coastal lowlands north of Manta were conquered, not by the Spanish, but by blacks from the Guinean coast who, as slaves, were shipwrecked en route from Panama to Peru in 1570. The blacks killed or enslaved the native males and married the females, and within a generation they constituted a population of zambos that resisted Spanish authority until the end of the century and afterwards managed to retain a great deal of political and cultural independence. The coastal economy revolved around shipping and trade. Guayaquil, despite being destroyed on several occasions by fire and incessantly plagued by either yellow fever or malaria, was a center of vigorous trade among the colonies, a trade that was technically illegal under the mercantilist philosophy of the contemporary Spanish rulers. Guayaquil also became the largest shipbuilding center on the west coast of South America before the end of the colonial period. The Ecuadorian economy, like that in the mother country, suffered a severe depression throughout most of the eighteenth century. Textile production dropped an estimated 50 to 75 percent between 1700 and 1800. Ecuador's cities gradually fell into ruins, and by 1790 the elite was reduced to poverty, selling haciendas and jewelry in order to subsist. The Native Ecuadorian population, in contrast, probably experienced an overall improvement in its situation, as the closing of the obrajes commonly led Native Ecuadorians to work under less arduous conditions on either haciendas or traditional communal lands. Ecuador's economic woes were, no doubt, compounded by the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 by King Charles III of Spain. Missions in the Oriente were abandoned, and many of the best schools and the most efficient haciendas and obrajes lost the key that made them outstanding institutions in colonial Ecuador. Struggle for Independence and Birth of the Republic The struggle for independence in the Quito Audiencia was part of a movement throughout Spanish America led by Criollos. The Criollos' resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the Peninsulares was the fuel of revolution against colonial rule. The spark was Napoleon's invasion of Spain, after which he deposed King Ferdinand VII and, in July 1808, placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. Shortly afterward, Spanish citizens, unhappy at the usurpation of the throne by the French, began organizing local juntas loyal to Ferdinand. A group of Quito's leading citizens followed suit, and on August 10, 1809, they seized power in the name of Ferdinand from the local representatives, whom they accused of preparing to recognize Joseph Bonaparte. Thus, this early revolt against colonial rule (one of the first in Spanish America) was, paradoxically, an expression of loyalty to the Spanish king. It quickly became apparent that Quito's Criollo rebels lacked the anticipated popular support for their cause. As loyalist troops approached Quito, they peacefully turned power back to the crown authorities. Despite assurances against reprisals, the returning Spanish authorities proved to be merciless with the rebels and, in the process of ferreting out participants in the Quito revolt, jailed and abused many innocent citizens. Their actions, in turn, bred popular resentment among Quiteños, who, after several days of street fighting in August 1810, won an agreement to be governed by a junta composed with a majority of Criollos, although with the Peninsular president of the Royal Audience of Quito acting as its head. In spite of strong opposition from the Quito Audiencia, the Junta called for a congress in December 1811 and declared the entire area of the audiencia to be independent of any government currently in Spain. Two months later, the Junta approved a constitution for the state of Quito that provided for democratic governing institutions but also granted recognition to the authority of Ferdinand should he return to the Spanish throne. Shortly thereafter, the Junta elected to launch a military offensive against loyalist regions to the south in Peru, but the poorly trained and badly equipped troops were no match for those of the Viceroy of Peru, which finally crushed the Quiteño rebellion in December 1812. Gran Colombia General Antonio José de Sucre, Commander In Chief, División del Sur The second chapter in Ecuador's struggle for emancipation from Spanish colonial rule began in Guayaquil, where independence was proclaimed in October 1820 by a local patriotic junta under the leadership of the poet José Joaquín de Olmedo. By this time, the forces of independence had grown continental in scope and were organized into two principal armies, one under the Venezuelan Simón Bolívar Palacios in the north and the other under the Argentine José de San Martín in the south. Unlike the hapless Quito junta of a decade earlier, the Guayaquil patriots were able to appeal to foreign allies, Argentina and Gran Colombia, each of whom soon responded by sending sizable contingents to Ecuador. Antonio José de Sucre, the brilliant young lieutenant of Bolívar who arrived in Guayaquil in May 1821, was to become the key figure in the ensuing military struggle against the royalist forces. After a number of initial successes, Sucre's army was defeated at Ambato in the central Sierra and he appealed for assistance from San Martín, whose army was by now in Peru. With the arrival from the south of 1,400 fresh soldiers under the command of Andrés de Santa Cruz Calahumana, the fortunes of the patriotic army were again reversed. A string of victories culminated in the decisive Battle of Pichincha. Two months later Bolívar, the liberator of northern South America, entered Quito to a hero's welcome. Later that July, he met San Martín at the Guayaquil conference and convinced the Argentine general, who wanted the port to return to Peruvian jurisdiction, and the local Criollo elite in both major cities of the advantage of having the former Quito Audiencia join with the liberated lands to the north. As a result, Ecuador became the District of the South within the Republic of Gran Colombia, which also included present-day Venezuela and Colombia and had Bogotá as its capital. This status was maintained for eight tumultuous years. These were years in which warfare dominated the affairs of Ecuador. First, the country found itself on the front lines of Gran Colombia's efforts to liberate Peru from Spanish rule between 1822 and 1825; afterward, in 1828 and 1829, Ecuador was in the middle of an armed struggle between Peru and Gran Colombia over the location of their common border. After a campaign that included the near destruction of Guayaquil, the forces of Gran Colombia, under the leadership of Sucre and Venezuelan General Juan José Flores, proved victorious. The Treaty of 1829 fixed the border on the line that had divided the Quito audiencia and the Viceroyalty of Peru before independence. The population of Ecuador was divided during these years among three segments: those favoring the status quo, those supporting union with Peru, and those advocating independence for the former audiencia. The latter group was to prevail following Venezuela's withdrawal from Gran Colombia at the very moment that an 1830 constitutional congress had been called in an ultimately futile effort to stem the growing separatist tendencies throughout country. In May of that year, a group of Quito notables met to dissolve the union with Gran Colombia, and in August, a constituent assembly drew up a constitution for the State of Ecuador, so named for its geographic proximity to the equator, and placed General Flores in charge of political and military affairs. He remained the dominant political figure during Ecuador's first fifteen years of independence. The Republic of Ecuador Before the year 1830 drew to a close, both Marshal Sucre and Simón Bolívar would be dead; the former, murdered (on orders from a jealous General Flores, according to some historians), and the latter, from tuberculosis. Juan José Flores known as the founder of the Republic was of the foreign military variety. Born in Venezuela, he had fought in the wars for independence with Bolívar, who had appointed him governor of Ecuador during its association with Gran Colombia. As a leader, however, he appeared primarily interested in maintaining his power. Military expenditures, from the independence wars and from an unsuccessful campaign to wrest Cauca Province from Colombia in 1832, kept the state treasury empty while other matters were left unattended. Discontent had become nationwide by 1845, when an insurrection in Guayaquil forced Flores from the country. Because their movement triumphed in March (marzo), the anti-Flores coalition members became known as marcistas. They were an extremely heterogeneous lot that included liberal intellectuals, conservative clergymen, and representatives from Guayaquil's successful business community. The next fifteen years constituted one of the most turbulent periods in Ecuador's century and a half as a nation. The marcistas fought among themselves almost ceaselessly and also had to struggle against Flores's repeated attempts from exile to overthrow the government. The most significant figure of the era, however, was General José María Urbina, who first came to power in 1851 through a coup d'état, remained in the presidency until 1856, and then continued to dominate the political scene until 1860. During this decade and the one that followed, Urbina and his archrival, García Moreno, would define the dichotomy—between Liberals from Guayaquil and Conservatives from Quito—that remained the major sphere of political struggle in Ecuador in the 1980s. By 1859—known by Ecuadorian historians as the Terrible Year—the nation was on the brink of anarchy. Local caudillos had declared several regions autonomous of the central government. One of these caudillos, Guayaquil's Guillermo Franco, signed the Treaty of Mapasingue ceding the southern provinces of Ecuador to an occupying Peruvian army led by General Ramón Castilla. This action was outrageous enough to unite some previously disparate elements. García Moreno, putting aside both his project to place Ecuador under a French protectorate and his differences with General Flores, got together with the former dictator to put down the various local rebellions and force out the Peruvians. This effort opened the last chapter of Flores's long career and marked the entrance to power of García Moreno. The Era of Conservatism (1860-1895) Gabriel Garcia Moreno Father of Ecuadorian Conservatism Gabriel García Moreno is the father of Ecuadorian conservatism and no doubt the most controversial figure in the nation's history, condemned by Liberal historians as Ecuador's worst tyrant but exalted by Conservatives as the nation's greatest nation-builder. In the end, both appraisals may be accurate; the man who possibly saved Ecuador from disintegration in 1859 and then ruled the nation with an iron fist for the subsequent decade and a half was, in fact, an extremely complicated personality. Shortly after the onset of his third presidential term in 1875, García Moreno was hacked to death with a machete on the steps of the presidential palace. The exact motives of the assassin, a Colombian, remain unknown, but the dictator's most outstanding critic, the liberal journalist Juan Montalvo, exclaimed, "My pen killed him!" Between 1852 and 1890, Ecuador's exports grew in value from slightly more than US$1 million to nearly US$10 million. Production of cacao, the most important export product in the late nineteenth century, grew from 6.5 million kilograms to 18 million kilograms during the same period. The agricultural export interests, centered in the coastal region near Guayaquil, became closely associated with the Liberals, whose political power also grew steadily during the interval. After the death of García Moreno, it took the Liberals twenty years to consolidate their strength sufficiently to assume control of the government in Quito. The Rule of the Liberals (1895-1925) Eloy Alfaro The new era brought in liberalism, the most outstanding was Eloy Alfaro, under his direction the government headed out to aid those in the rural sectors of the coast. Alfaro is credited for finishing the construction of the railroad connecting Guayaquil and Quito, the separation of church and state, establishment of many public schools, implementing civil rights such as freedom of speech, and the legalization of civil marriages and divorce. Sadly Alfaro too was confronted a dissident tendency inside its own party, directed by its General Leonidas Plaza and constituted by the upper middle class of Guayaquil. His death was followed with the economic liberalism (1912-25) when banks were allowed to acquire almost complete control of the country. Popular unrest, together with the ongoing economic crisis and a sickly president, laid the background for a bloodless coup d'état in July 1925. Unlike all previous forays by the military into Ecuadorian politics, the coup of 1925 was made in the name of a collective grouping rather than a particular caudillo. The members of the League of Young Officers came to power with an agenda, which included a wide variety of social reforms, deal with the failing economy, establish the Central Bank as the unique authorized bank to distribute currency, create a new system of budge and customs. The 20th Century Much of the 20th century was dominated by one José María Velasco Ibarra, whose 5 presidential terms began with an mandate in 1934 and final presidency ended in 1972. However the only term he actually completed was his 3rd from 1952-1956. Much of the century was also dominated with the relations between Peru and Ecuador. In 1941 Peru invaded Ecuadorian territory. In that time the Equator was immersed in internal political fights, and was not well equipped to defend its territory. With the world at war Ecuador attempted to settle the matter by means of a third party settlement. In Brazil the two countries negotiations were overseen by four "Guarantor" states (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States—four of the most powerful countries in the region). United States Institute of Peace Washington DC, The resulting treaty known as the Rio Protocol. The protocol became the focus of a surge of Ecuadorian national pride and concomitant opposition which resulted in an uprising and overthrow of the government. The Postwar Era (1944-1948) The Quiteño multitudes standing in the pouring rain on May 31, 1944, to hear Velasco promise a "national resurrection," with social justice and due punishment for the "corrupt Liberal oligarchy" that had been responsible for "staining the national honor," believed that they were witnessing the birth of a popular revolution. Arroyo partisans were promptly jailed or sent into exile, while Velasco verbally baited the business community and the rest of the political right. The leftist elements within Velasco's Democratic Alliance, which dominated the constituent assembly that was convened to write a new constitution, were nonetheless destined to be disappointed. {Rudolph, James D. "Historical Setting". A Country Study: Ecuador (Dennis M. Hanratty, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (1989). This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain.} In May 1945, after a year of growing hostility between the president and the assembly, which was vainly awaiting deeds to substantiate Velasco's rhetorical advocacy of social justice, the mercurial chief executive condemned and then repudiated the newly completed constitution. After dismissing the assembly, Velasco held elections for a new assembly, which in 1946 drafted a far more conservative constitution that met with the president's approval. For this brief period, Conservatives replaced the left as Velasco's base of support. Rather than attending to the nation's economic problems, Velasco aggravated them by financing the dubious schemes of his associates. Inflation continued unabated, as did its negative impact on the national standard of living, and by 1947 foreign exchange reserves had fallen to dangerously low levels. In August, when Velasco was ousted by his minister of defense, nobody rose to defend the man who, only three years earlier, had been hailed as the nation's savior. During the following year, three different men briefly held executive power before Galo Plaza Lasso, running under a coalition of independent Liberals and socialists, narrowly defeated his Conservative opponent in presidential elections. His inauguration in September 1948 initiated what was to become the longest period of constitutional rule since the 1912-24 heyday of the Liberal plutocracy. Constitutional Rule (1947-1960) Galo Plaza differed from previous Ecuadorian presidents. Galo Plaza brought a developmentalist and technocratic emphasis to Ecuadorian government. No doubt Galo Plaza's most important contribution to Ecuadorian political culture was his commitment to the principles and practices of democracy. As president he managed to foment the agricultural exports of Ecuador during his government, creating economic stability. During his presidency, an earthquake near Ambato severely damaged the city and surrounding areas and killed approximately 8,000 people. Unable to succeed himself, he left his office in 1952 as the first president in 28 years to complete his term in office. A proof of the politically stabilizing effect of the banana boom of the 1950s is that even Velasco, who in 1952 was elected president for the third time, managed to serve out a full four-year term. Velasco's fourth turn in the presidency initiated a renewal of crisis, instability, and military domination and ended conjecture that the political system had matured or developed a democratic mold. Instability and Military Governments (1960-1979) Five Time President of Ecuador Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra Return to Democratic Rule (1979-1984) Roldós presided over a nation that had undergone profound changes during the seven years of military rule. There were impressive indicators of economic growth between 1972 and 1979: the government budget expanded some 540 percent, whereas exports as well as per capita income increased a full 500 percent. Industrial development had also progressed, stimulated by the new oil wealth as well as Ecuador's preferential treatment under the provisions of the Andean Common Market (Ancom, also known as the Andean Pact). Roldós was killed, along with his wife and the minister of defense, in an airplane crash in the southern province of Loja on May 24, 1981. The death of Roldós generated intense popular speculation. Some Ecuadorian nationalists attributed it to the Peruvian government because the crash took place near the border where, the two nations had participated in a Paquisha War in their perpetual border dispute. Many of the nation's leftists, pointing to a similar crash that had killed Panamanian President Omar Torrijos Herrera less than three months later, blamed the United States government. Roldós's constitutional successor, Osvaldo Hurtado, immediately faced an economic crisis brought on by the sudden end of the petroleum boom. Massive foreign borrowing, initiated during the years of the second military regime and continued under Roldós, resulted in a foreign debt that by 1983 was nearly US$7 billion. The nation's petroleum reserves declined sharply during the early 1980s because of exploration failures and rapidly increasing domestic consumption. The economic crisis was aggravated in 1982 and 1983 by drastic climatic changes, bringing severe drought as well as flooding, precipitated by the appearance of the unusually warm ocean current known as "El Niño". Analysts estimated damage to the nation's infrastructure at US$640 million, with balance-of- payments losses of some US$300 million. The real gross domestic product fell to 2 percent in 1982 and to -3.3 percent in 1983. The rate of inflation in 1983, 52.5 percent, was the highest ever recorded in the nation's history. Outside observers noted that, however unpopular, Hurtado deserved credit for keeping Ecuador in good standing with the international financial community and for consolidating Ecuador's democratic political system under extremely difficult conditions. As León Febres Cordero entered office on August 10, there was no end in sight to the economic crisis nor to the intense struggle that characterized the political process in Ecuador. During the first years of the Rivadeneira administration, Febres-Cordero introduced free-market economic policies, took a strong stand against drug trafficking and terrorism, and pursued close relations with the United States. His tenure was marred by bitter wrangling with other branches of Government and his own brief kidnapping by elements of the military. A devastating earthquake in March 1987 interrupted oil exports and worsened the country's economic problems. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram of the PRE. His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!") named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1990. Economic Crisis (1990-2000) In 1992, Sixto Durán Ballén won his third run for the presidency. His tough macroeconomic adjustment measures were unpopular, but he succeeded in pushing a limited number of modernization initiatives through Congress. Durán Ballén's vice president, Alberto Dahik, was the architect of the administration's economic policies, but in 1995, Dahik fled the country to avoid prosecution on corruption charges following a heated political battle with the opposition. A war with Peru (named the Cenepa War, after a river located in the area) erupted in January-February 1995 in a small, remote region, where the boundary prescribed by the 1942 Rio Protocol was in dispute. The Durán-Ballén Administration can be credited with beginning the negotiations that would end in a final settlement of the territorial dispute. In 1996, Abdalá Bucaram, from the populist Ecuadorian Roldosista Party, won the presidency on a platform that promised populist economic and social reforms. Almost from the start, Bucaram's administration languished amidst widespread allegations of corruption. Empowered by the president's unpopularity with organized labor, business, and professional organizations alike, Congress unseated Bucaram in February 1997 on grounds of mental incompetence. The Congress replaced Bucaram with Interim President Fabián Alarcón. In May 1997, following the demonstrations that led to the ousting of Bucaram and appointment of Alarcón, the people of Ecuador called for a National Assembly to reform the Constitution and the country's political structure. After a little more than a year, the National Assembly produced a new Constitution. Congressional and first-round presidential elections were held on May 31, 1998. No presidential candidate obtained a majority, so a run-off election between the top two candidates - Quito Mayor Jamil Mahuad of the DP and Social Christian Álvaro Noboa Pontón - was held on July 12, 1998. Mahuad won by a narrow margin. He took office on August 10, 1998. On the same day, Ecuador's new constitution came into effect. Mahuad concluded a well-received peace with Peru on October 26, 1998, but increasing economic, fiscal, and financial difficulties drove his popularity steadily lower. However, the coup de grace for Mahuad's administration was Mahuad's decision to make the local currency, the sucre (named after Antonio José de Sucre), obsolete and replace it with the U.S. dollar (a policy called dollarization). This caused massive unrest as the lower classes struggled to convert their now useless sucres to U.S. dollars and lost wealth, while the upper classes (whose members already had their wealth invested in U.S. dollars) gained wealth in turn. Under Mahuad's recession-plagued term, the economy shrank significantly and inflation reached levels of up to 60 percent. Ecuador since 2000 On January 21, 2000, during demonstrations in Quito by indigenous groups, the military and police refused to enforce public order. Demonstrators entered the National Assembly building and declared, in a move that resembled the coups d'état endemic to Ecuadorean history, a three-person junta in charge of the country. Field-grade military officers declared their support for the concept. During a night of confusion and failed negotiations President Mahuad was forced to flee the presidential palace for his own safety. Vice President Gustavo Noboa took charge by vice-presidential decree; Mahuad went on national television in the morning to endorse Noboa as his successor. The military triumvirate that was effectively running the country also endorsed Noboa. The Ecuadorean Congress then met in an emergency session in Guayaquil on the same day, January 22, and ratified Noboa as President of the Republic in constitutional succession to Mahuad. Although Ecuador began to improve economically in the following months, the government of Noboa came under heavy fire for the continuation of the dollarization policy, its disregard for social problems and other important issues in Ecuadorean politics. Retired Colonel Lucio Gutiérrez, a member of the military junta that overthrew Mahuad, was elected president in 2002 and assumed the presidency on January 15, 2003. Gutierrez's Patriotic Society Party had a small fraction of the seats in Congress and therefore depended on the support of other parties in Congress to pass legislation. In December 2004, Gutiérrez unconstitutionally dissolved and appointed new judges to the Supreme Court. This move was generally seen as a kickback to deposed ex-President Abdalá Bucaram, whose political party had sided with Gutiérrez and helped derail attempts to impeach him in late 2004. The new Supreme Court dropped charges of corruption pending against the exiled Bucaram, who soon returned to the politically unstable country. The corruption evident in these maneuvers finally led Quito's middle classes to seek the ousting of Gutiérrez in early 2005. In April 2005, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces declared that it "withdrew its support" for the President. After weeks of public protests, Gutiérrez was overthrown in April. Vice President Alfredo Palacio assumed the Presidency and vowed to complete the term of office and hold elections in 2006. In 15 January, 2007, the social-democrat Rafael Correa succeeded Palacio as President of Ecuador, with the promise of summoning a Constituent Assembly, and bringing focus on poverty. 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6,858 | Mokele-mbembe | For information on the African political theorist, see: Achille Mbembe Mokèlé-mbèmbé: meaning "one who stops the flow of rivers" in the Lingala language, Clark, Jerome (1993) "Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings, Incredible Occurrences, and Puzzling Physical Phenomena", Visible Ink Press, ISBN 0810394367 is the name given to a large water dwelling cryptid found in legends and folklore of the Congo River basin. Mackal, R. P. (1987) "A Living Dinosaur? In Search of Mokele-Mbembe", E.J. Brill, ISBN 9004085432 It is sometimes described as a living creature and sometimes as a spirit. It could be considered loosely analogous to the Loch Ness Monster in Western culture. Several expeditions have been mounted in the hope of finding evidence of the Mokele-mbembe, though without success. Efforts have been covered in a number of books and by a number of television documentaries. The Mokele-mbembe and its associated folklore also appear in several works of fiction and popular culture. Overview According to the traditions of the Congo River basin the Mokele-mbembe is a large territorial herbivore, approximately the size of a small elephant or a large hippopotamus. It is said to dwell in the Congo river and the surrounding swampland,, with a preference for deep water, and with local folklore holding that its haunts of choice are river bends. Descriptions of the Mokèlé-mbèmbé vary. Some legends describe it as having an elephant-like body with a long neck and tail and a small head, a description which has been suggested to be similar in appearance to that of the extinct Sauropoda, while others describe is as more closely resembling elephants, rhinoceros, and other known animals. It is usually described as being gray-brown in color. Some traditions, such as those of Boha village, describe it as a spirit rather than a flesh and blood creature. According to the writings of biologist Dr. Roy Mackal, who mounted two unsuccessful expeditions to find it, it is likely that the Mokele-Mbembe is a reptile. Of all the living reptiles, Mackal argues that the iguana and the monitor lizards bear the closest resemblance to the Mokele-Mbembe, though, at 15 to long, the Mokele-mbembe would exceed the size of any known living examples of such reptiles, writing, "I believe the description of the Mokele-mbembe is accounted for in all respects by an identification with a small sauropod dinosaur". The BBC/Discovery Channel documentary Congo (2001) interviewed a number of tribe members who identified a photograph of a rhinoceros as being a Mokele-Mbembe. Congo, episode 2 of 4 ("Spirits of the Forest") Neither species of African rhinoceros is common in the Congo basin, and the Mokele-Mbembe may be a mixture of mythology and folk memory from a time when rhinoceroses were found in the area. History Numerous expeditions were undertaken to discover uncharted Africa. During these, there were some sightings that have been argued by cryptozoologists to involve some unidentified dinosaur-like creature. Additionally, there have been several specific Mokele-mbembe-hunting expeditions. Although several of the expeditions have reported close-encounters, none have been able to provide incontrovertible proof that the creature exists. The sole evidence that has been found is the presence of widespread folklore and anecdotal accounts covering a considerable period of time. 1776: Bonaventure Amongst the earliest reference that might be relevant to mokele-mbembe stories (though the term is not used in the source) comes from the 1776 book of Abbé Lievain Bonaventure, a French missionary to the Congo River region. Among many other observations about flora, fauna and native inhabitants related in his lengthy book, Bonaventure claimed to have seen enormous footprints in the region. The creature that left the prints was not witnessed, but Bonaventure wrote that it "must have been monstrous: the marks of the claws were noted on the ground, and these formed a print about three feet in circumference." 1909: Gratz According to Lt. Paul Gratz' account from 1909, indigenous legends of the Congo River basin in modern day Zambia spoke of a creature known by native people as the Nsanga, which was said to inhabit the Lake Bangweulu region. Gratz described the creature as resembling a sauropod. This is one of the earliest references linking an area legend with dinosaurs, and has been argued to describe a mokele-mbembe-like creature. In addition to hearing stories of the Nsanga Gratz was shown a hide which he was told belonged to the creature, while visiting Mbawala island. 1909: Hagenbeck 1909 saw another mention of a mokele-mbembe-like creature, in Beasts and Men, the autobiography of famed big-game hunter Carl Hagenbeck. He claimed to have heard from multiple independent sources about a creature living in the Congo region which was described as “half elephant, half dragon.” Naturalist Joseph Menges had also told Hagenbeck about an animal alleged to live in Africa, described as “some kind of dinosaur, seemingly akin to the brontosaurs.” Another of Hagenbeck’s sources, Hans Schomburgk, asserted that while at Lake Bangweulu, he noted a lack of hippopotami; his native guides informed him of a large hippo-killing creature that lived in Lake Bangweulu; however, as noted below, Schomburgk thought that native testimony was sometimes unreliable. Reports of dinosaur-like creatures in Africa caused a minor sensation in the mass media, and newspapers in Europe and North America carried many articles on the subject in 1910-1911; some took the reports at face value, others were more skeptical. 1913: von Stein Another report comes from the writings of German Captain Freiherr von Stein zu Lausnitz, who was ordered to conduct a survey of German colonies in what is now Cameroon in 1913. He heard stories of an enormous reptile alleged to live in the jungles, and included a description of the beast in his official report. According to Willy Ley, "von Stein worded his report with utmost caution," knowing it might be seen as unbelievable. Ley, 69 Nonetheless, von Stein thought the tales were credible: trusted native guides had related the tales to him, and the stories were related to him by independent sources, yet featured many of the same details. Though von Stein's report was never formally published, portions were included in later works, including a 1959 book by Ley. Von Stein wrote: The animal is said to be of a brownish-gray color with a smooth skin, its size is approximately that of an elephant; at least that of a hippopotamus. It is said to have a long and very flexible neck and only one tooth but a very long one; some say it is a horn. A few spoke about a long, muscular tail like that of an alligator. Canoes coming near it are said to be doomed; the animal is said to attack the vessels at once and to kill the crews but without eating the bodies. The creature is said to live in the caves that have been washed out by the river in the clay of its shores at sharp bends. It is said to climb the shores even at daytime in search of food; its diet is said to be entirely vegetable. This feature disagrees with a possible explanation as a myth. The preferred plant was shown to me, it is a kind of liana with large white blossoms, with a milky sap and applelike fruits. At the Ssombo River I was shown a path said to have been made by this animal in order to get at its food. The path was fresh and there were plants of the described type nearby. But since there were too many tracks of elephants, hippos, and other large mammals it was impossible to make out a particular spoor with any amount of certainty. quoted in Ley, 70 1919-1920: Smithsonian Institution A 32-man-strong expedition was sent out to Africa from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. between 1919 and 1920. The objective of this expedition was to secure additional specimens of plants and animals. Moving picture photographers from the Universal Film Manufacturing Company accompanied the expedition, in order to document the life of interior Africa. According to cryptozoologists Loren Coleman and Patrick Huyghe, authors of the Field Guide to Lake Monsters, "African guides found large, unexplained tracks along the bank of a river and later in a swamp the team heard mysterious roars, which had no resemblance with any known animal". http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1585422525/ref=ase_cryptozoologi-20/ Field Guide to Lake Monsters, page 216 However, the expedition was to end in tragedy. During a train-ride through a flooded area where an entire tribe was said to have seen the dinosaur, the locomotive suddenly derailed and turned over. Four team members were crushed to death under the cars and another half dozen seriously injured. The expedition was documented in the H.L. Shantz papers. http://aao.lib.asu.edu/ViewRecordFrame.jsp?record=0000000969 1927: Smith 1927 saw the publication of Trader Horn, the memoir of Alfred Aloysius Smith, who had worked for a British trading company in what is now Gabon in the late 1800s. In the book, Smith related tales told him by natives and explorers about a creature given two different names: "jago-nini" and "amali". The creature was said to be very large, according to Smith, and to leave large, round, three-clawed footprints. 1932: Sanderson Zoologist Ivan T. Sanderson claimed that, while in Cameroon in 1932, he witnessed an enormous creature in the Mainyu River. The creature, seemingly badly wounded, was only briefly visible as it lurched into the water. Darkly colored, the animal's head alone was nearly the size of a hippo, according to Sanderson. His native guides termed the creature "m'koo m'bemboo", in Sanderson's phonetic spelling. 1938: von Boxberger In 1938, explorer Leo von Boxberger mounted an expedition in part to investigate mokele-mbembe reports. He collected much information from natives, but his notes and sketches had to be abandoned during a conflagration with local tribesmen. 1939: von Nolde In 1939, the German Colonial Gazette (of Angola) published a letter by Frau Ilse von Nolde, who asserted that she had heard of the animal called "coye ya menia" ("water lion") from many claimed eyewitnesses, both natives and settlers. She described the long necked creature as living in the rivers, and being about the size of a hippo, if not somewhat larger. It was known especially for attacking hippos - even coming on to land to do so - though it never ate them. Ley, 71-72 1966: Ridel In August or September of 1966, Yvan Ridel took a picture of a large footprint with three toes, north-east of Loubomo, notable as hippopotami have four toes. 1976: Powell In 1960, an expedition to Zaire was planned by herpetologist James H. Powell, Jr., scheduled for 1972, but was canceled by legal complications. By 1976, however, he had sorted out the international travel problems, and went to Gabon instead, inspired by the book Trader Horn. He secured finances from the Explorer’s Club. Although Powell’s ostensible research aim was to study crocodiles, he also planned to study mokele-mbembe. On this journey, Powell located a claimed eyewitness to an animal called "n’yamala", or "jago-nini", which Powell thought was the same as the "amali" of Smith's 1920's books. Natives also stated – without Powell’s asking – that "n’yamala" ate the flowering liana, just as von Stein had been told half a century earlier. When Powell showed illustrations of various animals, both alive and extinct, to natives, they generally suggested that the diplodocus was the closest match to "n’yamala". 1979: Powell Powell returned to the same region in 1979, and claimed to receive further stories about "n’yamala" from additional natives. He also made an especially valuable contact in American missionary Eugene Thomas, who was able to introduce Powell to several claimed eyewitnesses. He decided that the n’yamala was probably identical to the Mokele-mbembe. Though seemingly herbivores, witnesses reported that the creatures were fearsome, and were known to attack canoes that were steered too close. 1979: Thomas Reverend Eugene Thomas from Ohio, USA, told James Powell and Dr. Roy P. Mackal in 1979 a story that involved the purported killing of a Mokele-mbembe near Lake Tele in 1959. Was a Mokele-mbembe killed at Lake Tele? by William Gibbons, retrieved 25 May 2007 Thomas was a missionary who had served in the Congo since 1955, gathering much of the earliest evidence and reports, and claiming to have had two close-encounters himself. Cryptomundo.com Mokele-mbembe’s Rev. Eugene Thomas, 78, dies Natives of the Bangombe tribe who lived near Lake Tele were said to have constructed a large spiked fence in a tributary of Tele to keep Mokele-mbembe from interfering with their fishing. A Mokele-mbembe managed to break through, though it was wounded on the spikes, and the natives then killed the creature. As William Gibbons writes, "Pastor Thomas also mentioned that the two pygmies mimicked the cry of the animal as it was being attacked and speared... Later, a victory feast was held, during which parts of the animal were cooked and eaten. However, those who participated in the feast eventually died, either from food poisoning or from natural causes. I also believe that the mythification (magical powers, etc) surrounding Mokele-mbembes [sic] began with this incident." Furthermore, Mackal heard from witnesses that the stakes were in the same location in the tributary as of the early 1980s. 1980: Mackal-Powell For his third expedition in February 1980, Powell was joined by Roy P. Mackal. Based on the testimony of claimed eyewitnesses, Powell and Mackal decided to focus their efforts on visiting the northern Congo regions, near the Likouala aux Herbes River and isolated Lake Tele. As of 1980, this region was little explored and largely unmapped, and the expedition was unable to reach Lake Tele. Powell and Mackal interviewed several people who claimed to have seen Mokele-mbembe, and Clark writes that the descriptions of the creature were "strikingly similar ... animals 15 to long (most of that a snakelike head and neck, plus long thin tail). The body was reminiscent of a hippo’s, only more bulbous ... again, informants invariable pointed to a picture of a sauropod when shown pictures of various animals to which mokele-mbembe might be compared." Mackal and Powell were interviewed before and after this expedition for the TV program Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World. 1981: Mackal-Bryan Mackal and Jack Bryan mounted an expedition to the same area in late 1981. He was supposed to be joined by Herman Regusters, but they came in conflict in terms of finance, equipment and leadership and decided to split and make separate expeditions. Although, once again, Mackal was unable to reach Lake Tele, he gathered details on other cryptids and possible living dinosaurs, like the Emela-ntouka, Mbielu-Mbielu-Mbielu, Nguma-monene, Ndendeki (giant turtle), Mahamba (giant crocodile of 15 meters), and Ngoima (a giant monkey-eating Eagle). Among his company were J. Richard Greenwell, M. Justin Wilkinson, and Congolese zoologist Marcellin Agnagna. The 1981 expedition would feature the only "close encounters" of the Mackal expeditions. It occurred when, while on a river, they heard a loud splash and saw what Greenwell described as “[a] large wake (about 5”) ... originating from the east bank”. Greenwell asserted that the wake must have been caused by an "animate object" that was unlike a crocodile or hippo. Additionally, Greenwell noted that the encounter occurred at a sharp river bend where, according to natives, mokele-mbembe frequently lived due to deep waters at those points. 1987 saw the publication of Mackal’s book, A Living Dinosaur?, in which Mackal detailed his expedition and his conclusions about the mokele-mbembe. Mackal tried, unsuccessfully, to raise funds for additional trips to Africa. 1981: Regusters In 1981, American engineer Herman Regusters led his own mokele-mbembe expedition, after having a conflict with the Mackal-Bryan expedition that he intended to join. Regusters and his wife Kia reached Lake Tele, staying there for about two weeks. Of the 30 expedition members (28 were men from the Boha village), only Herman Regusters and his wife claim to have observed a "long-necked member" traveling across Lake Tele. They also claim to have tried filming the being, but said their motion picture film was ruined by the heat and humidity. Only one picture was released showing a large, but unidentifiable, object in the lake. http://www.cryptozoology.com/forum/images/mm1_3070.jpg The Regusters expedition returned with droppings and footprint casts, which Regusters believed were from the mokele-mbembe. http://criptido.iespana.es/cripto/mokelepie.jpg It also returned with sound recordings of "low windy roar [that] increased to a deep throated trumpeting growl", which Regusters believed to be the mokele-mbembe's call. Regusters conclusions about this tape were later contradicted by Mackal, who asserted that the Mokele-mbembe did not have a vocal call. Mackal asserts that vocalizations are more correctly associated with the Emela-ntouka, a similarly described creature found in the Central African legends. Herman Alphanso Regusters passed away on December 19, 2005, aged 72. 1983: Agnagna Congolese zoologist Marcellin Agnagna led the 1983 expedition of Congolese to Lake Tele. According to his own account, Agnagna claimed to have seen a mokele-mbembe at close distance for about 20 minutes. He tried to film it, but said that in his excitement, he forgot to remove the motion picture camera's lens cap. In a 1984 interview, Agnagna claimed, contradictorily, that the film was ruined not because of the lens cap, but because he had the Super 8 camera on the wrong setting: macro instead of tele. http://www.icr.org/article/306%20/ In Search Of the Congo Dinosaur by Bill Gibbons 1985: Nugent In December 1985 Rory Nugent claimed to have spotted the animal but to have been ordered at gunpoint by the natives not to approach it. Nugent claimed that they view the creature as a god "that you can not approach, but if he chooses, this god can approach you". He also provided some pictures, which are too blurry to be identifiable. 1985-1986: Operation Congo Operation Congo took place between December 1985 and early 1986, and was led by Englishman William Gibbons, comprised of "four enthusiastic but naïve young Englishmen." They hired Agnagna to take them to Lake Tele, but did not report any mokele-mbembe sightings. The British men did, however, asserted that Agnagna did "little more than lie, cheat and steal (our film and supplies) and turn the porters against us." After criminal charges were filed against him, a Congolese court ordered Agnagna to return the items he had taken from the expedition. Although the party found no evidence of the mokele-mbembe, they discovered a new sub-species of monkey, which was later classified as the Crested mangabey monkey (Cerocebus galeritus), as well as fish and insect specimens. 1986: Botterweg In 1986 another expedition was mounted, consisting of four Dutchmen, organized and led by Dutch biologist Ronald Botterweg, who already had experience with tropical rainforest research in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and who later visited, lived, and worked in several African countries. This expedition entered the Congo down the Ubangi River from Bangui in the Central African Republic, and managed, with considerable organizational challenges, to reach Lake Tele, with a group of guides from the village of Boha, some of which had also accompanied Regusters. Since they had only managed to obtain permission from the local authorities (not having passed by Brazzaville) for a very limited period in the area, they only spent about three days at the lake before returning to Boha. During their stay at the lake they spent as much time as possible observing the lake and its surroundings through from their provisional camp on the north-eastern shore, and navigating part of it by dug-out canoe. No signs of any large unknown animal were found. On the way back, arriving at the town of Impfondo, they were detained by Congolese biologist Agnagna and his team, who had just arrived there for an expedition with the British team of Operation Congo, allegedly for not possessing the proper documents. They were detained for a short while, and the largest part of their film and color slides were confiscated, before being released and leaving the country (again by the Ubangui river and Bangui). No signs, tracks or anything tangible or visible of the alleged animals was seen or shown whatsoever. Tracks, droppings, and other signs of forest elephants and gorillas were commonly seen, as well as crocodiles in the lake. Despite the fact that the African guides were extremely capable and experienced hunters, guides and experts of the African rainforest, they were not able to show any track or sign of the Mokele-mbembe and none of the several interviewed guides even claimed ever to have seen one personally, nor its tracks. Remarkable is the fact that the guides that were interviewed by the Dutch expedition and that also accompanied Regusters, stated that they never saw a Mokele-mbembe during that expedition, although Regusters himself claims to have seen one. This expedition received some attention in the Dutch media (radio, TV, and newspapers) from 1985 to 1987. 1988 Japanese expedition In 1988 a Japanese expedition went to the area, 明日できるコトは今日やらない lead by the Congolese wildlife official Jose Bourges. Members of a Japanese film crew allegedly captured the first evidence of Mokele-mbembe. As they were filming aerial footage from a small plane over the area of Lake Tele, intending to obtain some shots for a documentary, the cameraman noticed a disturbance in the water. He struggled to maintain focus on the object, which was creating a noticeable wake. About 15 seconds of footage was captured, which skeptics have identified as either two men in a canoe or swimming elephants. 1989 O'Hanlon British writer Redmond O'Hanlon traveled to the region in 1989 and not only failed to discover any evidence of Mokele-mbembe but found out that many local people believe the creature to be a spirit rather than a physical being, and that claims for its authentic existence have been fabricated. His experience is chronicled in Granta no. 39 (1992) and in his book No Mercy (1997). 1992 Operation Congo 2 William Gibbons launched a second expedition in 1992 which he dubbed "Operation Congo 2". Along with Rory Nugent, Gibbons searched almost two thirds Bai River along with two poorly charted lakes: Lake Fouloukuo and Lake Tibeke, both of which local folklore held to be sites of Mokele-Mbembe activity. The expedition failed to provide any conclusive evidence of the Mokele Mbembe, though they did further document local legends and Nugent took two photographs of unidentified objects in the water, one of which he claimed was the creature's head. 1998: Extreme Expeditions The Extreme Expeditions team was set to travel to the Likouala Region, however the 1997-1999 civil war made this impossible. prex98Congo5 1999: Fay The 1999 megatransect into the wilderness of the Congo basin by the biologist and Africa explorer J. Michael Fay did not reveal any trace of the Mokele-mbembe. However, it must be noted that the trek did not pass through the Likouala and lake Tele regions. 2000: Extreme Expeditions In January 2000, the Congo Millennium Expedition (aka. DINO2000) took place, the second one by Extreme Expeditions, consisting of Andrew Sanderson, Adam Davies, Keith Townley, Swedish explorer Jan-Ove Sundberg, and five others. prexpage 2000: Gibbons In November 2000, William Gibbons did some preliminary research in Cameroon for a future expedition. He was accompanied by David Wetzel. While visiting with a group of pygmies, they were informed about an animal called Ngoubou, a horned creature. The pygmies asserted it was not a regular rhinoceros, as it had more than one horn (six horns on the frill in one eyewitness account), and that the father of one of the senior members of the community had killed one with a spear a number of years ago. The locals have noted a firm dwindle in the population of these animals lately, and are hard to find. Gibbons identified the animal with a Styracosaurus, but, in addition to being extinct, these are only known to have inhabited North America. Cryptomundo.com - The Ngoubou 2001: CryptoSafari/BCSCC In February 2001, in a joint venture between CryptoSafari and the British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club (BCSCC), a research team traveled to Cameroon consisting of William Gibbons, Scott T. Norman, John Kirk and writer Robert A. Mullin. Their local guide was Pierre Sima Noutchegeni. They were also accompanied by a BBC film crew. No evidence of Mokele-mbembe was found. CryptoSafari: Exploring the World's Hidden Wonders http://www.bcscc.ca/mokele.htm The British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club 2006: Marcy In January 2006, the Milt Marcy Expedition traveled to the Dja river in Cameroon, near the Congolese border. It consisted of Milt Marcy, Peter Beach, Rob Mullin and Pierre Sima. They spoke to witnesses that claimed to have observed a Mokele-mbembe only two days before, Cryptomundo.com - Mokele-mbembe Expedition Update but they did not discover the animal themselves. However, they did return with what they believe to be a plaster cast of a mokele-mbembe footprint. 2006: National Geographic A May 2006 episode called "Super Snake" of the National Geographic-series Dangerous Encounters included an expedition headed by Dr. Brady Barr to Lake Tele. No unknown animals were found. 2008: Destination Truth In March 2008 an episode of the SciFi Channel series Destination Truth involved investigator Josh Gates and crew searching for the elusive dinosaur. However, it must be noted that they did not visit the Likouala Region, which includes Lake Tele, but they visited Lake Bangweulu in Zambia instead, which had reports of a similar creature in the early 20th century, called the "'nsanga". The crew of Destination Truth kept calling the animal "Mokele-Mbembe" to the locals, when that name is only used in the Republic of the Congo. Their episode featured a videotaped close encounter, but filmed from a great distance. On applying digital video enhancement techniques, the encounter proved to be nothing more than two submerged hippopotami. 2009: MonsterQuest In March 2009 an episode of the History Channel series MonsterQuest involved Bill Gibbons, Ron Mullin, local guide Pierre Sima and a two-man film crew from White Wolf Productions. It took place in Cameroon, in the region of Dja, Boumba and Nkogo Rivers, near the border with the Republic of the Congo. The episode is set to air on History Channel in the summer of 2009, and will also feature an interview with Dr. Roy P. Mackal and Peter Beach of the Milt Marcy Expedition, 2006. http://www.cryptomundo.com/cryptozoo-news/mm-mq2-09/ cryptomundo.com 2009 In Cryptozoology According to science writer and cryptozoologist Willy Ley, while there is a sufficient anecdotal accounts to suggest "that there is a large and dangerous animal hiding in the shallow waters and rivers of Central Africa", the body of evidence remains insufficient for any realistic conclusions to be drawn on what the Mokele-mbembe may be. Ley, 74 According to the writings of biologist and cryptid researcher Roy Mackal, who mounted two unsuccessful expeditions to find it, it is unlikely that the Mokele-Mbembe is a mammal or an amphibian, leaving a reptile as the only plausible candidate. Of all the living reptiles, Mackal argues that the iguana and the monitor lizards bear the closest resemblance to the Mokele-Mbembe, though, at 15 to long, the Mokele-mbembe would exceed the size of any known living examples of such reptiles. Mackal judged available evidence as consistent, writing, "I believe the description of the Mokele-mbembe is accounted for in all respects by an identification with a small sauropod dinosaur". Mackal also judged the existence of an undiscovered relict sauropod to be plausible on the grounds that there were large amounts of uninhabited and unexplored territory in the region where a creature might live, and on the grounds that other large creatures such as elephants exist in the region, living in large open clearings (called bai) as well as in thicker wooded areas. The idea of the Mokele-Mbembe representing a relict sauropod has also been supported by some creationists, who believe the creature is a surviving dinosaur, and see this as supporting aspects of their own religious views. Popular culture James Blish's 1962 science fiction novel, The Night Shapes, centered around Mokèlè-mbèmbé. In 1985 a movie was released based on the rumours about Mokèlè-mbèmbé, called Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend. It featured American scientists who discovered a surviving family of sauropods in Central Africa. A novel was written about this creature called Cryptid Hunters by Roland Smith. In White Wolf's RPG World of Darkness, the Mokole are one of the "Changing Breeds". They shapeshift into reptilian forms such as crocodiles, alligators and gila monsters, but can also take attributes from dinosaurs and even dragons. Mokole-Mbembe himself is said to be the legendary and immortal progenitor of their race (at least in Africa). A game module for the roleplaying game Conspiracy X, is titled Bodyguard of Lies 2: Mokolé. In the online videogame Steppenwolf, the first chapter focuses on finding the Mokèlè Mbèmbè. In the book Mortal Engines, by Phillip Reeve, the character Captain Khora is an African with an airship called the Mokele Mbembe. In the game Uncharted Waters: New Horizons, the Mokele Mbembe is a discovery. In the novel Reptilia, written by Thomas Thiemeyer, the Mokèlè-mbèmbé is a mutated prehistoric reptile. The 92nd novel in the Destroyer series, Last Dragon, features Mokele m'bembe as a surviving strain of apatosaurs which Chiun values for the longevity supposedly conveyed by eating their bones. In the video game Guild Wars Nightfall, there is a species of creatures named Mokeles and a skill named after them called Mokele Smash. The "monster-rock" band Drachen features a song dedicated to the creature titled "Mokele Mbembe". A harmless family of Mokèlè-mbèmbé are menaced by poachers in "The Company of Men" (issues 6-8), the second arc of the ongoing Image Comics book Proof. See also Emela-ntouka Ngoubou Mbielu-Mbielu-Mbielu Nguma-monene Sirrush Kasai rex Cryptids Living dinosaurs References Bibliography Gibbons, William J., Missionaries And Monsters; Coachwhip Publications, 2006 Leal, M. E., 2004. The African rainforest during the Last Glacial Maximum, an archipelago of forests in a sea of grass; Wageningen: Wageningen University: ISBN 90-8504-037-x Ley, Willie, Exotic Zoology; New York: Capricorn Books, 1966 (trade paperback edition) Mackal, Roy P. A Living Dinosaur? In Search of Mokele-Mbembe; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1987: ISBN 90-04-08543-2 Ndanga, Alfred Jean-Paul (2000) 'Réflexion sur une légende de Bayanga: le Mokele-mbembe', in Zo, 3, 39-45. Nugent, Rory (1993) Drums along the Congo: on the trail of Mokele-Mbembe, the last living dinosaur. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-58707-7 or ISBN 0-395-67071-3 Redmond O'Hanlon, No Mercy: A Journey Into the Heart of the Congo, 1997 Regusters, H.A.(1982) Mokele - Mbembe: an investigation into rumors concerning a strange animal in the Republic of the Congo, 1981 (Munger Africana library notes, vol. 64). Pasadena: California institute of technology. http://www.cryptoarchives.com/1900/1980/1981-regusters.pdf Shuker, Karl P.N., In Search of Prehistoric Survivors. 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6,859 | Muay_Thai | Muay Thai (, , , lit. Thai Boxing) is a form of hard martial art practiced in large parts of the world, including Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries. The art is similar to others in Southeast Asia such as: pradal serey in Cambodia, lethwei in Myanmar, tomoi in Malaysia, and Lao boxing in Laos. Muay Thai has a long history in Thailand and is the country's national sport. Traditional Muay Thai practiced today varies significantly from the ancient art muay boran and uses kicks and punches in a ring with gloves similar to those used in Western boxing. Muay Thai is referred to as "The Art of Eight Limbs", as the hands, shins, elbows, and knees are all used extensively in this art. A practitioner of Muay Thai ("nak muay") thus has the ability to execute strikes using eight "points of contact," as opposed to "two points" (fists) in Western boxing and "four points" (fists, feet) used in the primarily sport-oriented forms of martial arts. History Muaythai match in Bangkok,Thailand. Praying before the match. Muaythai match in Bangkok,Thailand. A Thai boxer praying during the Wai Kru before match. Various forms of kickboxing have long been practiced throughout Southeast Asia. As with the most countries in the region, Thai culture is highly influenced by ancient civilizations within Southeast Asia. The origins of Muay Thai is unclear. One theory is that it was with the Tai people before the Tai immigration to Southeast Asia from China. Another is that it was adopted and modified off of Khmer martial arts when Thai culture was influenced by Khmer culture. A third theory is that a little bit of both the first and second theory occurred. Muay Thai evolved from its ancestor Muay Boran ("ancient boxing"), an unarmed combat used by Siamese soldiers in conjunction with Krabi Krabong, the weapon-based style. Eventually Muay Boran was divided to: Muay Korat (Northeast) emphasized strength. A technique like "Throwing Buffalo Punch" was used. It could supposedly defeat a buffalo in one blow. Muay Lopburi (Center region) emphasized movements. Its strong points were straight and counter punches. Muay Chaiya (South) emphasized posture and defense, as well as elbows and knees. Muay Ta Sao (North) emphasized speed, particularly in kicking. Because of its faster speed, it was called also called "Ling Lom" There is a phrase about Muay Boran that states, "Punch Korat, Wit Lopburi, Posture Chaiya, Faster Thasao. (หมัดหนักโคราช ฉลาดลพบุรี ท่าดีไชยา ไวกว่าท่าเสา)". As well as continuing to function as a practical fighting technique for use in actual warfare, Muay Thai became a sport in which the opponents fought in front of spectators who went to watch for entertainment. This kind of muay contests gradually became an integral part of local festivals and celebrations, especially those held at temples. It was even used as entertainment to kings. Eventually, the previously bare-fisted fighters started wearing lengths of rope wrapped around their hands and forearms. This type of match was called muay kaad chuek (มวยคาดเชือก). Royal Muay Muay gradually became a possible means of personal advancement as the nobility increasingly esteemed skillful practitioners of the art and invited selected fighters to come to live in the Royal palace to teach muay to the staff of the royal household, soldiers, princes or the king's personal guards. This "royal muay" was called muay luang (มวยหลวง). Some time during the Ayutthaya Period, a platoon of royal guards was established, whose duty was to protect king and the country. They were known as Grom Nak Muay (Muay Fighters' Regiment). This royal patronage of muay continued through the reigns of Rama V and VII. Muay Renaissance The ascension of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) to the throne in 1868 ushered in a Golden Age not only for muay but for the whole country of Thailand. Muay progressed greatly during the reign of Rama V as a direct result of the king's personal interest in the art. The country was at peace and muay functioned as a means of physical exercise, self-defense, recreation, and personal advancement. Masters of the art such as former fighters or soldiers began teaching muay in training camps where students were provided with food and shelter. Trainees would be treated as one family and it was customary for students to adopt the camp's name as their own surname. After the occurrence of a death in the ring, King Rama the VII pushed for codified rules for Muay Thai, and they were put into place. These included the rules that the fighters should wear modern gloves and cotton coverlets over the feet and ankles. It was also around this time in the 1920s that the term Muay Thai became commonly used while the older form of the style was referred to as Muay Boran. Legendary heroes At the time of the fall of the ancient Siam capital of Ayutthaya in 1763, the invading Burmese troops rounded up a group of Thai residents and took them as prisoners. Among them were a large number of Thai boxers, who were taken by the Burmese to the city of Ungwa. In 1774, in the Burmese city of Rangoon, the king of the Burmese, Hsinbyushin (known in Thai as "King Mangra"), decided to organize a seven-day, seven-night religious festival in honor of Buddha's relics. The festivities included many forms of entertainment, such as the costume plays called likay, comedies and farces, and sword-fighting matches. At one point, King Hsinbyushin wanted to see how Muay Boran would compare to the Burmese art Lethwei. Nai Khanom Tom was selected to fight against the Burmese champion. The boxing ring was set up in front of the throne and Nai Khanom Tom did a traditional Wai Kru pre-fight dance, to pay his respects to the Burmese king, as well as for all the spectators, dancing around his opponent, which amazed and perplexed all the Burmese people. When the fight began, he charged out, using punches, kicks, elbows, and knees, pummeling his opponent until he collapsed. "The Story of Nai Khanom Tom" The referee however stated that the Burmese opponent was too distracted by the Wai Kru, and the knockout was invalid. The King then asked if Nai Khanom Tom would fight nine other Burmese champions to prove himself. He agreed and fought them all, one after the other with no rest periods in between. His last opponent was a great boxing teacher from Ya Kai City. Nai Khanom Tom mangled him by his kicks and no one else dared to challenge him any further. King Mangra was so impressed that he remarked, "Every part of the Thai is blessed with venom. Even with his bare hands, he can fell nine or ten opponents. But his Lord was incompetent and lost the country to the enemy. If he would have been any good, there was no way the City of Ayutthaya would ever have fallen." King Mangra granted Nai Khanom Tom freedom along with either riches or two beautiful Burmese wives. Nai Khanom Tom chose the wives as he said that money was easier to find. He then departed with his wives for Siam. Other variations of this story had him also winning the release of his fellow Thai prisoners. His feat is celebrated every March 17 as "Boxer's Day" or "National Muay Thai Day" in his honor and that of Muay Thai's. Today, some have wrongly attributed the legend of "Nai Khanom Tom" to King Naresuan, who was once taken by the Burmese. However, Nai Khanom Tom and King Naresuan were almost two centuries apart. Present-day Muay Thai At an ASEAN meeting in 1995, Thailand wanted to rename Southeast Asian kickboxing as Muay Thai or Thai Boxing. The Cambodians proposed to rename the sport as "Suwannaphum" boxing or "SEA Boxing", which represented Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. Suwannaphum means "golden land" in both the Khmer and Thai which came from the language of Pali and refers to mainland Southeast Asia. "SEA" is a popular acronym referring to Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, Thailand would not compromise. The Associated Press."Cambodia to boycott Thai boxing event over name row", Turkish Daily News, October 23, 1999. Muay Thai techniques In its original form, Muay Thai consisted of an arsenal of nine weapons - the head, fists, elbows, knees and feet - known collectively as na-wa arwud. However in modern Muay Thai, both amateur and professional, headbutting an opponent is no longer allowed. To strike and bind the opponent for both offensive and defensive purposes, small amounts of stand-up grappling are used: the clinch. Formal Muay Thai techniques are divided into two groups: Mae Mai or major techniques and Luk Mai or minor techniques. Muay Thai is often a fighting art of attrition, where opponents exchange blows with one another. This is certainly the case with traditional stylists in Thailand, but is a less popular form of fighting in the contemporary world fighting circuit. With the success of Muay Thai in mixed martial arts fighting, it has become the de facto martial art of choice for competitive stand-up fighters. As a result, it has evolved and incorporated much more powerful hand striking techniques used in western style boxing and the Thai style of exchanging blow for blow is no longer favorable. Note: when Muay Thai fighters compete against fighters of other styles (and if the rules permit it), they almost invariably emphasize elbow (sok) and knee (kao) techniques to gain a distinct advantage in fighting. Almost all techniques in Muay Thai use the entire body movement, rotating the hip with each kick, punch, elbow and block. The rotation of the hips in Muay Thai techniques, and intensive focus on "core muscles" (such as abdominal muscles and surrounding muscles) is very distinctive and is what sets Muay Thai apart from other styles of martial arts. Punching (Chok) English Thai Transliteration IPA Jab หมัดตรง Mud Trong Hook หมัดเหวี่ยงสั้น Mud Wiang San Swing หมัดเหวี่ยงยาว Mud Wiang Yao Spinning Backfist หมัดเหวี่ยงกลับ Mud Wiang Glub Uppercut หมัดเสย ( หมัดสอยดาว ) Mud Seuy Cobra กระโดดชก Kra-dod Chok Undercut หมัดฮุก Mud Hook The punch techniques in Muay Thai were originally quite simple being crosses and a long (or lazy) circular strike made with a straight (but not locked) arm and landing with the heel of the palm. Cross-fertilization with Western boxing and western martial arts mean the full range of western boxing punches are now used: jab, straight right/cross, hook, uppercut, shovel and corkscrew punches and overhands as well as hammer fists and back fists. As a tactic, body punching is used less in Muay Thai than most other striking martial arts to avoid exposing the attacker's head to counter strikes from knees or elbows. To utilise the range of targeting points, in keeping with the Theory of Muay Thai - Centre Line, the advocate can use either Western or Thai stance which allows for either long range or short range attacks to be undertaken effectively without compromising guard. Elbow (Tee sok) The elbow can be used in several ways as a striking weapon: horizontal, diagonal-upwards, diagonal-downwards, uppercut, downward, backward-spinning and flying. From the side it can be used as either a finishing move or as a way to cut the opponent's eyebrow so that blood might block his vision. The blood also raises the opponent's awareness of being hurt which could affect his performance. This is the most common way of using the elbow. The diagonal elbows are faster than the other forms, but are less powerful. The uppercut and flying elbows are the most powerful, but are slower and easier to avoid or block. The downward elbow is usually used as a finishing move. English Thai Transliteration IPA Elbow Slash ศอกตี Sok Tee Horizontal Elbow ศอกตัด Sok Tud Uppercut Elbow ศอกงัด Sok Ngud Forward Elbow Thrust ศอกพุ่ง Sok Poong Reverse Horizontal Elbow ศอกเหวี่ยงกลับ Sok Wiang Glub Spinning Elbow ศอกกลับ Sok Glub Elbow Chop ศอกสับ Sok Sub Double Elbow Chop ศอกกลับคู่ Sok Glub Koo Mid-Air Elbow Strike กระโดดศอก Gra-dode Sok There is also a distinct difference between a single elbow and a follow-up elbow. The single elbow is an elbow move independent from any other move, whereas a follow-up elbow is the second strike from the same arm, being a hook or straight punch first with an elbow follow-up. Such elbows, and most other elbows, are used when the distance between fighters becomes too small and there is too little space to throw a hook at the opponent's head. Elbows can also be utilised to great effect as blocks or defences against, for example, spring knees, side body knees, body kicks or punches. Kicking (Teh) Thrusting kick Roundhouse high kick English Thai Transliteration Straight Kick เตะตรง Teh Trong Roundhouse Kick เตะตัด Teh Tud Diagonal Kick เตะเฉียง Teh Chiang Half-Shin, Half-Knee Kick เตะครึ่งแข้งครึ่งเข่า Teh Krueng Kheng Krueng Kao Spinning Heel Kick เตะกลับหลัง Teh Glub Lang Down Roundhouse Kick เตะกด Teh Kod Axe Heel Kick เตะเข่า Teh Khao Jump Kick กระโดดเตะ Gra-dode Teh Step-Up Kick เขยิบเตะ KhaYiep Teh The two most common kicks in Muay Thai are known as the teep (literally "foot jab,"), and the Teh(kick)chiang (kicking upwards in the shape of a triangle cutting under the arm and ribs) or angle kick. The Muay Thai angle kick has been widely adopted by fighters from other martial arts and is considered one of or the most powerful kicks in martial arts. The angle kick uses a rotational movement of the entire body. The angle kick is superficially similar to a karate roundhouse kick, but omits the rotation of the lower leg from the knee used in other striking martial arts like Karate or Taekwondo. The angle kick draws its power entirely from the rotational movement of the body. Many Muay Thai fighters use a counter rotation of the arms to intensify the power of this kick. Muay Thai has a style of kicking unique to the martial art. If a round house kick is attempted by the opponent the Muay Thai fighter will normally block with his shin. Thai boxers are trained to always connect with the shin. While sensitive in an unconditioned practitioner, the shin is the strongest part of the leg for experienced Muay Thai fighters. The foot contains many fine bones and is much weaker. A fighter may end up hurting himself if he tries to strike with his foot or instep. Muay Thai also includes other varieties of kicking, such as the axe kick, side kick or spinning back kick etc. These kicks are only used in bouts by some fighters. It is worth noting that a side kick is performed differently in Muay Thai than the traditional side kick of other martial arts. In Muay Thai, a side kick is executed by first raising the knee of the leg that is going to kick in order to convince the opponent that the executor is going to perform a teep or front kick. The hips are then shifted to the side to the more traditional side kick position for the kick itself. The "fake-out" almost always precedes the kick in Muay Thai technique. Knee (Tee kao) "Muay Thai Weapons" English Thai Transliteration Straight Knee Strike เข่าตรง Kao Trong Diagonal Knee Strike เข่าเฉียง Kao Chiang Curving Knee Strike เข่าโค้ง Kao Kong Horizontal Knee Strike เข่าตัด Kao Tud Knee Slap เข่าตบ Kao Tob Knee Bomb เข่ายาว Kao Youwn Jumping Knee เข่าลอย Kao Loi Step-Up Knee Strike เข่าเหยียบ Kao Yiep Kao Dode (Jumping knee strike) - the Thai boxer jumps up on one leg and strikes with that leg's knee. Kao Loi (Flying knee strike) - the Thai boxer takes step(s), jumps forward and off one leg and strikes with that leg's knee. Kao Tone (Straight knee strike) - the Thai boxer simply thrusts it forward (not upwards, unless he is holding an opponents head down in a clinch and intend to knee upwards into the face). According to one written source, this technique is somewhat more recent than Kao Dode or Kao Loi. Supposedly, when the Thai boxers fought with rope-bound hands rather than the modern boxing gloves, this particular technique was subject to potentially vicious cutting, slicing and sawing by an alert opponent who would block it or deflect it with the sharp "rope-glove" edges which are sometimes dipped in water to make the rope much stronger. This explanation also holds true for some of the following knee strikes below as well. In a episode of Fight Science, martial artists performed and tested their most powerful kicks with a crash test dummie and scientest testing their power, the kicks including were the karate side kick, kung fu flying double kick and taekwondo spinning back kick, the last one was the Muay Thai Knee Strike performed by Melchor Menor, a Muay Thai champion tested his Knee Strike which in terms of force, power, damage and chest deflection, inflicted the most out of all of the other techniques. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1s3-SnvykgQ" Foot-thrust (teep) Foot-Thrusts also known as Push Kicks or literally "foot jabs" are one of the most common techniques used in Muay Thai. Teeps are different from any other Muay Thai technique in terms of objective to use. Foot-thrusts are mainly used as a defensive technique to control distance, block attacks, and get an opponent off balance. Foot-Thrusts should be thrown quickly but yet with enough force to knock an opponent off balance. English Thai Transliteration IPA Straight Foot-Thrust ถีบตรง Teep Trong Sideways Foot-Thrust ถีบข้าง Teep Kang Reverse Foot-Thrust ถีบกลับหลัง Teep Glub Lang Slapping Foot-Thrust ถีบตบ Teep Tob Jumping Foot-Thrust กระโดดถีบ Gra-dode Teep Clinch In Western Boxing the two fighters are separated when they clinch; in Muay Thai, however, they are not. It is often in the clinch where knee and elbow techniques are used. The front clinch should be performed with the palm of one hand on the back of the other. There are three reasons why the fingers must not be intertwined. 1) In the ring fighters are wearing boxing gloves and cannot intertwine their fingers. 2) The Thai front clinch involves pressing the head of the opponent downwards, which is easier if the hands are locked behind the back of the head instead of behind the neck. Furthermore the arms should be putting as much pressure on the neck as possible. 3) A fighter may incur an injury to one or more fingers if they are intertwined, and it becomes more difficult to release the grip in order to quickly elbow the opponent's head. A correct clinch also involves the fighter's forearms pressing against the opponent's collar bone while the hands are around the opponent's head rather than the opponent's neck. The general way to get out of a clinch is to push the opponent's head backwards or elbow him or her, as the clinch requires both participants to be very close to one another. Additionally, the non-dominant clincher can try to "swim" his or her arm underneath and inside the opponent's clinch, establishing the previously non-dominant clincher as the dominant clincher. Muay Thai has several other variants of the clinch, including: arm clinch, where one or both hands controls the inside of the defender's arm(s) and where the second hand if free is in the front clinch position, this clinch is used to briefly control the opponent before applying a knee strike or throw side clinch, one arm passing around the front of the defender with the attacker's shoulder pressed into the defender's arm pit and the other arm passing round the back which allows the attacker to apply knee strikes to the defender's back or to throw the defender readily low clinch, with both controlling arms passing under the defender's arms, which is generally used by the shorter of two opponents swan-neck where one hand around the rear of the neck is used to briefly clinch an opponent (before a strike). Defense against attacks Defenses in Muay Thai are categorised in 6 groups: Blocking - defender's hard blocks to stop a strike in its path so preventing it reaching its target, (eg the Shin Block described in more detail below) Redirection - defender's soft parries to change the direction of a strike (eg a downwards tap to a jab) so that it misses the target Avoidance - moving a body part out of the way or range of a strike so the defender remains in range for a counter-strike, eg defender moving the front leg backwards from the attacker's low kick: then immediately counter-attacking with an angle kick: or defender laying the head back from the attacker's high angle kick: then immediately counter-attacking with a side kick from the front leg: Evasion - moving the body out of the way or range of a strike so the defender has to move close again to counter-attack, eg defender jumping back from attacker's kicks Disruption - Pre-empting an attack. eg with defender using disruptive techniques like jab, teep or low angle kick (to the inside of the attacker's front leg) as the attacker attempts to close distance Anticipation - Defender catching a strike (eg catching an angle kick to the body) or countering it before it lands (eg defender's low kick to the supporting leg below as the attacker iniates a high angle kick). Punches and kicks Defensively, the concept of "wall of defence" is used, in which shoulders, arms and legs are used to hinder the attacker from successfully executing techniques. Blocking is a critical element in Muay Thai and compounds the level of conditioning a successful practitioner must possess. Low and mid body roundhouse kicks are normally blocked with the upper portion of a raised shin. High body strikes are blocked with the forearm/glove, elbow/shin. Mid section roundhouse kicks can also be caught/trapped, allowing for a sweep or counter attack to the remaining leg of the opponent. Punches are blocked with an ordinary boxing guard and techniques similar, if not identical, to basic boxing technique. A common means of blocking a punch is using the hand on the same side as the oncoming punch. For example, if an orthodox fighter throws a jab (being the left hand), the defender will make a slight tap to redirect the punch's angle with the right hand. The deflection is always as small and precise as possible to avoid unnecessary energy expenditure and return the hand to the guard as quickly as possible. Hooks are most often blocked with a motion most often described as "combing your hair," raising the elbow forward and effectively shielding the head with the forearm, flexed biceps, and shoulder. More advanced Muay Thai blocks are usually counters, used to damage the opponent to prevent another attack being made. Conditioning A fighter doing some heavy bag work in a training camp in Thailand. Like most competitive full contact fighting sports, Muay Thai has a heavy focus on body conditioning. Muay Thai is specifically designed to promote the level of fitness and toughness required for ring competition. Training regimens include many staples of combat sport conditioning such as running, shadowboxing, rope jumping, body weight resistance exercises, medicine ball exercises, abdominal exercises, and in some cases weight training. Muay Thai practitioners typically apply Namman Muay liberally before and after their intense training sessions. Training that is specific to a Muay Thai fighter includes training with coaches on Thai pads, focus mitts, heavy bag, and sparring. The daily training includes many rounds (3-5 minute periods broken up by a short rest, often 1–2 minutes) of these various methods of practice. Thai pad training is a cornerstone of Muay Thai conditioning which involves practicing punches, kicks, knees, and elbow strikes with a trainer wearing thick pads which cover the forearms and hands. These special pads are used to absorb the impact of the fighter’s strikes and allow the fighter to react to the attacks of the pad holder. The trainer will often also wear a belly pad around the abdominal area so that the fighter can attack with straight kicks or knees to the body at anytime during the round. Focus mitts are specific to training a fighter’s hand speed, punch combinations, timing, punching power, defense, and counter-punching and may also be used to practice elbow strikes. Heavy bag training is a conditioning and power exercise that reinforces the techniques practiced on the pads. Sparring is a means to test technique, skills, range, strategy, and timing against a partner. Sparring is often a light to medium contact exercise because competitive fighters on a full schedule are not advised to risk injury by sparring hard. Specific tactics and strategies can be trained with sparring including in close fighting, clinching and kneeing only, cutting off the ring, or using reach and distance to keep an aggressive fighter away. Due to the rigorous fighting and training regimen (some Thai boxers fight almost every other week) professional Muay Thai fighters have relatively short careers in the ring. Many retire from competition to begin instructing the next generation of Thai fighters. It is a common myth that Thai boxing causes arthritis; this is not true, and it is in no way more damaging to the body than other sports such as karate or even running. Most professional Thai boxers come from the lower economic backgrounds, and the fight money (after the other parties get their cut) is sought as means of support for the fighters and their families. Very few higher economic strata Thais join the professional Muay Thai ranks; they usually either don't practice the sport or practice it only as amateur Muay Thai boxers. Rules Muay Thai is practiced in many different countries. There are different rules depending on what country the fight is in and under what organization the fight is arranged. The following is a link to the rules section of the Sports Authority of Thailand. Use in other martial arts Kickboxing Muay Thai, along with savate, karate, and taekwondo heavily influenced the development of kickboxing in Japan, Europe, and North America. However, unlike Muay Thai, most kickboxing competitions do not allow elbow strikes or prolonged clinching knee strikes to avoid potential fight ending cuts. American kickboxing does not allow kicks below the waist. Mixed martial arts Starting in the 1990s, Muay Thai has enjoyed a boost in popularity worldwide as it has been very effective in mixed martial arts training and competition. MMA artists such as Mauricio "Shogun" Rua, Wanderlei "The Axe Murderer" Silva, and Anderson "The Spider" Silva have combined many striking elements of Muay Thai with grappling, wrestling and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu into a hybrid synthesis that has been highly effective in their fights. Other fighters that have used Muay Thai as their primary style in mixed martial arts include Duane Ludwig, Gina Carano, Thiago Alves, Cheick Kongo, Rob McCullough, Melvin Manhoef, Donald Cerrone, and Gilbert Yvel. Shoot-fighters and professional wrestlers who have trained and been influenced by Muay Thai include Satoru Sayama and Yoshiaki Fujiwara. In popular culture Movies The documentary feature film Fight or Flight starring Peter J McCarthy and also Andy Tompson of Lanna Muay Thai, based on an epic journey into Thailand's ring fighting circuit. Fight or Flight has won "Best Foreign Documentary" at the Long Island Film Festival. Also "Best Documentary" at festivals in Hamburg, Toronto and TVIFF in California. The official website is http://www.fightorflight.tv In 2007, Ryan McCarthy and Jake Tyler from the movie, Never Back Down practice Mixed Martial Arts including Muay Thai. In 2004, Muay Thai boxer Asanee Suwan was named best actor at the Thailand National Film Association Awards for his portrayal of Parinya Charoenphol in Beautiful Boxer. The movie tells the true-life story of a man who masters Muay Thai in order to realize his dream of becoming a woman. The 1971 Shaw Brothers Studio film, Duel of Fists, is set in Bangkok's Lumpinee Boxing Stadium and stars Ti Lung as a Muay Thai boxer who is the long-lost brother of a Hong Kong martial artist, portrayed by David Chiang. In The Man With The Golden Gun, James Bond meets Scaramanga at a Thai Boxing bout. Recently the films Ong-Bak, The Protector and Born to Fight helped to popularize Muay Thai. Ong-Bak demonstrates some techniques of Muay Boran and Tom-Yum-Goong illustrates the fighting style of the Thai Royal Bodyguards (Jaturongkabaht, circa 1400-1700s) - Muay Koshasan (Elephant Boxing style). Muay Koshasan is also known as Muay Chang Tumlai Roang - (Smashing Elephant Boxing style) in that it emphasizes a lot of throwing, crushing, and breaking of joints and limbs. The film Chok Dee starring Dida Diafat who plays himself in this semi-fictional story of his life. The film covers a lot of the training filmed in the Muay Thai camps of Bangkok. The film Kickboxer starring Jean Claude van Damme is about a young fighter who learns Muay Thai to avenge his brother, who was paralyzed by the current champion/thug. The 1988 movie Bloodsport features Paulo Tocha as a Muay Thai fighter named "Paco". Television RTE television Ireland have acquired to screen Fight or Flight, the feature documentary which won "Best Foreign Documentary" at the Long Island Film Festival in 2009 Fight of Flight. The Contender Asia is a 15 episode reality show featuring 16 Muay Thai fighters from around the world. The History channel took a deep look into the history and fighting techniques in Muay Thai on their show Human Weapon. True Life: I'm a Muay Thai Fighter follows two American Thai boxers, Kit Cope and Ben Garcia, as they travel overseas to make their mark in the brutal world of Muay Thai fighting, Thailand's national sport, which combines kicking, punching and wrestling with few restrictions. Kit and Ben are each scheduled to compete in bare-knuckle fights that will be broadcast live on television all across Thailand. Power Rangers: Jungle Fury and the source of its footage, Juken Sentai Gekiranger, both depict the Violet Ranger as a Muay Thai-style warrior. He sports the prajed, dual elbow bands worn by Thai fighters; and mainly uses elbow and knee attacks, often performing Ongbak-style flying knee strikes. Fight Girls is a reality show similar to the Ultimate Fighter, where ten female fighters live together and train with a Muay Thai instructor in Las Vegas for six weeks in an effort to fight for a Muay Thai championship in Thailand. The group of women is narrowed down to five via a three round fight between house mates set up by the head trainer. The losing fighter is eliminated from the house and the winner will go to Thailand at the end of the season. Head Trainer: Master Toddy. Mentors : Lisa "the black widow" King and Gina Carano. On Gaki no Tsukai, it is standard to bring in a kickboxer, Ernesto Hoost to punish the losing contestants of the no laughing batsu games. They are usually regarded as the worse of punishments doled out. In the Anime "Kenichi: The Mightiest Disiple" (or also known as History Strongest Disciple:Kenichi) Kenichi (Main character) learns from Apachai a Muay Thai master. Later in the anime, he faces a Muay Boran fighter from the Yami Organisation. In the Discovery Channel's series, Fight Quest, Jimmy Smith trains in Muay Thai. Video games In Capcom's Street Fighter video game series, the character Sagat is a Muay Thai master and a national hero in Thailand. His student Adon is also a practitioner. In SNK's Fatal Fury, Art of Fighting and King of Fighters video game series, Joe Higashi and King utilize Muay Thai as their fighting styles. In SNK's World Heroes 2, the character Shura/Naikanom Tom is based on the legendary Muay Thai hero, Nai Khanom Tom. In the Dead Or Alive video game series, the fighter Zack is a self-taught Muay Thai master. In True Crime: NYC it is possible to learn Muay Thai. The game shows a kick strike, an elbow strike, a clinch grapple, and a flying knee attack as a special move. In the Virtua Fighter video game series, the character Brad Burns is an undefeated Muay Thai champion from Italy. In the Squaresoft video game Ehrgeiz, the character Prince Doza is a Muay Thai practitioner who won many battles. In Capoeira Fighter III, there is a lady Muay Thai fighter called Chompoo. In Clover Studio's God Hand features an enemy called Tiger Joe who fights predominantly using Muay Thai style. In Data East's Fighter's History, the character named Samchay Tomyamgun utilizes Muay Thai as his fighting style. In Namco's Tekken fighting game series, the character named Bruce Irvin is a Muay Thai master. In OGPlanet's Rumble Fighter, the user may buy a scroll that teaches the user Muay Thai. In the new UFC Undisputed game there will be many characters with the Muay Thai fighting style. See also Fight or Flight (documentary) Lumpinee Boxing Stadium Rajadamnern Boxing Stadium List of kickboxing organizations List of male kickboxers List of female kickboxers Notes References Books and articles | Muay_Thai |@lemmatized muay:125 thai:129 lit:1 box:13 form:8 hard:3 martial:20 art:28 practice:11 large:2 part:5 world:5 include:13 thailand:18 southeast:8 asian:2 country:9 similar:5 others:1 asia:7 pradal:1 serey:1 cambodia:3 lethwei:2 myanmar:2 tomoi:1 malaysia:1 lao:3 boxing:13 long:7 history:6 national:5 sport:11 traditional:5 today:2 varies:1 significantly:1 ancient:4 boran:8 use:45 kick:65 punch:20 ring:8 glove:6 western:8 refer:3 eight:2 limb:2 hand:18 shin:8 elbow:42 knee:38 extensively:1 practitioner:7 nak:2 thus:1 ability:1 execute:3 strike:41 point:6 contact:3 oppose:1 two:8 fist:6 four:1 foot:16 primarily:1 orient:1 muaythai:2 match:6 bangkok:4 pray:2 boxer:15 wai:3 kru:3 various:2 kickboxing:7 throughout:1 region:2 culture:4 highly:2 influence:4 civilization:1 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6,860 | Telecommunications_in_North_Korea | Communications in North Korea refers to the communication services available in North Korea. Telephone By 1970 automatic switching facilities were in use in Pyongyang, Sinŭiju, Hamhŭng, and Hyesan. A few public telephone booths were beginning to appear in Pyongyang around 1990. Ordinary citizens do not have private telephone lines. There are international connections via Moscow and Beijing, and in late 1989 international direct dialing service was introduced from Hong Kong. A satellite ground station near Pyongyang provides direct international communications using the International Telecommunications Satellite Corporation (Intelsat) Indian Ocean satellite. A satellite communications center was installed in Pyongyang in 1986 with French technical support. An agreement to share in Japan's telecommunications satellites was reached in 1990. North Korea joined the Universal Postal Union in 1974 but has direct postal arrangements with only a select group of countries. According to the CIA World Factbook, the telephone system is inadequate and no telephone directories are available. There were 1.18 million telephone main lines in use in 2007. Mobile phones In November 2002, mobile phones were introduced to North Korea and by November 2003, 20,000 North Koreans had bought mobile phones. On May 24, 2004 however, mobile phones were banned "World briefings: North Korea", New York Times, June 4, 2004. North Korea supposedly still has a mobile network in Pyongyang which is open for government officials only. Foreigners are not allowed to use (and also until recently to keep) mobile phones in North Korea although certain high profile visitors such as leadership from the New York Philharmonic which visited North Korea in February 2008, were given rental phones to facilitate direct international communications. These connections were likely closely monitored. In December 2008, a mobile phone service was launched in Pyongyang which would expand to all parts of the country. However, it is unclear who will be able to use the service, particularly as the cost of a mobile phone is out of reach of most North Koreans. "Secretive N Korea set to launch mobile phone service", Associated Press, December 4, 2008. Television Broadcasting in North Korea is tightly controlled by the state and is used as a propaganda arm of the ruling Korean Workers' Party. The Korean Central Television station is located in Pyongyang, and there also are stations in major cities, including Chŏngjin, Kaesŏng, Hamhŭng, Haeju, and Sinŭiju. There are three channels in Pyongyang but only one channel in other cities. Imported Japanese-made color televisions have a North Korean brand name superimposed, but nineteen-inch black-and-white sets have been produced locally since 1980. One estimate places the total number of television sets in use in the early 1990s at 250,000 sets. Radio Visitors are not allowed to bring a radio. As part of the government's information blockade policy, North Korean radios and televisions must be modified to only receive government stations. These modified radios and televisions should be registered at special state department. They are also subject to inspection at random. The removal of the official seal is punishable by law. In order to buy a TV-set or a radio, Korean citizens should get special permission from the officials at places of their residence or employment. North Korea has two AM radio broadcasting networks, Pyongyang Broadcasting Station (Radio Pyongyang) and Korean Central Broadcasting Station, and one FM network, Pyongyang FM Broadcasting Station. All three networks have stations in major cities that offer local programming. There also is a powerful shortwave transmitter for overseas broadcasts in several languages. The official government station is the Korean Central Broadcasting Station (KCBS), which broadcasts in Korean. In 1997 there were 3.36 million radio sets. Internet North Korea's first Internet café opened in 2002 as a joint venture with South Korean internet company Hoonnet. It is connected via a line to China. Foreign visitors can link their computers to the Internet through international phone lines available in a few hotels in Pyongyang. In 2005 a new internet café opened in Pyongyang, connected not through China, but through the North Korean satellite link. Content is most likely filtered by North Korean government agencies. In 2003 a joint venture called KCC Europe between businessman Jan Holterman in Berlin and the North Korean government brought the commercial Internet to North Korea. The connection is established through a satellite link from North Korea to servers located in Germany. This link ended the need to dial ISPs in China. KCC Europe is attempting to regulate the .kp country code top-level domain (ccTLD); its site (kcce.kp) and Naenara (naenara.kp) are the only known to be active in the .kp domain. Its IP address resolves not to Asia but to servers at Internet Provider Berlin (ipberlin.com) in the German capital. References See also Communications in South Korea Media of North Korea Radio jamming in Korea Economy of North Korea List of Korea-related topics External links North Korea Uncovered, (North Korea Google Earth) See most of North Korea's communications facilities, including: The Korea Computer Center, the Pyongyang Television Tower, the KCBS tower, the major communications center in Heaju, as well as satellite communications stations near Pyongyang. | Telecommunications_in_North_Korea |@lemmatized communication:9 north:25 korea:23 refers:1 service:5 available:3 telephone:6 automatic:1 switch:1 facility:2 use:7 pyongyang:15 sinŭiju:2 hamhŭng:2 hyesan:1 public:1 booth:1 begin:1 appear:1 around:1 ordinary:1 citizen:2 private:1 line:4 international:6 connection:3 via:2 moscow:1 beijing:1 late:1 direct:4 dialing:1 introduce:2 hong:1 kong:1 satellite:8 ground:1 station:11 near:2 provide:1 telecommunication:2 corporation:1 intelsat:1 indian:1 ocean:1 center:3 instal:1 french:1 technical:1 support:1 agreement:1 share:1 japan:1 reach:2 join:1 universal:1 postal:2 union:1 arrangement:1 select:1 group:1 country:3 accord:1 cia:1 world:2 factbook:1 system:1 inadequate:1 directory:1 million:2 main:1 mobile:9 phone:10 november:2 korean:14 buy:2 may:1 however:2 ban:1 briefing:1 new:3 york:2 time:1 june:1 supposedly:1 still:1 network:4 open:3 government:6 official:4 foreigner:1 allow:2 also:5 recently:1 keep:1 although:1 certain:1 high:1 profile:1 visitor:3 leadership:1 philharmonic:1 visit:1 february:1 give:1 rental:1 facilitate:1 likely:2 closely:1 monitor:1 december:2 launch:2 would:1 expand:1 part:2 unclear:1 able:1 particularly:1 cost:1 secretive:1 n:1 set:6 associate:1 press:1 television:7 broadcasting:5 tightly:1 control:1 state:2 propaganda:1 arm:1 ruling:1 worker:1 party:1 central:3 locate:2 major:3 city:3 include:2 chŏngjin:1 kaesŏng:1 haeju:1 three:2 channel:2 one:3 import:1 japanese:1 make:1 color:1 brand:1 name:1 superimpose:1 nineteen:1 inch:1 black:1 white:1 produce:1 locally:1 since:1 estimate:1 place:2 total:1 number:1 early:1 radio:9 bring:2 information:1 blockade:1 policy:1 must:1 modify:2 receive:1 register:1 special:2 department:1 subject:1 inspection:1 random:1 removal:1 seal:1 punishable:1 law:1 order:1 tv:1 get:1 permission:1 residence:1 employment:1 two:1 fm:2 broadcast:3 offer:1 local:1 programming:1 powerful:1 shortwave:1 transmitter:1 overseas:1 several:1 language:1 kcbs:2 internet:7 first:1 café:2 joint:2 venture:2 south:2 company:1 hoonnet:1 connect:2 china:3 foreign:1 link:5 computer:2 hotel:1 content:1 filter:1 agency:1 call:1 kcc:2 europe:2 businessman:1 jan:1 holterman:1 berlin:2 commercial:1 establish:1 server:2 germany:1 end:1 need:1 dial:1 isps:1 attempt:1 regulate:1 kp:4 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:2 cctld:1 site:1 kcce:1 naenara:2 known:1 active:1 ip:1 address:1 resolve:1 asia:1 provider:1 ipberlin:1 com:1 german:1 capital:1 reference:1 see:2 medium:1 jamming:1 economy:1 list:1 related:1 topic:1 external:1 uncovered:1 google:1 earth:1 tower:2 heaju:1 well:1 |@bigram hong_kong:1 universal_postal:1 mobile_phone:8 joint_venture:2 ip_address:1 external_link:1 |
6,861 | Johannes_Rau | Johannes Rau (16 January 1931 – 27 January 2006) was a German politician of the SPD. He was President of Germany from 1 July 1999, until 30 June 2004, and Prime Minister of North Rhine-Westphalia from 1978 to 1998. Education and work Rau was born in the Barmen part of Wuppertal, Rhine Province, as the third of five children. His family was strongly Protestant. As a schoolboy, Rau was active in the Confessing Church, a circle of the German Protestant Church which actively resisted Nazism. Rau left school in 1949 and worked as a journalist and publisher, especially with the Protestant Youth Publishing House. Political biography Rau was a member of the All-German People’s Party (GVP), which was founded by Gustav Heinemann. This party was known for proposing German reunification, from 1952 until it was disbanded in 1957. In 1958, Rau and his political mentor, Gustav Heinemann, joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), where he was active in the Wuppertal chapter. He served as deputy chairman of the SPD party of Wuppertal, and was elected later on to the City Council (1964-1978), where he served as chairman of the SPD Group (1964-1967) and later as Mayor (1969-1970). In 1958, Rau was elected for the first time as member of the Landtag (state parliament) of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW). In 1967, he became chairman of the SPD fraction in the Landtag, and in 1970 Minister of Science and Education in the cabinet of Minister President Heinz Kühn. He soon gained a reputation as a reformer. As part of the mass-education campaign of the 1970s, he founded five universities, each at different sites, in North Rhine-Westphalia and initiated Germany’s first distance learning university at Hagen (modelled on the Open University). In 1977, Rau became Chairman of the North Rhine-Westphalia SPD, and in 1978 Minister President of the state, were he remained until 1998, with four successful elections for the SPD, which became strongest party in the Landtag each time and gained an absolute majority three times, in 1980, 1985, 1990 and finally 1995. From 1995 onwards, Rau led an SPD-Greens coalition in NRW. In 1987, Rau tried to become chancellor of Germany for the SPD, but his refusal to contemplate forming a coalition with the Green Party meant he could not win the elections against Helmut Kohl’s Christian Democrats (CDU). In 1994, Rau tried for the first time to become Federal President, but lost to Roman Herzog. Rau twice served as President of the Bundesrat in 1982/83 and 1994/95, and thus deputised for the Federal President. In 1998 Rau stepped down from his positions as SPD Chairman and Minister President, and on 23 May 1999, was elected Federal President by the Federal Assembly of Germany to succeed Roman Herzog (CDU). On 1 July 2004, he was succeeded by Horst Köhler. In 2000, Rau was the first German head of state since the Holocaust to address the Knesset, the Israeli parliament, in German. This controversial step prompted some Israeli delegates to walk out. However, Israeli President Moshe Katsav supported and praised him for bridging the gap between the two states. Rau had a deep and life-long commitment to bringing reconciliation between Germany and its past. Following a long history of heart disease, he died a few days after his 75th birthday. Rau's grave on the day of his burial. Johannes Rau at Schloss Bellevue in 2002. Motto and maxim The maxim of Rau was “to reconcile, not divide”. As his personal motto, Rau adopted the Confessing Church dictum “teneo, quia teneor” (I hold because I am held). In his acceptance speech after his election, Rau claimed “A patriot I will be” because “a patriot is someone who loves his fatherland, a nationalist is someone who despises the fatherlands of the others”. The quote can be attributed to the French writer Romain Gary. Prizes and medals Rau was awarded fifteen honorary doctorates. Private life Rau was known as a practising Christian (and sometimes titled , "Brother John", to ridicule his intense Christian position; however, he sometimes used this term himself). He held lay positions in, and was a member of, the Synod of the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland. On 9 August 1982, Rau married the political scientist, Christina Delius (born 1956). Christina Rau is a granddaughter of her husband's mentor, Gustav Heinemann, former President of Germany. The couple had three children: Anna Christina, born 1983, Philip Immanuel, born 1985 and Laura Helene, born 1986. After leaving office, Rau lived with his family in the federal capital, Berlin. However, they also kept a house in Wuppertal. Rau died in Berlin on 27 January 2006. See also Germany Politics of Germany External links www.bundespraesident.de: Johannes Rau—Official biography online book of condolence for Johannes Rau | Johannes_Rau |@lemmatized johannes:4 rau:28 january:3 german:6 politician:1 spd:10 president:10 germany:9 july:2 june:1 prime:1 minister:5 north:4 rhine:5 westphalia:4 education:3 work:2 bear:1 barman:1 part:2 wuppertal:4 province:1 third:1 five:2 child:2 family:2 strongly:1 protestant:3 schoolboy:1 active:2 confessing:1 church:4 circle:1 actively:1 resist:1 nazism:1 leave:2 school:1 journalist:1 publisher:1 especially:1 youth:1 publishing:1 house:2 political:3 biography:2 member:3 people:1 party:6 gvp:1 found:2 gustav:3 heinemann:3 know:2 propose:1 reunification:1 disband:1 mentor:2 join:1 social:1 democratic:1 chapter:1 serve:3 deputy:1 chairman:5 elect:3 later:2 city:1 council:1 group:1 mayor:1 first:4 time:4 landtag:3 state:4 parliament:2 nrw:2 become:5 fraction:1 science:1 cabinet:1 heinz:1 kühn:1 soon:1 gain:2 reputation:1 reformer:1 mass:1 campaign:1 university:3 different:1 site:1 initiate:1 distance:1 learn:1 hagen:1 model:1 open:1 remain:1 four:1 successful:1 election:3 strong:1 absolute:1 majority:1 three:2 finally:1 onwards:1 lead:1 green:2 coalition:2 try:2 chancellor:1 refusal:1 contemplate:1 form:1 meant:1 could:1 win:1 helmut:1 kohl:1 christian:3 democrat:1 cdu:2 federal:5 lose:1 roman:2 herzog:2 twice:1 bundesrat:1 thus:1 deputise:1 step:2 position:3 may:1 assembly:1 succeed:2 horst:1 köhler:1 head:1 since:1 holocaust:1 address:1 knesset:1 israeli:3 controversial:1 prompt:1 delegate:1 walk:1 however:3 moshe:1 katsav:1 support:1 praise:1 bridge:1 gap:1 two:1 deep:1 life:2 long:2 commitment:1 bring:1 reconciliation:1 past:1 follow:1 history:1 heart:1 disease:1 die:2 day:2 birthday:1 grave:1 burial:1 schloss:1 bellevue:1 motto:2 maxim:2 reconcile:1 divide:1 personal:1 adopt:1 confess:1 dictum:1 teneo:1 quia:1 teneor:1 hold:3 acceptance:1 speech:1 claim:1 patriot:2 someone:2 love:1 fatherland:2 nationalist:1 despise:1 others:1 quote:1 attribute:1 french:1 writer:1 romain:1 gary:1 prize:1 medal:1 award:1 fifteen:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 private:1 practising:1 sometimes:2 title:1 brother:1 john:1 ridicule:1 intense:1 use:1 term:1 lay:1 synod:1 evangelical:1 rhineland:1 august:1 marry:1 scientist:1 christina:3 delius:1 born:4 granddaughter:1 husband:1 former:1 couple:1 anna:1 philip:1 immanuel:1 laura:1 helene:1 office:1 live:1 capital:1 berlin:2 also:2 keep:1 see:1 politics:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 bundespraesident:1 de:1 official:1 online:1 book:1 condolence:1 |@bigram prime_minister:1 rhine_westphalia:4 helmut_kohl:1 horst_köhler:1 honorary_doctorate:1 external_link:1 |
6,862 | American_Airlines_Flight_77 | American Airlines Flight 77 was the third flight hijacked as part of the September 11 attacks, and it was deliberately crashed into the Pentagon. The scheduled U.S. domestic flight from Washington Dulles International Airport, near Washington, D.C., to Los Angeles International Airport was hijacked by five Islamic terrorists less than 35 minutes into the flight. The hijackers stormed the cockpit and forced the passengers to the rear of the aircraft. Hani Hanjour, one of the hijackers trained as a pilot, assumed control of the flight. Unknown to the hijackers, passengers aboard were able to make calls to loved ones and relay information on the hijacking. The aircraft crashed into the western facade of the Pentagon at 09:37 A:MEastern Time. All 64 people on board and 125 in the building were killed, including the hijackers. Dozens of people witnessed the crash and news sources began reporting on the incident within minutes. The impact severely damaged an area of the Pentagon and ignited a large fire. A portion of the Pentagon collapsed and firefighters spent days trying to fully extinguish the blaze. The damage to the Pentagon was rebuilt in 2002, with occupants moving back into the damaged area on August 15, 2002. The 184 victims of the attack are memorialized in the Pentagon Memorial adjacent to the Pentagon. The park consists of 184 benches, one for each of the victims, arranged according to the year of birth, ranging from 1930 (age 71) to 1998 (age 3). Flight 77's flight path cuts directly through the park. Hijackers The hijackers on American Airlines Flight 77 were led by Hani Hanjour, who piloted the aircraft into the Pentagon. Hanjour first came to the United States in 1990. He trained at the CRM Airline Training Center in Scottsdale, Arizona, earning his FAA commercial pilot's certificate in April 1999. He had wanted to be a commercial pilot for the Saudi national airline, but was rejected when he applied to the civil aviation school in Jeddah in 1999. Hanjour's brother later explained that, frustrated at not finding a job, Hanjour "increasingly turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers". Hanjour left Saudi Arabia in late 1999, telling his family that he was going to the United Arab Emirates to work for an airline. Instead, Hanjour likely ended up in Afghanistan where Al Qaeda recruits were screened for special skills they may have. Already having selected the Hamburg Cell members, Al Qaeda leaders selected Hanjour to lead the fourth team of hijackers. In December 2000, Hanjour arrived in San Diego, joining "muscle" hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, who had been there since November 1999. Soon after arriving, Hanjour and al-Hazmi left for Mesa, Arizona, where Hanjour began refresher training at Arizona Aviation. In April 2001, they relocated to Falls Church, Virginia, where they awaited the arrival of the remaining "muscle" hijackers. One of these men, Majed Moqed, arrived on May 2, 2001 with Flight 175 hijacker Ahmed al-Ghamdi from Dubai at Dulles International Airport and moved into an apartment with al-Hazmi and Hanjour. On May 21, 2001, Hanjour rented a room in Paterson, New Jersey, where he stayed with other hijackers through the end of August. The last Flight 77 "muscle" hijacker, Salem al-Hazmi, arrived on June 29, 2001 with Flight 11 hijacker Abdulaziz al-Omari at John F. Kennedy International Airport from the United Arab Emirates and stayed with Hanjour. Hani Hanjour received ground instruction and did practice flights at Air Fleet Training Systems in Teterboro, New Jersey, and at Caldwell Flight Academy in Fairfield, New Jersey. Hanjour moved out of the room in Paterson and arrived at the Valencia Motel in Laurel, Maryland on September 2, 2001. While in Maryland, Hanjour and fellow hijackers trained at the Gold's Gym in Greenbelt. On September 10, he completed a certification flight, using a terrain recognition system for navigation, at Congressional Air Charters in Gaithersburg, Maryland. On September 10, Nawaf al-Hazmi, accompanied by other hijackers, checked into the Marriott in Herndon, Virginia. Flight An American Airlines Boeing 757, similar to N644AA, the aircraft used for Flight 77 The American Airlines Flight 77 aircraft was a Boeing 757-223 (registration number N644AA). The flight crew included pilot Charles Burlingame, First Officer David Charlebois, and flight attendants Michele Heidenberger, Jennifer Lewis, Kenneth Lewis, and Renee May. The capacity of the aircraft was 176 passengers, but with 58 passengers on September 11, the load factor was 33 percent. Tuesdays were the least traveled day of the week, with the same level of load factor seen on Tuesdays in the previous three-months for Flight 77. Boarding On the morning of September 11, 2001, the five hijackers arrived at Dulles International Airport, outside of Washington, D.C. At 07:15, Khalid al-Mihdhar and Majed Moqed checked-in at the American Airlines ticket counter for Flight 77, and they arrived at the passenger security checkpoint a few minutes later at 07:18. Both men set off the metal detector and were put through secondary screening. Moqed continued to set off the alarm, so he was searched with a hand wand. The al-Hazmi brothers checked in together at the ticket counter at 07:29. Hani Hanjour checked in separately, and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 07:35. Hanjour was followed minutes later at the checkpoint by Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi, the latter who set off the metal detector's alarm. The screener at the checkpoint never resolved what set off the alarm. As seen in security footage later released, Nawaf Hazmi appeared to have an unidentified item in his back pocket, but four-inch utility knives were nonetheless permitted by the FAA as carry-on items. The passenger security checkpoint at Dulles International Airport was operated by Argenbright Security, under contract with United Airlines. The hijackers were also all selected for extra screening of their checked bags. Hani Hanjour, Khalid al-Mihdhar, and Majed Moqed were chosen by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System criteria, while Nawaf al-Hazmi and Salem al-Hazmi were selected because they did not provide adequate identification and deemed suspicious by the airline check-in agent. Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and Nawaf al-Hazmi did not check any bags for the flight. Checked bags belonging to Moqed and Salem al-Hazmi were held until they boarded the aircraft. By 07:50, the five hijackers, carrying knives and box cutters, had made it through the airport security checkpoint and boarded Flight 77 to Los Angeles. On the flight, Hani Hanjour was seated up front in 1B, while Salem and Nawaf al-Hazmi were seated further back in first class in 5E and 5F. Majed Moqed and Khalid al-Mihdhar were seated further back in 12A and 12B. The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles. Hijacking Flight path taken by Flight 77 The 9/11 Commission estimated that the flight was hijacked between 08:51 and 08:54, just minutes after the first hijacked plane had struck the World Trade Center in Manhattan at 08:46. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. At 08:54, American Airlines Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south. The hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C. By 08:56, the flight was turned around, and the transponder had been disabled. The FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency aboard the plane. By this time, American Airlines Flight 11 had already crashed into the World Trade Center, and United Airlines Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and within minutes of also striking the World Trade center . After learning of this second hijacking involving American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines, American Airlines Executive Vice President Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline. The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center, as well as American Airlines dispatchers, made several failed attempts to contact the aircraft. At the time the plane was hijacked, it was flying over an area of limited radar coverage. With air controllers unable to contact the flight by radio, an Indianapolis official declared that the plane had possibly crashed at 09:09. Two people on American Airlines Flight 77 made phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 09:12, flight attendant Renee May called her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas. During the call, which lasted nearly two minutes, May said her flight was being hijacked by six individuals and they had been moved to the rear of the plane. May also asked her mother to contact American Airlines, which she and her husband promptly did. American Airlines was already aware of the hijacking. Between 09:16 and 09:26, passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Ted Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. She reported that the passengers, and possibly the crew, had been moved to the back of the plane and that the hijackers were unaware of her call. A minute into the conversation, the call was cut off. Theodore Olson contacted the command center at the Department of Justice, and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft. About five minutes later, Barbara Olson called again, told her husband that the pilot had announced the flight was hijacked, and asked "what do I tell the pilot to do?" Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying over a residential area. He then informed her of the attacks on the World Trade Center. Soon afterwards, the call cut off again. "The speed, the maneuverability, the way that he turned, we all thought in the radar room, all of us experienced air traffic controllers, that that was a military plane. You don't fly a 757 in that manner. It's unsafe." Danielle O'Brien, Air traffic controller at Dulles International Airport A plane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington, turning and descending rapidly. Controllers initially thought this was a fighter plane, due to its high speed and maneuvering. Reagan Airport controllers then asked a passing Air National Guard C-130 Hercules plane to identify and follow the aircraft. The pilot, Lt. Col. Steven O'Brien, told them it was a Boeing 757 or 767, and its silver fuselage meant it was probably an American Airlines jet. He had difficulty picking out the plane in the "East Coast haze", but then saw a "huge" fireball, and initially assumed it had hit the ground. Approaching the Pentagon, he saw the west side and reported to Reagan control, "Looks like that aircraft crashed into the Pentagon sir". Crash Flight 77, flying at , crashed into the western side of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, just south of Washington, D.C. at 09:37:44, killing all 53 passengers, 5 hijackers, and 6 crew. It clipped several street lampposts and the right wing hit a portable generator before impacting the Pentagon wall. The flight hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. As it crashed, the plane was rolled slightly to the left, with the right wing elevated. When the plane impacted, the front part of the fuselage disintegrated, while the mid and tail sections moved for another fraction of a second, with tail section debris pieces ending furthest into the building. In all, the plane took eight-tenths of a second to fully penetrate into the three outermost rings and unleashed a fireball that rose above the building. Debris from Flight 77 scattered near the Pentagon At the time of the attacks, approximately 18,000 people worked in the Pentagon, which was 4,000 fewer than before renovations began in 1998. Goldberg et al., p. 3. The section of the Pentagon, which had recently been renovated at a cost of $250 million, housed the Naval Command Center and other Pentagon offices, as well as some unoccupied offices. The crash and subsequent fire penetrated three outer ring sections of the western side. The outermost ring section was largely destroyed, and a large section collapsed. One hundred and twenty-five people in the Pentagon died from the attack. In all, there were 189 casualties at the Pentagon, including 125 in the Pentagon and 64 on board Flight 77. Barbara Olson was en route to a taping of Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher. A group of children, chaperons, and National Geographic Society staff members were also onboard, embarking on an educational trip to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California. The fatalities at the Pentagon included 55 military personnel and 70 civilians. Of those 125 killed, 92 were on the first floor, 31 were on the second floor, and two were on the third. Goldberg et al., pp. 23–24. The Army suffered 75 casualties—far more than any other branch. Another 106 injured were treated at area hospitals. Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest ranking military officer killed at the Pentagon. "I don‘t want to alarm anybody right now, but apparently—it felt just a few moments ago like there was an explosion of some kind here at the Pentagon." Jim Miklaszewski, NBC Pentagon correspondent reporting from inside the Pentagon at 09:39 The Pentagon is bordered by Interstate 395 and Washington Boulevard, on the side where the impact occurred. Mary Lyman, who was on I-395, saw the airplane pass over at a "steep angle toward the ground and going fast" and then saw the cloud of smoke from the Pentagon. Omar Campo, another witness, was cutting the grass on the other side of the road when the plane flew over his head. "I was cutting the grass and it came in screaming over my head. I felt the impact. The whole ground shook and the whole area was full of fire. I could never imagine I would see anything like that here." Afework Hagos, a computer programmer, was on his way to work but stuck in a traffic jam near the Pentagon when the plane flew over. "There was a huge screaming noise and I got out of the car as the plane came over. Everybody was running away in different directions. It was tilting its wings up and down like it was trying to balance. It hit some lampposts on the way in." Daryl Donley witnessed the crash and took some of the first photographs after the crash. The collapsed area and subsequent fire damage USA Today reporter Mike Walter was driving on Washington Boulevard when he witnessed the crash, which he recounted, "I looked out my window and I saw this plane, this jet, an American Airlines jet, coming. And I thought, 'This doesn't add up, it's really low.' And I saw it. I mean it was like a cruise missile with wings. It went right there and slammed right into the Pentagon". Terrance Kean, who lived in a nearby apartment building, heard the noise of loud jet engines, glanced out his window, and saw a "very, very large passenger jet". He watched "it just plow right into the side of the Pentagon. The nose penetrated into the portico. And then it sort of disappeared, and there was fire and smoke everywhere." AP reporter Dave Winslow recounted, "I saw the tail of a large airliner ... It plowed right into the Pentagon." Tim Timmerman, who is a pilot himself, noticed American Airlines markings on the aircraft as he saw it hit the Pentagon. Other drivers on Washington Boulevard, Interstate 395, and Columbia Pike witnessed the crash, as did people in Pentagon City, Crystal City, and other nearby locations. Flight 77, together with Birgenair Flight 301, has the highest death toll of any aviation accident involving a Boeing 757 anywhere in the world. Rescue and recovery "In this area … it's so hot that the debris is melting and dripping off the ceiling onto your skin and it would sear your skin and melt your uniform. We went a little farther, turned a corner and came into this bombed out office space that was a roaring inferno of destruction and smoke and flames and intense heat you could feel searing your face." Lieutenant Commander David Tarantino describing the scene near the Navy Command Center on the first floor. Goldberg et al., pp. 55–56. Rescue efforts began immediately after the crash. Almost all the successful rescues of survivors occurred within half an hour of the impact. Goldberg et al., p. 51. Initially, rescue efforts were led by the military and civilian employees within the building. Within minutes, the first fire companies arrived and found these volunteers searching near the impact site. The firemen ordered them to leave as they were not properly equipped or trained to deal with the hazards. The Arlington County Fire Department (ACFD) assumed command of the immediate rescue operation within 10 minutes of the crash. ACFD Assistant Chief James Schwartz implemented the Incident Command System (ICS) to coordinate response efforts among multiple agencies. Goldberg et al., p. 72. It took about an hour for the ICS structure to become fully operational. Goldberg et al., p. 77. Firefighters from Fort Myer and Reagan National arrived within minutes. Goldberg et al., p. 78. Rescue and firefighting efforts were impeded by rumors of additional incoming planes. Chief Schwartz ordered two evacuations during the day in response to these rumors. Goldberg et al., pp. 80–82. Injured victim of the 9/11 attack on the Pentagon Building being loaded onto an ambulance. As firefighters attempted to extinguish the fires, they watched the building in fear of a structural collapse. One firefighter remarked that they "pretty much knew the building was going to collapse because it started making weird sounds and creaking". Officials saw a cornice of the building move and ordered an evacuation. Minutes later, at 10:15, the upper floors of the damaged area of the Pentagon collapsed. The collapse area was about at its widest point and at its deepest. This amount of time between impact and collapse allowed everyone on the fourth and fifth levels to evacuate safely before the structure collapsed. Goldberg et al., p. 20. After the collapse, the interior fires intensified, spreading through all five floors. Goldberg et al., pp. 86–90. After 11:00, firefighters mounted a two-pronged attack against the fires. Officials estimated temperatures of up to . While progress was made against the interior fires by late afternoon, firefighters realized a flammable layer of wood under the Pentagon's slate roof had caught fire and begun to spread. Goldberg et al., pp. 91–95. Typical firefighting tactics were rendered useless by the reinforced structure as firefighters were unable to reach the fire to extinguish it. Firefighters instead made firebreaks in the roof on September 12 to prevent any further spreading. At 18:00 on the 12th, Arlington County issued a press release stating the fire was "controlled" but not fully "extinguished". Firefighters continued to put out smaller fires that ignited in the succeeding days. Various pieces of aircraft debris were found within the wreckage at the Pentagon. While evacuating the Navy Command Center, Lt. Kevin Shaeffer came across the aircraft's nose cone and landing gear in the service road between rings B and C. Early in the morning on Friday, September 14, Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue Team members and Brian Moravitz came across an "intact seat from the plane's cockpit", while FBI and NTSB investigators located the two black boxes near the punch out hole in the A-E drive, nearly into the building. The cockpit voice recorder was too badly damaged and charred to retrieve any information, though the flight data recorder yielded useful information. In addition to aircraft debris, investigators also found a part of Nawaf al-Hazmi's identification card. Personal effects belonging to passengers and office workers were also found, and taken to Fort Myer. Remains Diagram of body fragments found in the Pentagon Army engineers determined by 17:30 on the first day that no one remained alive in the damaged section of the building. Goldberg et al., p. 97. In the days after the crash, news reports emerged that up to 800 people had died. Army troops from Fort Belvoir were the first teams to survey the interior of the crash site and noted the presence of human remains. Goldberg et al., p. 119. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Urban Search and Rescue teams, including Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue assisted the search for remains, working through the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS). Kevin Rimrodt, a Navy photographer surveying the Navy Command Center after the attacks, remarked that "there were so many bodies, I'd almost step on them. So I'd have to really take care to look backwards as I'm backing up in the dark, looking with a flashlight, making sure I'm not stepping on somebody". Goldberg et al., pp. 121–122. Debris from the Pentagon were taken to the Pentagon's north parking lot for more detailed search for remains and evidence. Remains recovered from the Pentagon were turned over to the Armed Forces Medical Examiner office, located at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware. The medical examiner's office was able to identify remains belonging to 179 of the victims. Investigators eventually identified 184 of the 189 people who died in the attack. The remains of the five hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, and were turned over as evidence to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). On September 21, the ACFD relinquished control of the crime scene to the FBI. The Washington Field Office, National Capital Response Squad (NCRS), and the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) led the crime scene investigation at the Pentagon. By October 2, 2001, the search for evidence and remains was complete and the site was turned over to Pentagon officials. In 2002, the remains of twenty-five victims were buried collectively at Arlington National Cemetery, with a five-sided granite marker inscribed with the names of all the victims in the Pentagon. The ceremony also honored the five victims whose remains were never found. Continuity of operations At the moment of impact, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was in his office on the other side of the Pentagon, away from the crash site. He ran to the site and assisted the injured. Rumsfeld then returned to his office, and went to a conference room in the Executive Support Center where he joined a secure videoteleconference with Vice President Dick Cheney and other officials. On the day of the attacks, Department of Defense officials considered moving command operations to Site R, a backup facility in Pennsylvania. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld insisted he remain at the Pentagon, instead sending Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz to Site R. The National Military Command Center (NMCC) continued to operate at the Pentagon, even with smoke getting into the facility. Engineers and building managers manipulated the ventilation and other building systems that still functioned to draw smoke out of the NMCC and bring in fresh air. Creed and Newman, p. 278 During a press conference held inside the Pentagon at 18:42, Rumsfeld announced "The Pentagon's functioning. It will be in business tomorrow." Pentagon employees returned the next day to offices in areas of the Pentagon mostly unaffected. By the end of September, more workers returned to the lightly damaged areas of the Pentagon. Aftermath Damaged section of the Pentagon under construction Early estimates on rebuilding the damaged section of the Pentagon were that it would take three years to complete. However, the project moved forward at an accelerated pace and was completed by the one-year anniversary. The rebuilt section of the Pentagon includes a small indoor memorial and chapel at the point of impact. An outdoor memorial, designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman, was completed on schedule for dedication on September 11, 2008. In keeping with standard airline procedure after disasters, the flight number was changed after the incident. American's morning flight from Dulles to Los Angeles is now Flight 149. American Airlines Security camera video Flight 77 crashes into the Pentagon. On May 16, 2006, the Department of Defense released filmed footage that was recorded by a security camera of American Airlines Flight 77 crashing into the Pentagon, with a plane visible in one frame, as a "thin white blur" and an explosion following. The images were made public in response to a December 2004 Freedom of Information Act request by Judicial Watch. Some still images from the video had previously been released and publicly circulated, but this was the first official release of the full video of the crash. A nearby Citgo gas station also had security cameras, but this video released on September 15, 2006 did not show the crash because it was pointed away. The Doubletree hotel, located nearby in Crystal City, Virginia, also had a security camera video, and on December 4, 2006 the FBI released the video in response to a freedom of information lawsuit filed by Scott Bingham. The footage is "grainy and the focus is soft, but a rapidly growing tower of smoke is visible in the distance on the upper edge of the frame as the plane crashes into the building". Conspiracy theories The 9/11 attacks have spawned a number of conspiracy theories challenging the mainstream account. One of the best-known theories was put forward by Thierry Meyssan which contends that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757, but by a missile launched by the American military. Proponents say that the hole is too small to account for an aircraft with a wingspan of . Mete Sozen, a member of the ASCE team onsite after the crash, explained that an airplane does not create a "cartoon-like outline of itself" when crashing into a reinforced concrete building. Conspiracy advocates also point to other minutiae such as small amount of debris or the condition of grass on the lawn. The documentary film Loose Change asserts that there were no discernible pieces of debris from Flight 77. Blast expert Allyn E. Kilsheimer was the first structural engineer to arrive at the Pentagon after the crash and helped coordinate the emergency response. He states that Flight 77 "was absolutely a plane. I saw the marks of the plane wing on the face of the building. I picked up parts of the plane with the airline markings on them. I held in my hand the tail section of the plane, and I found the black box." In addition, Kilsheimer's account is supported by the photos of plane wreckage inside and outside the building. The Sheraton National Hotel may have recorded footage of the events that happened at the Pentagon however, the FBI seized a CCTV recording. They had also hastily seized footage from several other private businesses in the area that claimed they had filmed the events. 9-11 Research: Pentagon Attack Footage |url=http://911research.wtc7.net/pentagon/evidence/footage.html See also American Airlines Flight 11 United Airlines Flight 175 United Airlines Flight 93 References External links Arlington County After-Action Report - Arlington County Fire Department, July 23, 2002 Picture of Aircraft Pre 9-11 Archive of American Airlines site – explaining that all aircraft are accounted for (September 11, 2001) Archive of American Airlines site with condolences for deceased (September 12, 2001) Victims of American Airlines Flight 77 | American_Airlines_Flight_77 |@lemmatized american:24 airline:34 flight:57 third:2 hijack:10 part:4 september:14 attack:12 deliberately:1 crash:26 pentagon:62 scheduled:1 u:2 domestic:1 washington:10 dull:1 international:7 airport:9 near:7 c:6 los:3 angeles:3 five:10 islamic:2 terrorist:1 less:1 minute:14 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6,863 | Joseph_Conrad | Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, 3 December 1857 – 3 August 1924) was a Polish-born British novelist, writing in English, while living in England. Many critics regard him as one of the greatest novelists in the English language, Morton Dauwen Zabel, "Conrad, Joseph", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed., vol. 7, p. 606. despite his not having learned to speak English fluently until he was in his twenties (and then always with a strong Polish accent). He became a naturalized British subject in 1886. He wrote stories and novels, predominantly with a nautical setting, that depicted the heroism of faith before the imperatives of duty, social responsibility and honor. Conrad is recognized as a master prose stylist. Some of his works have a strain of romanticism, but more importantly he is recognized as an important forerunner of modernist literature. His narrative style and anti-heroic characters have influenced many writers, including Ernest Hemingway, D. H. Lawrence, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Graham Greene, Malcolm Lowry, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, V.S. Naipaul, Italo Calvino, Hunter S. Thompson, and J. M. Coetzee. Literacka Nagroda Nobla (Nobel Literature Prize), "John Maxwell Coetzee (2003)." Conrad's novels and stories have also inspired such films as Sabotage (1936, directed by Alfred Hitchcock, adapted from Conrad's The Secret Agent); Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979, adapted from Conrad's Heart of Darkness); The Duellists (a 1977 Ridley Scott adaptation of Conrad's The Duel, from A Set of Six); and a 1996 film inspired by The Secret Agent, starring Bob Hoskins, Patricia Arquette and Gérard Depardieu. Writing during the apex of the British Empire, Conrad drew upon his experiences serving in the French and later the British Merchant Navy to create novels and short stories that reflected aspects of a worldwide empire while also plumbing the depths of the human soul. Early life Joseph Conrad was born in Berdyczów (now Berdychiv, Ukraine) into an impoverished, highly patriotic Polish noble family bearing the Nałęcz coat-of-arms. His father Apollo Korzeniowski was a writer of politically-themed plays and a translator of Alfred de Vigny, Victor Hugo, Charles Dickens and Shakespeare from the French and English. He encouraged his son Konrad to read widely in Polish and French. In 1861 the elder Korzeniowski was arrested by Imperial Russian authorities in Warsaw for helping organize what would become the January Uprising of 1863–64, and was exiled to Vologda, a city with a very harsh climate, some north of Moscow. His wife Ewelina Polish for "Eveline." Korzeniowska (née Bobrowska) and four-year-old son followed him into exile. Due to Ewelina's weak health, Apollo was allowed in 1865 to move to Chernihiv, Ukraine, where wıthin a few weeks Ewelina died of tuberculosis. Apollo died four years later in Kraków, leaving Conrad orphaned at the age of eleven. In Kraków, young Conrad was placed in the care of his maternal uncle, Tadeusz Bobrowski—a more cautious figure than his parents. Nevertheless, Bobrowski allowed Conrad to travel at the age of 16 to Marseille and begin a career as a seaman. This came after Conrad had been rejected for Austro-Hungarian citizenship, leaving him liable to conscription into the Russian Army. Voyages Conrad lived an adventurous life, dabbling in gunrunning and political conspiracy, which he later fictionalized in his novel The Arrow of Gold. Apparently he experienced a disastrous love affair that plunged him into despair. A voyage down the coast of Venezuela would provide material for Nostromo; the first mate of Conrad's vessel became the model for that novel's hero. In 1878, after a failed suicide attempt in Marseille by shooting himself in the chest, Conrad took service on his first British ship, bound for Constantinople before its return to Lowestoft, his first landing in Britain. Barely a month after reaching England, Conrad signed on for the first of six voyages between July and September 1878 from Lowestoft to Newcastle on a coaster misleadingly named Skimmer of the Sea. Crucially for his future career, he "began to learn English from East Coast chaps, each built to last for ever and coloured like a Christmas card." In London on 21 September 1881 Conrad set sail for Newcastle as second mate on the small vessel Palestine (13 hands) to pick up a cargo of 557 tons of "West Hartley" coal bound for Bangkok. From the outset, things went wrong. A gale hampered progress (sixteen days to the Tyne), then the Palestine had to wait a month for a berth and was finally rammed by a steam vessel. At the turn of the year, Palestine sailed from the Tyne. The ship sprang a leak in the English Channel and was stuck in Falmouth, Cornwall, for a further nine months. After all these misfortunes, Conrad wrote, "Poor old Captain Beard looked like a ghost of a Geordie skipper." The ship set sail from Falmouth on 17 September 1882 and reached the Sunda Strait in March 1883. Finally, off Java Head, the cargo ignited and fire engulfed the ship. The crew, including Conrad, reached shore safely in open boats. The ship is re-named Judaea in Conrad's famous story Youth, which covers all these events. This voyage from the Tyne was Conrad's first fateful contact with the exotic East, the setting for many of his later works. In 1886 he gained both his Master Mariner's certificate and British citizenship, officially changing his name to "Joseph Conrad." Prior to his retirement from the sea in 1894, Conrad served a total of sixteen years in the merchant navy. In 1883 he joined the Narcissus in Bombay, a voyage that inspired his 1897 novel The Nigger of the Narcissus. A childhood ambition to visit central Africa was realised in 1889, when Conrad contrived to reach the Congo Free State. He became captain of a Congo steamboat, and the atrocities he witnessed and his experiences there not only informed his most acclaimed and ambiguous work, Heart of Darkness, but served to crystallise his vision of human nature — and his beliefs about himself. These were in some measure affected by the emotional trauma and lifelong illness he contracted there. During his stay, he became acquainted with Roger Casement, whose 1904 Congo Report detailed the abuses suffered by the indigenous population. The journey upriver that the book's narrator, Charles Marlow, made closely follows Conrad's own, and he appears to have experienced a disturbing insight into the nature of evil. Conrad's experience of loneliness at sea, of corruption and of the pitilessness of nature converged to form a coherent, if bleak, vision of the world. Isolation, self-deception, and the remorseless working out of the consequences of character flaws are threads running through much of his work. Conrad's own sense of loneliness throughout his exile's life would find memorable expression in the 1901 short story, "Amy Foster." In 1891, Conrad stepped down in rank to sail as first mate on the Torrens, quite possibly the finest ship ever launched from a Sunderland yard (James Laing's Deptford Yard, 1875). For fifteen years (1875–90), no ship approached her speed for the outward passage to Australia. On her record-breaking run to Adelaide, she covered 16,000 miles in 64 days. Conrad writes of her: "A ship of brilliant qualities - the way the ship had of letting big seas slip under her did one's heart good to watch. It resembled so much an exhibition of intelligent grace and unerring skill that it could fascinate even the least seamanlike of our passengers." Conrad made two voyages to Australia aboard her, but in 1894 he had parted from the sea for ever and embarked upon his literary career—having begun writing his first novel Almayer's Folly on board the Torrens. In March 1896 Conrad married an Englishwoman, Jessie George, and together they moved into a small semi-detached villa in Victoria Road, Stanford-le-Hope and later to a medieval lath-and-plaster farmhouse, "Ivy Walls," in Billet Lane. He subsequently lived in London and near Canterbury, Kent. The couple had two sons, John and Borys. Emotional development Roi des Belges—the ship that Conrad sailed up the Congo River A further insight into Conrad's emotional life is provided by an episode which inspired one of his strangest and least known stories, "A Smile of Fortune." In September 1888 he put into Mauritius, as captain of the sailing barque Otago. His story likewise recounts the arrival of an unnamed English sea captain in a sailing vessel, come for sugar. He encounters "the old French families, descendants of the old colonists; all noble, all impoverished, and living a narrow domestic life in dull, dignified decay. (...) The girls are almost always pretty, ignorant of the world, kind and agreeable and generally bilingual. The emptiness of their existence passes belief." The tale describes Jacobus, an affable gentleman chandler beset by hidden shame. Extramarital passion for the bareback rider of a visiting circus had resulted in a child and scandal. For eighteen years this daughter, Alice, has been confined to Jacobus's house, seeing no one but a governess. When Conrad's captain is invited to the house of Jacobus, he is irresistibly drawn to the wild, beautiful Alice. "For quite a time she did not stir, staring straight before her as if watching the vision of some pageant passing through the garden in the deep, rich glow of light and the splendour of flowers." The suffering of Alice Jacobus was true enough. A copy of the Dictionary of Mauritian Biography unearthed by the scholar Zdzisław Najder reveals that her character was a fictionalised version of seventeen-year-old Alice Shaw, whose father was a shipping agent and owned the only rose garden in the town. While it is evident that Conrad too fell in love while in Mauritius, it was not with Alice. His proposal to young Eugénie Renouf was declined, the lady being already engaged. Conrad left broken-hearted, vowing never to return. Something of his feelings is considered to permeate the recollections of the captain. "I was seduced by the moody expression of her face, by her obstinate silences, her rare, scornful words; by the perpetual pout of her closed lips, the black depths of her fixed gaze turned slowly upon me as if in contemptuous provocation." Later life and death In 1894, aged 36, Conrad reluctantly gave up the sea, partly because of poor health and partly because he had become so fascinated with writing that he decided on a literary career. His first novel, Almayer's Folly, set on the east coast of Borneo, was published in 1895. Together with its successor, An Outcast of the Islands (1896), it laid the foundation for Conrad's reputation as a romantic teller of exotic tales, a misunderstanding of his purpose that was to frustrate him for the rest of his career. Except for several vacations in France and Italy, a 1914 journey to Poland, and a 1923 visit to the United States, he lived the rest of his life in England. Financial success evaded Conrad, though a Civil List pension of £100 per annum stabilised his affairs, and collectors began to purchase his manuscripts. Though his talent was recognized by the English intellectual elite, popular success eluded him until the 1913 publication of Chance—paradoxically, as that novel is not now regarded as one of his better ones. Conrad's coat-of-arms Thereafter, for the remaining years of his life, Conrad was the subject of more discussion and praise than any other English writer of the time. Although the quality of his work declined, he enjoyed increasing wealth and status. Conrad had a true genius for companionship, and his circle of friends included talented authors such as Stephen Crane and Henry James. In the early 1900s he composed a short series of novels in collaboration with Ford Madox Ford. Collaborative Literature In April 1924 Conrad, who possessed a hereditary Polish status of nobility and coat-of-arms (Nałęcz), Zdzisław Najder: Conrad - Polak, żeglarz, pisarz, Toruń, UMK. Wydaw., 1996, ISBN 8323107785 declined a (non-hereditary) British knighthood offered by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. Shortly after, on 3 August 1924, Conrad died of a heart attack. He was interred at Canterbury Cemetery, Canterbury, England, under his original Polish surname, Korzeniowski. Style Conrad, an emotional man subject to fits of depression, self-doubt and pessimism, disciplined his romantic temperament with an unsparing moral judgment. As an artist, he famously aspired, in his preface to The Nigger of the 'Narcissus' (1897), "by the power of the written word to make you hear, to make you feel... before all, to make you see. That — and no more, and it is everything. If I succeed, you shall find there according to your deserts: encouragement, consolation, fear, charm — all you demand — and, perhaps, also that glimpse of truth for which you have forgotten to ask." Writing in what to the visual arts was the age of Impressionism, Conrad showed himself in many of his works a prose poet of the highest order: thus, for instance, in the evocative Patna and courtroom scenes of Lord Jim; in the "melancholy-mad elephant" and gunboat scenes of Heart of Darkness; in the doubled protagonists of The Secret Sharer; and in the verbal and conceptual resonances of Nostromo and The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'. The singularity of the universe depicted in Conrad's novels, especially compared to those of near-contemporaries like John Galsworthy, is such as to open him to criticism similar to that later applied to Graham Greene. Regions of the Mind: the Exoticism of Greeneland; Andrew Purssell, University of London But where "Greeneland" has been characterised as a recurring and recognisable atmosphere independent of setting, Conrad is at pains to create a sense of place, be it aboard ship or in a remote village. Often he chose to have his characters play out their destinies in isolated or confined circumstances. In the view of Evelyn Waugh and Kingsley Amis, it was not until the first volumes of Anthony Powell's sequence, A Dance to the Music of Time, were published in the 1950s, that an English novelist achieved the same command of atmosphere and precision of language with consistency, a view supported by present-day critics like A. N. Wilson. This is the more remarkable, given that English was Conrad's third language. Powell acknowledged his debt to Conrad. Conrad's third language remained inescapably under the influence of his first two — Polish and French. This makes his English seem unusual. It was perhaps from Polish and French prose styles that he adopted a fondness for triple parallelism, especially in his early works ("all that mysterious life of the wilderness that stirs in the forest, in the jungles, in the hearts of wild men"), as well as for rhetorical abstraction ("It was the stillness of an implacable force brooding over an inscrutable intention"). T. E. Lawrence, one of many writers whom Conrad befriended, offered some perceptive observations about Conrad's writing: He's absolutely the most haunting thing in prose that ever was: I wish I knew how every paragraph he writes (...they are all paragraphs: he seldom writes a single sentence...) goes on sounding in waves, like the note of a tenor bell, after it stops. It's not built in the rhythm of ordinary prose, but on something existing only in his head, and as he can never say what it is he wants to say, all his things end in a kind of hunger, a suggestion of something he can't say or do or think. So his books always look bigger than they are. He's as much a giant of the subjective as Kipling is of the objective. Do they hate one another? Jeffrey Meyers, Joseph Conrad: a Biography, p. 343. In Conrad's time, literary critics, while usually commenting favourably on his works, often remarked that his exotic style, complex narration, profound themes and pessimistic ideas put many readers off. Yet as Conrad's ideas were borne out by 20th-century events, in due course he came to be admired for beliefs that seemed to accord with subsequent times more closely than with his own. Conrad's was, indeed, a starkly lucid view of the human condition — a vision similar to that which had been offered in two micro-stories by his ten-years-older Polish compatriot, Bolesław Prus (whose work Conrad admired): "Mold of the Earth" (1884) and "Shades" (1885). Conrad wrote: Faith is a myth and beliefs shift like mists on the shore; thoughts vanish; words, once pronounced, die; and the memory of yesterday is as shadowy as the hope of to-morrow.... In this world — as I have known it — we are made to suffer without the shadow of a reason, of a cause or of guilt.... There is no morality, no knowledge and no hope; there is only the consciousness of ourselves which drives us about a world that... is always but a vain and floating appearance.... A moment, a twinkling of an eye and nothing remains — but a clot of mud, of cold mud, of dead mud cast into black space, rolling around an extinguished sun. Nothing. Neither thought, nor sound, nor soul. Nothing. Jeffrey Meyers, Joseph Conrad: a Biography, p. 166. Conrad is the novelist of man in extreme situations. "Those who read me," he wrote in the preface to A Personal Record, "know my conviction that the world, the temporal world, rests on a few very simple ideas; so simple that they must be as old as the hills. It rests, notably, among others, on the idea of Fidelity." For Conrad fidelity is the barrier man erects against nothingness, against corruption, against the evil that is all about him, insidious, waiting to engulf him, and that in some sense is within him unacknowledged. But what happens when fidelity is submerged, the barrier broken down, and the evil without is acknowledged by the evil within? At his greatest, that is Conrad's theme. Criticism In 1975, Chinua Achebe published an essay, "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness'," wherein he labeled Conrad a "thoroughgoing racist." The essay set off a storm of controversy regarding Conrad's legacy. Achebe's point of view is that Heart of Darkness cannot be considered "a great work of art" because it is "a novel which celebrates... dehumanization, which depersonalizes a portion of the human race." Referring to Conrad as a "talented, tormented man," Achebe drew on several instances of apparent racism in Conrad's writings in which the author derided "niggers" as variously "unreasoning," "savage" and "inscrutable." Conrad's advocates, however, in defending his reputation and the ongoing value of his work, have reproached Achebe with disregarding the "historical context" of Conrad's work. Two Readings of Heart of Darkness at www.qub.ac.uk Citing Heart of Darkness, Conrad's advocates have also noted that he refers to the rhetorically noble aims of European colonialists sardonically, thus illustrating his cynicism of the presumption that white men are inherently virtuous—the popular sentiment of his day. This is a central theme of the novel itself. The character Charles Marlow's experiences in Africa expose the brutal reality of colonialism and the falseness of the rationalisations given for it. Ending a passage describing the condition of chained, emaciated slave workers, Conrad remarks, "After all, I also was a part of the great cause of these high and just proceedings." Legacy Of Conrad's novels, Lord Jim and Nostromo continue to be widely read, as set texts and for pleasure. The Secret Agent and Under Western Eyes are also considered to be among his finest books. Arguably Conrad's most influential work remains Heart of Darkness, to which many have been introduced by Francis Ford Coppola's film, Apocalypse Now, inspired by Conrad's novella and set during the Vietnam War. The themes of Heart of Darkness, and the depiction of a journey into the darkness of the human psyche, still resonate with modern readers. Memorials Poland's Baltic Sea coast at Gdynia features an anchor-shaped monument to Conrad. In Circular Quay, Sydney, Australia a plaque is in a writers walk: image http://z.about.com/d/goaustralia/1/0/G/Y/josephconrad.jpg In San Francisco, California, in 1979, a small triangular square at Columbus Avenue and Beach Street, near Fisherman's Wharf, was dedicated as "Joseph Conrad Square" after Conrad, who had twice visited San Francisco. Notwithstanding the undoubted sufferings that Conrad endured on many of his voyages, he contrived to put up at the best lodgings at many of his destinations. Hotels across the Far East still lay claim to him as an honoured guest, often naming the rooms he stayed in after him: in the case of Singapore's Raffles Hotel, the wrong suite has been named in his honour, apparently for marketing reasons. His visits to Bangkok are also lodged in that city's collective memory, and are recorded in the official history of the Oriental Hotel, along with that of a less well-behaved guest, Somerset Maugham, who pilloried the hotel in a short story in revenge for attempts to eject him. Conrad is also reported to have stayed at Hong Kong's Peninsula Hotel. Later literary admirers, notably Graham Greene, followed closely in his footsteps, sometimes requesting the same room. No Caribbean resort is yet known to have claimed Conrad's patronage, although he is believed to have stayed at a Fort-de-France pension upon arrival in Martinique on his first voyage, in 1875, when he travelled as a passenger on the Mont Blanc. Novels Anchor-shaped Conrad monument at Gdynia, on Poland's Baltic Sea coast Almayer's Folly (1895) An Outcast of the Islands (1896) The Nigger of the 'Narcissus' (1897) Heart of Darkness (1899) Lord Jim (1900) The Inheritors (with Ford Madox Ford) (1901) Typhoon (1902, begun 1899) Romance (with Ford Madox Ford, 1903) Nostromo (1904) The Secret Agent (1907) Under Western Eyes (1911) Chance (1913) Victory (1915) The Shadow Line (1917) The Arrow of Gold (1919) The Rescue (1920) The Nature of a Crime (1923, with Ford Madox Ford) The Rover (1923) Suspense: a Napoleonic Novel (1925; unfinished, published posthumously) Novellas, short stories "The Idiots" (Conrad's first short story; written during his honeymoon, published in Savo 1896 and collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898). "The Black Mate" (written, according to Conrad, in 1886; published 1908; posthumously collected in Tales of Hearsay, 1925). "The Lagoon" (composed 1896; published in Cornhill Magazine 1897; collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898). "An Outpost of Progress" (written 1896 and named in 1906 by Conrad himself, long after the publication of Lord Jim and Heart of Darkness, as his 'best story'; published in Cosmopolis 1897 and collected in Tales of Unrest 1898; often compared to Heart of Darkness, with which it has numerous thematic affinities). "The Return" (written circa early 1897; never published in magazine form; collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898; Conrad, presaging the sentiments of most readers, once remarked, "I hate it"). "Karain: A Memory" (written February–April 1897; published November 1897 in Blackwood's and collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898). "Youth" (written in 1898; collected in Youth, a Narrative and Two Other Stories, 1902) "Falk" (novella/story, written in early 1901; collected only in Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903). "Amy Foster" (composed in 1901; published the Illustrated London News, December 1901 and collected in Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903). "To-morrow" (written early 1902; serialized in Pall Mall Magazine, 1902 and collected in Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903). "The End of the Tether" (written in 1902; collected in Youth, a Narrative and Two Other Stories, 1902) "Gaspar Ruiz" (written after "Nostromo" in 1904–05; published in Strand Magazine in 1906 and collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US. This story was the only piece of Conrad's fiction ever adapted by the author for cinema, as Gaspar the Strong Man, 1920). "An Anarchist" (written in late 1905; serialized in Harper's in 1906; collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.) "The Informer" (written before January 1906; published in December 1906 in Harper's and collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.) "The Brute" (written in early 1906; published in The Daily Chronicle in December 1906; collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.) "The Duel" (aka "The Point of Honor": serialized in the UK in Pall Mall Magazine in early 1908 and in the US periodical Forum later that year; collected in A Set of Six in 1908 and published by Garden City Publishing in 1924. Joseph Fouché makes a cameo appearance) "Il Conde" (i.e., 'Conte' [count]: appeared in Cassell's [UK] 1908 and Hampton's [US] in 1909; collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.) "The Secret Sharer" (written December 1909; published in Harper's in 1910 and collected in ’Twixt Land and Sea 1912) "Prince Roman" (written 1910, published in 1911 in the Oxford and Cambridge Review; based upon the story of Prince Roman Sanguszko of Poland 1800–1881) "A Smile of Fortune" (a long story, almost a novella, written in mid-1910; published in London Magazine in February 1911; collected in ’Twixt Land and Sea 1912) "Freya of the Seven Isles" (another near-novella, written late 1910–early 1911; published in Metropolitan Magazine and London Magazine in early 1912 and July 1912, respectively; collected in ’Twixt Land and Sea 1912) "The Partner" (written in 1911; published in Within the Tides, 1915) "The Inn of the Two Witches" (written in 1913; published in Within the Tides, 1915) "Because of the Dollars" (written in 1914; published in Within the Tides, 1915) "The Planter of Malata" (written in 1914; published in Within the Tides, 1915) "The Warrior's Soul" (written late 1915–early 1916; published in Land and Water, in March 1917; collected in Tales of Hearsay, 1925) "The Tale" (Conrad's only story about World War I; written 1916 and first published 1917 in Strand Magazine) Memoirs, essays The Mirror of the Sea (collection of autobiographical essays first published in various magazines 1904–6 ), 1906 A Personal Record (also published as Some Reminiscences), 1912 Notes on Life and Letters, 1921 Last Essays, 1926 See also List of works by Joseph Conrad Bolesław Prus ORP Conrad – a World War II Polish Navy cruiser named after Joseph Conrad. King Leopold's Ghost Politics in fiction List of Poles Notes References Tim Butcher: Blood River - A Journey To Africa's Broken Heart, 2007. ISBN 0-701-17981-3. Jeffrey Meyers, Joseph Conrad: a Biography, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1991. Zdzisław Najder, Conrad under Familial Eyes, Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-521-25082-X. Zdzisław Najder, Joseph Conrad: a Life, translated by Halina Najder, Rochester, Camden House, 2007, ISBN 157113347X. J.H. Stape, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Joseph Conrad, Cambridge University Press, 2006. John Stape. The Several Lives of Joseph Conrad, Pantheon, 2008, ISBN 1400044499. T. Scovel, A Time to Speak: a Psycholinguistic Inquiry into the Critical Period for Human Speech, Cambridge, MA, Newbury House, 1988. Morton Dauwen Zabel, "Conrad, Joseph," Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed., ISBN 0-7172-0117-1, vol. 7, pp. 606–7. External links Sources Works by or about Joseph Conrad at Internet Archive and Google Books (scanned books original editions color illustrated) (plain text and HTML) Works by Joseph Conrad at The Online Books Page (various) Works by Joseph Conrad at LibriVox (audio books) Works by Joseph Conrad at Books In My Phone (cell phone) Works by Joseph Conrad at Conrad First, an archive of every newspaper and magazine in which the work of Joseph Conrad was first published. Portals and biographies The Joseph Conrad Society (U.K) Biography of Joseph Conrad, at The Joseph Conrad Centre of Poland Biography of Joseph Conrad, at The Literature Network Literary criticism Conrad's page at Literary Journal.com, a number of research articles on Conrad's work Chinua Achebe: The Lecture Heard Around The World Misc Find-A-Grave profile for Joseph Conrad | Joseph_Conrad |@lemmatized joseph:27 conrad:113 born:2 józef:1 teodor:1 konrad:2 korzeniowski:4 december:5 august:2 polish:11 british:7 novelist:4 write:33 english:12 living:1 england:4 many:9 critic:3 regard:3 one:8 great:4 language:4 morton:2 dauwen:2 zabel:2 encyclopedia:2 americana:2 ed:3 vol:2 p:3 despite:1 learn:2 speak:2 fluently:1 twenty:1 always:4 strong:2 accent:1 become:6 naturalized:1 subject:3 story:22 novel:16 predominantly:1 nautical:1 setting:1 depict:2 heroism:1 faith:2 imperative:1 duty:1 social:1 responsibility:1 honor:2 recognize:3 master:2 prose:5 stylist:1 work:22 strain:1 romanticism:1 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6,864 | Battle_of_Agincourt | The Battle of Agincourt was an English victory against a much larger French army in the Hundred Years' War. The battle occurred on Friday 25 October 1415 (Saint Crispin's Day) Dates in the fifteenth century are difficult to reconcile with modern calendars: see Barker (2005) pp.226–7 for the way the date of the battle was established , in northern France. Henry V's victory started a new period in the war, in which Henry married the French King's daughter and his son was made heir to the throne of France, but his achievement was squandered by his heirs. The French king of the time was Charles VI; however, he did not command the French army himself as he was incapacitated. Instead the French were commanded by Constable Charles d'Albret and various prominent French noblemen of the Armagnac party. The battle is notable for the use of the English longbow, which Henry used in very large numbers, with longbowmen forming the vast majority of his army. The battle is the centrepiece of the play Henry V, by William Shakespeare. Campaign Henry V invaded following the failure of negotiations with the French. He claimed the title of King of France through his great-grandfather Edward III, although in practice the English kings were generally prepared to renounce this claim if the French would acknowledge their claim on Aquitaine and other French lands (the terms of the Treaty of Bretigny). Barker, 2005, p. 13 He initially called a great council in the spring of 1414 to discuss going to war with France, but the lords insisted that he should negotiate further and moderate his claims. In the following negotiations Henry said that he would give up his claim to the French throne if the French would pay the 1.6 million crowns outstanding from the ransom of John II (who had been captured at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356), and the lands of Normandy, Touraine, Anjou, Brittany and Flanders, as well as Aquitaine. Henry would marry Princess Catherine, the young daughter of Charles VI, and receive a dowry of 2 million crowns. The French responded with what they considered the generous terms of marriage with Princess Catherine, a dowry of 600,000 crowns, and an enlarged Aquitaine. By 1415 negotiations had ground to a halt, with the English claiming that the French had mocked their claims and ridiculed Henry himself. Barker, 2005, pp. 67–69 In December 1414, the English parliament was persuaded to grant Henry a "double subsidy", a tax at twice the traditional rate, to recover his inheritance from the French. On 19 April 1415, Henry again asked the great council to sanction war with France, and this time they agreed. Barker, 2005, p.107 and p.114 Morning of the Battle of Agincourt, 25th October 1415 Henry's army landed in northern France on 13 August 1415 and besieged the port of Harfleur with an army of about 12,000. The siege took longer than expected. The town surrendered on 22 September, and the English army did not leave until 8 October. The campaign season was coming to an end, and the English army had suffered many casualties through disease. Henry decided to move most of his army (roughly 7,000) to the port of Calais, the English stronghold in northern France, where they could re-equip over the winter. During the siege, the French had raised an army which assembled around Rouen. This was not a feudal army, as sometimes has been said, but an army paid through a system very similar to the English. The French hoped to raise 9,000 troops, but the army was not ready in time to relieve Harfleur. Then after Henry V marched to the north, the French moved to blockade them along the River Somme. They were successful for a time, forcing Henry to move south, away from Calais, to find a ford. The English finally crossed the Somme south of Péronne, at Béthencourt and Voyennes and resumed marching north. Without the river protection, the French were hesitant to force a battle. They shadowed Henry's army while calling a semonce des nobles, calling on local nobles to join the army. By October 24 both armies faced each other for battle, but the French declined, hoping for the arrival of more troops. The next day the French initiated negotiations as a delaying tactic, but Henry ordered his army to advance and to start a battle that, given the state of his army, he would have preferred to avoid. The English had very little food, had marched 260 miles in two-and-a-half weeks, were suffering from sickness such as dysentery, and faced much larger numbers of well equipped French men at arms. However Henry needed to get to the safety of Calais, and knew if he waited, the French would get more reinforcements. The French suffered a catastrophic defeat, not just in terms of the sheer numbers killed, but also because of the number of high-ranking nobles lost. It took several years more campaigning, but Henry was eventually able to fulfil all his objectives. He was recognised by the French in the Treaty of Troyes (1420) as the regent and heir to the French throne. This was cemented by his marriage to Catherine of Valois, the daughter of King Charles VI. Battle King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415 Situation Henry V and his troops were marching to Calais to embark for England when he was intercepted by French forces which outnumbered his. English effectiveness and readiness was questionable as a result of their prior manoeuvres consisting of an 18 day march across 250 miles of hostile territory under constant harassment. They suffered from dysentery and exhaustion, and were further hampered by inclement weather. The lack of reliable and consistent sources makes it very difficult to accurately estimate the numbers on both sides. Most contemporary English sources have the English outnumbered by 10–1 or more. The Burgundian sources use numbers of 50,000 for the French, and 11,000 or 13,000 for the English. The other French sources include at least one which has the English army as slightly larger than the French. Another has the French "more than half again as numerous as the English". Curry, 2000, p. 177 Estimates used by recent historians vary from 6,000 to 9,000 for the English, and from about 12,000 to about 36,000 for the French. Most of these historians would have accepted that the English were outnumbered by 3-1 or more, but Anne Curry has recently argued that the odds were much less in favour of the French than traditionally thought, at about 4–3 (12,000 French to 9,000 English). See modern reassessment for a detailed discussion. The battle was fought in the narrow strip of open land formed between the woods of Tramecourt and Agincourt (close to the modern village of Azincourt). The French army was positioned by d'Albret at the northern exit so as to bar the way to Calais. The night of 24 October was spent by the two armies on open ground. The battle of Agincourt Early on the 25th, Henry deployed his army (approximately 900 men-at-arms and 5,000 longbowmen, the latter commanded by Thomas Erpingham) across a 750 yard part of the defile. (It has been argued that fresh men were brought in after the siege of Harfleur; however, other historians argue that this is wrong, and that although 9,200 English left Harfleur, after a 250 mile march and more sickness had set in, they were down to roughly 5,900 by the time of the battle.) It is likely that the English adopted their usual battle line of longbowmen on either flank, men-at-arms and knights in the centre, and at the very centre roughly 200 archers. The English men-at-arms in plate and mail were placed shoulder to shoulder four deep. The English archers on the flanks drove pointed wooden stakes called palings into the ground at an angle to force cavalry to veer off. The English must have feared that they wouldn't get out alive. In fact, an English account describes the day before the battle as a day of remorse in which all soldiers cleansed themselves of their sins to avoid hell. The English nobles were lucky to be able to ransom themselves back if they were captured. French accounts state that, prior to the battle, Henry V gave a speech reassuring his nobles that if the French prevailed, the English nobles would be spared, to be captured and ransomed instead. However, the common soldier would have no such luck and therefore he told them they had better fight for their lives. The French, on the other hand, were confident that they would prevail and were eager to fight. The French believed they would triumph over the English not only because their force was considerably larger, fresher and better equipped, but also because the large number of noble men-at-arms would have considered themselves superior to the large number of commoners (such as the longbowmen) in the English army. The English army contained approximately 1,000 men-at-arms; using the lowest detailed French estimate (the Herald of Berry), the French army contained 10,000 men-at-arms (1,200 of which were mounted). Curry, 2005, p.181 Provided they could close with the English army, the French would therefore have been confident that their much larger number of heavily armoured troops would prevail in hand-to-hand fighting. Another reason for impatience was that many had fathers and grandfathers who had been humiliated in previous battles such as Crécy and Poitiers, and the French nobility was determined to get revenge. Several French accounts emphasise that the French leaders were so eager to defeat the English that they insisted on being in the first line. For example: "All the lords wanted to be in the vanguard, against the opinion of the constable and the experienced knights". Quoted in Curry, 2000, p.111 The French were arrayed in three lines called "battles". Chronicler Jehan de Waurin says there were 8,000 men-at-arms, 4,000 archers and 1,500 crossbowmen in the vanguard, with two wings of 600 and 800 mounted men-at-arms, and the main battle having "as many knights, esquires and archers as in the vanguard", with the rearguard containing "all of the rest of the men-at-arms". Quoted in Curry, 2000, pp.156–157 The Herald of Berry uses somewhat different figures of 4,800 men-at-arms in the first line, 3,000 men in the second line, with two "wings" containing 600 mounted men-at-arms each, and a total of "10,000 men-at-arms". Quoted in Curry, 2000, p.181 The Herald does not mention a third line. There appear to have been thousands of troops in the rearguard, containing commoners who the French were either unable or unwilling to deploy. Waurin gives the total French army size as 50,000. He says: "They had plenty of archers and crossbowmen but nobody wanted to let them fire. The reason for this was that the site was so narrow that there was only enough room for the men-at-arms." Quoted in Curry, 2000, p. 159 Similarly the monk of Saint-Denis says: "Four thousand of their best crossbowmen who ought to have marched in the front and begun the attack were found to not be at their post and it seems that they had been given permission to depart by the lords of the army on the pretext that they had no need of their help." Quoted in Curry, 2000, p. 106 The rearguard played little or no part in the battle however, with English and French accounts agreeing that a significant proportion of the French army fled after seeing so many French nobles killed and captured in the fighting. Terrain Arguably, the deciding factor for the outcome was the terrain. The narrow field of battle, recently ploughed land hemmed in by dense woodland, favoured the English. An analysis by Battlefield Detectives has looked at the crowd dynamics of the battlefield. The 900 English men-at-arms are described as shoulder to shoulder and four deep, which implies a tight line about 225 men long (perhaps split in two by a central group of archers). The remainder of the field would have been filled with the longbowmen behind their palings. The French first line contained between four and eight thousand men-at-arms, outnumbering the English men-at-arms at least four to one, but they had no way to outflank the English line. The French, divided into the three battles, one behind the other at their initial starting position, could not bring all their forces to bear: the initial engagement was between the English army and the first battle line of the French. When the second French battle line started their advance, the soldiers were pushed closer together and their effectiveness was reduced. Casualties in the front line from longbow fire would also have increased the congestion, as following men would have to walk around the fallen. The Battlefield Detectives state that when the density reached four men per square metre, soldiers would not even be able to take full steps forward, lowering the speed of the advance by 70%. Accounts of the battle describe the French engaging the English men-at-arms before being rushed from the sides by the longbowmen as the melée developed. The English account in the Gesta Henrici says: "For when some of them, killed when battle was first joined, fall at the front, so great was the undisciplined violence and pressure of the mass of men behind them that the living fell on top of the dead, and others falling on top of the living were killed as well". Although the French initially pushed the English back, they became so closely packed that they are described as having trouble using their weapons properly. The French monk of St. Denis says: "Their vanguard, composed of about 5,000 men, found itself at first so tightly packed that those who were in the third rank could scarcely use their swords." Quoted in Curry, 2000, p. 107 , and the Burgundian sources have a similar passage. In practice there was not enough room for all these men to fight, and they were unable to respond effectively when the English longbowmen joined the hand-to-hand fighting. By the time the second French line arrived, for a total of perhaps 8,000 men (depending on the source), the crush would have been even worse. The press of men arriving from behind actually hindered those fighting at the front. As the battle was fought on a recently ploughed field, and there had recently been heavy rain leaving it very muddy, it proved very tiring to walk through in full plate armour. The French monk of St. Denis describes the French troops as "marching through the middle of the mud where they sank up to their knees. So they were already overcome with fatigue even before they advanced against the enemy". Quoted in Curry, 2000, p.106 The deep, soft mud particularly favoured the English force because, once knocked to the ground, the heavily armoured French knights struggled to get back up to fight in the melée. Barker (2005) states that several knights, encumbered by their armour, actually drowned in it. Their limited mobility made them easy targets for the volleys from the English archers. The mud also increased the ability of the much more lightly armoured English archers to join in hand-to-hand fighting against the heavily armed French men-at-arms. Fighting On the morning of the 25th the French were still waiting for additional troops to arrive. The Duke of Brabant, the Duke of Anjou and the Duke of Brittany, each commanding 1,500–2,000 fighting men, were all marching to join the army. This left the French with a question of whether or not to advance towards the English. For three hours after sunrise there was no fighting. The French, knowing that the English were trapped, and perhaps aware of their previous failures attacking English prepared positions, would not attack. Henry would have known as well as the French did that his army would perform better in a defensive battle, but he was eventually forced to take a calculated risk, and move his army further forward. This entailed pulling out the palings (long stakes pointed outwards toward the enemy) which protected the longbowmen, and abandoning his chosen position. (The use of palings was an innovation: during the Battle of Crécy, for example, the archers were instead protected by pits and other obstacles.) If the French cavalry had charged before the palings had been hammered back in, the result would probably have been disastrous for the English, as it was at the Battle of Patay. However the French seem to have been caught off guard by the English advance. The tightness of the terrain also seems to have restricted the planned deployment of their forces. A battle plan had originally been drawn up which had archers and crossbowmen in front of the men-at-arms, with a cavalry force at the rear specifically designed to "fall upon the archers, and use their force to break them". Barker, 2005, p.273 However in the event the archers and crossbowmen were deployed behind and to the sides of the men-at-arms, where they seem to have played almost no part in the battle, except possibly for an initial volley of arrows at the start of the battle. The cavalry force, which could have devastated the English line if it had attacked while they moved their position, only seems to have charged after the initial volley of arrows from the English. It is unclear whether this is because the French were hoping the English would launch a frontal assault (and were surprised when the English instead started firing from their new defensive position), or whether the French mounted knights simply did not react fast enough to the English advance. French chroniclers agree that when the mounted charge did come, it did not contain as many men as it should; Gilles le Bouvier states that some had wandered off to warm themselves and others were walking or feeding their horses. Barker, 2005, p.291 In any case, within extreme bowshot from the French line (approximately 300 yards), the longbowmen dug in their palings, and then opened the engagement with a barrage of arrows. The French cavalry, despite being somewhat disorganised and not at full numbers, charged the longbowmen, but it was a disaster, with the French knights unable to outflank the longbowmen (because of the encroaching woodland) and unable to charge through the palings that protected the archers. Keegan (1976) argues that the longbows' main influence on the battle was at this point: only armoured on the head, many horses would have become dangerously out of control when struck in the back or flank from the high-elevation shots used as the charge started. The effect of the mounted charge and then retreat was to further churn up the mud the French had to cross to reach the English. Barker (2005) quotes a contemporary account by a monk of St. Denis who reports how the panicking horses also galloped back through the advancing infantry, scattering them and trampling them down in their headlong flight. The Burgundian sources similarly say that the mounted men-at-arms retreated back into the advancing French vanguard, "causing great disarray and breaking the line in many places". Quoted in Curry, 2000, p. 161 The constable himself led the attack of the dismounted French men-at-arms. French accounts describe their vanguard alone as containing about 5,000 men-at-arms, which would have outnumbered the English men-at-arms by about 5–1, but before they could engage in hand-to-hand fighting they had to cross the muddy field under a bombardment of arrows. The armour of the French men-at-arms is described by the Burgundian sources Jean Le Fevre and Jehan de Waurin as follows: In addition, the French were so weighed down by armour that they could hardly move forward. First, they were armed with long coats of armour, stretching beyond their knees and being very heavy. Below these they had 'harnois de jambes' (leg armour) and above 'blans harnois ' (white i.e. polished armour). In addition they had 'bascinets de carvail'. So heavy were their arms that as the ground was so soft they could scarcely lift their weapons. Quoted from Curry, 2000, p. 159; quote marks and translations as in that book Such heavy armour allowed them to close the 300 yards or so to the English lines while being under what the French monk of Saint Denis described as "a terrifying hail of arrow shot". However they had to lower their visors and bend their heads to avoid being shot in the face (the eye and airholes in their helmets were some of the weakest points in the armour), which restricted both their breathing and their vision, and then they had to walk a few hundred yards through thick mud, wearing armour which weighed 50–60 pounds. Barker, 2005, pp. 297–298 The French men-at-arms reached the English line and actually pushed it back, with the longbowmen continuing to fire until they ran out of arrows and then dropping their bows and joining the melée (which lasted about three hours), implying that the French were able to walk through the fire of tens of thousands of arrows while taking comparatively few casualties. The physical pounding even from non-penetrating arrows, combined with the slog in heavy armour through the mud, the heat and lack of oxygen in plate armour with the visor down, and the crush of their numbers, meant they could "scarcely lift their weapons" when they finally engaged the English line however. When the English archers, using hatchets, swords and other weapons, attacked the now disordered and fatigued French, the French could not cope with their unarmoured assailants (who were much less hindered by the mud). The exhausted French men-at-arms are described as being knocked to the ground and then unable to get back up. As the mêlée developed, the French second line also joined the attack, but they too were swallowed up, with the narrow terrain meaning the extra numbers could not be used effectively, and French men-at-arms were taken prisoner or killed in their thousands. The fighting lasted about three hours, but eventually the leaders of the second line were killed or captured, as those of the first line had been. The English Gesta Henrici describes three great heaps of the slain "which had risen above a man's height" around the three main English standards. Quoted in Curry, 2000, p. 37 One of the best anecdotes of the battle involves Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Henry V's youngest brother. According to the story, Henry, upon hearing that his brother had been wounded in the abdomen, took his household guard and cut a path through the French, standing over his brother and beating back waves of soldiers until Humphrey could be dragged to safety. The assault on the baggage train and the killing of the prisoners The only French success was a sally from Agincourt Castle behind the lines attacking the lightly protected English baggage train, with Ysembart d'Azincourt (leading a small number of men-at-arms and about 600 peasants) seizing some of Henry's personal treasures, including a crown. In some accounts this happened towards the end of the battle, and led the English to think they were being attacked from the rear. Barker (2005) prefers the Gesta Henrici however, believed to have been written by an English chaplain who was actually in the baggage train, who says that the attack happened at the start of the battle. Regardless, there was definitely a point after the initial English victory where Henry became alarmed that the French were regrouping for another attack. The Gesta Henrici puts this after the English had overcome the onslaught of the French men-at-arms, and the weary English troops were eyeing the French rearguard ("in incomparable number and still fresh"). Le Fevre and Waurin similarly say that it was signs of the French rearguard regrouping and "marching forward in battle order" which made the English think they were still in danger. In any event, Henry ordered the slaughter of what was perhaps several thousand French prisoners, with only the most illustrious being spared. His fear was that they would rearm themselves with the weapons strewn upon the field, and the exhausted English (who had been fighting for about three hours) would be overwhelmed. This was certainly ruthless, but arguably justifiable given the situation of the battle; perhaps surprisingly, even the French chroniclers do not criticise him for this. Barker, 2005, pp.302–305 This marked the end of the battle, as the French rearguard, having seen so many of the French nobility captured and killed, fled the battlefield. Aftermath Due to a lack of reliable sources it is impossible to give a precise figure for the French and English casualties. However, it is clear that though the English were considerably outnumbered, their losses were far lower than those of the French. The French sources all give 4,000–10,000 French dead, with up to 1,600 English dead. The lowest ratio in these French sources has the French losing six times more dead than the English. The English sources vary between about 1,500 and 11,000 for the French dead, with English dead put at no more than 100. The lowest ratio in the English sources has the French losing more than fifty times more dead than the English. All figures on number of dead from table in Curry, 2000, p. 12 Barker identifies from the available records "at least" 112 Englishmen who died in the fighting (including Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York, a grandson of Edward III), but this excludes the wounded. One fairly widely used estimate puts the English casualties at 450, not an insignificant number in an army of 6,000, but far less than the thousands the French lost, nearly all of whom were killed or captured. Using the lowest French estimate of their own dead of 4,000 would imply a ratio of nearly 9–1 in favour of the English, or over 10–1 if the prisoners are included. The French suffered heavily. The constable, three dukes, five counts and 90 barons all died. Estimates of the number of prisoners vary between 700 and 2,200, amongst them the Duke of Orléans (the famous poet Charles d'Orléans) and Jean Le Maingre, Marshal of France. Barker, 2005, p.337, p.367, p. 368 Almost all these prisoners would have been nobles, as the less valuable prisoners were slaughtered. Notable casualties Antoine of Burgundy, Duke of Brabant and Limburg (b. 1384) Philip of Burgundy, Count of Nevers and Rethel (b. 1389) Charles I d'Albret, Count of Dreux, the Constable of France John II, Count of Bethune (b. 1359) John I, Duke of Alençon (b. 1385) Frederick of Lorraine, Count of Vaudemont (b. 1371) Robert, Count of Marles and Soissons Edward III of Bar (the Duchy of Bar lost its independence as a consequence of his death) John VI, Count of Roucy Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York (b. 1373) Michael de la Pole, 3rd Earl of Suffolk Jean I de Croÿ and two of his sons. Waleran III of Luxembourg, Count of Ligny Sir Peers Legh When Sir Peers Legh was wounded, his mastiff stood over him and protected him for many hours through the battle. Although Legh later died, the mastiff returned to Legh's home and became the forefather of the Lyme Park mastiffs. Five centuries later, this pedigree figured prominently in founding the modern English Mastiff breed. Modern re-assessment of Agincourt Were the English as outnumbered as traditionally thought? Until recently, Agincourt has been fêted as one of the greatest victories in English military history. But, in Agincourt, A New History (2005), Anne Curry contradicts what previous historians have argued, and other contemporary Agincourt historians continue to argue; in Curry's view, the scale of the English triumph at Agincourt has been overstated for almost six centuries. Staff. Agincourt – exploding the myth, University of Southampton. Accessed 15 April 2008 Richard Brooks ( Arts Editor), Henry V's payroll cuts Agincourt myth down to size, Sunday Times 29 May 2005. A review of Anne Curry's Agincourt: A New History Basing her research on contemporary administrative records rather than chronicles, Curry estimates that the French still outnumbered the English, but at worst only by a factor of three to two (12,000 Frenchmen against 7,000 to 9,000 Englishmen). According to Curry, the Battle of Agincourt was a "myth constructed around Henry to build up his reputation as a king". The legend of the English as underdogs at Agincourt was given credence in popular English culture with William Shakespeare's Henry V in 1599. In the speech before the battle, Shakespeare puts in the mouth of Henry V the famous words, "We few, we happy few, we band of brothers," immediately after numbering English troops at twelve thousand, versus sixty thousand Frenchman. (Westmoreland: "Of fighting men they have full three-score thousand." Exeter: "There's five to one ..." (Act IV, scene 3). Shakespeare equally overstated the French and understated the English casualties as well; at the end (Act IV, Scene 8), when Henry's herald delivers the death toll, the numbers are 10,000 French dead and just "five and twenty" English. (The well known Olivier film version of 1944 has this as "five and twenty score" i.e. 500, which is closer to the modern estimate of casualties.) Many documentaries about the Battle of Agincourt use the figures of about 6,000 English and 36,000 French, with a French superiority in numbers of 6–1. The 1911 Encylopædia Britannica puts the English at 6,000 archers, 1,000 men-at-arms and "a few thousands of other foot", with the French outnumbering them by "at least four times". Other historians put the English numbers at 6,000 and the French numbers at 20,000–30,000, which would also be consistent with the English being outnumbered 4–1. Curry is currently in a minority among international scholars in putting the odds at significantly less than this, although she is also the only one to have relied primarily on contemporary French administrative records when estimating the odds (rather than contemporary accounts). Curry does not include the numbers of armed French locals who answered the call to arms (for which there is little good documentary evidence to provide a precise figure), nor explain why many of the French (as well as English) chroniclers suggested the odds were more in favour of the French than 4–3. Juliet Barker in Agincourt: The King, the Campaign, the Battle (published slightly after A New History) argues the English and Welsh were outnumbered "at least four to one and possibly as much as six to one". She prefers the figures given by Jehan de Waurin (who is relatively detailed about the composition of the French army), and suggests figures of about 6,000 for the English and 36,000 for the French, "based on [Waurin's] suggestion that the French were six times more numerous than the English". Curry's book was published too late to significantly influence Barker's work. In the Acknowledgements, however, while paying tribute to Curry's scholarship, Barker says: "Surviving administrative records on both sides, but especially the French, are simply too incomplete to support her assertion that nine thousand English were pitted against an army only twelve thousand strong. And if the differential really was as low as three to four then this makes a nonsense of the course of the battle as described by eyewitnesses and contemporaries." See also Dafydd Gam: Welsh hero who reputedly saved Henry V's life at Agincourt The Agincourt Carol: a well-known 15th century English folk song concerning the battle. Henry V Henry V (1944 film) Henry V (1989 film) V sign, for more on the "two-fingers salute" which some claim derives from the gestures of longbowmen fighting in the English army at the battle of Agincourt. References Bibliography Books Many of the original sources for the battle are available in translation in N. H. Nicolas, History of the Battle of Agincourt Curry, Anne (2005). Agincourt: A New History. Pub: Tempus UK. ISBN 978-0-7524-2828-4 "Battle of Agincourt" in Military Heritage, October 2005, Volume 7, No. 2, pp. 36 to 43). ISSN 1524-8666. Dupuy, Trevor N. (1993). Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. Pub: New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-270056-8 Keegan, John (1976). The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme. Pub: Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-14-004897-1 (Penguin Classics Reprint) Articles Beck, Steve (2005). The Battle of Agincourt, www.militaryhistoryonline.com. Bragg, Melvyn (presenter). Agincourt with Anne Curry, Michael Jones and John Watts from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4), 16 September 2004 Grummitt, David. (Oxford University), A review of Agincourt 1415: Henry V, Sir Thomas Erpingham and the triumph of the English archers ed. Anne Curry, Pub: Tempus UK, 2000 ISBN 0752417800. Accessed 15 April 2008. Hansen, Mogens Herman (Copenhagen Polis Centre) The Little Grey Horse --Henry V's Speech at Agincourt and the Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography Histos volume 2 (March 1998), website of the Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Durham Staff. The Agincourt Honor Roll, Family Chronicle, March/April 1997. Staff. The Azincourt Museum, Azincourt, France Accessed 15 April 2008.(The site is in French and English). Other The Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge Macclesfield Psalter CD, e-mail [email protected] Explanatory notes a. Pronunciation: The story of the battle has been retold many times in English, from the fifteenth-century Agincourt song onwards, and the English pronunciation of "Agincourt" is commonly used. Merriam-Webster has a small audio file here and the English Pronouncing Dictionary, ISBN 0 521 81693 9, from the Cambridge University Press offers . The modern tendency, however, is to use pronunciation closer to the original French, as in this interview with Juliet Barker on Meet the Author, here. 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6,865 | Body_piercing | Woman with several facial piercings (Monroe, Septum and Labret) Body piercing is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the human body, creating an opening in which jewelry may be worn. Body piercing is a form of body modification. The word piercing can refer to the act or practice of body piercing, or to an opening in the body created by this act or practice. The cultural norms reflected in body piercing are various. They may include religion, spirituality, fashion, eroticism, conformism, or subcultural identification. Ear Piercing Ear piercing has been practiced the world ever since ancient times, particularly in tribal cultures. It is said that ancient tribes believing that metal blocked evil spirits would pierce their ears so that the evil spirits wouldn't enter their body. Mummified bodies with pierced ears have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, that of Ötzi the Iceman, which was found in a Valentina Trujillon glacier. This mummy had an ear piercing 7–11 mm (1 to 000 gauge in AWG) diameter. Male ear piercings are common in many tribal cultures to this day. For example, in Borneo, ear piercing is done to young boys as a puberty ritual; the mother will pierce one ear while the father pierces the other, symbolizing the child's dependence on his parents. Earrings appear in the Bible, where their use was common among both sexes. In Exodus 32, Aaron makes the golden calf from melted earrings. However, Deuteronomy 15:12–17 dictates ear piercing for a slave who chooses not to be freed. Earrings were more common for men than for women during parts of the Roman empire, having been introduced by Julius Caesar. In the Elizabethan era, they were a male status symbol, with men such as Shakespeare, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Francis Drake known to have worn them. Sailors were also known to often have pierced ears as their earrings could pay for a Christian burial if their bodies washed up on shore. "Jewels & Women; The Romance, Magic and Art of Feminine Adornment" Marianne Ostier, Horizon Press, New York, 1958 Nose piercing In Book of Genesis of the Bible 24:22, Abraham's servant gave golden nose-jewels of half a shekel weight and ten bracelets to Rebekah, wife of his son Isaac (the Hebrew word "Shanf" appearing in this passage, which is often mistranslated as "earring", also means "nose ring"; more likely given the cultural customs involved). Nose piercing has been common among Middle Eastern nomadic tribes from Biblical times, and migrated to India in the 16th Century AD http://www.painfulpleasures.com/piercing_history.htm . It is customary for Indian women of childbearing age to wear a nose stud, usually in the left nostril, due to the nostril's association with the female reproductive organs in Ayurvedic medicine. Many Native American and Alaskan tribes practiced septum piercing as a mark of male status; for example, this is where the Nez Perce tribe derived its name. The practice is also common among the warriors of Asian and Pacific tribes, as a nose bone gives the face a fierce appearance. The Aztecs and Incas wore gold septum rings for adornment, with the practice continued to this day by the Cuna Indians of Panama. As a different form of beauty modification, Australian aboriginals pierced the septum with a long stick in order to flatten the nose. Finally, the Bundi tribe of Papua New Guinea pierce the septum as a male coming-of-age ritual. The only place in world history where the septum piercing is more common among women than men is in the Himalayan area of northern India, Tibet, and Bhutan. Women in these regions often also have nostril piercings performed on them as girls, with the septum being pierced during marriage to signify the man's ownership of his bride. Tongue piercing Ear stretching and Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztecs and other Pre-Columbian cultures as a ritual symbol; the tongue was pierced to draw blood and induce an altered state of consciousness, and the ears were stretched as a sense of style or belonging to a certain tribe; thought to allow a shaman to communicate with the gods. Wounding one's organ of speech was seen as the necessary sacrifice to allow this transformation to occur. Lip piercing Ear stretching and lip piercing has its origins in African and American tribal cultures. In Pre-Columbian and North American cultures, labrets were seen as a status symbol, and only the highest ranking male members of society were permitted to wear them. African lip piercings are almost always exclusively female, and have significances varying from tribe to tribe. For example, the Dogon tribe of Mali wears lip rings for spiritual reasons, while the Saras-Djinjas tribe of Chad pierces a woman's lip upon marriage to show the male's ownership of her. "Nudity to Raiment" Hilaire Hiler London 1929 Finally, the Makololo tribe of Malawi pierces the lips of its women for beauty's sake; few Makololo men will sleep with a woman who is not pierced in such a manner, considering it unnatural. In western cultures Nipple piercings, vertical labret piercing and a stretched ear. Ears Ear piercing has existed continuously since ancient times, including throughout the twentieth century in the Western world. However, in North America, Europe, and Australasia, ear piercing was relatively rare from the 1920s until the 1960s. At that time, it regained popularity among westernized women. It was gradually adopted by men in the hippie, gay, emo, and thugs subcultures, until ever-widening appropriation attenuated its subcultural associations altogether. Today, single and multiple piercing of either or both ears is common among Western women and somewhat common among men. Body piercing folklore The marketing of modern body piercing products and services has emphasized their connection to longstanding cultural practices, even as the image of body piercing is often one of indifference or even radicalism regarding cultural norms. Musafar connected modern body-piercing culture to longstanding practices in non-Western cultures. Retrospective and imaginary though these links may be, they have succeeded in making body piercing a central practice of modern primitivism. Malloy took a different route, marketing contemporary body piercing by giving it the patina of a Western history. His pamphlet, Body & Genital Piercing in Brief, concocted fanciful histories of genital piercings in particular. These ersatz, and often homoerotic tales---which include the notion that Prince Albert invented the piercing that shares his name in order to tame the appearance of his large penis in tight trousers, and that Roman centurions attached their capes to nipple piercings---are widely circulated as urban legends, and Malloy's pamphlet is sometimes cited as evidence of their historical veracity. The notion of an aristocratic European past of body piercing enjoys widespread appeal. Hans Peter Duerr argues in Dreamtime that nipple piercing became popular in fourteenth century Europe. There is evidence, both anecdotal and photographic, that nipple piercing was practiced in Europe during the late nineteenth century and in the early twentieth century, but it was not a common practice. Personal attitudes Attitudes towards piercing vary. Some regard the practice of piercing or of being pierced as spiritual, sometimes embracing the term "modern primitive", while others deride this view as insulting, as cultural appropriation, or as trendy. Some see the practice as a form of artistic or self-expression. Others choose to be pierced as a form of sexual expression, or to increase sexual sensitivity. For some people, piercing is part of their practices of S&M. In most countries, some people find forms of body piercing distasteful and/or refuse to permit employees to display their piercings on the job as part of the dress code. Exceptions to this rule are in countries found in Western Europe. Some people choose to be pierced for symbolic reasons. For example, some survivors of sexual abuse have said that they experience piercing as allowing them to retake control over their own bodies. Religion Body Piercing in some religions is held to be destructive to the body and in others held as a sacred or spiritual act. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints has taken an official position against piercings unless for medical reasons; also accepting piercings for women as acceptable so long as there is one set of piercings in the lower lobe of the ears and no other place on the body. Piercing beliefs in other religions has been the subject of debate. Many of these debates within Christianity refer to Bible references involving the body as a temple or holy place, usually citing 1 Corinthians. World records Canadian Brent Moffat set the world record for most body piercings (700 piercings with 18g surgical needles in 1 session of 7 hours, using “play piercing” where the skin is pierced and sometimes jewelry is inserted, which is worn temporarily). In the United Kingdom, a record was made by piercer Charlie Wilson on subject Kam Ma, with 600 permanent piercings in just over 8 1/2 hours. Officially titled “most pierced woman” Elaine Davidson of Scotland set the record for most permanent piercings (1,903 permanent piercings) and she first broke or created this record in 2000 upon verification by Guinness judges (462 body piercings, with 192 at the time being around her head and face). Bellaonline, Most Body Piercings Unofficially Dwaine Scum attempted to break the Guinness World Record for the most consecutive body piercings (1000 needles over his stomach and chest in 5 hours). Fugly.com, YEEEEE HAWW! - World Record Self Mutilation Benjamin Drucker (U.S.) allowed 745 18-gauge (1.2 cm (0.5 in) long) surgical needles inserted into his body by Nate Adams (USA) in 2 hours 21 minutes at Ix Body Piercing of Taos, New Mexico, U.S. on July 12 2003. Guinness World Records, Most Body Piercing Other body sites Other body sites for piercing include variations of surface piercing, and genital jewelry. Some more common surface piercings are: Corset piercing, a series of bilaterally symmetrical piercings, normally done on the back, intended to be laced like a corset. Madison piercing, a horizontal piercing located just above the collarbone, at the base of the neck. Vertical Tragus, in front of the ear through the tragus. Nape piercing, located on the back of the neck. Neck piercing, located on the side of the neck. (Also called 'Vampire Bites') Hip piercing, located on the pelvis near the hips bones. Hand web piercing, located in the webbing between any of the fingers on the hand. Sternum piercing, located vertically or horizontally on the sternum. Wrist piercing, located on or near the wrist, generally on the upper side. Some avail for suspension hooks in order to elevate the body from the ground. This process is very delicate and is typically done carefully by an experienced individual or professional of the field in order to avoid serious injury. Contemporary piercing procedures Immediate disposal of used needles into a sharps container is standard practice. Permanent body piercings (as opposed to play piercings) are performed by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced. This can either be done by cutting an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or scalpel or by removing tissue, either with a scalpel or a dermal punch. Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer. Tools and jewelry are sterilized in autoclaves and non-autoclavable surfaces are cleaned with disinfectant agents on a regular basis and between clients. Sterile, single use gloves are worn by the piercer to protect both the piercer and the client. Commonly, a piercer will use multiple pairs of gloves per client, often one pair for each step of setup to avoid cross contamination. For example, after a piercer has cleaned the area to be pierced on a client, the piercer may change gloves to avoid recontaminating the area with the gloves he/she used to clean it. Surgical stainless steel and titanium are ideal materials for initial jewelry in a fresh piercing. There are many myths and misconceptions surrounding appropriate material for an initial piercing. For example, there is a widespread belief that "solid 14 karat or higher white or yellow gold containing no nickel is safe as initial jewelry (in a fresh piercing) ”. However, the common alternatives for nickel (copper, silver) in the alloy pose equal or greater risk compared to nickel. Also, gold is a soft metal, making it prone to dents and scratches which can irritate piercings and harbor bacteria. Standard needle method The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a hollow medical needle. The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced. While the needle is still in the body, the initial jewelry to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle. Piercing using hollow medical needles does not actually remove any flesh—the method cuts a "C" shaped slit and holds it open in the shape of the cross section of the needle: in this case, a circle. In this method, the needle is the same gauge (or sometimes larger as with cartilage piercings) than the initial jewelry to be worn. Piercings that penetrate cartilage are often pierced one or two gauges larger than the jewelry, to reduce pressure on the healing piercing, and allowing space for a fistula (internal "skin tube" that connects the two ends of the piercing) to form. Indwelling cannula method Many European (and other) piercers use a needle containing a cannula (hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle, also see catheter). Procedure is identical to the standard method, only that the initial jewelry is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewelry are then pulled through the piercing. This method reduces the chance of the jewelry slipping during the insertion procedure, and also protects the fresh piercing from possible irritation from external threading (if used) during initial insertion. Dermal punching In this method, a dermal punch is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewelry is placed. This method is usually used to remove both skin and cartilage in upper ear piercings, where cartilage must be removed to relieve pressure on the piercing to ensure proper healing and long-term viability of the piercing. Healed fistulas created or enlarged using dermal punches will shrink over time, but at a much slower rate than 'dead stretched' fistulas. Piercing guns Piercing guns are commonly used in retail settings to perform ear piercings. They work by blunt force trauma due to the fact that the needle used is normally dull and are designed for piercing the earlobe only. In many states it is against the law to pierce the cartilage with the piercing gun because of the damage the device can do to the tissue. The sheer blunt force of the piercing gun shatters the surrounding cartilage from the entry point of the jewelry and over time can cause the whole ear to deform, commonly known as 'cauliflowering'. Piercing guns have also been found to be a less hygienic way of piercing due to the limited cleaning quality of the plastic the gun is usually made of. Piercing with a piercing gun causes microsprays of plasma and blood, which are then unable to be cleaned in an autoclave system. Cross contamination can then spread pathogens such as HIV and Hepatitis A, B, and C. http://www.homiegfunk.com/gunssuck.htm Many professional body piercers discourage the use of these instruments. The autoclaving of piercing guns is impossible, because the plastic used in their construction would be melted if autoclaved. Even though they are occasionally and wrongly used for other purposes, ear piercing instruments are designed for earlobe piercing only. Internally threaded jewelry A number of piercing shops exclusively use jewelry that is internally threaded. That is, the ball-ends of the jewelry screw into the bar, rather than the bar screwing into the ball. Though more expensive and difficult to produce than externally threaded jewelry, piercers who use internally threaded jewelry advise that since the bar that is being inserted into the skin has no sharp threads on the end, it will not cut or irritate skin; this allows for safer healing. However, in today's world of body piercing, most manufacturers of quality body jewelry agree that if externally threaded jewelry is going to be used, it must have a tapered end on it so that at the very least, the threads can slip into the back end of the needle, thus protecting the piercee's tissue from being threaded during the initial piercing. The healing process and body piercing aftercare A new piercing will be sore, tender or red for several days up to three weeks. Complete healing normally takes several weeks or more. Below are more specific healing time estimates. During this period, care must be taken to avoid infection. Touching—or, for genital and oral piercings, sexual activity—is usually discouraged. Primary healing usually takes about as long as is listed below; the jewelry should not be removed during this period. The healing time should not be rushed. Very often a piercing that seemed to be healed will start to have problems when it is handled roughly, exposed to mouth contact or unwashed hands before it has truly healed. Full healing starts after primary healing is complete and usually takes about as long as primary healing, during this period the skin thickens and starts to gain elasticity. An additional "toughening up" period takes place after full healing is complete, this "toughening up" period also takes about as long as the primary healing time. During "toughening up" the skin remodels itself developing an internal texture in the fistula tube that replaces the shiny scar-like internal surface. Approximate primary healing times: Head Monroe piercing: 6–8 weeks Bridge: 2–3 months Cheek/Anti-Eyebrow: 2–3 months Ear cartilage: 8-12 weeks Ear lobes: 6–8 weeks Eyebrow: 4–6 weeks Tragus: 6–8 weeks Lip / Labret: 4–6 weeks Nostril: 4–6 weeks Septum: 2–3 months Tongue: 4–6 weeks Frenulum: 6–8 weeks Torso Female Nipples: 3–6 months Male Nipples: 3–6 months Navel piercing: 6–8 weeks Hand web: 6–8 weeks Surface: 8 months - 1yr Over time, after the piercing, the resulting wound is allowed to heal, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a fistula. When the piercing has fully healed, the initial jewelry may be changed or removed for short periods. Behavior that promotes healing Revisiting the piercer for an evaluation at any time, if needed; Practicing good hygiene. ; Following the recommended aftercare guidelines; Taking sufficient supplement tablets of iron and zinc. Behavior that hinders healing Contact between the new piercing and another person's skin or bodily fluids; Excessive and unnecessary touching of the piercing, especially with unwashed hands; Failure to take proper aftercare measures; Smoking and drinking alcohol (in the case of oral piercings, if not cleaned properly and rather close to the time of drinking or smoking); Exposure to irritating substances such as cosmetics, perfume, lotion, some topical ointments, etc.; Immersion in chemically-treated pool water, or natural water (i.e. lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans) which contains bacteria, protozoa, salt, and parasites; Cleaning with tea tree oil, as it keeps the wound open; Lack of sleep or low health. Changing of initial jewelry to allow for swelling For some piercings (in particular tongue piercings) changing the initial jewelry is an essential step. In the case of tongue piercing this is because the initial jewelry is significantly longer than the jewelry for a healed piercing, to allow for swelling.This should be changed down about 7 to 10 days after the initial piercing. Most piercers will include this piece of jewellery in their price and ask you to return. Discharge on the jewelry Dried sebum deposit on body jewelry. During the primary healing process, it is normal for a white or slightly yellow discharge to be noticeable on the jewelry. Provided there is no pain or swelling, it does not usually signify an infection. The discharge is composed of dead skin cells and blood plasma and may be a little difficult to remove as it can become solid very quickly. Another name for such discharge is "lymph" which is a fluid which leaks out of lymphoid tissue into the tissues, bathes the cells as "extra-cellular fluid" and is then recirculated via lymphatic vessels following immunological and physical filtering in the body's lymph nodes. This tends to be a regular occurrence in the healing of a piercing as well as long as there are no signs of pain or swelling. Risks associated with body piercing Body piercing is an invasive procedure and is not without risks. When properly performed, these risks can be minimized, and most individuals who receive their piercing from a professional piercer, and who take care of their new piercing as recommended by their piercer, will enjoy a safe and healthy piercing experience. Risks of note include: Allergic reaction to ingredients of products used to clean the new piercing, or of ancillary products used in proximity to the piercing (e.g., soap, hydrogen peroxide, isopropyl alcohol, antibacterial products, antiseptic medicines, makeup, hair spray, swimming pool chlorine, etc.). This risk can be minimized by cleaning the piercing as recommended by a professional body piercer (different piercers will have differing recommendations), by not contaminating the fresh piercing with irritating products, and by not swimming in chlorinated water. Chlorine from swimming pools may cause the pierced area to dry out, which may cause the piercing to be torn out very easily. Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewelry, particularly nickel. This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewelry manufactured from Titanium or Niobium or similar inert metals. Bacterial infection, particularly from Staphylococcus aureus, group A streptococcus and Pseudomonas spp. Reports at the 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases in 2006 indicated that such infections are seldom serious, but that between 10-20% of piercings result in local benign bacterial infection. Infection due to piercing of the tongue can be fatal. Parasitic and protozoan infections may occur by swimming in lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans during the healing period. The best way to reduce this risk is to avoid swimming in these locations. Excess scar tissue, which can be caused by improper piercing, cleansing, and stretching. This may result in loss of sensation and difficulty piercing and stretching that area of skin in the future. Keloid formation can sometimes occur, particularly among people who are pre-disposed to this condition through heredity. Trauma, usually associated with unintended entanglement of the piercing jewelry with another object. This risk is greatest for fresh piercings, but is always present. It can be reduced by using jewelry appropriate for the piercing, and covering or taping over jewelry during sports activities. Also, larger gauge piercings will tend to resist tearing better than smaller gauge piercings. Soft tissues such as earlobes, nipples, labrets or eyebrows should be at least 14 gauge, intricate ear cartilage work can be 16 gauge, whilst nostril piercings can be 18 gauge. But as a general rule, it is better to use 14 gauge jewelry, if not larger. Viral infection, particularly from hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV. Piercing guns are capable of spreading HIV and hepatitis (A, B and C). http://www.homiegfunk.com/gunssuck.htm However, it is important to note that although hepatitis has been transmitted through the practices of ear piercing, body piercing, and tattooing, there have not been any documented cases of HIV transmission associated with these procedures (see CDC Fact Sheet: HIV and Its Transmission). As with bacterial infections, the risk of viral infection is minimized when proper piercing techniques are used, particularly by the use of brand-new disposable piercing needles, the autoclaving of jewelry and the autoclaving of equipment prior to installation. Recession of gingival tissue affecting 19% to 68% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments. In some cases, the alveolar tooth-bearing bone is also involved, jeopardizing the stability and durability of the teeth in place and required a periodontal regeneration surgery. . Dental fracture and wear, affecting 14% to 41% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments. Removal Proper removal of piercings is rather simple. Carefully remove the jewelry making sure not to pull or irritate the piercing. Once removed the piercing should heal on its own, although it may leave a hole, a mark or a scar. Piercings: Proper care can help prevent complications. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 14/03/08. It is not advised to remove jewelry when there is an infection present, and doing so may result in trapping infectious waste in your body if the hole closes, causing an abscess. Once the infection has passed, then it is safe to remove the jewelry if it is no longer desired. In some cases the jewelry may need to be removed by a professional. Body Jewelry Sizing Gauge Millimeters Inches18g 1.0 mm 5/128"16g 1.2 mm 3/64"14g 1.6 mm 1/16"12g 2 mm 5/64"10g 2.4 mm 3/32"8g 3.2 mm 1/8"6g 4 mm 5/32"4g 5 mm 3/16"2g 6 mm 1/4"0g 8 mm 5/16"00g 10 mm 3/8"000g 11 mm 7/16" 12.7 mm 1/2" 14 mm 9/16" 16 mm 5/8" 19 mm 3/4" 22 mm 7/8" 25 mm 1" See also Body modification Body piercing jewelry Body piercing materials Scalpelling Susuk Tattooing Related media A chart comparing wire gauges likely to be encountered when making jewelry A chart for sizing gloves and measuring jewelry gauge and size A chart comparing O-ring sizes (Aerospace Specification series numbering) to American gauge jewelry. body piercing training References Boodman, Sandra G. "The Hole Truth", Washington Post, November 7 2006. Retrieved December 4 2006. Includes patient handout. External links Body Modification E-Zine—online community with body modification images and information—in existence over 10 years body-piercing-training.co.uk images and photos Body Modification E-Zine Wiki—very comprehensive online wiki purely relating to body modification American Association of Professional Piercers' website Piercing.com—online community with body modification images and information BodyMod.org—online community with body piercing images | Body_piercing |@lemmatized woman:13 several:3 facial:1 piercings:39 monroe:2 septum:8 labret:3 body:63 piercing:82 practice:19 puncture:1 cut:4 part:5 human:1 create:5 opening:6 jewelry:46 may:13 wear:9 form:7 modification:8 word:2 refer:2 act:3 cultural:5 norm:2 reflect:1 pierce:62 various:1 include:8 religion:4 spirituality:1 fashion:1 eroticism:1 conformism:1 subcultural:2 identification:1 ear:28 world:9 ever:2 since:3 ancient:3 time:14 particularly:6 tribal:3 culture:8 say:2 tribe:12 believe:1 metal:4 block:1 evil:2 spirit:2 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6,866 | Allioideae | Alliaceae is a family of herbaceous perennial flowering plants. They are monocots, part of order Asparagales. The family has been widely but not universally recognised; in the past, the plants involved were often treated as belonging to the family Liliaceae, and still are by some botanists. The APG II system of 2003 recognises the family and places it in the order Asparagales in the clade monocots. APG II allows two options of the circumscription of the family: Alliaceae sensu lato ("in the wider sense"), including all the plants that were assigned to the families Agapanthaceae, Alliaceae and Amaryllidaceae in the 1998 APG. Alliaceae sensu stricto ("in the strict sense"), unchanged from the 1998 APG system, excluding the plants then forming the families Agapanthaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Note that quite a few of the plants that were once included in family Alliaceae are assigned to the family Themidaceae by both APG and APG II. The most important genus is Allium, which includes several important food plants, including onions (Allium cepa), chives (A. schoenoprasum), garlic (A. sativum and A. scordoprasum), and leeks (A. porrum). Genera The following genera are included in the Alliaceae sensu stricto: Allium Ancrumia Caloscordum Erinna Garaventia Gethyum Gilliesia Ipheion Leucocoryne MiersiaMilula Muilla Nectaroscordum (Sicilian Honey Lily) Nothoscordum Solaria (genus) Speea Trichlora Tristagma Tulbaghia Zoelnerallium The genera Androstephium, Bessera, Bloomeria, Brodiaea, Dandya, Dichelostemma, Milla, Petronymphe, Triteleia, and Triteleiopsis are now treated in the family Themidaceae. References Michael F. Fay and Mark W. Chase. 1996. Resurrection of Themidaceae for the Brodiaea alliance, and Recircumscription of Alliaceae, Amaryllidaceae and Agapanthoideae. Taxon 45: 441-451 (abstract) External links Alliaceae in Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 7, May 2006. Alliaceae [sensu lato] in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants Liliaceae in Flora of North America NCBI Taxonomy Browser [Alliaceae sensu stricto] links at CSDL, Texas | Allioideae |@lemmatized alliaceae:10 family:11 herbaceous:1 perennial:1 flowering:1 plant:7 monocot:2 part:1 order:2 asparagales:2 widely:1 universally:1 recognise:2 past:1 involve:1 often:1 treat:2 belonging:1 liliaceae:2 still:1 botanist:1 apg:6 ii:3 system:2 place:1 clade:1 allow:1 two:1 option:1 circumscription:1 sensu:5 lato:2 wider:1 sense:2 include:5 assign:2 agapanthaceae:2 amaryllidaceae:3 stricto:3 strict:1 unchanged:1 exclude:1 form:1 note:1 quite:1 themidaceae:3 important:2 genus:4 allium:3 several:1 food:1 onion:1 cepa:1 chives:1 schoenoprasum:1 garlic:1 sativum:1 scordoprasum:1 leek:1 porrum:1 genera:1 following:1 ancrumia:1 caloscordum:1 erinna:1 garaventia:1 gethyum:1 gilliesia:1 ipheion:1 leucocoryne:1 miersiamilula:1 muilla:1 nectaroscordum:1 sicilian:1 honey:1 lily:1 nothoscordum:1 solarium:1 speea:1 trichlora:1 tristagma:1 tulbaghia:1 zoelnerallium:1 androstephium:1 bessera:1 bloomeria:1 brodiaea:2 dandya:1 dichelostemma:1 milla:1 petronymphe:1 triteleia:1 triteleiopsis:1 reference:1 michael:1 f:2 fay:1 mark:1 w:1 chase:1 resurrection:1 alliance:1 recircumscription:1 agapanthoideae:1 taxon:1 abstract:1 external:1 link:2 stevens:1 p:1 onwards:2 angiosperm:1 phylogeny:1 website:1 version:1 may:1 l:1 watson:1 j:1 dallwitz:1 flower:1 flora:1 north:1 america:1 ncbi:1 taxonomy:1 browser:1 csdl:1 texas:1 |@bigram herbaceous_perennial:1 flowering_plant:1 order_asparagales:2 asparagales_family:1 clade_monocot:1 family_alliaceae:2 alliaceae_sensu:5 sensu_lato:2 family_agapanthaceae:2 sensu_stricto:3 family_themidaceae:2 external_link:1 angiosperm_phylogeny:1 j_dallwitz:1 dallwitz_onwards:1 ncbi_taxonomy:1 |
6,867 | Abijah | Abijah or Abiah is a Biblical unisex name meaning "My father is Yahweh" in Hebrew. MFnames.com - Origin and Meaning of Abijah In the Old Testament the name Abijah was borne by several characters: A son of Becher, the son of Benjamin. (1 Chr. 7:8) A wife of Hetzron, one of the grandchildren of Judah. (1 Chr. 2:24) The second son of Samuel. (1 Samuel 8:2; 1 Chr. 6:28) His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beer-sheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a royal form of government. A descendant of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, a chief of one of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by David (1 Chr. 24:10). The order of Abijah was one of those which did not return from the Captivity. (Ezra 2:36-39; Nehemiah 7:39-42; 12:1) A King of Judah, also known as Abijam, who was son of Rehoboam and succeeded him on the throne of Judah. (1 Chr. 3:10, Matt. 1:7, 1 Kings 14:31) A son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found "some good thing toward the Lord," he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and "all Israel mourned for him." (1 Kings 14:1-18) The daughter of Zechariah (2 Chr. 29:1; compare Isaiah 8:2), who married King Ahaz of Judah. She is also called Abi. (2 Kings 18:2) She was the mother of King Hezekiah. (2 Chr. 29:1) The head of the eighth of the twenty-four courses into which David divided the priests. (1 Chr. 24:10, Luke 1:5) References See also List of minor Biblical figures | Abijah |@lemmatized abijah:5 abiah:1 biblical:2 unisex:1 name:2 mean:1 father:3 yahweh:1 hebrew:1 mfnames:1 com:1 origin:1 meaning:1 old:2 testament:1 bear:1 several:1 character:1 son:6 becher:1 benjamin:1 chr:8 wife:3 hetzron:1 one:3 grandchild:1 judah:4 second:1 samuel:2 conduct:1 along:1 brother:1 judge:1 beer:1 sheba:1 office:1 appoint:1 lead:1 popular:1 discontent:1 ultimately:1 provoke:1 people:1 demand:1 royal:1 form:1 government:1 descendant:1 eleazar:1 aaron:1 chief:1 twenty:2 four:2 order:2 priesthood:1 divide:2 david:2 return:2 captivity:1 ezra:1 nehemiah:1 king:7 also:3 know:2 abijam:1 rehoboam:1 succeed:1 throne:1 matt:1 jeroboam:3 first:1 israel:2 account:1 severe:1 illness:1 youth:2 send:1 consult:1 prophet:2 ahijah:1 regard:1 recovery:1 though:1 blind:1 age:1 soon:1 approach:1 divine:1 impulse:1 announce:1 inasmuch:1 alone:1 house:1 find:1 good:1 thing:1 toward:1 lord:1 would:1 come:1 grave:1 peace:1 mother:2 cross:1 threshold:1 door:1 die:1 mourn:1 daughter:1 zechariah:1 compare:1 isaiah:1 marry:1 ahaz:1 call:1 abi:1 hezekiah:1 head:1 eighth:1 course:1 priest:1 luke:1 reference:1 see:1 list:1 minor:1 figure:1 |@bigram beer_sheba:1 ezra_nehemiah:1 |
6,868 | Hercules | Gilded bronze "Hercules of the Forum Boarium", with the apple of the Hesperides, Roman 2nd century BCE; found in the Forum Boarium in the 15th century (Capitoline Museums) Hercules is the Roman name for the mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus (the Roman Jupiter) and the mortal Alcmena. Early Roman sources suggest that the imported Greek hero supplanted a mythic Italian shepherd called "Recaranus" or "Garanus", famous for his strength. While adopting much of the Greek Heracles' iconography and mythology as his own, Hercules adopted a number of myths and characteristics that were distinctly Roman. Etymology Hercules' Latin name is not directly borrowed from Greek Heracles but is a modification of the Etruscan name Hercle, which derives from the Greek name via syncope, Heracles translates to "The Glory of Hera". An oath invoking Hercules (Hercle! or Mehercle!) was a common interjection in Classical Latin. W. M. Lindsay, "Mehercle and Herc(v)lvs. [Mehercle and Herc(u)lus]" The Classical Quarterly 12.2 (April 1918:58). Character In Roman works of art and in Renaissance and post-Renaissance art that adapts Roman iconography, Hercules can be identified by his attributes, the lion skin and the club: in mosaic he is shown tanned black, a virile aspect. The Classical and Hellenistic conventions of frescoes and mosaics is to show women as pale-skinned and men as tanned dark from their outdoor arena of action and exercising in the gymnasium.(See also and ). While he was a champion and a great warrior, he was not above cheating and using any unfair trick to his advantage. However, he was renowned as having "made the world safe for mankind" by destroying many dangerous monsters. His self-sacrifice obtained him the ascent to the Olympian realms and he was welcomed by the gods. Roman cult Gilded bronze Roman "Hercules of the Theatre of Pompey", found near the Theatre of Pompey in 1864, (Vatican Museums, Rome); The sculpture had been carefully buried in Antiquity, having been struck by lightning. In their popular culture the Romans adopted the Etruscan Hercle, a hero-figure that had already been influenced by Greek culture — especially in the conventions of his representation — but who had expered an autonomous development. Etruscan Hercle appears in the elaborate illustrative engraved designs on the backs of Etruscan bronze mirrors made during the fourth century BC, which were favoured grave goods. Their specific literary references have been lost, with the loss of all Etruscan literature, but the image of the mature, bearded Hercules suckling at Uni/Juno's breast, engraved on a mirror back from Volterra, is distinctively Etruscan. This Hercle/Hercules — the Hercle of the ejaculation "Mehercle!" — remained a popular cult figure in the Roman legions. The literary Greek versions of his life and works were appropriated by literate Romans from the 2nd century BC onwards, essentially unchanged, but Latin literature of Hercules added anecdotal detail of its own, some of it linking the hero with the geography of the Western Mediterranean. Details of the Greek cult, which mixed chthonic libations and uneaten holocausts with Olympian services, were adapted to specifically Roman requirements as well, as Hercules became the founding figure of Herculaneum and other places, and his cult became entwined with Imperial cult, as shown in surviving frescoes in the Herculanean collegium. His altar has been dated to the 5th or 6th century BC. It stood near the Temple of Hercules Victor. Hercules became popular with merchants, who customarily paid him a tithe of their profits. Marcus Antonius identified himself with Hercules, and even invented a son of Hercules, called Anton, from whom Antonius claimed descent. In response, his enemy Octavianus identified with Apollo. Some early emperors took up the attributes of Hercules (eg Traianus), and later Roman Emperors, in particular Commodus and Maximian, went further and often identified or compared themselves with him and supported his cult; Maximianus styled himself "Herculius". The cult of Hercules spread through the Roman world. In Roman Egypt, what is believed to be the remains of a Temple of Hercules are found in the Bahariya Oasis. Myths of Hercules The Romans adopted the myths of Heracles including his twelve labors, essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it linking Hercules with the geography of the Western Mediterranean. In Roman mythology, Acca Larentia was Hercules' mistress. She was married to Tarutius, a wealthy merchant. When he died, she gave his money to charity. In another version, she was the wife of Faustulus. In Aeneid 8.195ff., Vergilius relates a myth about Hercules' defeating the monstrous Cacus, who lived in a cave under the Palatine Hill (one of the eventual Seven Hills of Rome). Germanic association Tacitus records a special affinity of the Germanic peoples for Hercules. In chapter 3 of his Germania, Tacitus states: ... they say that Hercules, too, once visited them; and when going into battle, they sang of him first of all heroes. They have also those songs of theirs, by the recital of this barditus or, baritus, there being scribal variants. In the 17th century, the word entered the German language as barditus and was associated with the Celtic bards. as they call it, they rouse their courage, while from the note they augur the result of the approaching conflict. For, as their line shouts, they inspire or feel alarm. Roman era Hercules' Clubs appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, spread over the empire (including Roman Britain, c.f. Cool 1986), mostly made of gold, shaped like wooden apples. A specimen found in Köln-Nippes bears the inscription "DEO HER[culi]", confirming the association with Hercules. In the 5th to 7th centuries, during the Migration Period, the amulet is theorized to have rapidly spread from the Elbe Germanic area across Europe. These Germanic "Donar's Clubs" were made from deer antler, bone or wood, more rarely also from Bronze or precious metals. They are found exclusively in female graves, apparently worn either as a belt pendant, or as an ear pendant. The amulet type is replaced by the Viking Age Thor's hammer pendants in the course of the Christianization of Scandinavia from the 8th to 9th century. Art Roman images of Hercules were based upon Hellenistic Greek images and might be contrasted with the images of Hercules that appear in Attic vase-painting (see Heracles). One aspect of Heracles' iconography that did not carry over to that of Hercules was his use of a bow. Gallery of ancient interpretations Hercules in popular culture Since the Renaissance, Hercules has rarely been distinguished from Heracles, the Roman figure overshadowing the Greek. Later interpretations of Hercules' legend cast him as a wise leader and a good friend (many of the movie and TV adaptations cast him in this light, especially the 1995-1999 syndicated TV series). The legend of Hercules endures, though often co-opted to suit the political fashion of the day. Hercules has also had an undeniable influence on modern pop culture characters such as He-Man. The legend of Hercules has been described in many movie and television adaptations, including several comic series featuring the hero. Hercules has been the hero of both Marvel Comics and DC Comics adventure comic books. In DC, he has often been associated with Wonder Woman. In Marvel, he currently stars in his own ongoing series titled The Incredible Hercules, where he has dealt with Amadeus Cho, The Hulk, The Eternals, and others. Hercules in numismatics Hercules has been the main motif of many collector coins and medals, the most recent one is the famous 20 euro Baroque Silver coin issued in September 11, 2002. The obverse side of the coin shows the Grand Staircase in the town palace of Prince Eugene of Savoy in Vienna, currently the Austrian Ministry of Finance. Gods and demi-gods hold its flights, while Hercules stands at the turn of the stairs. Gallery of modern interpretations See also Diomedes' carnivorous horses Heracles Pillars of Hercules Labours of Hercules Zeus Notes External links Etruscan mirror illustrated Uni and Hercle Hercle and Menerva on an Etruscan mirror from Città di Castello, c 300 BCE: Badisches Landesmuseum Images of Hercules | Hercules |@lemmatized gild:2 bronze:4 hercules:43 forum:2 boarium:2 apple:2 hesperides:1 roman:22 century:9 bce:2 find:5 capitoline:1 museum:2 name:4 mythical:1 greek:10 hero:7 heracles:9 son:2 zeus:2 jupiter:1 mortal:1 alcmena:1 early:2 source:1 suggest:1 import:1 supplant:1 mythic:1 italian:1 shepherd:1 call:3 recaranus:1 garanus:1 famous:2 strength:1 adopt:4 much:1 iconography:3 mythology:2 number:1 myth:4 characteristic:1 distinctly:1 etymology:1 latin:3 directly:1 borrow:1 modification:1 etruscan:8 hercle:8 derive:1 via:1 syncope:1 translates:1 glory:1 hera:1 oath:1 invoking:1 mehercle:4 common:1 interjection:1 classical:3 w:1 lindsay:1 herc:2 v:1 lvs:1 u:1 lu:1 quarterly:1 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6,869 | Mean_value_theorem | For any function that is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) there exists some c in the interval (a, b) such that the secant joining the endpoints of the interval [a, b] is parallel to the tangent at c. In calculus, the mean value theorem states, roughly, that given a section of a smooth curve, there is at least one point on that section at which the derivative (slope) of the curve is equal (parallel) to the "average" derivative of the section. "Mean Value Theorem" by Michael Trott, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. It is used to prove theorems that make global conclusions about a function on an interval starting from local hypotheses about derivatives at points of the interval. This theorem can be understood concretely by applying it to motion: If a car travels one hundred miles in one hour, then its average speed during that time was 100 miles per hour. To get at that average speed, the car either has to go at a constant 100 miles per hour during that whole time, or, if it goes slower at one moment, it has to go faster at another moment as well (and vice versa), in order to still end up with an average of 100 miles per hour. The Mean Value Theorem tells us that at some point during the journey, the car was traveling at exactly 100 miles per hour; that is, it was traveling at its average speed. An early version of this theorem was first described by Parameshvara (1370–1460) from the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in his commentaries on Govindasvāmi and Bhaskara II. J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). Paramesvara, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. The mean value theorem in its modern form was later stated by Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789–1857). It is one of the most important results in differential calculus, as well as one of the most important theorems in mathematical analysis, and is essential in proving the fundamental theorem of calculus. The mean value theorem follows from the more specific statement of Rolle's theorem, and can be used to prove the more general statement of Taylor's theorem (with Lagrange form of the remainder term). Formal statement Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b], and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), where Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that The mean value theorem is a generalization of Rolle's theorem, which assumes f(a) = f(b), so that the right-hand side above is zero. The mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting. One only needs to assume that f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b], and that for every x in (a, b) the limit exists as a finite number or equals +∞ or −∞. If finite, that limit equals f' (x). An example where this version of the theorem applies is given by the real-valued cube root function mapping x to x1/3, whose derivative tends to infinity at the origin. Note that the theorem is false if a differentiable function is complex-valued instead of real-valued. Indeed, define for all real x. Then , while . Proof The expression (ƒ(b) − ƒ(a)) / (b − a) gives the slope of the line joining the points (a, ƒ(a)) and (b, ƒ(b)), which is a chord of the graph of ƒ, while ƒ ′(x) gives the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point (x, ƒ(x)). Thus the Mean value theorem says that given any chord of a smooth curve, we can find a point lying between the end-points of the chord such that the tangent at that point is parallel to the chord. The following proof illustrates this idea. Define g(x) = ƒ(x) − rx, where r is a constant. Since ƒ is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), the same is true of g. We now want to choose r so that g satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Namely By Rolle's theorem, since g is continuous and g(a) = g(b), there is some c in (a, b) for which g ′(c) = 0, and it follows from the equality g(x) = ƒ(x) − rx that, as required. A simple application Assume that f is a continuous, real-valued function, defined on an arbitrary interval I of the real line. If the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero, then f is constant. Proof: Assume the derivative of f at every interior point of the interval I exists and is zero. Let (a, b) be an arbitrary open interval in I. By the mean value theorem, there exists a point c in (a,b) such that This implies that f(a) = f(b). Thus, f is constant on the interior of I and thus is constant on I by continuity. (See below for a multivariable version of this result.) Remarks: Only continuity of ƒ, not differentiability, is needed at the endpoints of the interval I. No hypothesis of continuity needs to be stated if I is an open interval, since the existence of a derivative at a point implies the continuity at this point. (See the section continuity and differentiability of the article derivative.) The differentiability of ƒ can be relaxed to one-sided differentiability, a proof given in the article on semi-differentiability. Cauchy's mean value theorem Cauchy's mean value theorem, also known as the extended mean value theorem, is the more general form of the mean value theorem. It states: If functions f and g are both continuous on the closed interval [a,b], and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there exists some c ∈ (a,b), such that Geometrical meaning of Cauchy's theorem. Of course, if g(a) ≠ g(b) and if g′(c) ≠ 0, this is equivalent to: Geometrically, this means that there is some tangent to the graph of the curve which is parallel to the line defined by the points (f(a),g(a)) and (f(b),g(b)). However Cauchy's theorem does not claim the existence of such a tangent in all cases where (f(a),g(a)) and (f(b),g(b)) are distinct points, since it might be satisfied only for some value c with f′(c) = g′(c) = 0, in other words a value for which the mentioned curve is stationary; in such points no tangent to the curve is likely to be defined at all. An example of this situation is the curve given by which on the interval [−1,1] goes from the point (−1,0) to (1,0), yet never has a horizontal tangent; however it has a stationary point (in fact a cusp) at t = 0. Cauchy's mean value theorem can be used to prove l'Hôpital's rule. The mean value theorem is the special case of Cauchy's mean value theorem when . Proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem The Government of Beijing celebrates the Mean Value Theorem The proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem is based on the same idea as the proof of the mean value theorem. First we need to define a new function that satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Define the function h by which is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then and so and Rolle's theorem applies. The derivative of h is and Rolle's theorem states that it is equal to zero at some point, i.e., h(c)=0 for some c ∈ (a, b). The equation for the derivative at c is therefore If and are nonzero this can be written as Mean value theorem in several variables The mean value theorem in one variable generalizes to several variables by applying the theorem in one variable via parametrization. Let G be an open subset of Rn, and let be a differentiable function. Fix points such that the interval lies in G, and define . Since g is a differentiable function in one variable, the mean value theorem gives: for some c between 0 and 1. But since and , computing explicitly we have: where denotes a gradient and a dot product. Note that this is an exact analog of the theorem in one variable (in the case n=1 this is the theorem in one variable). By the Schwarz inequality, the equation gives the estimate: In particular, when the partial derivatives of ƒ are bounded, ƒ is Lipschitz continuous (a fortiori, uniformly continuous). Note that ƒ is not assumed to be continuously differentiable nor continuous on the closure of G. However, in the above, we used the chain rule so the existence of would not be sufficient. As an application of the above, we prove that ƒ is constant if G is connected and every partial derivative of ƒ is 0. Pick some point , and let . We want to show for every . For that, let . Then E is closed and nonempty. It is open too: for every , for every y in some neighborhood of x. (Here, it is crucial that x and y are sufficiently close to each other.) Since G is connected, we conclude . Remark that all arguments in the above are made in a coordinate-free manner; hence, they actually generalize to the case when G is a subset of a Banach space. Mean value theorem for vector-valued functions There is no exact analog of the mean value theorem for vector-valued functions. The problem is roughly speaking the following: If is a differentiable function (where is open) and if is the line segment in question (lying inside ), then one can apply the above parametrization procedure to each of the component functions of (in the above notation set ). In doing so one finds points on the line segment satisfying . But generally there will not be a single point on the line segment satisfying for all simultaneously. (As a counterexample one could take defined via the component functions . Then , but and are never simultaneously zero as ranges over .) However a certain type of generalization of the mean value theorem to vector-valued functions is obtained as follows: Let f be a continuously differentiable real-valued function defined on an open interval I, and let x as well as x+h be points of I. The mean value theorem in one variable tells us that there exists some between 0 and 1 such that . On the other hand we have Thus, the value at the particular point has been replaced by the mean value . This last version can be generalized to vector valued functions: Let be open, continuously differentiable, and vectors such that the whole line segment remains in . Then we have: where the integral of a matrix is to be understood componentwise. ( denotes the Jacobian matrix of .) From this one can further deduce that if ||Df(x+th)|| is bounded for t between 0 and 1 by some constant M, thenProof of (*). Write () for the real valued components of . Define the functions by Then we have The claim follows since is the matrix consisting of the components , q.e.d.Proof of (**). From (*) it follows that Here we have used the followingLemma. Let be a continuous function defined on the interval . Then we have 'Proof of (***). Let denote the value of the integral Now thus as desired. (Note the use of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.) This shows (***) and thereby finishes the proof of (**). Mean value theorems for integration First mean value theorem for integration The first mean value theorem for integration states If G : [a, b] → R is a continuous function and φ : [a, b] → R is an integrable positive function, then there exists a number x in (a, b) such that In particular for φ(t) = 1, there exists x in (a, b) such that Proof of the first mean value theorem for integration Let and . It follows that by monotonicity of the integral. Dividing through by we have that Since G(t) is continuous, the intermediate value theorem implies that there exists x in [a, b] such that which completes the proof. Second mean value theorem for integration There are various slightly different theorems called the second mean value theorem for integration. A commonly found version is as follows: If G : [a, b] → R is a positive monotonically decreasing function and φ : [a, b] → R is an integrable function, then there exists a number x in (a, b] such that \ Here G(a + 0) stands for , the existence of which follows from the conditions. Note that it is essential that the interval (a, b] contains b. A variant not having this requirement is: If G : [a, b] → R is a monotonic (not necessarily decreasing and positive) function and φ : [a, b] → R''' is an integrable function, then there exists a number x in (a, b'') such that This variant was proved by Hiroshi Okamura in 1947. See also arithmetic mean Newmark-beta method mean value theorem (divided differences) References External links PlanetMath: Mean-Value Theorem Mathworld: Mean-Value Theorem | Mean_value_theorem |@lemmatized function:27 continuous:14 b:47 differentiable:12 exist:11 c:15 interval:19 secant:1 join:2 endpoint:2 parallel:4 tangent:7 calculus:3 mean:39 value:50 theorem:57 state:6 roughly:2 give:9 section:4 smooth:2 curve:8 least:1 one:18 point:25 derivative:12 slope:3 equal:4 average:5 michael:1 trott:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 use:6 prove:6 make:2 global:1 conclusion:1 starting:1 local:1 hypothesis:2 understand:1 concretely:1 apply:4 motion:1 car:3 travel:3 hundred:1 mile:5 hour:5 speed:3 time:2 per:4 get:1 either:1 go:4 constant:7 whole:2 slow:1 moment:2 faster:1 another:1 well:3 vice:1 versa:1 order:1 still:2 end:2 tell:2 u:2 journey:1 exactly:1 early:1 version:5 first:5 describe:1 parameshvara:1 kerala:1 school:1 astronomy:1 mathematics:2 commentary:1 govindasvāmi:1 bhaskara:1 ii:1 j:2 connor:1 e:4 f:20 robertson:1 paramesvara:1 mactutor:1 history:1 archive:1 modern:1 form:3 later:1 augustin:1 louis:1 cauchy:10 important:2 result:2 differential:1 mathematical:1 analysis:1 essential:2 fundamental:1 follow:8 specific:1 statement:3 rolle:7 general:3 taylor:1 lagrange:1 remainder:1 term:1 formal:1 let:12 r:10 closed:2 open:9 generalization:2 assume:5 right:1 hand:2 side:2 zero:5 valid:1 slightly:2 setting:1 need:4 every:7 x:21 limit:2 finite:2 number:4 example:2 real:7 cube:1 root:1 map:1 whose:1 tends:1 infinity:1 origin:1 note:5 false:1 complex:1 instead:1 indeed:1 define:11 proof:12 expression:1 ƒ:17 line:7 chord:4 graph:2 thus:5 say:1 find:3 lie:3 following:2 illustrate:1 idea:2 g:29 rx:2 since:9 true:1 want:2 choose:1 satisfy:4 condition:3 namely:1 equality:1 require:1 simple:1 application:2 arbitrary:2 interior:3 exists:2 imply:3 continuity:5 see:3 multivariable:1 remark:2 differentiability:5 existence:4 article:2 relax:1 semi:1 also:2 know:1 extended:1 geometrical:1 meaning:1 course:1 equivalent:1 geometrically:1 however:4 claim:2 case:4 distinct:1 might:1 word:1 mention:1 stationary:2 likely:1 situation:1 yet:1 never:2 horizontal:1 fact:1 cusp:1 l:1 hôpital:1 rule:2 special:1 government:1 beijing:1 celebrate:1 base:1 new:1 h:4 applies:1 equation:2 therefore:1 nonzero:1 write:2 several:2 variable:8 generalize:3 via:2 parametrization:2 subset:2 rn:1 fix:1 compute:1 explicitly:1 denote:3 gradient:1 dot:1 product:1 exact:2 analog:2 n:1 schwarz:2 inequality:2 estimate:1 particular:3 partial:2 bound:2 lipschitz:1 fortiori:1 uniformly:1 continuously:3 closure:1 chain:1 would:1 sufficient:1 connect:2 pick:1 show:2 close:2 nonempty:1 neighborhood:1 crucial:1 sufficiently:1 conclude:1 argument:1 coordinate:1 free:1 manner:1 hence:1 actually:1 banach:1 space:1 vector:5 problem:1 speak:1 segment:4 question:1 inside:1 procedure:1 component:4 notation:1 set:1 satisfying:1 generally:1 single:1 simultaneously:2 counterexample:1 could:1 take:1 defined:1 range:1 certain:1 type:1 obtain:1 replace:1 last:1 valued:2 remain:1 integral:3 matrix:3 understood:1 componentwise:1 jacobian:1 far:1 deduce:1 df:1 th:1 thenproof:1 consisting:1 q:1 followinglemma:1 desire:1 thereby:1 finish:1 theorems:1 integration:6 φ:4 integrable:3 positive:3 monotonicity:1 divide:1 intermediate:1 complete:1 second:2 various:1 different:1 call:1 commonly:1 monotonically:1 decrease:2 stand:1 contain:1 variant:2 requirement:1 monotonic:1 necessarily:1 hiroshi:1 okamura:1 arithmetic:1 newmark:1 beta:1 method:1 divided:1 difference:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 planetmath:1 mathworld:1 |@bigram wolfram_demonstration:1 vice_versa:1 mactutor_history:1 augustin_louis:1 differential_calculus:1 rolle_theorem:7 closed_interval:2 tends_infinity:1 ƒ_ƒ:1 slope_tangent:1 tangent_curve:2 l_hôpital:1 hôpital_rule:1 subset_rn:1 schwarz_inequality:2 lipschitz_continuous:1 uniformly_continuous:1 continuously_differentiable:3 banach_space:1 jacobian_matrix:1 cauchy_schwarz:1 integrable_function:2 external_link:1 |
6,870 | Dale_Chihuly | Dale Chihuly (b. September 20, 1941 in Tacoma, Washington, United States) is an American glass sculptor and entrepreneur. Biography Chihuly graduated from high school in Tacoma. Supported by his mother, after his brother George's death in a flight-training accident in Florida and his father's death of a heart attack, he enrolled at the College of the Puget Sound in 1959. A year later, he transferred to the University of Washington at Seattle, where in 1965 he received a bachelor of arts degree in interior design. Chihuly victimized by his own success?, an April 17, 2006 article from the Seattle Post-Intelligencer In 1967, he received a Master of Science in sculpture from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he studied under Harvey Littleton. In 1968, he studied glass in Venice on a Fulbright Fellowship and received a Master of Fine Arts at the Rhode Island School of Design. In 1971, with the support of John Hauberg and Anne Gould Hauberg, Chihuly founded the Pilchuck Glass School near Stanwood, Washington. About the Pilchuck Glass School from their website In 1976, while Chihuly was in England, he was involved in a head-on automobile accident during which he flew through the windshield. Glass Houses: Dale Chihuly Files a Lawsuit That Raises Big Questions... About Dale Chihuly, a February 2006 article from The Stranger His face was severely cut by glass and he was blinded in his left eye. After recovering, he continued to blow glass until he dislocated his shoulder in a 1979 bodysurfing accident. No longer able to hold the glass blowing pipe, he hired others to do the work; Chihuly explained the change in a 2006 interview, saying "Once I stepped back, I liked the view" and pointing out that it allowed him to see the work from more perspectives and enabled him to anticipate problems faster. Chihuly describes his role as "more choreographer than dancer, more supervisor than participant, more director than actor." Chihuly's and his team of artists were the subject of the documentary Chihuly Over Venice; the program was the first HDTV program to be broadcast in the United States when it aired in November 1998. They were also featured in the documentary Chihuly in the Hotshop, syndicated to public television stations by American Public Television starting in November 1, 2008. Chihuly Over Venice from Chihuly's Portland Press website About his work Crystal Towers on the Chihuly Bridge of Glass, Tacoma, Washington. Regina Hackett, as the Seattle Post-Intelligencer art critic, provided a chronology of his work during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s: 1975: Navajo Blanket Series, in which patterns of Navajo blankets were painted onto glass 1977: Northwest Coast Basket Series, baskets inspired by Northwest coast Indian baskets he'd seen as a child 1980: Seaform Series, transparent sculptures of thin glass, strengthened by ribbed strands of color 1981: Maccia Series, featuring every color available in the studio 1986: Persian Series, inspired by Middle East glass from the 12th- to 14th-century, featuring more restrained color and room-sized installations 1988: Venetian Series, improvisations based on Italian Art Deco 1989: Ikebana Series, glass flower arrangements inspired by Ikebana 1990: Venetian Series returns, this time in a more eccentric form 1991: Niijima Floats, six-foot spheres of intricate color inspired by Japanese fishing floats from the island of Niijima Niijima from Chihuly's website 1992: Chandeliers, starting modestly but by the middle of the decade involving a ton of glass orbs and shapes that in some works look like flowers, others like breasts, and still others like snakes Chihuly has also produced a sizable volume of "Irish cylinders" photo from lakeview-museum.org , which are more modest in conception than his blown glass works. Galleries Chihuly maintains two retail stores in partnership with MGM Mirage. One is located at the Bellagio in Las Vegas List of stores from the Bellagio hotel/casino website , the other at the MGM Grand Casino in Macau Press release by MGM Macau, mentioning Chihuly shop (search for "Chihuly retail") . A number of other galleries also carry his pieces. 2006 lawsuit In 2006, Chihuly filed a lawsuit against a pair of glassblowers, including Robert Kaindl, whom he accused of copying his work. Chihuly was unsuccessful: the glass blower federation argued that Chihuly's designs feature basic shapes therefore any novice would be able to create the spiral glass which feature in many Chihuly's compositions. Glass warfare from the website of the St. Petersburg Times The Seattle Times: Local News: Glass artist Chihuly's lawsuit tests limits of copyrighting art, a 2005 article from The Seattle Times; The lawsuit was settled out of court.<ref>Chihuly, rival glass artist settle dispute a 2006 article from The Seattle Times</ref> Permanent collections United States In 2000, Chihuly's commission from the Victoria and Albert Museum for a high, blown glass chandelier dominates the museum's main entrance. Blown glass in the main entrance of Oklahoma City Museum of Art. Another piece from the Inside and Out installation at the Joslyn Art Museum. Close-up of Chihuly glass sculpture at the Milwaukee Art Museum. Alabama The Jule Collins Smith Museum of Fine Art, Auburn University, Auburn (1995) Birmingham Persian Wall, Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham California Founders Hall Art Gallery, Soka University of America, Aliso Viejo (1995) San Jose Museum of Art | Sculptures San Jose Museum of Art, San Jose Colorado (2004) Chihuly at the Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center, Colorado Springs Delaware (1999-2005) Delaware Art Museum Delaware Art Museum, Wilmington Florida 'The Arts' of St. Pete, St. Petersburg Norton Museum of Art, West Palm Beach, Florida Hawaii The Contemporary Museum, Honolulu (1992) Persians Yellow and Cobalt Wall Piece, Honolulu Academy of Arts (2001) Reef, Honolulu Academy of Arts Illinois Schaumburg Township District Library Main Branch Indiana (2006) The Children's Museum of Indianapolis The Children's Museum of Indianapolis, Indianapolis Kansas (2003) http://www.wichitaartmuseum.org/exp2k3.html Wichita Art Museum, Wichita Michigan Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, Kalamazoo (2000) Beacon Gold Chandelier Krasl Art Center, St. Joseph Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park, Grand Rapids Minnesota (1999) artsmia.org : viewer Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis (2001) Dale Chihuly Mayo Clinic, Rochester Missouri (1996) Campiello del Remer, Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art, Kansas City, Missouri (1996) Palazzo di Loredana Balboni, Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art, Kansas City, Missouri Nebraska (2000) Chihuly: Inside & Out Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha (2000) Toreador Red, Peter Kiewit Institute at the University of Nebraska, Omaha Nevada (1998) Fiori di Como, Bellagio Hotel and Casino, Paradise, Las Vegas (2004) Nevada Cancer Institute, Summerlin New Jersey (2003) Chihuly - Borgata Hotel + Casino, Atlantic City Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa, Atlantic City New York (1987) Rainbow Room Frieze, Rockefeller Center, New York City (1994) Persian Window, St. Peter's Church, New York City (2000) Fern Green Tower, Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, New York City Ohio (2003) http://www.fpconservatory.org/exhb_chihuly.htm , Franklin Park Conservatory, Columbus (2005) The University of Akron, Akron (2006) Campiello del Remer #2, Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo Oklahoma (2002) Oklahoma City Museum of Art, Oklahoma City Oregon (2000) Gilded & Ethereal Blue Chandelier, Global Aviation, Hillsboro Airport, Hillsboro Texas (1995) Hart Window, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas Utah (2002) http://www.slco.org/fi/slcoart/art/Chihuly-Dale/Tower.html Olympic Tower, Salt Lake City Washington (1988) Chihuly at the Frank Russel Bldg Frank Russell Company, Tacoma (1991) Chihuly City Centre Installation City Centre Mall, Seattle (1992-1993) Chihuly Washington State Convention Center Installation Washington State Trade and Convention Center, Seattle (1994) Chihuly - Union Station Union Station Federal Courthouse, Tacoma (1995) Gonzaga University Red Chandelier Jundt Art Museum at Gonzaga University, Spokane (1995) Persian Window, Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma (1995) Dale Chihuly Microsoft Corporation, Redmond (1996) Chihuly - Icicle Creek Sleeping Lady Conference Retreat, Leavenworth (1997) Chihuly - The News Tribune Tacoma News Tribune, Tacoma (1998) Crystal Cascade, Benaroya Hall, Seattle (2000) Chihuly Window, University of Puget Sound. Tacoma (2002) Chihuly Bridge of Glass, Museum of Glass, Tacoma (2003) Chihuly Tacoma Art Museum, Tacoma Wisconsin (1998) Mendota Wall Kohl Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison (2004) , University of Wisconsin - Green Bay Canada Quebec (2001) Chihuly - Hilton Lac-Leamy, Hull, Quebec Hilton Lac-Leamy, Gatineau British Columbia (1998) Dale Chihuly 1200 Georgia Street, Vancouver England (2001) Chihuly at the V&A Victoria and Albert Museum, London Exhibitions A Chihuly in Coral Gables, FL with floating spheres in the background. (1996) Chihuly Over Venice, Venice, Italy (1999-2000) Chihuly in the Light of Jerusalem 2000, Tower of David, Jerusalem, Israel (2001-2002) Chihuly In The Park: A Garden Of Glass, Garfield Park Conservatory, Chicago, Illinois (2004) Chihuly in the Garden, Atlanta Botanical Garden, Atlanta, Georgia (2005) Gardens of Glass, Kew Gardens, London. (2005) Chihuly in Kalamazoo, Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, Kalamazoo, Michigan (2005-2007) Chihuly at Fairchild, Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Coral Gables, Florida (2006) Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri (2006) Oisterwijk Sculptuur, Oisterwijk, Netherlands (2006) New York Botanical Garden, New York, New York (2007) Wrapped In Tradition: The Chihuly Collection of American Indian Trade Blankets Mayborn Museum Complex, Waco, Texas (2007) Chihuly at Phipps: Gardens and Glass, Phipps Conservatory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (2008) Chihuly at the de Young, de Young Museum, San Francisco, California (2009) Chihuly: Day and Night, Desert Botanical Garden, Phoenix, Arizona Gallery Bibliography Chihuly Over Venice by William Warmus and Dana Self. Seattle: Portland Press, 1996. Chihuly by Donald Kuspit. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998. The Essential Dale Chihuly by William Warmus. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000. Dale Chihuly:365 Days. Margaret L. Kaplan, Editor. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2008. in 1993 References External links Dale Chihuly's official website Dale Chihuly at Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden Dale Chihuly at the Cincinnati Art Museum Holsten Galleries Niijima Floats Series Seattle Times article on Dale Chihuly | Dale_Chihuly |@lemmatized dale:13 chihuly:65 b:1 september:1 tacoma:12 washington:7 united:3 state:5 american:3 glass:29 sculptor:1 entrepreneur:1 biography:1 graduate:1 high:2 school:4 support:2 mother:1 brother:1 george:1 death:2 flight:1 training:1 accident:3 florida:4 father:1 heart:1 attack:1 enrol:1 college:1 puget:2 sound:2 year:1 later:1 transfer:1 university:12 seattle:11 receive:3 bachelor:1 art:36 degree:1 interior:1 design:3 victimize:1 success:1 april:1 article:5 post:2 intelligencer:2 master:2 science:1 sculpture:5 wisconsin:4 madison:2 study:2 harvey:1 littleton:1 venice:6 fulbright:1 fellowship:1 fine:4 rhode:1 island:2 john:1 hauberg:2 anne:1 gould:1 found:1 pilchuck:2 near:1 stanwood:1 website:6 england:2 involve:2 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collection:2 commission:1 victoria:2 albert:2 dominate:1 main:3 entrance:2 oklahoma:4 city:13 another:1 inside:2 joslyn:2 close:1 milwaukee:1 alabama:1 jule:1 collins:1 smith:1 auburn:2 birmingham:3 wall:3 california:2 founder:1 hall:2 soka:1 america:1 aliso:1 viejo:1 san:4 jose:3 colorado:4 spring:3 center:7 delaware:3 wilmington:1 pete:1 norton:1 west:1 palm:1 beach:1 hawaii:1 contemporary:3 honolulu:3 yellow:1 cobalt:1 academy:2 reef:1 illinois:2 schaumburg:1 township:1 district:1 library:1 branch:1 indiana:1 indianapolis:3 kansa:3 http:3 www:3 wichitaartmuseum:1 html:2 wichita:2 michigan:2 kalamazoo:5 institute:5 beacon:1 gold:1 krasl:1 joseph:1 frederik:1 meijer:1 garden:12 park:4 rapid:1 minnesota:1 artsmia:1 viewer:1 minneapolis:2 mayo:1 clinic:1 rochester:1 missouri:5 campiello:2 del:2 remer:2 kemper:2 palazzo:1 di:2 loredana:1 balboni:1 nebraska:2 omaha:2 toreador:1 red:2 peter:2 kiewit:1 nevada:2 fiori:1 como:1 paradise:1 la:1 vega:1 cancer:1 summerlin:1 new:11 jersey:1 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6,871 | British_Army | The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England and Scotland and was administered by the War Office from London. Since 1963, it has been managed by the Ministry of Defence. The British Army consists of 109,740 regular soldiers (with 98,560 trained), plus 3,640 Gurkhas and 34,000 Territorial Army soldiers, giving it a total of around 147,000 soldiers in October 2008 UK Armed Forces: Full Time Strengths and Requirements at 1 October 2008, dasa.mod.uk . The full-time element of the British Army has also been referred to as the Regular Army since the creation of the reservist Territorial Army in 1908. The British Army is deployed in many of the world's war zones as part of both Expeditionary Forces and in United Nations Peacekeeping forces. The British Army is currently deployed in Kosovo, Cyprus, Germany, Iraq, Afghanistan and many other places. In contrast to the Royal Navy, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force, the British Army does not include "Royal" in its title. Primarily this is because historically the British Army is the Army of Parliament and not the Crown. This position was confirmed by the Bill of Rights 1689 requiring Parliamentary Authority to maintain a standing army in peacetime. Nevertheless, many of its constituent Regiments and Corps are styled Royal and have members of the Royal Family occupying senior positions within some regiments. FAQ: Oldest Regiment in the British Army The professional head of the British Army is the Chief of the General Staff, currently Sir Richard Dannatt. History The Death of General Wolfe during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Charge of the Highlanders at the Battle of Bushy Run. Battle of Waterloo was one of the British Army's greatest victories. The British Army came into being with the merger of the Scottish Army and the English Army, following the unification of the two countries' parliaments and the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated existing English and Scottish regiments, and was controlled from London. From roughly 1763 the United Kingdom has been one of the leading military and economic powers of the world. The British Empire expanded in this time to include colonies, protectorates, and Dominions throughout the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australasia. Although the Royal Navy is widely regarded as having been vital for the rise of the British Empire, and British dominance of the world, the British Army played important roles in colonisation. Typical tasks for the Army included garrisoning the colonies, capturing strategically important territories and participating in actions to pacify colonial borders, provide support to allied governments, suppress Britain's rivals, and protect against foreign powers and hostile natives. British troops also helped capture strategically important territories for the British, allowing the British Empire to expand throughout the globe. The Army also involved itself in numerous wars meant to pacify the borders, or to prop-up friendly governments, and thereby keep other, competitive, empires away from the British Empire's borders. Among these actions were the Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, the First and Second Opium Wars, the Boxer Rebellion, the New Zealand land wars, the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the First and Second Boer Wars, the Fenian raids, the Irish War of Independence, its serial interventions into Afghanistan (which were meant to maintain a friendly buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire), and the Crimean War (to keep the Russian Empire at a safe distance by coming to Turkey's aid). As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the Seven Years' War and subsequently suppressed a Native American uprising in Pontiac's War. The British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars in which the army served in Spain, across Europe, and in North Africa. The war between the British and First French Empires stretched around the world. The British Army finally came to defeat Napoleon at one of Britain's greatest military victories at the battle of Waterloo. An artist's interpretation of The Battle of Rorke's Drift in which 11 VCs were awarded to British troops. The battle is remarkable in that a hundred well-armed British soldiers managed to defend the small, walled compound of a farmstead and hold off six thousand native warriors and their spears long enough for them to give up and leave them alone. Under Oliver Cromwell, the English Army had been active in the conquest, and the settlement, of Ireland since the 1650s. The Cromwellian campaign was characterised by its uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns (most notably Drogheda) that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War. It (and subsequently, the British Army) have been almost continuously involved in Ireland ever since, primarily in suppressing numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for self-determination. It was faced with the prospect of battling Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots settlers in Ireland, who alongside their Irish countrymen had raised their own volunteer army and threatened to emulate the American colonists if their conditions (primarily concerning home rule and freedom of trade) were not met. The British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster (Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen) in the 1798 rebellion. In addition to battling the armies of other European Empires' (and of its former colonies, the United States, in the American War of 1812,) in the battle for global supremacy, the British Army fought the Chinese in the First and Second Opium Wars, and the Boxer Rebellion; Māori tribes in the first of the New Zealand Wars; Indian princely forces and British East India Company mutineers in the Indian Mutiny; the Boers in the First and Second Boer Wars; Irish Fenians in Canada during the Fenian raids; and Irish separatists in the Anglo-Irish War. Following William and Mary's accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Mary's father, James II. Following the 1707 union of England and Scotland, and then the 1801 creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, British foreign policy, on the continent, was to contain expansion by its competitor powers such as France and Spain. The territorial ambitions of the French led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. Russian activity led to the Crimean War. The vastly increasing demands of imperial expansion, and the inadequacies and inefficiencies of the underfunded, post-Napoleonic Wars British Army, and of the Militia, Yeomanry, and Volunteer Force, led to the Cardwell and Childers Reforms of the late 19th century, which gave the British Army its modern shape, and redefined its regimental system. The Haldane Reforms of 1907, formally created the Territorial Force as the Army's volunteer reserve component. British Mark One Tank during World War I. Note the guidance wheels behind the main body which were later scrapped as they were unnecessary. Armoured vehicles of this time still required much infantry and artillery support and still do to a lesser extent even in today's military. Battle of El Alamein. Great Britain's dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, notably the German Empire. The UK was allied with France (by the Entente Cordiale) and Russia, and when the First World War broke out in 1914, the British Army sent the British Expeditionary Force to France and Belgium to prevent Germany from occupying these countries. The War would be the most devastating in British military history, with near 800,000 men killed and over 2 million wounded. In the early part of the war, the professional force of the BEF was decimated and, by turns, a volunteer (and then conscripted) force replaced it. Major battles included the Battle of the Somme. Advances in technology saw advent of the tank, with the creation of the Royal Tank Regiment, and advances in aircraft design, with the creation of the Royal Flying Corps, which were to be decisive in future battles. Trench warfare dominated strategy on the Western Front, and the use of chemical and poison gases added to the devastation. In 1939, the Second World War broke out with the German invasion of Poland. British assurances to the Polish led the British Empire to declare war on Germany. Again an Expeditionary Force was sent to France, only to be hastily evacuated as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in 1940. Only the Dunkirk evacuations saved the entire Expeditionary Force from capture. Later, however, the British would have spectacular success defeating the Italians and Germans at the Battle of El Alamein in North Africa, and in the D-Day invasions of Normandy with the help of American, Canadian, Australian and New Zealand forces. Contrary to popular (Hollywood influenced) belief, over half of Allied soldiers on D-day were British. In the Far East, the British Army battled the Japanese in Burma. World War II saw the British army develop its Commando units including the Parachute Regiment and Special Air Service. During the war the British army was one of the major fighting forces on the side of the allies. After the end of World War II, the British Army was significantly reduced in size, although National Service continued until 1960. This period also saw the process of Decolonisation commence with the end of the British Raj, and the independence of other colonies in Africa and Asia. Accordingly the strength of the British military was further reduced, in recognition of Britain's reduced role in world affairs, outlined in the 1957 Defence White Paper, although major conflicts had been recently fought in form of the Korean War in 1950 and Suez Crisis in 1956. A large deployment of British troops also remained in Germany, facing the threat of Soviet invasion. The Cold War saw significant technological advances in warfare, and the Army saw more technologically advanced weapons systems come into service. British soldiers guard Argentine prisoners of war during the Falklands War. Despite the decline of the British Empire, the Army was still deployed around the world, fighting colonial wars in Aden, Cyprus, Kenya and Malaya. In 1982 the British Army, alongside the Royal Marines, helped to recapture the Falkland Islands during the Falklands War against Argentina. In the three decades following 1969, the Army was heavily deployed in Northern Ireland, to support the Royal Ulster Constabulary (later the Police Service of Northern Ireland) in their conflict with loyalist and republican paramilitary groups, called Operation Banner. The locally-recruited Ulster Defence Regiment was formed, later becoming the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992. Over 700 soldiers were killed during the Troubles. Following the IRA ceasefires between 1994 and 1996 and since 1997, demilitarisation has taken place as part of the peace process, reducing the military presence from 30,000 to 5,000 troops. On 25 June 2007, the Second Battalion Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment vacated the Army complex at Bessbrook Mill in Armagh. This is part of the 'normalisation' programme in Northern Ireland in response to the IRA's declared end to its activities. see also: Tank formations during the Cold War Recent and current conflicts Persian Gulf War The ending of the Cold War saw a 40% cut in manpower, as outlined in the Options for Change review. Despite this, the Army has been deployed in an increasingly global role. In 1991, the United Kingdom was the second largest contributor to the coalition force that fought Iraq in the Gulf War. The nation supplied just under 50,000 personnel and was the nation put in control of Kuwait after it was liberated. Balkans conflicts The British Army was deployed to Yugoslavia in 1992. Initially this force formed part of the United Nations Protection Force. In 1995 command was transferred to IFOR and then to SFOR. Currently troops are under the command of EUFOR. Over 10,000 troops were sent. In 1999 British forces under the command of SFOR were sent to Kosovo during the conflict there. Command was subsequently transferred to KFOR. Afghanistan British soldiers in Afghanistan. In 2001 the United Kingdom, as a part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, invaded Afghanistan to topple the Taliban. The 3rd Division Signal Regiment were deployed in Kabul, Afghanistan to assist in the liberation of the troubled capital. The Royal Marines' 3 Commando Brigade (part of the Royal Navy but including a number of Army units) also swept the Afghan mountains. The British Armed forces are currently in charge of NATO forces in the nation. The British Army is today concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand province under NATO control. Approximately 8,100 British troops are currently in Afghanistan, making it the second largest force after the US. Up to 2,000 extra British troops are likely to be sent to Afghanistan in 2009, bringing the total to 10,100. Iraq War British soldiers in Iraq. In 2003, the United Kingdom was a major contributor to the United States-led invasion of Iraq. There was some disagreement amongst the populace but the House of Commons voted for the conflict, sending 46,000 army personnel to the region, the second largest force after the US. The British Army controls the southern regions of Iraq and maintains a presence in the city of Basra. The British Army is not currently at war, but this is a conflict against militant groups acting within Iraq. The British Army's main duty in Iraq is peace-keeping. Northern Ireland The British Army was initially deployed in Northern Ireland in the wake of Catholic rioting in Derry Bloomfield, K Stormont in Crisis (Belfast 1994) p 114 and Belfast PRONI: Cabinet conclusions file CAB/4/1460 and to prevent Protestant Loyalist attacks on Catholic communities, under Operation Banner between 1969 and 2007 in support of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and its successor, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI). There has been a steady reduction in the number of troops deployed in Northern Ireland since the Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998. In 2005, after the Provisional Irish Republican Army announced an end to armed conflict in Northern Ireland, it was revealed that the British Army would dismantle posts and withdraw many troops and restore troop levels to that of a peace time garrison. The operation ended at midnight on 31 July 2007, making it the longest continuous deployment in the British Army's history, lasting some thirty-eight years. An internal British Army document released in 2007 stated an expert opinion that the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA but had made it impossible for them to win through the use of violence Operation Helvetic replaced Operation Banner in 2007 maintaining fewer servicemen in a much more benign environment.. Tommy Atkins and other nicknames A long established nickname for a British soldier has been 'Tommy Atkins' or 'Tommy' for short. The origins are obscure but most probably derive from a specimen army form circulated by the Adjutant-General Sir Harry Calvert to all units in 1815 where the blanks had been filled in with the particulars of a Private Thomas Atkins, No 6 Company, 23rd Regiment of Foot. Present day British soldiers are often referred to as 'Toms' or just 'Tom'. Outside the services soldiers are generally known as 'Squaddies' by the British popular press. The British Army magazine Soldier has a regular cartoon strip, 'Tom', featuring the everyday life of a British soldier. Another nickname which applies only to soldiers in Scottish regiments is 'Jocks', derived from the fact that in Scotland the common Christian name John is often changed to Jock in the vernacular. Welsh soldiers are occasionally referred to as 'Taffy' or just 'Taff'. This most likely only applies to those from the Taff-ely Vally in South Wales, where a large portion of men, left unemployed from the decline of the coal industry in the area, enlisted in the military during WW1 and 2. Irish soldiers are referred to as Paddy's or Mick's, this from the days when many Irish recruits had the name Patrick or Michael. Junior officers in the army are generally known as 'Ruperts' by the Other ranks. This nickname is believed to be derived from the children's comic book character Rupert Bear who epitomizes traditional public school values. See "Inside the British Army" by Antony Beevor ISBN 071134658 The term 'Pongo', as in where the army goes the pong goes, or 'Perce' is often used by Sailors and Royal Marines to refer to soldiers. It is not considered complimentary. Today's Army Statistics The Challenger 2, the British Army's main battle tank. A Pinzagauer Vector, which along with the Panther CLV is replacing the Land Rover from front line service British Army statistics Armed forces.co.uk Personnel (Regular Army) 109,000 Personnel (Territorial Army) 34,000 Main Battle Tanks 446 Challenger 2 Light Tanks 325 FV107 Scimitar Infantry fighting vehicles 789 Warrior. 305 Tempest MPVAPCs and CVR(T)s 3,230–4,000+ Land Rover Wolf 15,000 Pinzgauer 2,000 Utility Trucks 2,300Artillery pieces and mortar 2,896 Air Defence337Aircraft 300+ Current deployments 'High Intensity' Operations CountryDatesDeploymentDetails Afghanistan 2001– 8,030 troops British troops have been based in Afghanistan since the US-led invasion there in 2001. Currently, under Operation Herrick, the Army maintains troops in Camp Souter, Kabul and a brigade on 6-monthly rotation in the southern province of Helmand mostly based on Camp Bastion and forward operating bases. In late 2008, the resident brigade is 3 Commando Brigade. This brigade has previously done tours in Afghanistan. In June 2008, British Defence Secretary Des Browne announced British troop numbers in Afghanistan to increase by 230 to a new high of more than 8,000 by Spring 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1162108.stm Iraq 2003– 4,000 troops As part of Operation Telic (Gulf War 2), the British Army participated in the invasion of Iraq. Following the decision for continued security operations, the UK commands the Multi-National Division (South-East) with a headquarters unit, National Support Element and a combat brigade rotated every 6 months (in mid 2008, 7 Armoured Brigade, along with troops from Italy, Norway, Romania, Denmark, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Portugal and Lithuania. A large number of Territorial Army soldiers have been deployed for a variety of tasks, both as individuals serving and as formed units. Troop numbers are gradually decreasing and all troops will be withdrawn by July 2009.Kosovo 2008 600 troops As part of the 's peacekeeping force in Kosovo called EULEX, the UK sent a battle-group based on 2 Rifles, a light infantry battalion of about 600 soldiers, to help maintain public order. This battalion has since returned to the UK. "New mission for British troops in Kosovo" guardian.co.uk 25 April Link Added 5 May 2008 'Low-Intensity' Operations CountryDatesDeploymentDetails Cyprus 1960– Two resident infantry battalions, Royal Engineers, 16 Flight Army Air Corps and Joint Service Signals Unit at Ayios Nikolaos as a part of British Forces CyprusThe UK retains two Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus after the island's independence. The bases serve as forward bases for deployments in the Middle East. British forces are also deployed separately with UN peacekeeping forces on the island. Principal facilities are Alexander Barracks at Dhekelia and Salamanca Barracks at Episkopi. Falkland Islands 1982– An infantry company group and an Engineers Squadron Previously a platoon-sized Royal Marines Naval Party served as garrison. After 1982 the garrison was enlarged, and bolstered with an RAF base at RAF Mount Pleasant on East Falkland. Gibraltar 1704–1991 One infantry battalion, Joint Provost and Security Unit as a part of British Forces Gibraltar British Army garrison is provided by an indigenous regiment, the Royal Gibraltar Regiment, which has been on the Army regular establishment since the last British regiment left in 1991. Rest of the Middle East 1990- 3,700 troops Since the Gulf War in 1991, the UK has had a considerable military presence in the Middle East. Besides Iraq, there are also an additional 3,500 troops in Saudi Arabia and Camp Beuhring, Kuwait, as well as regular training Exercises in Oman. Sierra Leone 1999 About 1000 troops The British Army were deployed to Sierra Leone, a former British colony on Operation Palliser in 1999 to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen, under United Nations resolutions. Troops ( Royal Marines ) remain in the region to provide military support and training to the Sierra Leone government. Permanent overseas postings CountryDatesDeploymentDetails Belize 1981– British Army Training and Support Unit Belize and 25 Flight Army Air CorpsBritish troops have been based in Belize since the country gained independence from the UK in 1981. Until 1994 Belize's neighbour, Guatemala claimed the territory, and British troops were based in Belize to provide a deterrent force Brunei 1962– One battalion from the Royal Gurkha Rifles, British Garrison, Training Team Brunei (TTB) and 7 Flight Army Air Corps A Gurkha battalion has been maintained in Brunei since the Brunei Revolt in 1962 at the request of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin III. The Training Team Brunei (TTB) is the Army's jungle warfare school, while the small number of garrison troops support the battalion. 7 Flight Army Air Corps provides helicopter support to both the Gurkha battalion and the TTB. Canada 1972– British Army Training Unit Suffield and 29 (BATUS) Flight Army Air Corps A training centre in the Alberta prairie which is provided for the use of British Army and Canadian Forces under agreement with the government of Canada. British forces conduct regular, major armoured training exercises here every year, with helicopter support provided by 29 (BATUS) Flight AAC. Germany 1945– 1st (UK) Armoured Division as part of British Forces Germany and 12 Flight Army Air CorpsBritish forces remained in Germany after the end of World War II. Forces declined considerably after the end of the Cold War, although the lack of accommodation in the UK means forces will continue to be based in Germany. Kenya British Army Training Unit Kenya The Army has a training centre in Kenya, under agreement with the Kenyan government. It provides training facilities for three infantry battalions per year Equipment L85A1 Rifle. A soldier from the Queen's Dragoon Guards fires an FN Minimi LMG. Warrior IFV. Westland WAH-64 Apache. A soldier of the 3rd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment, armed with the L85A2 rifle during Operation Telic. The basic infantry weapons of the British Army are the SA80 assault rifle family, with several variants such as the L86A2 LSW and the short stock variant, issued to tank crews. There is no sidearm given standard infantry soldiers. However officers and snipers are issued with a sidearm which is generally the Browning L9A1 or sig sauer p226 or colt 1911, though a search is currently underway to find a replacement. Support fire is provided by the FN Minimi light machine gun and the L7 GPMG; indirect fire by 51 and 81 mm mortars, as well as the UGL, mounted under the barrel of the SA80 rifle. Sniper rifles used include the L96A1 7.62 mm, the L115A1 and the AW50F, all produced by Accuracy International. In addition, some units use the L82A1 .50 calibre Barrett sniper rifle. The British Army commonly uses the Land Rover Wolf and Land Rover Defender, with the Challenger 2 as its main battle tank. The Warrior Infantry Fighting Vehicle is the primary armoured personnel carrier, although many variants of the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) are used, as well as the Saxon APC and FV430 series now being re-engined and uparmoured and returned to front line service as Bulldog. The Army uses three main artillery systems; the MLRS, AS90 and L118. The MLRS (Multi Launch Rocket System) was first used operationally in Operation Granby and has a range of 70 km. The AS-90 is a 155 mm self-propelled gun. The L118 Light Gun is a 105 mm towed gun used primarily in support of 16 Air Assault Brigade, 19 Light Brigade and 3 Commando Brigade (Royal Marines). The Rapier FSC Missile System is the Army's primary battlefield air defence system, widely deployed since the Falklands War; and the Starstreak HVM is a surface-to-air missile, launched either by a single soldier or from a vehicle-mounted launcher. The Starstreak fills a similar role to the American FIM-92 Stinger The Army Air Corps (AAC) provide direct aviation support for the Army, although the RAF also assist in this role. The primary attack helicopter is the Westland WAH-64 Apache; a license-built, modified version of the AH-64 Apache that will replace the Westland Lynx AH7 in the anti-tank role. The Westland Lynx performs several roles including tactical transport, armed escort, reconnaissance and evacuation. It was also used in the anti-armour role; it could carry eight TOW anti-tank missiles. The TOW missile system for the Lynx was withdrawn from service by the MOD in December 2005, after the coming in to service of the WAH-64 Apache. The Bell 212 is used as a specialist utility and transport helicopter, with a crew of two and a transport capacity of twelve troops. The Westland Gazelle helicopter is a light helicopter, primarily used for battlefield scouting and control of artillery and aircraft. The Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin is used for Special Operations Aviation, along with the Gazelle. The Britten-Norman Islander is a light aircraft used for airborne reconnaissance and command. Firearms L85A2 5.56 mm IW L119A1 5.56mm SFW L1A1 12.7mm Browning HMG L86A2 5.56 mm LSW L110A1 5.56 mm LMG L9A1 Browning L7A2 7.62 mm GPMG L96A1 7.62 mm L115A1 8.6 mm LRR Armoured Fighting Vehicles (AFV) FV4043 Challenger 2 MBT Warrior IFV FV102 Striker CVR(T) FV103 Spartan CVR(T) FV107 Scimitar CVR(T) FV105 Sultan CVR(T) FV4333 Stormer CVR(T) FV432 'Bulldog' APC Light Combat Vehicles and Assault Craft Supacat 'Jackal' MWMIK Iveco 'Panther' CLV Land Rover 'Wolf' WMIK Yamaha 'Grizzly' Quad Bike Harley Davidson MT350E Motorcycle RCL Logistics Landing Craft 'Rigid Raider' Assault Boat Artillery Systems AS-90 155 mm SPG Javelin ATGM MLRS L118 Light Gun Rapier FSC Missile System Starstreak HVM Cobra Artillery Location Radar Aircraft Apache AH.Mk.1 Gazelle AH.Mk.1(Being phased out) Lynx AH.Mk.7 & AH.Mk.9 Bell 212 Britten-Norman Islander Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin Logistics and Patrol Vehicles DROPS Land Rover (TUL/TUM) Ridgeback MPV(Cougar H) Mastiff PPV(Cougar EH) MAN AG SX/HX series truck Supacat ATMP Information & Communication system, inc. UAVs MSTAR Bowman Skynet 5 MQ-9 Reaper Watchkeeper WK450 Desert Hawk Formation and structure See main article: Structure of the British Army The structure of the British Army is complex, due to the different origins of its various constituent parts. It is broadly split into the Regular Army (full-time soldiers and units) and the Territorial Army (part-time soldiers and units). In terms of its military structure it has two parallel organisations, one Administrative and one Operational. Administrative Divisions administrating all military units, both Regular and TA, within a geographical area (e.g. 5 Div based in Shrewsbury). Brigade in a non fighting capacity (e.g. 43 (Wessex) Brigade based in Bulford). Operational The three major commands are Land Command, Headquarters Adjutant General, and Headquarters Northern Ireland. Corps made up of two or more Divisions (now unlikely to be deployed as a purely national formation due to the size of the British Army) e.g. the ARRC. Division made up of two or three Brigades with an HQ element and support troops. Commanded by a Major-general. Brigade made up of between three and five Battalions, an HQ element and associated support troops. Commanded by a Brigadier. Battalion of about 700 soldiers, made up of five companies commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel, or Battlegroup. This is a mixed formation of armour, infantry, artillery, engineers and support units, and its structure is task specific. It is formed around the core of either an Armoured Regiment or Infantry Battalion, and has other units added or removed from it as necessary. A Battlegroup will typically consist of between 600 and 700 soldiers under the command of a Lieutenant Colonel. Company of about 100 soldiers, typically in three platoons, commanded by a Major. Platoon of about 30 soldiers, commanded by a Second Lieutenant, Lieutenant or, for specialist platoons such as Recce or Anti-Tank, a Captain. Section of about 8 to 10 soldiers, commanded by a Corporal. A number of elements of the British Army use alternative terms for Battalion, Company and Platoon. These include the Royal Armoured Corps, Corps of Royal Engineers, Royal Logistics Corps, and the Royal Corps of Signals who use Regiment(Battalion), Squadron(Company) and Troop(Platoon). The Royal Artillery are unique in using the term Regiment in place of both Corps and Battalion, they also replace Company with Battery and Platoon with Troop. Divisions The British Army currently has 6 divisions with two (1st Armoured Division and 3rd Infantry Division) being deployable. Name Headquarters Subunits 1st Armoured Division Herford, Germany3 Armoured units, 1 Logistics unit and a rapid deployment unit from the Czech Republic. 2nd Infantry Division Craigiehall, near EdinburghFour infantry brigades. 3rd Infantry Division Bulford, SalisburyTwo mechanized brigades, one light brigade, one infantry brigade and a logistics brigade. 4th Infantry DivisionAldershotThree heavy infantry brigades. 5th Infantry Division Shrewsbury Three heavy infantry brigades, one air assault brigade and Colchester Garrison. 6th Infantry DivisionYorkDeployable divisional HQ. Aviation components The British Army operates alongside the Royal Air Force as part of a Joint Force, but the army also has its own Army Air Corps. Special forces The British Army contributes two of the three special forces formations within the United Kingdom Special Forces Command; the Special Air Service Regiment and the Special Reconnaissance Regiment. The most famous formation is the Special Air Service Regiment. Formed in 1941, the SAS is considered the role model for many other special forces units in the world. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/kenya/2466432/Kenyan-troops-accused-of-torture-were-trained-by-SAS.html The SAS comprises one regular Regiment and two Territorial Army Regiments and is headquartered at Duke of York Barracks, London. The regular Regiment, 22 SAS Regiment has its headquarters and depot located in Hereford and consists of five squadrons: A, B, D, G and Reserve and a training wing. The regiment has battlespace roles in deep reconnaissance, target identification and indication and target destruction and denial. In its Counter Terrorism role it is seen as one of the prime anti-terrorist, hostage rescue and target capture units in the world. The two reserve SAS Regiments; 21 SAS Regiment and 23 SAS Regiment have a more limited role,to provide depth to the UKSF group through the provision of Individual and collective augmentation to the regular component of UKSF and standalone elements up to task group (Regimental) level focused on support and influence (S&I) operations to assist conflict stabilisation. The Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR) which was formed in 2005, from existing assets, undertakes close reconnaissance and special surveillance tasks. http://www.army.mod.uk/specialforces/9677.aspx Formed around 1st Battalion the Parachute Regiment, with attached Royal Marines and RAF Regiment assets, the Special Forces Support Group are under the Operational Control of Director Special Forces to provide operational manoeuvre support to the elements of United Kingdom Special Forces. Recruitment The Army mainly recruits within the United Kingdom, and normally has a recruitment target of around 25,000 soldiers per year. Low unemployment in Britain has resulted in the Army having difficulty in meeting its target , and in the early years of the 21st century there has been a marked increase in the number of recruits from other (mostly Commonwealth) countries. In 2008 Commonwealth origin volunteers comprised approximately 6.7% of the Army's total strength. In total 6,600 foreign soldiers from 42 countries were represented in the Army, not including Gurkhas. After Gurkhas, the nation with most citizens in the British Army is Fiji, with 1,900, followed by Jamaica and Ghana with 600 each; many soldiers also come from more prosperous countries such as New Zealand, South Africa and the Republic of Ireland. The Ministry of Defence is now considering capping the number of recruits from Commonwealth countries, although this will not affect the Gurkhas. If the trend continues 10% of the army will be from Commonwealth countries before 2012. The cap is being debated, as some fear the army's "Britishness" is being diluted, and employing too many could make the army seen as employing "mercenaries". The minimum recruitment age is 16 years (but only after the end of GCSEs), although soldiers may not serve on operations below 18 years; the maximum recruitment age was raised in January 2007 from 26 to 33 years. The normal term of engagement is 22 years, and once enlisted soldiers are not normally permitted to leave until they have served at least 4 years. There has been a strong and continuing tradition of recruiting from Ireland including what is now the Republic of Ireland. Almost 150,000 Irish soldiers fought in the First World War; 49,000 died. More than 60,000 Irishmen, more than from Northern Ireland, also saw action in the Second World War; like their compatriots in the Great War, all were volunteers. There were more than 400 men serving from the Republic in 2003. ‘Ian's death brought people together' in the Daily Telegraph 19 March 2003 Oath of allegiance Troops of the Grenadier Guards on guard at Buckingham Palace. Various army regiments supply troops to guard the Royal residences. All soldiers must take an oath of allegiance upon joining the Army, a process known as "attestation". Those who believe in God use the following words: Others replace the words "swear by Almighty God" with "solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm." http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general/v_s_of_the_british_army.pdf Training establishments Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (RMAS) The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst home of British Army officer training Army Training Regiments: ATR Bassingbourn ATR Winchester ATC Pirbright Infantry Training Centres: ITC Catterick Infantry Battle School, Brecon Support Weapons School, Warminster Army Foundation College (Harrogate) Regional training centres Welbeck Defence Sixth Form College Flags and ensigns Flag Ratio: 3:5. The official flag of the Army. The non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. Sometimes the word "Army" in gold letters appears below the badge. The British Army does not have its own specific ensign, unlike the Royal Navy, which uses the White Ensign, and the RAF, which uses the Royal Air Force Ensign. Instead, the Army has different flags and ensigns, for the entire army and the different regiments and corps. The official flag of the Army as a whole is the Union Flag, flown in ratio 3:5. A non-ceremonial flag also exists, which is used at recruiting events, military events and exhibitions. It also flies from the MOD building in Whitehall. britishflags.net- British Army (non-ceremonial) Whilst at war, the Union Flag is always used, and this flag represents the Army on the Cenotaph in Whitehall, London (the UK's memorial to war dead). A British Army ensign also exists for vessels commanded by a commissioned officer, the Blue Ensign defaced with the Army badge. Army Vessels are operated by the Maritime element of the Royal Logistic Corps. Each Foot Guards and line regiment (which does not include The Rifles and Royal Gurkha Rifles (RGR)) also has its own flags, known as Colours - normally a Regimental Colour and a Queen's colour. The design of different Regimental Colours. vary but typically the colour has the Regiment's badge in the centre. The RGR carry the Queen's Truncheon in place of Colours. Ranks, specialisms and insignia AbbreviationFMGen.Lt-Gen.Maj-Gen.Brig.Col.Lt-Col.Maj.Capt.Lt.2nd Lt. 1 Now an honorary or wartime rank only. Every regiment and corps has its own distinctive insignia, such as cap badge, beret, tactical recognition flash and stable belt. Throughout the army there are many official specialisms. They do not affect rank, but they do affect pay bands. Band 2 Specialisms: Band 3 Specialisms: Musician Survey Technician Farrier Lab Technician Driver Tank Transporter Registered General Nurse Radar Operator Telcom Op (Special) Meteorologist Aircraft Technician Bomb Disposal Engineer SAS Trooper Telcom Op (Linguist) Ammunition Technician (Bomb Disposal) Operator Special Intelligence Construction Materials Technician Driver Specialist Armoured Engineer Royal Navy and RAF infantry units The other armed services have their own infantry units which are not part of the British Army. The Royal Marines are amphibious light infantry forming part of the Royal Navy, and the Royal Air Force has the RAF Regiment used for airfield defence, force protection duties and Forward Air Control. Overseas territories military units Two Bermuda Regiment Warrant Officers. Numerous military units were raised historically in British territories, including self-governing and Crown colonies, and protectorates. Few of these have appeared on the Army List, and their relationship to the British Army has been ambiguous. Whereas Dominions, such as Canada and Australia, raised their own armies, the defence of Crown possessions (like the Channel Islands), and colonies (now called Overseas Territories) was, and is, the responsibility of the UK (due to their status as territories of Britain, not British protectorates). All military forces of overseas territories are, therefore, under the direct command of the UK Government, via the local Governor and Commander-In-Chief. Many of the units in colonies, or former colonies, were also actually formed at the behest of the UK Government as it sought to reduce the deployment of the British Army on garrison around the world at the latter end of the 19th century. Today, three overseas territories retain locally-raised military units, Bermuda, Gibraltar, and the Falkland Islands. The units are patterned on the British Army, are subject to review by the Ministry of Defence, and are ultimately under the control of the British government, not the local governments of the territories (though day-to-day control may be delegated to Ministers of the territorial governments). Despite this, the units may have no tasking or funding from the MOD, and are generally raised under acts of the territorial assemblies. Bermuda Regiment Royal Gibraltar Regiment Falkland Islands Defence Force See also Ministry of Defence Redcoat Territorial Army ArmyNET Home Service Force Imperialism Volunteer Army British military history Royal Navy Royal Air Force United Kingdom Special Forces Modern equipment and uniform of the British Army The British Army Rumour Service Military Covenant Army Cadet Force(ACF) Army Rugby Union Military mascot List of nicknames of British Army regiments Footnotes External links British Army Website British Army Sports, Museums & Associations Website UK Defence Statistics 2008 British Army Friends Reunited "Discussion of British Soldier Letters From Rev. War" (Article) Extensive information about the British Army, Royal Navy and the RAF | British_Army |@lemmatized british:130 army:154 land:10 arm:8 force:57 branch:1 armed:2 come:7 unification:2 kingdom:12 england:4 scotland:4 great:7 britain:9 new:9 incorporate:2 regiment:45 already:1 exist:5 administer:1 war:59 office:1 london:4 since:13 manage:2 ministry:4 defence:13 consist:2 regular:12 soldier:39 train:4 plus:1 gurkha:8 territorial:11 give:4 total:4 around:7 october:2 uk:22 full:3 time:7 strength:3 requirement:1 dasa:1 mod:6 element:7 also:21 refer:5 creation:5 reservist:1 deploy:14 many:11 world:19 zone:1 part:17 expeditionary:4 united:16 nation:7 peacekeeping:3 currently:9 kosovo:5 cyprus:4 germany:8 iraq:11 afghanistan:12 place:4 contrast:1 royal:45 navy:8 marine:9 air:22 include:13 title:1 primarily:7 historically:2 parliament:2 crown:3 position:2 confirm:1 bill:1 right:1 require:2 parliamentary:1 authority:1 maintain:7 stand:1 peacetime:1 nevertheless:1 constituent:2 corp:14 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6,872 | Kurdish_people | {{Infobox Ethnic group |group = Kurds/Kurdi |image = |caption = Saladin • Ahmad Xani • Sherefxan Bitlisi • Feleknas Uca • Jalal Talabani |pop = 23 - 34 million |region1 = Asia |region2 = |pop2 = 11.4 to 17.5 million |ref2 = {{lower|<ref>Konda Poll gives a figure of about 11.4 million, s.v. </ref>, CIA World Factbook gives about 15.3 million (20% Kurds out of 76.8 million total population) (2008 est.) Juvenile Nonfiction, “ The Handbook of Middle East ”, Publisher: 21st Century, 2002. pg 144:”About 20 percent of Turkey ’s population is Kurdish.” Kemal Kirisci, Gareth M. Winrow, “The Kurdish Question and Turkey ”, Routledge, 1997. pg 119: “According to Turgut Ozal there were 12 million Kurds in Turkey . .. Van Bruissen has argued that a ‘reasonable and even conservative’ estimate for the size of Kurdish population in 1975 was 7.5 millions, which amounts to 19 percent of the population” Sandra Mackey , “The reckoning: Iraq and the legacy of Saddam”, W.W. Norton and Company, 2002. Excerpt from pg 350: “As much as 25% of Turkey is Kurdish.” “Beverley Milton-Edwards, “Contemporary politics in the Middle East” Polity, 2006. pg 231: “They form a population in all four states, making 23 percent in Turkey, 23 percent in Iraq, 10 percent in Iran and 8 percent in Syria (Mcdowell, 2003, p 3-4).” }} |region3 = |pop3 = 4.8 to 7 million |ref3 = |region4 = |pop4 = 4 to 6.5 million |ref4 = |region5 = |pop5 = 1.6 million |ref5 = http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |region6 = |region8 = |pop8 = 200,000 |ref8 = The Kurdish Diaspora, Institut Kurde de Paris (Paris: Institut Kurde de Paris, 2006), http://www.institutkurde.org/en/kurdorama/. |region9 = |pop9 = 150,000 |ref9 = |region10 = |pop10 = 100,000 |ref10 = Lokman I. Meho, The Kurds and Kurdistan: A General Background, in Kurdish Culture and Society: An Annotated Bibliography. Comp. Lokman I. Meho & Kelly Maglaughlin (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001), p. 4, viewable on Google Books |region16 = |region16 = Europe |region17 = |pop17 = 500,000 -800,000 |ref17 = |region18 = |pop18 = 120,000 |ref18 = |region19 = |pop19 = 100,000 |ref19 = Kurds in the UK, BBC News 9 December 2008 |languages =Kurdish |religions = Predominantly Sunni Muslimalso some Shia, Yazidism, Yarsan, Judaism, Christianity |related = other Iranian peoples(Talysh Baluch Gilak Lurs Persians) }} The Kurds () are an Ethnic-Iranian ethnolinguistic group mostly inhabiting a region known as Kurdistan, which includes adjacent parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. Substantial Kurdish communities also exist in the cities of western Turkey, and they can also be found in Lebanon, Armenia, Azerbaijan and, in recent decades, some European countries and the United States (see Kurdish diaspora). They speak Kurdish, an Indo-European language of the Iranian branch. Language The Kurdish language belongs to the north-western sub-group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The older Hurrian language of the people inhabiting the Kurdish areas was replaced by Indo-European around 850 BCE, with the arrival of the Medes to Western Iran. The correlation Between Languages and Genes: The Usko-Mediterranean Peoples, Human Immunology, vol. 62, p.1057, 2001 Most Kurds are bilingual or polylingual, speaking the languages of the surrounding peoples such as Arabic, Turkish and Persian as a second language. Kurdish Jews and some Kurdish Christians (not be confused with ethnic Assyrians of Kurdistan) usually speak Aramaic (for example: Lishana Deni) as their first language. Aramaic is a Semitic language related to Hebrew and Arabic rather than Kurdish. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, The Kurdish language has two main groups:: Kurdish language. Encyclopædia Britannica. The Kurmanji dialect group. The Sorani dialect group. and several sub-dialects: Kermanshahi Leki Gurani Zaza Although specialized sources consider Zaza-Gurani Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Stefan Sperl, "The Kurds", Published by Routledge, 1992. McKenzie, D. N. (1961) ‘The origins of Kurdish’, in Transactions of the Philological Society: 68 - 86. to be separate languages which share a large number of words with Kurdish and Luri Nevertheless, the general term Kurd has been used to designate these groups historically. Commenting on the differences between the "dialects" of Kurdish, Kreyenbroek clarifies that in some ways, Kurmanji and Sorani are as different from each other as English and German, giving the example that Kurmanji has grammatical gender and case-endings, but Sorani does not, and observing that referring to Sorani and Kurmanji as "dialects" of one language is supported only by "their common origin...and the fact that this usage reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds." Kreyenbroek, Philip (1992). "On the Kurdish Language", in The Kurds: a contemporary overview, eds. Philip Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (p. 69). Population The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at around 30 million, with another million living in diaspora. Kurds are the fourth largest ethnicity in the Middle East after Arabs, Persians and Turks. According to the CIA World Factbook, Kurds comprise 20% of the population in Turkey, 15-20% in Iraq, perhaps 8% in Syria, The CIA Factbook reports all non-Arabs make up 9.7% of the Syrian population, and does not break out the Kurdish figure separately. Since Syria contains a large Armenian population, 8% may be a reasonable percentage. 7% in Iran and 1.3% in Armenia. In all of these countries except Iran, Kurds form the second largest ethnic group. Roughly 55% of the world's Kurds live in Turkey, about 20% each in Iran and Iraq, and a bit over 5% in Syria. CIA: The World Factbook McDowall has estimated that in 1991 the Kurds comprised 19% of the population in Turkey, 23% in Iraq, 10% in Iran, and 8% in Syria. The total number of Kurds in 1991 was in this estimate placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 18% in Iraq, 24% in Iran, and 4% in Syria. Amir Hassanpour, "A Stateless Nation's Quest for Sovereignty in the Sky", Paper presented at the Freie Universitat Berlin, 7 November 1995. Kurdish costumes, 1873. Origins and History The Medes John Limbert, The Origins and Appearance of the Kurds in Pre-Islamic Iran, Iranian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, Spring 1968 , Cyrtians Encyclopedia Iranica, "Carduchi" by M. Dandamayev and Carduchi Ilya Gershevitch, William Bayne Fisher, The Cambridge History of Iran: The Median and Achamenian Periods, 964 pp., Cambridge University Press, 1985, ISBN 0521200911, 9780521200912, (see footnote of p.257) have been mentioned as possible ancestors of the Kurds. Most Kurds consider themselve among the descendents of Medes. Among some scholars however there are some disagreements: MacKenzie challenges relation of Median language to Kurdish Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Stefan Sperl, The Kurds, Routledge, 1992, 250 pp., ISBN 0415072654, ISBN 9780415072656 (see p.70) and Dandamaev consider Carduchi(who were from the upper Tigris near the Assyrian and Median borders) less likely than Cyrtians as ancestors of modern Kurds Encyclopedia Iranica, "Carduchi" by M. Dandamayev Excerpt: "It has repeatedly been argued that the Carduchi were the ancestors of the Kurds, but the Cyrtii (Kurtioi) mentioned by Polybius, Livy, and Strabo (see MacKenzie, pp. 68-69) are more likely candidates." The Medes, were an Iranian people who overthrew the Assyrians in 612 B.C. and were later absorbed in the Achaemenid empire. The Cyrtians (Greek: Kurtioi, Latin: Cyrtii) is an ancient tribe mentioned to be in Media, Armenia and Persia by Greek geographers such as Strabo. The Carduchi are mentioned by Xenophon and opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the mountains north of Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC. Gershevitch and Fisher consider the independent Kardouchoi or Carduchi as the ancestors of the Kurds, or at least the original nucleus of the Iranian-speaking people in what is now Kurdistan. Ilya Gershevitch, William Bayne Fisher, The Cambridge History of Iran: The Median and Achamenian Periods, 964 pp., Cambridge University Press, 1985, ISBN 0521200911, 9780521200912, (see footnote of p.257) Medieval period Kurdish Cavalry in the passes of the Caucasus mountains (The New York Times, January 24, 1915). In the seventh century, the Arabs possessed the castles and fortifications of the Kurds. The conquest of the cities of Sharazor and Aradbaz took place in 643 CE. In 846 CE, one of the leaders of the Kurds in Mosul revolted against the Caliph Al Mo'tasam who sent the commander Aitakh to combat against him. Aitakh won this war and killed many of the Kurds. The Kurds revolted again in 903 CE, during the period of Almoqtadar. Eventually Arabs conquered the Kurdish regions and gradually converted the majority of Kurds to Islam. In the second half of the tenth century, the Kurdish area was shared among four big Kurdish principalities. In the north were the Shaddadid (951–1174) in parts of present-day Armenia and Arran, and the Rawadid (955–1221) in Tabriz and Maragheh. In the east were the Hasanwayhids (959–1015) and the Annazid (990–1117) in Kermanshah, Dinawar and Khanaqin. In the west were the Marwanid (990–1096) of Diyarbakır. After these, the Ayyubid (1171–1250) of Syria and the Ardalan dynasty (14th century to 1867) were established in present-day Khanaqin, Kirkuk and Sinne. Kurdish Communities in West Asia In Iraq Kurds make around 17% of Iraq's population. They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq which are together known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Kurds also have a presence in Kirkuk, Mosul, Khanaqin, and Baghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq. Adherents.com: By Location Kurdish Children in Sulaimaniyah Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years. G.S. Harris, Ethnic Conflict and the Kurds in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, pp.118-120, 1977 However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil-rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin. Introduction. Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds (Human Rights Watch Report, 1993). The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in Kurdistan, particularly those around Kirkuk. ibid., p.121 Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq. M. Farouk-Sluglett, P. Sluglett, J. Stork, Not Quite Armageddon: Impact of the War on Iraq, MERIP Reports, July-September 1984, p.24 During the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a de facto civil war broke out. Iraq was widely-condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures such as the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of civilians, the wholesale destruction of thousands of villages and the deportation of thousands of Kurds to southern and central Iraq. The campaign of Iraqi government against Kurds in 1988 was called Anfal ("Spoils of War"). The Anfal attacks led to destruction of two thousand villages and death of 50,000 to 100,000 Kurds. Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds The President of Iraq, Jalal Talabani, meeting with U.S. officials in Baghdad, Iraq, on April 26, 2006. After the Kurdish uprising in 1991 () led by the PUK and KDP, Iraqi troops recaptured the Kurdish areas and hundreds of thousand of Kurds fled to the borders. A delegation lead by Dlawer Ala'Aldeen persuaded the British Government to intervene and alleviate the situation Thatcher urges 'mercy mission' to fleeing Kurds; The Guardain 4/4/1991 . A "safe haven" was established by the UN Security Council. The autonomous Kurdish area was mainly controlled by the rival parties KDP and PUK. The Kurdish population welcomed the American troops in 2003 by holding celebrations and dancing in the streets http://www.newyorker.com/online/content/articles/031222on_onlineonly04 FOXNews.com - Kurds Rejoice, But Fighting Continues in North - U.S. & World CNN.com - Coalition makes key advances in northern Iraq - April 10, 2003 The Scotsman . The area controlled by peshmerga was expanded, and Kurds now have effective control in Kirkuk and parts of Mosul. By the beginning of 2006, the two Kurdish areas were merged into one unified region. A series of referendums are scheduled to be held in , to determine the final borders of the Kurdish region. In Turkey According to CIA Factbook, Kurds formed approximately 20% of the population in Turkey (approximately 14 million) in 2008. Turkey, The World Factbook, CIA, 2008. In 1980, ethnologue estimated the number of Kurdish-speakers in Turkey at around five million, Ethnologue census of languages in Asian portion of Turkey when the country's population stood at 44 million. http://countrystudies.us/turkey/24.htm Kurds form the largest minority group in Turkey, and they have posed the most serious and persistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous society. During the 1930s and 1940s, the government had disguised the presence of the Kurds statistically by categorizing them as Mountain Turks. This classification was changed to the new euphemism of Eastern Turk in 1980. Linguistic and Ethnic Groups in Turkey Several large scale Kurdish revolts in 1925, 1930 and 1938 were suppressed by the Turkish government and more than one million Kurds were forcibly relocated between 1925 and 1938. The use of Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names were banned and the Kurdish-inhabited areas remained under martial law until 1946. H. Hannum, Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-determination, 534 pp., University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, ISBN 0812215729, 9780812215724 (see page 186). The Ararat revolt, which reached its apex in 1930, was only suppressed after a massive military campaign including destruction of many villages and their populations. In quelling the revolt, Turkey was assisted by the close cooperation of its neighboring states such as Soviet Union and Iran. The revolt was organized by a Kurdish party called Khoybun which signed a treaty with the Dashnaksutyun (Armenian Revolutionary Federation) in 1927. Reşat Kasaba, The Cambridge History of Turkey, 600 pp., Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0521620961, 9780521620963 (see page 340) By 1970s, Kurdish leftist organizations such as Kurdistan Socialist Part-Turkey (KSP-T) emerged in Turkey which were against violence and supported civil activities and participation in elections. In 1977, Mehdi Zana a supporter of KSP-T won the mayoralty of Diyarbakir in the local elections. At about the same time, generational fissures gave birth to two new organizations: the National Liberation of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Workers Party. Reşat Kasaba, The Cambridge History of Turkey, 600 pp., Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0521620961, 9780521620963 (see page 348) Kurdish singer Hozan Canê from Erzurum, Turkey Kurdish boys, Diyarbakir.| The Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK), also known as KADEK and Kongra-Gel, is considered by the US, the EU, and NATO to be a terrorist organization. COUNCIL COMMON POSITION 2008/586/CFSP of 15 July 2008: updating Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism and repealing Common Position 2007/871/CFSP It is an ethnic secessionist organization using violence for the purpose of achieving its goal of creating an independent Kurdish state in parts of southeastern Turkey, northeastern Iraq, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran. Between 1984 and 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, as Kurdish civilians moved to local defensible centers such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans they could not control, the poverty of the southeast, and the Turkish state's military operations. Radu, Michael. (2001). "The Rise and Fall of the PKK", Orbis. 45(1):47-64. Officially protected death squads are accused of disappearance of 3,200 Kurds in 1993 and 1994 in the so called mystery killings. Kurdish politicians, human-rights activists, journalists, teachers and other members of intelligentsia were among the victims. Virtually none of the perpetrators were investigated nor punished. Turkish government also encouraged an Islamic extremist group called Hezbollah to assassinate suspected PKK members and often ordinary Kurds. J. C. Randal, After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness?, 356 pp., Westview Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8133-3580--9, p.258 Azimet Köylüoğlu, the state minister of human rights, revealed the extent of security forces' excesses in autumn 1994: J. C. Randal, After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness?, 356 pp., Westview Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8133-3580-9, p.259 While acts of terrorism in other regions are done by the PKK; in Tunceli it is state terrorism. In Tunceli, it is the state that is evacuating and burning villages. In the southeast there are two million people left homeless. In Iran a view of Sanandaj, a major city in Iranian Kurdistan. another view of Sanandaj from Mount Abidar. The Kurds constitute approximately 7% of Iran's overall population. The Persians, Kurds, and speakers of other Indo-European languages in Iran are descendants of the Aryan tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the 2nd millennium BCE. Iran: Ethnic Groups, Encyclopaedia Britannica. According to some sources, "some Kurds in Iran have resisted the Iranian government's efforts, both before and after the revolution of 1979, to assimilate them into the mainstream of national life and, along with their fellow Kurds in adjacent regions of Iraq and Turkey, has sought either regional autonomy or the outright establishment of an independent Kurdish state". While other sources state that "most of the freedoms Turkish Kurds have been eager to spill blood over have been available in Iran for years; Iran constitutionally recognizes the Kurds' language and minority ethnic status, and there is no taboo against speaking Kurdish in public." . Meet the Kurdish guerrillas who want to topple the Tehran regime. - By Graeme Wood - Slate Magazine Statute of a Kurdish girl with vase in Abidar, Sanandaj. Square of Liberty, AKA Eqbal Square, the main and largest square in Sanandaj. In the 17th century, a large number of Kurds were displaced by Shah Abbas I to Khorasan in Eastern Iran and resettled in the cities of Quchan and Birjand,due to Safavid Scorched earth policy, while others migrated to Afghanistan where they took refuge. A People Without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan By Gérard Chaliand, Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Marco Pallis, pg. 205 The Kurds of Khorasan, numbering around 700,000, still use the Kurmanji Kurdish dialect. The cultural situation of the Kurds, A report by Lord Russell-Johnston, Council of Europe, July 2006. Fifteenth periodic report of States parties due in 1998: Islamic Republic of Iran During the 19th and 20th centuries, successive Iranian governments crushed Kurdish revolts led by Kurdish notables such as Shaikh Ubaidullah (against Qajars in 1880) and Simko (against Pahlavis in the 1920s). Are Kurds a pariah minority? In January 1946, during the Soviet occupation of north-western Iran, the Soviet-backed Kurdish Republic of Mahabad declared independence in parts of Iranian Kurdistan. Nevertheless, the Soviet forces left Iran in May 1946, and the self-declared republic fell to the Iranian army after only a few months and the president of the republic Qazi Muhammad was hanged publicly in Mahabad. After the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became more autocratic and suppressed most opposition including Kurdish political groups seeking greater rights for Iranian Kurds. He also prohibited any teaching of the Kurdish language. After the Iranian revolution, intense fighting occurred between militant Kurdish groups and the Islamic Republic between 1979 and 1982. In August 1979, Ruhollah Khomeini declared a "holy war" against the Kurdish rebels seeking autonomy or independence, and ordered the Armed Forces to move to the Kurdish areas of Iran in order to push the Kurdish rebels out and restore central rule to the country. The Security of Southwest Asia by Zalmay Khalilza, page 191, University of Michigan Publishing An image of a firing squad of Revolutionary Guards executing Kurdish prisoners around Sanandaj gained international fame and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1980,and there is also other images available of Kurdish militants capturing the supporters of the Iranian regime. A photo by Abbas Attar,Magnum Photos The Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps fought to reestablish government control in the Kurdish regions. Since 1983, the Iranian government has maintained control over the Iranian Kurdistan. alefbe.com Frequent unrest and the occasional military crackdown have occurred since the 1990s. Iran: Amnesty International calls for an urgent investigation into the killing of demonstrators. In Iran, Kurds express their cultural identity freely, but have no self-government or administration. As in all parts of Iran, membership of a non-governmental political party is punishable by imprisonment or even death. Kurdish human rights activists in Iran have been threatened by Iranian authorities in connection with their work. Iran: Threats against Kurdish human rights defenders must stop Status of minorities Following the killing of Kurdish opposition activist Shivan Qaderi and two other Kurdish men by Iranian security forces in Mahabad on July 9 2005, six weeks of riots and protests erupted in Kurdish towns and villages throughout Eastern Kurdistan. Scores were killed and injured, and an untold number arrested without charge. The Iranian authorities have also shut down several major Kurdish newspapers and arrested editors and reporters. Among those was Roya Toloui, a Women's rights activist and head of the Rasan ("Rising") newspaper in Sanandaj, who was alleged to be tortured for two months for involvement in the organization of peaceful protests throughout Kurdistan province. Amnesty International According to one of Iran analysts of International Crisis Group, "Kurds, who live in the some of the least developed parts of Iran, pose the most serious internal problem for Iran to resolve, and given what they see next door--the newfound confidence of Iraqi Kurds--there's concern Iranian Kurds will agitate for greater autonomy." Iran's Waning Human Rights (The New York Times) In Syria A statue of Saladin at the Damascus citadel. Kurds account for 9% of Syria's population, a total of around 1.6 million people. World Gazetteer This makes them the largest ethnic minority in the country. They are mostly concentrated in the northeast and the north, but there are also significant Kurdish populations in Aleppo and Damascus. Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted. Syria: End persecution of human rights defenders and human rights activists. No political parties are allowed for any group, Kurdish or otherwise. Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include various bans on the use of the Kurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish. Syria: The Silenced Kurds Essential Background: Overview of human rights issues in Syria. Human Rights Watch, 31-12-2004. Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around three-hundred thousand Kurds have been deprived of any social rights, in violation of international law. Syria's Kurds Struggle for Rights The Media Line As a consequence, these Kurds are in effect trapped within Syria. In February 2006, however, sources reported that Syria was now planning to grant these Kurds citizenship. On March 12, 2004, beginning at a stadium in Qamishli (a largely Kurdish city in northeastern Syria), clashes between Kurds and Syrians broke out and continued over a number of days. At least thirty people were killed and more than 160 injured. The unrest spread to other Kurdish towns along the northern border with Turkey, and then to Damascus and Aleppo. Syria: Address Grievances Underlying Kurdish Unrest Serhildana 12ê Adarê ya Kurdistana Suriyê. In Afghanistan Kurds had been living in regions bordering modern day Afghanistan since the 1500s notably in north eastern Iran where the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas exiled thousands of Kurds. Knowledge, Culture, and Power: International Perspectives on Literacy as Policy and Practice By Peter Freebody, Anthony R. Welch, pg.40 Many of those who were exiled ultimately made their way into Afghanistan, taking residence in Herat and other cities of western Afghanistan. The Kurdish colony in Afghanistan numbered some tens of thousands during the 16th century. Some Kurds held high governmental positions within Afghanistan, such as Ali Mardan Khan who was appointed the governor of Kabul in 1641. The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Supplement : Fascicules 1-2, By Clifford Edmund Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, B. Lewis, pg. 63 The Kurds devotedly sided with the Afghans during their conflicts with the Safavid Empire, and in their subsequent conflicts with other regional powers. The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg. 88 The number of Kurds currently in Afghanistan is difficult to calculate, though one figure notes that there are approximately 200,000. The Kurdish Diaspora, Institut Kurde de Paris (Paris: Institut Kurde de Paris, 2006), http://www.institutkurde.org/en/kurdorama/. It remains unclear however whether the Kurds of Afghanistan have retained the Kurdish language. In Armenia Between the 1930s and 1980s, Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many non-Yazidi Kurds were forced to leave their homes. Following the end of the Soviet Union, Kurds in Armenia were stripped of their cultural privileges and most fled to Russia or Western Europe. Kurds and Kurdistan: A General Background, p.22 In Azerbaijan In 1920, two Kurdish-inhabited areas of Jewanshir (capital Kalbajar) and eastern Zangazur (capital Lachin) were combined to form the Kurdistan Okrug (or "Red Kurdistan"). The period of existence of the Kurdish administrative unit was brief and did not last beyond 1929. Kurds subsequently faced many repressive measures, including deportations. As a result of the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many Kurdish areas have been destroyed and more than 150,000 Kurds have been deported since 1988. Diaspora Feleknas Uca, MEP from Germany. According to a report by the Council of Europe, approximately 1.3 million Kurds live in Western Europe. The earliest immigrants were Kurds from Turkey, who settled in Germany, Austria, the Benelux countries, Great Britain, Switzerland and France during the 1960s. Successive periods of political and social turmoil in the Middle East during 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of Kurdish refugees, mostly from Iran and Iraq under Saddam Hussein, came to Europe. In recent years, many Kurdish asylum seekers from both Iran and Iraq have settled in the United Kingdom (especially in the town of Dewsbury and in some northern areas of London), which has sometimes caused media controversy over their right to remain. MP: Failed asylum seekers must go back - Dewsbury Reporter There have been tensions between Kurds and the established Muslim community in Dewsbury, 'I will not be muzzled' – Malik UK Polling Report Election Guide: Dewsbury which is home to very traditional mosques such as the Markazi. There was substantial immigration of Kurds into North America, who are mainly political refugees and immigrants seeking economic opportunity. An estimated 100,000 Kurds are known to live in the United States, with 50,000 in Canada and less than 15,000 in Australia. Religion An Ezidi temple in Lalish, Kurdistan. Islam Today, the majority of Kurds are officially Muslim, belonging to the Shafi school of Sunni Islam. Mystical practices and participation in Sufi orders are also widespread among Kurds. There is also a minority of Kurds who are Shia Muslims, primarily living in the Ilam and Kermanshah provinces of Iran, Central and south eastern Iraq (Fayli Kurds). Kurds have a more liberal take on Islam. Alevi The Alevis are another religious minority among the Kurds. They are mainly living in Tunceli, Turkey and surrounding towns. Yazdanism Yazdanism is a controversial theory that refers to a group of native monotheistic religions practiced among the Kurds: Alevism, Yarsan and Yazidism. The main element in Yazdani faiths is the belief in seven angelic entities that protect the world, therefore these traditions are named as Cult of Angels. Yazdanism, Encyclopaedia of the Orient. Some groups classify the various Kurdish faiths under the Yazdani umbrella. The original religion of the Kurds was Yazidism, a religion greatly influenced by Jewish, Zoroastrian, Christian and Islamic beliefs. Kurds Islam Iran's Other Religion However, there are significant differences between Yazdanism and Zoroasterianism, such as the belief in re-incarnation. Most Yazidis live in Iraqi Kurdistan, in the vicinity of Mosul and Sinjar. Religion: Cult of Angels - Yezidism The Yarsan (or Ahl-e Haqq) religion is practised in western Iran, primarily around Kermanshah. Judaism and Christianity Christianity and Judaism both are still practised in very small numbers. Religion: Judaism Rabbi Asenath Barzani, who lived in Mosul from 1590 to 1670, was among the very first Jewish woman to become a rabbi. The overwhelming majority of the Kurdish Jews had immigrated to the Jewish State, Israel, during the early 1950s. For centuries, the Jews had lived as protected subjects of the tribal chieftains (aghas) and survived in the urban centers and villages in which they lived. In return for the protection granted by their aghas, the Jews would occasionally give them gifts, services and commissions of their commercial and agricultural transactions. Jewish Subjects and their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan: A Study in Survival, By Mordechai Zaken. Published by Brill: • August 2007 • ISBN 978 9004161 90 0 • Hardback (xxii, 364 pp.) • Jewish Identities in a Changing World, vol. 9 Culture Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society, but primarily of three layers of indigenous (Hurrian), ancient Iranian (Medes), sumerian, and Islamic roots. Kurdish culture is close to that of other Iranian peoples. Kurds, for instance, also celebrate Newroz (March 21) as New Year's Day. culturalorigentation.net Kurdish films mainly evoke poverty and the lack of rights of Kurdish people in the region. Yılmaz Güney (Yol Yol (1982) ) and Bahman Qubadi (A Time for Drunken Horses, Turtles Can Fly) are among the better-known Kurdish directors. Music Traditionally, there are three types of Kurdish Classical performers: storytellers (çîrokbêj), minstrels (stranbêj), and bards (dengbêj). No specific music was associated with the Kurdish princely courts. Instead, music performed in night gatherings (şevbihêrk) is considered classical. Several musical forms are found in this genre. Many songs are epic in nature, such as the popular Lawiks, heroic ballads recounting the tales of Kurdish heroes such as Saladin. Heyrans are love ballads usually expressing the melancholy of separation and unfulfilled love, while Lawje is a form of religious music and Payizoks are songs performed during the autumn. Love songs, dance music, wedding and other celebratory songs (dîlok/narînk), erotic poetry, and work songs are also popular. See also Kurdistan History of the Kurdish people Ottoman Empire Turkish Kurdistan Kurds in Turkey Iranian Kurdistan Iraqi Kurdistan Kurds in Syria Kurdistan Okrug List of Kurdish people Kurdish organisations Origins of the Kurds Yazidis Kurdish Jews Kurdish Christians Kurdish American Modern Kurdish governments Kingdom of Kurdistan 1920 Republic of Ararat 1927–1930 Republic of Mahabad 1946 Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) (1991 to date) Notes and references Bibliography Barth, F. 1953. Principles of Social Organization in Southern Kurdistan. Bulletin of the University Ethnographic Museum 7. Oslo. Hansen, H.H. 1961. The Kurdish Woman's Life. Copenhagen. Ethnographic Museum Record 7:1-213. Leach, E.R. 1938. Social and Economic Organization of the Rowanduz Kurds. London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology 3:1-74. Longrigg, S.H. 1953. Iraq, 1900-1950. London. Masters, W.M. 1953. Rowanduz. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan. External links Lawk Salih, Latest development of the economic progress of Kurdistan and KRG. Kurds and Kurdistan, Encyclopaedia of Islam. Kurds, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Kurd, Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Kurds: People without a country, Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Kurdish Institute of Paris Kurdish language, history, books and latest news articles. The Encyclopaedia of Kurdistan Istanbul Kurdish Institute The Kurdish Center of International Pen Kurdish Library, supported by the Swedish Government. Yazidism: Historical Roots, International Journal of Kurdish Studies, January 2005. Ethnic Cleansing and the Kurds The Kurds in the Ottoman Hungary by Zurab Aloian "The Other Iraq" Kurdish Information Website The Kurdish Issue in Turkey A report on the Kurdish IDP's - 2005 A German newspaper's take on the Kurdish issue - 2005 The Guardian - What's in a name? 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6,873 | Hero | Sir Galahad, a hero of Arthurian legend, detail of a painting by George Frederic Watts A 'hero' (from Greek 'hērōs' Heros, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, 'A Greek-English Lexicon', at Perseus ), in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, Heron or Heros, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus the offspring of a mortal and a deity, Plato, 'Cratylus' their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion. Later, hero (male) and heroine (female) came to refer to characters (fictional or historical) that, in the face of danger and adversity or from a position of weakness, display courage and the will for self sacrifice – that is, heroism – for some greater good, originally of martial courage or excellence but extended to more general moral excellence. Stories of heroism may serve as moral examples. In classical antiquity, hero cults – veneration of deified heroes such as Heracles, Perseus, and Achilles – played an important role in Ancient Greek religion. Politicians, ancient and modern, have employed hero worship for their own apotheosis (i.e., cult of personality). Etymology The literal meaning of the word is "protector", "defender" or "guardian" and etymologically it is thought to be cognate with the name of the goddess Hera, the guardian of marriage; the postulated original forms of these words being *, hērwōs, and *, Hērwā, respectively. It is also thought to be a cognate of the Latin verb servo (original meaning: to preserve whole) and of the Avestan verb haurvaiti (to keep vigil over), although the original Proto-Indoeuropean root is unclear. According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the Indo-European root is ser meaning "to protect". According to Eric Partridge in Origins, the Greek word Hērōs "is akin to" the Latin seruāre, meaning to safeguard. Partridge concludes, "The basic sense of both Hera and hero would therefore be 'protector'." Classical hero cults Hero cults could be of the utmost political importance. When Cleisthenes divided the ancient Athenians into new demes for voting, he consulted the Oracle of Delphi about what heroes he should name each division after. According to Herodotus, the Spartans attributed their conquest of Arcadia to their theft of the bones of Orestes from the Arcadian town of Tegea. Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods. Thus Heracles's name means "the glory of Hera", even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Gods. Perhaps the most striking example is the Athenian king Erechtheus, whom Poseidon killed for choosing Athena over him as the city's patron god. When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the Acropolis, they invoked him as Poseidon Erechtheus. In the Hellenistic Greek East, dynastic leaders such as the Ptolemies or Seleucids were also proclaimed heroes. This was an influence on the later, Roman apotheosis of their emperors. Analysis The classic hero often came with what Lord Raglan (a descendant of the FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan) termed a "potted biography" made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy sepulchres. The validity of the hero in historical studies The philosopher Hegel gave a central role to the "hero", personalized by Napoleon, as the incarnation of a particular culture's Volksgeist, and thus of the general Zeitgeist. Thomas Carlyle's 1841 On Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History also accorded a key function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the biography of a few central individuals such as Oliver Cromwell or Frederick the Great. His heroes were political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states. His history of great men, of geniuses good and evil, sought to organize change in the advent of greatness. Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most philosophers of history contend that the motive forces in history can best be described only with a wider lens than the one he used for his portraits. For example, Karl Marx argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in "class struggles", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, Herbert Spencer wrote at the end of the 19th century: "You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown....Before he can remake his society, his society must make him." Spencer, Herbert. The Study of Sociology, Appleton, 1896, p. 34. Thus, as Michel Foucault pointed out in his analysis of societal communication and debate, history was mainly the "science of the sovereign", until its inversion by the "historical and political popular discourse". The Annales School, led by Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel, would contest the exaggeration of the role of individual subjects in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to civilizations, in which geography, economics and demography play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects. Foucault's conception of an "archeology" (not to be confused with the anthropological discipline of archaeology) or Louis Althusser's work were attempts at linking together these various heterogeneous layers composing history. Heroic myth The four heroes from the Chinese classic Journey to the West The concept of a story archetype of the standard "hero's quest" or monomyth pervasive across all cultures is somewhat controversial. Expounded mainly by Joseph Campbell, it illustrates several uniting themes of hero stories that despite vastly different peoples and beliefs hold similar ideas of what a hero represents. Some argue that while there may be many stories that fit the monomyth, the belief in such a truly ubiquitous form may be due in part simply to neglecting those that do not. Folk and fairy tales Vladimir Propp, in his analysis of the Russian fairy tale, concluded that a fairy tale had only eight dramatis personæ, of which one was the hero, Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folk Tale, ISBN 0-292-78376-0 and his analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian folklore. The actions that fall into a such hero's sphere include: Departure on a quest Reacting to the test of a donor Marrying a princess (or similar figure) He distinguished between seekers and victim-heroes. A villain could initiate the issue by kidnapping the hero or driving him out; these were victim-heroes. On the other hand, a villain could rob the hero, or kidnap someone close to him, or, without the villain's intervention, the hero could realize that he lacked something and set out to find it; these heroes are seekers. Victims may appear in tales with seeker heroes, but the tale does not follow them both. Operatic hero In opera and musical theatre, the hero/heroine is often played by a tenor/soprano (more vulnerable characters are played by lyric voices while stronger characters are portrayed by spinto or dramatic voices.) The modern fictional hero Hero or heroine is sometimes used to simply describe the protagonist of a story, or the love interest, a usage which can conflict with the superhuman expectations of heroism. William Makepeace Thackeray gave Vanity Fair the subtitle A Novel without a Hero. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, p 34, ISBN 0-691-01298-9 The larger-than-life hero is a more common feature of fantasy (particularly sword and sorcery and epic fantasy) than more realist works. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 5 ISBN 0-87054-076-9 In modern movies, the hero is often simply an ordinary person in extraordinary circumstances, who, despite the odds being stacked against him or her, typically prevails in the end. In some movies (especially action movies), a hero may exhibit characteristics such as superhuman strength and endurance that sometimes makes him nearly invincible. Often a hero in these situations has a foil, the villain, typically a charismatic evildoer who represents, leads, or himself embodies the struggle the hero is up against. Post-modern fictional works have fomented the increased popularity of the antihero, who does not follow common conceptions of heroism. Hero: Encyclopedia - Hero Hero-as-self It has been suggested in an article by Roma Chatterji that the hero or more generally protagonist is first and foremost a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening or watching; thus the relevance of the hero to the individual relies a great deal on how much similarity there is between the two. The idea of "identifying" with the hero takes on a very real meaning, in that the hero/protagonist becomes our only key to becoming part of the story rather than remaining merely an observer. If the hero is one with which the observer can't identify very well, the story can seem inaccessible, distant or even insincere. Conversely, insomuch as the reader or viewer relates to and is therefore capable of becoming the hero, they can feel pangs of remorse at the hero's defeats, and relish in his or her triumphs. The most compelling reason for the hero-as-self interpretation of stories and myths is the human inability to view the world from any perspective but a personal one. The almost universal notion of the hero or protagonist and its resulting hero identification allows us to experience stories in the only way we know how: as ourselves. One potential drawback of the necessity of hero identification means that a hero is often more a combination of symbols than a representation of an actual person. In order to appeal to a wide range of individuals, the author often relegates the hero to a "type" of person which everyone already is or wishes themselves to be: a "good" person; a "brave" person; a "self-sacrificing" person. The most problematic result of this sort of design is the creation of a character so universal that we can all identify with somewhat, but none can identify with completely. In regard to the observer's personal interaction with the story, it can give the feeling of being "mostly involved," but never entirely. See also Antihero Bildungsroman Byronic hero Comparative mythology Culture hero Epic hero Folk hero Leadership List of action heroes List of women warriors in literature and popular culture Mythological king Reluctant hero Romantic hero Superhero The Hero with a Thousand Faces The My Hero Project Tragic hero Xia (philosophy) References Further reading Hein, David. "The Death of Heroes, the Recovery of the Heroic." Christian Century 110 (1993): 1298-1303. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n37_v110/ai_14739320 or http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000242002 Henry Liddell and Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057 Craig, David, Back Home, Life Magazine-Special Issue, Volume 8, Number 6, 85-94. Guntis Smidchens, "National Heroic Narratives in the Baltics as a Source for Nonviolent Political Action," Slavic Review 66,3 (2007), 484-508. External links Exploring the Function of Heroes and Heroines in Children's Literature from around the World The British Hero - online exhibition from screenonline, a website of the British Film Institute, looking at British heroes of film and television. Example of Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey The Hero Myth, Transcendence, and Joseph Campbell - by Robert Novella, discusses Joseph Campbell's work as well as the appeal of the hero myth. 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6,874 | Demographics_of_Kenya | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Kenya, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. A Maasai man Kenya has a very diverse population that includes most major ethnic and linguistic groups of Africa. Traditional pastoralists, rural farmers, Muslims, Christians, and urban residents of Nairobi and other cities contribute to the cosmopolitan culture. The standard of living in major cities, once relatively high compared to much of Sub-Saharan Africa, has been declining in recent years. Most city workers retain links with their rural, extended families and leave the city periodically to help work on the family farm. About 75 % of the work force is engaged in agriculture, mainly as subsistence farmers. The national motto of Kenya is Harambee, meaning "pull together." In that spirit, volunteers in hundreds of communities build schools, clinics, and other facilities each year and collect funds to send students abroad. The seven state universities enroll about 40,000 students, representing some 25 % of the Kenyan students who qualify for admission. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 34,707,817 note: estimates for this country, explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 42.6 % (male 7,454,765; female 7,322,130) 15-64 years: 55.1 % (male 9,631,488; female 9,508,068) 65 years and over: 2.3 % (male 359,354; female 432,012) (2006 est.) Population growth rate 2.57 % (2006 est.) 1.53 Birth rate 39.72 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 14.02 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (on ave.) note: according to the UNHCR, by the end of 2005 Kenya was host to 233,778 refugees from neighbouring countries, including Somalia 153,627, Sudan 67,556, Ethiopia 12,595 (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female under 16 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: ? male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate 59.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Malnourished population 32% Life expectancy at birth total population: 48.93 years male: 49.78 years female: 48.07 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 4.91 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality noun: Kenyan(s) adjective: Kenyan Ethnic groups Major groups Kikuyu (Agĩkũyũ) 20.78 % Luhya 14.38 % Luo 12.38 % Kalenjin 11.46 % Kamba 11.42 % Kisii 6.15 % Ameru (Meru) 5.07 % Maasai 1.76 % Turkana 1.52 % Embu 1.20 % Taita 0.95 % Swahili 0.60 % Samburu 0.50 % The percentage indicates the tribe's proportion of the population of Kenya. Other Groups Aweer Bajuni Bukusu, ([Luhya] sub-tribe) Dahalo Idakho, (Luhya sub-tribe) Isukha, (Luhya sub-tribe) Kore Kuria Maragoli, (Luhya sub-tribe) Marama Miji Kenda Ogiek Orma (Oromo) Pokomo Rendille Sengwer Suba Tachoni Taveta Watha Yiaku (Yaaku) Other non-Kenyan ethnic groups resident in Kenya for many generations are: Oromos Somalis Gujaratis, Baluchs, Punjabis and Goans from India, Britons and Europeans (45,000) Omani Arabs Religions Protestant 45 %, Roman Catholic 33 %, indigenous beliefs 10 %, Muslim 10 %, Bahá'í Faith about 1% Buddhism 0.3 %, other 2 % note: a large majority of Kenyans are Christian, but estimates for the percentage of the population that adheres to Islam or indigenous beliefs vary widely Languages English (official), Swahili (national), numerous indigenous languages Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 85.1 % male: 90.6 % female: 79.7 % (2003 est.) External links Kenya: Minorities, Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Diversity, report by Minority Rights Group, 2005 References 1989 KENYA POPULATION CENSUS http://www.cbs.go.ke/ www.minorityrights.org/download.php?id=147 See also: Kenya | Demographics_of_Kenya |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:17 kenya:9 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 maasai:2 man:1 diverse:1 major:3 ethnic:4 linguistic:1 group:6 africa:2 traditional:1 pastoralists:1 rural:2 farmer:2 muslim:2 christian:2 urban:1 resident:2 nairobi:1 city:4 contribute:1 cosmopolitan:1 culture:1 standard:1 living:1 relatively:1 high:2 compare:1 much:1 sub:5 saharan:1 decline:1 recent:1 year:10 worker:1 retain:1 link:2 extended:1 family:2 leave:1 periodically:1 help:1 work:2 farm:1 force:1 engage:1 agriculture:1 mainly:1 subsistence:1 national:2 motto:1 harambee:1 mean:1 pull:1 together:1 spirit:1 volunteer:1 hundred:1 community:1 build:1 school:1 clinic:1 facility:1 collect:1 fund:1 send:1 student:3 abroad:1 seven:1 state:1 university:1 enroll:1 represent:1 kenyan:5 qualify:1 admission:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:2 note:3 estimate:2 country:2 explicitly:1 take:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:1 aid:1 result:1 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 infant:2 death:4 rate:8 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 age:3 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:11 structure:1 male:8 female:8 birth:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 ave:1 accord:1 unhcr:1 end:1 host:1 refugee:1 neighbour:1 somalia:1 sudan:1 ethiopia:1 ratio:1 live:1 malnourish:1 total:3 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 kikuyu:1 agĩkũyũ:1 luhya:5 luo:1 kalenjin:1 kamba:1 kisii:1 ameru:1 meru:1 turkana:1 embu:1 taita:1 swahili:2 samburu:1 percentage:2 tribe:5 proportion:1 aweer:1 bajuni:1 bukusu:1 dahalo:1 idakho:1 isukha:1 kore:1 kuria:1 maragoli:1 marama:1 miji:1 kenda:1 ogiek:1 orma:1 oromo:1 pokomo:1 rendille:1 sengwer:1 suba:1 tachoni:1 taveta:1 watha:1 yiaku:1 yaaku:1 non:1 many:1 generation:1 oromos:1 somali:1 gujarati:1 baluchs:1 punjabi:1 goans:1 india:1 briton:1 european:1 omani:1 arabs:1 religion:1 protestant:1 roman:1 catholic:1 indigenous:4 belief:2 bahá:1 í:1 faith:1 buddhism:1 large:1 majority:1 adhere:1 islam:1 vary:1 widely:1 languages:1 english:1 official:1 numerous:1 language:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 external:1 minority:2 people:1 diversity:1 report:1 right:1 reference:1 census:1 http:1 www:2 cbs:1 go:1 ke:1 minorityrights:1 org:1 download:1 php:1 id:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 subsistence_farmer:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:7 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 somalia_sudan:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 bahá_í:1 í_faith:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 php_id:1 |
6,875 | Marvin_Minsky | Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927) is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of MIT's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy. Biography Marvin Lee Minsky was born in New York City, where he attended The Fieldston School and the Bronx High School of Science. He later attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. He served in the US Navy from 1944 to 1945. He holds a BA in Mathematics from Harvard (1950) and a PhD in the same field from Princeton (1954). He has been on the MIT faculty since 1958. In 1959 he and John McCarthy founded what is now known as the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. He is currently Toshiba Professor of Media Arts and Sciences, and Professor of electrical engineering and computer science. Minsky won the Turing Award in 1969, the Japan Prize in 1990, the IJCAI Award for Research Excellence in 1991, and the Benjamin Franklin Medal from the Franklin Institute in 2001 Marvin Minsky - The Franklin Institute Awards - Laureate Database. Franklin Institute. Retrieved on March 25, 2008. . Minsky is listed on Google Directory as one of the all time top six people in the field of artificial intelligence. Google Directory - Computers > Artificial Intelligence > People Isaac Asimov described Minsky as one of only two people he would admit were more intelligent than himself, the other being Carl Sagan. Patrick Winston has also described Minsky as the smartest person he has ever met. Minsky is a childhood friend of the Yale University critic Harold Bloom, who has referred to him as "the sinister Marvin Minsky." Ray Kurzweil has referred to Minsky as his mentor. Minsky's patents include the first head-mounted graphical display (1963) and the confocal microscope The patent for Minsky's Microscopy Apparatus was applied for in 1957, and subsequently granted US Patent Number 3,013,467 in 1961. According to his published biography on the MIT Media Lab webpage, "In 1956, when a Junior Fellow at Harvard, Minsky invented and built the first Confocal Scanning Microscope, an optical instrument with unprecedented resolution and image quality". (1957, a predecessor to today's widely used confocal laser scanning microscope). He developed with Seymour Papert the first Logo "turtle". Minsky also built, in 1951, the first randomly wired neural network learning machine, SNARC. Minsky wrote the book Perceptrons (with Seymour Papert), which became the foundational work in the analysis of artificial neural networks. This book is the center of a controversy in the history of AI, as some claim it to have had great importance in driving research away from neural networks in the 1970s, and contributing to the so-called AI winter. That said, none of the mathematical proofs present in the book, which are still important and interesting to the study of perceptron networks, were ever countered. Minsky was an adviser For more, see this interview, http://mitpress.mit.edu/e-books/Hal/chap2/two3.html on the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey and is referred to in the movie and book. In the early 1970s at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab, Minsky and Seymour Papert started developing what came to be called The Society of Mind theory. The theory attempts to explain how what we call intelligence could be a product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts. Minsky says that the biggest source of ideas about the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses a robotic arm, a video camera, and a computer to build with children's blocks. In 1986 Minsky published Robotics, a comprehensive book on the theory which, unlike most of his previously published work, was written for a general audience. In November 2006, Minsky published The Emotion Machine, a book that critiques many popular theories of how human minds work and suggests alternative theories, often replacing simple ideas with more complex ones. Recent drafts of the book are freely available from his webpage. Marvin Minsky's Home Page Affiliations Marvin Minsky is affiliated with the following organizations: United States National Academy of Engineering United States National Academy of Sciences Extropy Institute's Council of Advisors Extropy Institute Directors & Advisors Alcor Life Extension Foundation's Scientific Advisory Board Alcor: Scientific Advisory Board kynamatrix Research Network's Board of Directors Minsky joins kynamatrix board of directors Minsky is a critic of the Loebner Prize. Minsky -thread.html Salon.com Technology | Artificial stupidity Trivia The Minskytron or "Three Position Display" running on the Computer History Museum's PDP-1, 2007 Minsky is an actor in an artificial intelligence koan (attributed to his student, Danny Hillis) from the Jargon file: In the days when Sussman was a novice, Minsky once came to him as he sat hacking at the PDP-6. "What are you doing?" asked Minsky. "I am training a randomly wired neural net to play Tic-tac-toe," Sussman replied. "Why is the net wired randomly?", asked Minsky. "I do not want it to have any preconceptions of how to play," Sussman said. Minsky then shut his eyes. "Why do you close your eyes?" Sussman asked his teacher. "So that the room will be empty." At that moment, Sussman was enlightened. What I actually said was, "If you wire it randomly, it will still have preconceptions of how to play. But you just won't know what those preconceptions are." -- Marvin Minsky Minsky has three children: Henry Minsky, Julie Minsky and Margaret Minsky. He also has four grandchildren: Gigi Minsky, Harry Minsky, Charlotte Minsky and Miles Steele. Selected works Neural Nets and the Brain Model Problem, Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1954. The first publication of theories and theorems about learning in neural networks, secondary reinforcement, circulating dynamic storage and synaptic modifications. Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines, Prentice-Hall, 1967. A standard text in computer science. Out of print now, but soon to reappear. Semantic Information Processing, MIT Press, 1968. This collection had a strong influence on modern computational linguistics. Perceptrons, with Seymour Papert, MIT Press, 1969 (Enlarged edition, 1988). Artificial Intelligence, with Seymour Papert, Univ. of Oregon Press, 1972. Out of print. Communication with Alien Intelligence, 1985 Robotics, Doubleday, 1986. Edited collection of essays about robotics, with Introduction and Postscript by Minsky. The Society of Mind, Simon and Schuster, 1987. The first comprehensive description of the Society of Mind theory of intellectual structure and development. See also The Society of Mind (CD-ROM version), Voyager, 1996. The Turing Option, with Harry Harrison, Warner Books, New York, 1992. Science fiction thriller about the construction of a superintelligent robot in the year 2023. The Emotion Machine Simon & Schuster: The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind (Hardcover) Simon and Schuster, November 2006. ISBN 0-7432-7663-9 (book available online on his MIT home page; see below) See also Gerry Sussman John McCarthy Terry Winograd Transhumanism Russian cosmism N. F. Fyodorov Claude Shannon References External links Marvin Minsky's home page Oral history interview with Marvin Minsky at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Minsky describes artificial intelligence (AI) research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Topics include: the work of John McCarthy; changes in the MIT research laboratories with the advent of Project MAC; research in the areas of expert systems, graphics, word processing, and time-sharing; variations in the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) attitude toward AI. Oral history interview with Terry Winograd at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Winograd describes his work in computer science, linguistics, and artificial intelligence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), discussing the work of Marvin Minsky and others. Scientist on the Set: An Interview with Marvin Minsky Marvin Minsky Playlist Appearance on WMBR's Dinnertime Sampler radio show November 26, 2003 Consciousness Is A Big Suitcase: A talk with Marvin Minsky Video of Minsky speaking at the International Conference on Complex Systems, hosted by the New England Complex Systems Institute (NECSI) "The Emotion Universe": Video with Marvin Minsky Marvin Minsky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Radio interview on Philosophy Talk Marvin Minsky's thoughts on the Fermi Paradox at the Transvisions 2007 conference "Health, population and the human mind": Marvin Minsky talk at the TED conference | Marvin_Minsky |@lemmatized marvin:17 lee:2 minsky:51 bear:2 august:1 american:1 cognitive:1 scientist:2 field:3 artificial:12 intelligence:12 ai:7 co:1 founder:1 mit:12 laboratory:2 author:1 several:1 text:2 philosophy:2 biography:2 new:3 york:2 city:1 attend:2 fieldston:1 school:2 bronx:1 high:1 science:8 later:1 phillips:1 academy:3 andover:1 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6,876 | Jainism | Jainism () is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to God consciousness. Any soul which has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called jina (Conqueror or Victor). Jainism is the path to achieve this state. Jainism is often referred to as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म) or Shraman Dharma or the religion of Nirgantha or religion of "Vratyas" by ancient texts. Jainism was revived by a lineage of 24 enlightened ascetics called tirthankaras Buswell, Robert E. "Encyclopedia of Buddhism" (2004) p. 391 culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE). Larson, Gerald James (1995) India’s Agony over religion SUNY Press ISBN 079142412X . “There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. Page 27” Varni, Jinendra; Ed. Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Translated Justice T.K. Tukol and Dr. K.K. Dixit (1993). . New Delhi: Bhagwan Mahavir memorial Samiti. “The Historians have so far fully recognized the truth that Tirthankara Mahavira was not the founder of the religion. He was preceded by many tirthankaras. He merely reiterated and rejuvenated that religion. It is correct that history has not been able to trace the origin of the Jaina religion; but historical evidence now available and the result of dispassionate researches in literature have established that Jainism is undoubtly an ancient religion.” Pp. xii – xiii of introduction by Justice T.K.Tutkol and Dr. K.K. Dixit. Edward Craig (1998) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor & Francis ISBN 0415073103 “One significant difference between Mahavira and Buddha is that Mahavira was not a founder of a new movement, but rather a reformer of the teachings of his predecessor, Parsva.” p. 33 Joel Diederik Beversluis (2000) In: Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality, New World Library : Novato, CA ISBN 1577311213 Originating on the Indian sub-continent, Jainism is one of the oldest religion of its homeland and indeed the world, having pre-historic origins before 3000 BCE and the propagation of Indo-Aryan culture…. p. 81 Jainism by Mrs. N.R. Guseva p.44 In the modern world, it is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 4 million followers in India, Indian Census and successful growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and elsewhere. Estimates for the population of Jains differ from just over four million to twelve million due to difficulties of Jain identity, with Jains in some areas counted as a Hindu sect. Many Jains do not return Jainism as their religion on census forms for various reasons such as certain Jain castes considering themselves both Hindu and Jain. Following a major advertising campaign urging Jains to register as such, the 1981 Census of India returned 3.19 million Jains. This was estimated at the time to be at least half the true number. There are an estimated 25,000 Jains in Europe (mostly in England), 21,000 in Africa, 20,000 plus in North America and 5,000 in the rest of Asia. Jains have sustained the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic religion and have significantly influenced other religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy in India. Census of India 2001 ; Jain libraries are the oldest in the country. The Jain Knowledge Warehouses: Traditional Libraries in India, John E. Cort, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 115, No. 1 (January - March, 1995), pp. 77–87 Principles and beliefs Jainism differs from other religions in its concept of God. Jainism regards every living soul as potentially divine. When the soul sheds its karmic bonds completely, it attains God-consciousness. It prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A Jain is a follower of Jinas ("conquerors"). . . .from Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jinah "saint," lit. "overcomer," from base ji "to conquer," related to jayah "victory." etymonline.com entry Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jaina-, "relating to the saints", from , "saint, victor", from jayati, "he conquers". dictionary.com entry Jinas are spiritually advanced human beings who rediscover the dharma, become fully liberated and teach the spiritual path to benefit all living beings. Practicing Jains follow the teachings of 24 special jinas who are known as Tirthankaras "('ford-makers", or "those who have discovered and shown the way to salvation"). Tradition states that the 24th, and most recent, Tirthankar is Shri Mahavir, lived from 599 to 527 BC. The 23rd Tirthankar, Shri Parsva, lived from 872 to 772 BC. Jainism encourages spiritual development through reliance on and cultivation of one's own personal wisdom and self-control (व्रत, vrata). Buswell, Robert E. (2004) "Encyclopedia of Buddhism." p. 383 The goal of Jainism is to realize the soul's true nature. "Samyak darshan gyan charitrani moksha margah", meaning "true/right perception, knowledge and conduct" ( known as the triple gems of Jainism) provides the path for attaining liberation (moksha) from samsara (the universal cycle of birth and death). Moksha is attained by liberation from all karma. Those who have attained moksha are called siddha (liberated souls), and those who are attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin (mundane souls). Every soul has to follow the path, as described by the Jinas (and revived by Tirthankaras), to attain the ultimate liberation. Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adhinath) as the First Tirthankar of this declining (avasarpini) kalachakra (time cycle). Singh, Ramjee Dr. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion, Faridabad, Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993. The first Tirthankar, Rishabhdev/ Adhinath, appeared prior to the Indus Valley Civilization. The swastika symbol and naked statues resembling Jain monks, which archaeologists have found among the remains of the Indus Valley Civilization, tend to support this claim. Jains hold that the Universe and Dharma are eternal, without beginning or end. However, the universe undergoes processes of cyclical change. The universe consists of living beings ("Jīva") and non-living beings ("Ajīva"). The samsarin (worldly) soul incarnates in various life forms during its journey over time. Human, sub-human (animal, insect, plant, etc.), super-human (deity or devas), and hell-being are the four macro forms of the samsari souls. All worldly relations of one's Jiva with other Jiva and Ajiva (non-living beings) are based on the accumulation of karma and its conscious thoughts, speech and actions carried out in its current form. The main Jain prayer (Namokar Mantra) therefore salutes the five special categories of souls that have attained God-consciousness or are on their way to achieving it, to emulate and follow these paths to salvation. Another major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviours. Jain practices are derived from the above fundamentals. For example, the principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which may limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become Siddha (Param-atma - "pure soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions in the incarnate world. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether these be creatures great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities and therefore assigns different duties for ascetics and householders. The "great vows" (mahavrata) are prescribed for monks and "limited vows" (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. There are five basic ethical principles (vows) prescribed. The degree to which these principles must be practiced is different for renunciant and householder. Thus: Non-violence (Ahimsa) - to cause no harm to living beings. Truth (Satya) - to always speak the truth in a harmless manner. Non-stealing (Asteya) - to not take anything that is not willingly given. Celibacy (Brahmacarya) - to not indulge in sensual pleasures. Non-possession (Aparigraha) - to detach from people, places, and material things. Ahimsa, "Non-violence", is sometimes interpreted as not killing, but the concept goes far beyond that. It includes not harming or insulting other living beings either directly or indirectly through others. There can be even no room for thought to injure others, and no speech that influence others to inflict harm. Book: Outlines of Jainism pg. 159, Author: S.Gopalan It also includes respecting the view of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of multiple view points). Satya, "truthfulness", is also to be practiced by all people. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles yield to it, whenever there is a conflict. For example, if speaking truth will lead to violence, it is perfectly ethical to be silent. Thiruvalluvar in his Tamil classic devotes an entire chapter clarifying the definition of 'truthfulness'. Asteya, "non-stealing", is the strict adherence to one's own possessions, without desire to take another's. One should remain satisfied by whatever is earned through honest labour. Any attempt to squeeze others and/or exploit the weak is considered theft. Some of the guidelines for this principle are: Always give people fair value for labor or product. Never take things which are not offered. Never take things that are placed, dropped or forgotten by others Never purchase cheaper things if the price is the result of improper method (e.g. pyramid scheme, illegal business, stolen goods, etc.) Brahmacarya, "monastic celibacy", is the complete abstinence from sex, which is only incumbent upon monastics. Householders practice monogamy as a way to uphold brahmacarya in spirit. Book: Outlines of Jainism pg. 163-164, Author: S.Gopalan Aparigraha, "non-possession", is the renunciation of property and wealth, before initiation into monkhood, without entertaining thoughts of the things renounced. This is done so one understands how to detach oneself from things and possessions, including home and family, so one may reach moksa. Book: Outlines of Jainism p. 164-165, Author: S.Gopalan For householders, non-possession is owning without attachment, because the notion of possession is illusory. The reality of life is that change is constant; thus, objects owned by someone today will be property of someone else in future days. The householder is encouraged to discharge his or her duties to related people and objects as a trustee, without excessive attachment. Main points Every living being has a soul. Every soul is divine, with innate, though typically unrealized, infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. Therefore, regard every living being as yourself, harm no one, and manifest benevolence for all living beings. Every soul is born as a celestial, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karmas. Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter. Fisher, Mary Pat and Bailey, Lee W. An Anthology of Living Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008. When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and god-conscious, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. Kastenbaum, Robert (2003) "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying " p. 491 Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (triple gems of Jainism) provide the way to this realization. Tattvartha Sutra There is no supreme divine creator, owner, preserver or destroyer. The universe is self-regulated and every soul has the potential to achieve the status of god-consciousness (siddha) through one's own efforts. Non-violence (Ahimsa) is the foundation of right View, the existence of right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct. Non-violence is compassion and forgiveness in thoughts, words and actions toward all living beings. It includes respecting views of others (Non-absolutism). Control of the senses. Limit possessions and lead a pure life that is useful to yourself and others. Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however attachment to an object is. Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai, ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 69 Non-possessiveness is the balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions. Enjoy the company of the holy and better qualified, be merciful to those afflicted and tolerate the perversely inclined. Prof. S.A.Jain. Reality - English Translation of Sarvarthasiddhi by Srimat Pujyapadacharya, 2nd Edition, Chapter 7, Page 195. Four things are difficult for a soul to attain: 1. human birth, 2. knowledge of the law, 3. faith in the law, and 4. practicing the right path. It is important not to waste human life in evil ways. Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of spiritual evolution. Navakar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows with respect to liberated souls still in human form (Arihantas), fully liberated souls (Siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers (Upadyayas) and all the monks. By saluting them, Jains receive inspiration from them for the right path of true bliss and total freedom from the karma of their soul. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favors or material benefits. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect towards beings who are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal, nirvana or moksha. Jainism: The World of Conquerors By Natubhai Shah Published 1998 Sussex Academic Press The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts, speech and action. This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems of Jainism. Tirthankaras The statue of Gomateshwara of Digambar tradition in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka is the tallest monolith of its kind in the world Jains believe that knowledge of the truth (dharma) have declined and revived cyclically throughout history. Those who rediscover dharma are called Tirthankara. The literal meaning of Tirthankar is 'ford-builder'. Jains, like Buddhists, compare the process of becoming a pure human to crossing a swift river, an endeavour requiring patience and care. A ford-builder has already crossed the river and can therefore guide others. One is called a 'victor' (Skt: Jina) because one has achieved liberation by one's own efforts. Like Buddhism, the purpose of Jain dharma is to undo the negative effects of karma through mental and physical purification. This process leads to liberation accompanied by a great natural inner peace. Having purified one's soul of karmic impurities, a tirthankar is considered omniscient, and a role model. Identified as god, these individuals are called bhagavan, lord (e.g., Bhagavan Rishabha, Bhagavan Parshva, etc.). Tirthankar are not regarded as gods in the pantheistic or polytheistic sense, but rather as examplars who have awakened the divine spiritual qualities which lie dormant in each of us. There have been 24 Tirthankaras in what the Jains call the 'present age'. The last two Tirthankaras: Parsva and Mahavira are historical figures whose existence is recorded Mahavira established the fourfold community (chaturvidhi sangha) of monks, nuns, and male and female laypersons. The 24 Tirthankaras, in chronological order, are Adinath (Rishabhnath), Ajitnath, Sambhavanath, Abhinandan Swami, Sumatinath, Padmaprabhu, Suparshvanath, Chandraprabhu, Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath), Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath, Vasupujya Swami, Vimalnath, Anantnath, Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthunath, Aranath, Mallinath, Munisuvrata Swami, Nami Nath, Neminath, Parshvanath and Mahavir (Vardhamana). Pre-Kushana Ayagapatta from Mathura Jains believe that every human is responsible for his/her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining moksha. Tirthankaras are role models only because they have attained moksha. Jains insist that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Ananta Jnāna, Ananta Darshana, Ananta Cāritra and Ananta Sukha). Jains do not believe in an omnipotent supreme being, creator or manager (kartā), but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws. Jains hold that this temporal world inflicts much misery and sorrow; thus, to attain lasting bliss, one must transcend the cycle of transmigration. Otherwise, one will remain eternally caught up in the never-ending cycle of transmigration. The only way to break out of this cycle is to practice detachment through rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct. Jain scriptures were written over a long period of time, but the most cited is the Tattvartha Sutra, or "Book of Reality", written by the monk-scholar, Umasvati (aka Umāsvāmi) almost 1800 years ago. The protagonists of this sutra are Tirthankaras. The two main sects of Jainism are called Digambar and Svetambar. Both sects affirm ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, sanskār, and jiva. Though practice differs between the two sects, Jain doctrine is uniform, with great emphasis placed on rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct. {"", Tattvārthasūtra, 1.1} Compassion for all life, both human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. To kill any person, no matter their crime, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. History suggests that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. South India Handbook: The Travel Guide By Robert Bradnock, 2000 Footprint Travel Guides, p. 543, Vegetarianism: A History By Colin Spencer, 2002 Thunder's Mouth Press, p. 342 . Jains run animal shelters all over India. For example, Delhi has a bird hospital run by Jains. Every city and town in Bundelkhand has animal shelters run by Jains where all manner of animals are sheltered, even though the shelter is generally known as a Gaushala ("sacred cow"). Jainism's stance on nonviolence goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism, due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets to preserve the lives of these plants. Potatoes, garlic and onions in particular are avoided by Jains. . Devout Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset, and prefer to drink water that is boiled and then cooled to room temperature. Many Jains abstain from eating green vegetables and root vegetables one day each week. The particular day, determined by the lunar calendar, is Ashtami (eighth day of the lunar month), New Moon, the second Ashtami and the Full Moon night. Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy, literally means "The Multiplicity of Reality", or equivalently, "Non-one-endedness". Anekantavada has tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on any topic or in reality in general. Anekantavada is defined as a multiplicity of viewpoints, for it stresses looking at things from others' perspectives. Another tool is the Doctrine of Postulation, Syadva/Syadvada. Jains are usually very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help with interfaith functions. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. A palpable presence in Indian culture, Jains have contributed to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, science, and to Mohandas Gandhi's politics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence. Content Pages of the Encyclopedia of Religion and Social Science . Mohandas Gandhi's mother was a devout Jain, and Jain monks visited his home regularly. He spent considerable time under the tutelage of Jain monks, learning the philosophies of non-violence and doing good always. Creation and cosmology Bhaktamara Stotra and 10th couplet in Thirukural , a Tamil classic: A Tirthankara is a shelter from ocean of rebirths. According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Therefore, it is shaswat (infinite). It has no beginning or end, but time is cyclical with progressive and regressive spirituality phases. rishi divide time into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). An Utsarpini and an Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalchakra). Every Utsarpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras. During the Utsarpinihalf cycle, humanity develops from its worst to its best: ethics, progress, happiness, strength, health, and religion each start the cycle at their worst, before eventually completing the cycle at their best and starting the process again. During the Avsarpini half-cycle, these notions deteriorate from the best to the worst. Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase, with approximately 19,000 years until the next Ara. After this Ara we will enter the sixth phase, which will last for approximately 21,000 years. After this, the Utsarpini phase will begin, continuing the infinite repetition of the believe that at the upswing of each time cycle, people will lose religion again. All wishes will be granted by wish-granting trees (Kalpavrksa), and people will be born in sets of twins (Yugalika) with one boy and one girl who stay together all their lives. This symbolizes the fully integrated human with male and female characteristics in balance. Jain philosophy is based upon eternal, universal truths. During the first and last two Aras, these truths lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached moksa or total knowledge (Kevala Jnana), during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe and in our time, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Lord Vardhamana (Mahavira) was the last Tirthankara to attain enlightenment (599-527 BCE). He was preceded by 23 others, making a total of 24 Tirthankaras. It is important to note that the above description stands true "in our universe and in our time", for Jains believe there have been infinite sets of 24 Tirthankaras, one for each half of the time cycle, and this will continue in the future. Hence, Jainism does not trace its origins to Rishabh Deva, the first, or finish with Mahavira, the 24th, Tirthankara. According to Jainism, the universe consists of infinite amount of Jiva (life force or souls), and the design resembles a man standing with his arms bent while resting his hands on his waist. The narrow waist part comprises various Kshetras, for vicharan (roaming) for humans, animals and plants. Currently we are in the Bharat Kshetra of Jambu Dweep (dweep means island). The Deva Loka (Heavens) are at the symbolic "chest" of Creation, where all Devas (demigods) reside. Similarly, beneath the "waist" are the Narka Loka (Hell). There are seven Narka Lokas, each for a varying degree suffering a jiva has to go through to face the consequences of its paap karma (sins). From the first to the seventh Narka, the degree of suffering increases and light reaching it decreases (with no light in the seventh Narka). The sidhha kshetra or moksha is situated at the symbolic forehead of the creation, where all the jivas having attained nirvana reside in a state of complete peace and eternal happiness. Outside the symbolic figure of this creation nothing but aloka or akaasha (sky) exists. Jain monks and nuns (Sadhu or Muni Maharaj) Palitana Tirtha Mulnayak Shri Adinath Bhagwan ,Bibrod Tirth , In India there are thousands of Jain Monks, in categories like Acharya, Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka in the Digambar tradition. There are two categories of ascetics, Sadhu (monk) and Sadhvi (nun). They practice the five Mahavratas, three Guptis and five Samitis: Five Mahavratas Ahimsa: Non-violence in thought, word and deed Satya: Truth which is (hita) beneficial, (mita) succinct and (priya) pleasing Acaurya: Not accepting anything that has not been given to them by the owner Brahmacarya: Absolute purity of mind and body Aparigraha: Non-attachment to non-self objects Three Guptis Managupti: Control of the mind Vacanagupti: Control of speech Kayagupti: Control of body Five Samitis Irya Samiti: Carefulness while walking Bhasha Samiti: Carefulness while communicating Eshana Samiti: Carefulness while eating Adana Nikshepana Samiti: Carefulness while handling their fly-whisks, water gourds, etc. Pratishthapana Samiti: Carefulness while disposing of bodily waste matter Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and are nude. They practice non-attachment to the body and hence, wear no clothes. Shvetambara monks and nuns wear white clothes. Shvetambaras believe that monks and nuns may wear simple un-stitched white clothes as long as they are not attached to them. Jain monks and nuns travel on foot. They do not use mechanical transport. Digambar followers take up to eleven Pratimaye (oath). Monks take all eleven oaths. They eat only once a day. The Male Digambar monk (Maharajji) eat standing at one place in their palms without using any utensil. Holidays Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Svetamber) day fasts, and for observe, 10/8 important principles. Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, JainNet : Mahaveer Janma Kalyanak Lord Mahavir's birth, it is popularly known as Mahavir Jayanti but the term 'jayanti' is inappropriate for a Tirthankar, as this term is used for mortals. Kshamavaani, The day for asking everyone's forgiveness. Diwali, the nirvana day of Lord Mahavira Karma theory Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning than commonly understood in the Hindu philosophy and western civilization. Kuhn, Hermann (2001). In: Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate. Nevada: Crosswind Publishing. It is not the so called inaccessible force that controls the fate of living beings in inexplicable ways. It does not mean "deed", "work", nor invisible, mystical force (adrsta), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul, causing great changes. Karma, then, is something material (karmapaudgalam), which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has many effects. Dr. H. V. Glasenapp, Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, Pg 2 According to Robert Zydendos, karma in Jainism is a system of laws, but natural rather than moral laws. In Jainism, actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause consequences in just the same way as physical actions that do not carry any moral significance. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then let go of the apple, the apple will fall: this is only natural. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action. Zydenbos (2006) Customs and practices The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning non-violence. The word in the middle is "Ahimsa." The wheel represents the dharmacakra, to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth. Jain monks and nuns practice strict asceticism and strive to make their current birth their last, thus ending their cycle of transmigration. The laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational perception and to do as much good as possible and get closer to the goal of attaining freedom from the cycle of transmigration. Following strict ethics, the laity usually choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent livelihoods. Jains practice Samayika, which is a Sanskrit word meaning equanimity and derived from samaya (the soul). The goal of samayika is to attain equanimity. Samayika is begun by achieving a balance in time. If this current moment is defined as a moving line between the past and the future, samayika happens by being fully aware, alert and conscious in that moving time line when one experiences atma, one's true nature, common to all life forms. Samayika is especially significant during Paryushana, a special period during the monsoon, and is practiced during the Samvatsari Pratikramana ritual. Jains believe that Devas (demi-gods or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to obtain liberation, which must be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, Devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult act of removing karma. Their efforts to attain the exalted state of Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own. The strict Jain ethical code for monks/nuns is: Ahimsa (Non-violence) Satya (truth) Achaurya or Asteya (non-stealing) Brahmacharya (Celibacy) Aparigraha (Non-attachment to materialistic things) Common men and women also have the five vows of non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession. It is not possible to observe these vows completely in day-to-day life and therefore followed to a limited extent. As these vows are limited in their scope, they are called ‘Anuvratas’. Apart from these, additionally there are seven vows designed to assist the householders in their spiritual journey. Nonviolence includes vegetarianism. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word, and deed, both toward humans and toward all other living beings, including their own selves. Jain monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing insects or other tiny beings. Even though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed the highest form of life. For this reason, it is considered vital never to harm or upset any person. For laypersons, brahmacharya means either confining sex to marriage or complete celibacy. For monks and nuns, it means complete celibacy. While performing holy deeds, Svetambara Jains wear cloths, muhapatti, over their mouths and noses to avoid saliva falling on texts or revered images. It is not the case, as is sometimes believed, that this is to avoid accidentally inhaling insects. Many healthy concepts are entwined. For example, Jains drink only boiled water. In ancient times, a person might get ill by drinking unboiled water, which could prevent equanimity, and illness may engender intolerance. True spirituality, according to enlightened Jains, starts when one attains Samyak darshana, or true perception. Such souls are on the path to moksha, striving to remain in the nature of the soul. This is characterized by knowing and observing only all worldly affairs, without raag (attachment) and dwesh (repulsion), a state of pure knowledge and bliss. Attachment to worldly life collects new karmas, and traps one in birth, death, and suffering. Worldly life has a dual nature (for example, love and hate, suffering and pleasure, etc.), for the perception of one state cannot exist without the contrasting perception of the other. Jain Dharma shares some beliefs with Hinduism. Both believe in karma and reincarnation. However, the Jain version of the Ramayana and Mahabharata is different from Hindu beliefs, for example. Generally, Hindus believe that Rama was a reincarnation of God, whereas Jains believe he attained moksha (liberation) because they are free from any belief in a creator god. Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will and practice forgiveness. They believe that atma (soul) can lead one to becoming parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Jains refrain from all violence (Ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities be avoided. Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of Shrimad Rajchandra) by Jain tenets such as peaceful, protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his own philosophy. . Jainism has a distinct idea underlying Tirthankar worship. The physical form is not worshiped, but their Gunas (virtues, qualities) are praised. Tirthankaras remain role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi stringently reject statue worship. Jain fasting Fasting is a tool for doing Tapa and to attach to your inner-being. It is a part of Jain festivals. It is three types based on the level of austerity; Uttam, Madhyam and Jaghanya; first being the most stringent: 1. Uttam: Renounce all worldly things including food & water on the day of fasting and eat only once on the eve & next day of fasting. 2. Madhyam: Food & water is not taken on the day of fast. 3. Jaghanya: Eat only once on the day. During fasting a person immerses himself in religious activities (worshiping, serving the saints & be in their proximity, reading scriptures, Tapa, and donate to the right candidates - Supatra). Most Jains fast at special times, like during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana and Ashthanhika are the main Parvas which occurs 3 times in a year), and on holy days (eighth & fourteenth days of the moon cycle). Paryushana is the most prominent festival, lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten days for Digambars, during the monsoon. The monsoon is considered the best time of fasting due to lenient weather. However, a Jain may fast at any time, especially if s/he feels some error has been committed. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain self control. A unique ritual in this religion involves a holy fasting until death; it is called sallekhana. Through this one achieves a death with dignity and dispassion as well as no more negative karma. Kastenbaum, Robert. "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying" (2003) pg. 492 When a person is aware of approaching death, and feels that s/he has completed all duties, s/he willingly ceases to eat or drink gradually. This form of dying is also called Santhara / Samaadhi. It can be as long as 12 years with gradual reduction in food intake. Considered extremely spiritual and creditable, with all awareness of the transitory nature of human experience, it has recently led to a controversy. In Rajasthan, a lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare santhara illegal. Jains see santhara as spiritual detachment, a declaration that a person has finished with this world and now chooses to leave. This choice however requires a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity as a pre-requisite. Jain worship and rituals Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the "Namokara Mantra", aka the Navkar Mantra, Parmesthi Mantra, Panch Namaskar Mantra, Anadhi Nidhan Mantra. Jains have built temples, or Basadi or Derasar, where idols of tirthankaras are revered. Rituals may be elaborate because symbolic objects are offered and Tirthankaras praised in song. But some sects refuse to enter temples or revere images. All Jains accept that images of Tirthankaras are merely symbolic reminders of their paths to attain moksha. Jains are clear that the Jinas reside in moksha and are completely detached from the world. Jain rituals include: Pancakalyanaka Pratishtha Pratikramana Samayika Guru Vandana, Chaitya Vandana, and other sutras to honor ascetics. Over time, some sections of Jains also pray deities, which are yakshas and yakshinis. Jain Food See also: Jain vegetarianism Jains practice a unique concept of restricted vegetarianism http://www.jainworld.com/education/level1/lesson07.htm . They do not consume root vegetables such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes, cassava, sweet potatoes, turnips, etc. However, they consume turmeric, ginger, peanuts. Brinjals are also not consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is taken to be a carrier of budding life. Strict Jains do not consume food which has been left overnight, such as yogurt which may have been set overnight, and have their meals before sunset. Most Jain recipes substitute potato with Plantain. History Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar, is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. Jarl Charpentier: The History of the Jains, in: The Cambridge History of India, vol. 1, Cambridge 1922, p. 153; A.M. Ghatage: Jainism, in: The Age of Imperial Unity, ed. R.C. Majumdar/A.D. Pusalkar, Bombay 1951, p. 411-412; Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo: History of Jaina Monachism, Poona 1956, p. 59-60. According to scholars, he probably lived in the 9th Century BCE. In the sixth century BCE, Vardhamana Mahavira became one of the most influential Jainism teachers. He built up a large group of disciples that learned from his teachings and followed him as he taught an ascetic doctrine in order to achieve enlightenment. The disciples referred to him as Jina, which means "the conqueror" and later his followers would use this title to refer to themselves. Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler: "Traditions and Encounters", in: "State, Society, and the Quest for SAlvation in India" p187; McGrawHill, 1999 It is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the third century BCE. i.e. since the time when Badrabahu, a preacher of this religion and the head of the monks' community, came to Karnataka from Bihar. Jainism by Mrs. N.R. Guseva, p.51 Kalinga (modern Orissa and Osiaji) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabh, the first Tirthankar, was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda. This was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the statue of Rishabhanatha to his capital in Magadh. Rishabhanatha is revered as the Kalinga Jina. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the 1st century BCE Emperor Kharvela conquered Magadha and brought Rishabhnath's statue back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital, Shishupalgadh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa. Earlier buildings were made of wood and were destroyed. Deciphering of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in India and established the antiquity of Jainism. The discovery of Jain manuscripts has added significantly to retracing Jain history. Archaeologists have encountered Jain remains and artifacts at Maurya, Sunga, Kishan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput as well as later sites. Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. Western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan, worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. Geographical spread and influence Jain temple in Ranakpur Jainism has been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient influence has been noted in other religions, including Buddhism and Hinduism. This pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar may have given rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavira (who, according to the Pali canon, were contemporaries), Jainism was already an ancient, deeply entrenched faith and culture there. (For connections between Buddhism and Jainism see Buddhism and Jainism). Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects. Certain Vedic Hindu holy books contain beautiful narrations about various figures who were adopted by Jains as Tirthankars (e.g., Lord Rishabdev). For instance, the concept of puja is Jain. The Vedic Religion prescribed yajnas and havanas for pleasing god. Puja is a specifically Jain concept, arising from the Kannada words, "pu" (flower) and "ja" (offering). Please refer to "Jaya Gommatesh" for more details on this topic.{Patil, Bal. "Jaya Gommatesha". Foreword by Prof. Dr. Colette Caillat. With 10 to 12 million followers, Basic Faith Group Information Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much greater than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India. Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain populations among Indian states. Karnataka, Bundelkhand and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there used to be many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially follow the same principles. Outside India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) have large Jain communities. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States and several Jain temples have been built there. American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Fiji, and Suriname. In Belgium the very successful Indian diamond community, almost all of whom are Jain, are also establishing a temple to strengthen Jain values in and across Western Europe. Denominations It is generally believed that the Jain sangha divided into two major sects, Digambar and Svetambar, about 200 years after Mahāvīra's nirvana. Some historians believe there was no clear division until the 5th century. In the book Outlines of Jainism, it states, "It seems certain that even at the time of Mahāvīra the two sects were in existence, though he was able to maintain at least a semblance of unity between them. The final 'parting of ways' came much later" Outlines of Jainism by S.Gopalan, p.22 . The best available information indicates that the chief Jain monk, Acharya Bhadrabahu, according to the Svetambara version of the split between the two sects, foresaw a 12-year famine and led about 12,000 Digambar followers to southern India Outlines of Jainism by S.Gopalan, p.22-23 . Twelve years later they returned to find the Svetambara sect, and in 453 the Valabhi council edited and compiled the traditional Svetambara scriptures. The differences between the two sects are primarily minor and relatively obscure. Digambar Jain monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. Svetambar Jain monks, on the other hand, wear white, seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing in Jain scripture that condemns wearing clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects wear white. In Sanskrit, ambar refers to a covering generally, or a garment in particular. Dig, an older form of disha, refers to the cardinal directions. Digambar therefore means "covered by the four directions", or "sky-clad". Svet means white and Svetambars wear white garments. There is one major difference between the sects. Digambars believe that women cannot attain moksha in the same birth, while Svetambars believe that women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a Tirthankar, was a woman. The difference is because Digambar asceticism requires nudity. As nudity is impractical for women, it follows that without it they cannot attain moksha. Anne Vallely; Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community (page 15) This is based on the belief that women cannot reach perfect purity (yathakhyata), "Their lack of clothes can, therefore, be a hindrance to their leading a holy life". The earliest record of this belief is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c. second century A.D. ). Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Padmanabh S. Jaini University of California Press, 1991 This of course has extreme consequences for women and effectively polarises the two sects in this regard. Digambars believe that Mahavir was not married, whereas Svetambars believe Mahavir was married and had a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, Mahavira's mother. Digambars believe that only the first five lines are formally part of the Namokara Mantra (the main Jain prayer), whereas Svetambaras believe all nine form the mantra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of doctrine. Diagramatic representation of schisms within Jainism along with the timelines. Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the Kushana period. Tirthankaras, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as Ardhaphalaka and mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, follows Digambara nudity, along with several Svetambara beliefs. Svetambaras are further divided into sub-sects, such as Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi and Deravasi. Some are murtipujak (revering statues) while non-Murtipujak Jains refuse statues or images. Svetambar follow the 12 agam literature (voice of omniscient). Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In 1974 a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Samana Suttam. Jain symbolism The holiest symbol is a simple swastika. A Jain swastika is normally associated with the three dots on the top accompanied with a crest and a dot. Another important symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand, symbolizing Ahimsa. Other major Jain symbols include: 24 Lanchhanas (symbols) of the Tirthankaras Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols A Tirthankar's or Chakravarti's mother dreams Dharmacakra and Siddha-chakra Eight auspicious symbols (The Asta Mangalas). Their names are (in series of pictures) Swastika -Signifies peace and well-being Shrivatsa -A mark manifested on the centre of the Jina's chest, signifying a pure soul. Nandyavartya -Large swastika with nine corners Vardhamanaka -A shallow earthen dish used for lamps, suggests an increase in wealth, fame and merit due to a Jina's grace. Bhadrasana -Throne, considered auspicious because it is sanctified by the blessed Jina's feet. Kalasha -Pot filled with pure water signifying wisdom and completeness Minayugala -A fish couple. It signifies Cupid's banners coming to worship the Jina after defeating the God of Love Darpana -The mirror reflects one's true self because of its clarity The fylfot (swastika) is among the holiest of Jain symbols. Worshippers use rice grains to create a fylfot around the temple altar. Culture Jain contributions to Indian culture A Jain temple in Kochi, Kerala, India. While Jains represent less than 1% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India are considerable. Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy and ethics that had a major impact on all aspects of Indian culture in all ages. Scholarly research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts considered typically Indian – Karma, Ahimsa, Moksa, reincarnation and like - either originate in the sramana school of thought or were propagated and developed by Jaina teachers. Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006) Jains have also wielded great influence on the culture and language of Karnatak, Southern India and Gujarat most significantly. The earliest known Gujarati text, Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. Some important people in Gujarat's Jain history were Acharya Hemacandra Suri and his pupil, the Calukya ruler Kumarapala. Jains are among the wealthiest Indians. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine. Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian (see Jain vegetarianism), and its food is mild as onions and garlic are omitted. Though the Jains form only 0.42% of the population of India, their contribution to the exchequer by way of income tax is an astounding 24% of the total tax collected. Jains’ contribution to exchequer “astounding”, Online Edition, The Hindu (August 20, 2007). Retrieved on August 29, 2008. Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and parallels Christian clergy. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions. Jain literature Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains. Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first autobiography in Hindi, Ardha-Kathanaka was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa, an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra. Several Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works. The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-Tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Ardha-Magadhi and other Jain languages, words, their use and references with in oldest Jain literature. Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Hindi (Chhahadhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka, and others), Tamil (Jivakacintamani and others), and Kannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha and Kannada. Jainism and other religions Jains are not a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism). J. L. Jaini, (1916) Jaina Law, Bhadrabahu Samhita, (Text with translation ) Arrah, Central jaina publishing House) " As to Jains being Hindu dissenters, and, therefore governable by Hindu law, we are not told this date of secession [...] Jainism certainly has a longer history than is consistent with its being a creed of dissenters from Hinduism." P.12-13 P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism" Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 “There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel to native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.” Page 18 Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought: The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Jainism , and the Brahmana/Vedic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta, Vaishnava and other movements. Both streams are subsets of the Dharmic family of faith and have existed side by side for many thousands of years, influencing each other. Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc ISBN 1933316225 "What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins". Page 141 The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism and thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai:10 December, 1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. Swami Vivekananda Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai, ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 15 also credited Jainism as influencing force behind the Indian culture. "What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths? Jains were the first great ascetics. "Don't injure any, do good to all that you can and that is all the morality and ethics, and that is all the work there is, and the rest is all nonsense... Throw it away." And then they went to work and elaborated this one principle, and it is a most wonderful ideal: how all that we call ethics they simply bring out from one great principle of non-injury and doing good." Relationship between Jainism and Hinduism - According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Hinduism,"...With Jainism which always remained an Indian religion, Hinduism has so much in common, especially in social institutions and ritual life, that nowadays Hindus tend to consider it a Hindu sect. Many Jains also are inclined to fraternization..." Independent Religion - From the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Jainism: "...Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient Indian religious traditions still in existence. ...While often employing concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded as an independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of South Asian religious belief and practice, but it is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier scholars believed." Jainism - Britannica Online Encyclopedia The author Koenraad Elst in his book, Who is a Hindu?, summarises on the similarities between Jains and the mainstream Hindu society. Monier Williams, in his article of Jainism, mentions that Jainas outdo every other Indian sect in carrying the prohibition of himsa to the most prosperous extremes. Cited in T.G. Kalghati, Jaina View of Life (Sholapur: Jaina Samskriti Samrakshaka Sangha, 1969) p.163 Languages used in Jain literature Jain literature exists in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Apabhramsha, Rajasthani, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Kutchi, Kannada, Tulu, Telugu, Dhundhari (Old Marwari), English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Russian. Constitutional status of Jainism in India In 2005 the Supreme Court of India in a judgment stated that Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists are sub-sects or 'special faiths' of Hinduism, and are governed under the ambit of Hindu laws. Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. In the same year however, it declined to issue a writ of Mandamus towards granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court noted that Jains have been declared a minority in 5 states already, and left it to the rest of the States to decide on the minority status of Jain religion. http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098 In 2006 the Supreme Court in a judgment pertaining to a state, opined that "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion". (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [2] See also Jain community Jain Cosmology Jain flag Statistics of Jainism Jain Meditation List of Jain temples List of Important Jains in History Tirthankara Jain philosophy History of Jainism Acharya Bhikshu Acharya Tulsi Acharya Mahapragya Sadhvi Kanakprabha Parmarthik Shikshan Sanstha Jain Vishva Bharti Institute, Ladnun Notes External links Jain Professional Network 1st professional networking group for Jains all over world Jainspace.com Connecting Jains Worldwide BBC page on Jainism Jains of Worlduniting Jains Worldwide A complete portal of jainism AtmaDharma.com, A library of over 200 downloadable Jain books in many languages. Lots of Audio (Songs, Lectures) and Video. jainlibrary.org, A complete list of texts on Jainism, sponsored by the JAINA Education Committee Jainism Potpourri is a collection of Jain relics, texts, and art. Jaina Architecture, Comprehensive study of Jain architecture with high quality photos. Census of India 2001. Office of the Registrar General, India. Website for Jainism in India JainHeritageCentres.com, A portal giving information about Jain heritage and pilgrim sites across the globe. jainpushp.org, Kanji Swami's follower's portal from Devlali. Chaturmas2008, Find complete information about chaturmas (Varshayog) 2008 jainuniversity.org, Jain Education and Information jaina.org, Federation of Jain Associations in North America jainonweb.com, Complete Jain's Portal from India Further reading Alsdorf, Ludwig. Jaina Studies: Their Present State and Future Tasks. Eng. tr. Bal Patil. Edited by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 1. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006. Amiel,Pierre. Les Jaïns aujourd'hui dans le monde Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003 translated in English and printed under the title "Jains today in the world" by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi,India, 2008 Amiel,Pierre.B.A.-BA du Jaïnisme Editions Pardès,Grez sur Loing,2008 Balbir, Nalini (Ed.) Catalogue of the Jain Manuscripts of the British Library. Set of 3 books. London: Institute of Jainology, 2006. Bollée, Willem. The Story of Paesi Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 2. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2005. Bollée, Willem. Vyavahara Bhasya Pithika. Prakrit text with English translation, annotations and exhaustive Index by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 4. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006. Caillat, Colette "La cosmologie jaïna" Ed. du Chêne, Paris 1981. Chand, Bool. "Mahavira-Le Grand héros des Jaïns" Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris 1998. Hynson, Colin. Discover Jainism. Ed. Mehool Sanghrajka. London: Institute of Jainology, 2007. Jain, DuliChand. English version of "Baghawan Mahavir ki Vani" - Thus Spake Lord Mahavir. Chennai, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1998. Jain, Duli Chandra (Ed.) Studies in Jainism. Set of 3 books. New York: Jain Stucy Circle, 2004. Jalaj, Jaykumar. The Basic Thought of Bhagavan Mahavir. Ed. Elinor Velázquez. (5th edition) Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy, 2007. Joindu. Paramatmaprakasha. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 9. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007. Joindu. Yogasara. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Satyanarayana Hegde. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 10. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008. Kapashi, Vinod. Nava Smarana: Nine Sacred Recitations of Jainism. Ed. Signe Kirde. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007. Kundakunda. Atthapahuda Prakrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 6. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006. Mardia, K.V. The Scientific Foundations of Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, latest edition 2007. ISBN 81-208-0659-x (Jain Dharma ki Vigyanik Adharshila. Parsvanath Vidhyapitha, Varanasi. 2004. ISBN 81-86715-71-1). Mehta, T.U. Path of Arhat - A Religious Democracy, Volume 63, Faridabad: Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993. Nagendra Kr Singh, Indo-European Jain Research Foundation, Encyclopaedia of Jainism ISBN 8126106913, ISBN 9788126106912 Natubhai Shah, Jainism: The World of Conquerors, Published by Sussex Academic Press, 1998, ISBN 1898723974, ISBN 9781898723974 Patil, Bal. Jaya Gommatesha. Foreword by Colette Caillat. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006. Prabhacandra. Tattvarthasutra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Nalini Balbir. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 7. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008. Pujyapada. Samadhitantra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 5. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006. Pujyapada. Istopadesha. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 14. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007. Rankin, Aidan. 'The Jain Path: Ancient Wisdom for the West.' Winchester/Washington DC: O Books, 2006. Reymond Jean-Pierre "L'Inde des Jaïns" Ed. Atlas 1991. Roy, Ashim Kumar. A history of the Jains, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing House, 1984. Samantabhadra. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Paul Dundas. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 3. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006. Sangave Vilas. 'Le Jaïnisme-Philosophie et Religion de l'Inde" Editions Trédaniel Paris 1999. Todarmal. Moksamarga Prakashaka. Jaipur: Todarmal Smarak Trust, 1992. Vijayashri. Sachitra Pacchis Bol. 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6,877 | Music_criticism | REDIRECT Music journalism | Music_criticism |@lemmatized redirect:1 music:1 journalism:1 |@bigram |
6,878 | Interactive_Fiction_Competition | The Interactive Fiction Competition (also known as IFComp) is one of the most well-known of several annual competitions for works of interactive fiction. It has been held since 1995. It is intended for fairly short games, as judges are only allowed to spend two hours playing a game before deciding how many points to award it. The competition has been described as the "Super Bowl" of interactive fiction. A reviewer for The A.V. Club said of the 2008 competition, "Once again, the IF Competition delivers some of the best writing in games." The 2008 competition was described as containing "some real standouts both in quality of puzzles and a willingness to stretch the definition of text adventures/interactive fiction." The competition is similar to the XYZZY Awards, and many games win awards from both competitions. The competition is organized by Stephen Granade. Although the first competition had separate sections for Inform and TADS games, subsequent competitions have not been divided into sections and are open to games produced by any method, provided that the software used to play the game is freely available. Anyone can judge the games, and anyone can donate a prize. Almost always, there are enough prizes donated that anyone who enters will get one. Entries are required to be released as freeware or public domain, reflecting the general non-profit ethos of the IF community. In addition to the main competition, the entries take part in the Miss Congeniality contest, where the participating authors vote for three games (not including their own). This was started in 1998 to distribute that year's surplus prizes; this additional contest has remained unchanged since then, even without the original reason for its existence. The following is a list of winners to date: 2008: Violet by Jeremy Freese 2007: Lost Pig by Admiral Jota (writing as Grunk) 2006: Floatpoint by Emily Short 2005: Vespers by Jason Devlin 2004: Luminous Horizon by Paul O'Brian 2003: Slouching Towards Bedlam by Star Foster and Daniel Ravipinto 2002: Another Earth, Another Sky by Paul O'Brian 2001: All Roads by Jon Ingold 2000: Kaged by Ian Finley 1999: Winter Wonderland by Laura A. Knauth 1998: Photopia by Adam Cadre 1997: The Edifice by Lucian P. Smith 1996: The Meteor, The Stone, And A Long Glass Of Sherbet by Graham Nelson 1995: Inform category: A Change in the Weather by Andrew Plotkin TADS category: Uncle Zebulon's Will by Magnus Olsson See also Spring Thing References External links Official website | Interactive_Fiction_Competition |@lemmatized interactive:4 fiction:4 competition:12 also:2 know:2 ifcomp:1 one:2 well:1 several:1 annual:1 work:1 hold:1 since:2 intend:1 fairly:1 short:2 game:9 judge:2 allow:1 spend:1 two:1 hour:1 play:2 decide:1 many:2 point:1 award:3 describe:2 super:1 bowl:1 reviewer:1 v:1 club:1 say:1 deliver:1 best:1 writing:1 contain:1 real:1 standouts:1 quality:1 puzzle:1 willingness:1 stretch:1 definition:1 text:1 adventure:1 similar:1 xyzzy:1 win:1 organize:1 stephen:1 granade:1 although:1 first:1 separate:1 section:2 inform:2 tad:2 subsequent:1 divide:1 open:1 produce:1 method:1 provide:1 software:1 use:1 freely:1 available:1 anyone:3 donate:2 prize:3 almost:1 always:1 enough:1 enter:1 get:1 entry:2 require:1 release:1 freeware:1 public:1 domain:1 reflect:1 general:1 non:1 profit:1 ethos:1 community:1 addition:1 main:1 take:1 part:1 miss:1 congeniality:1 contest:2 participating:1 author:1 vote:1 three:1 include:1 start:1 distribute:1 year:1 surplus:1 additional:1 remain:1 unchanged:1 even:1 without:1 original:1 reason:1 existence:1 following:1 list:1 winner:1 date:1 violet:1 jeremy:1 freese:1 lose:1 pig:1 admiral:1 jota:1 write:1 grunk:1 floatpoint:1 emily:1 vesper:1 jason:1 devlin:1 luminous:1 horizon:1 paul:2 brian:2 slouching:1 towards:1 bedlam:1 star:1 foster:1 daniel:1 ravipinto:1 another:2 earth:1 sky:1 road:1 jon:1 ingold:1 kaged:1 ian:1 finley:1 winter:1 wonderland:1 laura:1 knauth:1 photopia:1 adam:1 cadre:1 edifice:1 lucian:1 p:1 smith:1 meteor:1 stone:1 long:1 glass:1 sherbet:1 graham:1 nelson:1 category:2 change:1 weather:1 andrew:1 plotkin:1 uncle:1 zebulon:1 magnus:1 olsson:1 see:1 spring:1 thing:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram super_bowl:1 miss_congeniality:1 external_link:1 |
6,879 | Politics_of_the_Cayman_Islands | Politics of the Cayman Islands takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic overseas territory, whereby the Premier is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Cayman Islands' physical isolation under early British colonial rule allowed the development of an indigenous set of administrative and legal traditions which were codified into a constitution in 1959. A new modern constitution, which devolved some authority from the United Kingdom to the Cayman Islands government, was passed by referendum on 20 May 2009. Subsequently, the islands are now largely self-governing. The Cayman Islands' political system is very stable, bolstered by a tradition of restrained civil governance with the United Kingdom. Public discussion revolves around public sector expenditure and social services, the pace of additional economic development, and the status of the large foreign national community on the islands. Constitutional modernization Constitutional Modernization has come to the forefront of politics recently with the collapse of the now defunct Euro Bank Corporation in 2003. The prosecution in the trial was forced to reveal that the British Government had planted moles (and used wire taps) throughout the banking industry using MI6, at the consent of the governor. This caused the trial's collapse, and subsequent release of those charged with wrongdoing. Along with this, the only mole that was known at the time was allowed to leave the country, never to answer for what he (or the United Kingdom) was doing. This infuriated the elected members of the legislative assembly as they maintained that the governor and the United Kingdom had put into question Cayman's reputation as a tightly regulated offshore jurisdiction. Some saw this as the United Kingdom meddling in the territory's affairs to benefit itself (and the EU), at the expense of the islands' economy. Constitutional talks however went on hold following Hurricane Ivan in 2004. Subsequently in May 2005 the ruling UDP was ousted by the PPM, which restarted the process of constitutional modernization. A new draft constitution was passed by the electorate via referendum on 20 May 2009. The new constitution will take effect in the summer of 2009 Executive branch |HE The Governor and President of the Cabinet |Stuart Jack, CVO | |November 23 2005 |- |Hon. Premier |McKeeva Bush |UDP| |27 May 2009 |} The Cabinet is appointed by the governor on advice of the Premier. The British Crown appoints a Governor, who is recruited from the UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office and serves as the British representative, including his role as the direct representative of Queen Elizabeth II. Daily administration of the islands is conducted by the Cabinet. The Deputy Governor, and Attorney General are appointed by the governor. Responsibility for defense and foreign affairs resides with the United Kingdom; however, the Deputy Governor handles the portfolio for External Affairs, and the Cayman Government may negotiate certain bilateral matters directly with foreign governments. The governor can exercise complete executive authority if he wishes through reserve powers reserved to him in the constitution. However, he must consult with the Premier prior to using such powers and must do so in the interest of the Cayman Islands (so long as it doesn't prejudice British interests). He must give royal assent to all legislation, which allows him the power to strike down any law the legislature may see fit for the country. In modern times, the governor usually allows the country to be run by the cabinet, and the civil service to be run by the Deputy Governor, who is the Acting Governor when the Governor is not able to discharge his usual duties for one reason or another. The current governor of the Cayman Islands is Stuart Jack and the current Deputy Governor is Donovan Ebanks. Legislative branch The Legislative Assembly building in George Town The unicameral Legislative Assembly of the Cayman Islands is presided over by an independent speaker. The Legislative Assembly has 18 elected members. Elections are held at the discretion of the governor at least every 4 years. Members of the assembly may introduce bills which, if passed, are then approved, returned, or disallowed by the governor. The UK Government also reserves the right to disallow bills approved by the governor. The Premier is limited to two consecutive terms, after which the individual who was Premier for two terms must sit out a term before being constitutionally eligible to be Premier again. Judicial branch The four-tiered judicial system is based on English common law and colonial and local statutes. The Cayman Islands Court of Appeal is the highest court on the islands, but a final appeal may be heard by Her Majesty's Privy Council sitting in London. The Chief Justice has his seat in the Grand Court, below The Court of Appeal. The current Chief Justice is Hon. Anthony Smellie QC, JP. Administrative divisions Districts: George Town, Bodden Town, West Bay, North Side, East End and Sister Islands (Cayman Brac and Little Cayman) International organization participation Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), IOC | Politics_of_the_Cayman_Islands |@lemmatized politics:2 cayman:12 islands:6 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:3 democratic:1 overseas:1 territory:2 whereby:1 premier:7 head:1 government:8 multi:1 party:1 system:3 executive:4 power:5 exercise:2 legislative:7 vest:1 assembly:6 judiciary:1 independent:2 legislature:2 island:8 physical:1 isolation:1 early:1 british:5 colonial:2 rule:1 allow:4 development:2 indigenous:1 set:1 administrative:2 legal:1 tradition:2 codify:1 constitution:5 new:3 modern:2 devolve:1 authority:2 united:6 kingdom:6 pass:3 referendum:2 may:8 subsequently:2 largely:1 self:1 governing:1 political:1 stable:1 bolster:1 restrain:1 civil:2 governance:1 public:2 discussion:1 revolve:1 around:1 sector:1 expenditure:1 social:1 service:2 pace:1 additional:1 economic:1 status:1 large:1 foreign:4 national:1 community:1 constitutional:4 modernization:3 come:1 forefront:1 recently:1 collapse:2 defunct:1 euro:1 bank:1 corporation:1 prosecution:1 trial:2 force:1 reveal:1 plant:1 mole:2 use:3 wire:1 tap:1 throughout:1 banking:1 industry:1 consent:1 governor:18 cause:1 subsequent:1 release:1 charge:1 wrongdoing:1 along:1 know:1 time:2 leave:1 country:3 never:1 answer:1 infuriate:1 elected:1 member:3 maintain:1 put:1 question:1 reputation:1 tightly:1 regulate:1 offshore:1 jurisdiction:1 saw:1 meddling:1 affair:3 benefit:1 eu:1 expense:1 economy:1 talk:1 however:3 go:1 hold:2 follow:1 hurricane:1 ivan:1 ruling:1 udp:2 oust:1 ppm:1 restart:1 process:1 draft:1 electorate:1 via:1 effect:1 summer:1 branch:3 president:1 cabinet:4 stuart:2 jack:2 cvo:1 november:1 hon:2 mckeeva:1 bush:1 appoint:2 advice:1 crown:1 appoints:1 recruit:1 uk:2 commonwealth:1 office:1 serve:1 include:1 role:1 direct:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 daily:1 administration:1 conduct:1 deputy:4 attorney:1 general:1 responsibility:1 defense:1 reside:1 handle:1 portfolio:1 external:1 negotiate:1 certain:1 bilateral:1 matter:1 directly:1 complete:1 wish:1 reserve:3 must:4 consult:1 prior:1 interest:2 long:1 prejudice:1 give:1 royal:1 assent:1 legislation:1 strike:1 law:2 see:1 fit:1 usually:1 run:2 act:1 able:1 discharge:1 usual:1 duty:1 one:1 reason:1 another:1 current:3 donovan:1 ebanks:1 building:1 george:2 town:3 unicameral:1 preside:1 speaker:1 elect:1 election:1 discretion:1 least:1 every:1 year:1 introduce:1 bill:2 approve:2 return:1 disallow:2 also:1 right:1 limit:1 two:2 consecutive:1 term:3 individual:1 sit:2 constitutionally:1 eligible:1 judicial:2 four:1 tiered:1 base:1 english:1 common:1 local:1 statute:1 court:4 appeal:3 high:1 final:1 hear:1 majesty:1 privy:1 council:1 london:1 chief:2 justice:2 seat:1 grand:1 anthony:1 smellie:1 qc:1 jp:1 division:1 district:1 bodden:1 west:1 bay:1 north:1 side:1 east:1 end:1 sister:1 brac:1 little:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 caricom:1 associate:1 cdb:1 interpol:1 subbureau:1 ioc:1 |@bigram cayman_islands:6 legislative_assembly:5 judiciary_independent:1 self_governing:1 revolve_around:1 tightly_regulate:1 hurricane_ivan:1 queen_elizabeth:1 foreign_affair:1 royal_assent:1 legislative_branch:1 unicameral_legislative:1 judicial_branch:1 privy_council:1 cayman_brac:1 interpol_subbureau:1 |
6,880 | Metaphilosophy | Metaphilosophy, derived from Greek word meta μετά ("after", "beyond", "with") and philosophía φιλοσοφία ("love of wisdom"), is the study of the nature, aims, and methods of philosophy. This article sets out the mains views on these matters, which are varied. The nature of philosophy The use and meaning of the word "philosophy" has changed throughout history: in Antiquity it encompassed almost any inquiry; for Descartes it was supposed to be the Queen of the Sciences, a sort of ultimate justification; in the time of David Hume "metaphysics" and "morals" could be roughly translated as the human sciences; and contemporary analytic philosophy likes to define itself roughly as inquiry into concepts. Some authors say that philosophy is fundamentally about critical thinking, examining the beliefs we take for granted. Wilfrid Hodges wrote: Some authors say that that philosophical enquiry is second-order, having concepts, theories and presupposition as its subject matter. It is "thinking about thinking", of a "generally second-order character". Philosophers study, rather than use, the concepts that structure our thinking. However, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy warns that "the borderline between such 'second-order' reflection, and ways of practising the first-order discipline itself, is not always clear: philosophical problems may be tamed by the advance of a discipline, and the conduct of a discipline may be swayed by philosophical reflection". Definition The word philosophy is of Ancient Greek origin: φιλοσοφία (philosophía), meaning "love of wisdom." Philosophia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus Online Etymology Dictionary , philosophy: 1. orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". However, few sources give "love of wisdom" as a possible meaning of the term, and others say the etymology is "not much help". Many definitions of philosophy begin by stating the difficulty of defining the subject, calling it "notoriously difficult" ''Philosophy: The Basics, by Nigel Warburton , saying that there is "no straightforward definition" Mastering Philosophy, by Anthony Harrison-Barbet and that most interesting definitions of philosophy are controversial Oxford Companion to Philosophy . However, a review of standard reference works Penguin Encyclopedia An Editor Recalls Some Hopeless Papers, by Wilfrid Hodges (from The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic Volume 4, Number 1, March 1998) Collins English Dictionary Introducing Philosophy Modern Thomistic Philosophy, by R. Phillips Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy Philosophy Made Simple Teach Yourself Philosophy suggests that there is a broad agreement among such sources that philosophy involves the study of fundamental or general topics; e.g. "the most fundamental and general concepts and principles involved in thought, action and reality", "the most general questions about our universe and our place in it", the "absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates", or "the fundamental reasons or causes of all things". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy says it is the investigation of the most general and abstract features of the world and the categories with which we think, in order to "lay bare their foundations and presuppositions". Demarcation Some authors say that philosophy is distinct from both empirical science and religion. It differs from science in that its questions cannot be answered empirically, i.e. by observation or experiment; and it differs from religion in that it allows no place for faith or revelation. Philosophy does not try to answer questions by appeal to revelation, myth or religious knowledge of any kind, but uses reason, "without reference to sensible observation and experiments". Some analytical philosophers argue that all meaningful empirical questions are to be answered by science, not philosophy. However, some schools of contemporary philosophy such as the pragmatists and naturalistic epistemologists argue that philosophy should be linked to science and should be scientific in the broad sense of that term, "preferring to see philosophical reflection as continuous with the best practice of any field of intellectual enquiry". Taxonomy One task of metaphilosophy is to provide a taxonomy of philosophical subjects. While such taxonomies vary between sources, the traditional branches of philosophy usually include metaphysics (including ontology and cosmology), ethics, epistemology, logic, and aesthetics. Other common branches of philosophy include philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, philosophy of science, and political philosophy. Applied philosophy, the philosophical critique of various social activities (such as religion) and intellectual pursuits (such as science and sociology), is a more recent addition to philosophy. Philosopher and encyclopedist Mortimer Adler includes all such second-order questions about various fields of study, which are often found under various branches of philosophy beginning with the phrase "philosophy of....", in his taxonomy. Adler, Mortimer (1994). The Four Dimensions of Philosophy. New York: MacMillan. Adler divides these second-order philosophical problems into two branches: one addressing the objects of thought, such as Being, Cause, Change, Infinity, Destiny, and Love; the other addressing the subjects, or procedural domains, of thought, e.g. philosophy of religion, philosophy of history, philosophy of language, philosophy of science. Metaphilosophy also attempts to understand such second-order problems with the aid of the other major branches, e.g. metaphysical knowledge in religion, epistemology in religion, axiology in religion, etc. The aims of philosophy Some philosophers (e.g. existentialists, pragmatists) think philosophy is ultimately a practical discipline that should help us lead meaningful lives by showing us who we are, how we relate to the world around us and what we should do. Others (e.g. analytic philosophers) see philosophy as a technical, formal, and entirely theoretical discipline, with goals such as "the disinterested pursuit of knowledge for its own sake". Other proposed goals of philosophy include "discover[ing] the absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates", "making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs", and unifying and transcending the insights given by science and religion. The methods of philosophy Most sources agree that the chief method of philosophy is logical, rational Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy , critical enquiry and argument "of a more or less systematic kind." Thomistic philosophers refer similarly to the "natural light of reason". Stephen Toulmin defines three basic approaches to philosophy: Toumlin, Stephen: Knowing and Acting, 1976 the philosopher as geometer: centers on formal inquiry; thinkers from Plato to Frege. the philosopher as anthropologist: tries to find the basics of human nature; thinkers such as David Hume and Adam Smith. the philosopher as critic: investigates the a priori conditions on which e.g. knowledge can exist; Immanuel Kant. Historical methods Three historical methods of philosophy have been the Ancient Greek, epistemic, and linguistic approaches. The Ancient Greek phronetic approach to philosophy was prioneered by such philosophers as Socrates and Epicurus. The questions of this form of philosophy consist mainly of those relevant to the search for a happy life and the cultivation of the virtues, although political and religious philosophy is featured in recorded thinking. The general method of such philosophers was elenkhos, more widely known today as the Socratic method. The epistemic approach centers upon the foundations of knowledge, in particular the debate between Rationalism and Empiricism. The distinction is mostly applied to modern philosophy with philosophers such John Locke, David Hume and George Berkeley on the empiricist side, and Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz on the other. However, the distinction can be just as meaningfully applied to current philosophy. The more recent linguistic approach to philosophy is practised both as a form of epistemology (the relation between language and world, the "meaning of meaning") and as the study of concepts and ideas. In Language, Truth and Logic, A.J. Ayer set two criteria for a (contentious) definition of philosophy. Firstly, the science must be a genuine branch of knowledge; and secondly, it must bear relation to the realm of ideas and impressions commonly known as "philosophy". Thus to Ayer, philosophy is defined as a wholly analytic task, and as a compilation of "in-use" definitions. It is commonly suggested by this analytic school of thought that questions such as "What is Truth?", or more generally "What is x?", are requests for definitions rather than facts about the world. Rethinking intuition Recently, some philosophers have cast doubt about intuition as a basic tool in philosophical inquiry, from Socrates up to contemporary philosophy of language. In Rethinking Intuition (ed. Michael R. Ramsey, William DePaul) various thinkers discard intuition as a valid source of knowledge and thereby the whole idea of an 'a priori' philosophy. Experimental philosophy is a form of philosophical inquiry that makes at least partial use of quantitative research—especially opinion polling—in order to address philosophical questions. This is in contrast with the methods found in analytic philosophy, whereby some say a philosopher will sometimes begin by appealing to his or her intuitions on an issue and then form an argument with those intuitions as premises. Knobe (forthcoming). In one form of experimental philosophy, called computational philosophy, philosophers construct several simplified artificial worlds with different ontologies and ethical systems, experiment with them, and confront them with the real world observations. This emergent research and scientific activity requires numerous meta-philosophical and meta-theoretical assumptions Metaphilosophy, Journal published by Blackwell Metaphilosophy Journal- Southern Connecticut State University . Progress in philosophy It is common to hear both philosophers and non-philosophers complain that there is no progress in philosophy. Whether such a complaint is justified depends, of course, on one's understanding of the nature of philosophy, and on one's criteria of progress. In particular following the Holocaust, the possibility of progress in general has been more and more put to question, by people such as Theodor W. Adorno. Despite such pessimists, however, the possibility of progress continues to be, whether by personal choice or by ideology, an ideal shared by many. Metaphilosophical writings Plato raised questions concerning the nature of philosophy and its methods (most explicitly addressed in the Meno) the value and proper aims of philosophy (in the Apology, Gorgias, Protagoras, etc.) the proper relationship between philosophical criticism and everyday life (a pervasive theme explored most famously in the Republic) Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote about the nature of philosophical puzzles and philosophical understanding. He suggested philosophical errors arose from confusions about the nature of philosophical inquiry. In the Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein wrote that there is not a metaphilosophy. One might think: if philosophy speaks of the use of the word "philosophy" there must be a second-order philosophy. But it is not so; it is, rather, like the case of othology, which deals with the word "orthology" among others without then being second order. Ludwig Wittgenstein Philosophical Investigations Blackwell Oxford 1963 para 121. C. D. Broad distinguised Critical from Speculative philosophy in his "The Subject-matter of Philosophy, and its Relations to the special Sciences," in Introduction to Scientific Thought, 1923. Curt Ducasse, in Philosophy as a Science, examines several views of the nature of philosophy, and concludes that philosophy has a distinct subject matter: appraisals. Henri Lefebvre in Metaphilosophie (1965) argued, from a marxian standpoint, in favor of an "ontological break", as a necessary methodological approach for critical social theory (whilst criticizing Louis Althusser's "epistemological break" with subjective marxism, which represented a fundamental theoretical tool for the school of marxist structuralism). References Rescher, Nicholas (2001). Philosophical Reasoning. A Study in the Methodology of Philosophizing. Blackwell. Texts Wittgenstein Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. David Pears and Brian McGuinness (1961), Routledge, hardcover: ISBN 0-7100-3004-5, 1974 paperback: ISBN 0-415-02825-6, 2001 hardcover: ISBN 0-415-25562-7, 2001 paperback: ISBN 0-415-25408-6 Philosophische Untersuchungen (1953) Philosophical Investigations, translated by G.E.M. Anscombe (1953) See also Metaphilosophy/quotations Core ontology Philosophy of mathematics Progress (philosophy) Metatheory Meta-knowledge Meta-epistemology External links Computational Philosophy of Science - Paul R. Thagard, 1993 Metaphilosophy, Journal published by Blackwell Metaphilosophy Journal- Southern Connecticut State University Lvov-Warsaw School, Kazimierz Twardowski, in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Peter Suber: Metaphilosophy Themes and Questions - A Personal List | Metaphilosophy |@lemmatized metaphilosophy:10 derive:1 greek:5 word:5 meta:5 μετά:1 beyond:1 philosophía:2 φιλοσοφία:2 love:5 wisdom:4 study:6 nature:10 aim:3 method:9 philosophy:81 article:1 set:2 main:1 view:2 matter:4 vary:2 use:6 meaning:4 change:2 throughout:1 history:2 antiquity:1 encompass:1 almost:1 inquiry:6 descartes:2 suppose:1 queen:1 science:14 sort:1 ultimate:1 justification:1 time:1 david:4 hume:3 metaphysics:2 moral:1 could:1 roughly:2 translate:2 human:2 contemporary:3 analytic:5 like:2 define:3 concept:5 author:3 say:7 fundamentally:1 critical:4 thinking:3 examine:2 belief:2 take:1 grant:1 wilfrid:2 hodges:2 write:3 philosophical:20 enquiry:3 second:8 order:11 theory:3 presupposition:2 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6,881 | Men_in_Black | Men in Black (MIB), in popular culture and in UFO conspiracy theories, are men dressed in black suits claiming to be government agents who attempt to harass or threaten UFO witnesses into silence. It is also frequently used to describe mysterious men working for unknown organizations, as well as to various branches of government allegedly designed to protect secrets or perform other strange activities. The term is a generic one, used to refer to any unusual, threatening or strangely behaved individual whose appearance on the scene can be linked in some fashion with a UFO sighting." Clark, Jerome (1996). The UFO Encyclopedia, volume 3: High Strangeness, UFO’s from 1960 through 1979. Omnigraphis. 317–18. Description Origin The phenomenon was initially and most frequently reported in the 1950s and 1960s, initially in a 1956 book by Gray Barker, and is contemporaneous with many other conspiracy theories. According to Clark, Clark, 1998 the archetypal Men in Black encounter was alleged to have occurred in 1953, when publisher Albert K. Bender asserted that he uncovered the secret behind flying saucers, but had been threatened by three men who wore black suits and hats. Initially, Bender clearly implied the men were U.S. Government agents, but his later accounts blended supernatural features with UFO lore. In fact, Bender himself was initially skeptical of the Men in Black phenomenon and first encountered them "in the flesh" after publishing an account of the Maury Island Incident, which occurred in 1947 when Harold Dahl reported pieces of a UFO fell on the boat he was on in the Puget Sound, killing his dog. The next day Dahl was warned by a man in a black suit driving a black 1947 Buick that he would do well to keep silent about the incident. Hilary Evans points out that all elements in the MIB scenario (three visitors of swarthy or "foreign" complexion, in a black Cadillac) is never played out in complete form; e.g. some were limited to telephone calls. Evans, Hillary (1984), Visions, Apparitions, Alien Vistors, Aquarian Press, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, ISBN 0-85030-414-8 pp. 138-9. Appearance Early reports of Men in Black often described them as men short in stature with swarthy complexions, as if they were deeply tanned. Some reported them as Gypsies. Sunglasses, black suits and black cars have been a feature for the entire period since modern sightings began in 1947, but according to UFO historian Jerome Clark, "All MIB are not necessarily garbed in dark suits." Behaviour According to the accounts of those reporting encountering them, Men in Black always seem to have detailed information on the persons they contact, as if the individual had been under surveillance for a prolonged period of time. They have been described as seeming confused by the nature of everyday items such as pens, eating utensils or food, as well as using outdated slang, though accounts on the behavior of Men in Black vary widely. Accounts indicate that they often claim to be from an agency collecting information on the unexplained phenomenon their subject has encountered. In some cases they are said to use unidentifiable instruments to wipe the memories of their subjects clean, which is unlikely because of the very fact the subject remembered it. While in other accounts they seem to be trying to suppress information by, for instance, trying to convince their subject the phenomenon never existed. They have been described as behaving in either an exceedingly furtive manner or a completely outgoing one, with wide grins and disconcerting giggles. In the UFO research community the Men in Black often claim to be from the Air Force or the CIA. Those who have encountered them say they produce identification, but when verification is later sought, the people described either don't exist, have been dead for some time, or do exist but have a different rank. Possible explanations Folkloric explanations Although the phenomenon was initially and most frequently reported in the 1950s and 1960s, some researchers—John Keel and others—have suggested similarities between Men in Black reports and earlier demonic accounts. Keel suggests that MiBs are a modern-day manifestation of the same phenomena that were earlier interpreted as the devil or encounters with fairies. Similarly, folklorist Peter Rojcewicz cited in Clark, 1998 noted that many Men in Black accounts parallel tales of people encountering the devil: Neither Men in Black nor the devil are quite human, and witnesses often discover this fact midway through an encounter. The meaning of this parallel, however, has been the subject of debate. Even so, the term "the black man" was used for centuries in reference to the Devil, up until contemporary times when "black man" was used to replace the term "Negro" and the satanic sense was lost. In witchcraft trials "The Black Man" was often reported as meeting with the accused and having sexual intercourse with them. In Washington Irving's story "The Devil and Tom Walker" set in 1727, Irving tells how Tom asks "the black man" who he is. The man says he goes by many names and is called the black miner sometimes or the black woodsman. He says that since the Indians are gone, he presides over the persecutions of various religious sects, supports slave-dealers and is the master of the Salem witches. Tom replies that he must be "Old Scratch," which is another name for the devil, and the black man acknowledges that he is Old Scratch. In 1932, H. P. Lovecraft also used the figure of The Black Man in his tale "The Dreams in the Witch-House" as a synonym for the Devil. In the Middle Ages The Black Man was not a man with African features, but rather a man colored black and dressed in black. Military/CIA explanations More prosaically, Clark cites Bill Moore, who asserts that "the Men in Black are really government people in disguise ... members of a rather bizarre unit of Air Force Intelligence known currently as the Air Force Special Activities Center (AFSAC) ... As of 1991, the AFSAC, headquartered in Fort Belvoir, Virginia," and "under the operational authority of Air Force Intelligence Command centered at Kelly Air Force Base in Texas." (Clark, 321–22) Curiously, Moore also reports that AFSAC was inspired by the tales of Men in Black from the 1950s, and had nothing to do with those early accounts. Similarly, Clark notes that Dr. Michael D. Swords has speculated that the Barker/Bender Men in Black case (occurring shortly after the CIA-directed Robertson Panel issued its recommendations to spy on civilian UFO groups) might have been a psychological warfare experiment. On a more practical note, most US government law enforcement and intelligence agencies such as the FBI have strict dress codes that ordinarily require their members to wear suits in dark, non-obtrusive colors. Hoax explanation In his article, "Gray Barker: My Friend, the Myth-Maker," John C. Sherwood reveals that at age 18, he cooperated when Gray Barker urged him in the late 1960s to develop a hoax - which Barker subsequently published - about what Barker called "blackmen," three mysterious UFO inhabitants who silenced Sherwood's pseudonymous identity, "Dr. Richard H. Pratt." In popular culture In contemporary pop culture, 'Men in Black' has been adopted as a tongue-in-cheek term, possibly originating in geek culture, for any generic suited government/corporate official, originating as a result of the popularity of shows such as The X-Files, UFO culture, and the "threat" to hackers of Men in Black actually coming for them (in the form of the FBI or other cybercrime institutions). As a result of its popularity, Men In Black have been featured in a number of fictional works and media. There are many references to the Men in Black in film and television, some oblique and some straightforward. Film Men in Black (1997), starring Tommy Lee Jones and Will Smith as Agent K and Agent J. The film was followed by Men in Black: The Series and its 2002 sequel Men in Black II. The Shadow Men (1998) starring Eric Roberts and Sherilyn Fenn. A family is besieged by a group of Men in Black after accidentally taping a close encounter. This film offers an unusual take on the exact nature of the MIB. In the 1999 film My Favorite Martian, Ray Walston (star of the 60's TV series which inspired the film) plays an MIB pursuing Christopher Lloyd's alien Uncle Martin. In 2007, a short film called Truth, directed by Nic Collins, also centers around the Men in Black conspiracy, showing the Men in Black as aliens disguised as humans and using intimidation to discredit the witness. Also features the Majestic-12. In the 2007 movie Transformers, agents of Sector Seven -- a secret organization of the United States government -- are portrayed as MIB's. The cult sci-fi/noir film Dark City (1998), starring Rufus Sewell, William Hurt, Kiefer Sutherland, and Jennifer Connelly, featured a mysterious and sinister group of darkly clad figures known as the Strangers. The Agents of 1999 file The Matrix are based on the image of the MIB and G-men. Although a slim case might be made for the black-suited men who appear wordlessly near the conclusion of Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), perhaps the first film appearance of MIB is in the 1984 cult film Repo Man by writer/director Alex Cox. The film depicts several men in black suits with names derived by taking the first letter from each actors first name, Biff Yeager as Agent B, Ed Pansullo as Agent E, Steve Mattson as Agent S, and Thomas R. Boyd as Agent T. The well known entertainer, Jimmy Buffett, played an extra MiB credited as "Additional Blond Agent." Television Perhaps the first mass-audience appearance of UFO-related Men in Black occurred in the second aired episode of the cult television series The Invaders, written by the series' associate producer, Anthony Spinner, directed by Joseph Sargent and first aired Jan. 17, 1967. In the episode, titled The Experiment, an astrophysicist has learned space aliens have assumed human form on Earth; he is abducted by two sinister men who wear black trenchcoats and MIB-stereotypical black fedora hats and claim to be government agents; another "man in black" is dressed as a minister. The scientist later is found dead, and is thus effectively "silenced." The series hero later is subjected to a mind-control device by the three black-garbed men, aided by others who are all presumed to be space aliens. This dramatic use of the MiB theme in the mass media occurred during a period of widespread public fascination with UFOs, shortly after the March 1966 Michigan UFO/"swamp gas" flap (notably involving U.S. Air Force UFO researcher J. Allen Hynek) and the 1966-67 "Mothman" sightings in West Virginia. Men in Black of The X-Files, including a reference where Scully is accused of being a MIB in the episode Jose Chung's From Outer Space. Dark Skies (TV series. Also features the Majestic-12.) In the 2002 film Lilo and Stitch, the MIB stereotype is used to portray a sinister figure of authority. Here, the tall, intimidating Social Worker Cobra Bubbles is a retired CIA agent who was involved in the Roswell incident. In an episode of the television show Bones, Dr. Hodgins, an outspoken conspiracy theorist, is arrested for calling in a fake terrorism tip. When Brennan asks Booth if they should step in, he replies that being taken away by Men in Black is Hodgins' dream come true. In the TV series Danny Phantom, there are a group of antagonists that Danny regularly fights called "The Guys in White". They are a clear reference to the Men in Black, speaking in a very mechanical, concise way and wearing color-inverted variations of the 'Men in Black' outfit (in other words, a white suit jacket, pants, and tie, and a black dress shirt.) They hunt ghosts instead of dealing with UFOs. In Joss Whedon's short lived science fiction television series Firefly, its follow-up film Serenity, and the bridging comic book series Serenity: Those Left Behind, MIB-style men appear wearing Blue Gloves (to which River refers to as “Two by two, hands of blue.”) They also have a device similar to the devices used by the MIB in the 1997 film and its sequel, though the devices have different effects. In the final episode of the 2007 science fiction television series Flash Gordon, MIB appear at Dale Arden’s apartment. They then pursue her and eventually Norah Gordon later in the same episode but lose them as they drive through a rift in Zarkov’s RV. The TV Series Fringe features a character known as the Observer who has many similarities with Men in Black. He can be seen frequently throughout the series. In the TV series Johnny Test, there are two reoccurring Area 51 agents dubbed Mr. Black and Mr. White. Music British rock band The Stranglers, by their own admission, became obsessed with the Men in Black theory around 1979–81, culminating in the release of their concept album The Gospel According to the Meninblack. They attributed the many calamities they suffered around the time to the influence of the Men in Black. Pixies front man Frank Black wrote about alien sightings and Area 51 in his later work with the Pixies, and continued with the topics into his solo career including the song "Men in Black" on the album The Cult of Ray. As well, the song "Bad, Wicked World", on the album Teenager of the Year, is about David Vincent and The Invaders. The Blue Öyster Cult song "E.T.I. (Extra Terrestrial Intelligence)" concerns "three men in black" looking to suppress the discovery of flying saucers. One of them is referred to as "Balthazar", suggesting that the "three men" could really be the Biblical Magi. Another song by the band, "Take Me Away", about the singer's wish to be abducted by aliens, contains the lyric "Don't ask if they are real, the men in black - their lips are sealed". Will Smith also made a song called "Men in Black" for the movie Men in Black in 1997. The Underground Alternative Rock band '9 Second Eternity' references Men in Black and the New World Order on several of their lyrics. Roger Waters' 1987 Wembley performances of the Radio K.A.O.S. tour featured a film sequence dramatising Dr Herbert Hopkins' 1976 MIB encounter with the words: "neither you nor any other… humanoid… will see this coin again". Michael Jackson wrote a song called "Men in Black" in 1989 and recorded it in 1990 which was going to be released on the shelved greatest hits album Decade: 1980-1990. And later considered it for the 1991 album "Dangerous" and was going to be the first single off the album, but didn't make the cut which was instead replaced by "Black or White". The track is rumoured to be produced by Jazzie B of Soul II Soul. Books and comics The Men in Black have been portrayed several times in comics, most notably in Lowell Cunningham's 1990 Aircel comic book The Men in Black, later adapted into the two films mentioned above. The British comic 2000 AD ran a series called Vector 13 where Men in Black acted as narrators for a series of strange tales, at the time when they were portrayed as ousting the editor Tharg the Mighty. Horror author Kim Newman also featured featuring MIB-like characters, known as the "Undertakers" in smoked spectacles, in several of his Diogenes Club stories. The Undertaking is an organisation with connections to the British government, but is often in conflict with the similarly-connected Diogenes agents. Author David Lynn Golemon wrote a novel, Event, featuring MIB characters. Irregular Webcomic! also features a Man in Black as a recurring character in the Martians theme. A running gag is the fact that he appears immediately after anyone mentions aliens to convince them that aliens do not exist, sometimes even to the Martians themselves. Italian comic Martin Mystère features The Men in Black as a secret and ancient society of men aiming to hide knowledge and technology from humanity, waiting for the right moment in the future to unveil them. The Minutemen of 100 Bullets are styled after the standard black-suit-and-tie of MIB lore. In the anime Serial Experiments Lain two Men In Black, Karl and Lin, hunt down members of the Knights of the Eastern Calculus, a rogue group of hackers. The 2007 sci-fi/fantasy novel The Unreals, by Donald Jeffries, features several MIB characters. Games Role-playing and computer games also use the men in black, particularly, West End Games''' Men in Black RPG, Delta Green, Destroy All Humans!, Mage: The Ascension, Teenagers from Outer Space, Deus Ex, DIB (Duke In Black), Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, Conspiracy X, and GURPS Black Ops. Sim City Societies also features men in black who act as corporate enforcers. Also, many characters in video games are also similar to descriptions of Men in Black, one of the most notable being the G-Man from the Half-Life series. In the game AdventureQuest, the MIB are referenced as N.O.V.A., or the Network of Vespirian Agents. The game Heroes Unlimited, Re.: Aliens Unlimited'' refers to these entities. See also The Grinning Man Unidentified flying object Aerial Phenomena Enquiry Network Chilling effect Forteana Majestic 12 Phantom Social Workers Notes References External links Malevolent Alien Abduction Research Organization: Click on "Species", then See entry on "Men in Black" www.maxpages.com/mapit/Men_In_Black The Winter Hill MIB Case Men In Black Are Aliens | Men_in_Black |@lemmatized men:63 black:81 mib:24 popular:2 culture:5 ufo:16 conspiracy:5 theory:3 dress:5 suit:10 claim:4 government:9 agent:16 attempt:1 harass:1 threaten:3 witness:3 silence:3 also:15 frequently:4 use:12 describe:5 mysterious:3 work:3 unknown:1 organization:3 well:5 various:2 branch:1 allegedly:1 design:1 protect:1 secret:4 perform:1 strange:2 activity:2 term:4 generic:2 one:4 refer:2 unusual:2 strangely:1 behave:1 individual:2 whose:1 appearance:4 scene:1 link:2 fashion:1 sighting:4 clark:8 jerome:2 encyclopedia:1 volume:1 high:1 strangeness:1 omnigraphis:1 description:2 origin:1 phenomenon:7 initially:5 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6,882 | Geography_of_Kyrgyzstan | Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked nation in Central Asia, west of the People's Republic of China. The smallest of the newly independent Central Asian states, Kyrgyzstan is about the same size as the state of Nebraska, with a total area of about 198,500 square kilometers. The national territory extends about 900 kilometers from east to west and 410 kilometers from north to south. Kyrgyzstan is bordered on the east and southeast by China, on the north by Kazakhstan, on the west by Uzbekistan and on the south by Tajikistan. The borders with Uzbekistan and Tadjikistan in the Ferghana valley are rather difficult. One consequence of the Stalinist division of Central Asia into five republics is that many ethnic Kyrgyz do not live in Kyrgyzstan. Three enclaves, legally part of the territory of Kyrgyzstan but geographically removed by several kilometers, have been established, two in Uzbekistan and one in Tajikistan (see fig. 8). The terrain of Kyrgyzstan is dominated by the Tian Shan and Pamir mountain systems, which together occupy about 65 % of the national territory. The Alay range portion of the Tian Shan system dominates the southwestern crescent of the country, and, to the east, the main Tian Shan range runs along the boundary between southern Kyrgyzstan and China before extending farther east into China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Kyrgyzstan's average elevation is 2,750 meters, ranging from 7,439 meters at Peak Jengish Chokusu to 394 meters in the Fergana Valley near Osh. Almost 90 % of the country lies more than 1,500 meters above sea level. Topography and drainage Detailed map of Kyrgyztstan This MODIS true-color image shows potions of Kazakhstan (top) and Kyrgyzstan at the bottom. The lake at the top of the image is Lake Balkash. Topography The mountains of Kyrgyzstan are geologically young, so that the physical terrain is marked by sharply uplifted peaks separated by deep valleys. There is also considerable glaciation. Kyrgyzstan's 6,500 distinct glaciers are estimated to hold about 650 cubic kilometers of water. Only around the Chui, Talas, and Fergana valleys is there relatively flat land suitable for large-scale agriculture. Because the high peaks function as moisture catchers, Kyrgyzstan is relatively well watered by the streams that descend from them. None of the rivers of Kyrgyzstan are navigable, however. The majority are small, rapid, runoff streams. Most of Kyrgyzstan's rivers are tributaries of the Syrdariya, which has its headwaters in the western Tian Shan along the Chinese border. Another large runoff system forms the Chui River, which arises in northern Kyrgyzstan, then flows northwest and disappears into the deserts of southern Kazakhstan. Ysyk-Köl is the second largest body of water in Central Asia, after the Aral Sea, but the saline lake has been shrinking steadily, and its mineral content has been rising gradually. Kyrgyzstan has a total of about 2,000 lakes with a total surface area of 7,000 km², mostly located at altitudes of 3,000 to 4,000 meters. Only the largest three, however, occupy more than 100 km² each. The second- and third-largest lakes, Songköl and Chatyr-Köl (the latter of which also is saline), are located in the Naryn River Basin. Natural disasters have been frequent and varied. Overgrazing and deforestation of steep mountain slopes have increased the occurrence of mudslides and avalanches, which occasionally have swallowed entire villages. In August 1992, a severe earthquake left several thousand people homeless in the southwestern city of Jalal-Abad. Climate The country's climate is influenced chiefly by the mountains, Kyrgyzstan's position near the middle of the Eurasian landmass, and the absence of any body of water large enough to influence weather patterns. Those factors create a distinctly continental climate that has significant local variations. Although the mountains tend to collect clouds and block sunlight (reducing some narrow valleys at certain times of year to no more than three or four hours of sunlight per day), the country is generally sunny, receiving as much as 2,900 hours of sunlight per year in some areas. The same conditions also affect temperatures, which can vary significantly from place to place. In January the warmest average temperature (-4 °C) occurs around the southern city of Osh, and around Ysyk-Köl. The latter, which has a volume of 1,738 cubic kilometers, does not freeze in winter. Indeed, its name means "hot lake" in Kyrgyz. The coldest temperatures are in mountain valleys. There, readings can fall to -30 °C or lower; the record is -53.6 °C. The average temperature for July similarly varies from 27 °C in the Fergana Valley, where the record high is 44 °C, to a low of -10 °C on the highest mountain peaks. Precipitation varies from 2,000 millimeters per year in the mountains above the Fergana Valley to less than 100 millimeters per year on the west bank of Ysyk-Köl. Environmental problems Kyrgyzstan has been spared many of the enormous environmental problems faced by its Central Asian neighbors, primarily because its designated roles in the Soviet system involved neither heavy industry nor large-scale cotton production. Also, the economic downturn of the early 1990s reduced some of the more serious effects of industrial and agricultural policy. Nevertheless, Kyrgyzstan has serious problems because of inefficient use and pollution of water resources, land degradation, and improper agricultural practices. Natural hazards: prone to earthquakes, major flooding during the snow melt. Water resources Alamedin River does not carry a lot of water in September Although Kyrgyzstan has abundant water running through it, its water supply is determined by a post-Soviet sharing agreement among the five Central Asian republics. As in the Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan has the right to 25 % of the water that originates in its territory, but the new agreement allows Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan unlimited use of the water that flows into them from Kyrgyzstan, with no compensation for the nation at the source. Kyrgyzstan uses the entire amount to which the agreement entitles it, but utilization is skewed heavily in favor of agricultural irrigation. In 1994 agriculture accounted for about 88 % of total water consumption, compared with 8 % by industry and 4 % by municipal water distribution systems. According to World Bank experts, Kyrgyzstan has an adequate supply of high-quality water for future use, provided the resource is prudently managed. Irrigation is extremely wasteful of water because the distribution infrastructure is old and poorly maintained. In 1993 only an estimated 5 % of required maintenance expenditures was allocated. Overall, an estimated 70 % of the nation's water supply network is in need of repair or replacement. The quality of drinking water from this aging system is poorly monitored--the water management staff has been cut drastically because of inadequate funds. Further, there is no money to buy new water disinfection equipment when it is needed. Some aquifers near industrial and mining centers have been contaminated by heavy metals, oils, and sanitary wastes. In addition, many localities rely on surface sources, making users vulnerable to agricultural runoff and livestock waste, which seep gradually downward from the surface. The areas of lowest water quality are the heavily populated regions of the Chui Valley and Osh and Jalal-Abad provinces, and areas along the rivers flowing into Ysyk-Köl. In towns, wastewater collection provides about 70 % of the water supply. Although towns have biological treatment equipment, as much as 50 % of such equipment is rated as ineffective. The major sources of toxic waste in the water supply are the mercury mining combine at Haidarkan; the antimony mine at Kadamzai; the Kadzyi Sai uranium mine, which ceased extraction in 1967 but which continues to leach toxic materials into nearby Ysyk Köl; the Kara-Balta Uranium Recovery Plant; the Min Kush deposit of mine tailings; and the Kyrgyz Mining and Metallurgy Plant at Orlovka. Land management Low-cost water management in Tamchy, Issyk Kul Province The most important problems in land use are soil erosion and salinization in improperly irrigated farmland. An estimated 60 % of Kyrgyzstan's land is affected by topsoil loss, and 6 % by salinization, both problems with more serious long-term than short-term effects. In 1994 the size of livestock herds averaged twice the carrying capacity of pasturage land, continuing the serious overgrazing problem and consequent soil erosion that began when the herds were at their peak in the late 1980s. Uncertain land tenure and overall financial insecurity have caused many private farmers to concentrate their capital in the traditional form--livestock--thus subjecting new land to the overgrazing problem. The inherent land shortage in Kyrgyzstan is exacerbated by the flooding of agricultural areas for hydroelectric projects. The creation of Toktogul Reservoir on the Naryn River, for example, involved the flooding of 130 km² of fertile land. Such projects have the additional effect of constricting downstream water supply; Toktogul deprives the lower reaches of the Syr Darya in Uzbekistan and the Aral Sea Basin of substantial amounts of water. Because the Naryn Basin, where many hydroelectric projects are located, is very active seismically, flooding is also a danger should a dam be broken by an earthquake. Several plants are now in operation in zones where Richter Scale readings may reach eleven. Environment - current issues: Nuclear waste, left behind by the Soviet Union in many open-air pits in hazardous locations. Water pollution; many people get their water directly from contaminated streams and wells; as a result, water-borne diseases are prevalent; increasing soil salinity from faulty irrigation practices. Illegal hunting of very rare species such as the snow leopard and the Marco Polo sheep. Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements The Aral Sea In response to the internationally recognized environmental crisis of the rapid desiccation of the Aral Sea, the five states sharing the Aral Sea Basin (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) are developing a strategy to end the crisis. The World Bank and agencies of the United Nations (UN) have developed an Aral Sea Program, the first stage of which is funded by the five countries and external donors. That stage has seven areas of focus, one of which--land and water management in the upper watersheds--is of primary concern to Kyrgyzstan. Among the conditions detrimental to the Aral Sea's environment are erosion from deforestation and overgrazing, contamination from poorly managed irrigation systems, and uncontrolled waste from mining and municipal effluents. Kyrgyzstan's National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) has addressed these problems as part of its first-phase priorities in cooperation with the Aral Sea Program. Environmental policy making The NEAP, adopted in 1994, is the basic blueprint for environmental protection. The plan focuses on solving a small number of critical problems, collecting reliable information to aid in that process, and integrating environmental measures with economic and social development strategy. The initial planning period is to end in 1997. The main targets of that phase are inefficient water resource management, land degradation, overexploitation of forest reserves, loss of biodiversity, and pollution from inefficient mining and refining practices. Because of severe budget constraints, most of the funds for NEAP operations come from international sources, including official institutions such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank and numerous international nongovernmental organizations. Implementation is guided by a committee of state ministers and by a NEAP Expert Working Group, both established in 1994 by executive order. A NEAP office in Bishkek was set up with funds from Switzerland. The main environmental protection agency of the Kyrgyzstan government is the State Committee on Environmental Protection, still known by its Soviet-era acronym, Goskompriroda. Established by the old regime in 1988, the agency's post-Soviet responsibilities have been described in a series of decrees beginning in 1991. In 1994 the state committee had a central office in Bishkek, one branch in each of the seven provinces, and a total staff of about 150 persons. Because of poorly defined lines of responsibility, administrative conflicts often occur between local and national authorities of Goskompriroda and between Goskompriroda and a second national agency, the Hydrometeorological Administration (Gidromet), which is the main monitoring agency for air, water, and soil quality. In general, the vertical hierarchy structure, a relic of Soviet times, has led to poor coordination and duplication of effort among environmental protection agencies. Area and boundaries Tamchy Bay on Lake Issyk Kul Area: total: 198,500 km² land: 191,300 km² water: 7,200 km² Area - comparative: slightly smaller than South Dakota Land boundaries: total: 3,878 km border countries: the People's Republic of China 858 km, Kazakhstan 1,051 km, Tajikistan 870 km, Uzbekistan 1,099 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Kara-Darya 132 m highest point: Peak Jengish Chokusu 7,439 m Resources and land use Wetlands along the shore of Lake Issyk Kul near Tamchy Natural resources: abundant hydropower; significant deposits of gold and rare earth metals; locally exploitable coal, petroleum, and natural gas; other deposits of nepheline, mercury, bismuth, lead, and zinc. Land use: arable land: 7% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 44% forests and woodland: 4% other: 45% (1993 est.) note: Kyrgyzstan has the world's largest natural growth walnut forest in Jalal-Abad Province, with an enormous variety of different genetic characteristics, and it is believed that most of the world's walnut varieties derive from the original species still found here. Irrigated land: 9,000 km² (1993 est.) 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6,883 | Love | The stylized heart symbol is a traditional European icon representing love. Love is any of a number of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary (1998) + Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000) and attachment. The word love can refer to a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes, ranging from generic pleasure ("I loved that meal") to intense interpersonal attraction ("I love my boyfriend"). This diversity of uses and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, even compared to other emotional states. As an abstract concept, love usually refers to a deep, ineffable feeling of tenderly caring for another person. Even this limited conception of love, however, encompasses a wealth of different feelings, from the passionate desire and intimacy of romantic love to the nonsexual emotional closeness of familial and platonic love to the profound oneness or devotion of religious love. (J. Mascaró, translator) Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts. Definitions The English word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Often, other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that English relies mainly on "love" to encapsulate; one example is the plurality of Greek words for "love." Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus make it doubly difficult to establish any universal definition. Kay, Paul. "What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?" American Anthropologist, New Series, Volume 86, No. 1, March 1984, pp. 65–79 Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love. As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), love is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is commonly contrasted with friendship, although other definitions of the word love may be applied to close friendships in certain contexts. When discussed in the abstract, love usually refers to interpersonal love, an experience felt by a person for another person. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a person or thing, including oneself (cf. narcissism). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry. Ancient Love Poetry Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love is commonly reduced to a thought-terminating cliché, and there are a number of common proverbs regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to the Beatles' "All you need is love." Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to relative value. Theologian Thomas Jay Oord said that to love is to "act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others, to promote overall well-being." Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another." Gottfried Leibniz, Confessio philosophi. Wikisource edition, retrieved Mar 25, 2009. Impersonal love A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be borne not of interpersonal love, but impersonal love coupled with altruism and strong political convictions. People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, this condition is called paraphilia. Interpersonal love Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a more potent sentiment than a simple liking for another. Unrequited love refers to those feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with interpersonal relationships. Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania. Throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the last century, the science of psychology has written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have added to the understanding of the nature and function of love. Chemical basis Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst. Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust exposes people to others; romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating; and attachment involves tolerating the spouse (or indeed the child) long enough to rear a child into infancy. Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to amphetamines, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years. Winston, Robert (2004). Human. Smithsonian Institution. Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have. The protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year. Emanuele, E.; Polliti, P.; Bianchi, M.; Minoretti, P.; Bertona, M.; & Geroldi, D. (2005). “Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love.” Abstract. Psychoneuroendocrinology, Sept. 05. Psychological basis Grandmother and grandchild,Sri Lanka. Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. The last and most common form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. American psychologist Zick Rubin seeks to define love by psychometrics. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy. Rubin, Zick. "Measurement of Romantic Love." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,16, 265–273, 1970 Rubin, Zick. Liking and Loving: an invitation to social psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1973 Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from 250–900 A.D., of Huastec origin). Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract." Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds. In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities. Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another," and simple narcissism. In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling. Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602–03) by Giovanni Baglione. Comparison of scientific models Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views. Certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal. Studies have shown that brain scans of those infatuated by love display a resemblance to those with a mental illness. Love creates activity in the same area of the brain where hunger, thirst, and drug cravings create activity. New love, therefore, could possibly be more physical than emotional. Over time, this reaction to love mellows, and different areas of the brain are activated, primarily ones involving long-term commitments. Dr. Andrew Newberg, a neuroscientist, suggests that this reaction to love is so similar to that of drugs because without love, humanity would die out. Cultural views Persian Even after all this time The sun never says to the earth, "You owe me." Look what happens with a Love like that! —It lights the whole Sky. (Hafiz) Rumi, Hafez and Sa'di are icons of the passion and love that the Persian culture and language present. The Persian word for love is eshgh, deriving from the Arabic ishq. In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life. Over seven centuries ago, Sa'di wrote: The children of Adam are limbs of one body Having been created of one essence. When the calamity of time afflicts one limb The other limbs cannot remain at rest. If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man." Chinese and other Sinic cultures The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle) inside of "accept," "feel," or "perceive," which shows a graceful emotion. In contemporary Chinese language and culture, several terms or root words are used for the concept of love: It was the Qing‘s emperor first word of name. Ai (愛) is used as a verb (e.g., Wo ai ni, "I love you") or as a noun, especially in aiqing (愛情), "love" or "romance." In mainland China since 1949, airen (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among many in Taiwan. Lian (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as "being in love" (談戀愛, tan lian'ai—also containing ai), "lover" (戀人, lianren) or "homosexuality" (同性戀, tongxinglian). Qing (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in several terms. It is contained in the word aiqing (愛情); qingren (情人) is a term for "lover." In Confucianism, lian is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher Mozi developed the concept of ai (愛) in reaction to Confucian lian. Ai, in Mohism, is universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ai. Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian lian is how most Chinese conceive of love. Gănqíng (感情) is the "feeling" of a relationship, vaguely similar to empathy. A person will express love by building good gănqíng, accomplished through helping or working for another and emotional attachment toward another person or anything. Yuanfen (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each other," "fate," or "destiny." Zaolian (Simplified: 早恋, Traditional: 早戀, pinyin: zǎoliàn), literally "early love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or attachments among children or adolescents. Zaolian describes both relationships among a teenage boyfriend and girlfriend as well as the "crushes" of early adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief in contemporary Chinese culture, which is that, due to the demands of their studies (especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to students and the fears of parents. Japanese In Japanese Buddhism, ai (愛) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment. Amae (甘え), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence," is part of the child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging and serving. Some sociologists have suggested that Japanese social interactions in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae. Ancient Greek Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word "love" is used. For example, Ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge, and xenia. However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo. Agape ( agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure," ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul." Eros ( érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body." Philia ( philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean "love of the mind." Storge ( storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring. Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in Ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Turkish (Shaman & Islamic) In Turkish, the word "love" comes up with several meanings. A person can love a god, a person, parents, or family. But that person can "love" just one person from the opposite sex, which they call the word "aşk." Aşk is a feeling for to love, as it still is in Turkish today. The Turks used this word just for their romantic loves in a romantic or sexual sense. If a Turk says that he is in love (aşk) with somebody, it is not a love that a person can feel for his or her parents; it is just for one person, and it indicates a huge infatuation. The word is also common for Turkic languages, such as Kazakh (ғашық). Ancient Roman (Latin) The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word "love." Amāre is the basic word for to love, as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans—a lover, amator, "professional lover," often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, "girlfriend" in the English sense, often as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor, which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures. This same root also produces amicus—"friend"—and amicitia, "friendship" (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to "indebtedness" or "influence"). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia), which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love), which addresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents. Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses amāre where English would simply say to like. This notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by placere or delectāre, which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus. Diligere often has the notion "to be affectionate for," "to esteem," and rarely if ever is used for romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of "diligence" or "carefulness," and has little semantic overlap with the verb. Observare is a synonym for diligere; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote "esteem" or "affection." Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean "charitable love"; this meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb. Religious views Abrahamic religions Judaism Robert Indiana's 1977 "LOVE sculpture" spelling ahava in Israel. In Hebrew, Ahava is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love of God. Judaism employs a wide definition of love, both among people and between man and the Deity. Regarding the former, the Torah states, "Love your neighbor like yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (Deuteronomy 6:5), taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic literature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature. As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes 9:9). The biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading, reads like a love song. The 20th-century Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, Vol. 1). Romantic love per se has few echoes in Jewish literature, although the Medieval Rabbi Judah Halevi wrote romantic poetry in Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later). Christianity The Christian understanding is that love comes from God. The love of man and woman—eros in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are often contrasted as "ascending" and "descending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing. Pope Benedict XVI, papal encyclical, Deus Caritas Est. There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles. Agape: In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another. Phileo: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love." Two other words for love in the Greek language, eros (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament. Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28–34). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt." The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poem in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." (1 Cor. 13:4–7, NIV) The Apostle John wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him. Whoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe stands condemned already because he has not believed in the name of God's one and only Son." (John 3:16–18, NIV) John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." (1 John 4:7–8, NIV) Saint Augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, “I was in love with love.” Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as “jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.” According to Saint Augustine, to love God is “to attain the peace which is yours.” (Saint Augustine Confessions) Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C.S. Lewis wrote a book called The Four Loves. Benedict XVI wrote his first encyclical on "God is love." He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others (agape) and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them. Islam and Arab In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud, or "the Loving One," which is found in Surah 11:90 as well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness." All who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased God depends on the individual itself. Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism. Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music. Eastern religions Buddhism In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish. Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment. Adveṣa and maitrī are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare. The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish, altruistic love for all sentient beings. Hinduism In Hinduism, kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kamadeva. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end (artha) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usually accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Kaama and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chenna Keshava temple at Belur, in Karnataka, India. Maara is another name for kāma. In contrast to kāma, prema—or prem—refers to elevated love. Karuna is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a Sanskrit term, meaning "loving devotion to the supreme God." A person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of bhakti, which can be found in the Bhagavatha-Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work Narada Bhakti Sutras, written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love. References Sources Chadwick, Henry. "Saint Augustine Confessions." Oxford University Press, 1998. Fisher, Helen. Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love Singer, Irving. The Nature of Love, in three volumes, Random House (v.1, 1966), reprinted and later volumes from The University of Chicago Press, 1984. ISBN 0-226-76094-4 Sternberg, R.J. A triangular theory of love. 1986. Psychological Review, 93, 119–135 Sternberg, R.J. Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories. 1987. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 331–345 Tennov, Dorothy. Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love. New York: Stein and Day, 1979. ISBN 0-812-86134-5 Wood Samuel E., Ellen Wood and Denise Boyd. The World of Psychology. 5th edition. 2005. Pearson Education, 402–403 See also Love letter Monogamy Haptic medicine A General Theory of Love, provides a social, historical, and biomedical framework overview of love. 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6,884 | Kabbalah | Kabbalah (, lit. "receiving") is a discipline and school of thought concerned with the mystical aspect of Judaism. It is believed by many to be a form of magic practiced by Ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. It is a set of esoteric teachings that is meant to explain the relationship between an infinite, eternal and essentially unknowable Creator with the finite and mortal universe of His creation. In solving this paradox, Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence, and various other ontological questions. It also presents methods to aid understanding of these concepts and to thereby attain spiritual realization. Kabbalah originally developed entirely within the milieu of Jewish thought and constantly uses classical Jewish sources to explain, demonstrate, or prove its esoteric teachings. These teachings are thus held by kabbalists to define the inner meaning of both the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and traditional rabbinic literature, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious observances. Imbued with Holiness Overview According to the Zohar, generally considered the foremost kabbalistic text, Torah study uses four levels (PaRDeS) of interpretation (exegesis) of its text: JewishEncyclopedia.com - ZOHAR Peshat (lit. "simple"): the direct meaning. Remez (lit. "hint[s]"): the allegoric meaning (through allusion). Derash (from Heb. darash: "inquire" or "seek"): midrashic (Rabbinic) or comparative meaning. Sod (lit. "secret" or "mystery"): the inner meaning—a foundation of the kabbalah. Kabbalah is considered, by its followers, as a necessary part of the study of Torah – the study of Torah (the Law of God) being an inherent duty of observant Jews. The Written Law (The Torah) Kabbalah teaches doctrines that are accepted by some Jews as the true meaning of Judaism while other Jews have rejected these doctrines as heretical and antithetical to Judaism. The origins of the actual term Kabbalah are unknown and disputed to belong either to Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021–1058) or else to the 13th century CE Spanish Kabbalist Bahya ben Asher. While other terms have been used in many religious documents from the 2nd century CE up to the present day, the term Kabbalah has become the main descriptive of Jewish esoteric knowledge and practices. The Kabbalistic literature, which served as the basis for most of the development of Kabbalistic thought, divides between early works such as Heichalot and Sefer Yetzirah (believed to be dated 1st or 2nd Century CE) and later works dated to the 13th century CE, of which the main book is the Zohar representing the main source for the Contemplative Kabbalah ("Kabbalah Iyunit"). According to Kabbalistic tradition, knowledge was transmitted orally by the Patriarchs, prophets, and sages (Hakhamim in Hebrew), eventually to be "interwoven" into Jewish religious writings and culture. According to this tradition, Kabbalah was, in around the 10th century BCE, an open knowledge practiced by over a million people in ancient Israel, Megillah 14a, Shir HaShirim Rabbah 4:22, Ruth Rabbah 1:2, Aryeh Kaplan “Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide” p.44–p.48 although there is little objective historical evidence to support this thesis. Foreign conquests drove the Jewish spiritual leadership of the time (the Sanhedrin) to hide the knowledge and make it secret, fearing that it might be misused if it fell into the wrong hands. Rabbi Yehuda Leib Ha-Levi Ashlag; Preface to the Wisdom of Truth p.12 section 30 and p.105 bottom section of the left column as preface to the "Talmud Eser HaSfirot" The Sanhedrin leaders were also concerned that the practice of Kabbalah by Jews deported on conquest to other countries (the Diaspora), unsupervised and unguided by the masters, might lead them into wrong practice and forbidden ways. As a result, the Kabbalah became secretive, forbidden and esoteric to Judaism (“Torat Ha’Sod” ) for two and a half millennia. It is hard to clarify with any degree of certainty the exact concepts within Kabbalah. There are several different schools of thought with very different outlooks; however, all are accepted as correct. See Shem Mashmaon by Rabbi Shimon Agasi. It is a commentary on Otzrot Haim by Haim Vital. In the introduction he list five major schools of thought as to how to understand the AriZ"L/Haim Vital's understanding of the concept of Tzitzum. Modern Halakhic authorities have tried to narrow the scope and diversity within Kabbalah, by restricting study to certain texts, notably Zohar and the teachings of Isaac Luria as passed down through Chaim (Hayyim) Vital. See Yechveh Daat Vol 3, section 47 by Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef However even this qualification does little to limit the scope of understanding and expression, as included in those works are commentaries on Abulafian writings, Sepher Yetzirah, Albotonian writings, and Berit Menuhah. See Ktavim Hadashim published by Rabbi Yaakov Hillel of Ahavat Shalom for a sampling of works by Haim Vital attributed to Isaac Luria that deal with other works. It is therefore important to bear in mind when discussing things such as the Sephirot and their interactions that one is dealing with highly abstract concepts that at best can only be understood intuitively. Kabbala goes to yeshiva | Jerusalem Post Concepts Kabbalistic understanding of God In Kabbalah every idea grows from the foundation of God, Arthur Kurzweil, Kabbalah for Dummies, p.84 and the entire study is based on that central belief. The statement by Maimonides, from the Mishneh Torah is accepted by all traditional Kabbalists: Kabbalah teaches that God is neither matter nor spirit. Rather God is the creator of both. This question, "what is the nature of God?", prompted Kabbalists to envision two aspects of God, (a) God himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God that created the universe, preserves the universe, and interacts with mankind. Kabbalists speak of the first aspect of God as Ein Sof (אין סוף); this is translated as "the infinite", "endless", or "that which has no limits". In this view, nothing can be said about this aspect of God. This aspect of God is impersonal. The second aspect of divine emanations, however, is at least partially accessible to human thought. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but, through the mechanism of progressive emanation, complement one another. See Divine simplicity; Tzimtzum. The structure of these emanations have been characterized in various ways: Four "worlds" (Azilut, Yitzirah, Beriyah, and Asiyah), Sefirot, or Partzufim ("faces"). Later systems harmonize these models. Some Kabbalistic scholars, such as Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, believe that all things are linked to God through these emanations, making us all part of one great chain of being. Others, such as Schneur Zalman of Liadi (founder of Lubavitch [Chabad] Hasidism), hold that God is all that really exists; all else is completely undifferentiated from God's perspective. Such views can be defined as monistic panentheism. According to this philosophy, God's existence is higher than anything that this world can express, yet he includes all things of this world down to the finest detail in such a perfect unity that his creation of the world effected no change in him whatsoever. This paradox is dealt with at length in Chabad Chassidic texts. Wineberg, chs. 20–21 Kabbalistic tree of the ten Sefirot Ein Sof (in-finite) and the emanation of angelic hierarchies (Universes or olamot עולמות) Sefirot The Sefirot (סְפִירוֹת)—singular, Sefirah (סְפִירָה="enumeration")—are the ten emanations of God with which He creates the universe. The word "sefirah" literally means "counting", but early Kabbalists presented a number of other etymological possibilities including: sefer (text), sippur (recounting), sappir (sapphire, brilliance, luminary), separ (boundary), and safra (scribe). The term sefirah thus has complex connotations within Kabbalah. (Scholem, Kabbalah, p. 100) Ten Sephirot as process of Creation According to Lurianic cosmology, the Sephirot correspond to various levels of creation (ten sephirot in each of the four worlds, and four worlds within each of the larger four worlds, each containing ten sephirot, which themselves contain ten sephirot, to an infinite number of possibilities, See Otzrot Haim: Sha'ar TNT"A for a short explanation. The vast majority of the Lurianic system deals only with the complexities found in the world of Atzilut as is explained in the introductions to both Otzrot Haim and Eitz Haim. ) and are emanated from the Creator for the purpose of creating the universe. The Sephirot are considered revelations of the Creator's will (ratzon), The Song of the Soul, Yechiel Bar-Lev, p.73 and they should not be understood as ten different "gods" but as ten different ways the one God reveals his will through the Emanations. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes. The names of the ten Sephirot are: Keter (will) Chochmah (wisdom) Binah (understanding) Chesed (sometimes referred to as Gedolah or Gedulah) (mercy or loving kindness) Gevurah (sometimes referred to as Din (justice) or Pachad (fear)) (severity or strength) Tiferet (harmony or beauty) Netzach (victory) Hod (glory or splendour) Yesod (power or foundation) Malchut (kingdom) Ten Sephirot as process of ethics Divine creation by means of the Ten Sefirot is an ethical process. Each side of the graph is associated with a different aspect of divine emanation; the right column being positive, masculine, the left being negative, feminine, and the central being a mediator between the two. Examples: The Sefirah of "Compassion" or "Mercy" (Chesed) being part of the Right Column corresponds to how God reveals more blessings when humans use previous blessings compassionately, whereas the Sephirah of "Judgement" or "Restriction"(Geburah) being part of the Left Column corresponds to how God hides these blessings when humans abuse them selfishly without compassion. Thus human behavior determines if God seems present or absent. "Righteous" humans (Tzadikim) ascend these ethical qualities of the Ten Sefirot by doing righteous actions. If there were no "Righteous" humans, the blessings of God would become completely hidden, and creation would cease to exist. While real human actions are the "Foundation" (Yesod) of this universe (Malchut), these actions must accompany the conscious intention of compassion. Compassionate actions are often impossible without "Faith" (Emunah), meaning to trust that God always supports compassionate actions even when God seems hidden. Ultimately, it is necessary to show compassion toward oneself too in order to share compassion toward others. This "selfish" enjoyment of God's blessings but only if in order to empower oneself to assist others, is an important aspect of "Restriction", and is considered a kind of golden mean in Kabbalah, corresponding to the Sefirah of "Adornment" (Tiferet) being part of the "Middle Column". Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, wrote a book, Tomer Devorah (Palm Tree of Deborah), in which he presents an ethical teaching of Judaism in the kabbalistic context of the Ten Sefirot. Tomer Devorah, as a consequence, has become also a foundational text of Mussar J.H.Laenen, Jewish Mysticism, p.164 . Human soul in Kabbalah The Kabbalah posits that the human soul has three elements, the nefesh, ru'ach, and neshamah. The nefesh is found in all humans, and enters the physical body at birth. It is the source of one's physical and psychological nature. The next two parts of the soul are not implanted at birth, but can be developed over time; their development depends on the actions and beliefs of the individual. They are said to only fully exist in people awakened spiritually. A common way of explaining the three parts of the soul is as follows: Nefesh (נפש): the lower part, or "animal part", of the soul. It is linked to instincts and bodily cravings. Ruach (רוח): the middle soul, the "spirit". It contains the moral virtues and the ability to distinguish between good and evil. Neshamah (נשמה): the higher soul, or "super-soul". This separates man from all other life-forms. It is related to the intellect, and allows man to enjoy and benefit from the afterlife. This part of the soul is provided at birth and allows one to have some awareness of the existence and presence of God. The Raaya Meheimna, a section of related teachings spread throughout the Zohar, discusses fourth and fifth parts of the human soul, the chayyah and yehidah (first mentioned in the Midrash Rabbah). Gershom Scholem writes that these "were considered to represent the sublimest levels of intuitive cognition, and to be within the grasp of only a few chosen individuals". The Chayyah and the Yechidah do not enter into the body like the other three—thus they received less attention in other sections of the Zohar. Chayyah (חיה): The part of the soul that allows one to have an awareness of the divine life force itself. Yehidah (יחידה): the highest plane of the soul, in which one can achieve as full a union with God as is possible. Both rabbinic and kabbalistic works posit that there are a few additional, non-permanent states of the soul that people can develop on certain occasions. These extra souls, or extra states of the soul, play no part in any afterlife scheme, but are mentioned for completeness: Ruach HaKodesh (רוח הקודש) ("spirit of holiness"): a state of the soul that makes prophecy possible. Since the age of classical prophecy passed, no one (outside of Israel) receives the soul of prophesy any longer. See the teachings of Abraham Abulafia for differing views of this matter. Neshamah Yeseira: The "supplemental soul" that a Jew can experience on Shabbat. It makes possible an enhanced spiritual enjoyment of the day. This exists only when one is observing Shabbat; it can be lost and gained depending on one's observance. Neshamah Kedosha: Provided to Jews at the age of maturity (13 for boys, 12 for girls), and is related to the study and fulfillment of the Torah commandments. It exists only when one studies and follows Torah; it can be lost and gained depending on one's study and observance. Tzimtzum The act whereby God "contracted" his infinite light, leaving a "void" into which the light of existence was poured. The primal emanation became Azilut, the World of Light, from which the three lower worlds, Beriah, Yetzirah and Assiyah, descended. Number-Word mysticism Kabbalah teaches that every Hebrew letter, word, number, even the accent on words of the Hebrew Bible contains a hidden sense; and it teaches the methods of interpretation for ascertaining these meanings. One such method is as follows: As early as the 1st Century BCE Jews believed that the Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Bible) contained encoded messages and hidden meanings. Gematria is one method for discovering its hidden meanings. Each letter in Hebrew also represents a number; Hebrew, unlike many other languages, never developed a separate numerical alphabet. By converting letters to numbers, Kabbalists were able to find a hidden meaning in each word. This method of interpretation was used extensively by various schools. There is no one fixed way to "do" gematria. Some say there are up to 70 different methods. One simple procedure is as follows: each syllable and/or letter forming a word has a characteristic numeric value. The sum of these numeric tags is the word's "key", and that word may be replaced in the text by any other word having the same key. Through the application of many such procedures, alternative or hidden meanings of scripture may be derived. Similar procedures are used by Islamic mystics, as described by Idries Shah in his book, "The Sufi". Primary texts Title page of first edition of the Zohar, Mantua, 1558. Like the rest of the Rabbinic literature, the texts of Kabbalah were once part of an ongoing oral tradition, though, over the centuries, much of the oral tradition has been written down. Jewish forms of esotericism existed over 2,000 years ago. Ben Sira warns against it, saying: "You shall have no business with secret things". Sirach iii. 22; compare Talmud, Hagigah, 13a; Midrash Genesis Rabbah, viii. Nonetheless, mystical studies were undertaken and resulted in mystical literature, the first being the Apocalyptic literature of the second and first pre-Christian centuries and which contained elements that carried over to later Kabbalah. Throughout the centuries since, many texts have been produced, among them the Heichalot literature, Sefer Yetzirah, Bahir, Sefer Raziel HaMalakh and the Zohar. Scholarship Because it is by definition esoteric, no popular account (including an encyclopedia) can provide a complete, precise, and accurate explanation of the Kabbalah. However, a number of scholars from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, including Gershom Scholem, Joseph Dan, Yehuda Liebes, Rachel Elior, and Moshe Idel Moshe Idel , as well as some from other locations, such as Arthur Green and Daniel Matt Daniel C. Matt , have made Kabbalist texts objects of modern scholarly scrutiny. Some scholars, notably Gershom Scholem and Martin Buber, have argued that modern Hassidic Judaism represents a popularization of the Kabbalah. Gerschom Scholem, "Hasidism: The Latest Phase" in Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism and Martin Bubuer, Hasidism and Modern Man and The Origin and Meaning of Hasidism According to its adherents, intimate understanding and mastery of the Kabbalah brings one spiritually closer to God and enriches one's experience of Jewish sacred texts and law. Claims for authority Historians have noted that most claims for the authority of Kabbalah involve an argument of the antiquity of authority (see, e.g., Joseph Dan's discussion in his Circle of the Unique Cherub). As a result, virtually all works pseudepigraphically claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship. For example, Sefer Raziel HaMalach, an astro-magical text partly based on a magical manual of late antiquity, Sefer ha-Razim, was, according to the kabbalists, transmitted to Adam by the angel Raziel after he was evicted from Eden. Another famous work, the Sefer Yetzirah, supposedly dates back to the patriarch Abraham. This tendency toward pseudepigraphy has its roots in Apocalyptic literature, which claims that esoteric knowledge such as magic, divination and astrology was transmitted to humans in the mythic past by the two angels, Aza and Azaz'el (in other places, Azaz'el and Uzaz'el) who 'fell' from heaven (see Genesis 6:4). In Islam, the angels 'Harut' and 'Marut' were sent to teach magic only as a test to mankind (see Qur'an, Ch. 2: 102). Critique Dualism Although Kabbalah propounds the Unity of God, one of the most serious and sustained criticisms is that it may lead away from monotheism, and instead promote dualism, the belief that there is a supernatural counterpart to God. The dualistic system holds that there is a good power versus an evil power. There are two primary models of Gnostic-dualistic cosmology: the first, which goes back to Zoroastrianism, believes creation is ontologically divided between good and evil forces; the second, found largely in Greco-Roman ideologies like Neo-Platonism, believes the universe knew a primordial harmony, but that a cosmic disruption yielded a second, evil, dimension to reality. This second model influenced the cosmology of the Kabbalah. According to Kabbalistic cosmology, the Ten Sefirot correspond to ten levels of creation. These levels of creation must not be understood as ten different "gods" but as ten different ways of revealing God, one per level. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes. While God may seem to exhibit dual natures (masculine-feminine, compassionate-judgmental, creator-creation), all adherents of Kabbalah have consistently stressed the ultimate unity of God. For example, in all discussions of Male and Female, the hidden nature of God exists above it all without limit, being called the Infinite or the "No End" (Ein Sof)—neither one nor the other, transcending any definition. The ability of God to become hidden from perception is called "Restriction" (Tzimtzum). Hiddenness makes creation possible because God can become "revealed" in a diversity of limited ways, which then form the building blocks of creation. Later Kabbalistic works, including the Zohar, appear to more strongly affirm dualism, as they ascribe all evil to a supernatural force known as the Sitra Achra Sitra Achra ("the other side") that emanates from God. The "left side" of divine emanation is a negative mirror image of the "side of holiness" with which it was locked in combat. [Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume 6, "Dualism", p.244]. While this evil aspect exists within the divine structure of the Sefirot, the Zohar indicates that the Sitra Ahra has no power over Ein Sof, and only exists as a necessary aspect of the creation of God to give man free choice, and that evil is the consequence of this choice. It is not a supernatural force opposed to God, but a reflection of the inner moral combat within mankind between the dictates of morality and the surrender to one's basic instincts. Rabbi Dr. David Gottlieb notes that many Kabbalists hold that the concepts of, e.g., a Heavenly Court or the Sitra Ahra are only given to humanity by God as a working model to understand His ways within our own epistemological limits. They reject the notion that a Satan or angels actually exist. Others hold that non-divine spiritual entities were indeed created by God as a means for exacting his will. According to Kabbalists, humans cannot yet understand the infinity of God. Rather, there is God as revealed to humans (corresponding to Zeir Anpin), and the rest of the infinity of God as remaining hidden from human experience (corresponding to Arich Anpin Arich Anpin ). One reading of this theology is monotheistic, similar to panentheism; another a reading of the same theology is that it is dualistic. Gershom Scholem writes: Perception of non-Jews Theologically framed hostility may be a response to the demonization of Jews which developed in Western and Christian society and thought, starting with the Patristic writings. Fundamentals of Jewish Mysticism and Kabbalah By Ron H. Feldman. Pg. 59 According to Isaac Luria and other commentators on the Zohar, righteous Gentiles don't have this demonic aspect and in many ways similar to Jewish souls. A number of prominent Kabbalists, e.g. Rabbi Pinchas Eliyahu of Vilna, the author of Sefer ha-Brit, held that only some marginal elements in the humanity represent these demonic forces. On the other hand, the souls of Jewish heretics have much more satanic energy, than the worst of idol worshippers; this view is popular in some Hasidic circles, especially Satmar Hasidim. Later Kabbalistic works build and elaborate on this ideas. The Hasidic work Tanya stresses the uniqueness of the Jewish soul, in order to argue that Jews have an additional level of soul that other humans do not possess. While a non-Jew, according to Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, can achieve a high level of spiritually, similar to an angel, his soul is still fundamentally different from a Jewish one. סידור הרב, שער אכילת מצה A similar view is found in Yehuda Halevi's medieval philosophical book Kuzari. However, many prominent Kabbalists rejected this idea and believed in essential equality of all human souls. Menahem Azariah da Fano, in his book Reincarnations of souls, provides many examples of non-Jewish Biblical figures being reincarnated into Jews, and visa versa; the contemporary Habad Rabbi and mystic Dov Ber Pinson teaches that seemingly discriminatory statements in the Tanya and other Kabbalistic works are not to be understood literally. Dov Ber Pinson, Reincarnation and Judaism Another prominent Habad Rabbi, Abraham Yehudah Khein, believed that spiritually elevated Gentiles have essentially Jewish souls, "who just lack the formal conversion to Judaism", and that unspiritual Jews are "Jewish merely by their birth documents". ר' אברהם חן, ביהדות התורה The great 20th century Kabbalist Yehuda Ashlag viewed the terms "Jews" and "Gentile" as different levels of perception, available to every human soul. David Halperin article, The Seductiveness of Jewish Myth theorizes that the collapse of Kabbalah's influence among Western European Jews over the course of the 17th and 18th Century was a result of the cognitive dissonance they experienced between Kabbalah's very negative perception of gentiles and their own dealings with non-Jews, which were rapidly expanding and improving during this period due to the influence of the Enlightenment. For a different perspective, see Wolfson. Wolfson, E.R. Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford University Press, 2006, ch.1. He provides extensive documentation to illustrate the prevalence of the distinction between the souls of Jews and non-Jews in kabbalistic literature. He provides numerous examples from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries, which would challenge the view of Halperin cited above as well as the notion that "modern Judaism" has rejected or dismissed this "outdated aspect" of the kabbalah. There are still kabbalists today, and many influenced by them, who harbor this view. It is accurate to say that many Jews do and would find this distinction offensive, but it is inaccurate to say that the idea has been totally rejected. As Wolfson has argued, it is an ethical demand on the part of scholars to be vigilant with regard this matter and in this way the tradition can be refined from within. However, as explained above, many well known Kabbalists rejected the literal interpretation of these seemingly discriminatory views, added a chain of intermediary states between Jews and idolworshipers, or spiritualized the very definition of "Jews" and "non-Jews", thus solving the gap between traditional Kabbalistic literature and modern egalitarian worldview. Orthodox Judaism The idea that there are ten divine sefirot could evolve over time into the idea that "God is One being, yet in that One being there are Ten" which opens up a debate about what the "correct beliefs" in God should be, according to Judaism. Rabbi Saadia Gaon teaches in his book Emunot v'Deot that Jews who believe in reincarnation have adopted a non-Jewish belief. Nachmanides (12th Century) provides background to many Kabbalistic ideas. His works, especially those in the Five books of Moses (Pentateuch) offer in-depth of various concepts. Maimonides (12th Century) rejected many of the texts of the Hekalot, particularly Shi'ur Qomah whose starkly anthropomorphic vision of God he considered heretical. Rabbi Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, in the spirit of his father Maimonides, Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, and other predecessors, explains at length in his book Milhhamot HaShem that the Almighty is in no way literally within time or space nor physically outside time or space, since time and space simply do not apply to His Being whatsoever. This is in contrast to certain popular understandings of modern Kabbalah which teach a form of panentheism, that His 'essence' is within everything. Around the 1230s, Rabbi Meir ben Simon of Narbonne wrote an epistle (included in his Milhhemet Mitzvah) against his contemporaries, the early Kabbalists, characterizing them as blasphemers who even approach heresy. He particularly singled out the Sefer Bahir, rejecting the attribution of its authorship to the tanna R. Nehhunya ben ha-Kanah and describing some of its content as truly heretical. Rabbi Yitzchak ben Sheshet Perfet, (The Rivash), 1326–1408. Although as is evident from his responsa on the topic (157) the Rivash was skeptical of certain interpretations of Kabbalah popular in his time, it is equally evident that overall he did accept Kabbalah as received Jewish wisdom, and attempted to defend it from attackers. To this end he cited and rejected a certain philosopher who claimed that Kabbalah was "worse than Christianity", as it made God into 10, not just into three. Most followers of Kabbalah have never followed this interpretation of Kabbalah, on the grounds that the concept of the Christian Trinity posits that there are three persons existing within the Godhead, one of whom became a human being. In contrast, the mainstream understanding of the Kabbalistic Sefirot holds that they have no mind or intelligence; further, they are not addressed in prayer and they cannot become a human being. They are conduits for interaction, not persons or beings. Nonetheless, many important poskim, such as Maimonidies in his work Mishneh Torah, prohibit any use of mediators between oneself and the Creator as a form of idolatry. Rabbi Leone di Modena, a 17th century Venetian critic of Kabbalah, wrote that if we were to accept the Kabbalah, then the Christian trinity would indeed be compatible with Judaism, as the Trinity closely resembles the Kabbalistic doctrine of the Sefirot. This critique was in response to the knowledge that some European Jews of the period addressed individual Sefirot in some of their prayers, although the practise was apparently uncommon. Apologists explain that Jews may have been praying for and not necessarily to the aspects of Godliness represented by the Sefirot. Rabbi Yaakov Emden, 1697–1776, wrote the book Mitpahhath Sfarim (Veil of the Books), a detailed critique of the Zohar in which he concludes that certain parts of the Zohar contain heretical teaching and therefore could not have been written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai. Opponents of his work claim that he wrote the book in a drunken stupor. Emden's rationalistic approach to this work, however, makes neither intoxication nor stupor seem plausible. Rabbi Yihhyah Qafahh, an early 20th century Yemenite Jewish leader and grandfather of Rabbi Yosef Qafih, also wrote a book entitled Milhhamoth HaShem, (Wars of the L-RD) against what he perceived as the false teachings of the Zohar and the false Kabbalah of Isaac Luria. He is credited with spearheading the Dor Daim who continue in R. Yihhyah Qafahh's view of Kabbalah into modern times. Yeshayahu Leibowitz 1903–1994, brother of Nechama Leibowitz, though Modern Orthodox in his world view, publicly shared the views expressed in R. Yihhyah Qafahh's book Milhhamoth HaShem and elaborated upon these views in his many writings. There is dispute among modern Haredim as to the status of Isaac Luria's, the Arizal's kabbalistic teachings. While a portion of Modern Orthodox Rabbis, Dor Daim and many students of the Rambam, completely reject Arizal's Kabbalistic teachings, as well as deny that the Zohar is authoritative, or from Shimon bar Yohai, all three of these groups completely accept the existence and validity of Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'resheet mysticism. Their only disagreement concerns whether the Kabbalistic teachings promulgated today are accurate representations of those esoteric teachings to which the Talmud refers. Within the Haredi Jewish community one can find both rabbis who sympathize with such a view, while not necessarily agreeing with it, as well as rabbis who consider such a view absolute heresy. Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism Since all forms of reform or liberal Judaism are rooted in the Enlightenment and tied to the assumptions of European modernity, Kabbalah tended to be rejected by most Jews in the Conservative and Reform movements, though its influences were not completely eliminated. While it was generally not studied as a discipline, the Kabbalistic Kabbalat Shabbat service remained part of liberal liturgy, as did the Yedid Nefesh prayer. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, Rabbi Saul Lieberman of the Jewish Theological Seminary, is reputed to have introduced a lecture by Scholem on Kabbalah with a statement that Kabbalah itself was "nonsense", but the academic study of Kabbalah was "scholarship". This view became popular among many Jews, who viewed the subject as worthy of study, but who did not accept Kabbalah as teaching literal truths. According to Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson (Dean of the Conservative Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies in the American Jewish University) However, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries there has been a revival in interest in Kabbalah in all branches of liberal Judaism. The Kabbalistic 12th century prayer Anim Zemirot was restored to the new Conservative Sim Shalom siddur, as was the B'rikh Shmeh passage from the Zohar, and the mystical Ushpizin service welcoming to the Sukkah the spirits of Jewish forbearers. Anim Zemirot and the 16th Century mystical poem Lekhah Dodi reappeared in the Reform Siddur Gates of Prayer in 1975. All Rabbinical seminaries now teach several courses in Kabbalah—in Conservative Judaism, both the Jewish Theological Seminary and the Ziegler School of Rabbinical Studies of the University of Judaism in Los Angeles have fulltime instructors in Kabbalah and Hasidut, Eitan Fishbane and Pinchas Geller, respectively. In the Reform movement Sharon Koren teaches at the Hebrew Union College. Reform Rabbis like Herbert Weiner and Lawrence Kushner have renewed interest in Kabbalah among Reform Jews. At the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, the only accredited seminary that has curricular requirements in kabbalah, Joel Hecker is the fulltime instructor teaching courses in kabbalah and hasidut. According to Artson: The Reconstructionist movement, under the leadership of Arthur Green in the 1980's and 1990's, and with the influence of Zalman Schachter Shalomi brought a strong openness to kabbalah and hasidic elements that then came to play prominent roles in the Kol ha-Neshamah siddur series. History Origins of Judaic mysticism According to the traditional understanding, Kabbalah dates from Eden. Introduction to Raziel Hamalach It came down from a remote past as a revelation to elect Tzadikim (righteous people), and, for the most part, was preserved only by a privileged few. Talmudic Judaism records its view of the proper protocol for teaching this wisdom, as well as many of its concepts, in the Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, Ch.2. Contemporary scholarship suggests that various schools of Jewish esotericism arose at different periods of Jewish history, each reflecting not only prior forms of mysticism, but also the intellectual and cultural milieu of that historical period. Answers to questions of transmission, lineage, influence, and innovation vary greatly and cannot be easily summarized. Origins of terms Originally, Kabbalistic knowledge was believed to be an integral part of the Judaism's oral law (see also, Aggadah), given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai around 13th century BCE, though there is a view that Kabbalah began with Adam. When the Israelites arrived at their destination and settled in Canaan, for a few centuries the esoteric knowledge was referred to by its aspect practice—meditation Hitbonenut (), Stern, Schneur Zalman. Active vs. Passive Meditation Rebbe Nachman of Breslov's Hitbodedut (), translated as “being alone” or “isolating oneself”, or by a different term describing the actual, desired goal of the practice—prophecy (“NeVu’a” ). During the 5th century BCE, when the works of the Tanakh were edited and canonized and the secret knowledge encrypted within the various writings and scrolls (“Megilot”), the knowledge was referred to as Ma'aseh Merkavah () SparkNotes: The Kabbalah: Ma’aseh merkavah and Ma'aseh B'reshit (), SparkNotes: The Kabbalah: Ma’aseh bereshit respectively "the act of the Chariot" and "the act of Creation". Merkavah mysticism alluded to the encrypted knowledge within the book of the prophet Ezekiel describing his vision of the "Divine Chariot". B'reshit mysticism referred to the first chapter of Genesis () in the Torah that is believed to contain secrets of the creation of the universe and forces of nature. These terms are also mentioned in the second chapter of the Talmudic tractate Haggigah. Mystic elements of the Torah According to adherents of Kabbalah, its origin begins with secrets that God revealed to Adam. According to a rabbinic midrash God created the universe through the ten sefirot. When read by later generations of Kabbalists, the Torahs description of the creation in the Book of Genesis reveals mysteries about the godhead itself, the true nature of Adam and Eve, the Garden of Eden, the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil and the Tree of Life, as well as the interaction of these supernal entities with the Serpent which leads to disaster when they eat the forbidden fruit, as recorded in Genesis 2. Artson, Bradley Shavit. From the Periphery to the Centre: Kabbalah and the Conservative Movement, United Synagogue Review, Spring 2005, Vol. 57 No. 2 The Bible provides ample additional material for mythic and mystical speculation. The prophet Ezekiel's visions in particular attracted much mystical speculation, as did Isaiah's Temple vision—Isaiah, Ch.6. Jacob's vision of the ladder to heaven provided another example of esoteric experience. Moses' encounters with the Burning bush and God on Mount Sinai are evidence of mystical events in the Tanakh that form the origin of Jewish mystical beliefs. The 72 letter name of God which is used in Jewish mysticism for meditation purposes is derived from the Hebrew verbal utterance Moses spoke in the presence of an angel, while the Sea of Reeds parted, allowing the Hebrews to escape their approaching attackers. The miracle of the Exodus, which led to Moses receiving the Ten Commandments and the Jewish Orthodox view of the acceptance of the Torah at Mount Sinai, preceded the creation of the first Jewish nation approximately three hundred years before King Saul. Mystical doctrines in the Talmudic era In early rabbinic Judaism (the early centuries of the first millennium CE), the terms Ma'aseh Bereshit ("Works of Creation") and Ma'aseh Merkabah ("Works of the Divine Throne/Chariot") clearly indicate the Midrashic nature of these speculations; they are really based upon Genesis 1 and Book of Ezekiel 1:4–28; while the names Sitrei Torah (Hidden aspects of the Torah) (Talmud Hag. 13a) and Razei Torah (Torah secrets) (Ab. vi. 1) indicate their character as secret lore. An additional term also expanded Jewish esoteric knowledge, namely Chochmah Nistara (Hidden wisdom). Talmudic doctrine forbade the public teaching of esoteric doctrines and warned of their dangers. In the Mishnah (Hagigah 2:1), rabbis were warned to teach the mystical creation doctrines only to one student at a time. Urbach, The Sages, pp.184ff. To highlight the danger, in one Jewish aggadic ("legendary") anecdote, four prominent rabbis of the Mishnaic period (first century CE) are said to have visited the Orchard (that is, Paradise, pardes, Hebrew: lit., orchard): In notable readings of this legend, only Rabbi Akiba was fit to handle the study of mystical doctrines. The Tosafot, medieval commentaries on the Talmud, say that the four sages "did not go up literally, but it appeared to them as if they went up." A. W. Streane, A Translation of the Treatise Chagigah from the Babylonian Talmud (Cambridge University Press, 1891). p. 83. On the other hand, Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, writes in the Jewish Encyclopedia (1901–1906) that the journey to paradise "is to be taken literally and not allegorically". Louis Ginzberg, Elisha ben Abuyah", Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906. For further analysis, see The Four Who Entered Paradise. Middle Ages The tree of life. From the 8th–11th Century Sefer Yetzirah and Hekalot texts made their way into European Jewish circles. Modern scholars have identified several mystical brotherhoods that functioned in Europe starting in the 12th Century. Some, such as the "Iyyun Circle" and the "Unique Cherub Circle", were truly esoteric, remaining largely anonymous. One well-known group was the "Hasidei Ashkenaz", (חסידי אשכנז) or German Pietists. This 13th Century movement arose mostly among a single scholarly family, the Kalonymus family of the French and German Rhineland. There were certain rishonim ("Elder Sages") of exoteric Judaism who are known to have been experts in Kabbalah. One of the best known is Nahmanides (the Ramban) (1194–1270) whose commentary on the Torah is considered to be based on Kabbalistic knowledge. Bahya ben Asher (the Rabbeinu Behaye) (d. 1340) also combined Torah commentary and Kabbalah. Another was Isaac the Blind (1160–1235), the teacher of Nahmanides, who is widely argued to have written the first work of classic Kabbalah, the Bahir. Sefer Bahir and another work, the "Treatise of the Left Emanation", probably composed in Spain by Isaac ben Isaac ha-Kohen, laid the groundwork for the composition of Sefer Zohar, written by Moses de Leon and his mystical circle at the end of the 13th Century, but credited to the Talmudic sage Shimon bar Yochai, cf. Zohar. The Zohar proved to be the first truly "popular" work of Kabbalah, and the most influential. From the thirteenth century onward, Kabbalah began to be widely disseminated and it branched out into an extensive literature. Historians in the nineteenth century, for example, Heinrich Graetz, argued that the emergence into public view of Jewish esotericism at this time coincides with, and represents a response to, the rising influence of the rationalist philosophy of Maimonides and his followers. Gershom Scholem sought to undermine this view as part of his resistance to seeing kabbalah as merely a response to medieval Jewish rationalism. Arguing for a gnostic influence has to be seen as part of this strategy. More recently, Moshe Idel and Elliot Wolfson have independently argued that the impact of Maimonides can be seen in the change from orality to writing in the thirteenth century. That is, kabbalists committed to writing many of their oral traditions in part as a response to the attempt of Maimonides to explain the older esoteric subjects philosophically. Most Orthodox Jews reject the idea that Kabbalah underwent significant historical development or change such as has been proposed above. After the composition known as the Zohar was presented to the public in the 13th century, the term "Kabbalah" began to refer more specifically to teachings derived from, or related, to the Zohar. At an even later time, the term began to generally be applied to Zoharic teachings as elaborated upon by Isaac Luria Arizal. Historians generally date the start of Kabbalah as a major influence in Jewish thought and practice with the publication of the Zohar and climaxing with the spread of the Arizal's teachings. The majority of Haredi Jews accept the Zohar as the representative of the Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'reshit that are referred to in Talmudic texts. The Zohar Early Modern era: Lurianic Kabbalah Following the upheavals and dislocations in the Jewish world as a result of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, and the trauma of Anti-Semitism during the Middle Ages, Jews began to search for signs of when the long-awaited Jewish Messiah would come to comfort them in their painful exiles. Moses Cordovero and his immediate circle popularized the teachings of the Zohar which had until then been only a modestly influential work. The author of the Shulkhan Arukh (the Jewish "Code of Law"), Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575), was also a great scholar of Kabbalah and spread its teachings during this era. As part of that "search for meaning" in their lives, Kabbalah received its biggest boost in the Jewish world with the explication of the Kabbalistic teachings of Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534–1572) by his disciples Rabbi Hayim Vital and Rabbi Israel Sarug, both of whom published Luria's teachings (in variant forms) gaining them widespread popularity. Luria's teachings came to rival the influence of the Zohar and Luria stands, alongside Moses de Leon, as the most influential mystic in Jewish history. Ban against studying Kabbalah The ban against studying Kabbalah was lifted by the efforts of the sixteenth century Kabbalist Rabbi Avraham Azulai (1570–1643). The question however is whether the ban ever existed in the first place. Concerning the above quote by Avraham Azulai, it has found many versions in English, another is this The lines concerning 1490 are also missing from the Hebrew edition of Hesed L'Avraham, the source work that both of these quote from. Furthermore by Azulai's view the ban was lifted thirty years before his birth. A time that would have corresponded with Rabbi Haim Vital's publication of the teaching of Isaac Luria. Furthermore Rabbi Moshe Isserles only understood there to be a minor restriction, in his words "One's belly must be full of meat and wine, discerning between the prohibited and the permitted." Shulhan Arukh YD 246:4 He is supported by the Bier Hetiv, the Pithei Teshuva as well as the Vilna Gaon. The Vilna Gaon says, Thus leaving the existence of a ban to be highly debated. Sefardi and Mizrahi The Kabbalah of the Sefardi (Portuguese or Spanish) and Mizrahi (African/Asian) Torah scholars has a long history. Kabbalah in various forms was widely studied, commented upon, and expanded by North African, Turkish, Yemenite, and Asian scholars from the 16th Century onward. It flourished among Sefardic Jews in Tzfat (Safed), Israel even before the arrival of Isaac Luria, its most famous resident. The great Yosef Karo, author of the Shulchan Arukh was part of the Tzfat school of Kabbalah. Shlomo Alkabetz, author of the famous hymn Lekhah Dodi, taught there. His disciple Moses ben Jacob Cordovero authored Sefer Pardes Rimonim, an organized, exhaustive compilation of kabbalistic teachings on a variety of subjects up to that point. Rabbi Cordovero headed the Academy of Tzfat until his death, when Isaac Luria, also known as the Ari, rose to prominence. Rabbi Moshe's disciple Eliyahu De Vidas authored the classic work, Reishit Chochma, combining kabbalistic and mussar (moral) teachings. Chaim Vital also studied under Rabbi Cordovero, but with the arrival of Rabbi Luria became his main disciple. Vital claimed to be the only one authorized to transmit the Ari's teachings, though other disciples also published books presenting Luria's teachings. Maharal One of the most important teachers of Kabbalah recognized as an authority by all serious scholars up until the present time, was Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel (1525–1609) known as the Maharal of Prague. Many of his written works survive and are studied for their deep Kabbalistic insights. The Maharal is, perhaps, most famous outside of Jewish mysticism for the legends of the golem of Prague, which he reportedly created. During the twentieth century, Rabbi Isaac Hutner (1906–1980) continued to spread the Maharal's teachings indirectly through his own teachings and scholarly publications within the modern yeshiva world. Failure of Sabbatian Mysticism The spiritual and mystical yearnings of many Jews remained frustrated after the death of Rabbi Isaac Luria and his disciples and colleagues. No hope was in sight for many following the devastation and mass killings of the pogroms that followed in the wake the Chmielnicki Uprising (1648–1654), and it was at this time that a controversial scholar of the Kabbalah by the name of Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) captured the hearts and minds of the Jewish masses of that time with the promise of a newly-minted "Messianic" Millennialism in the form of his own personage. His charisma, mystical teachings that included repeated pronunciations of the holy Tetragrammaton in public, tied to an unstable personality, and with the help of his own "prophet" Nathan of Gaza, convinced the Jewish masses that the "Jewish Messiah" had finally come. It seemed that the esoteric teachings of Kabbalah had found their "champion" and had triumphed, but this era of Jewish history unravelled when Zevi became an apostate to Judaism by converting to Islam after he was arrested by the Ottoman Sultan and threatened with execution for attempting a plan to conquer the world and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Many of his followers, known as Sabbateans, continued to worship him in secret, explaining his conversion not as an effort to save his life but to recover the sparks of the holy in each religion, and most leading rabbis were always on guard to root them out. The Donmeh movement in modern Turkey is a surviving remnant of the Sabbatian schism. Due to the chaos caused in the Jewish world, the Rabbinic prohibition against studying Kabbalah was well intact again, and established itself firmly within the Jewish religion. One of the conditions allowing a man to study and engage himself in the Kabbalah, was to be of age forty. This age requirement came about during this period and is not Talmudic in origin. Many Jews are familiar with this ruling, but are not aware of its origins. Moreover, the prohibition is not halakhic in nature. According to Moses Cordovero, halakhically, one must be of age twenty to engage in the Kabbalah. Many famous Kabbalists, including the ARI, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, were younger than twenty when they began. Frankists The Sabbatian movement was followed by that of the "Frankists" who were disciples of another pseudo-mystic Jacob Frank (1726–1791) who eventually became an apostate to Judaism by apparently converting to Catholicism. This era of disappointment did not stem the Jewish masses' yearnings for "mystical" leadership. 1700s The eighteenth century saw an explosion of new efforts in the writing and spread of Kabbalah by four well known rabbis working in different areas of Europe: Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov (1698–1760) in the area of Ukraine spread teachings based on Rabbi Isaac Luria's foundations, simplifying the Kabbalah for the common man. From him sprang the vast ongoing schools of Hasidic Judaism, with each successive rebbe viewed by his "Hasidim" as continuing the role of dispenser of mystical divine blessings and guidance. Rebbe Nachman of Breslov (1772–1810), the great-grandson of the Baal Shem Tov, revitalized and further expanded the latter's teachings, amassing a following of thousands in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. In a unique amalgam of Hasidic and Mitnagid approaches, Rebbe Nachman emphasized study of both Kabbalah and serious Torah scholarship to his disciples. His teachings also differed from the way other Hasidic groups were developing, as he rejected the idea of hereditary Hasidic dynasties and taught that each Hasid must "search for the tzaddik ('saintly/righteous person')" for himself—and within himself. Rabbi Elijah of Vilna (Vilna Gaon) (1720–1797), based in Lithuania, had his teachings encoded and publicized by his disciples such as by Rabbi Chaim Volozhin who published the mystical-ethical work Nefesh HaChaim. However, he was staunchly opposed to the new Hasidic movement and warned against their public displays of religious fervour inspired by the mystical teachings of their rabbis. Although the Vilna Gaon was not in favor of the Hasidic movement, he did not prohibit the study and engagement in the Kabbalah. This is evident from his writings in the Even Shlema. "He that is able to understand secrets of the Torah and does not try to understand them will be judged harshly, may God have mercy". (The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 8:24). "The Redemption will only come about through learning Torah, and the essence of the Redemption depends upon learning Kabbalah" (The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 11:3). Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (1707–1746), based in Italy, was a precocious Talmudic scholar who arrived at the startling conclusion that there was a need for the public teaching and study of Kabbalah. He established a yeshiva for Kabbalah study and actively recruited outstanding students and, in addition, wrote copious manuscripts in an appealing clear Hebrew style, all of which gained the attention of both admirers and rabbinical critics who feared another "Zevi (false messiah) in the making".He was forced to close his school by his rabbinical opponents, hand over and destroy many of his most precious unpublished kabbalistic writings, and go into exile in the Netherlands. He eventually moved to the Land of Israel. Some of his most important works such as Derekh Hashem survive and are used as a gateway to the world of Jewish mysticism. Modern era One of the most influential sources spreading Kabbalistic teachings have come from the massive growth and spread of Hasidic Judaism, a movement begun by Yisroel ben Eliezer (The Baal Shem Tov), but continued in many branches and streams until today. These groups differ greatly in size, but all emphasize the study of mystical Hasidic texts, which now consists of a vast literature devoted to elaborating upon the long chain of Kabbalistic thought and methodology. No group emphasizes in-depth kabbalistic study, though, to the extent of the Chabad-Lubavitch movement, whose Rebbes delivered tens of thousands of discourses, and whose students study these texts for three hours daily. Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch urged the study of kabbala as prerequisite for one's humanity: The writings of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1864–1935) also stress Kabbalistic themes: Bnei Baruch Bnei Baruch is a group of Kabbalists, based in Israel. Study materials are available in over 25 languages Bnei Baruch Learning Center . Michael Laitman, established Bnei Baruch in 1991, following the passing of his teacher, Baruch Ashlag. Laitman named his group Bnei Baruch (sons of Baruch) to commemorate the memory of his mentor. Baruch Ashlag was the oldest son and successor of the famous Kabbalist, Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, who was author of a comprehensive commentary on The Book of Zohar called The Sulam Commentary (The Ladder Commentary).www.kab.tv Kabbalah Centre The Kabbalah Centre was founded in the United States in 1965 as The National Research Institute of Kabbalah by Philip Berg (born Feivel Gruberger) and Rav Yehuda Tzvi Brandwein. After Brandwein's death, and after several years in Israel, Philip Berg and his wife Karen Berg, re-established the U.S. Kabbalah Centre in New York. Personalities in Kabbalah Historical Nathan Adler Abraham Abulafia Baruch Ashlag Yehuda Ashlag Abraham Azulai Moses ben Jacob Cordovero Israel ben Eliezer Solomon ibn Gabirol Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla Meir ben Ezekiel ibn Gabbai Yitzchak Kaduri Yosef Karo Moses de Leon Isaac Luria Elijah ben Solomon Baba Sali Chaim Vital Simeon bar Yohai Contemporary Samuel Ben-Or Avital Aryeh Kaplan Zalman Schachter-Shalomi Adin Steinsaltz See also Emanation (Eastern Orthodox Christianity) Christian Knorr von Rosenroth Christian Hebraist, author of the Kabbala Denudata, or Kabbala Unveiled Practical Kabbalah Hermetic Qabalah Notes References Bodoff, Lippman; Jewish Mysticism: Medieval Roots, Contemporary Dangers and Prospective Challenges; The Edah Journal 2003 3.1 Dan, Joseph; The Early Jewish Mysticism, Tel Aviv: MOD Books, 1993. Dan, Joseph; The Heart and the Fountain: An Anthology of Jewish Mystical Experiences, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Dan, Joseph; Samael, Lilith, and the Concept of Evil in Early Kabbalah, AJS Review, vol. 5, 1980. Dan, Joseph; The ‘Unique Cherub’ Circle, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1999. Dan, J. and Kiener, R.; The Early Kabbalah, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1986. Dennis, G.; The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, St. Paul: Llewellyn Wordwide, 2007. Fine, Lawrence, ed. Essential Papers in Kabbalah, New York: NYU Press, 1995. Fine, Lawrence; Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and his Kabbalistic Fellowship, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003. Fine, Lawrence; Safed Spirituality, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1989. Fine, Lawrence, ed., Judaism in Practice, Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. Green, Arthur; EHYEH: A Kabbalah for Tomorrow. Woodstock: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003. Hecker, Joel; Mystical Bodies, Mystical Meals: Eating and Embodiment in Medieval Kabbalah. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2005. Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988. Idel, Moshe; The Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid, New York: SUNY Press, 1990. Idel, Moshe; Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, New York: SUNY Press, 1995. Idel, Moshe; Kabbalistic Prayer and Color, Approaches to Judaism in Medieval Times, D. Blumenthal, ed., Chicago: Scholar’s Press, 1985. Idel, Moshe; The Mystica Experience in Abraham Abulafia, New York, SUNY Press, 1988. Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives, New Haven, Yale Press, 1988. Idel, Moshe; Magic and Kabbalah in the ‘Book of the Responding Entity’; The Solomon Goldman Lectures VI, Chicago: Spertus College of Judaica Press, 1993. Idel, Moshe; The Story of Rabbi Joseph della Reina; Behayahu, M. Studies and Texts on the History of the Jewish Community in Safed. Kaplan, Aryeh; Inner Space: Introduction to Kabbalah, Meditation and Prophecy. Moznaim Publishing Corp 1990. John W. McGinley; The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly; ISBN 0-595-40488-X Scholem, Gershom; Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1941. Scholem, Gershom; Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1960. Scholem, Gershom; Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah, 1973. Scholem, Gershom; Kabbalah, Jewish Publication Society, 1974. Wineberg, Yosef; Lessons in Tanya: The Tanya of R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi (5 volume set). Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch, 1998. ISBN 0-8266-0546-X Wirszubski, Chaim; Pico della Mirandola's Encounter with Jewish Mysticism, Harvard University Press, 1989. Wolfson, Elliot; Through a Speculum That Shines: Vision and Imagination in Medieval Jewish Mysticism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. Wolfson, Elliot; Language, Eros Being: Kabbalistic Hermeneutics and Poetic Imagination, New York: Fordham University Press, 2005. Wolfson, Elliot; Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford: Oxford * University Press, 2006. Wolfson, Elliot; Alef, Mem, Tau: Kabbalistic Musings on Time, Truth, and Death, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Wolfson, Elliot; Luminal Darkness: Imaginal Gleanings From Zoharic Literature, London: Onworld Publications, 2007. The Wisdom of The Zohar: An Anthology of Texts, 3 volume set, Ed. Isaiah Tishby, translated from the Hebrew by David Goldstein, The Littman Library. External links General information sites Resources > Medieval Jewish History > Jewish Mysticism Jewish History Resource Center FAQ about Kabbalah JewFaq.org Cabala JewishEncyclopedia.com Overview of Kabbalah Chassidic Kabbalah Bibliographic Surveys of Books on Jewish Mysticism in English Rabbinic Kabbalah texts in English Lists of Kabbalah terms Alphabetical list of specialized Kabbala expressions Kabbalah Online.org Glossary of kabbalistic terms Bnei Baruch Jewish Kabbalah organizations Ascent-of-Sefad Authentic Kabbalah Iyyun—Dov Ber Pinson Online rabbinic Kabbalah texts Who Should Learn the Hidden Torah? Rambam (Maimonides), Guide for the Perplexed. English and Aramaic Zohar Online (searchable) Kabbalah Centre Kabbalah Library Bnei Baruch Important Kabbalah texts in English KabbalahOnline.org Orthodox sites Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism Talmudist perspective of Kabbalah What is Kabbalah? Chabad Kabbalah 101 Aish A-Z Kabbalah Institute Bircat Shalom Online Hasidic Kabbalah texts letter of the Baal Shem Tov Lessons in Tanya Chabad The Gate Of Unity Translation & Commentary of The Gate Of Unity Jewish criticisms of Kabbalah Anti-Maimonidean Demons Article by José Faur Maimonides Agonist: Disenchantment and Reenchantment in Modern Judaism Article by Menachem Kellner Milhamot Hashem Attack on the Zohar by Yihhyah Qafahh. Hebrew Emunat Hashem Reply to Milhamot Hashem by Jerusalem rabbis. 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6,885 | Generalization | Generalization is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning. Generalization posits the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common characteristics shared by those elements. As such, it is the essential basis of all valid deductive inference. The process of verification is necessary to determine whether a generalization holds true for any given situation. The concept of generalization has broad application in many related disciplines, sometimes having a specialized context-specific meaning. For any two related concepts, A and B; A is considered a generalization of concept B if and only if: every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A; and there are instances of concept A which are not instances of concept B. For instance, animal is a generalization of bird because every bird is an animal, and there are animals which are not birds (dogs, for instance). (See also: specialization). On a side note, a common joke goes like this: "All generalizations are false!" This is known as a self-contradictory statement. Hypernym and hyponym This kind of generalization versus specialization (or particularization) is reflected in the mirror of the contrasting words of the three word pair hypernym and hyponym. A hypernym as a generic stands for a class or group of equally-ranked items...... such as tree does for peach and oak; or ship for cruiser and steamer. Whereas a hyponym is one of the items included in the generic, such as lily and daisy are included in flower, and bird and fish in animal. A hypernym is superordinate to a hyponym, and a hyponym is subordinate to hypernym. Cartographic generalization of geo-spatial data Generalization has a long history in cartography as an art of creating maps for different scale and purpose. Cartographic generalization is the process of selecting and representing information of a map in a way that adapts to the scale of the display medium of the map. In this way, every map has, to some extent, been generalized to match the criteria of display. This includes small-scale maps, which cannot convey every detail of the real world. Cartographers must decide and then adjust the content within their maps to create a suitable and useful map that conveys geospatial information within their representation of the world. Generalization is meant to be context-specific. This is to say that correctly generalized maps are those that emphasize the most important map elements while still representing the world in the most faithful and recognizable way. The level of detail and importance in what is remaining on the map must outweigh the insignificance of items that were generalized, as to preserve the distinguishing characteristics of what makes the map useful and important. See also Abstraction Ceteris paribus Generic Generic antecedent inheritance (object-oriented programming), Faulty generalization Hasty generalization Homotopy lifting property Mutatis mutandis -onym Class diagram Ramer-Douglas-Peucker algorithm Specialization, the opposite process | Generalization |@lemmatized generalization:14 foundational:1 element:4 logic:1 human:1 reasoning:1 posit:1 existence:1 domain:1 set:1 well:1 one:2 common:2 characteristic:2 share:1 essential:1 basis:1 valid:1 deductive:1 inference:1 process:3 verification:1 necessary:1 determine:1 whether:1 hold:1 true:1 give:1 situation:1 concept:7 broad:1 application:1 many:1 related:2 discipline:1 sometimes:1 specialized:1 context:2 specific:2 meaning:1 two:1 b:4 consider:1 every:4 instance:6 also:3 animal:4 bird:4 dog:1 see:2 specialization:3 side:1 note:1 joke:1 go:1 like:1 false:1 know:1 self:1 contradictory:1 statement:1 hypernym:5 hyponym:5 kind:1 versus:1 particularization:1 reflect:1 mirror:1 contrasting:1 word:2 three:1 pair:1 generic:4 stand:1 class:2 group:1 equally:1 ranked:1 item:3 tree:1 peach:1 oak:1 ship:1 cruiser:1 steamer:1 whereas:1 include:3 lily:1 daisy:1 flower:1 fish:1 superordinate:1 subordinate:1 cartographic:2 geo:1 spatial:1 data:1 long:1 history:1 cartography:1 art:1 create:2 map:11 different:1 scale:3 purpose:1 select:1 represent:2 information:2 way:3 adapt:1 display:2 medium:1 extent:1 generalize:3 match:1 criterion:1 small:1 cannot:1 convey:2 detail:2 real:1 world:3 cartographer:1 must:2 decide:1 adjust:1 content:1 within:2 suitable:1 useful:2 geospatial:1 representation:1 mean:1 say:1 correctly:1 emphasize:1 important:2 still:1 faithful:1 recognizable:1 level:1 importance:1 remain:1 outweigh:1 insignificance:1 preserve:1 distinguish:1 make:1 abstraction:1 ceteris:1 paribus:1 antecedent:1 inheritance:1 object:1 orient:1 program:1 faulty:1 hasty:1 homotopy:1 lift:1 property:1 mutatis:1 mutandis:1 onym:1 diagram:1 ramer:1 douglas:1 peucker:1 algorithm:1 opposite:1 |@bigram |
6,886 | Amplifier | An electronic amplifier is a device for increasing the power and/or amplitude of a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier may be considered as modulating the output of the power supply. A practical amplifier circuit Types of amplifier Amplifiers can be specified according to their input and output properties. They have some kind of gain, or multiplication factor relating the magnitude of the output signal to the input signal. The gain may be specified as "output voltage/input voltage", "output power/input power" or any other combination of current, voltage and power. In many cases, with input and output in the same units, gain will be unitless; for others this is not necessarily so – for example, a transconductance amplifier has a gain with units of conductance (output current per input voltage). In most cases an amplifier should be linear, that is the gain should be constant for any combination of input and output signal. If the gain is not linear, e.g. by clipping the output signal at the limits of its capabilities, the output signal is distorted. Classification of amplifier stages and systems There are many alternative classifications that address different aspects of amplifier designs, and they all express some particular perspective relating the design parameters to the objectives of the circuit. Amplifier design is always a compromise of numerous factors, such as cost, power consumption, real-world device imperfections, and a multitude of performance specifications. Below are several different approaches to classification: === Input and output variable The four types of dependent source; control variable on left, output variable on right Electronic amplifiers use two variables: current and voltage. Either can be used as input, and either as output leading to four types of amplifiers. In idealized form they are represented by each of the four types of dependent source used in linear analysis, as shown in the figure, namely: {| class="wikitable" style="background:white;text-align:center " !Input !Output !Dependent source !Amplifier type |- |-valign="top" | I | I | current controlled current source CCCS | current amplifier |- |-valign="top" | I | V | current controlled voltage source CCVS | transresistance amplifier |- |-valign="top" | V| I| voltage controlled current source VCCS| transconductance amplifier |- |-valign="top" | V| V| voltage controlled voltage source VCVS| voltage amplifier |} Each type of amplifier in its ideal form has an ideal input and output resistance that is the same as that of the corresponding dependent source: It is a curiosity to note that this table is a "Zwicky box"; in particular, it encompasses all possibilities. See Fritz Zwicky. Amplifier type Dependent source Input impedance Output impedance Current CCCS 0 ∞ Transresistance CCVS 0 0 Transconductance VCCS ∞ ∞ Voltage VCVS ∞ 0 In practice the ideal impedances are only approximated. For any particular circuit, a small-signal analysis often is used to find the impedance actually achieved. A small-signal AC test current Ix is applied to the input or output node, all external sources are set to zero, and the corresponding alternating voltage Vx across the test current source determines the impedance seen at that node as R = Vx / Ix. Amplifiers designed to attach to a transmission line at input and/or output, especially RF amplifiers, do not fit into this classification approach. Rather than dealing with voltage or current individually, they ideally couple with an input and/or output impedance matched to the transmission line impedance, that is, match ratios of voltage to current. Many real RF amplifiers come close to this ideal. Although, for a given appropriate source and load impedance, RF amplifiers can be characterized as amplifying voltage or current, they fundamentally are amplifying power. Common terminal One set of classifications for amplifiers is based on which device terminal is common to both the input and the output circuit. In the case of bipolar junction transistors, the three classes are common emitter, common base, and common collector. For field-effect transistors, the corresponding configurations are common source, common gate, and common drain; for triode vacuum devices, common cathode, common grid, and common plate. Unilateral or bilateral When an amplifier has an output that exhibits no feedback to its input side, it is called unilateral. One consequence is the amplifier has an input impedance that is independent of the load attached to the amplifier, and an output impedance that is independent of the signal source driving the amplifier. The opposite case is the bilateral amplifier, where feedback connects the output to the input side of the amplifier. Such feedback often is deliberate, for example negative feedback often is used to tailor amplifier behavior. However, at least as often, feedback is both undesirable and unavoidable; introduced, for example, by parasitic elements like inherent, undesirable capacitances in transistors that couple input to output. In any case, a bilateral amplifier has an input impedance that depends upon the load attached to the amplifier, and an output impedance that depends on the source driving the amplifier. Linear unilateral and bilateral amplifiers can be represented by two-port networks. Most amplifiers are bilateral to some degree, however they may often be modeled as unilateral under certain operating conditions to simplify the analysis (see the common base article for an example). Inverting or non-inverting Another way to classify amps is the phase relationship of the input signal to the output signal. An inverting amplifier produces an output 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal (that is, an inversion or mirror image of the input as seen on an oscilloscope). A non-inverting amplifier maintains the phase of the input signal waveforms. An emitter follower is a type of non-inverting amplifier, indicating that the signal at the emitter of a transistor is following (that is, matching with unity gain but perhaps an offset) the input signal. This description can apply to a single stage of an amplifier, or to a complete amplifier system. Function Other amplifiers may be classified by their function or output characteristics. These functional descriptions usually apply to complete amplifier systems or sub-systems and rarely to individual stages. A servo amplifier indicates an integrated feedback loop to actively control the output at some desired level. A DC servo indicates use at frequencies down to DC levels, where the rapid fluctuations of an audio or RF signal do not occur. These are often used in mechanical actuators, or devices such as DC motors that must maintain a constant speed or torque. An AC servo amp can do this for some ac motors. A linear amplifier responds to different frequency components independently, and does not generate harmonic distortion or intermodulation distortion. A nonlinear amplifier does generate distortion. A wideband amplifier has a precise amplification factor over a wide range of frequencies, and is often used to boost signals for relay in communications systems. A narrowband amp is made to amplify only a specific narrow range of frequencies, to the exclusion of other frequencies. An RF amplifier refers to an amplifier designed for use in the radio frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is often used to increase the sensitivity of a receiver or the output power of a transmitter. An audio amplifier is designed for use in reproducing audio frequencies. This category subdivides into small signal amplification, and power amps which are optimised for driving speakers, sometimes with multiple amps grouped together as separate or bridgeable channels to accommodate different audio reproduction requirements. A special type of amplifier is widely used in instruments and for signal processing, among many other varied uses. These are known as operational amplifiers, (or op-amps). This is because this type of amplifier is used in circuits that perform mathematical algorithmic functions, or "operations" on input signals to obtain specific types of output signals. A typical op-amp has differential inputs (one "inverting", one, "non-inverting" relative to the output) and one output. An idealised op-amp has the following characteristics: Infinite input impedance (so as to not load circuitry it is sampling as a control input) Zero output impedance Infinite gain Zero propagation delay The performance of an op-amp with these characteristics would be entirely defined by the (usually passive) components forming a negative feedback loop around it, that is, the amplifier itself has no effect on the output. Today, op-amps are usually provided as integrated circuits, rather than constructed from discrete components. All real-world op-amps fall short of the idealised specification above – but some modern components have remarkable performance and come close in some respects. Interstage coupling method Amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling method of the signal at the input, output, or between stages. Different types of these include: Resistive-capacitive (RC) coupled amplifier, using a network of resistors and capacitors By design these amplifiers cannot amplify DC signals as the capacitors block the DC component of the input signal. RC-coupled amplifiers were used very often in circuits with vacuum tubes or discrete transistors. In the days of the integrated circuit a few more transistors on a chip are much cheaper and smaller than a capacitor. Inductive-capacitive (LC) coupled amplifier, using a network of inductors and capacitors This kind of amplifier is most often used in selective radio-frequency circuits. Transformer coupled amplifier, using a transformer to match impedances or to decouple parts of the circuits Quite often LC-coupled and transformer-coupled amplifiers cannot be distinguished as a transformer is some kind of inductor. Direct coupled amplifier, using no impedance and bias matching components This class of amplifier was very uncommon in the vacuum tube days when the anode (output) voltage was at greater than several 100 V and the grid (input) voltage at a few volts minus. So they were only used if the gain was specified down to DC (e.g., in an oscilloscope). In the context of modern electronics developers are encouraged to use direcly coupled amplifiers whenever possible. Frequency range Depending on the frequency range and other properties amplifiers are designed according to different principles. Frequency ranges down to DC are only used when this property is needed. DC amplification leads to specific complications that are avoided if possible. Depending on the frequency range specified different design principles must be used. Up to the MHz range only "discrete" properties need be considered; e.g., a terminal has an input impedance. As soon as any connection within the circuit gets longer than perhaps 1% of the wavelength of the highest specified frequency (e.g., at 100 MHz the wavelength is 3 m, so the critical connection length is approx. 3 cm) design properties radically change. For example, a specified length and width of a PCB trace can be used as a selective or impedance-matching entity. Above a few 100 MHz, it gets difficult to use discrete elements, especially inductors. In most cases PCB traces of very closely defined shapes are used instead. Type of load Untuned audio video Tuned (RF amps) - used for amplifying a single radio frequency or band of frequencies Implementation Amplifiers are implemented using active elements of different kinds: The first active elements were relays. They were for example used in trans-continental telegraph lines: A weak current was used to switch the voltage of a battery to the outgoing line. For transmitting audio, carbon microphones were used as the active element. This was used to modulate a radio-frequency source in one of the first AM audio transmissions, by Reginald Fessenden on Dec. 24, 1906. Up to the early 1970s, most amplifiers used vacuum tubes (valves in the UK). Today, tubes are only generally used for very high-power, high-frequency amplifiers and for specialist audio applications, in which field they have recently achieved a new popularity. Many broadcast transmitters still use vacuum tubes. Additionally, their imperviousness to electromagnetic flash damage may have led to their retention in certain defence contexts. In the 1960s, the transistor started to take over. These days, discrete transistors are still used in high-power amplifiers and in specialist audio devices. Beginning in the 1970s, more and more transistors were connected on a single chip therefore creating the integrated circuit. Nearly all amplifiers commercially available today are based on integrated circuits. For exotic purposes, other active elements have been used. For example, in the early days of the communication satellite parametric amplifiers were used. The core circuit was a diode whose capacity was changed by an RF signal created locally. Under certain conditions, this RF signal provided energy that was modulated by the extremely weak satellite signal received at the earth station. The operating principle of a parametric amplifier is somewhat similar to the principle by which children keep their swings in motion: as long as the swing moves you only need to change a parameter of the swinging entity; e.g., you must move your center of gravity up and down. In our case, the capacity of the diode is changed periodically. Power amplifier classes Angle of flow or conduction angle Power amplifier circuits (output stages) are classified as A, B, AB and C for analog designs, and class D and E for switching designs based upon the conduction angle or angle of flow, Θ, of the input signal through the amplifying device, that is, the portion of the input signal cycle during which the amplifying device conducts. The image of the conduction angle is derived from amplifying a sinusoidal signal. (If the device is always on, Θ = 360°.) The angle of flow is closely related to the amplifier power efficiency. The various classes are introduced below, followed by more detailed discussion under individual headings later on. Class A 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle Θ = 360° or 2π; i.e., the active element works in its linear range all of the time). Where efficiency is not a consideration, most small signal linear amplifiers are designed as Class A, which means that the output devices are always in the conduction region. Class A amplifiers are typically more linear and less complex than other types, but are very inefficient. This type of amplifier is most commonly used in small-signal stages or for low-power applications (such as driving headphones). Class B 50% of the input signal is used (Θ = 180° or π; i.e., the active element works in its linear range half of the time and is more or less turned off for the other half). In most Class B, there are two output devices (or sets of output devices), each of which conducts alternately (push–pull) for exactly 180° (or half cycle) of the input signal; selective RF amplifiers can also be implemented using a single active element.These amplifiers are subject to crossover distortion if the transition from one active element to the other is not perfect, as when two complementary transistors (i.e., one PNP, one NPN) are connected as two emitter followers with their base and emitter terminals in common, requiring the base voltage to slew across the region where both devices are turned off. Class AB Here the two active elements conduct more than half of the time as a means to reduce the cross-over distortions of Class B amplifiers. In the example of the complementary emitter followers a bias network allows for more or less quiescent current thus providing an operating point somewhere between Class A and Class B. Sometimes a figure is added (e.g., AB1 or AB2) with higher figures implying a higher quiescent current and therefore more of the properties of Class A. Class D These use switching to achieve a very high power efficiency (more than 90% in modern designs). By allowing each output device to be either fully on or off, losses are minimized. The analog output is created by pulse-width modulation; i.e., the active element is switched on for shorter or longer intervals instead of modifying its resistor. There are more complicated switching schemes like sigma-delta modulation, to improve some performance aspects like lower distortions or better efficiency. Other classes There are several other amplifier classes, although they are mainly variations of the previous classes. For example, Class G and Class H amplifiers are marked by variation of the supply rails (in discrete steps or in a continuous fashion, respectively) following the input signal. Wasted heat on the output devices can be reduced as excess voltage is kept to a minimum. The amplifier that is fed with these rails itself can be of any class. These kinds of amplifiers are more complex, and are mainly used for specialized applications, such as very high-power units. Also, Class E and Class F amplifiers are commonly described in literature for radio frequencies applications where efficiency of the traditional classes deviate substantially from their ideal values. These classes use harmonic tuning of their output networks to achieve higher efficiency and can be considered a subset of Class C due to their conduction angle characteristics. More detail on the various classes is provided below. Class A Class A amplifying devices operate over the whole of the input cycle such that the output signal is an exact scaled-up replica of the input with no clipping. Class A amplifiers are the usual means of implementing small-signal amplifiers. They are not very efficient; a theoretical maximum of 50% is obtainable with inductive output coupling and only 25% with capacitive coupling. In a Class A circuit, the amplifying element is biased so the device is always conducting to some extent, and is operated over the most linear portion of its characteristic curve (known as its transfer characteristic or transconductance curve). Because the device is always conducting, even if there is no input at all, power is drawn from the power supply. This is the chief reason for its inefficiency. Image:Electronic Amplifier Class A.pngClass A Amplifier If high output powers are needed from a Class A circuit, the power waste (and the accompanying heat) will become significant. For every watt delivered to the load, the amplifier itself will, at best, dissipate another watt. For large powers this means very large and expensive power supplies and heat sinking. Class A designs have largely been superseded for audio amplifiers, though some audiophiles believe that Class A gives the best sound quality, due to it being operated in as linear a manner as possible which provides a small market for expensive high fidelity Class A amps. In addition, some aficionados prefer thermionic valve (or "tube") designs instead of transistors, for several claimed reasons: Tubes are more commonly used in class A designs, which have an asymmetrical transfer function. This means that distortion of a sine wave creates both odd- and even-numbered harmonics. The claim is that this sounds more "musical" than the higher level of odd harmonics produced by a symmetrical push–pull amplifier. Ask the Doctors: Tube vs. Solid-State Harmonics Volume cranked up in amp debate Though good amplifier design can reduce harmonic distortion patterns to almost nothing, distortion is essential to the sound of electric guitar amplifiers, for example, and is held by recording engineers to offer more flattering microphones and to enhance "clinical-sounding" digital technology. Valves use many more electrons at once than a transistor, and so statistical effects lead to a "smoother" approximation of the true waveform — see shot noise for more on this. Junction field-effect transistors (JFETs) have similar characteristics to valves, so these are found more often in high quality amplifiers than bipolar transistors. Historically, valve amplifiers often used a Class A power amplifier simply because valves are large and expensive; many Class A designs use only a single device. Transistors are much cheaper, and so more elaborate designs that give greater efficiency but use more parts are still cost-effective. A classic application for a pair of class A devices is the long-tailed pair, which is exceptionally linear, and forms the basis of many more complex circuits, including many audio amplifiers and almost all op-amps. Class A amplifiers are often used in output stages of op-amps; they are sometimes used as medium-power, low-efficiency, and high-cost audio amplifiers. The power consumption is unrelated to the output power. At idle (no input), the power consumption is essentially the same as at high output volume. The result is low efficiency and high heat dissipation. Class B and AB Class B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle. As such they create a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved and is much better than Class A. Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of 78.5% (i.e., π/4).' This is because the amplifying element is switched off altogether half of the time, and so cannot dissipate power. A single Class B element is rarely found in practice, though it can be used in RF power amplifier where the distortion levels are less important. However Class C is more commonly used for this. Image:Electronic Amplifier Class B fixed.pngClass B Amplifier A practical circuit using Class B elements is the complementary pair or "push–pull" arrangement. Here, complementary or quasi-complementary devices are used to each amplify the opposite halves of the input signal, which is then recombined at the output. This arrangement gives excellent efficiency, but can suffer from the drawback that there is a small mismatch at the "joins" between the two halves of the signal. This is called crossover distortion. An improvement is to bias the devices so they are not completely off when they're not in use. This approach is called Class AB operation. In Class AB operation, each device operates the same way as in Class B over half the waveform, but also conducts a small amount on the other half. As a result, the region where both devices simultaneously are nearly off (the "dead zone") is reduced. The result is that when the waveforms from the two devices are combined, the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether. Class AB sacrifices some efficiency over class B in favor of linearity, so will always be less efficient (below 78.5%). It is typically much more efficient than class A. Image:Electronic Amplifier Push-pull.pngClass B push–pull amplifier Class B or AB push–pull circuits are the most common design type found in audio power amplifiers. Class AB is widely considered a good compromise for audio amplifiers, since much of the time the music is quiet enough that the signal stays in the "class A" region, where it is amplified with good fidelity, and by definition if passing out of this region, is large enough that the distortion products typical of class B are relatively small. The crossover distortion can be reduced further by using negative feedback. Class B and AB amplifiers are sometimes used for RF linear amplifiers as well. Class B amplifiers are also favored in battery-operated devices, such as transistor radios. Digital Class B A limited power output Class-B amplifier with a single-ended supply rail of 5±0.5 V. Class C Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal and the distortion at the output is high, but high efficiencies (up to 90%) are possible. Some applications (for example, megaphones) can tolerate the distortion. A much more common application for Class C amplifiers is in RF transmitters, where the distortion can be vastly reduced by using tuned loads on the amplifier stage. The input signal is used to roughly switch the amplifying device on and off, which causes pulses of current to flow through a tuned circuit. The Class C amp. has two modes of operation: tuned, and untuned. A.P. Malvino, Electronic Principles (2nd Ed.1979. ISBN 0-07-039867-4) p.299. The diagram below shows a waveform from a simple class C circuit without the tuned load. This is called untuned operation, and the analysis of the waveforms shows the massive distortion that appears in the signal. When the proper load (e.g., a pure inductive-capacitive filter) is used, two things happen. The first is that the output's bias level is clamped, so that the output variation is centered at one-half of the supply voltage. This is why tuned operation is sometimes called a clamper. This action of elevating bias level allows the waveform to be restored to its proper shape, allowing a complete waveform to be re-established despite having only a one-polarity supply. This is directly related to the second phenomenon: the waveform on the center frequency becomes much less distorted. The distortion that is present is dependent upon the bandwidth of the tuned load, with the center frequency seeing very little distortion, but greater attenuation the farther from the tuned frequency that the signal gets. The tuned circuit will only resonate at particular frequencies, and so the unwanted frequencies are dramatically suppressed, and the wanted full signal (sine wave) will be extracted by the tuned load (e.g., a high-quality bell will ring at a particular frequency when it is hit periodically with a hammer). Provided the transmitter is not required to operate over a very wide band of frequencies, this arrangement works extremely well. Other residual harmonics can be removed using a filter. Image:Electronic Amplifier Class C.pngClass C Amplifier Class D Block diagram of a basic switching or PWM (Class-D) amplifier. Class D amplifiers are much more efficient than Class AB power amplifiers. As such, Class D amplifiers do not need large transformers and heavy heatsinks, which means that they are smaller and lighter in weight than an equivalent Class AB amplifier. All power devices in a Class D amplifier are operated in on/off mode. Output stages such as those used in pulse generators are examples of class D amplifiers. The term usually applies to devices intended to reproduce signals with a bandwidth well below the switching frequency. These amplifiers use pulse width modulation, pulse density modulation (sometimes referred to as pulse frequency modulation) or more advanced form of modulation such as Delta-sigma modulation (for example, in the Analog Devices AD1990 Class-D audio power amplifier). The input signal is converted to a sequence of pulses whose averaged value is directly proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the signal. The frequency of the pulses is typically ten or more times the highest frequency of interest in the input signal. The output of such an amplifier contains unwanted spectral components (that is, the pulse frequency and its harmonics) which must be removed by a passive filter. The resulting filtered signal is then an amplified replica of the input. The main advantage of a class D amplifier is power efficiency. Because the output pulses have a fixed amplitude, the switching elements (usually MOSFETs, but valves and bipolar transistors were once used) are switched either on or off, rather than operated in linear mode. This means that very little power is dissipated by the transistors, except during the very short interval between the on and off states. The wasted power is low because the instantaneous power dissipated in the transistor is the product of voltage and current, and one or the other is almost always close to zero. The lower losses permit the use of a smaller heat sink while the power supply requirements are lessened too. Class D amplifiers can be controlled by either analog or digital circuits. The digital control introduces additional distortion called quantization error caused by its conversion of the input signal to a digital value. Class D amplifiers have been widely used to control motors, and almost exclusively for small DC motors, but they are now also used as audio amplifiers, with some extra circuitry to allow analogue to be converted to a much higher frequency pulse width modulated signal. The relative difficulty of achieving good audio quality means that nearly all are used in applications where quality is not a factor, such as modestly-priced bookshelf audio systems and "DVD-receivers" in mid-price home theater systems. High quality Class D audio amplifiers are now, however, starting to appear in the market: Tripath have called their revised Class D designs Class T. Bang and Olufsen's ICEPower Class D system has been used in the Alpine PDX range and some Pioneer's PRS range and for other manufacturers' equipment. These revised designs have been said to rival good traditional AB amplifiers in terms of quality. Before these higher quality designs existed an earlier use of Class D amplifiers and prolific area of application was high-powered, subwoofer amplifiers in cars. Because subwoofers are generally limited to a bandwidth of no higher than 150 Hz, the switching speed for the amplifier does not have to be as high as for a full range amplifier. The drawback with Class D designs being used to power subwoofers is that their output filters (typically inductors that convert the pulse width signal back into an analogue waveform) lower the damping factor of the amplifier. This means that the amplifier cannot prevent the subwoofer's reactive nature from lessening the impact of low bass sounds (as explained in the feedback part of the Class AB section). Class D amplifiers for driving subwoofers are relatively inexpensive, in comparison to Class AB amplifiers. A 1000 watt Class D subwoofer amplifier that can operate at about 80% to 95% efficiency costs about $250 USD, much less than a Class AB amplifier of this power, which would cost several thousand dollars. The letter D used to designate this amplifier class is simply the next letter after C, and does not stand for digital. Class D and Class E amplifiers are sometimes mistakenly described as "digital" because the output waveform superficially resembles a pulse-train of digital symbols, but a Class D amplifier merely converts an input waveform into a continuously pulse-width modulated (square wave) analog signal. (A digital waveform would be pulse-code modulated.) Special classes Class E The class E/F amplifier is a highly efficient switching power amplifier, typically used at such high frequencies that the switching time becomes comparable to the duty time. As said in the class-D amplifier the transistor is connected via a serial-LC-circuit to the load, and connected via a large L (inductance) to the supply voltage. The supply voltage is connected to ground via a large capacitor to prevent any RF-signals leaking into the supply. The class-E amplifier adds a C between the transistor and ground and uses a defined L1 to connect to the supply voltage. Image:Classe E.svg Class E Amplifier The following description ignores DC, which can be added afterwards easily. The above mentioned C and L are in effect a parallel LC-circuit to ground. When the transistor is on, it pushes through the serial LC-circuit into the load and some current begins to flow to the parallel LC-circuit to ground. Then the serial LC-circuit swings back and compensates the current into the parallel LC-circuit. At this point the current through the transistor is zero and it is switched off. Both LC-circuits are now filled with energy in the C and the L0. The whole circuit performs a damped oscillation. The damping by the load has been adjusted so that some time later the energy from the Ls is gone into the load, but the energy in both C0 peaks at the original value, to in turn restore the original voltage, so that the voltage across the transistor is zero again and it can be switched on. With load, frequency, and duty cycle (0.5) as given parameters and the constraint that the voltage is not only restored, but peaks at the original voltage, the four parameters (L, L0, C and C0) are determined. The class F-amplifier takes the finite on resistance into account and tries to make the current touch the bottom at zero. This means the voltage and the current at the transistor are symmetric with respect to time. The Fourier transform allows an elegant formulation to generate the complicated LC-networks. It says that the first harmonic is passed into the load, all even harmonics are shorted and all higher odd harmonics are open. Class F and the even harmonics In push–pull amplifiers and in CMOS, the even harmonics of both transistors just cancel. Experiment shows that a square wave can be generated by those amplifiers and theory shows that square waves do consist of odd harmonics only. In a class D amplifier, the output filter blocks all harmonics; i.e., the harmonics see an open load. So even small currents in the harmonics suffice to generate a voltage square wave. The current is in phase with the voltage applied to filter, but the voltage across the transistors is out of phase. Therefore, there is a minimal overlap between current through the transistors and voltage across the transistors. The sharper the edges the lower the overlap. While class D sees the transistors and the load as two separate modules, the class F admits imperfections like the parasitics of the transistor and tries to optimise the global system to have a high impedance at the harmonics. Of course there has to be a finite voltage across the transistor to push the current across the on state resistance. Because the combined current through both transistors is mostly in the first harmonic it looks like a sine. That means that in the middle of the square the maximum of current has to flow, so it may make sense to have a dip in the square or in other words to allow some over swing of the voltage square wave. A class F load network by definition has to transmit below a cut off frequency and to reflect above. Any frequency lying below the cut off and having its second harmonic above the cut off can be amplified, that is an octave bandwidth. On the other hand, an inductive-capacitive series circuit with a large inductance and a tunable capacitance may be simpler to implement. By reducing the duty cycle below 0.5, the output amplitude can be modulated. The voltage square waveform will degrade, but any overheating is compensated by the lower overall power flowing. Any load mismatch behind the filter can only act on the first harmonic current waveform, clearly only a purely resistive load makes sense, then the lower the resistance the higher the current. Class F can be driven by sine or by a square wave, for a sine the input can be tuned by an inductor to increase gain. If class F is implemented with a single transistor, the filter is complicated to short the even harmonics. All previous designs use sharp edges to minimise the overlap. Class E uses a significant amount of second harmonic voltage. The second harmonic can be used to reduce the overlap with edges with finite sharpness. For this to work energy on the second harmonic has to flow from the load into the transistor, and no source for this is visible in the circuit diagram. In reality, the impedance is mostly reactive and the only reason for it is that class E is a class F amplifier with a much simplified load network and thus has to deal with imperfections. In many amateur simulations of class E amplifiers, sharp current edges are assumed nullifying the very motivation for class E and measurements near the transit frequency of the transistors show very symmetric curves, which look much similar to class F simulations. The class E amplifier was invented in 1972 by Nathan O. Sokal and Alan D. Sokal, and details were first published in 1975. N. O. Sokal and A. D. Sokal, "Class E — A New Class of High-Efficiency Tuned Single-Ended Switching Power Amplifiers", IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-10, pp. 168–176, June 1975. HVK Some earlier reports on this operating class have been published in Russian. Class G and H There is a variety of amplifier designs that couple a class AB output stage with other more efficient techniques to achieve a higher efficiency with low distortion. These designs are common in large audio amplifiers since the heatsinks and power transformers would be prohibitively large (and costly) without the increase in efficiency. The terms "class G" and "class H" are used interchangeably to refer to different designs, varying in definition from one manufacturer or paper to another. Class G amplifiers (which use "rail switching" to decrease power consumption and increase efficiency) are more efficient than class AB amplifiers. The class G amplifier has several power rails at different voltages, and switches between rails as the signal output approaches each. Thus the amplifier increases efficiency by reducing the wasted power at the output transistors. Class G amplifiers can be used to combine the positives of both the Class AB and the Class D amplifiers in audio applications. It can be used to retain the high efficiency of Class D (while eliminating RF radiation) and the good music quality available with Class AB. Image:ClassG.GIF A Class H amplifier takes the idea of Class G one step further creating an infinitely variable supply rail. This is done by modulating the supply rails so that the rails are only a few volts larger than the output signal at any given time. The output stage operates at its maximum efficiency all the time. Switched mode power supplies can be used to create the tracking rails. Significant efficiency gains can be achieved but with the drawback of more complicated supply design and reduced THD performance. Image:ClassH.GIF Efficiency Class H The classes can be most easily understood using the diagrams in each section below. For the sake of illustration, a bipolar junction transistor is shown as the amplifying device, but in practice this could be a MOSFET or vacuum tube device. In an analog amplifier (the most common kind), the signal is applied to the input terminal of the device (base, gate or grid), and this causes a proportional output drive current to flow out of the output terminal. The output drive current comes from the power supply. The voltage signal shown is thus a larger version of the input, but has been changed in sign (inverted) by the amplification. Other arrangements of amplifying device are possible, but that given (that is, common emitter, common source or common cathode) is the easiest to understand and employ in practice. If the amplifying element is linear, then the output will be faithful copy of the input, only larger and inverted. In actual practice, transistors are not linear, and the output will only approximate the input. Non-linearity from any of several sources is the origin of distortion within an amplifier. Which class of amplifier (A, B, AB or C) depends on how the amplifying device is biased — in the diagrams the bias circuits are omitted for clarity. Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal amplifier. One important limitation of a real amplifier is that the output it can generate is ultimately limited by the power available from the power supply. An amplifier will saturate and clip the output if the input signal becomes too large for the amplifier to reproduce or if operational limits for a device are exceeded. Doherty amplifiers A hybrid configuration receiving new attention is the Doherty amplifier, invented in 1934 by William H. Doherty for Bell Laboratories (whose sister company, Western Electric, was then an important manufacturer of radio transmitters). The Doherty amplifier consists of a class-B main (or carrier) stage in parallel with a class-C auxiliary (or peaking) stage. The input signal is split evenly to drive the two amplifiers, and a combining network sums the two output signals and corrects for phase differences between the two amplifiers. During periods of low signal level, the class-B amplifier efficiently operates on the signal and the class-C amplifier is inactive and consumes no power. During high signal peaks the class-B amplifier saturates and the class-C amplifier kicks in. The efficiency of previous AM transmitter designs was proportional to modulation, but with average modulation typically 20 percent, transmitters were limited to less than 50 percent efficiency. In Doherty's design, even with zero modulation a transmitter could achieve at least 60 percent efficiency. As a successor to Western Electric for broadcast transmitters, the Doherty concept was considerably refined by Continental Electronics Manufacturing Company of Dallas, Texas. Perhaps the ultimate refinement was the screen grid modulation scheme invented by Joseph B. Sainton. The Sainton amplifier consists of a Class C main (or carrier) stage in parallel with a Class C auxiliary (or peak'') stage. The stages are split and combined through 90 degree phase shifting networks as in the Doherty amplifier. The unmodulated radio frequency carrier is applied to the control grids of both tubes. Carrier modulation is applied to the screen grids of both tubes. The bias of the carrier and peak tubes are different, and are established so that the peak tube is quiescent when modulation is absent (and the amplifier is producing rated unmodulated carrier power) whereas both tubes contribute twice the rated carrier power during 100 percent modulation (as four times the carrier power is required to achieve 100 percent modulation). As both tubes operate in Class C, a significant improvement in efficiency is thereby achieved in the final stage. And, as the tetrode carrier and peak tubes require very little drive power, a significant improvement in efficiency within the driver stage is achieved as well (317C, et al.). The released version of the Sainton amplifier employs a cathode follower modulator, not a push-pull modulator. Previous Continental Electronics designs, by James O. Weldon and others, retained most of the characteristics of the Doherty amplifier but added screen grid modulation of the driver (317B, et al.). The Doherty amplifier remains in use in very-high-power AM transmitters, but for lower-power AM transmitters, vacuum-tube amplifiers in general were eclipsed in the 1980s by arrays of solid-state amplifiers, which could be switched on and off with much finer granularity in response to the requirements of the input audio. However, interest in the Doherty configuration has been revived by cellular-telephone and wireless-Internet applications where the sum of several constant-envelope users creates an aggregate AM result. The main challenge of the Doherty amplifier for digital transmission modes is in aligning the two stages and getting the class-C amplifier to turn on and off very quickly. Recently, Doherty amplifiers have found widespread use in cellular base station transmitters for GHz frequencies. Implementations for transmitters in mobile devices have also been demonstrated. Other classes Several audio amplifier manufacturers have started "inventing" new classes as a way to differentiate themselves. These class names usually do not reflect any revolutionary amplification technique, and are used mostly for marketing purposes. This can easily be determined by the fact that the class name is trademarked or copyrighted. For example, Crown's K and I-Tech Series as well as several other models utilise Crown's patented Class-I (or BCA) technology. Lab.gruppen use a form of class D amplifier called class TD or Tracked Class D which tracks the waveform to more accurately amplify it without the drawbacks of traditional class D amplifiers. "Class T" is a trademark of TriPath company, which manufactures audio amplifier ICs. This new class "T" is a revision of the common class D amplifier, but with changes to ensure fidelity over the full audio spectrum, unlike traditional class D designs. It operates at different frequencies depending on the power output, with values ranging from as low as 200 kHz to 1.2 MHz, using a proprietary modulator. "Class Z" is a trademark of Zetex semiconductor and is a direct-digital-feedback technology. Amplifier circuit The practical amplifier circuit below could be the basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier. It features a typical (though substantially simplified) design as found in modern amplifiers, with a class AB push–pull output stage, and uses some overall negative feedback. Bipolar transistors are shown, but this design would also be realizable with FETs or valves. A practical amplifier circuit A practical amplifier circuit The input signal is coupled through capacitor C1 to the base of transistor Q1. The capacitor allows the AC signal to pass, but blocks the DC bias voltage established by resistors R1 and R2 so that any preceding circuit is not affected by it. Q1 and Q2 form a differential amplifier (an amplifier that multiplies the difference between two inputs by some constant), in an arrangement known as a long-tailed pair. This arrangement is used to conveniently allow the use of negative feedback, which is fed from the output to Q2 via R7 and R8. The negative feedback into the difference amplifier allows the amplifier to compare the input to the actual output. The amplified signal from Q1 is directly fed to the second stage, Q3, which is a common emitter stage that provides further amplification of the signal and the DC bias for the output stages, Q4 and Q5. R6 provides the load for Q3 (A better design would probably use some form of active load here, such as a constant-current sink). So far, all of the amplifier is operating in Class A. The output pair are arranged in Class AB push–pull, also called a complementary pair. They provide the majority of the current amplification (while consuming low quiescent current) and directly drive the load, connected via DC-blocking capacitor C2. The diodes D1 and D2 provide a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so that crossover distortion is minimized. That is, the diodes push the output stage firmly into class-AB mode (assuming that the base-emitter drop of the output transistors is reduced by heat dissipation). This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical design because it automatically stabilises its operating point, since feedback internally operates from DC up through the audio range and beyond. Further circuit elements would probably be found in a real design that would roll off the frequency response above the needed range to prevent the possibility of unwanted oscillation. Also, the use of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched to the output transistors — if the output transistors turn on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy themselves, as the full current from the power supply is not limited at this stage. A common solution to help stabilise the output devices is to include some emitter resistors, typically an ohm or so. Calculating the values of the circuit's resistors and capacitors is done based on the components employed and the intended use of the amp. For the basics of radio frequency amplifiers using valves, see Valved RF amplifiers. Notes on implementation Real world amplifiers are imperfect. One consequence is that the power supply itself may influence the output, and must itself be considered when designing the amplifier The amplifier circuit has an "open loop" performance, that can be described by various parameters (gain, slew rate, output impedance, distortion, bandwidth, signal to noise ratio ...) Many modern amplifiers use negative feedback techniques to hold the gain at the desired value. Different methods of supplying power result in many different methods of bias. Bias is a technique by which the active devices are set up to operate in a particular regime, or by which the DC component of the output signal is set to the midpoint between the maximum voltages available from the power supply. Most amplifiers use several devices at each stage; there are typically matched in specifications except for polarity. Matched inverted polarity devices are called complementary pairs. Class A amplifiers generally use only one device, unless the power supply is set to provide both positive and negative voltages, in which case a dual device symmetrical design may be used. Class C amps, by definition, use a single polarity supply. Amplifiers often have multiple stages in cascade to increase gain. Each stage of these designs may be a different type of amp to suit the needs of that stage. For instance, the first stage might be a Class A stage, feeding a class AB push–pull second stage, which then drives a class G final output stage, taking advantage of the strengths of each type, while minimizing their weaknesses. See also Amplifier Negative feedback amplifier Audio amplifier Valve audio amplifier Low noise amplifier Operational amplifier Instrument amplifier Guitar amplifier Instrumentation amplifier Charge transfer amplifier Distributed amplifier RF power amplifier Optical amplifier Logarithmic video amplifier Power added efficiency References External links Rane audio's guide to amplifier classes Design and analysis of a basic class D amplifier Conversion: distortion factor to distortion attenuation and THD An alternate topology called the grounded bridge amplifier - pdf Contains an explanation of different amplifier classes - pdf Reinventing the power amplifier - pdf Anatomy of the power amplifier, including information about classes Tons of Tones - Site explaining non linear distortion stages in Amplifier Models Class D audio amplifiers, white paper - pdf Class E Radio Transmitters - Tutorials, Schematics, Examples, and Construction Details | Amplifier |@lemmatized electronic:7 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6,887 | Motet | In Western music, motet is a word that is applied to a number of highly varied choral musical compositions. The name comes either from the Latin movere, ("to move") or a Latinized version of Old French mot, "word" or "verbal utterance." The Medieval Latin for "motet" is "motectum", and the Italian mottetto was also used. If from the Latin, the name describes the movement of the different voices against one another. According to Margaret Bent (1997), "'a piece of music in several parts with words' is as precise a definition of the motet as will serve from the thirteenth century to the late sixteenth century and beyond. This is actually very close to one of the earliest descriptions we have, that of the late thirteenth-century theorist Johannes de Grocheio." Grocheio was also one of the first scholars to define a motet. Grocheio believed that the motet was "not intended for the vulgar who do not understand its finer points and derive no pleasure from hearing it: it is meant for educated people and those who look for refinement in art." Medieval motets The earliest motets arose, in the thirteenth century (Bent, 1997), out of the organum tradition exemplified in the Notre Dame school of Léonin and Pérotin. The motet probably arose from clausula sections, usually strophic interludes, in a longer sequence of organum, to which upper voices were added. Curt Sachs, Our Musical Heritage (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1948), 64. Usually the clausula represented a strophic sequence in Latin which was sung as a discant over a cantus firmus, which typically was a Gregorian chant fragment with different words from the discant. The motet took a definite rhythm from the words of the verse, and as such appeared as a brief rhythmic interlude in the middle of the longer, more chantlike organum. The practice of discant over a cantus firmus marked the beginnings of counterpoint in Western music. From these first motets arose a medieval tradition of secular motets. These were two or three part compositions in which several different texts, sometimes in different vernacular languages, were sung simultaneously over a Latin cantus firmus that once again was usually adapted from a passage of Gregorian chant. It is suspected that, for the sake of intelligibility, in performance the cantus firmus and one or another of the vocal lines were performed on instruments. Among the trouvères, Robert de Reins La Chievre and Richart de Fournival composed motets. Increasingly in the 14th and 15th centuries, motets tended to be isorhythmic; that is, they employed repeated rhythmic patterns in all voices—not just the cantus firmus—which did not necessarily coincide with repeating melodic patterns. Philippe de Vitry was one of the earliest composers to use this technique, and his work evidently had an influence on that of Guillaume de Machaut, one of the most famous named composers of late medieval motets. Renaissance motets Luca della Robbia: fragment from a choir. Museo dell'Opera del Duomo The name of the motet was preserved in the transition from medieval to Renaissance music, but the character of the composition was entirely changed. While it grew out of the medieval isorhythmic motet, the Renaissance composers of the motet generally abandoned the use of a repeated figure as a cantus firmus. Guillaume Dufay was a transitional figure in this regard; he wrote one of the last important motets in the medieval, isorhythmic style, Nuper rosarum flores (1436), and written to commemorate the completion of Filippo Brunelleschi's dome in the Cathedral of Florence. Alec Robertson, Dennis Stevens, ed., A History of Music Volume 2 (New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1965), 85. Edgar H. Sparks, Cantus Firmus in Mass and Motet 1420-1520 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1975), 86. During this time, however, the use of cantus firmi in works such as the parody mass tended to stretch the cantus firmus out to great lengths compared to the multivoice descant above it. This tended to obscure the rhythm supplied by the cantus firmus that had been apparent in the medieval isorhythmic motet. The cascading, passing chords created by the interplay between multiple voices, and the absence of a strong or obvious beat, are the features that distinguish medieval and renaissance motet styles. Instead, the Renaissance motet is a polyphonic musical setting, sometimes in imitative counterpoint, for chorus, of a Latin text, usually sacred, not specifically connected to the liturgy of a given day, and therefore suitable for use in any service. The texts of antiphons were frequently used as motet texts. This is the sort of composition that is most familiarly named by the name of "motet," and the Renaissance period marked the flowering of the form. In essence, these motets were sacred madrigals. The relationship between the two forms is most obvious in the composers who concentrated on sacred music, especially Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose "motets" setting texts from the Canticum Canticorum, the Biblical "Song of Solomon," are among the most lush and madrigal-like of Palestrina's compositions, while his "madrigals" that set poems of Petrarch in praise of the Blessed Virgin Mary would not be out of place in church. The language of the text was the decisive feature: if it's Latin, it's a motet; if the vernacular, a madrigal. The Hilliard Ensemble, Palestrina: Canticum canticorum, Motets Book IV; Spiritual madrigals (Virgin Classics, 1994; sound recording liner notes) Religious compositions in vernacular languages were often called madrigali spirituali, "spiritual madrigals." Like their madrigal cousins, Renaissance motets developed in episodic format, with separate phrases of the source text being given independent melodic treatment and contrapuntal development; contrapuntal passages often alternate with monody. Secular motets continued to be written however. These motets typically set a Latin text in praise of a monarch, commemorating some public triumph, or even praising music itself. Nevertheless, the themes of courtly love often found in the medieval secular motet were banished from the Renaissance motet. Many secular motets are known as "ceremonial motets" Gangwere, p. 451. Characteristic of ceremonial motets was a clarity of diction, for the audience was not presumed to be familiar already with the text (as would have been true with Latin hymns) and also a clear articulation of formal structure, for example a setting apart of successive portions of text with sharp contrasts of texture or rhythm. Adrian Willaert, Ludwig Senfl, and Cipriano de Rore were among the most prominent composers of ceremonial motets during the first half of the 16th century. Gangwere, p. 454. The motet was one of the pre-eminent forms of Renaissance music. Other important composers of Renaissance motets include: Alexander Agricola Gilles Binchois Antoine Busnois William Byrd Johannes Vodnianus Campanus Loyset Compère Josquin Des Prez John Dunstaple Antoine de Févin Francisco Guerrero Nicolas Gombert Heinrich Isaac Pierre de La Rue Orlando di Lasso Cristóbal de Morales Jean Mouton Jacob Obrecht Johannes Ockeghem Martin Peerson Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Thomas Tallis John Taverner Tomás Luis de Victoria In the latter part of the 16th century, Giovanni Gabrieli and other composers developed a new style, the polychoral motet, in which two or more choirs of singers (or instruments) alternated. This style of motet was sometimes called the Venetian motet to distinguish it from the Netherlands or Flemish motet written elsewhere. Baroque motets The name "motet" was preserved into Baroque music, especially in France, where the word was applied to petits motets, sacred choral compositions whose only accompaniment was a basso continuo; and grands motets, which included instruments up to and including a full orchestra. Jean-Baptiste Lully was an important composer of this sort of motet. Lully's motets often included parts for soloists as well as choirs; they were longer, including multiple movement in which different soloist, choral, or instrumental forces were employed. Lully's motets also continued the Renaissance tradition of semi-secular Latin motets in works such as Plaude Laetare Gallia, written to celebrate the baptism of King Louis XIV's son; its text by Pierre Perrin begins: Plaude laetare Gallia Rore caelesti rigantur lilia, Sacro Delphinus fonte lavatur Et christianus Christo dicatur. (Rejoice and sing, France: the lily is bathed with heavenly dew. The Dauphin is bathed in the sacred font, and the Christian is dedicated to Christ.) In Germany, too, pieces called motets were written in the new musical languages of the Baroque. Heinrich Schütz wrote many motets in a series of publications called Symphoniae sacrae, some in Latin and some in German. Johann Sebastian Bach also wrote seven surviving works he called motets; Bach's motets were relatively long pieces in German on sacred themes for choir and basso continuo. Bach's motets are: BWV 225 Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied (1726) BWV 226 Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf (1729) BWV 227 Jesu, meine Freude (?) BWV 228 Fürchte dich nicht (?) BWV 229 Komm, Jesu, komm! (1730 ?) BWV 230 Lobet den Herrn alle Heiden (?) BWV 231 Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren (?) There is also a piece of a cantata that is classified as a motet. BWV 118 O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht (1736-1737?) The motet since Bach Later 18th-century composers wrote few motets, although Mozart's well-known Ave verum corpus is in this genre. In the 19th century German composers continued to write motets occasionally, notably Johannes Brahms (in German) and Anton Bruckner (in Latin). French composers of motets included Camille Saint-Saëns, César Franck and Francis Poulenc. Similar compositions in the English language are called anthems, but some later English composers, such as Charles Villiers Stanford, wrote motets in Latin. The majority of these compositions are a cappella, but some are accompanied by organ. In the 20th century, composers of motets have often consciously imitated earlier styles. Examples include works by Maurice Duruflé, Charles Villiers Stanford, Edmund Rubbra, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Hugo Distler, and Ernst Krenek. Sources Margaret Bent (1997). "The late-medieval motet", Companion to Medieval & Renaissance Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816540-4. The Development of the motet Blanche Gangwere, Music History During the Renaissance Period, 1520–1550''. Westport, Connecticut, Praeger Publishers. 2004. 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6,888 | Naturism | Naturism or nudism is a cultural and political movement advocating and defending social nudity in private and in public. It may also refer to a lifestyle based on personal, family and/or social nudism. See 2002–2003 World Naturist Handbook, pub International Naturist Federation INF-FNI, Sint Hubertusstraat, B-2600 Berchem(Antwerpen) ISBN 9055838330 The Agde definition. The INF is made up of representative of the Naturist Organisations in 32 countries, with 7 more having correspondent status. The current edition is * Naturisme, The INF World Handbook (2006) ISBN 90-5062-080-9 http://www.inf-fni.org/index_e.htm| INF web page The naturist philosophy has several sources, many of which can be traced back to the health and fitness philosophy in Germany in the early twentieth century, though the concept of returning to nature, and creating equality are also cited as inspiration. From Germany the idea spread to England, Canada, the United States and beyond where a network of clubs developed. The model of German naturism is to promote naturist family and recreational sports, with the DFK being a member of the German Olympic Sport Federation (DOSB). French naturism, on the other hand, developed on the basis of large holiday complexes. This concept in turn influenced Québec and then the United States. A subsequent development was tourist naturism, where nudist resorts would be built to cater for the nudist tourist, without any local base. This concept is most noticeable in the Caribbean. More recently, clothes-free beaches and other types of anonymous nudist activities have served those who wish to take part in naturist activities without belonging to any clubs. Naturism can contain aspects of eroticism for some people and at different times in history, although many modern naturists and naturist organisations argue it does not, while the public and the media often simplify this relationship. Smith and King (2009), pp. 439-446. Naturism today The word naturism was used for the first time in 1778 by a French-speaking Belgian, Jean Baptiste Luc Planchon (1734-1781), and was advocated as a means of improving the 'l’hygiène de vie' (natural style of life) and health. "Le naturisme est la doctrine qui consiste à laisser agir la nature plutot que d'intervenir de manière artificielle". Dr Jean Baptiste Luc Planchon (1734-1781) Il sera publié en 1778 sous le titre :Le Naturisme ou la nature considérée dans les maladies et leur traitement conforme à la doctrine et à la pratique d'Hippocrate et ses sectateurs". According to the international definition adopted by the XIV Congress of the International Naturist Federation (Agde, 1974), naturism is: "a lifestyle in harmony with nature, expressed through social nudity, and characterised by self-respect of people with different opinions and of the environment." 2002-2003 World Naturist Handbook, pub International Naturist Federation INF-FNI, Sint Hubertusstraat, B-2600 Berchem(Antwerpen) ISBN 9055838330 The Agde definition. The INF is made up of representative of the Naturist Organisations in 32 countries, with 7 more having correspondent status. The International Naturist Federation explains: "Each country has its own kind of naturism, and even each club has its own special character, for we too, human beings, have each our own character which is reflected in our surroundings."<ref name="BffLH"> The Hannover based Bund für freies Lebensgestaltung Hannover wrote "Naturism is a new lifestyle caring for the body, the soul and the spirit in society.We live the ideal of freedom, conscious of its limits, taking up our responsibility. The expression of our will is nudity, our admission of sincerity. In 2002–2003 World Guide as above.</ref> Vintage image (1943) of skinny dippers near Darwin. The usage and definition of these terms varies geographically and historically. Though in the United States, naturism and nudism have very similar meanings, Montana Naturist website in Britain there is a clear distinction. In his book, Cinema Au Naturel (Introduction on page 11), author Mark Storey states "two related terms that we will continually run across are nudist and naturist. Although, the meanings of the two terms are virtually identical, they often have different connotations for those who prefer one to the other. In America people who believe that it is physically, socially, emotionally, and perhaps spiritually healthy to go about fully nude individually and in groups of mixed sex whenever weather permits and others are not offended generally refer to themselves as "nudists". In Europe such people more often than not refer to themselves as "naturists." 1996-1997 World Naturist Handbook, pub International Naturist Federation INF-FNI, Sint Hubertusstraat, B-2600 Berchem(Antwerpen) ISBN 9067168335 Here the English version of the Agde definition was translated differently. Naturism (American "nudism") is a way of life in harmony with nature characterised by the practice of communal nudity with the intention of encouraging self-respect, respect for others and the environment. Presently, Mark Storey is authoring an article detailing historical use of the terms naturism and nudism and how they differ between different cultures, countries, and time periods in history. In a telephone interview by Daniel Johnson on 15 Apr 2006 with Storey he stated that "a draft of the piece was posted on the "References" page of the The Naturist Society web site for a few weeks". At the time of its former release in October 2004 it was titled Naturism, Nudism, or Nameless? A History of Terms He is planning on publishing a revised article as soon as additional information and errors are corrected. Nudism is the act of being naked, while naturism is a lifestyle which at various times embraced nature, environment, respect for others, self-respect, crafts, healthy eating, vegetarianism, teetotalism, non-smoking, yoga, physical exercise and pacifism as well as nudity. Ray Connett, Sunny Trails, in Sunbathing for Health Sept 1947 p 8, July 1957 p 14 writes that Naturism is a weasel word that can mean anything In naturist parlance, the word textilist is used to describe someone who is not a naturist, or the act of not being naturist. e.g.He stayed all week but was textilist all the time. It is also used as an adjective to describe a facility where naturism is not allowed e.g. "the textilist beach starts at the flag". Clothing optional and nude optional (US specific) describe a policy or a venue that allows or encourages nudity but tolerates the wearing of clothes. The opposite is clothing compulsory; that is, disallowing nudity, thus requiring the wearing of clothes. Clothes free/clothes-free and clothing free/clothing-free are used as adjectives to describe when naturism is permitted in an otherwise textilist environment. The social nudity movement includes a large range of variants including "naturism", "nudism", "Freikörperkultur (FKK)", the "free beach movement" as well as generalized "public lands/public nudity" advocacy. There is a large amount of shared history and common themes, issues and philosophy, but differences between these separate movements remain contentious.See also: labels, associations and terminology for an extended discussion and disambiguation. Types of naturism Naturism is practised in many ways: Marc Alain Descamps, in his study written in French, classified the types as: individual nudism, nudism within family, nudism in the wild, social nudism. To that we can add the militant naturist, campaigning or extreme naturists. Personal and family nudism Nudism is often practiced in a person's home or garden, either personally or with members of the family. A Canadian survey showed that 39% of all Canadians would or have walked around the house nude. And in British Columbia this is as high as 51%. Individual nudism can also include sleeping in the nude, but this is sometimes seen as a health benefit, due to the fact that, when naked in bed, it can be much easier to relax and fall asleep, resulting in longer and more restful sleep but it can also be for the reason of comfort. Social nudism Not in the swimming pool Social nudism is nudism in a social context, either at ones home with friends or with acquaintances at a nudist event (e.g., a naked party) or facility, such as a naturist club, community, centre, resort or other facility. (The terms are loosely defined and there are some regional differences.) At naturist events or venues clothing is usually optional, except by swimming pools or sunbathing lawns where complete nudity is expected, weather permitting. This rule is sometimes a source of controversy among some naturists. Staff at a naturist facility are sometimes required to be clothed due to health and safety regulations. Histoire de Montalivet et des Naturistes du Medoc, Marc-Alain Deschamps, pub. Editions Publimag ISBN 2-952420-0-4 Families enjoying the swimming at Monts de Bussy, Haute Vienne, France. Facilities for naturists are classified in various ways. A landed or members' naturist club is one that owns its own facilities, while non-landed (or travel) clubs meet at various locations, such as private residences, swimming pools, hot springs, landed clubs and resorts, and rented facilities. Landed clubs can be run by members on democratic lines or by one or more owners who make the rules. In either case, they can determine membership criteria and the obligations of members. This usually involves sharing work necessary to maintain or develop the site. Au naturel, the History of Nudism in Canada, James Woycke Ph.D, pub 2003, Federation of Canadian Naturists, ISBN 0-9682332-3-6 Some clubs have stricter entrance requirements than some traditional 'country clubs', including the requirement to supply references, a sponsoring member, a trial membership, committee approval and/or, criminal background checks. UK clubs are now required to have child protection policies in place, and designated child protection officers. Many clubs promote frequent social activities. The international naturist organisations were mainly composed of representatives of landed clubs. A Nudist colony is no longer a favored term, but it is used by naturists as a term of derision for landed clubs that have rigid non inclusive membership criteria, and in meta-data on naturist websites. A holiday centre is a facility that specialises in providing apartments, chalets and camping pitches for visiting holidaymakers. The centre is run commercially, and visitors are not members and have no say in the management. Most holiday centres expect visitors to hold an INF card, that is be a member of their national organisation, but some have relaxed this restriction, relying on the carrying of a trade card. Holiday centres can be quite small, just a couple of hectares or large occupying over 300 hectares. The three biggest Centres on the Medoc are Euronat 335ha, CHM 175ha with a 3km beach, and La Jenny 127ha In a large holiday centre there will be swimming pools, sports pitches, an entertainment program, kid's clubs, restaurants and supermarkets. Some holiday centres allow regular visitors to purchase their own chalets, and generations of the same families will visit each year. Holiday centres are more relaxed about textilists than members clubs; total nudity is usual in the swimming pools and the beaches, while on the football pitches, or in the restaurants in the evening, it is rare. A naturist resort is, to a European, an essentially urban development where naturism is the norm. Cap d'Agde in France, naturist village Charco del Palo on Lanzarote, Canary Islands, and Vera Playa in Spain are examples. Here there are apartment blocks, with privately-owned and rented apartments. For some residents this is their year-round home. One finds all the usual facilities of a small town. In the US usage, a naturist resort can mean a holiday centre. a relaxed explanation Freikörperkultur (FKK) (see article in German) literally translated as free body culture is the name for the general movement in Germany. The abbreviation is widely recognised all over Europe and often found on informal signs indicating the direction to a remote naturist beach. Nude beaches Sign on the beach at Cap d'Agde Clothing is optional at nude beaches (or free beaches). Some beaches have been clothes free beyond living memory, and their status has been formalised by becoming official nude beaches, while others, though not official, have become unofficial nude beaches through toleration by local authorities. AANR John Kinman refers to ten beaches In some European countries, such as Denmark and Norway, all beaches are clothing optional, while in others like Germany there are naturist sunbathing areas in public parks, e.g., in Munich. A feature of bathing on a nude beach is the anonymity it offers, where membership of a club is not required with detailed application processes, nor pre-booking of visits. Though free beaches developed separately from national naturist bodies, these bodies are taking an interest and helping to protect them legally, and through the publication of guidelines of acceptable behaviour. In North America, the Free Beach Movement was the name of a group that was opposed to the direction of the official nudist organisation, the American Association for Nude Recreation, and set up the rival body The Naturist Society. Other nudist activities Hiking in the Alps Skinny dipping is swimming naked in a river, lake, swimming hole or other body of water. Ernest Thompson Seton describes skinny dipping as one of the first activities of his Woodcraft Indians, a forerunner of the Scout movement, in 1902. Swimming was done nude at the YMCA until the 1960s in single sex groups. In some English schools, Manchester Grammar School for example, nude swimming was compulsory until the 1970s. From about 1930 until at least the 1970s (this contributor left MGS in 1973) This was also the case for some US junior high schools. From about 1951 to 1970? A Gallup poll in 2000 showed that 25% of all American adults had been skinny dipping at least once. Nude snorkeling and nude diving Canuding is the practice of nude canoeing or kayaking Free hiking, naked hiking or naked rambling is the practice of hiking in the remote countryside as a social activity while nude. The French term is 'Randonnue'. It happens worldwide from mountain forests on Tenerifeto densely populated areas like South East England. Free riding is the practice of riding in the remote countryside while nude. The German term is 'Nacktreiten'. The term can also be used to refer to naked cycle riding. Campaigning naturism Vincent Bethell conducted the The Freedom to be Yourself campaign. World Naked Bike Ride, mass clothing optional (but substantially naturist) bike rides protesting the oil economy and vulnerability of cyclists. Steve Gough, UK walker who has walked from Lands End to John O'Groats naked. Spencer Tunick mass nude photography. Mark Storey is a member of the Naturist Action Committee, directed by Bob Morton, a sister organisation to the US The Naturist Society. He co-founded the Body Freedom Collaborative in Seattle with Daniel Johnson, Washington state in the US, whose goal is to bring attention for the need for legal clothing-optional beaches through "guerilla pranksterism", among other approaches. Émile Armand French anarchist?. The Sex Party of British Columbia (Canada) promotes normalization of all parts of the human body and destigmatizing human sexual organs. It would pass legislation requiring all public parks and beaches larger than one hectare to designate areas reserved for nudists. The Dutch party Naastenliefde, Vrijheid en Diversiteit would pass legislation to make public nudity legal everywhere, provided that a towel is used when sitting on a public bench. Starkers! and the emergence of clubbing culture and naturism developed in London. The short-lived Naturist Lifestyle Party in New South Wales, Australia aimed "to bring naturism fully into the public eye, with view to getting an equitable allocation of public resources to those who support the naturist lifestyle." In October 2006, the party was dissolved, as announced by party Secretary and parliamentary candidate Sylvia Else: "NLP winding up." (Topic), in aus.culture.naturist at Google Groups Nude protests have a long history: Doukhobor, Womens Institute Calendar. Philosophy Sauna (1802) Riding naked Naturism had many different philosophical sources and means many things to different people. There is no one definition. The INF have framed this definition: Naturism is a lifestyle in harmony with nature, expressed through social nudity, and characterised by self-respect of people with different opinions and of the environment.At one end of the spectrum are the nudists who just enjoy a nude life style, and at the other are the naturists, who have deeply held beliefs and see communal nudity as just one of many important principles. The INF definition is a compromise that has held since 1974. In it you can see the elements: lifestyle, harmony with nature, social nudity, self respect, differing opinions, respect for the environment. Gymnosophysee also GymnosophistIn the fourth century BC, Alexander the Great encountered, in India, wandering groups of naked holy men which he dubbed the naked philosophers. (Gr gymnos: naked; sophist: knowledge). Onesicritus, the philosopher, investigated their beliefs and lifestyle. Pyrrho, the Sceptic, was impressed and incorporated nudity into his philosophy. The Gymnosophists were Hindus, but Jain and Ajivika monks practised nudity as a statement that they had given up all worldly goods. Nudity was not a new concept to the Greeks as the Olympic Games (founded in 776 BC) were exclusively male and nude events. Gymnastics and gymnasium share the same root word (Gr gymnos). The first English naturists adopted the name Gymnosophy as a thinly disguised euphemism for their pastime. The English Gymnosophical Society was formed in 1922 and became the New Gymnosophy Society in 1926, they purchased the land at 'Bricketts Wood' to become Britain's first nudist colony. One of the first members was Gerald Gardner, who in 1945, established the 'Five Acres Club' nearby, ostensibly as a nudist club, but as a front for Wiccans, as witchcraft was illegal in England until 1951. The Digambar, one of the two main divisions of the Jain religion of India, remain 'skyclad', or naked, though generally it is practised by males. Digambar means 'clothed with the sky'. Wiccans have adopted this wording and some practise their rituals 'skyclad'. The Adamites, a Gnostic sect, practised religious nudism. Another religious sect, the Doukhobors, migrated from Russia to western Canada. They practise or practised occasional nudity, such as while working in the farm fields. Members of one of the three subdivisions of Canadian Doukhobors, the small radical Sons of Freedom group, went so far in the 1900s as to publicly strip in mass public demonstrations to protest against government policies which were meant to assimilate them. * Jim Hamm Productions Limited Spirit Wrestlers, a 2002 documentary video and DVD about the Russian Christian sect called Freedomite Doukhobors, Family in Brazil, Praia do Abricó Naturist ideals Groups have been formed to live their dreams, and then split up over questions of principles. There are many examples of the differences between various groups, often resulting in two or more national organisations. Here is a non-exclusive list, taken from Descamps, of the ideas that have united various naturists and become points of fierce contention for others. Rapport with animal life — having an ecological conscience Rapport with the environment — being an environmentalist Health — bathing in the sun, fresh air and water (balneotherapy, thalassotherapy, heliotherapy), Yoga, Tai Chi. Healthy food — moderation with alcohol, meat, tobacco, drugs; seeking out health foods and adopting healthy eating to prevent obesity. This can extend to teetotalism and Vegetarian or Vegan eating habits. The latter two also interface with having respect for the environment. Agriculture — avoiding unnecessary fertilisers and genetically modified organisms. Against factory farming Medicine — should be natural if not entirely homeopathic Psychotherapy — as a way of effecting personal changes Rapport with other humans — equality and respect. An anti-war, pro-world government stance Pedagogy — children should be respected as equals instead of being patronised Spirituality — man is no more than an animal, and nudity has a place in religion. Dress — nudism, as clothes are unnecessary, unheathly and build social barriers. Sports — to develop a healthy body. Arts — should be to develop individual talents, not as a means of financial exploitation Tourism — to understand other peoples' culture, concentrating on camping to remain close to the earth. Liberty — no one has the right to tell others or their children that they must wear clothes. Pollution — less clothing to manufacture and maintain means lower carbon footprint. Some of these ideas have become mainstream. Others have been quietly forgotten. It is generally agreed among naturists that erotism and blatant sexuality have no place in naturism and are, in fact, antithetical to its ideals. Naturism and the Romantics Walt Whitman American writer, A Sun-bathed Nakedness:Never before did I get so close to Nature; never before did she come so close to me... Nature was naked, and I was also... Sweet, sane, still Nakedness in Nature! - ah if poor, sick, prurient humanity in cities might really know you once more! Is not nakedness indecent? No, not inherently. It is your thought, your sophistication, your fear, your respectability, that is indecent. There come moods when these clothes of ours are not only too irksome to wear, but are themselves indecent. Henry David Thoreau, Walking, in In wildness is the preservation of the world.We cannot adequately appreciate this aspect of nature if we approach it with any taint of human pretense. It will elude us if we allow artifacts like clothing to intervene between ourselves and this Other. To apprehend it, we cannot be naked enough.Naturism was part of a literary movement in the late 1800s (see the writings of André Gide) which also influenced the art movements of the time specifically Henri Matisse and other Fauve painters. This movement was based on the French concept of joie de vivre, the idea of revelling freely in physical sensations and direct experiences and a spontaneous approach to life. (see Gill Perry's writing on The Decorative, The Expressive and The Primitive in Primitivism, Cubism, Abstraction: The Early Twentieth Century) Later this movement became called Naturalism. Naturism for health German naturism came from the Lebensreform movement. The Wandervogel youth movement of 1896, from Steglitz, Berlin, promoted ideas of fitness and vigour inspired by thoughts of nationalism, rebelling against the thoughts of their parents. At the same time doctors of the Natural Healing Movement were using heliotherapy, treating diseases such as TB, rheumatism and scrofula with exposure to sunlight. (Sunlight has been shown to be beneficial in some skin conditions and enables the body to make vitamin D). Arnold Rickli. a Swiss doctor opened in 1853, light bathing clinic in Slovenian town Bled. Heinrich Pudor wrote on methods to improve social hygiene in his book Nackende Menchen und Jauchzen der Zukunft (Naked people and the future of Mankind) and then Nacktkultur (The cult of the nude). It prescribes an austere lifestyle and nudity. Paul Zimmermann, opened the Freilicht Park in Lübeck which was open to those who subscribed to Nacktkultur principles. Richard Ungewitter wrote Die Nacktheit (Nakedness) which sold 90,000 copies, prescribed a similar Utopian lifestyle, where everyone would be nude, eat only vegetables and abstain from alcohol and tobacco. In his Utopia, everyone was to be Germanic with blue eyes and blonde hair. Adolf Koch, a left wing primary school teacher, sought to use social nudity to free the people from 'authority fixated conditioning which held proletarians in deference of their masters: parental authority, paternalism of the church, the mass media and organs of law and order. He used Organic-Rhythmic exercises in Berlin schools in the 1920s. In 1932 there were about 100,000 Germans involved with Naturism, of which 70,000 were in Koch's Körperschülen schools. Werner Zimmermann, a Swiss, preached against body guilt and encouraged naked education. He sought to eliminate body guilt and encourage openness and end the repression of the human spirit,which he saw as the cause of sexual deviation. Hans Surén taught nude gymnastics to soldiers for five years, and on being forced to leave the army, he wrote in 1924, Mensch und die Sonne (Men and the Sun) which ran to 61 reprints. Later, in 1936, Surén proposed physical exercise and naturism as a means of creating a pure German race and of beauty. :fr:Naturisme In the early 1940s he was out of favour and arrested. By 1945, he had turned full circle and was writing religious texts. Though never a member of any FKK club he was awarded honorary membership of the DFK in 1952. Nudists became a large element in German Left Wing Politics. The Proletarische Freikörperkulturbewegung subsection of the Workers Sports Organisation had 60000 members. With the increased awareness of skin cancer, wearing of sunscreen is now part of the culture. Local knowledge Naturism and equality Many people say that being nude in groups makes them feel more accepted for their entire being — physical, intellectual and emotional. They say that they tend to be more accepted, in spite of differences in age, body shape, fitness, and health. Without clothing, one's social rank is generally obscured. They report feeling more united with humanity, with less regard to a person's wealth, position, nationality, race, and sex. Discussed in: History of social nudity Max Koch, Freilicht, 1897. Nudity in social contexts has been practised in various forms by many cultures at all time periods. Social nudity is most frequently encountered in the contexts of bathing, swimming and in saunas, whether in single-sex groups, within the family or with mixed-sex friends. It is difficult to nominate exactly when naturism started as a movement. In 1903 Paul Zimmermann opened the first club, Freilichtpark, near Hamburg. By 1951, the national federations united to form the International Naturist Federation or INF. Some naturists preferred not to join clubs, and after 1945, pressure was put to designate beaches for naturist use. The two groups did not cooperate until 2000. In the twenty-first century, with changing leisure patterns, commercial organisations began opening holiday resorts to attract naturists who expected a standard of comfort and amenity equal to, or exceeding, that found at textilist resorts. Historical eraSee main article Nudity in HistoryThe spread of philosophy and the rise of formal communities The earliest known naturist club in the "western" sense of the word was established in British India in 1891. It was founded by Charles Edward Gordon Crawford, a widower, who was a District and Sessions Judge for the Bombay Civil Service at Thana. Evidence for its existence is only known by a few letters he sent to friends, and the club which had three members, reportedly closed in 1892. In the early 1900s, a series of philosophical papers was published in Germany. Dr. Heinrich Pudor, under the pseudonym Heinrich Scham, wrote a book titled Nacktkultur, which discussed the benefits of nudity in co-education and advocated participating in sports while being free of cumbersome clothing. Richard Ungewitter (Nacktheit, 1906, Nackt, 1908, etc.) proposed that combining physical fitness, sunlight, and fresh air bathing, and then adding the nudist philosophy, contributed to mental and psychological fitness, good health, and an improved moral-life view. The wide publication of those papers and others, contributed to an explosive worldwide growth of nudism, in which nudists participated in various social, recreational, and physical fitness activities in the nude. The first known organized club for nudists, Freilichtpark (Free-Light Park), was opened near Hamburg in 1903 by Paul Zimmerman. Germany Naturist beach on the Unterbacher See, near Düsseldorf, Germany.See also: FreikörperkulturThe nudist movement gained prominence in Germany in the 1920s, but was suppressed during the Nazi Gleichschaltung after Adolf Hitler came to power. The state-controlled leisure organization of the Nazis, Kraft durch Freude, refused to recognize it. However, it was later discovered that Luftwaffe (Air Force) head Hermann Göring had single-handedly written his own strict anti-nudity views into the Gleichschaltung, thereby imposing his views on everyone (he had been one of its main authors). Many in the Nazi party thought he had gone too far, so after nearly a decade, the rules were eventually softened in July 1942. Freikörperkultur Geschichte Nevertheless, all naturism clubs had to register with Kraft durch Freude, which meant excluding Jews and Communists. Also, they had to keep all activities well out in the countryside so there would be virtually no chance of being seen by others. After the war, East Germans enjoyed nudism as one the few freedoms they had under the communist government, chiefly at beaches rather than clubs (private organizations being regarded as potentially subversive by the regime). It quickly rebounded in the west also, and today, united Germany has many clubs, parks and beaches for nudism. Since German reunification, however, nudity is said to have become rare at some locations in the former eastern zone. Vacationing in Mediterranean France at the large Cap d'Agde resort also became popular for Germans when it opened in the late 1960s, and Germans are typically the most commonly-seen foreigners at nude beaches all around Europe. France Naturist beach at Port Leucate (Aude), France, which illustrates the mixed clothing habits on leading French beaches. From 1857 Dr. Duhamel spoke of the importance of heliotherapy, and worked with children suffering from tuberculosis on the beach at Berck. In 1903 S. Gay created a naturist community at Bois-Fourgon. In 1907, supported by his superiors, Abbé Legrée encouraged the students at his catholic college to bathe nude on the rocky beaches near Marseille. A report on German naturism was published in la Revue des deux mondes. Marcel Kienné de Mongeot, who came from a noble family and who was an aviator in the Great War, is credited with starting naturism in France in 1920. By then he was a journalist who wrote a defense of the dancer, Malkowski, in the journal Vouloir. His family had suffered from tuberculosis, and he saw naturism as a cure and a continuation of the traditions of the ancient Greeks. In 1926, he started the magazine Vivre intégralement (later called Vivre) and the first French naturist club, Sparta Club at Garambouville, near Evreux. Others quickly followed as did local opposition. His victory in court established that nudism was legal on private property that was fenced and screened. Vivre Nu: Psychosociologie du Naturisme, Marc-Alain Descamps, Edition Trismégiste, 1987, ISBN 2-86509-026-4 Drs. André and Gaston Durville opened a naturist health centre, edited the La vie sage (1924) and bought a 70 hectare site on the Île du Levant on which they established the Héliopolis. The village was open to the public. Dr François Fougerat de David de Lastours, who was gassed in the Great War and was saved by exposure to the sun, in 1925 wrote a thesis on heliotherapy and in that year opened the Club gymnique de France. Jacque de Marquette wrote on naturism and vegetarianism. In 1936, government minister Léo Lagrange recognised the naturist movement. Albert and Christine Lecocq were active members of many of these clubs, but after disagreements left and in 1944 founded their own travel club Club du Soleil. It was popular and had members in 84 cities, becoming the worlds largest naturist club. In 1948 they founded the FFN. In 1949 they started a magazine, Vie au Soleil and in 1950 they opened the CHM-Montalivet at Montalivet, the worlds first naturist holiday centre. In 1951 they assisted in the formation of the INF. The Quartier Naturiste at Agde opened offering a different form of social nudity. In 1975, Euronat, the largest holiday centre (335ha) opened 10 km north of Montalivet which was running at capacity. In 1983 the FFN was accepted as an official tourist and youth movement. SOCNAT provided the management and financial stability to the movement and runs 5 centres in France and one in Spain. French wikipedia Holiday centres started to form cooperative marketing groups and aim for 5 star status. Publicity material was of a quality indistinguishable from textile holiday companies. In this benign climate, Randonue, an unauthorised form of naturisme sauvage has become popular, and areas traditionally known for discreet sunbathing have been revisited. Naturist is accepted and can even be practised on many popular textilist beaches. As of 2007, France has 150 members clubs offering holiday accommodation, 50 holiday centres, official naturist beaches, unofficial beaches and many homes where naturist swimming and sunbathing is normal. Naturism employs more than 3000 people, and is estimated to be worth 250 million Euro to the French economy. France is represented on the INF by the FFN. Poland First reported naturist society was established in 1897 in Grudziądz. In pre-war and post-war Poland naturism was practiced in closed and selucted areas. Reported places for naturism were Zaleszczyki (in todays Ukraine) and Otwock. Under the communism regime, Poland's naturism became unofficial and was practiced mostly by the artistic boheme near Krynica Morska, Międzyzdroje and Dębki. In the early 1980s naturism became popular mostly due to increased interest in media. As the pop song "Chałupy Welcome To" (about the naturist beach in Chałupy, featuring beach nudity in the clip) became the 1985 summer hit in Poland, the nude seaside locations like Chałupy or Rowy became known to an average Polish sunbather. Polish Naturist Society was formed and after the number of lawsuits naturism became tolerated in selected "unofficial" beaches and distant spots. In today's Poland naturism is practiced in number of the seaside and inland beaches. The most of Polish beaches are actually clothes-optional rather than naturist. Among the most popular locations are Międzydroje-Lubiewo, Grzybowo, Rowy, Dębki, Gdańsk-Stogi and Piaski. The most popular inland locations include Warsaw (Wał Miedzeszyński), Kazimierz Dolny and Kryspinów near Kraków. In the winter season, naturism is practiced by organized groups in Warsaw and Tri-City. Public naturist events are held bi-monthly in Poznań-Koziegłowy and Łódź waterpark. United Kingdom Brighton. Dukes Mound, Madeira Drive. The Naturist section of the beach is protected by an artificial bank of shingle. In the United Kingdom, the first nudist club was established in Wickford, Essex in 1924. According to Michael Farrar, writing for British Naturism the club adopted the name "Moonella Group" from the name of the owner of the ground, Moonella, and called its site The Camp. Moonella, who was still living in 1965 but whose identity remains to be discovered, had inherited a house with land in 1923 and made it available to certain members of the New Gymnosophy Society. This society had been founded a few years before by H.C. Booth, M.H. Sorensen and Rex Wellbye under the name of the English Gymnosophical Society. It met for discussions at the Minerva Cafe at 144 High Holborn in London, the headquarters of the Women's Freedom League. Those who were permitted to join the Moonella Group were carefully selected, and the club was run by an "aristocracy" of the original members, all of whom had "club names" to preserve their anonymity. The club closed in 1926 because of building on adjacent land. By 1943 there were a number of these so-called "sun clubs" and together they formed the British Sunbathers Association or BSBA. In 1954 a group of clubs unhappy with the way the BSBA was being run split off to form the Federation of British Sun Clubs or FBSC. These two organisations rivalled each other for a while before eventually coming together again in 1964 as the Central Council for British Naturism or CCBN. This organisation has remained much the same but is now more commonly known simply as British Naturism or BN. In 1961, the BSBA Annual Conference agreed that the term nudist was inappropriate and should be discarded in favour of naturist. The first official naturist beach was opened at Fairlight Cove, Fairlight Glen near Hastings in 1978, the beaches at Brighton and Fraisthorpe, Bridlington opened in April 1980. United States In the United States, German immigrant Kurt Barthel organized the first nudist event in 1929 in the woods just outside of New York City (NYC) and founded the American League for Physical Culture (ALPC). In 1931, the Christian naturism movement under the leadership of former New Jersey Dutch Reformed minister Ilsley Boone became the first naturism movement in the United States. Initially, Boone was vice president of the American League for Physical Culture but by October 1931 became president. In 1939 Boone renamed the club as the American Sunbathing Association (ASA). Naturism began expanding nationwide. The History of Social Nudism - Nudist History History of Naturism Body Acceptance: A Brief History of Social Nudity Roberts v. Clement To create a family atmosphere at nudism venues, Boone insisted that alcohol be prohibited at all member clubs. Social nudism in the form of private clubs and campgrounds began appearing in the 1930s. Rock Lodge Club, about 40 miles (65 km) from New York City in Stockholm, New Jersey, started in 1932 and is still in operation today. Elsewhere in the United States, a 1935 advertisement claims Sea Island Sanctuary, South Carolina, was the "largest and oldest" resort where nudism could be practiced year-round. Nudism first began appearing on the west coast of the U.S. and Canada about 1939. In that year, the first club in Canada, the Van Tan Club, formed and continues today in North Vancouver, BC. Kaniksu Ranch, about 45 miles (70 km) north of Spokane, Washington, opened the same year and is still in operation. Exposed and stark naked -- on purpose,Kathy George, Seattle Post-Intelligencer 2003-04-07 accessed 15/01/2008 According to the Federation of Canadian Naturists history and the Lupin Naturist Club history, Boone was toppled in 1951 by members dissatisfied with his autocratic style. This, together with Boone's desire to open a new club closer to NYC than others had wanted, led him to form the National Nudist Council. After Boone's passing in the 1960s, the ASA became more secular, along with American society in general. In 1980 The Naturist Society (TNS) was founded by Lee Baxandall as a successor to the Free Beach Movement. The emphasis of TNS is on nudity in public locations rather than on private premises, though it also sponsors several annual gatherings held at private resorts. In 1995, the ASA was renamed as the American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR). The AANR represents over 270 clubs and resorts, and is the US representative on the INF. The AANR currently has its headquarters in Florida. With the beginning of the modern internet in the mid-1990s, Christian Naturism became much more organized in the U.S. than ever before. Annual Christian Nudist Convocations began early in the decade of the 2000s. Canada In Canada, individuals around the country became interested in nudism, skinny-dipping, and physical culture in the early part of the 20th century. After 1940 they had their own Canadian magazine, Sunbathing & Health, which occasionally carried local news. Canadians had scattered groups in several cities during the 1930s and 1940s, and some of these groups attracted enough interest to form clubs on private land. The most significant clubs were the Van Tan Club and, in Ontario, the Sun Air Club. Canadians who served in the military during the Second World War met like-minded souls from across the country, and often visited clubs while in Europe. They were a ready pool of recruits for post-war organizers. A few years later the wave of post-war immigration brought many Europeans with their own extensive experience, and they not only swelled the ranks of membership, but often formed their own clubs, helping to expand nudism from coast to coast. Most of those clubs united in the Canadian Sunbathing Association, which affiliated with the American Sunbathing Association in 1954. Several disagreements between eastern and western members of the CSA resulted in the breakup of CSA into the Western Canadian Sunbathing Association (WCSA) and the Eastern Canadian Sunbathing Association (ECSA) in 1960. The ECSA endured much in-fighting over the next decade and a half, leading to its official demise in 1978. The WCSA continues today as the Western Canadian Association for Nude Recreation (WCANR), a region of the American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR) which itself was formerly known as the ASA. In 1977 the Fédération québécoise de naturisme (FQN) was founded in Québec, by Michel Vaïs, who had experienced European naturism at Montalivet. In 1985 the Federation of Canadian Naturists (FCN) was formed with the support of the FQN. In 1988 the FQN and FCN formed the FCN-FQN Union as the official Canadian representative in the International Naturist Federation (INF). Free beaches Many people get their first exposure to the clothes free movement through an informal approach (e.g. a clothing optional beach, a friend's place in the woods, a party on the shore or skinny dipping). Naturism and sports A naturist race takes place every year in the semi-naturist beach of Barinatxe, in the town of Sopelana, near Bilbao, in northern Spain. :: The Sopelana Naturist Race :: Festival naturism The Nambassa festival, New Zealand 1981 From Woodstock to Edinburgh, and Nambassa 1981 in the southern hemisphere communal nudity is commonly recorded at music festivals. Demographics In 1999 the Federation of Canadian Naturists commissioned a national survey on Canadian attitudes towards nudity which found that 8.9% of Canadian have or would visit a naturist facility. A further 11.6% have or would go skinny dipping in mixed company; that 39% go naked in their own homes; that naturists tend to have above average incomes; that urban dwellers are more likely to be naturist than country dwellers; and that the under 25s are the most likely to be naturists. In 1983 the Naturist Society in the United States sponsored a Gallup poll, which was repeated in 2000, which found the following: + USA: 1983/2000 Gallup poll Year 1983 2000 Question Yes No Yes NoDo you believe that people who enjoy nude sunbathing should be able to do so without interference from officials as long as they do so at a beach that is accepted for that purpose? 72 24 80 17Local and state governments now set aside public land for special types of recreation such as snowmobiling, surfing and hunting. Do you think special and secluded areas should be set aside for people who enjoy nude sunbathing? 39 54 48 48Have you, personally, ever gone "skinny dipping" or nude sunbathing in a mixed group of men and women at a beach, at a pool, or somewhere else? 15 83 25 73 In 2005 the British CCBN commissioned a survey of members, and two next issue. which found that, among British people: + How we (British people) discovered naturism: Beach abroad 29% Beach in UK 20% Newspaper 15% Friend 9% Parents 8% Conviction 6% TV/Radio 5% The Web 3% H&E 3% Other 2% + Ever been member of a club? Yes 58.5% No 41.5% + Do you use UK naturist beaches? Often 22.4% Sometimes 40.1% Rarely 18.7% Never 18.7% +If you use a naturist holiday facility abroad: Self-catering 58.5% Hotel 41.5% Own Tent 12.7% Hire Caravan 10% Own Caravan 8.7% Bed and Breakfast 6.6% Friends 4.4% Motor home 4.2% Own accommodation 3.1% Hire Tent 2.4% Other 3.3% Issues in social nudity See Issues in social nudityNaturism addresses, challenges and explores a myriad of sometimes taboo subjects: stereotypes and mores relating to the nude appearance of the human body, mixed gender nudity, personal space, human sexuality, gymnophobia, modesty, physical attractiveness, vanity, objectification, exploitation and consent. It can thus be controversial. Problems for the naturist community Any social group is said to go through four phases: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, wrote Bruce Tuckman in 1965. In this context we can understand some of the current pressures on various aspects of Naturism : Naturist club isolation- established clubs excluding new members and rejecting new ideas. A family movement in a time of social change- a change in needs and expectations, away from one of a permanent commitment towards one of change and choice. Multi-gen preferences- each generation is a specific social group which needs to have its own norms that are consistant with common rules. Clubs vs Holiday Centres- organizations with different roots find it difficult to establish common rules. The contention between those espousing a year round commitment to an ideal, and those who see it as summer-only recreation. Club naturism is declining, while the number of people that assume naturist facilities will be available at any holiday resort is rising. The number of users of free beaches may exceed the number of people who wish to join a club. Paid staff and volunteers- many clubs were established as cooperatives, but the values change when a few members put in the capital or work needed. This became more difficult when some members were paid to act as site managers. Infiltration by other groups- for many years clubs had strict "No singles" policies to maintain the family nature of the club. Many other social groups practice non-family nudism, whether it be social singles, gay naturists or swingers. Exhibitionists and voyeurs- as unwelcome in a naturist community as in a clothed community. Naturist Media- family naturist groups with concerns of associations with the publishers of Naturist/ Nudist publications and DVDs. Teen Nudist summer camps- an example of a movement that some social-advocacy groups believe is growing too fast. Non-conformist naturists- primarily outside the club scene, though they also visit clubs occasionally. Naturist and nudist magazines Nudist and naturist magazines can be categorised in four ways. Magazines published by an official national organisation, such as BN (CCBN), Going Natural / Au naturel (FCN/FQN), Nude & Natural Magazine TNS. Magazines that are published for naturists such as Naturally. Independent magazines, such as Health and Efficiency, that claim to be naturist but still print a significantly larger percentage of pictures of young female professional models. However, they do carry naturist columns (such as Sunny Trails in Sunbathing for Health) and advertisements for genuine naturist clubs and societies when no other newspaper would include these. Many clubs and groups were indebted to them for that. Magazines that print photographs only of young female professional models, which are disapproved of by naturists and their opponents alike. This has been a dilemma for naturists, who needed the small amount of editorial content in some magazines while thoroughly disapproving of the photographic content. Writers who produced copy for these magazines are not respected by many naturists though often quoted as authoritative sources by the news media. Naturist clubs were willing to allow filming by the media on their grounds, though the content that proved not to be of genuine naturism ended up being parodied by the media as the norm. gives a history of naturism, written in a personal style that attempts to use this type of humour. Analysis of the Internet shows the trends. Naturist and nudist websites show that pages fall into the same categories. There are many pages displaying explicit and even pornographic images, which are totally alien to the naturist ideal, that use the word "naturist" or "naturism" on their pages and metatags. These are then harvested by media journalists or pro-censorship campaigners to create a false image of naturism. Today there are high quality naturist magazines in many European countries that reflect the gender and age groups found at clubs and resorts. Criticism Descamps assembles a list of criticisms of naturism: it is too cold; normal bodies look ugly—it is only for the physically beautiful; it is too embarrassing; it is against the laws of nature, against the law, or against religion; "nudism makes me think of sex"; it is for primitive people or animals. Most popular criticisms for naturism arise from: situations of accurate usage of the term, criticisms of situations where naturists and non-naturists would share the same concerns. For example, naturism is often added as a tag to titillating websites that have naturist content. criticisms of activitites which are imagined to be naturist by a writer who has not researched it in the relevant libraries. Naturism can sometimes contain aspects of eroticism, although the debate about this is often simplified and seen negatively in the media and the public mind and by many modern naturists and naturist organisations. Historically the experience and discussion of erotic feelings during naturist activities such as dance and gymnastics played an important part in early Germanic naturism and formed part of its 'positive' connection with nature. However, it was when naturism arrived in the more sexually conservative cultures of the UK and USA that the expression and discussion of eroticism within naturism became frowned upon. Recent research has begun to explore this complex and historical relationship while highlighting how erotic experiences within naturism may actually enhance sexual wellbeing and be a positive force within naturism. See also List of places where social nudity is practised (beaches, resorts, public parks and communities) Issues in social nudity Public nudity Naturist beach Clothing-optional bike rides American Nudist Research Library Christian naturism Gay naturism Nude wedding Society for Indecency to Naked Animals :Category:Nude beaches References Notes Further reading Lee Baxandall's World Guide to Nude Beaches & Resorts: New for the '90s (1997) ISBN 0-934106-21-5 No Shoes, No Shirt, No Worries Article on "nakations" in The New York Times Naked Places, A Guide for Gay Men to Nude Recreation and Travel (2006) ISBN 0-9656089-4-8 The Canadian Guide to Naturist Resorts & Beaches (2000) ISBN 0-9682332-2-8 North American Guide to Nude Recreation (2002) ISBN 1-882033-09-4 Bare Beaches (2004) ISBN 0-9544767-1-9 Storey, Mark Social Nudity, Sexual Attraction, and Respect Nude & Natural magazine, 24.3 Spring 2005. Storey, Mark Children, Social Nudity and Academic Research Nude & Natural magazine, 23.4 Summer 2004.The Complete Guide To Nudism And Naturism'' (2006) ISBN 1846852587 ISBN 978-1846852589 Smith, G.; King, M. (2009). Naturism and sexuality: Broadening our approach to sexual wellbeing, Health and Place. Vol 15, Issue 2, June 2009. External links National organisations International Naturist Federation (INF-FNI) About Nudism in Scandinavia American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR)-Nudist Q&A - Australian Nudist Federation (ANF) British Naturism (CCBN) Deutscher Verband für Freikörperkultur (DFK) Fédération française de naturisme (FFN) Federazione naturista italiana (FENAIT) Federation of Canadian Naturists (FCN) Fédération québécoise de naturisme (FQN) Irish Naturist Association Israeli Naturist Society Namibian Nudist and Naturist Association NAM-NA Naturist Society, The (TNS) New Zealand Naturist Federation (NZNF) Russian Naturist Association (Telord) and National Federation for Naturism (Russia) Turkish Nudist Club (TNC) South African Naturist Federation Organization and landed site directories I Nudisti - The greater community of nudists in the world The Naturist Camping Guide - An extensive list of naturist campsites worldwide NaturistHoliday.Info - A guide to naturist holidays around the world Nudist Beaches.Info - A partial guide to the world's nudist beaches German Naturist Guide- location and site reports of hundred of site in Germany and world wide. Greece Guide- a comprehensive listing of sites in Greece. Dutch Camping Guide - Dutch Camping Guide (worldwide) Vivrenu Portail du Naturisme Francophone- lists of beaches, holiday centres and simple camping spots in France. AANR nudist clubs - AANR directory of US Nudist clubs (covers some in Canada) Ohio Nudist Homepage - Nudist and Naturist Resources in Ohio, U.S.A. NetNude Reports and Links - NetNude Portal - Travel Guide The Naturist UK Fact File- Details of beaches and members clubs, and helpful UK specific advice Other 205 Arguments in Support of Naturism A Naturist's Guide to the Law in England and Wales "Is Nudism OK for Children, Preteens, Teens and Adults?" - Family nudism article Why Don't More Young Adults Try Social Nudity? Article about young adults Websection on Naturism and Druidry A history and the spiritual and psychological dimensions of nudity Diary of a Nudist - Nudist and Naturist news and issues, updated daily Naturist Bibliography Good reading references Interview with Jock Sturges, Montalivet, France, Amadelio, July 2007 Naturism in Catalunya Christian Naturist Organization Nudist Day - Nudist news and interviews from around the world Nudist beaches in the Netherlands | Naturism |@lemmatized naturism:85 nudism:38 cultural:1 political:1 movement:25 advocate:3 defend:1 social:37 nudity:44 private:8 public:18 may:3 also:19 refer:4 lifestyle:11 base:4 personal:5 family:17 see:16 world:17 naturist:142 handbook:4 pub:5 international:10 federation:20 inf:17 fni:5 sint:3 hubertusstraat:3 b:3 berchem:3 antwerpen:3 isbn:14 agde:8 definition:8 make:8 representative:5 organisation:15 country:10 correspondent:2 status:4 current:2 edition:3 naturisme:10 http:1 www:1 org:1 htm:1 web:3 page:6 philosophy:7 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6,889 | Khandi_Alexander | Khandi Alexander (born September 4, 1957) is an American dancer, choreographer, and film and television actress. She is best known for her role on CSI: Miami as Doctor Alexx Woods. Biography Early life Born in New York City and educated at Queensborough Community College, she appeared on Broadway starring in Chicago, Bob Fosse’s Dancin and Dreamgirls. Also she was a choreographer for Whitney Houston’s world tour from 1988–1992. She also appeared as a dancer in Natalie Cole's video for "Pink Cadillac" in 1988. Career Since the early '90s, Alexander has concentrated on film and TV, playing the character Catherine Duke on NewsRadio and the recurring character Jackie Robbins on ER. She is well known for her starring role as a mother addicted to drugs named Fran in The Corner. She has made guest appearances on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, NYPD Blue, La Femme Nikita. She portrayed the character Alexx Woods, a medical examiner in the forensics-related drama CSI: Miami. Khandi starred in the movie CB4 with Chris Rock and Charlie Murphy. Other film credits include Dark Blue, Sugar Hill, Menace II Society, House Party 3, There's Something About Mary, Rain, Poetic Justice, and the Tina Turner biopic What's Love Got To Do With It, where she portrayed an Ikette. She left the CBS hit show CSI: Miami shortly before the end of the 2007-2008 season. Her final appearance aired Monday, May 5, 2008. On December 1. 2008, TV Guide reported that Alexander will return to CSI Miami on February 2, 2009. CSI: Miami Exclusive Khandi Alexander to pay CBS' hit procedural a return visit, as former M.E. Alexx Woods. Get the scoop!" TV Guide. December 1, 2008. Retrieved on December 3, 2008. On February 2, 2009 she returned to the role of Alexx Woods in the episode Smoke Gets In Your CSI's. References | Khandi_Alexander |@lemmatized khandi:3 alexander:4 born:1 september:1 american:1 dancer:2 choreographer:2 film:3 television:1 actress:1 best:1 know:2 role:3 csi:6 miami:5 doctor:1 alexx:4 wood:4 biography:1 early:2 life:1 bear:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 educate:1 queensborough:1 community:1 college:1 appear:2 broadway:1 star:2 chicago:1 bob:1 fosse:1 dancin:1 dreamgirls:1 also:2 whitney:1 houston:1 world:1 tour:1 natalie:1 cole:1 video:1 pink:1 cadillac:1 career:1 since:1 concentrate:1 tv:3 play:1 character:3 catherine:1 duke:1 newsradio:1 recur:1 jackie:1 robbins:1 er:1 well:1 starring:1 mother:1 addict:1 drug:1 name:1 fran:1 corner:1 make:1 guest:1 appearance:2 law:1 order:1 special:1 victim:1 unit:1 nypd:1 blue:2 la:1 femme:1 nikita:1 portray:2 medical:1 examiner:1 forensics:1 related:1 drama:1 movie:1 chris:1 rock:1 charlie:1 murphy:1 credit:1 include:1 dark:1 sugar:1 hill:1 menace:1 ii:1 society:1 house:1 party:1 something:1 mary:1 rain:1 poetic:1 justice:1 tina:1 turner:1 biopic:1 love:1 get:3 ikette:1 leave:1 cbs:2 hit:2 show:1 shortly:1 end:1 season:1 final:1 air:1 monday:1 may:1 december:3 guide:2 report:1 return:3 february:2 exclusive:1 pay:1 procedural:1 visit:1 former:1 e:1 scoop:1 retrieve:1 episode:1 smoke:1 reference:1 |@bigram dancer_choreographer:1 csi_miami:5 bob_fosse:1 whitney_houston:1 starring_role:1 la_femme:1 medical_examiner:1 tina_turner:1 |
6,890 | Ford_GT40 | GT40 Mk II front. This car won the 1966 24 Hours of Daytona driven by Ken Miles and Lloyd Ruby, giving Ford its first victory in a 24 hour race. The photo shows the livery as used at Le Mans in 1966. (Serial Number GT-40 P 1015 Mk. II) GT40 Mk II rear The Ford GT40 was a high performance sports car and winner of the 24 hours of Le Mans four times in a row, from 1966 to 1969 (in 1967 with a different body, though). It was built to win long-distance sports car races against Ferrari (who won at Le Mans six times in a row from 1960 to 1965). The GT40 GT-40P 1075 was the first car to win at Le Mans twice (in 1968 and 1969). That car used the Gurney Weslake engine with the special alloy heads made by Weslake. The car was named the GT (for Grand Tourisme) with the 40 representing its overall height of 40 inches (1.02 m, measured at the windshield) as required by the rules. Large displacement Ford V8 engines (4.7 L and 7 L) were used, compared with the Ferrari V12 which displaced 3.0 L or 4.0 L. Early cars were simply named "Ford GT". The name "GT40" was the name of Ford's project to prepare the cars for the international endurance racing circuit, and the quest to win the 24 Hours of Le Mans. The first 12 "prototype" vehicles carried serial numbers GT-101 through GT-112. The "production" began and the subsequent cars, the MkI, MkIIs, MkIIIs, and MkVs, numbered GT40-P-1000 through GT40-P-1145, were officially "GT40s". The name of Ford's project, and the serial numbers dispel the story that "GT40" was "only a nickname." The contemporary Ford GT is a modern homage to the GT40. History Henry Ford II had wanted a Ford at Le Mans since the early 1960s. In the spring of 1963, Ford reportedly received word through a European intermediary that Enzo Ferrari was interested in selling to Ford Motor Company. Ford reportedly spent several million dollars in an audit of Ferrari factory assets and in legal negotiations, only to have Ferrari unilaterally cut off talks at a late stage. Ferrari, who wanted to remain the sole operator of his company's motor sports division, was angered when he was told that he would not be allowed to race at the Indianapolis 500 if the deal went through. Enzo cut the deal off out of spite and Henry Ford II, enraged, directed his racing division to find a company that could build a Ferrari-beater on the world endurance-racing circuit. To this end Ford began negotiation with Lotus, Lola, and Cooper. Cooper had no experience in GT or prototype and its performances in Formula One were declining. Lotus was already a Ford partner for their Indy 500 project. Ford executives already doubted the ability of Lotus to handle this new project. Colin Chapman probably had similar views as he asked a high price for his contribution and insisted that the car (which became the Lotus Europa) should be named a Lotus-Ford, an attitude that can be viewed as polite refusal. The Lola proposal was chosen, since Lola had used a Ford V8 engine in their mid-engined Lola Mk 6 (also known as Lola GT). It was one of the most advanced racing cars of the time, and made a noted performance in Le Mans 1963, even though the car did not finish. However, Eric Broadley, Lola Cars' owner and chief designer, agreed on a short-term personal contribution to the project without involving Lola Cars. The agreement with Eric Broadley included a one year collaboration between Ford and Broadley and the sale of the two Lola Mk 6 chassis built to Ford. To form the development team, Ford also hired the ex-Aston Martin team manager John Wyer. Ford Motor Co. engineer Roy Lunn was sent to England; he had designed the mid-engined Mustang I concept car powered by a 1.7 L V4. Despite the small engine of the Mustang I, Lunn was the only Dearborn's engineer to have some experience with a mid-engined car. Broadley, Lunn and Wyer began working on the new car at Lola Factory in Bromley. At the end of 1963 the team moved to Slough, England near Heathrow airport. Ford established a new subsidiary under the direction of Wyer, Ford Advanced Vehicles Ltd to manage the project. The first chassis built by Abbey Panels of Coventry was delivered on March 16, 1963. The first "Ford GT" the GT/101 was unveiled in England on April 1 and soon after exhibited in New York. It was powered by the 4.2 L Fairlane engine with a Colotti transaxle, the same power plant was used by the Lola GT and the single-seater Lotus 29 that came in a highly controversial second at the Indy 500 in 1963. (A DOHC head design was used in later years at Indy. It won in 1965 in the Lotus 38.) The Ford GT40 was first raced in May 1964 at the Nürburgring 1000 km race where it retired with suspension failure after holding second place early in the event. Three weeks later at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, all three entries retired although the Ginther/Gregory car led the field from the second lap until its first pitstop. February 1965 saw Ken Miles and Lloyd Ruby take a Shelby American entered GT40 to victory in the Daytona 2000 km. The experience gained in 1964 and 1965 allowed the 7-litre Mk II to dominate the 24 Hours of Le Mans race in 1966 with a 1-2-3 result. The finish, however, was clouded in controversy: in the final few hours, the Ford GT of New Zealanders Bruce McLaren and Chris Amon closely trailed the leading Ford GT driven by Ken Miles. Ford team officials faced a difficult choice. They could allow the drivers to settle the outcome by racing each other – and risk one or both cars breaking down or crashing. They could dictate a finishing order to the drivers – guaranteeing that one set of drivers would be extremely unhappy. Or they could arrange a tie, with the McLaren/Amon and Miles/Hulme cars crossing the line side-by-side. The team chose the last and informed McLaren and Miles of the decision just before the two got in their cars for the final stint. Then, not long before the finish, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), organizers of the Le Mans event, informed Ford that the geographical difference in starting positions would be taken into account at a close finish – meaning that the McLaren/Amon vehicle, which had started perhaps behind the Hulme-Miles car, would have covered slightly more ground over the 24 hours and would therefore be the winner. Secondly, Ford officials admitted later, the company's contentious relationship with Miles, its top contract driver, placed executives in a difficult position. They could reward an outstanding driver who had been at times extremely difficult to work with, or they could decide in favour of drivers (McLaren/Amon) with less commitment to the Ford program but who had been easier to deal with. Ford stuck with the orchestrated photo finish but Miles, deeply bitter over this decision after his dedication to the program, issued his own protest by suddenly slowing just yards from the finish and letting McLaren across the line first. Sadly and ironically, Miles died in a testing accident just two months later. Miles was thus denied his deserved unique achievement of winning Sebring, Daytona and Le Mans in the same year, the last before his death. Miles' death occurred at the wheel of the Ford "J-car", an iteration of the GT40 that included several unique features. These included an aluminum honeycomb chassis construction and a "breadvan" body design that experimented with "kammback" aerodynamic theories. Unfortunately, the fatal Miles accident was attributed at least partly to the unproven aerodynamics of the J-car design, and the team embarked on a complete redesign of the car, which became known as the Mk IV. The Mk IV, a newer design with a Mk II engine but a different chassis and a different body, won the following year (when four Mark IVs, three Mark IIs and three Mark Is raced). The high speeds achieved in that race caused a rule change, which already came in effect in 1968: the prototypes were limited to the capacity of to 3.0 L, the same as in Formula One. This took out the V12-powered Ferrari 330P as well as the Chaparral and the Mk. IV. If at least 50 cars had been built, sportscars like the GT40 and the Lola T70 were allowed, with a maximum of 5.0 L. John Wyer's revised 4.7 L Mk I won the 24 hours of Le Mans race in 1968 against the fragile smaller prototypes. This result added to four other round wins for the GT40 gave Ford victory in the 1968 International Championship for Makes. The GT40's intended 3.0 L replacement, the Ford P68, proved a dismal failure. In 1969, facing more experienced prototypes and the new yet still unreliable 4.5 L flat-12 powered Porsche 917s, the winners Ickx/Oliver managed to beat the remaining 3.0 L Porsche 908 by just a few seconds with the already outdated GT40 (in the very car that had won in 1968). Apart from brake wear in the Porsche and the decision not to change pads so close to the race end, the winning combination was relaxed driving by both GT40 drivers and heroic efforts at the right time by (at that time Le Mans' rookie) Jacky Ickx, who won Le Mans five times more in later years. In 1970, the revised Porsche 917 dominated, and the GT40 had become obsolete. Various versions The Mk I was the original Ford GT40. Early prototypes were powered by 4.2 L (260 cu.in) engines; production models were powered by 4.6 L (289 cu.in) engines, also used in the Ford Mustang. Several prototype models had roadster bodywork. The Ford X1 was a roadster built to contest the Fall 1965 North American Pro Series, a forerunner of CanAm, entered by the Bruce McLaren team and driven by Chris Amon. The car had an aluminum chassis built at Abbey Panels and was originally powered by a 4.6 L (289ci) engine. The real purpose of this car was to test several improvements originating from Kar Kraft, Shelby and McLaren. Several gearboxes were used: a Hewland LG500 and at least one automatic gearbox. It was later upgraded to Mk II specifications with a 7.0 LC (427ci) engine and a standard four ratio Kar Kraft gearbox, however the car kept specific features such as its open roof and lightweight chassis. The car went on to win the 12 Hours of Sebring in 1966. The Mk II used the 7.0 L (427 CID) engine from the Ford Galaxie. For Daytona 1967, two Mk II models (chassis 1016 and 1047) were fitted with Mercury 7.0 L engines. Mercury is a Ford Motor Company division, and Mercury's 427 was the exact same engine as Ford's with different logos. A batch of wrongly heat treated input shafts in the transaxles sidelined virtually every Ford in the race, however, and Ferrari won 1-2-3. Ford GT40 road version The Mk III was a road-car only, of which 7 were built. The car had four headlights, the rear part of the body was expanded to make room for luggage, the 4.6 L engine was detuned to , the shocks were softened, the shift lever was moved to the center and the car was available with the steering wheel on the left side of the car. The most famous Mk III is GT40 M3 1105, a blue left hand drive model delivered in 1968 in Austria to Herbert von Karajan. As the Mk III wasn't very appealing aesthetically (it looked significantly different from the racing models), many customers interested in buying a GT40 for road use chose to buy a Mk I that was available from Wyer Ltd. In an effort to develop a car with better aerodynamics and lighter weight, it was decided to retain the 7 liter engine, but redesign the rest of the car. In order to bring the car more "in house" and lessening partnership with English firms, Ford Advanced Vehicles was sold to John Wyer and the new car was designed by Ford's studios and produced by Ford's subsidiary Kar Kraft under Ed Hull. There was also a partnership with the Brunswick Aircraft Corporation for expertise on the novel use of honeycomb aluminium panels bonded together to form a lightweight but rigid "tub". The car would make full use of the new and more liberal Appendix J regulations for race car construction, and was therefore known as the J-car. The first J-car was completed in March, 1966 and set the fastest time at the Le Mans trials that year. The tub weighed only , and the entire car weighed only , less than the Mk II. It was decided to run the MkIIs due to their proven reliability, however, and little or no development was done on the J-car for the rest of the season. Following LeMans, the development program for the J-car was resumed, and a second car was built. During a test session at Riverside International Raceway in August 1966, with Ken Miles driving, the car suddenly went out of control at the end of Riverside's high-speed, 1-mile-long back straight. The honeycomb chassis did not live up to its design goal, shattering upon impact, bursting into flames and killing Miles. It was decided that the unique, flat-topped "bread van" aerodynamics of the car, lacking any sort of spoiler, were implicated in generating excess lift, and a more conventional but significantly more aerodynamic body was designed for the Mk IV. The Mk. IV ran in only two races (Sebring 1967 and Le Mans 1967) but won both events. GT40 Mk IV The Mk IV was built around a reinforced J chassis powered by the same 7.0 L engine as the Mk II. Excluding the engine, the Mk IV was totally different from other GT40s, using a specific chassis and specific bodywork. As a direct result of the Miles accident, the team installed a NASCAR-style steel-tube roll cage in the Mk. IV, which made it much safer but negated most of the weight saving of the honeycomb-panel construction. Dan Gurney often complained about the weight of the Mk IV, since the car was 600 pounds heavier than the Ferraris it raced. The installation of the roll cage was ultimately credited by many with saving the life of Mario Andretti, who crashed violently in a Mk. IV during the 1967 Le Mans, but escaped with minor injuries. The Ford G7A was a CanAm car using the J chassis. Unlike the earlier Mk.I,II and III cars, which were entirely British, the Ford J and Mk. IV were built in America by Shelby. Replicas & Continuation Models A "Roaring Forties" replica of a 1965 Ford GT40 in Shelby livery on display at the 2005 United States Grand Prix As the price and the rarity of the Ford GT40 have increased, so has the demand for cheaper cosmetic imitations and replicas of varying quality. There have been several kit cars and replicas made that have been inspired by the Ford GT40, as well as a few continuations (exact replicas): KVA GT40 England GT40/R Competition United States. Built by Superformance, and the only race-version continuation model fully licensed by Safir GT40 Spares (Ltd), the GT40/R was approved for vintage racing in 2009 by the Historic Sportscar Racing association and is distributed by Pathfinder Motorsports LLC Superformance - the Superformance GT40 is an extremely accurate continuation model with approximately 85% interchangeable parts with the original; these cars are licensed by Safir GT40 Spares and carry continuation chassis numbers from the original cars Roaring Forties Australian Based manufacturer Auto Futura CAV GT South Africa AvengerGT-12 - 1960s VW-based Fiberfab Avenger GT Fiberfab Valkyrie - 1960s/1970s V-8 powered, tube frame with Corvair transaxle and suspension. Fiberfab Valkyrie ERA performance v8archie - rebodied Pontiac Fiero Race Car Replicas Lone Star Classics Tornado Sports Cars - based in England, they are the longest running replica maker of the GT40 MDA - based in England DRB Sports Cars - based in Australia Turn Ten Racing - a new company located in Canada GTD40 - one of the most famous GT40 kit cars ever to be built due to its accuracy to the real thing. Continued production until its demise in 1997, due to the failed Spectre R42 project. GOX Teknik - based in Sweden, makes both an exact replica and a simpler look-alike. Africa40 Africa40 GT40 replica manufacturer based in South Africa Holman Moody Holman Moody, whose GT40 Mark IIs won first, second, and third at Le Mans in 1966, still manufactures a small number of GT40s from the 1966 blueprints. Ford GT 2005 Ford GT At the 1995 Detroit Auto Show, the Ford GT90 concept was shown and at the 2002 show, a new GT40 Concept was unveiled by Ford. Similar in appearance to the original cars, but bigger, wider, and especially taller than the original 40 inches (1.02 m) - a potential name resultantly was the GT43. Three production prototype cars were shown in 2003 as part of Ford's centenary, and delivery of the production Ford GT began in the fall of 2004. The Ford GT was assembled in the Ford Wixom plant and painted by Saleen, Incorporated at their Saleen Special Vehicles plant in Troy, Michigan. A British company, Safir Engineering, who made continuation GT40s in the 1980s owned the GT40 trademark at that time, and when they completed production, they sold the excess parts, tooling, design, and trademark to a small Ohio company called Safir GT40 Spares. Safir GT40 Spares licensed the use of the GT40 trademark to Ford for the initial 2002 show car, but when Ford decided to make the production vehicle, negotiations between the two failed, and as a result the new Ford GT does not wear the badge GT40. It is rumored that Safir GT40 Spares asked $40 million dollars for the rights, but this has never been verified. The partners at Safir GT40 Spares state they have correspondence from Ford declining Safir's $8 million offer. Later models or prototypes have also been called the Ford GT but have had different numbering on them such as the Ford GT90 or the Ford GT70 Le Mans 24 Hour victories Le Mans 24 Hour victoriesDistanceSpeedYear CarDriverskmmphkm/h1966Mk IIChris Amon, Bruce McLaren4843.09 125.39201.801967Mk IVDan Gurney, A. J. Foyt5232.9 135.48218.031968Mk IPedro Rodríguez, Lucien Bianchi4452.88 115.29185.541969Mk IJacky Ickx, Jackie Oliver4997.88 129.40208.25 References Auto Passion n°49 July 1991 (in French) La Revue de l'Automobile historique n°7 March/April 2001 (in French) http://www.gizmag.co.uk/go/1230/1/ Ford: The Dust and the Glory/A motor racing history by Leo Levine/1968 Notes External links GT40R Competition Continuation Model Roaring Forties Australia World's Largest GT40 Web Community GT40 Enthusiasts Club Race Car Replicas GT40 Australia The legendary Ford GT40 Superformance GT40 CAV GT & CAV GTR | Ford_GT40 |@lemmatized mk:31 ii:15 front:1 car:63 win:17 hour:12 daytona:4 drive:5 ken:4 mile:16 lloyd:2 ruby:2 give:2 ford:69 first:10 victory:4 race:23 photo:2 show:6 livery:2 use:15 le:20 man:20 serial:3 number:7 gt:23 p:3 rear:2 high:4 performance:4 sport:5 winner:3 four:5 time:9 row:2 different:7 body:5 though:2 build:13 long:4 distance:1 ferrari:9 six:1 twice:1 gurney:3 weslake:2 engine:17 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6,891 | Chaim_Topol | Chaim Topol () (born September 9, 1935), often billed simply as Topol, is one of the most famous Israeli theatrical and film performers. Biography Topol was born in Tel Aviv, Israel. He first practiced acting in amateur theatrical plays staged by the Israeli Army. Subsequently he established his own theatre troupe in Tel Aviv, and in 1961 he significantly contributed to the foundation of the Haifa Municipal Theatre. Acting career Among Topol's earliest film appearances was the lead role in the 1964 film Sallah Shabati by Ephraim Kishon — a play, later adapted for film, depicting the hardships of a Mizrachi Jewish immigrant family in Israel of the early 1960s. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and earned the actor the Golden Globe Award for New Star Of The Year - Actor. In 1966 Topol made his first English-language screen appearance as Abou Ibn Kaqden in the big-budget Mickey Marcus biopic Cast a Giant Shadow. He came to greatest prominence in the role of Tevye the milkman in the long-running musical show Fiddler on the Roof, at Her Majesty's Theatre. Fiddler On The Roof (The Guide to Musical Theatre) accessed 29 December 2007 After scoring a major success on the West End stage, he later starred in the 1971 film version. In 1972, Topol won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for a Best Actor Oscar for his performance in the film. He was on active service with the Israeli army at the time, but was granted permission to attend the awards ceremonies. Some of his other notable appearances were in Galileo (1975), Flash Gordon (1980), and the James Bond movie For Your Eyes Only (1981). In 1983, he reprised the role of Tevye in a London revival of Fiddler on the Roof. In the late 1980s he played the role in a touring United States production. He was by now the approximate age of the character, and in fact the actress playing his wife Golde in the production, Rosalind Harris, had played his oldest daughter Tzeitel in the film. In 1990 he again played the part in a Broadway revival of Fiddler, and was nominated for 1991 a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical, losing to Jonathan Pryce. He played the part again in a 1994 London revival, which became a touring production. He has since played the part in various productions including stages in Europe, Australia and Japan. His most recent film roles were in Left Luggage (1998) in the role of Mr. Apfelschnitt, and Time Elevator (1998) as Shalem. In November 2005, Topol had a two month season once again playing Tevye in Fiddler On the Roof at Capitol Theatre in Sydney, Australia and in April 2007, played the role in Wellington, New Zealand. In September 2008 Topol played the part of Honore in Gigi at the Open Air Theatre in Regent's Park, London On 20 January 2009 Topol began a farewell tour of Fiddler on the Roof as Tevye, opening in Wilmington, Delaware. This tour will end 30 August 2009 in Portland, Oregon. TOPOL in Fiddler On The Roof The Farewell Tour accessed 21 May 2009 Author His autobiography, Chaim Topol on Topol, was published in London and Israel. Topol is also an illustrator, responsible for drawings in several books, including A Treasury of Jewish Humour. Filmography I Like Mike (1961) El Dorado (1963), Benny Sherman Sallah Shabbati (1964), Sallah Shabbati Cast a Giant Shadow (1966), Abou Ibn Kader Ervinka (1967), Ervinka A Talent for Loving (1969) Before Winter Comes (1969), Janovic The Going Up of David Lev (1971) (TV), Chaim Ha-Tarnegol (1971) Fiddler on the Roof (1971), Tevye The Public Eye (aka Follow Me!) (1972), Julian Cristoforou Galileo (1975), Galileo Galilei The House on Garibaldi Street (1979) (TV), Michael Flash Gordon (1980), Doctor Hans Zarkov For Your Eyes Only (1981), Milos Columbo The Winds of War (1983) (TV Mini-Series), Berel Jastrow. Roman Behemshechim (1985), Effi Avidar Queenie (1987) (TV), Dimitri Goldner Tales of the Unexpected "Mr Knowall" (1988) (TV), Professor Max Kelada War and Remembrance (1988) (TV), Berel Jastrow SeaQuest DSV "Treasure of the Mind" (1993) (TV), Dr. Rafik Hassan Time Elevator (1998), Shalem Left Luggage (1998), Mr. Apfelschnitt Shalom Shabbat (1998), Eliyahu the Fisherman References External links | Chaim_Topol |@lemmatized chaim:3 topol:13 born:1 september:2 often:1 bill:1 simply:1 one:1 famous:1 israeli:3 theatrical:2 film:10 performer:1 biography:1 bear:1 tel:2 aviv:2 israel:3 first:2 practice:1 act:2 amateur:1 play:11 stag:1 army:2 subsequently:1 establish:1 theatre:6 troupe:1 significantly:1 contribute:1 foundation:1 haifa:1 municipal:1 career:1 among:1 early:2 appearance:3 lead:2 role:7 sallah:3 shabati:1 ephraim:1 kishon:1 later:2 adapt:1 depict:1 hardship:1 mizrachi:1 jewish:2 immigrant:1 family:1 nominate:3 academy:1 award:5 best:3 foreign:1 language:2 earn:1 actor:4 golden:2 globe:2 new:2 star:2 year:1 make:1 english:1 screen:1 abou:2 ibn:2 kaqden:1 big:1 budget:1 mickey:1 marcus:1 biopic:1 cast:2 giant:2 shadow:2 come:2 great:1 prominence:1 tevye:5 milkman:1 long:1 run:1 musical:3 show:1 fiddler:8 roof:7 majesty:1 guide:1 access:2 december:1 score:1 major:1 success:1 west:1 end:2 stage:2 version:1 win:1 oscar:1 performance:2 active:1 service:1 time:3 grant:1 permission:1 attend:1 ceremony:1 notable:1 galileo:3 flash:2 gordon:2 james:1 bond:1 movie:1 eye:3 reprise:1 london:4 revival:3 late:1 touring:2 united:1 state:1 production:4 approximate:1 age:1 character:1 fact:1 actress:1 wife:1 golde:1 rosalind:1 harris:1 old:1 daughter:1 tzeitel:1 part:4 broadway:1 tony:1 lose:1 jonathan:1 pryce:1 become:1 since:1 various:1 include:2 europe:1 australia:2 japan:1 recent:1 left:1 luggage:2 mr:3 apfelschnitt:2 elevator:2 shalem:2 november:1 two:1 month:1 season:1 capitol:1 sydney:1 april:1 wellington:1 zealand:1 honore:1 gigi:1 open:2 air:1 regent:1 park:1 january:1 begin:1 farewell:2 tour:3 wilmington:1 delaware:1 august:1 portland:1 oregon:1 may:1 author:1 autobiography:1 publish:1 also:1 illustrator:1 responsible:1 drawing:1 several:1 book:1 treasury:1 humour:1 filmography:1 like:1 mike:1 el:1 dorado:1 benny:1 sherman:1 shabbati:2 kader:1 ervinka:2 talent:1 love:1 winter:1 janovic:1 go:1 david:1 lev:1 tv:7 ha:1 tarnegol:1 public:1 aka:1 follow:1 julian:1 cristoforou:1 galilei:1 house:1 garibaldi:1 street:1 michael:1 doctor:1 han:1 zarkov:1 milo:1 columbo:1 wind:1 war:2 mini:1 series:1 berel:2 jastrow:2 roman:1 behemshechim:1 effi:1 avidar:1 queenie:1 dimitri:1 goldner:1 tale:1 unexpected:1 knowall:1 professor:1 max:1 kelada:1 remembrance:1 seaquest:1 dsv:1 treasure:1 mind:1 dr:1 rafik:1 hassan:1 leave:1 shalom:1 shabbat:1 eliyahu:1 fisherman:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram tel_aviv:2 golden_globe:2 fiddler_roof:7 reprise_role:1 wilmington_delaware:1 portland_oregon:1 el_dorado:1 galileo_galilei:1 seaquest_dsv:1 external_link:1 |
6,892 | Graphite | The mineral graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 from the Greek γραφειν (graphein): "to draw/write", for its use in pencils, where it is commonly called lead, as distinguished from the actual metallic element lead. Unlike diamond (another carbon allotrope), graphite is an electrical conductor, a semimetal, and can be used, for instance, in the electrodes of an arc lamp. Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. Graphite may be considered the highest grade of coal, just above anthracite and alternatively called meta-anthracite, although it is not normally used as fuel because it is hard to ignite. There are three principal types of natural graphite, each occurring in different types of ore deposit: (1) Crystalline flake graphite (or flake graphite for short) occurs as isolated, flat, plate-like particles with hexagonal edges if unbroken and when broken the edges can be irregular or angular; (2) Amorphous graphite occurs as fine particles and is the result of thermal metamorphism of coal, the last stage of coalification, and is sometimes called meta-anthracite. Very fine flake graphite is sometimes called amorphous in the trade; (3) Lump graphite (also called vein graphite) occurs in fissure veins or fractures and appears as massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates, and is probably hydrothermal in origin. HOPG (Highly Ordered Pyrolytic Graphite) is an artificial form used in research. The name "graphite fiber" is also sometimes used to refer to carbon fibre or carbon fibre reinforced plastic. Occurrence Graphite ore Graphite output in 2005 Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas, iron meteorites, and tourmalines. China is usually the top producer of graphite, followed by India and Brazil. Graphite has various other characteristics. Thin flakes are flexible but inelastic, the mineral can leave black marks on hands and paper, it conducts electricity, and displays superlubricity. Its best field indicators are softness, luster, density and streak. According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite in 2006 was 1.03 million tonnes and in 2005 was 1.04 million tonnes (revised), of which the following major exporters produced: China produced 720,000 tonnes in both 2006 and 2005, Brazil 75,600 tonnes in 2006 and 75,515 tonnes in 2005 (revised), Canada 28,000 tonnes in both years, and Mexico (amorphous) 12,500 tonnes in 2006 and 12,357 tonnes in 2005 (revised). In addition, there are two specialist producers: Sri Lanka produced 3,200 tonnes in 2006 and 3,000 tonnes in 2005 of lump or vein graphite, and Madagascar produced 15,000 tonnes in both years, a large portion of it "crucible grade" or very large flake graphite. Some other producers produce very small amounts of "crucible grade". According to the USGS, U.S. (synthetic) graphite electrode production in 2006 was 132,000 tonnes valued at $495 million and in 2005 was 146,000 tonnes valued at $391 million, and high-modulus graphite (carbon) fiber production in 2006 was 8,160 tonnes valued at $172 million and in 2005 was 7,020 tonnes valued at $134 million. Detailed properties Graphite is a layered compound. In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a hexagonal lattice with separation of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm. Graphite and Precursors, Pierre Delhaes CRC Press, 2001 The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta (rhombohedral), have very similar physical properties (except that the graphene layers stack slightly differently). C. S. G. Cousins, Phys. Rev. B 67, 024107 (2003). Elasticity of carbon allotropes. I. Optimization, and subsequent modification, of an anharmonic Keating model for cubic diamond (abstract) The hexagonal graphite may be either flat or buckled. .W.G. Wyckoff, "Crystal Structures" 2 volumes , John Wiley & Sons, New York, London, 1963-4. Another form called cubic may have also been discovered. Cat.Inist Graphites that naturally occur have been found to contain up to 30% of the beta form, when synthetically-produced graphite only contains the alpha form. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heated above 1300 °C. rhombohedral graphite (IUPAC) The layering contributes to its lower density. The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons propagate very quickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another. Graphite can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers. These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the layers. Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for its self-lubricating and dry lubricating properties. There is a common belief that graphite's lubricating properties are solely due to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure. However, it has been shown that in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite is a very poor lubricant. This observation led to the discovery that the lubrication is due to the presence of fluids between the layers, such as air and water, which are naturally adsorbed from the environment. This molecular property is unlike other layered, dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for graphite's lubricating properties. The use of graphite is limited by its tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some stainless steel Galvanic Corrosion ASM Tech Notes - TN7-0506 - Galvanic Corrosion , and to promote galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity). It is also corrosive to aluminium in presence of moisture. For this reason, the US Air Force banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft Better Lubricants than Graphite , and discouraged its use in aluminium-containing automatic weapons Jack Army . Even graphite pencil marks on aluminium parts may facilitate corrosion Good Engineering Practice/Corrosion - L o t u s S e v e n C l u b . Another high-temperature lubricant, hexagonal boron nitride, has the same molecular structure as graphite. It is sometimes called white graphite, due to its similar properties. When a large number of crystallographic defects binds these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon. This material is useful for blood-contacting implants such as artificial heart valves. It is also highly diamagnetic, thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet. Graphite forms intercalation compounds with some metals and small molecules. In these compounds, the host molecule or atom gets "sandwiched" between the graphite layers, resulting in compounds with variable stoichiometry. A prominent example of an intercalation compound is potassium graphite, denoted by the formula KC8. Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties. History Some time before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite near Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found very useful for marking sheep. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and could easily be sawn into sticks. This remains the only deposit of graphite found in this solid form. Uses of natural graphite According to the USGS, U.S. consumption of natural graphite in 2005-06 averaged 41,850 tonnes in end uses such as refractories, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, and foundry facings-lubricants. GAN (Graphite Advocate News) import-export statistics for 2006 and 2007 indicate the consumption will continue at that level unless steelmaking carbon raiser takes a drastic drop. Graphene, which occurs naturally in graphite, is the strongest substance known, according to a study released in August 2008 by Columbia University. However, the process of separating it from graphite will require some technological development before it is economical enough to be used in industrial processes. TOUGHEST STUFF KNOWN TO MAN: DISCOVERY OPENS DOOR TO SPACE ELEVATOR, By BILL SANDERSON, nypost.com, August 25, 2008 . Refractories This end-use begins before 1900 with the graphite crucible used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of refractories. In the mid 1980s, the carbon-magnesite brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. Currently the order of importance is alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles. Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite brick requiring not quite so large flake graphite; for these and others there is now much more flexibility in size of flake required, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories. Alumina-graphite shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as nozzles and troughs, to convey the molten steel from ladle to mould, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric arc furnaces to withstand extreme temperatures. Graphite Blocks are also used in parts of blast furnace linings where the high thermal conductivity of the graphite is critical. High-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of the carbon-magnesite bricks. The U.S. and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000-2003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per tonne of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closings. Many of the plant closings resulted from the RHI acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories; some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now imports from China. Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement. According to the USGS, 2006 U.S. natural graphite consumption in refractories was 11,000 tonnes and in 2005 11,800 tonnes. Steelmaking Natural graphite in this end use mostly goes into carbon raising in molten steel, although it can be used to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Supplying carbon raiser is very competitive, therefore subject to cut-throat pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to the specified level. A GAN consumption estimate based on USGS U.S. graphite consumption statistics indicates that 10,500 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005. Expanded graphite Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of chromic acid, then concentrated sulfuric acid, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite. The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as "hot top" compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as firestops fitted around a fire door or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe, (During a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread.), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in fuel cells. The foil is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current U.S. natural graphite consumption in this end use is 7,500 tonnes. Brake linings Natural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or brake shoes for heavier (nonautomotive) vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for asbestos. This use has been important for quite some time, but nonasbestos organic (NAO) compositions are beginning to cost graphite market share. A brake-lining industry shake-out with some plant closings has not helped either, nor has an indifferent automotive market. According to the USGS, U.S. natural graphite consumption in brake linings was 6,510 tonnes in 2005. Foundry facings and lubricants A foundry facing or mold wash is a water-based paint of amorphous or fine flake graphite. Painting the inside of a mold with it and letting it dry leaves a fine graphite coat that will ease separation of the object cast after the hot metal has cooled. Graphite lubricants are specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures, as a wire die extrusion lubricant, an antiseize agent, a gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to lubricate locks. Having low-grit graphite, or even better no-grit graphite (ultra high purity), is highly desirable. It can be used as a dry powder, in water or oil, or as colloidal graphite (a permanent suspension in a liquid). An estimate based on USGS graphite consumption statistics indicates that 2,200 tonnes was used in this fashion in 2005. Other uses Natural graphite has found uses as the marking material ("lead") in common pencils, in zinc-carbon batteries, in electric motor brushes, and various specialized applications. Uses of synthetic graphite Electrodes These electrodes carry the electricity that heats electric arc furnaces, the vast majority steel furnaces. They are made from petroleum coke after it is mixed with petroleum pitch, extruded and shaped, then baked to sinter it, and then graphitized by heating it above the temperature that converts carbon to graphite. They can vary in size up to 11 ft. long and 30 in. in diameter. An increasing proportion of global steel is made using electric arc furnaces, and the electric arc furnace itself is getting more efficient and making more steel per tonne of electrode. An estimate based on USGS data indicates that graphite electrode consumption was 197,000 tonnes in 2005. Powder and scrap The powder is made by heating powdered petroleum coke above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings. According to the USGS, U.S. synthetic graphite powder and scrap production was 95,000 tonnes in 2001 (latest data). Other uses Graphite (carbon) fiber and carbon nanotubes are also used in carbon fiber reinforced plastics, and in heat-resistant composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC). Products made from carbon fiber graphite composites include fishing rods, golf clubs,bicycle frames,and pool sticks and have been successfully employed in reinforced concrete. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey cast iron are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term "(100%) graphite" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and resin, while the term "composite" is used for composite materials with additional ingredients. Synthetic graphite also finds use as a matrix and neutron moderator within nuclear reactors. Its low neutron cross section also recommends it for use in proposed fusion reactors. Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as boron, widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems—this caused the failure of the Germans' World War II graphite-based nuclear reactors. Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive heavy water moderators. Graphite used for nuclear reactors is often referred to as nuclear graphite. Graphite has been used in at least three radar absorbent materials. It was mixed with rubber in Sumpf and Schornsteinfeger, which were used on U-boat snorkels to reduce their radar cross section. It was also used in tiles on early F-117 Nighthawks. Modern gunpowder is coated in graphite to prevent the buildup of static charge. Graphite also has the interesting property that, under certain conditions, it can serve as a form of armor against nuclear weapons. While there is no practical military application for this, graphite is a common material proposed for the pusher plate of a nuclear pulse rocket; a space vehicle that propels itself by ejecting nuclear explosives through the rear and detonating them. Graphite mining, beneficiation, and milling Graphite is mined around the world by both open pit and underground methods. While flake graphite and amorphous graphite are both mined open pit and underground, lump (vein) graphite is only mined underground in Sri Lanka. The open pit mines usually employ equipment (i.e. bulldozers) to scoop up the ore, which is usually put in trucks and moved to the plant. Since the original rock is usually lateritized or weathered, this amounts to moving dirt with flecks or pieces of graphite in it from the pit (blasting is seldom required). The underground graphite mines employ drilling and blasting to break up the hard rock (ore), which is then moved by mine cars pulled by a locomotive, or moved by automotive vehicles, to the surface and then to the plant. In less-developed areas of the world, the ore can be mined by pick and shovel and transported by mine cars pushed by a laborer or by women carrying baskets of ore on their heads. Graphite usually needs beneficiation, although thick-bedded amorphous graphite and vein graphite is almost always beneficiated, if beneficiated at all, by laborers hand-picking out the pieces of gangue (rock) and hand-screening the product. The great majority of world flake graphite production is crushed and ground if necessary and beneficiated by flotation. Treating graphite by flotation encounters one big difficulty: graphite is very soft and "marks" (coats) the particles of gangue. This makes the "marked" gangue particles float off with the graphite to yield a very impure concentrate. There are two ways of obtaining a saleable concentrate or product: regrinding and floating it again and again (up to seven times) to obtain a purer and purer concentrate, or by leaching (dissolving) the gangue with hydrofluoric acid (for a silicate gangue) or hydrochloric acid (for a carbonate gangue). In the milling process, the incoming graphite products and concentrates can be ground before being classified (sized or screened), with the coarser flake size fractions (above 8 mesh, 8 mesh to 20 mesh, 20 mesh to 50 mesh) carefully preserved, and then the carbon contents are determined. Then some standard blends can be prepared from the different fractions, each with a certain flake size distribution and carbon content. Custom blends can also be made for individual customers who want a certain flake size distribution and carbon content. If flake size is unimportant, the concentrate can be ground more freely. Typical final products include a fine powder for use as a slurry in oil drilling; in zirconium silicate, sodium silicate and isopropyl alcohol coatings for foundry molds; and a carbon raiser in the steel industry ( Synthetic graphite powder and powdered petroleum coke can also be used as carbon raiser)(Earth Metrics, 1989). Rough graphite is typically classified, ground, and packaged at a graphite mill; often the more complex formulations are also mixed and packaged at the mill facility. Environmental impacts from graphite mills consist of air pollution including fine particulate exposure of workers and also soil contamination from powder spillages leading to heavy metals contaminations of soil. Dust masks are normally worn by workers during the production process to avoid worker exposure to the fine airborne graphite and zircon silicate. Graphite recycling The most common way graphite is recycled occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes (or anodes or cathodes) are either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded, or the electrode (or other) are used all the way down to the electrode holder. A new electrode replaces the old one , but a sizeable piece of the old electrode remains. This is crushed and sized, and the resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel. Graphite-containing refractories are sometimes also recycled , but often not because of their graphite: the largest-volume items, such as carbon-magnesite bricks that contain only 15%-25% graphite, usually contain too little graphite. However, some recycled carbon-magnesite brick is used as the basis for furnace repair materials, and also crushed carbon-magnesite brick is used in slag conditioners. While crucibles have a high graphite content, the volume of crucibles used and then recycled is very small. A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish. Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace, and is a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron), lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on site, so what is left is a mixture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (Which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last.) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate. Leaching this concentrate with hydrochloric acid gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10 mesh down. Media Rotating graphite stereogram See also Graphite intercalation compound Carbon fiber Intumescent Passive fire protection Pyrolytic graphite Diamond Lonsdaleite Graphene Carbon nanotube Fullerene Pencil Exfoliated Graphite Nano-Platelets References C.Michael Hogan, Marc Papineau et al., Phase I Environmental Site Assessment, Asbury Graphite Mill, 2426-2500 Kirkham Street, Oakland, California, Earth Metrics report 10292.001, December 18, 1989 Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. (1985) Manual of Mineralogy: after Dana 20th ed. ISBN 0-471-80580-7 Taylor, Harold A., "Graphite", Financial Times Executive Commodity Reports (London: Mining Journal Books ltd.) 2000 ISBN 1-84083-332-7 Taylor, Harold A., "Graphite", Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 7th ed. (Littleton, CO AIME-Society of Mining Engineers) 2005 ISBN 0-87335-233-5 External links The Graphite Page Mineral galleries Webmineral Mindat w/ locations giant covalent structures USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Graphite USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Graphite Graphite Statistics and Information - United States Geological Survey minerals information for graphite Link to 'Graphite - a New Twist' - Video lecture by Prof. Malcolm Heggie, University of Sussex. graphite 3D animation | Graphite |@lemmatized mineral:9 graphite:163 one:4 allotrope:3 carbon:46 name:2 abraham:1 gottlob:1 werner:1 greek:1 γραφειν:1 graphein:1 draw:1 write:1 use:56 pencil:4 commonly:1 call:8 lead:5 distinguish:1 actual:1 metallic:1 element:1 unlike:2 diamond:3 another:4 electrical:2 conductor:1 semimetal:1 instance:1 electrode:12 arc:5 lamp:1 hold:2 distinction:1 stable:1 form:15 standard:3 condition:2 therefore:2 thermochemistry:1 state:2 define:1 heat:9 formation:1 compound:8 may:4 consider:1 high:11 grade:4 coal:2 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useful:2 blood:1 contact:1 implant:1 heart:1 valve:2 diamagnetic:1 thus:2 float:3 mid:2 strong:2 magnet:1 intercalation:3 molecule:2 host:1 get:3 sandwich:1 variable:1 stoichiometry:1 prominent:1 example:1 potassium:1 denote:1 formula:1 often:6 pure:3 structural:1 shear:1 brittleness:1 inconsistent:1 history:1 time:4 source:2 say:1 early:2 enormous:1 approach:1 grey:2 knotts:1 hamlet:1 seathwaite:1 near:2 borrowdale:1 parish:1 cumbria:1 england:1 local:1 sheep:1 particular:1 extremely:1 solid:2 could:2 easily:1 saw:1 stick:2 remain:2 us:6 consumption:12 average:1 end:5 refractory:12 steelmaking:4 expand:4 brake:7 lining:6 foundry:4 facing:3 gan:3 advocate:1 news:1 import:2 export:1 statistic:4 indicate:4 continue:1 level:2 unless:1 raiser:5 take:2 drastic:1 drop:1 substance:1 release:1 august:2 columbia:1 university:2 process:5 separate:2 require:5 technological:1 development:1 economical:1 enough:1 tough:1 stuff:1 man:1 open:4 door:2 elevator:1 bill:1 sanderson:1 nypost:1 com:1 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6,893 | Lockheed_Martin_F-35_Lightning_II | The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a fifth-generation, single-seat, single-engine, stealth-capable military strike fighter, a multirole aircraft that can perform close air support, tactical bombing, and air defense missions. The F-35 has three different models; one is the conventional takeoff and landing variant, the second is short takeoff and vertical-landing variant, and the third is a carrier-based variant. The F-35 is descended from the X-35, the product of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Its development is being principally funded by the United States, with the United Kingdom, and other partner governments providing additional funding. F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Lightning II – International Partners, GlobalSecurity.org It is being designed and built by an aerospace industry team led by Lockheed Martin with Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems as major partners. Demonstrator aircraft flew in 2000, "JSF program history." JSF.mil. with the first flight on 15 December 2006. "F-35 Test Flight Deemed a Success." ABC News, 15 December 2006. Development JSF Program history Requirement The JSF program was designed to replace the U.S. military's F-16, A-10, F/A-18 and AV-8B tactical fighter aircraft. To keep development, production, and operating costs down, a common design was planned in three variants that share 80% of their parts: F-35A, conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant. F-35B, short-takeoff and vertical-landing (STOVL) variant. F-35C, carrier-based CATOBAR (CV) variant. The F-35 is intended to be the world's premier strike aircraft through 2040, with close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor. "F-35 Capabilities." Lockheed Martin, 2009. Retrieved: 9 February 2009. The F-35 is required to be four times more effective than existing fighters in air-to-air combat, eight times more effective in air-to-ground battle combat, and three times more effective in reconnaissance and suppression of air defenses — all while having better range and require less logistics support. "F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Lightning II." GlobalSecurity.org. With takeoff weights up to 60,000 lb (27,000 kg), the F-35 is considerably heavier than the lightweight fighters it replaces. In empty and maximum gross weights, it more closely resembles the single-seat, single-engine F-105 Thunderchief which was the largest single-engine fighter of the Vietnam era. Hedging the Bet – JSF for the RAAF Origins and selection The Joint Strike Fighter evolved out of several requirements for a common fighter to replace existing types. The actual JSF development contract was signed on 16 November 1996. The contract for System Development and Demonstration (SDD) was awarded on 26 October 2001 to Lockheed Martin, whose X-35 beat the Boeing X-32. According to Department of Defense officials and British Minister of Defence Procurement Lord Bach, the X-35 consistently outperformed the X-32, although both met or exceeded requirements. The designation of the fighter as "F-35" came as a surprise to Lockheed, which had been referring to the aircraft in-house by the designation "F-24". Designation Systems Design phase The F-35 was in danger of missing performance requirements in 2004 because it weighed too much — reportedly, by 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg) or 8 percent. In response, Lockheed Martin added engine thrust and shed more than a ton by thinning the aircraft's skin; shrinking the weapons bay and vertical tails; rerouting some thrust from the roll-post outlets to the main nozzle; and redesigning the wing-mate joint, portions of the electrical system, and the portion of the aircraft immediately behind the cockpit. Fulghum, David A. and Robert Wall. "USAF Plans for Fighters Change." Aviation Week and Space Technology, 19 September 2004. Retrieved: 8 February 2006. On 7 July 2006, the U.S. Air Force officially announced the name of the F-35: Lightning II, in honor of Lockheed's World War II-era twin-prop P-38 Lightning "'Lightning II' moniker given to Joint Strike Fighter." Air Force Link, United States Air Force, 7 June 2006. Retrieved: 1 December 2008. and the Cold War-era jet, the English Electric Lightning. English Electric Company's aircraft division was a predecessor of F-35 partner BAE Systems. Lightning II was also an early company name for the aircraft that became the F-22 Raptor. On 6 April 2009, US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced that the US would buy a total of 2,443 JSFs. Gates, Dominic. "Aerospace Giant 'Hit Harder' Than Peers." Seattle Times, April 7, 2009, p. 1. On 21 April 2009 media reports, citing Pentagon sources, said that during 2007 and 2008, computer spies managed to copy and siphon off several terabytes of data related to F-35's design and the electronics systems, potentially enabling the development of defense systems against the aircraft. "Computer Spies Breach Fighter-Jet Project." The Wall Street Journal, 21 April 2009. However, Lockheed Martin has rejected suggestions that the project has been compromised, saying that it "does not believe any classified information had been stolen". "Jet maker denies F-35 security breach." Yahoo! Finance, 22 April 2009. Design The F-35 appears to be a smaller, slightly more conventional, one-engine sibling of the sleeker, twin-engine F-22 Raptor, and indeed drew elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, a 1972 VTOL aircraft designed for the Sea Control Ship. "Vertiflight". Journal of the American Helicopter Society. January 2004. For specialized development of the F-35B STOVL variant, Lockheed consulted with the Yakovlev Design Bureau, purchasing design data from their development of the Yakovlev Yak-141 "Freestyle". Hayles, John. "Yakovlev Yak-41 'Freestyle'". Aeroflight, 28 March 2005. Retrieved: 3 July 2008. "Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).", Jane's. Retrieved: 3 July 2008. Some improvements over current-generation fighter aircraft are: Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology; Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and onboard sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes; High speed data networking including IEEE 1394b Philips, E. H. "The Electric Jet." Aviation Week & Space Technology, 5 February 2007. and Fibre Channel. Parker, Ian. "Reducing Risk on the Joint Strike Fighter." Avionics Magazine, Access Intelligence, LLC, 1 June 2007. Retrieved: 8 June 2007. Cockpit The F-35 features a full-panel-width "panoramic cockpit display (PCD)", with dimensions of 20 by 8 inches (50 by 20 centimeters). The Lockheed Martin F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), vectorsite.net A cockpit speech-recognition system (Direct Voice Input) is planned to improve the pilot's ability to operate the aircraft over the current-generation. The F-35 will be the first U.S. operational fixed-wing aircraft to use this system, although similar systems have been used in AV-8B and trialled in previous U.S. jets, particularly the F-16 VISTA. "Researchers fine-tune F-35 pilot-aircraft speech system." US Air Force, 10 October 2007. In development the system has been integrated by Adacel Systems Inc with the speech recognition module supplied by SRI International. Technology News A helmet mounted display system (HMDS) will be fitted to all models of the F-35. While some fourth-generation fighters (such as the Swedish JAS 39 Gripen) have offered HMDS along with a head up display (HUD), this will be the first time in several decades that a front-line tactical jet fighter has been designed to not carry a HUD. "VSI's Helmet Mounted Display System flies on Joint Strike Fighter." Rockwell Collins, 2007. Retrieved: 8 June 2008. The pilot flies the aircraft by means of a right-hand side-stick and left-hand throttle. The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is used in all F-35 variants. Martin-Baker, Jsf.org.uk The US16E seat design balances major performance requirements, including safe terrain clearance limits, pilot load limits, and pilot size. It uses a twin-catapult system that is housed in side-rails. "Martin-Baker, UK." Martin-baker.com. Sensors The main sensor on board the F-35 is its AN/APG-81 AESA-radar, designed by Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems. APG-81 (F-35 Lightning II) Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems. Retrieved: 4 August 2007. It is augmented by the Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) mounted under the nose of the aircraft, designed by Lockheed Martin. Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control: Joint Strike Fighter Electro-Optical Targeting System. Retrieved: 11 April 2008. Six additional passive infrared sensors are distributed over the aircraft as part of Northrop Grumman's AN/ASQ-37 distributed aperture system (DAS), which acts as a missile warning system, reports missile launch locations, detects and tracks approaching aircraft spherically around the F-35, and replaces traditional night vision goggles for night operations and navigation. All DAS functions are performed simultaneously, in every direction, at all times. The F-35's Electronic Warfare systems are designed by BAE and include Northrop Grumman components. The communications, navigation and identification (CNI) suite is designed by Northrop Grumman. Engines Two different jet engines are being developed for the F-35; the Pratt & Whitney F135 and the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136. The STOVL versions of both powerplants use the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, patented by Lockheed Martin and built by Rolls-Royce. This system is more like the Russian Yak-141 and German VJ 101D/E Swivel nozzle VJ101D and VJ101E than the preceding generation of STOVL designs, such as the Harrier Jump Jet. The LiftSystem is composed of a lift fan, driveshaft, clutch, 2 roll posts and a "3 Bearing Swivel Module" (3BSM). Rolls-Royce LiftSystem. LiftSystem Description. The 3BSM is a thrust vectoring nozzle which allows the main engine exhaust to be deflected downward at the tail of the aircraft. The lift fan near the front of the aircraft provides a counter-balancing thrust. Somewhat like a vertically mounted turboprop within the forward fuselage, the lift fan is powered by the engine's low-pressure (LP) turbine via a driveshaft and gearbox. Roll control during slow flight is achieved by diverting pressurized air from the LP turbine through wing mounted thrust nozzles called Roll Posts. Going vertical. Developing a STOVL system. The F-35B lift fan achieves the same 'flow multiplier' effect as the Harrier's huge, but supersonically impractical, main fan. Like lift engines, this added machinery is just deadweight during horizontal flight but provides a net increase in payload capacity during vertical flight. The cool exhaust of the fan also reduces the amount of hot, high-velocity air that is projected downward during vertical takeoff (which can damage runways and aircraft carrier decks). Though complicated and potentially risky, the lift system has been made to work to the satisfaction of DOD officials. Armament The F-35 includes a GAU-22/A four-barrel 25 mm cannon. F-35 gun system, General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products. The cannon will be mounted internally with 180 rounds in the F-35A and fitted as an external pod with 220 rounds in the F-35B and F-35C. "F-35 specifications." GlobalSecurity.org. Internally (current planned weapons for integration), up to two air-to-air missiles and two air-to-ground weapons (up to two 2,000 lb bombs in A and C models; two 1,000 lb bombs in the B model) in the bomb bays. "F-35 Program Brief." USAF, 26 September 2006. These could be AIM-120 AMRAAM, AIM-132 ASRAAM, the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) — up to 2,000 lb (910 kg), the Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), Small Diameter Bombs (SDB) — a maximum of four in each bay, the Brimstone anti-armor missiles, and Cluster Munitions (WCMD). The MBDA Meteor air-to-air missile is currently being adapted to fit internally in the missile spots and may be integrated into the F-35. The had originally planned to put up to four AIM-132 ASRAAM internally but this has been changed to carry 2 internal and 2 external ASRAAMs. "F-35 Lightning II News: ASRAAM Config Change For F-35." f-16.net, 4 March 2008. It has also been stated by a Lockheed executive that the internal bay will eventually be modified to accept up to 6 AMRAAMs. AMRAAMs At the expense of being more detectable by radar, many more missiles, bombs and fuel tanks can be attached on four wing pylons and two wingtip positions. The two wingtip pylons can only carry AIM-9X Sidewinders, while the AIM-120 AMRAAM, Storm Shadow, Joint Air to Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) cruise missiles and 480 gallon fuel tanks can be carried in addition to the stores already integrated. An air-to-air load of eight AIM-120s and two AIM-9s is conceivable using internal and external weapons stations, as well as a configuration of six two thousand pound bombs, two AIM-120s and two AIM-9s. Digger, Davis. "JSF Range & Airspace Requirements." Headquarters Air Combat Command, Defense Technical Information Center, 30 October 2007. Retrieved: 3 December 2008. With its payload capability, the F-35 can carry more air to air and air to ground weapons than legacy fighters it is to replace as well as the F-22 Raptor. National Review Concerns over performance Concerns about the F-35's performance have resulted partially from reports of RAND simulations where numerous Russian Sukhoi fighters defeat a handful of F-35s. Trimble, Stephen. "US defence policy - and F-35 - under attack." Flight International, Reed Business Information, 15 October 2008. As a result of these issues the Australian defence minister, Joel Fitzgibbon, requested a formal briefing from the Department of Defence (Australia) on the computer simulation. This briefing stated that the reports of the simulation were inaccurate, and that it did not compare the F-35's performance against that of other aircraft. "Fighter criticism 'unfair' and 'misrepresented'." ABC News, 25 September 2008. Retrieved: 30 October 2008. The criticism of the F-35 has been dismissed by the Pentagon and manufacturer. "Setting the Record Straight On F-35". Lockheed Martin, 19 September 2008. The USAF has conducted an analysis of the F-35's air-to-air performance against all 4th generation fighter aircraft currently available, and has found the F-35 to be at least four times more effective. Maj Gen Charles R. Davis, USAF, the F-35 program executive officer, has stated that the "F-35 enjoys a significant Combat Loss Exchange Ratio advantage over the current and future air-to-air threats, to include Sukhois". The Russian, Indian, Chinese, and other air forces operate Sukhoi Su-27/30 fighters. Manufacturing responsibilities Lockheed Martin Aeronautics is the prime contractor and performs aircraft final assembly, overall system integration, mission system, and provides forward fuselage, wings and flight controls system. Northrop Grumman provides Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, Infrared Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Communications, Navigation, Identification (CNI), center fuselage, weapons bay, and arrestor gear. BAE Systems provides aft fuselage and empennages, horizontal and vertical tails, crew life support and escape systems, Electronic warfare systems, fuel system, and Flight Control Software (FCS1). Alenia will perform final assembly for Italy and, according to an Alenia executive, assembly of all European aircraft with the exception of Turkey and the United Kingdom. Italy Wins JSF Final Assembly; U.K. Presses Maintenance, Support Operational history Testing On 19 February 2006, the first F-35A (designated AA-1) was rolled out in Fort Worth, Texas. The aircraft underwent extensive ground testing at Naval Air Station Fort Worth Joint Reserve Base, adjacent to Lockheed Martin's Fort Worth manufacturing facility, in fall 2006. On 15 September 2006 the first engine run of the F135 afterburning turbofan was conducted in an airframe, with the tests completed on 18 September after a static run with full afterburner. The engine runs were the first time that the F-35 was completely functional on its own power systems. "Mighty F-35 Lightning II Engine Roars to Life." Lockheed Martin, 20 September 2006. On 15 December 2006, the F-35A completed its maiden flight. On 3 May 2007, an electrical problem consisting of electrical arcing inside a hydraulic control box forced the aircraft to make an emergency landing. "Defense Tech: The JSF Finally Flies..." Military Advantage, 10 December 2007. Retrieved: 9 February 2009. It was grounded until 7 December, when test pilot Jon Beesley flew a 55-minute test flight. A unique feature of the test program is the use of the so-called Lockheed CATBird avionic testbed, a highly modified Boeing 737-330, inside of which are racks holding all of F-35's avionics, as well as a complete F-35 cockpit. "Flying Test-Bed Power Switched On." F-35 JSF Flight Plan. Retrieved: 20 November 2006. On 31 January 2008 at Fort Worth, Texas, Lt Col James "Flipper" Kromberg of the U.S. Air Force became the first military service pilot to evaluate the F-35, taking the aircraft through a series of maneuvers on its 26th flight. On 12 March 2008, the first F-35A (designated AA-1) began aerial refueling testing on its 34th test flight. . "Lockheed Martin F-35 Succeeds in First Aerial Refueling Test." Lockheed Martin, 13 March 2008. Another milestone was reached on 13 November 2008, when the AA-1 flew supersonic for the first time. A speed of Mach 1.05 was reached at 30,000 feet (9,144 meters), including four transitions through the sound barrier, and a total of eight minutes in supersonic flight. ""Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Flies Supersonic." Lockheed Martin, 14 November 2008. On 11 June 2008, after extensive ground testing, the first F-35B (designated BF-1) made its maiden flight at Fort Worth. The flight, which featured a conventional takeoff, was piloted by BAE Systems' test pilot Graham Tomlinson. The BF-1 is the second of 19 System Development and Demonstration (SDD) F-35s, and the first to use new weight-optimized design features that will apply to all future F-35s. "F-35B Stovl Stealth Fighter Achieves Successful First Flight". Lockheed Martin, 11 June 2008. On 19 December 2008, Lockheed Martin rolled out the first weight-optimized F-35A (designated AF-1). It is the first F-35 to be produced at a full-rate production speed — the assembly line moves at 50 inches (127 centimeters) per hour — and is structurally identical to final production F-35As that will be delivered starting in 2010. "Weight-Optimized F-35 Test Fleet Adds Conventional Takeoff And Landing Variant." Lockheed Martin, 23 December 2008. As of 5 January 2009, six F-35s are complete, including AF-1 and AG-1, and 17 are in production. "Thirteen of the 17 in production are pre-production test aircraft, and all of those will be finished in 2009," said John R. Kent, acting manager of F-35 Lightning II Communications at Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company. "The other four are the first production-model planes, and the first of those will be delivered in 2010 to the U.S. Air Force, and will go to Eglin." Moore, Mona, "F-35 production on target." Northwest Florida Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, Florida, Monday, 5 January 2009, Volume 62, Number 341, page A1. Environmental concerns In late 2008 the Air Force revealed that the F-35 would be about twice as loud at takeoff as the F-15 Eagle and up to four times as loud upon landing. As a result, residents near Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona and Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, possible homes of the jet, have requested that the Air Force conduct environmental impact studies concerning the F-35's noise levels. Alaimo, Carol Ann. "Noisy F-35 Still Without A Home." Arizona Daily Star, 30 November 2008. The city of Valparaiso, Florida, adjacent to Eglin AFB threatened in February 2009 to sue the Air Force over the impending arrival of the F-35s. Moore, Mona, "Val-P to sue the Air Force", Northwest Florida Daily News, Thursday, 19 February 2009, Volume 63, Number 20, page A1. International participation While the United States is the primary customer and financial backer, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Canada, Turkey, Australia, Norway and Denmark have agreed to contribute US$4.375 billion toward the development costs of the program. Total development costs are estimated at more than US$40 billion (underwritten largely by the United States), while the purchase of an estimated 2,400 planes is expected to cost an additional US$200 billion. Merle, Renae. "GAO Questions Cost Of Joint Strike Fighter." Washington Post, 15 March 2005. Retrieved: 15 July 2007. The nine major partner nations plan to acquire over 3,100 F-35s through 2035, Estimated JSF Air Vehicle Procurement Quantities, JSF.mil, April 2007. making the F-35 one of the most numerous jet fighters. There are three levels of international participation. The levels generally reflect the financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. The United Kingdom is the sole "Level 1" partner, contributing US$2.5 billion, about 10% of the development costs JSF Global Partners. Retrieved: 30 March 2007. under the 1995 Memorandum of Understanding that brought the UK into the project. "US, UK sign JAST agreement." Aerospace Daily New York: McGraw-Hill, 25 November 1995, p. 451. Level 2 partners are Italy, which is contributing US$1 billion; and the Netherlands, US$800 million. Level 3 partners are Canada, US$475 million; Turkey, US$195 million; Australia, US$144 million; Norway, US$122 million and Denmark, US$110 million. Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants (SCP). Schnasi, Katherine V. "Joint Strike Fighter Acquisition: Observations on the Supplier Base." US Accounts Office. Retrieved: 8 February 2006. Some of the partner countries have wavered in their public commitment to the JSF program, hinting or warning that unless they receive more subcontracts or technology transfer, they will forsake JSF for the Eurofighter Typhoon, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, Dassault Rafale or simply upgrade their existing aircraft. Norway has several times threatened to put their support on hold unless substantial guarantees for an increased industrial share is provided. Despite this Norway has signed all the Memoranda of Understanding, including the latest one detailing the future production phase of the JSF program. They have, however, indicated that they will increase and strengthen their cooperation with both competitors of the JSF, the Typhoon and the Gripen. F-35 Lightning II Faces Continued Dogfights in Norway." Defense Industry Daily. United Kingdom The United Kingdom planned to acquire 138 F-35Bs as of December 2006 "MPs warn over US fighter jet deal." BBC News Online, BBC, 8 December 2006. Retrieved: 10 January 2008. for the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy. "F-35B Joint Strike Fighter (JSF)." GlobalSecurity.org. The UK became increasingly frustrated by a lack of U.S. commitment to grant access to the technology that would allow the UK to maintain and upgrade its F-35s without US involvement. This is understood to relate mainly to the software for the aircraft. For five years, British officials sought an ITAR waiver to secure greater technology transfer. This request, which had the blessing of the Bush administration, was repeatedly blocked by U.S. Representative Henry Hyde, who said that the UK needed to tighten its laws protecting against the unauthorized transfer of the most advanced U.S. technology to third parties. "UK denied waiver on US arms technology." Financial Times. Retrieved: 11 October 2006. On 27 May 2006, President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Tony Blair announced that "Both governments agree that the UK will have the ability to successfully operate, upgrade, employ, and maintain the Joint Strike Fighter such that the UK retains operational sovereignty over the aircraft." "Bush gives way over stealth fighter." Financial Times. Retrieved: 27 May 2006. On 12 December 2006, Lord Drayson signed an agreement which met the UK's demands for further participation, i.e., access to software source code and operational sovereignty. The agreement allows "an unbroken British chain of command" for operation of the aircraft. Drayson said Britain would "not be required to have a US citizen in our own operational chain of command". "Update 2 — UK signs memo with US on Joint Strike Fighter." Reuters, 12 December 2006. Retrieved: 13 December 2006. Drayson also said, however, that Britain is still considering an unspecified "Plan B" alternative to buying the Joint Strike Fighter. On 25 July 2007, the Ministry of Defence confirmed that they have placed orders for the two new aircraft carriers of the Queen Elizabeth class that will allow the purchase of the F-35B variant. "MoD confirms £3.8bn carrier order." BBC News Online, 25 July 2007. On 2 May 2008, however, the Washington Post reported that an Inspector General's report chided the U.S. Department of Defense's Defense Security Service for failing to ensure that BAE Systems was exercising appropriate controls over access to sensitive technologies, while both BAE and Lockheed Martin denied that any technology had been compromised. "Security of F-35 Jet Secrets Questioned." The Washington Post, 2 May May 2008. On 18 March 2009, Defence Secretary John Hutton announced the MoD had agreed to purchase three test F-35s. Italy As of October 2008, Italy planned to acquire 131 of the planes: 109 F-35As and 22 F-35Bs. On 7 October 2008, Italy announced it will not participate in initial F-35 testing and evaluation, and will not purchase test aircraft. Trimble, Stephen. "Italy alters role in F-35 programme", Flight International, 18 October 2008. The Navy plans to use the F-35Bs on their new Cavour STOVL Carrier. "Israel eyes new Lockheed F-35 fighter." Defence Aviation, 5 May 2008. Retrieved: 27 March 2009. Netherlands The Netherlands has plans to acquire 85 F-35As for the Royal Netherlands Air Force. Warwick, Graham. "Netherlands decides to join JSF evaluation team." Flightglobal.com, 12 March 2008. The aircraft will replace an aging fleet of Lockheed Martin F-16AM. The Dutch government expects the costs to be €5.5 billion for the initial purchase and €9.1 billion for 30 years of service. van Zaken, Stand. "September 2006, "Monitoring verwerving Joint Strike Fighter". Algemene Rekenkamer, September 2006, p. 22. A simple calculation shows that the Dutch government thus expects a maximum investment of 5500/85=65 Million Euro to bring an F35 into service. On 19 November 2007, in the Dutch Parliament, the Secretary of Defence was questioned about the JSF delay, technical problems and rising costs. F-35 JSF Hit by Serious Design Problems However, on 29 February 2008, the executive council of the Dutch government decided to go ahead with the purchase of two test aircraft and a MOU was signed. JSF is more expensive than expected On 7 September 2008 Dutch television show "Reporter" reports that counter orders are lagging behind compared to promises and that an active lobby by the Royal Netherlands Air Force has manipulated the Dutch government into participating in the project. Kamer misleid over JSF orders. Canada Canada has been involved in the Joint Strike Fighter Program from its beginning, investing US$10 million to be an "informed partner" during the evaluation process. Once Lockheed Martin was selected as the primary contractor for the JSF program, Canada elected to become a level 3 participant along with Norway, Denmark, Turkey, and Australia on the JSF project. An additional US$100 million from the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND) over 10 years and an another $50 million dollars from Industry Canada was dedicated in 2002 making them an early participant of the JSF program. Williams, Alan S. Reinventing Canadian Defence Procurement: A View From the Inside. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Breakout Education Network, Queen's University, 2006. ISBN 0-9781693-0-1. Canada's rationale for joining the JSF project was not due to an urgent need to replace Canada's fleet of CF-18 Hornets; instead it was driven primarily by economics. Through Canadian government investment in the JSF project, Canadian companies were allowed to compete for contracts within the JSF project, as there were fears that being shut out from industrial participation in such a large program would severely damage the Canadian aviation industry. Joining furthered Canadian access to information regarding the F-35 as a possible contender when it eventually plans to replace the CF-18 Hornet fleet. Improved interoperability with major allies, allowed the DND to gain insight on leading edge practices in composites, manufacturing and logistics, and the ability to recoup some investment if the government did decide to purchase the F-35. As a result of the Canadian government investment in the JSF project, 144 contracts were awarded to Canadian companies, universities, and government facilities. Financially the contracts value US$490 million for the period 2002 to 2012, with an expected value of US$1.1 billion from current contracts in the period between 2013 and 2023, and a total potential estimated value of Canadian JSF involvement from US$4.8 billion to US$6.8 billion. Turkey On 12 July 2002, Turkey became the seventh international partner in the JSF Project, joining the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Canada, Denmark and Norway. On 25 January 2007, Turkey signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) for involvement in F-35 production. " "Despite JSF Pact, Turkey Doesn’t Rule Out Eurofighter Buy." Electronic Aviation, 31 January 2007. The Turkish Air Force is planning to initially order 116 "F-35 uçakları." NTV-MSNBC, 31 October 2006. "Hürriyet: İlk F-35'te dört Türk parçası uçtu." 24 December 2006. F-35A "CTOL/Air Force versions" at a reported cost of $11 billion. Turkey Signs F-35 Production MoU It is reported that the aircraft will be produced under license in Turkey by the Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). A Letter of Intent (LOI) was signed between TAI and Northrop Grumman ISS (NGISS) International on 6 February 2007. With the LOI, TAI becomes the second source for the F-35 Lightning II center fuselage during the JSF Signing. The number of center fuselages to be produced by Turkish Aerospace Industries will be determined depending on the number of F-35s Turkey will procure and the number of F-35s to be produced worldwide. The LOI represents a potential value in excess of $3 billion. Turkish Aerospace Industries Northrop Grumman currently produces all F-35 center fuselages at its F-35 assembly facility in Palmdale, California. TAI of Turkey is one of the two international suppliers to Northrop Grumman (the other being Denmark). On 10 December 2007, the Turkish Aerospace Industries, Inc. (TAI) was authorized by the Northrop Grumman to commence fabricating subassemblies for the first two F-35 production aircraft. The subassemblies – composite components and aircraft access doors – will be used in the F-35 center fuselage, a major section of the aircraft being produced by Northrop Grumman, a principal member of the Lockheed Martin-led F-35 global industry team. Defense World It is also anticipated that TAI after 2013 will also produce 100% of the F-35 under license from Lockheed Martin Corporation, as was also the case with the F-16 Fighting Falcon program Peace Onyx I and II. Turkey also intends to incorporate in the future several Turkish designed and manufactured electronic systems into the F-35 platform. Australia Australia is participating in the F-35's development, but has not yet placed an order for the aircraft. It is expected that some 75 to 100 F-35As will be ordered to replace the Royal Australian Air Force's (RAAF's) F/A-18 Hornet aircraft. Wilson, Stewart. "F-35 Lightning II: Future RAAF?" Aero Australia, Sydney: Chevron Publishing Group, Issue 20, 2008, p. 30. ISSN 14488086. Walters, Patrick and Brad Norington. "Cash crisis hits purchase of strike fighters." The Australian, 18 October 2008. Retrieved: 3 November 2008. The Australian Government announced that it would buy into the F-35's development on 22 June 2002. This decision ended the competition to replace Australia's F/A-18 and F-111 aircraft before it formally began, with other aircraft manufacturers being advised that it would not be worth submitting proposals. Borgu, 2004, p. 1. The Government argued that joining the F-35 program at an early stage would allow Australia to influence the F-35's development, provide the Government with information on the aircraft's suitability, and generate savings of over $600 million if an order for F-35s is eventually placed. Australia formally signed up to the F-35 Systems Development and Demonstration phase as a Level 3 participant on 30 October 2002. In November 2006, satisfied with the F-35's progress to date, the Government gave 'first pass' initial approval to the project under which F-35s will be acquired, with a decision on whether to order the aircraft being scheduled for late 2008. Following this initial approval, on 13 December 2006 Australia signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development Memorandum of Understanding which commits Australia to the next phase of the F-35's development. Wilson, Stewart. "F-35 Lightning II: Future RAAF?." Aero Australia, Sydney: Chevron Publishing Group, Issue 20, p. 332008. ISSN 4488086. In October 2006, the deputy chief of the Air Force, Air Vice Marshal John Blackburn, publicly stated that the RAAF had considered suitable aircraft which could be acquired if the F-35 was delayed, but that such aircraft were not believed to be necessary on the basis of the F-35 program's progress at the time. Blenkin, Max. "RAAF 'won't need' interim jet." News.com.au, 10 October 2006. Retrieved: 9 November 2008. Concerns over the F-35s delivery schedule developed in Australia during 2007. In February the Minister for Defence announced that a risk mitigation strategy which involved obtaining F/A-18F Hornets was being developed to prevent a gap in the RAAF's air combat capability if the F-35 program was delayed. Nelson, The Hon. Dr Brendan, Minister for Defence. "Joint Strike Fighter." 1 February 2008. Retrieved: 9 November 2008. This strategy was adopted, and an order for 24 F/A-18Fs was announced on 6 March 2007. These aircraft are scheduled to enter service with the RAAF in 2010 and be fully operational by 2012. Wilson, Stewart. "F-35 Lightning II: Future RAAF?." Aero Australia, Sydney: Chevron Publishing Group, Issue 20, 2008, p. 34. ISSN 14488086. Following the 2007 Australian Federal Election, the new Australian Labor Party Government launched an inquiry into the replacement of the RAAF's air combat capability. The party had expressed concerns over the F-35's adequacy while it was in opposition, and proposed acquiring F-22s to replace or supplement the RAAF's F-35 force. "Beazley calls for caution on fighter jets purchase." ABC News, 27 June 2006. Retrieved: 10 November 2008. "New plane flaws compromise defence: Labor." ABC News, 24 June 2006. Retrieved: 10 November 2008. An approach was made to the U.S. Government for F-22s in early 2008, but was not successful as these aircraft are not available for export. "Australian minister says he wants option to buy US F-22 Raptor." International Herald Tribune, 23 February 2008. Retrieved: 9 November 2008. In April 2008 it was reported that the air combat review had found that the F-35 was the most suitable aircraft for Australia. Walters, Patrick. "Joint strike fighter RAAF's choice." The Australian, 28 April 2008. Retrieved: 9 November 2008. In October 2008 it was reported that the Australian Government may order 75 F-35s instead of the 100 originally (and still officially) planned, due to the impact of the global financial crisis and a large long-term funding gap in the Defence budget. However, in April 2009, the Government released a white paper confirming an intended purchase of 100 F-35s. Walters, Patrick. "White paper orders huge military build-up." The Australian, 25 April 2009. Retrieved: 1 May 2009. There has been debate in Australia over whether the F-35 is the most suitable aircraft for the RAAF. It has been claimed that the F-35's performance is inferior to Russian-built aircraft operated by countries in Australia's region, that the F-35 cannot meet the RAAF's long-range strike requirement, and that delays to the F-35 program will result in the RAAF experiencing a shortage of combat aircraft. "Warring over aircraft." The National Interest, ABC Radio National, 4 March 2007. Retrieved: 10 November 2008. The RAAF believes that the F-35 will meet Australia's needs, however, Walters, Patrick. "Jetfighter F-35 JSF backed for RAAF, despite blowouts." The Australian, 13 May 2008. Retrieved: 10 November 2008. and both of Australia's major political parties currently support purchasing the aircraft, though they differ over when the order should be placed. "Govt should be defending Joint Strike Fighters: Opposition." ABC News, 24 September 2008. Retrieved: 10 November 2008. "Fighter criticism 'unfair' and 'misrepresented'." ABC News, 25 September 2008. Retrieved: 10 November 2008. Norway Norway participates in the F-35 program as a Level 3 partner in the System Development and Demonstration phase with a view to enabling its industry to compete for industrial opportunities. Norway Norwegian National Deputy Rune Fagerli, the country's sole representative on the Joint Strike Fighter program, told SPACE.com the Norwegian Royal Ministry of Defence has pledged $125 million in preparations to replace a fleet of F-16 jets that have about 12 years left of operation. "By getting involved here, on the ground level, we can try and address the needs of Norway into this capable fighter early," said Fagerli, a colonel. In Norway, F-16s are fitted with drag chutes because of wet, slippery runways. International cooperation to aircraft development could also yield aircraft from cooperating nations that fit well together during combat. Fagerli also mentioned that Norwegian pilots currently fly missions over Afghanistan in F-16s alongside Danish and Dutch aviators. "Joint Strike Fighter: A Jet for Every Occasion." space.com, 12 February 2003. The F-35 was evaluated along with JAS 39 Gripen by the Norwegian Future Combat Aircraft Capability Project as a replacement for the F-16s currently in-service. "The Government moves the combat aircraft acquisition into the next stage – Maintains three candidates." Norway Ministry of Defence, 15 December 2006. On 20 November 2008, the government released a statement saying it will support buying F-35s for the Royal Norwegian Air Force instead of the Saab Gripen NG. Joint Strike Fighter recommended to replace the F-16." Norwegian Prime Minister's Office, 20 November 2008. Retrieved: 21 November 2008. Denmark Denmark has joined the Joint Strike Fighter program as a Level 3 partner and the Royal Danish Air Force is considering the replacement of 48 of its aging F-16 fighters with next generation aircraft. Security Cooperative Participants (SCP) Israel In 2003, Israel signed a formal letter of agreement, worth almost $20 million, to join the System Development and Demonstration (SDD) effort for the F-35 as a "security cooperation participant" (SCP). "Israel inks LOA to join Joint Strike Fighter program". The Israeli Air Force (IAF) stated in 2006 that the F-35 is a key part of IAF's recapitalization plans, and that Israel intends to buy over 100 F-35A fighters at an estimated cost of over $5 billion to replace their F-16s over time. "Israel Plans to Buy Over 100 F-35s." DefenseIndustryDaily.com, 27 June 2006. Israel was reinstated as a partner in the development of the F-35 on 31 July 2006, after Israeli participation was put on hold following the Chinese arms deal crisis. Guttman, Nathan. "Israel, US battling over sale of jets." The Jerusalem Post, 22 May 2006. On 3 September 2007, IDF Chief of General Staff Lt.-Gen. Gabi Ashkenazi announced the purchase of a squadron of F-35s which Israel will begin receiving in 2014. However, U.S. defense officials later agreed to allow Israel to receive the fighters as early as 2012. "US to speed up stealth fighter delivery to Israel." Jerusalem Post. The price of each F-35 is expected to reach $70–80 million. "Israel submits request to buy F-35 jets." Jerusalem Post. The Jerusalem Post reports the Pentagon has agreed to supply the F-35A variant to Israel as early as 2012, instead of in 2014 or 2015. This would make Israel one of the first nations to receive the aircraft, and very possibly the first foreign nation. Previous objections to Israel’s installation of its own technology in the F-35 — as it has done with every US fighter it has received — were also reportedly overcome. At present, the only Israeli technology in the standard version will be the JSF HMDS helmet-mounted display system, designed in cooperation with Elbit Systems. Israel also asked to manufacture F-35 aircraft locally at a 1:2 ratio, but the reports did not indicate whether that request was granted. "IAF interested in new US-made jet", Jerusalem Post. On 30 September 2008, the US DoD reported that Israel has requested to purchase 25 F-35As with options to buy up to 50 F-35As or F-35Bs. France-Presse, Agence. "Israel Asks To Buy F-35s: Pentagon." Defense News, 30 September 2008. "Israel - F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Aircraft." US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 29 September 2008. Singapore In February 2003, Singapore joined the JSF program's System Design and Development (SDD) Phase, as a Security Co-operation Participant (SCP). "Singapore Signs Letter of Intent for Joint Strike Fighter Programme." MINDEF. Potential exports The F-35 is a possible future offer to the Indian Air Force as of July 2007. This has been interpreted as part of a tactic to sell the F-16 as a multirole fighter to the IAF, as part of its competition to acquire 126 new fighters. "US wants India's fighter jet order, dangles F-35 carrot." IBN Live, 19 July 2007. Lockheed Martin formally expressed its interest to sell F-35 to India. News It is also known that the Indian Navy has shown interest in buying the F-35B. Indian Navy Eyes F-35B, BSF Eyes C130J says Lockheed Martin The Brazilian Air Force recently has added the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter to the list of aircraft under consideration for its relaunched new fighter procurement, called F-X2. The F-35 replaces the F-16, which was in contention for the previous F-X BR program, shelved in 2003 and finally abandoned in 2006. "Brazil Adds F-35 to New Fighter Contenders." Aviation Week. FAB - NOTA À IMPRENSA - FX-2 (in Portuguese) english translation "Finnish Air Force eyes F-35 as future mainstay." Helsinki Times, 13 November 2008. Lockheed Martin did not offer the F-35 and instead bid the F-16BR in 2008. Trimble, Stephen. "Brazil nears first cut for F-X2 fighter bidders." Flight International, 26 August 2008. The Finnish Air Force has expressed its interest in the F-35, and other "advanced aircraft", as the replacement for its F-18C Hornets. An eventual purchase decision would be taken around 2015. Helsingin Sanomat: Ilmavoimat tähyää uusiin hävittäjähankintoihin The future Spanish Navy ship Juan Carlos I (L61) is adapted to carry JSF and AV-8B Harrier. Spanish Armada Website Lockheed Martin is offering the F-35 to the Hellenic Air Force as F-4E Peace Icarus 2000 and F-16C/D Block 30 replacement. Greece The Republic of China (Taiwan) has requested to buy the F-35 from the US. However this has been rejected by the US in fear of a critical response from Beijing. In March 2009 Taiwan again was looking to buy U.S. fifth-generation fighter jets featuring stealth and vertical takeoff capabilities. Taiwan Variants The F-35 is planned to be built in three different versions to suit the needs of its various users. Secretary Gates proposed speeding up production of the F-35 fighter jet, which could end up costing $1 trillion to manufacture and maintain 2,443 planes. Gates Calls for Cuts to High-Tech Weapons Programs F-35A F-35 Lightning II over Eglin Air Force Base The F-35A is the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant intended for the US Air Force and other air forces. It is the smallest, lightest F-35 version and is the only variant equipped with an internal cannon, the GAU-22/A. This 25 mm cannon is a development of the GAU-12 carried by the USMC's AV-8B Harrier II. It is designed for increased effectiveness compared to the 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon carried by other USAF fighters. The F-35A is expected to match the F-16 in maneuverability, instantaneous and sustained high-g performance, and outperform it in stealth, payload, range on internal fuel, avionics, operational effectiveness, supportability and survivability. F-35A Joint Strike Fighter It also has an internal laser designator and infrared sensors. The A variant is primarily intended to replace the USAF's F-16 Fighting Falcon, beginning in 2013, and replace the A-10 Thunderbolt II starting in 2028. Hebert, Adam J. "Lightning II: So Far, So Good." airforce-magazine.com, Air Force Association, Volume 90, Issue 7, July 2007. Retrieved: 3 December 2008. Laurenzo, Ron. "Air Force: No Plan To Retire A-10." GlobalSecurity.org, Defense Weekly, 9 June 2003. 3 December 2008. F-35B The F-35B is the short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) variant of the aircraft. Similar in size to the A variant, the B sacrifices some fuel volume to make room for the vertical flight system. Takeoffs and landing with vertical flight system are by far the riskiest, and in the end, a decisive factor in design. Like the AV-8B Harrier II, the B's guns will be carried in a ventral pod. Whereas F-35A is stressed to 9 g, F-35B and F-35C are stressed to 7.5 g. "F-35B." Defense Technology International, February 2009, p. 22. "F-35 HMDS Pulls the Gs". Defense Industry Daily, 25 October 2007. The British Royal Air Force and Royal Navy plan to use this variant to replace their Harrier GR7/GR9s. The United States Marine Corps intends to purchase 340 F-35Bs "Fourth F-35 Lightning II Rolls Out as Production Line Fills Up at Lockheed Martin." FOXBusiness.com, Comtex, FOX News Network, LLC, 18 August 2008. Retrieved: 20 August 2008. to replace all current inventories of the F/A-18 Hornet, AV-8B Harrier II and possibly the EA-6B Prowler Trimble, Stephen. "US Marine Corps aviation branch plans to invest in fighter jets, helicopters, transports and UAVs." Flight International, Reed Business Information, 21 July 2008. Retrieved: 21 July 2008. in the fighter, attack, and electronic warfare Fulghum, David A. "Electronic Attack Plan Nears Approval." Aviation Week, Aerospace Daily & Defense Report, 4 June 2008. Retrieved: 8 August 2008. roles. The F-35B was unveiled at Lockheed's Fort Worth plant on 18 December 2007, "First Short Takeoff/Vertical Landing Stealth Fighter Unveiled at Lockheed Martin." Marine Corps News, 18 December 2007. Retrieved: 18 December 2007. and the first test flight was on 11 June 2008. Norris, Guy and Graham Warwick. "F-35B First Flight Boosts JSF as F-22 Loses Supporters". Aviation Week, 15 June 2008. The B variant is expected to be available beginning in 2012. F-35C The F-35C carrier variant will have a larger, folding wing and larger control surfaces for improved low-speed control, and stronger landing gear for the stresses of carrier landings. The larger wing area allows for decreased landing speed, increased range and payload, with twice the range on internal fuel compared with the F/A-18C Hornet, achieving much the same goal as the heavier F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. The United States Navy will be the sole user for the carrier variant. It intends to buy 480 F-35Cs to replace the F/A-18A, -B, -C, and -D Hornets. The F-35C will also serve as a stealthier complement to the Super Hornet. F-35C Carrier Variant globalsecurity.org. On 27 June 2007, the carrier variant completed its Air System Critical Design Review (CDR). This allows the first two functional prototype F-35C units to be produced. "F-35 Navy Version Undergoes Successful Design Review, Readies for Production." Lockheed Martin, 7 June 2007. The C variant is expected to be available beginning in 2015. Tilghman, Andrew. "Cracks in wing hinges sideline 10 Hornets." Navy Times, Army Times Publishing Company, 9 November 2008. Retrieved: 3 December 2008. Specifications (F-35 Lightning II) Popular culture The first major film appearance of a representation of a F-35B was in Live Free or Die Hard (released as Die Hard 4.0 or Die Hard 4 outside North America) in 2007. The film used a combination of a full-scale model and CGI Gray, Simon. "One-Man Riot Squad." American Cinematographer Volume 88, issue 7, July 2007. p. 32. Douglas, Edward. "Bruce Willis Gets a Second Life!", comingsoon.net, 14 June 2007 Retrieved: 15 July 2007. to significantly dramatize its hovering ability using the lift fan. Media See also References Notes Bibliography Borgu, Aldo. A Big Deal: Australia's Future Air Combat Capability. Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2004. ISBN 1-92072-225-4. Gunston, Bill. Yakovlev Aircraft since 1924. London, UK: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1997. ISBN 1-55750-978-6. Keijsper, Gerald. Lockheed F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. Pen & Sword Aviation, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84415-631-3. Kopp, Carlo and Peter Goon. "Joint Strike Fighter." Air Power Australia. Retrieved: 15 July 2007. Spick, Mike. The Illustrated Directory of Fighters. London: Salamander, 2002. ISBN 1-84065-384-1. Winchester, Jim. "Lockheed Martin X-35/F-35 JSF." Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft. Kent, UK: Grange Books plc., 2005. ISBN 1-84013-309-2. External links Official JSF web site Official Team JSF industry web site JSF UK Team F-35 - Royal Air Force US Navy Research, Development & Acquisition, F-35 page F-35 - Global Security F-35 profile and F-35 weapons carriage on Aerospaceweb.org F-35 Lightning II: The Future Is Flying F-35 Lightning II News on f-35jsf.net F-35B Roll out pictures F-35 Article - Armed Forces | Lockheed_Martin_F-35_Lightning_II |@lemmatized lockheed:43 martin:39 f:259 lightning:24 ii:28 fifth:2 generation:8 single:5 seat:4 engine:14 stealth:8 capable:2 military:5 strike:36 fighter:76 multirole:2 aircraft:73 perform:3 close:2 air:70 support:7 tactical:3 bombing:1 defense:18 mission:3 three:7 different:3 model:7 one:7 conventional:6 takeoff:14 landing:11 variant:25 second:5 short:4 vertical:12 third:2 carrier:11 base:7 descend:1 x:8 product:2 joint:37 jsf:50 program:27 development:26 principally:1 fund:2 united:13 state:11 kingdom:7 partner:15 government:20 provide:8 additional:4 funding:1 international:14 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6,894 | List_of_South_Africans | This is a list of notable South Africans with Wikipedia articles. Academics Academics See also: Chancellors and vice-chancellors, UCT academics and alumni, RU academics Estian Calitz, academic (1949 - ) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, academic and politician (1894 - 1948) Tshilidzi Marwala, academic and businessman (1971 - ) Njabulo Ndebele, Principal of the University of Cape Town (1948 - ) Calie Pistorius, academic and Principal of the University of Pretoria David Webster, anthropologist (1945 – 1989) Medical and veterinary See also: South African surgeons Abraham Manie Adelstein, UK Chief Medical Statistician (1916 - 1992) Christiaan Barnard, pioneering heart surgeon (1922 - 2001) Wouter Basson, apartheid medical scientist (1950 - ) Patrick Soon-Shiong, surgeon, founder Abraxis BioScience, billionaire (1952 - ) Arnold Theiler, veterinarian (1867 - 1936) Max Theiler, virologist, 1951 Nobel Prize winner (1899 - 1972) Scientists See also: South African scientists Andrew Geddes Bain, geologist (1797 - 1864) Peter Beighton, geneticist (1934 - ) Wilhelm Bleek, linguist (1827 - 1875) Robert Broom, palaeontologist (1866 - 1951) Sydney Brenner, biologist (1927 - ) Phillip Clancey, ornithologist (1918 - 2001) Allan McLeod Cormack, physicist (1924 - 1998) Clement Martyn Doke, linguist (1893 - 1980) Alexander du Toit, geologist (1878 - 1948) J.W.B. Gunning, zoologist (1860 - 1913) David Lewis-Williams, archaeologist (1934 - ) Lucy Lloyd, anthropologist (1834 - 1914) Thebe Medupe, astrophysicist (1973 - ) Austin Roberts, zoologist (1883 - 1948) Basil Schonland, physicist (1896 - 1972) J.L.B. Smith, ichthyologist (1897 - 1968) Phillip Tobias, palaeontologist (1925 - ) Theologians Also see: Prelates, clerics and evangelists David Bosch (1929 - 1992) Ferdinand Deist (1944 - 1997) Dion Forster, (1972 - ) Johan Heyns, (1928 - 1994) Andrew Murray (1828 - 1917) Bhakti Narasimha Swami (1960 - ) J. Wentzel van Huyssteen (1942 - ) Writers See also: South African writers Authors Lady Anne Barnard, travel writer and artist (1750 - 1825) Herman Charles Bosman, author (1905 - 1951) John Michael Coetzee, 2003 Nobel Prize-winning author (1940 - ) K. Sello Duiker, novelist (1974 - 2005) Percy Fitzpatrick, writer, businessman and politician (1862 - 1931) Damon Galgut, author (1963 - ) Nadine Gordimer, 1991 Nobel Prize-winning author (1923 - ) C. J. Langenhoven, writer and poet (1873 - 1932) David Robert Lewis, writer, editor and playwright (1968 - ) Dalene Matthee, author (1938 - 2005) Gcina Mhlope, author, storyteller, playwright, director, actor (1959 - ) Phaswane Mpe, novelist (1970 - 2004) Alan Paton, author (1903 - 1988) Karel Schoeman, novelist and historian (1939 - ) Olive Schreiner, author (1855 - 1920) Etienne van Heerden, novelist (1956 - ) Marlene van Niekerk, novelist (1954 - ) Lyall Watson, writer (1939 - 2008) Rachel Zadok, London-based South African writer (1972- ) Editors John Tengo Jabavu, political activist and newspaper editor (1859 - 1921) Aggrey Klaaste, journalist and editor (1940 - 2004) Max du Preez, newspaper editor (1951 - ) Poets See also: South African poets and Afrikaans language poets Roy Campbell, poet (1901 - 1957) Sheila Cussons, poet (1922 - 2004) Jakob Daniël du Toit, poet aka Totius (1877 - 1953) Elisabeth Eybers, poet (1915 - 2007) Ingrid Jonker, poet (1933 - 1965) Antjie Krog, poet, novelist and playwright (1952 - ) Laurence Lerner, poet (1925 - ) Thomas Pringle, poet and journalist (1789 - 1834) N. P. van Wyk Louw, poet (1906 - 1970) Eugène Nielen Marais, poet, writer, lawyer and naturalist (1871 - 1936) Journalists Jani Allan, journalist and radio personality (1953 - ) Arthur Goldstuck, journalist (1959 - ) Lara Logan, CBS television reporter/correspondent (1971 - ) Sol Plaatje, journalist and political activist (1877 - 1932) Eric Lloyd Williams, journalist and war correspondent (1915 - 1988) Donald Woods, journalist and anti-apartheid activist (1933 - 2001) Artists See also: South African artists Performing artists Actors/Actresses Peter Cartwright, actor (1935 - ) Embeth Davidtz, actress (1965 - ) Sid James, film & television actor (1913-1976) John Kani, actor, entertainer and writer (1943 - ) Alice Krige, actress (1954 - ) Patrick Mynhardt, actor (1932 - 2007) Basil Rathbone, actor, famous for his portrayal of Sherlock Holmes (1892-1967) Antony Sher, actor, author and painter (1949 - ) Cliff Simon, actor (1962 - ) William Smith, TV teacher and presenter Janet Suzman, actress (1939 - ) Charlize Theron, actress (1975 - ) Pieter Dirk Uys, political satirist and entertainer (1945 - ) Musetta Vander, actress (1969 - ) Arnold Vosloo, actor (The Mummy, The Mummy Returns, 24) (1962 - ) Playwrights and film directors Lev David, writer and media consultant (1980 - ) Athol Fugard, playwright (1932 - ) Ronald Harwood, playwright and writer (1934 - ) Mbongeni Ngema, playwright, actor, choreographer and director (1955 - ) Mthuli ka Shezi, playwright and political activist (1947 - 1972) Leon Schuster, filmmaker, comedian, actor and prankster (1951 - ) Jamie Uys, film director (1921 - 1996) Singers, musicians and composers See also: South African musicians and South African composers Johan Botha, opera singer (1965 - ) Johnny Clegg, musician (1953 - ) Lucky Dube, reggae singer (1964 - 2007) Claire Johnston, singer David Kramer, singer and playwright (1951 - ) Aquiles Priester, drummer (1971 - ) Koos Ras, comedian, singer, writer, composer (1928 - 1997) Enoch Sontonga, composer of national anthem (1873 - 1905) Joseph Shabalala, founder and director of Ladysmith Black Mambazo (1941 - ) Shaun Morgan, lead singer of the award-winning band Seether (c. 1978 - ) TV and Radio personalities Jani Allan, radio personality, journalist (1953- ) Riaan Cruywagen, TV news reader (1945 - ) Michael de Morgan, TV presenter Trevor Denman, horse racing announcer (1952 - ) Alan Khan, radio personality (1971 - ) Felicia Mabuza-Suttle, talk show host, public speaker and businesswoman (1950 - ) Jeremy Mansfield, radio and TV personality Visual Artists Cartoonists T.O. Honiball, cartoonist (1905 - 1990) Jeremy Nell, cartoonist (1979 - ) Zapiro, cartoonist (1958 - ) Ceramists and Collage Artists Painters See also: South African painters Thomas Baines, colonial painter and explorer (1820 – 1875) Annette du Plessis, visual artist (1955 - ) Garth Erasmus, visual artist (1956 - ) Clinton Fein, artist, activist, photographer (1964 - ) C. G. Finch-Davies, painter and ornithologist (1875 - 1920) Maggie Laubser, painter (1886 - 1973) Neville Lewis, artist (1895 - 1972) Rexon Mathebula, artist (1926 - ) Brett Murray, artist (1961 - ) Hugo Naudé, painter (1868 - 1941) George Pemba, visual artist (1912 - 2001) Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef, artist (1886 - 1957) Gerard Sekoto, artist and musician (1913 - 1993) Irma Stern, painter (1894 - 1966) Vladimir Tretchikoff, painter (1913 - 2006) William Kentridge, painter (1955 - ) Photographers Lien Botha (1961 - ) Kevin Carter, (1961 – 1994) Ernest Cole (1940 - 1990) David Goldblatt, photographer (1930 - ) Bob Gosani (1934 - 1972) Alf Khumalo (1930 - ) Peter Magubane (1932 - ) Jürgen Schadeberg (1931 - ) Austin Stevens (1951 - ) Sculptors Anton van Wouw (1862 - 1945) Edoardo Villa (1915 - ) Business See also: South African businesspeople Raymond Ackerman, businessman (1931 - ) Barney Barnato, mining magnate (1852 - 1897) David Brink, businessman (1939 - ) John Fairbairn, founder of Mutual Life Sol Kerzner, hotel magnate (1935 - ) Basetsana Kumalo, former Miss South Africa, presenter and businesswoman (1974 - ) Sammy Marks, businessman (1844 - 1920) Patrice Motsepe, businessman (1962 - ) Elon Musk, Internet and space launch entrepreneur (1971 - ) Harry Oppenheimer, businessman (1908 - 2000) Charles Purdon, agricultural pioneer (1838 - 1926) Mamphela Ramphele, political activist, academic, businesswoman and mother to the son of Steve Biko (1947 - ) Cyril Ramaphosa, politician and businessman (1952 - ) Cecil Rhodes, businessman (1853 - 1902) Anton Rupert, businessman and conservationist (1916 - 2006) Johann Rupert, businessman, son of Anton Rupert (1950 - ) Tokyo Sexwale, politician and businessman (1953 - ) Mark Shuttleworth, web entrepreneur, founder of Thawte and Ubuntu Linux, astronaut (1973 - ) Legal and police Lourens Ackermann, constitutional court judge (1934 - ) George Bizos, lawyer (1928 - ) Arthur Chaskalson, judge (1931 - ) Johannes Christiaan de Wet, legal academic (1912 - 1990) Harold Hanson, advocate QC (1904 - 1973) Bram Fischer, advocate QC and political activist (1908 - 1975) Richard Goldstone, ex-constitutional court judge (1938 - ) Sydney Kentridge, former advocate of the Supreme Court and Acting Justice of the Constitutional Court (1922 - ) Pius Langa, chief justice of constitutional court (1939 - ) Cecil Margo, judge (1915 - 2000) Bulelani Ngcuka, director of public prosecutions (1954 - ) Albie Sachs, justice in constitutional court (1935 - ) Jackie Selebi, national commissioner of police (1950 - ) Percy Sonn, Former head of the Directorate of Special Operations (1947 -2007) Sir Robert Clarkson Tredgold, Chief Justice of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1899 - 1977) Percy Yutar, South Africa’s first Jewish attorney-general and prosecutor of Nelson Mandela in the 1963 Rivonia Treason Trial (1911 -2002) Political Activists and trade unionists See also: South African activists Winnie Madikizela-Mandela (1936 - ) Zackie Achmat, AIDS activist (1962 - ) Neil Aggett, political activist and trade unionist (c. 1953 - 1982) Jeremy Baskin, trade unionist (1956 - ) Steve Biko, nonviolent political activist (1946 - 1977) Chris Hani, political activist (1942 - 1993) Irene Grootboom, housing rights activist (c. 1969 - 2008) Ruth Hayman, anti-apartheid campaigner ( - 1981) Ahmed Kathrada, political activist (1929 - ) Adolph Malan, fighter pilot and civil rights activist (1910 - 1963) Govan Mbeki, political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki (1910 - 2001) Robert McBride, anti-apartheid assassin and later police chief (1963 - ) Fatima Meer, scientist and political activist (1928 - ) Elias Motsoaledi, political activist (1924 - 1994) Victoria Mxenge, anti-apartheid activist (1942 - 1985) Lilian Ngoyi, anti-apartheid activist (1911 - 1980) Rachel Simons, communist and trade unionist (1914 - 2004) Albertina Sisulu, political activist and wife of Walter Sisulu (1919 - ) Walter Sisulu, political activist (1912 - 2003) Robert Sobukwe, political activist (1924 - 1978) Oliver Tambo, political activist (1917 - 1993) Richard Turner, academic and political activist (1941 - 1978) Apartheid operatives Wouter Basson, apartheid scientist (1950 - ) Dirk Coetzee, apartheid covert operative Eugene de Kock, apartheid assassin Clive Derby-Lewis, assassin and former parliamentarian (1936 - ) Jimmy Kruger, apartheid Minister of Justice and the Police (1917 - 1987) Lothar Neethling, apartheid forensic scientist (1935 - 2005) Barend Strydom, convicted murderer and white supremacist activist (1965 - ) Eugène Terre'Blanche, white supremacist activist (1941 - ) Adriaan Vlok, apartheid Minister of Law and Order (1937 - ) Thomas Vorster, apartheid operative and Boeremag member Craig Williamson, apartheid spy (1949 - ) Colonial and Union Governors See also: Cape governors, Natal governors and Governors-General George Grey, Cape governor (1812 - 1898) Jan Willem Janssens, Cape governor (1762 - 1838) Benjamin Pine, Natal governor (1809 - 1891) Harry Smith, Cape governor 1847-52 (1787 - 1860) Andries Stockenström, governor of British Kaffraria (1792 - 1964) Simon van der Stel, first Cape governor (1639 - 1712) Willem Adriaan van der Stel, second Cape governor (1664 - 1723) Jan van Riebeeck, founder of Cape settlement (1619 - 1677) Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet (1873-1960), Chief Justice of South Africa and acting Governor-General Leaders and Politicians See also: South African politicians Ken Andrew, politician (1943 - ) Kader Asmal, an activist, politician and professor of human rights (1934 -) Sibusiso Bengu, politician (1934 - ) Thozamile Botha, politician (1948 - ) Cheryl Carolus, politician (1958 - ) Piet Cronje, boer general and commander-in-chief of ZAR's military forces (1840 - 1911) Yusuf Dadoo, doctor and politician (1909 - 1983) Patricia de Lille, politician (1951 - ) Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, politician (1949 - ) De Villiers Graaff, United Party opposition leader (1913 - 1999) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, journalist and politician (1845 - 1909) Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, academic and politician (1894 - 1948) Danny Jordaan, politician and soccer administrator (1951 - ) Tony Leon, DA opposition leader (1956 - ) Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, politician and 2nd wife of Nelson Mandela (1936 - ) Magnus Malan, minister of defence and chief of the South African Defence Force (1930 - ) Trevor Manuel, minister of finance (1956 - ) Roelf Meyer, politician and businessman (1947 - ) Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, deputy president (1955 - ) Gagathura (Monty) Mohambry Naicker, medical doctor and politician (1910 - 1978) Bulelani Ngcuka, politician (1954 - ) Dullah Omar, politician (1934 - 2004) Andries Pretorius, Boer leader and commandant-general (1799 - 1853) Deneys Reitz, boer commando, deputy Prime Minister and High Commissioner to London (1882 - 1944) Pixley ka Isaka Seme, ANC founder member (1881 - 1951) Mbhazima Shilowa, trade unionist and premier (1958 - ) Joe Slovo, politician (1926 - 1995) Harry Schwarz, anti-apartheid politician, lawyer and diplomat (1924 - ) Helen Suzman, politician (1917 - 2009) Catherine Taylor, politician (1914 - 1992) Frederik van Zyl Slabbert, PFP opposition leader (1940 - ) Helen Zille, DA opposition leader, mayor of Cape Town (1951 - ) Jacob Zuma, former deputy president (1942 - ) Prime Ministers and Presidents See also: Prime Ministers of the Cape Colony Jacobus Boshoff, 2nd President of the Orange Free State (1808 - 1881) Louis Botha, Boer commander-in-chief and 1st Prime Minister of South Africa (1862 - 1919) Pieter Willem Botha, 9th and last Prime Minister and 8th State President of South Africa (1916 - 2006) Johannes Henricus Brand, 4th President of the Orange Free State (1823 - 1888) Thomas Francois Burgers, 4th President of South African Republic (1871 - 1877) Frederik Willem de Klerk, 9th and last State President of South Africa (1990-94) and joint Nobel Peace Prize winner (1936 - ) Christiaan Rudolph de Wet, Boer general and acting President of the Orange Free State (1854 - 1922) Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs, 4th State President of South Africa (1903 - 1978) Jacobus Johannes Fouché, 3rd State President of South Africa (1898 - 1980) James Barry Munnik Hertzog, Boer general and 3rd Prime Minister of South Africa (1866 - 1942) Josias Hoffman, 1st President of the Orange Free State (1807 - 1879) Petrus Jacobus Joubert, Boer general and member of the Troika in the South African Republic (1834 - 1900) Paul Kruger, member of the Troika, 5th and last President of South African Republic (1825 - 1904) Daniel François Malan, 5th Prime Minister of South Africa and is responsible for laying the groundwork for Apartheid (1874 - 1959) Nelson Mandela, 1st democratically elected President of South Africa and joint Nobel Peace Prize winner (1918 - ) Thabo Mbeki, 2nd President of South Africa (1942 - ) John X. Merriman, last prime minister of the Cape Colony (1841 - 1926) Kgalema Motlanthe, 3rd President of South Africa (1949 - ) Jozua François Naudé, 2nd State President of South Africa (1889 - 1969) Marthinus Wessel Pretorius, 3rd President of the Orange Free State, 1st and 3rd President of the ZAR (1819 - 1901) Francis William Reitz, 5th President of the Orange Free State (1844 - 1934) Jan Smuts, Boer general, British field marshal, 2nd and 4th Prime Minister of South Africa (1870 - 1950) Johannes Strijdom, 6th Prime Minister of South Africa (1893 - 1958) Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th and last President of the Orange Free State (1857 - 1916) Charles Robberts Swart, last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and 1st State President of the RSA (1894 - 1982) Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, 7th Prime Minister of South Africa and primary architect of Apartheid (1901 - 1966) Marais Viljoen, 5th and 7th State President of South Africa (1915 - 2007) Balthazar Johannes Vorster, 8th Prime Minister and 6th State President of South Africa (1915 - 1983) Jacob Zuma, 4th President of South Africa (1942-) Royalty See also: Zulu kings Cetshwayo kaMpande, 4th Zulu king (1826 - 1884) Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon, 7th Zulu king (1924 - 1945) Goodwill Zwelethini, 8th and current king of the Zulu nation (1948 - ) Dabulamanzi, Zulu prince, son of Mpande Dingane kaSenzangakhona, 2nd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1795 - 1840) Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, 5th Zulu king (1868 - 1913) not officially recognized Mangosuthu Buthelezi, politician and a Zulu prince (1928 - ) uZibhebhu kaMaphitha, Zulu prince and chief (1841 - 1904) Khetoane Modjadji, Balobedu's 3th Rain Queen (1869 - 1959) Makoma Modjadji, Balobedu's 4th Rain Queen (1905 - 1980) Mokope Modjadji, Balobedu's 5th Rain Queen (1936 - 2001) Makobo Modjadji, Balobedu's 6th Rain Queen (1978 - 2005) Mpande, 3rd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1798 - 1872) Mzilikazi, king of the Matabele (c. 1790 - 1868) Sekhukhune, king of the Marota (or Bapedi) (1814 - 1882) Sekwati, king of the Marota (or Bapedi), father of Sekhukhune (1775 - 1861) Shaka, founder of the Zulu nation (1787 - 1828) Solomon kaDinuzulu, 6th Zulu king (1891 - 1933) not officially recognized Tribal leaders and prophets See also: Gcaleka rulers, Ndwandwe people, Zulus Hintsa kaKhawuta, amaXhosa chief (1789 - 1835) Khawuta kaGcaleka, amaXhosa chief (c. 1761 - 1804) Adam Kok, Griqua leader (1811 - 1875) Thandatha Jongilizwe Mabandla, amaBhele chief, Tyume Valley, Alice, Ciskei (1926 - ) Makhanda, amaXhosa prophet ( - 1820) Chief Mqalo, Amakhuze chief, Ciskei region (1916 - ) Maqoma, amaXhosa chief imprisoned on Robben Island ( - 1873) Moshoeshoe I, Basotho chief (c. 1786 - 1870) Ngubengcuka, prominent chief of the Thembu amaXhosa ( - 1832) Nongqawuse, millennialist amaXhosa prophetess (c. 1840s – 1898) Sarili kaHintsa, amaXhosa chief (c. 1810 - 1892) Sigananda kaSokufa, Zulu aristocrat (c. 1815 - 1906) Prelates, clerics and evangelists See also: Anglican bishops of Grahamstown William Anderson, missionary (1769 - 1852) Allan Boesak, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1945 - ) Angus Buchan, evangelist (1947 - ) Frank Chikane, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1951 - ) John William Colenso, Anglican bishop of Natal (1814 - 1883) S.J. du Toit, cleric, Afrikaans language pioneer and founder member of the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners (1847 - 1911) Allan Hendrickse, cleric and MP (1927 - 2005) Albert Luthuli, cleric, politician and 1960 Nobel Peace Prize winner (c. 1898 - 1967) Charlotte Maxeke, religious leader and political activist (1874 - 1939) Ray McCauley, head of Rhema church (1949 - ) Robert Moffat, missionary, Bible translator and founder of Kuruman (1795 - 1883) Beyers Naudé, cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1915 - 2004) Albert Nolan, Catholic priest (1934 - ) John Philip, missionary (1775 - 1851) Desmond Tutu, cleric and Nobel Peace Prize winner (1931 - ) Sport See also: Olympic gold medalists for South Africa Athletics See also: South African athletes Okkert Brits, pole-vaulter (1973 - ) Zola Budd, marathon and long-distance runner (1966 - ) Hestrie Cloete, high jumper (1978 - ) P.H. de Villiers, 400m hurdles (1982 - ) Bruce Fordyce, ultra-marathon runner (1955 - ) Jacques Freitag, high jumper (1982 - ) Llewellyn Herbert, 400m hurdles, Olympic bronze medallist (1977 - ) Frantz Kruger, discus thrower (1975 - ) Charl Mattheus, ultra-marathon runner (1965 - ) Mbulaeni Mulaudzi, middle distance runner, Olympic silver medallist (1980 - ) Oscar Pistorius, disabled runner (1986 - ) Gert Potgieter, 440m hurdles, Commonwealth Games gold medallist (1937 - ) Hezekiél Sepeng, middle distance runner, Olympic silver medallist (1974 - ) Josia Thugwane, marathon runner, Olympic gold medallist (1971 - ) L.J. van Zyl, 400m hurdles, Commonwealth Games gold medallist (1985 - ) Boxing See also: South African boxers Cassius Baloyi, featherweight boxer (1974 - ) Mike Bernardo, boxer, kickboxer, mixed martial arts fighter (1969 - ) Francois Botha, heavyweight boxer (1968 - ) Gerrie Coetzee, World Boxing Association heavyweight champion (1955 - ) Pierre Coetzer, heavyweight boxer, (1961 - ) Kallie Knoetze, heavyweight boxer (1953 - ) "Baby" Jakes Matlala, junior flyweight champion (1962 - ) Brian Mitchell, WBA Super Featherweight Champion 1986 - 1991, IBF Super Featherweight Champion 1991 (1961-) Corrie Sanders, heavyweight boxer (1966 - ) Mzukisi Sikali, flyweight boxer (1971 - 2005) Charlie Weir, light middleweight boxer (1956 - ) Cricket See also: South African Test cricketers, South African ODI cricketers Shafiek Abrahams, right-arm spin bowler (1968 - ) Paul Adams, left-arm spin bowler (1977 - ) Adam Bacher, right-handed batsman (1973 - ) Ali Bacher, right-handed batsman and administrator (1942 - ) Edgar John Barlow, right-arm fast bowler and coach (1940 - 2005) Nicky Boje, all-rounder (1973 - ) Tertius Bosch, right-arm fast bowler (1966 - 2000) Johan Botha, right-arm spin bowler (1982 - ) Mark Boucher, wicket-keeper and right-handed batsman (1976 - ) David Callaghan, all-rounder (1965 - ) Jimmy Cook, right-handed batsman (1953 - ) Hansie Cronje, Proteas captain, all-rounder (1969 - 2002) Daryll Cullinan, right-handed batsman (1967 - ) Basil D'Oliveira, right-handed batsman (1931 - ) Alan Dawson, right-arm fast medium bowler (1969 - ) Abraham de Villiers, wicket-keeper and right-handed batsman (1984 - ) Fanie de Villiers, right-arm fast medium bowler (1964 - ) Matthew Dennington, cricketer (1982 - ) Boeta Dippenaar, right-handed batsman (1977 - ) Allan Donald, right-arm fast bowler (1966 - ) Jean-Paul Duminy, left-handed batsman (1984 - ) Clive Eksteen, left-arm spin bowler (1966 - ) Steve Elworthy, right-arm fast medium bowler (1965 - ) Herschelle Gibbs, right-handed batsman (1974 - ) Tony Greig, right-handed batsman and commentator (1946 - ) Andrew Hall, all-rounder (1975 - ) Nantie Hayward, right-arm fast bowler (1977 - ) Claude Henderson, left-arm spin bowler (1972 - ) Omar Henry, left-arm spin bowler (1952 - ) Andrew Hudson, right-handed opening batsman (1952 - ) Martin van Jaarsveld, right-handed batsman (1974 - ) Steven Jack, right-arm fast medium bowler (1970 - ) Jacques Kallis, all-rounder (1975 - ) Chad Keegan, cricketer (1979 - ) Justin Kemp, all-rounder (1977 - ) Jon Kent, cricketer (1979 - ) Gary Kirsten, left-handed opening batsman (1967 - ) Peter Kirsten, right-handed batsman (1955 - ) Lance Klusener, all-rounder (1971 - ) Garnett Kruger, right-arm fast medium bowler (1977 - ) Adrian Kuiper, all-rounder (1959 - ) Charl Langeveldt, right-arm fast medium bowler (1974 - ) Gerhardus Liebenberg, right-handed batsman and wicket-keeper (1972 - ) Allan Lamb, right-hand batsman (1954 - ) Craig Matthews, right-arm fast medium bowler (1965 - ) Neil McKenzie, right-handed batsman (1975 - ) Brian McMillan, all-rounder (1963 - ) Albie Morkel, right-handed batsman (1981 - ) Morne Morkel,cricketer(1984-) Victor Mpitsang, right-arm fast medium bowler (1980 - ) Andre Nel, fast bowler (1977 - ) Makhaya Ntini, fast bowler (1977 - ) Justin Ontong, right-arm spin bowler (1980 - ) Hugh Page, right arm fast bowler (1961 - ) Robin Peterson, left-arm spin bowler (1979 - ) Kevin Pietersen, right-handed batsman (1980 - ) Graeme Pollock, left-handed batsman (1944 - ) Shaun Pollock, Proteas captain, fast-medium bowler, nephew of Graeme (1973 - ) Nic Pothas, right-handed batsman and wicket-keeper (1973 - ) Ashwell Prince, left-handed batsman (1977 - ) Meyrick Pringle, right-arm fast medium swing bowler (1966 - ) Andrew Puttick, cricketer (1980 - ) Jonty Rhodes, right-handed batsman (1969 - ) Clive Rice, all-rounder (1949 - ) David Richardson, right-handed batsman and wicketkeeper (1959 - ) Jacques Rudolph, left-handed batsman (1981 - ) Mark Rushmere, right-handed batsman (1965 - ) Brett Schultz, left-arm fast bowler (1970 - ) Graeme Smith, Proteas captain, batsman (1981 - ) Greg Smith, cricketer (1971 - ) Errol Stewart, right-handed batsman and wicket-keeper (1969 - ) Dale Steyn, right-arm fast bowler (1983 - ) Rudi Steyn, cricketer (1967 - ) Andrew Strauss, cricketer (1977 - ) Pieter Strydom, cricketer (1969 - ) Pat Symcox, right-arm spin bowler (1960 - ) Percy Sonn, sixth president of the International Cricket Council, first ICC president from Africa (1949 - 2007) Roger Telemachus, right-arm fast medium bowler (1973 - ) David Terbrugge, right-arm fast medium bowler (1977 - ) Kepler Wessels, Proteas captain, left-handed batsman (1957 - ) Henry Williams, right-arm fast medium bowler (1967 - ) Charl Willoughby, cricketer (1974 - ) Mandy Yachad, cricketer (1960 - ) Monde Zondeki, right-arm fast bowler (1982 - ) Golf See also: South African golfers Ernie Els (1969 - ) Retief Goosen (1969 - ) Trevor Immelman (1979 - ) Gary Player (1936 - ) Rory Sabbatini (1976 - ) Sewsunker "Papwa" Sewgolum (1930 - 1978) David Frost (1959 - ) Motorsport See also: South African racecar drivers and Formula One drivers Jody Scheckter, Formula One world champion (1950 - ) Gordon Murray, Grand Prix car designer (1946 - ) Rugby See also: South African rugby players Bakkies Botha, Springbok, lock (1979 - ) Naas Botha, Springbok, flyhalf and TV presenter (1958 - ) Schalk Burger, Springbok, flank (1983 - ) Kitch Christie, Springboks coach (1940 - 1998) Danie Craven, Springbok, scrumhalf and administrator (1910 - 1994) Jean de Villiers, Springbok, centre and wing (1981 - ) Peter de Villiers, Springbok coach (1957 - ) Morne du Plessis, Springbok, eight man (1949 - ) Frik du Preez, Springbok, lock/flank (1935 - ) Os du Randt, Springbok, prop (1972 - ) Danie Gerber, Springbok, centre (1958 - ) Bryan Habana, Springbok, wing (1983 - ) Butch James, Springbok, flyhalf (1979-) Victor Matfield, Springbok, lock (1977 - ) Percy Montgomery, Springbok, fullback (1974 - ) Bennie Osler, Springbok, fly-half (1901 - 1962) Francois Pienaar, Springbok, flank (1967 - ) Hugh Reece-Edwards, Springbok, fullback (1961-) John Smit, Springbok, hooker (1978 - ) François Steyn, Springbok, flyhalf/fullback (1987 - ) Joel Stransky, Springbok, flyhalf (1967 - ) Gary Teichmann, Springbok, number 8 (1967 - ) Joost van der Westhuizen, Springbok, scrum-half (1971 - ) Jake White, Springbok coach (1963 - ) Chester Williams, Springbok, wing (1970 - ) Soccer See also: South African soccer players Steven Pienaar, Everton midfielder (1982 - ) Shaun Bartlett, striker (1972 - ) Doctor Khumalo, midfielder (1967 - ) Benni McCarthy, striker (1977 - ) Lucas Radebe, Bafana Bafana captain, defender (1969 - ) Jomo Sono, midfielder and coach (1955 - ) Gary Bailey, goalkeeper for England and Manchester United (1958 - ) Quinton Fortune, midfielder and defender for Manchester United (1977 - ) Mark Fish, defender for Bolton Wanderers, Charlton Athletic and Jomo Cosmos (1974 - ) Surfing John Whitmore, father of South African surfing (1929 - 2001) Shaun Tomson, former world champ (1955 - ) Grant Baker, winner of the Mavericks Big Wave contest in California Martin Potter (surfer), 1989 world champ (1965 - ) Swimming See also: Olympic swimmers of South Africa Natalie du Toit, disabled swimmer (1984 - ) Lyndon Ferns, Olympic gold medallist (1983 - ) Penny Heyns, breaststroke, Olympic gold medallist (1974 - ) Ryk Neethling, freestyle, Olympic gold medallist (1977 - ) Roland Mark Schoeman, freestyle, Olympic gold medallist (1980 - ) Darian Townsend, Olympic gold medallist (1984 - ) Charlene Wittstock, backstroke swimmer (1978 - ) Karen Muir, backstroke, youngest world record holder in any sport in 1965 at 12 years old (1952 - ) Tennis See also: South African tennis players Amanda Coetzer (1971- ) Neil Broad (1966- ) Kevin Curren (1958 - ) Cliff Drysdale, player and television commentator (1941 - ) Wayne Ferreira (1971 - ) Bob Hewitt (1940 - ) men's doubles champion: Wimbledon, French and US Open Johan Kriek (1958 - ) Frew McMillan (1942 -) men's doubles champion: Wimbledon, French and US Open Triathlon Conrad Stoltz (1973 - ) Dan Hugo (1985 - ) Raynard Tissink Yachting Bertie Reed, springbok yachtsman (1943 - 2006) Conservationists Ian Player (1927 - ) James Stevenson-Hamilton (1867 - 1957) John Varty Albert Kriel Travelers, adventurers and pioneers Alexander Biggar, colonial pioneer (1781 - 1838) William John Burchell, naturalist traveler (1781 - 1863) Francisco de Almeida, adventurer buried in Cape Town (c. 1450 - 1510) Bartolomeu Dias, explorer who reached eastern Cape (c. 1450 – 1500) John Dunn, colonial pioneer (1833 – 1895) Robert Jacob Gordon, explorer, soldier, naturalist (1743 - 1795) Emil Holub, explorer (1847 - 1902) Nathaniel Isaacs, Natal traveler (1808 - 1872) Dick King, colonial pioneer (1813 - 1871) François Le Vaillant, Cape naturalist traveler (1753 - 1824) Karl Mauch, traveling geologist (1873 - 1875) Harriet A. Roche, Transvaal traveler (1835 - 1921) Carl Peter Thunberg, Cape naturalist traveler (1743 - 1828) Sibusiso Vilane, first black African to summit Mount Everest (1970 - ) Criminals Schabir Shaik, convicted fraudster Rashid Staggie, crime boss Andre Stander, gang member (1946 – 1984) Gert van Rooyen, pedophile ( - 1990) Bulelani Vukwana, spree killer (c. 1973 - 2002) Other Denise Darvall, donor for the first human heart transplant (1943 - 1967) Emily Hobhouse, welfare campaigner for South Africans (1860 - 1926) Nkosi Johnson, child who died of AIDS (1989 - 2001) Sandra Laing, victim of racial classification (1955 - ) Breaker Morant, Boer War soldier (1864 - 1902) Napoléon Eugène, last of Napoleons who died in Zulu war (1856 - 1879) Hector Pieterson, poster victim of the Soweto riots (1964 - 1976) Mrs. Ples, homonid fossil (born c. 2.6 to 2.8 million years ago) Rosenkowitz sextuplets, first known set of sextuplets to survive their infancy (1974 - ) Adam Tas, colonial activist (1668 - 1722) Taung Child, homonid fossil (born c. 2.5 million years ago) Louis Washkansky, recipient of first human heart transplant (1913 - 1967) Wolraad Woltemade, colonial hero figure (c. 1708 - 1773) See also List of Afrikaners List of people by nationality SABC3's Great South Africans, a television program listing the 100 greatest South Africans as voted for by viewers List of White Africans They shaped our century, a survey by Media24 in 1999 about 100 most influential South Africans (and people associated with South Africa) of the twentieth century | List_of_South_Africans |@lemmatized list:5 notable:1 south:55 african:33 wikipedia:1 article:1 academic:12 see:28 also:28 chancellor:2 vice:1 uct:1 alumnus:1 ru:1 estian:1 calitz:1 jan:6 hendrik:5 hofmeyr:3 politician:28 tshilidzi:1 marwala:1 businessman:13 njabulo:1 ndebele:1 principal:2 university:2 cape:15 town:3 calie:1 pistorius:2 pretoria:1 david:12 webster:1 anthropologist:2 medical:4 veterinary:1 surgeon:3 abraham:3 manie:1 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6,895 | James_Spader | James Todd Spader (born February 7, 1960) is a three time Emmy Award-winning and Satellite Award-winning American actor. He is perhaps best known for his eccentric roles in movies such as Pretty in Pink, Sex, Lies, and Videotape, Crash, Stargate, and Secretary and his portrayal of the colorful attorney Alan Shore on the television series The Practice and its spin-off Boston Legal. Biography Early life Spader was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of teachers Jean and Todd Spader. During his early education, he attended The Pike School (where his mother taught art) and enrolled in the Brooks School (where his father taught) for one year in North Andover, Massachusetts. Spader later transferred to Phillips Academy, but dropped out of school in the eleventh grade to pursue acting at the Michael Chekhov School in New York City. Before becoming a full-time actor, Spader held a variety of jobs including being a yoga instructor, busboy, truck driver, stable boy, and railroad-car loader. Career Spader's first major movie role was in 1981 as Brooke Shields' brother in Endless Love, and his first starring role was in Tuff Turf along side good friend Robert Downey, Jr. But he did not rise to stardom until 1986, when he played Molly Ringwald's foil Steff in Pretty in Pink. He starred opposite Andrew McCarthy, another friend, in Mannequin, and in the film adaptation of Less Than Zero, where he played a drug dealer named Rip. Supporting roles in movies such as Baby Boom and Wall Street followed until his critical breakthrough in 1989. In sex, lies and videotape, he played a sexual voyeur named Graham who turns the lives of three Baton Rouge residents upside down. For this performance, he received the Best Actor award at the Cannes Film Festival. His roles in the early 1990s included playing a young, affluent widower opposite Susan Sarandon in White Palace, John Cusack's best friend in True Colors, and a poker-playing drifter who collides with Mandy Patinkin in The Music of Chance. In 1994, he starred as Egyptologist Daniel Jackson in the blockbuster hit Stargate. He played car fetishist James Ballard in the controversial Canadian film Crash in 1996 and assassin Lee Woods in 2 Days in the Valley. In 1997, Spader guest starred in an episode of Seinfeld as an angry recovering alcoholic who refuses to apologize to George for making fun of him. In 2000, he played a drug-addicted detective tracking down serial killer Keanu Reeves in The Watcher. In 2001, he starred as Maggie Gyllenhaal's sadomasochistic boss in the critically acclaimed Secretary. From 2004 to 2008, Spader starred as the lead character Alan Shore in the TV series Boston Legal, which he reprised his role from the TV series The Practice. Spader won the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Emmy Award for his portrayal of Alan Shore in 2004 on The Practice and won it again in 2005 and 2007 for Boston Legal. Spader has become one of the few actors to win consecutive Emmy Awards for playing the same character on two different series (another being co-star William Shatner as Denny Crane). Spader won the Satellite Award for Best Actor in a Series, Comedy or Musical for Boston Legal in 2006 and took home his third Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2007. In October 2006, Spader narrated China Revealed, the first episode of Discovery Channel's documentary series Discovery Atlas. He has also done the voice-over in several television commercials for Acura. Personal life Spader met his first wife, Victoria Kheel, a decorator, while working in a yoga studio, after he moved to New York in the 1980s. They married in 1987 and have two sons, Elijah and Sebastian. Spader filed for divorce from Kheel in 2004 and currently has plans to marry his girlfriend (and his former co-star), Leslie Stefanson, with whom he had a child in September 2008. Spader is known to his friends as "Jimmy," loves to cook, has very poor eyesight, and likes to point out that even though his characters can be sleazy at times he is actually a nice, friendly guy in real life. Filmography Endless Love (1981) The New Kids (1985) Starcrossed (1985) (made for TV) Tuff Turf (1985) Pretty in Pink (1986) Baby Boom (1987) Less Than Zero (1987) Mannequin (1987) Some Kind of Wonderful (1987) Wall Street (1987) Jack's Back (1988) The Rachel Papers (1989) Sex, Lies and Videotape (1989) Bad Influence (1990) White Palace (1990) True Colors (1991) Bob Roberts (1992) Storyville (1992) The Music of Chance (1993) Dream Lover (1994) Wolf (1994) Stargate (1994) 2 Days in the Valley (1996) Crash (1996) Keys to Tulsa (1997) Driftwood (1997) Critical Care (1997) Curtain Call (1999) Supernova (2000) Slow Burn (2000) The Watcher (2000) Speaking of Sex (2001) The Stickup (2001) Secretary (2002) I Witness (2003) Alien Hunter (2003) The Pentagon Papers (2003) Shadow of Fear (2004) The Practice (2003-2004) Boston Legal (2004-2008) Discovery Atlas: China Revealed (2006) Shorts (2009) References External links | James_Spader |@lemmatized james:2 todd:2 spader:15 born:1 february:1 three:2 time:3 emmy:4 award:7 winning:1 satellite:2 win:5 american:1 actor:7 perhaps:1 best:4 know:2 eccentric:1 role:6 movie:3 pretty:3 pink:3 sex:4 lie:3 videotape:3 crash:3 stargate:3 secretary:3 portrayal:2 colorful:1 attorney:1 alan:3 shore:3 television:2 series:8 practice:4 spin:1 boston:6 legal:5 biography:1 early:3 life:4 bear:1 massachusetts:2 son:2 teacher:1 jean:1 education:1 attend:1 pike:1 school:4 mother:1 teach:1 art:1 enrol:1 brooks:1 father:1 taught:1 one:2 year:1 north:1 andover:1 later:1 transfer:1 phillips:1 academy:1 drop:1 eleventh:1 grade:1 pursue:1 act:1 michael:1 chekhov:1 new:3 york:2 city:1 become:2 full:1 hold:1 variety:1 job:1 include:2 yoga:2 instructor:1 busboy:1 truck:1 driver:1 stable:1 boy:1 railroad:1 car:2 loader:1 career:1 first:4 major:1 brooke:1 shield:1 brother:1 endless:2 love:3 star:8 tuff:2 turf:2 along:1 side:1 good:1 friend:4 robert:2 downey:1 jr:1 rise:1 stardom:1 play:7 molly:1 ringwald:1 foil:1 steff:1 opposite:2 andrew:1 mccarthy:1 another:2 mannequin:2 film:3 adaptation:1 less:2 zero:2 drug:2 dealer:1 name:2 rip:1 support:1 baby:2 boom:2 wall:2 street:2 follow:1 critical:2 breakthrough:1 sexual:1 voyeur:1 graham:1 turn:1 baton:1 rouge:1 resident:1 upside:1 performance:1 receive:1 cannes:1 festival:1 young:1 affluent:1 widower:1 susan:1 sarandon:1 white:2 palace:2 john:1 cusack:1 true:2 color:2 poker:1 playing:1 drifter:1 collide:1 mandy:1 patinkin:1 music:2 chance:2 egyptologist:1 daniel:1 jackson:1 blockbuster:1 hit:1 fetishist:1 ballard:1 controversial:1 canadian:1 assassin:1 lee:1 wood:1 day:2 valley:2 guest:1 episode:2 seinfeld:1 angry:1 recover:1 alcoholic:1 refuse:1 apologize:1 george:1 make:2 fun:1 addict:1 detective:1 track:1 serial:1 killer:1 keanu:1 reef:1 watcher:2 maggie:1 gyllenhaal:1 sadomasochistic:1 bos:1 critically:1 acclaim:1 lead:3 character:3 tv:3 reprise:1 outstanding:2 drama:2 consecutive:1 two:2 different:1 co:2 william:1 shatner:1 denny:1 crane:1 comedy:1 musical:1 take:1 home:1 third:1 october:1 narrate:1 china:2 reveal:2 discovery:3 channel:1 documentary:1 atlas:2 also:1 voice:1 several:1 commercial:1 acura:1 personal:1 meet:1 wife:1 victoria:1 kheel:2 decorator:1 work:1 studio:1 move:1 marry:2 elijah:1 sebastian:1 file:1 divorce:1 currently:1 plan:1 girlfriend:1 former:1 leslie:1 stefanson:1 child:1 september:1 jimmy:1 cook:1 poor:1 eyesight:1 like:1 point:1 even:1 though:1 sleazy:1 actually:1 nice:1 friendly:1 guy:1 real:1 filmography:1 kid:1 starcrossed:1 kind:1 wonderful:1 jack:1 back:1 rachel:1 paper:2 bad:1 influence:1 bob:1 storyville:1 dream:1 lover:1 wolf:1 key:1 tulsa:1 driftwood:1 care:1 curtain:1 call:1 supernova:1 slow:1 burn:1 speaking:1 stickup:1 witness:1 alien:1 hunter:1 pentagon:1 shadow:1 fear:1 short:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram emmy_award:4 pretty_pink:3 boston_massachusetts:1 andover_massachusetts:1 brooke_shield:1 robert_downey:1 downey_jr:1 baton_rouge:1 cannes_film:1 susan_sarandon:1 mandy_patinkin:1 drug_addict:1 serial_killer:1 keanu_reef:1 critically_acclaim:1 reprise_role:1 william_shatner:1 poor_eyesight:1 external_link:1 |
6,896 | Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army | The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) is an Irish republican paramilitary organisation that considers itself a direct continuation of the Irish Republican Army (the army of the Irish Republic — 1919–1921) that fought in the Irish War of Independence. Like other organisations calling themselves the IRA (see List of IRAs), the Provisionals' constitution establishes them as Óglaigh na hÉireann ("The Irish Volunteers") in the Irish language, which is also the official title of the Irish Defence Forces. The Provisional Irish Republican Army is sometimes referred to as the PIRA, the Provos, or by some of its supporters as the Army or the 'RA. The IRA's stated objective is to end "British rule in Ireland," and according to its constitution, it wants "to establish an Irish Socialist Republic, based on the Proclamation of 1916." The Long War: The IRA & Sinn Féin from Armed Struggle to Peace Talks, O'Brien PRESS Ltd (Dublin 1993), ISBN 0 86278 359 3, pg.9,13, 19 Until the 1998 Belfast Agreement, it sought to end Northern Ireland's status within the United Kingdom and bring about a united Ireland by force of arms and political persuasion. Moloney, page 246. The organisation is classified as a proscribed terrorist group in the United Kingdom and as an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland. Home Office - Proscribed Terror Groups — Home Office website, retrieved 11 May 2007 On 28 July 2005, the IRA Army Council announced an end to its armed campaign, stating that it would work to achieve its aims using "purely political and democratic programmes through exclusively peaceful means" and that IRA "Volunteers must not engage in any other activities whatsoever." In September 2008, the nineteenth report of the Independent Monitoring Commission stated that the IRA was "committed to the political path" and no longer represented "a threat to peace or to democratic politics", and that the IRA's Army Council was "no longer operational or functional". Nineteenth Report of the "Independent Monitoring Commission" "IRA army council 'no longer operational'". RTE, 3 September 2008. Retrieved 2 April, 2009 An internal British Army document released in 2007 stated that the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA by force of arms but also claims to have 'shown the IRA that it could not achieve its ends through violence.' The military assessment describes the IRA as 'professional, dedicated, highly skilled and resilient.' Army paper says IRA not defeated Origins 1969 split in the IRA According to modern physical force Irish republicanism theory, the two Irish governmental entities which have existed in Ireland since 1922, Northern Ireland and the state variously known at different times as the Irish Free State and the Republic of Ireland, were illegitimate, as they had been imposed by the British at the time of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, in defiance of the last all-Ireland election in 1918, when the majority had voted for full independence. The real Irish state was the Irish Republic, unilaterally declared in 1919 and which, according to republican theory, was still in existence. According to this theory, the modern day Provisional Irish Republican Army is merely the continuation of the original Irish Republican Army which served as the army of the Irish Republic during the Irish War of Independence. While at the time of Treaty and the subsequent Irish Civil War the majority of the "old" IRA held this position, by the 1930s most republicans had accepted the Free State and were willing to work within it - recognising the Irish Army as the state's armed force. However, a minority of republicans argued that the army of the Republic was still the pre-1969 Irish Republican Army, itself the lineal descendant of the defeated faction in the Irish Civil War of 1922-23. Moreover, the IRA Army Council was the legitimate government of Ireland until the Irish Republic could be re-established. This IRA in theory wanted to overthrow both Irish states, but by the late 1940s, it issued orders that "no armed action was to be taken against 26 county forces under any circumstances whatsoever". From then on, they concentrated on the overthrow of Northern Ireland, which was still part of the United Kingdom, but which contained a substantial Catholic and nationalist population. In the 1950s, the IRA waged a largely ineffective guerilla campaign against Northern Ireland, known as the "Border Campaign". This was called off in 1962. The IRA split into two groups at its Special Army Convention in December 1969, over the issue of abstentionism (whether to sit in or to "abstain" from the Dáil or parliament of the Republic of Ireland) and over the question of how to respond to the escalating violence in Northern Ireland (see The Troubles). In 1969, serious rioting had broken out in Derry following an Apprentice Boys march (Battle of the Bogside). Subsequently hundreds of Catholic homes were destroyed in Belfast by loyalists in the Northern Ireland riots of August 1969. The IRA had not been armed or organised to defend the Catholic community, as it had done since the 1920s. The two groups that emerged from the split became known as the Official IRA (which espoused a Marxist analysis of Irish partition) and the Provisional IRA. The Official IRA did not want to get involved in what it considered to be divisive sectarian violence, nor did it want to launch an armed campaign against Northern Ireland, citing the failure of the IRA's Border Campaign in the 1950s. They favoured building up a political base among the working class, both Catholic and Protestant, north and south, which would eventually undermine partition. This involved recognising and sitting in elected bodies north and south of the border. The Provisionals, by contrast, advocated a robust armed defence of Catholics in the north and an offensive campaign in Northern Ireland to end British rule there. They also denounced the "communist" tendencies of the "Official" faction in favour of traditional Irish republicanism and non-Marxist democratic socialism, and they refused to recognise the legitimacy of either the northern or southern Irish states. Foundation of the Provisional IRA |Dáithí Ó Conaill at the 1986 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis. The Provisional IRA had its origins in the "Provisional Army Council" formed in December 1969, when an IRA Convention voted to recognise the Parliaments of Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. Opponents of this change in the IRA Constitution argued strongly against this, and when the vote took place, Seán Mac Stíofáin, present as IRA Director of Intelligence, announced that he no longer considered that the IRA leadership represented Republican goals. Mallie, Bishop p136 However, there was not a walkout. Those opposed, who include Mac Stíofáin and Ruairi O Bradaigh, did refuse to go forward for election to the new IRA Executive. Robert White, Ruairi O Bradaigh, the Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary, 2006, Indiana University Press. While others organized throughout Ireland, MacStiofain was a key person making a connection with the Belfast IRA, under Billy McKee and Joe Cahill, who had refused to take orders from the IRA's Dublin leadership since September 1969, in protest at their failure to defend Catholic areas in August 1969. Nine out of thirteen IRA units in Belfast sided with the Provisionals in 1969, roughly 120 activists and 500 supporters. Mallie, Bishop p141. The new group elected a "Provisional Army Council" to head the new IRA. The first Provisional IRA Army Council was: Sean Mac Stiofain, C/S, Ruairi O Bradaigh, Paddy Mulcahy, Sean Tracey, Leo Martin, and Joe Cahill. Patrick Bishop and Eamonn Mallie, The Provisional IRA. A political wing, Provisional Sinn Féin, was founded on 11 January 1970, when a third of the delegates walked out of the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in protest at the party leadership's attempt to force through the ending of the abstentionist policy, despite its failure to achieve a two-thirds majority vote of delegates required to change the policy. There are allegations that the early Provisional IRA got off the ground due to arms and funding from the Fianna Fáil-led Irish government in 1969. This was not found to be the case when investigated in the Arms trial. However, roughly £100,000 was donated by the Irish government to "Defense Committees" in Catholic areas and according to historian Richard English, "there is now no doubt that some money did go from the Dublin government to the proto-Provisionals". The main figures in the early Provisional IRA were Seán Mac Stiofáin (who served as the organisation's first chief of staff), Ruairí Ó Brádaigh (the first president of Provisional Sinn Féin), Dáithí Ó Conaill, and Joe Cahill. All served on the first Provisional IRA Army Council. English, pp. 111-113. The Provisional appellation deliberately echoed the "Provisional Government" proclaimed during the 1916 Easter Rising. English, p. 106. The Provisionals maintained a number of the principles of the pre-1969 IRA. It considered British rule in Northern Ireland and the government of the Republic of Ireland to be illegitimate. Like the pre-1969 IRA, it believed that the IRA Army Council was the legitimate government of the all-island Irish Republic. This belief was based on a complicated series of perceived political inheritances which constructed a legal continuity from the Second Dáil. Most of these abstentionist principles were abandoned in 1986, although Sinn Féin still refuses to take its seats in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Taylor, pp. 289-291. As the violence in Northern Ireland steadily increased, both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA espoused military means to pursue their goals. Unlike the Officials, however, who characterised their violence as purely "defensive," the Provisionals called for a more aggressive campaign against the Northern Ireland state. While the Officials were initially, for a short period, the larger organisation and enjoyed more support from the republican community, the Provisionals came to dominate, especially after the Official IRA declared an indefinite ceasefire in 1972. The Provisionals inherited most of the existing IRA organisation in the north by 1971 and the more militant IRA members in the rest of Ireland. In addition they recruited many young nationalists from the north, who had not been involved in the IRA before, but had been radicalised by the communal violence that broke out in 1969. These people were known in republican parlance as "sixty niners", having joined after 1969. Moloney, p. 80. Although the Provisional IRA had a political wing, Provisional Sinn Féin, which split with Official Sinn Féin at the same time as the split in the IRA, the early Provisional IRA was extremely suspicious of political activity, arguing rather for the primacy of armed struggle. Taylor, pp. 104-105 Organisation The IRA is organised hierarchically. At the top of the organisation is the IRA Army Council, headed by the IRA Chief of Staff. Leadership All levels of the IRA are entitled to send delegates to IRA General Army Conventions (GACs). The GAC is the IRA's supreme decision-making authority. Before 1969, GACs met regularly. Since 1969 there have only been two, in 1970 and 1986, owing to the difficulty in organising such a large secret gathering of what is an illegal organisation. English, pp. 114-115 The GAC in turn elects a 12-member IRA Executive, which in turn selects seven volunteers to form the IRA Army Council. For day-to-day purposes authority is vested in the Army Council which, as well as directing policy and taking major tactical decisions, appoints a Chief of Staff from one of its number or, less commonly, from outside its ranks. English, p. 43 The chief of staff then appoints an adjutant general as well as a General Headquarters (GHQ), which consists of a number of individual departments. These departments are: IRA Quartermaster General IRA Director of Finance IRA Director of Engineering IRA Director of Training IRA Director of Intelligence IRA Director of Publicity IRA Director of Operations IRA Director of Security Regional command At a regional level, the IRA is divided into a Northern Command, which operates in the nine Ulster counties as well as County Leitrim and County Louth, and a Southern Command, operating in the rest of Ireland. The Provisional IRA was originally commanded by a leadership based in Dublin. However, in 1977, parallel to the introduction of cell structures at local level, command of the "war-zone" was given to the Northern Command. These moves at reorganisation were, according to Ed Moloney the idea of Ivor Bell, Gerry Adams and Brian Keenan. Moloney, pp. 155-160 Brigades The IRA refers to its ordinary members as volunteers (or óglaigh in Irish). Up until the late 1970s, IRA volunteers were organised in units based on conventional military structures. Volunteers living in one area formed a company, which in turn was part of a battalion, which could be part of a brigade, although many battalions were not attached to a brigade. For most of its existence, the IRA had five Brigade areas within what it referred to as the "war-zone". These Brigades were located in Belfast, Derry, Tyrone/Monaghan and Armagh. O'Brien p.158 The Belfast Brigade had three battalions, respectively in the west, north and east of the city. In the early years of the Troubles, the IRA in Belfast expanded rapidly. In August 1969, the Belfast Brigade had just 50 active members. By the end of 1971, it had 1,200 members, giving it a large but loosely controlled structure. Moloney, p103 Derry city had one battalion and the South Derry Brigade. The Derry Battalion became the Derry Brigade in 1972 after a rapid increase in membership following Bloody Sunday when British paratroopers killed 13 unarmed demonstrators at a civil rights march. 1974: Compensation for Bloody Sunday victims County Armagh had three battalions, two very active ones in South Armagh and a less active unit in North Armagh. For this reason the Armagh IRA unit is often referred to as the South Armagh Brigade. Similarly, the Tyrone/Monaghan Brigade, which operated from around the Border, is often called the East Tyrone Brigade. Fermanagh, South Down, North Antrim had units not attached to Brigades. O'Brien page 161 The leadership structure at battalion and company level was the same: each had its own commanding officer, quartermaster, explosives officer and intelligence officer. There was sometimes a training officer or finance officer. Active Service Units In 1977, the IRA moved away from the larger conventional military organisational principle owing to its perceived security vulnerability. In place of the battalion structures, a system of two parallel types of unit within an IRA Brigade was introduced. Firstly, the old "company" structures were used for tasks such as "policing" nationalist areas, intelligence gathering, and hiding weapons. These were essential support activities. However, the bulk of actual attacks were the responsibility of a second type of unit, the Active Service Unit (ASU). To improve security and operational capacity these ASUs were smaller, tight-knit cells, usually consisting of 5-8 members, for carrying out armed attacks. The ASU's weapons were controlled by a quartermaster under the direct control of the IRA leadership. Bowyer Bell Page 437 By the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was estimated that the IRA had roughly 300 members in ASUs and another 450 or so others serving in supporting roles. O'Brien, p.161 The exception to this reorganisation was the South Armagh Brigade which retained its traditional hierarchy and battalion structure and used relatively large numbers of volunteers in its actions. Moloney, p.377 The IRA's Southern Command, located in the Republic of Ireland, consists of a Dublin Brigade and a number of smaller units in rural areas. These were charged mainly with the importation and storage of arms for the Northern units and with raising finance through robberies and other means. O'Brien p158 . They also maintained a sizable presence in North Kerry; where many training camps were based. Strategy 1969–1998 "Escalation, escalation and escalation" Following the violence of August 1969, the IRA began to arm and train to protect nationalist areas from further attack. After the split, the Provisional IRA began planning for an "all-out offensive action against the British occupation." The Official IRA were opposed to such a campaign because it would lead to sectarian conflict, which would defeat their strategy of uniting the workers from both sides of the sectarian divide. The IRA Border Campaign in the 1950s had avoided actions in urban centres of Northern Ireland to avoid civilian casualties and resulting sectarian violence. Patrick Bishop, Eamon Mallie, The Provisional IRA, p.40, 'It aimed at destroying people rather than property and all units were under instruction to avoid civilian bloodshed. For this reason and because there were doubts about the Belfast IRA, which GHQ in Dublin to contain a traitor, there would be no action in the city' The Provisional IRA, by contrast was primarily an urban organisation, based originally in Belfast and Derry. The Provisional IRA's strategy was to use as much force as possible to cause the collapse of the Northern Ireland administration and to inflict enough casualties on the British forces that the British government would be forced by public opinion to withdraw from Ireland. According to journalist Brendan O'Brien, 'the thinking was that the war would be short and successful. Chief of Staff Seán Mac Stíofáin decided they would "escalate, escalate and escalate" until the British agreed to go'. O'Brien The Long War, p. 119 This policy involved intensive recruitment of volunteers and carrying out as many attacks on British forces as possible, as well as mounting a bombing campaign against economic targets. In the early years of the conflict, IRA slogans spoke of, 'Victory 1972' and then 'Victory 1974' O'Brien, Long War, p.107 Its inspiration was the success of the "Old IRA" in the Irish War of Independence (1919–1922). In their assessment of the IRA campaign, the British Army would describe these years, 1970-72, as the 'insurgency phase' AC 71842 Operation BANNER The British government held secret talks with the IRA leadership in 1972 to try and secure a ceasefire based on a compromise settlement within Northern Ireland after the events of Bloody Sunday when IRA recruitment and support increased. The IRA agreed to a temporary ceasefire from 26 June to 9 July. In July 1972, IRA leaders Seán Mac Stíofáin, Dáithí Ó Conaill, Ivor Bell, Seamus Twomey, Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness met a British delegation led by William Whitelaw. The IRA leaders refused to consider a peace settlement that did not include a commitment to British withdrawal, a retreat of the British Army to its barracks, and a release of republican prisoners. The British refused and the talks broke up. (Taylor p139) Éire Nua and the 1975 ceasefire The Provisionals' ultimate goal in this period was the abolition of both the Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland states and their replacement with a new all-Ireland federal republic, with decentralised governments and parliaments for each of the four Irish historic provinces. This programme was known as Éire Nua (New Ireland). The Éire Nua programme remained policy until discontinued by the Provisionals under the leadership of Gerry Adams in the early 1980s in favour of the pursuit of a new unitary all-Ireland Republic. By the mid 1970s, it was clear that the hopes of the IRA leadership for a quick military victory were receding. The British military was equally unsure of when it would begin to see any substantial success against the IRA. Secret meetings between Provisional IRA leaders Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and Billy McKee with British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Merlyn Rees secured an IRA ceasefire which began in February 1975. The IRA initially believed that this was the start of a long term process of British withdrawal, but later came to the conclusion that Rees was trying to bring them into peaceful politics without offering them any guarantees. Critics of the IRA leadership, most notably Gerry Adams, felt that the ceasefire was disastrous for the IRA, leading to infiltration by British informers, the arrest of many activists and a breakdown in IRA discipline resulting in sectarian killings and a feud with fellow republicans in the Official IRA. The ceasefire broke down in January 1976. (Taylor p156) The "Long War" IRA political poster from the 1980s. Thereafter, the IRA, under the leadership of Adams and his supporters, evolved a new strategy termed the "Long War", which underpinned IRA strategy for the rest of the Troubles. It involved a re-organisation of the IRA into small cells, an acceptance that their campaign would last many years before being successful and an increased emphasis on political activity through the Sinn Féin party. A republican document of the early 1980s states, "Both Sinn Féin and the IRA play different but converging roles in the war of national liberation. The Irish Republican Army wages an armed campaign... Sinn Féin maintains the propaganda war and is the public and political voice of the movement". (O'Brien p128) The 1977 edition of the Green Book, an induction and training manual used by the Provisionals, describes the strategy of the "Long War" in these terms: A war of attrition against enemy personnel [British Army] based on causing as many deaths as possible so as to create a demand from their [the British] people at home for their withdrawal. A bombing campaign aimed at making the enemy's financial interests in our country unprofitable while at the same time curbing long term investment in our country. To make the Six Counties... ungovernable except by colonial military rule. To sustain the war and gain support for its ends by National and International propaganda and publicity campaigns. By defending the war of liberation by punishing criminals, collaborators and informers. (cited in O'Brien p 23) However, the IRA leadership may also having been considering ways to end the conflict in the late 1970s. Newly released (December 30 2008) confidential documents from the British state archives show that the IRA leadership proposed a ceasefire and peace talks to the British government in 1978. The British refused the offer. Prime Minister James Callaghan decided that there should be 'positive rejection' of the approach on the basis that the republicans were not serious and 'see their campaign as a long haul'. Irish State documents from the same period say that the IRA had made a similar offer to the British the previous year. An Irish Defence Forces document, dated February 15th, 1977, states that, "It is now known that feelers were sent out at Christmas by the top PIRA leadership to interest the British authorities in another long ceasefire." http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/frontpage/2008/1230/1230581469072.html?via=mr 1981 hunger strikes and electoral politics IRA prisoners convicted after March 1976 did not have Special Category Status applied in prison. In response, over 500 prisoners refused to wash or wear prison clothes (see Dirty protest and Blanket protest.) This activity culminated in the 1981 Irish hunger strike, when seven IRA and three Irish National Liberation Army members starved themselves to death in pursuit of political status. The hunger strike leader Bobby Sands and Anti H-Block activist Owen Carron were elected to the British Parliament, and two other protesting prisoners were elected to the Irish Dáil. In addition, there were work stoppages and large demonstrations all over Ireland in sympathy with the hunger strikers. Over 100,000 people attended the funeral of Sands, the first hunger striker to die. After the success of IRA hunger strikers in mobilising support and winning elections on an Anti H-Block platform in 1981, republicans increasingly devoted time and resources to electoral politics, through the Sinn Féin party. Danny Morrison summed up this policy at a 1981 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (annual meeting) as a "ballot paper in this hand and an Armalite in the other". (O'Brien p127) (See Armalite and ballot box strategy) "TUAS" - peace strategy In the 1980s, the IRA made an attempt to escalate the conflict with the so called "Tet Offensive". When this did not prove successful, republican leaders increasingly looked for a political compromise to end the conflict. Gerry Adams entered talks with John Hume, the leader of the moderate nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and secret talks were also conducted with British civil servants. Thereafter, Adams increasingly tried to disassociate Sinn Féin from the IRA, claiming they were separate organisations and refusing to comment on IRA actions. Within the Republican Movement (the IRA and Sinn Féin), the new strategy was described by the acronym "TUAS", meaning either "Tactical Use of Armed Struggle" or "Totally Unarmed Strategy". (Moloney p432) The IRA ultimately called an indefinite ceasefire in 1994 on the understanding that Sinn Féin would be included in political talks for a settlement. When this did not happen, the IRA called off its ceasefire from February 1996 until July 1997, carrying out several bombing and shooting attacks. After its ceasefire was reinstated, Sinn Féin was admitted into the "Peace Process", which produced the Belfast Agreement of 1998. Weaponry and operations Mural in Derry depicting IRA weapons, 1986. In the early days of the Troubles from around 1969-71, the Provisional IRA was very poorly armed, but starting in the early 1970s it procured large amounts of modern weaponry from such sources as supporters in the United States, Libyan leader Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi, arms dealers in Europe, America, the Middle East and elsewhere. In the first years of the conflict, the Provisionals' main activities were providing firepower to support nationalist rioters and defending nationalist areas from attacks. The IRA gained much of its support from these activities, as they were widely perceived within the nationalist community as being defenders of Irish nationalist and Roman Catholic people against aggression. English, pp.134-135 However, from 1971–1994, the Provisionals launched a sustained offensive armed campaign that mainly targeted the British Army, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR), and economic targets in Northern Ireland. The first half of the 1970s was the most intense period of the IRA campaign. In addition, IRA units carried out sectarian killings such as the Kingsmill massacre of 1976, which in itself was a retaliation for a Loyalist massacre of an entire Catholic family earlier in the same week. The Armalite AR-18 - obtained by the IRA from the United States in the early 1970s and an emotive symbol of its armed campaign. An AK-47 assault rifle (over 1,000 of which were donated by Gadaffi to the IRA in the 1980s) The IRA was chiefly active in Northern Ireland, although it took its campaign to England, and also carried out attacks in the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands and West Germany. The IRA also targeted certain British government officials, politicians, judges, senior military and police officers in England, and in other areas such as West Germany and the Netherlands. By the early 1990s, the bulk of the IRA activity was carried out by the South Armagh Brigade, well known through its sniping operations and attacks on British Army helicopters. The bombing campaign principally targeted political, economic and military targets, and approximately 60 civilians were killed by the IRA in England during the conflict. It has been argued that this bombing campaign helped convince the British government (who had hoped to contain the conflict to Northern Ireland with its Ulsterisation policy) to negotiate with Sinn Féin after the IRA ceasefires of August 1994 and July 1997. Ceasefires and decommissioning of arms On 31 August 1994, the Provisional IRA declared an indefinite ceasefire. Although this ceasefire temporarily broke down in 1995-97, it essentially marked the end of the full scale IRA campaign. From December 1995 until July 1997, the Provisional IRA called off its 1994 ceasefire because of its dissatisfaction with the state of negotiations. They re-instated the ceasefire in July 1997, it has been in operation since then. (Moloney p472) The Provisional IRA decommissioned all of its arms between July and September 2005. The decommissioning of its weaponry was supervised by the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning (IICD). Among the weaponry estimated, (by Jane's Information Group), to have been destroyed as part of this process were: 1,000 rifles 3 tonnes of Semtex 20-30 heavy machine guns 7 Surface-to-air missiles (unused) 7 flame throwers 1,200 detonators 20 rocket-propelled grenade launchers 100 handguns 100+ Hand grenades The conclusion of the IICD (that all Provisional IRA weaponry has been destroyed) was arrived at by their full involvement in the process of destroying the weapons and their comparison of weapons destroyed with the figures British security forces estimate the IRA had. Colonel al-Gaddafi is known to have given the British Government a detailed inventory of weapons he gave to the IRA in the 1970s and 1980s, this list was handed to British intelligence in 1995. See Bowyer Bell Page 578 Since the process of decommissioning was completed, unnamed sources in MI5 and the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) have reported to the press that not all IRA arms were destroyed during the process. This claim remains unsubstantiated so far. Although the group overseeing the activities of paramilitaries in Northern Ireland - the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC), in its latest report, dated April 2006, points out that it has no reason to disbelieve the IRA or information to suspect that the group has not fully decommissioned. Rather it indicated that any weaponry that had not been handed in had been retained by individuals outside the IRA's control. 10th Report of the IMC Page 15 April 2006, available here. </blockquote> Other activities Apart from its armed campaign, the Provisional IRA has also been involved in many other activities, including policing, robberies and kidnapping for the purposes of raising funds. Policing of communities One of the areas where the RUC were unwelcome was the Bogside area of Derry often known as Free Derry. The IRA looked on itself as the police force of nationalist areas of Northern Ireland during the Troubles instead of the RUC. There were a number of reasons for this. In many Nationalist areas of Northern Ireland, the RUC and British Army, as a result of their conduct and perceived involvement in oppression and violence against Nationalists, were considered biased and untrustworthy, and so were not welcome. This feeling, that the RUC, B-Specials, UDR, British Army and other arms of the Governmental apparatus in Northern Ireland were biased against the Nationalist & Roman Catholic members of the community was not new. It predates the current 'Troubles' and predates organisations like the "Ulster Defence Volunteers" (Home guard) of WW2 who were also widely considered sectarian. For details see Robert Fisk, In Time of War (Gill & Macmillan) 1983 P.189. Also, the RUC and other forces of the authorities were in some instances reluctant to enter certain Nationalist areas, or patrol, unless it was in armoured Land Rovers and in convoy. Police stations were also heavily armoured because of persistent attacks from the IRA. This gave them the appearance of being fortresses. These conditions led to a situation where in some areas, the community would turn to the IRA first to deal with troublemakers or those practising what came to be called "anti-social behaviour". In efforts to stamp out "anti-social behaviour" and alleged instances of drug dealing reported to or noticed by the organisation, it killed or otherwise attacked suspected drug dealers and other suspected criminals. These attacks varied in severity and depended on various factors. In the first instance, the IRA may serve a caution on the perceived offender, which if they transgressed again might escalate to an attack known as a "punishment beating". Shooting the offender was seen as a last resort, although the process which the IRA went through to determine an offenders "guilt" or "innocence" was never open to debate or scrutiny. The IRA also engaged in attacks which broke the bones of alleged offenders, or involved shooting through the hands, or knees for persistent offenders of activities such as joyriding or drug dealing. Critics of the Provisional IRA in the Unionist orientated media and political parties such as the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) maintain that the IRA itself was involved in "antisocial behaviour" and operated a policy of kneecapping drug dealers not under its control, or not paying it protection money. This was consistently rejected by the IRA as a fantasy. In certain cases, for persistent offenders the IRA would serve a notice for the individual to leave the country, this was known as being "put out" of the community/country, and the clear message given to individuals served with these notices was that if they returned to the community/country they would be killed. This practice was frequently criticised by all sections of the political establishment in Northern Ireland as "summary justice". Informers In an effort to stamp out what the IRA termed "collaboration with British forces" and "informing", they killed a number of Catholic civilians, such as Joseph Fenton. Purges against these individuals, who the IRA considered traitors to their own community and to the cause of nationalism, were most prevalent when the IRA found itself persistently vulnerable to infiltration. Investigations into informers and infiltration are suspected to have been dealt with by an IRA unit called the Internal Security Unit (ISU) known colloquially as the 'Nutting Squad'. This unit is said to be directly attached to IRA GHQ. Where a confession was solicited, the victim was often exiled or executed with a bullet in the back of the head. The body was either buried or later in the IRA campaign left in a public place often in South Armagh. One particular example of the killing of a person deemed by the IRA to have been an informer that is the source of continuing controversy is that of Jean McConville from Belfast who was killed by the IRA. Ed Moloney and IRA sources continue to claim she was an informer despite the Police Ombudsman recently stating that this was not the case. The Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) have described the killing as a 'war crime'. Her family contend that she was killed as a punishment for aiding a dying British soldier in West Belfast. In March 2007 Police Ombudsman Nuala O'Loan announced that there would be an inquiry into claims of collusion between IRA members and the British security forces. IRA "collusion" inquiry launched, BBC News Attacks on other Republican paramilitary groups The IRA has also feuded with other republican paramilitary groups such as the Official IRA in the 1970s and the Irish People's Liberation Organisation in the 1990s. Joseph O'Connor (26) was shot dead in Ballymurphy, west Belfast on 11 October 2000. He was a leading member of the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA). Claims have been made by O'Connor's family and people associated with the RIRA, that he was murdered by Provisionals as the result of a feud between the organisations, but Sinn Féin denied the claims. No-one has been charged as yet with his killing. Fundraising via organised crime According to Michael McDowell, the Irish Minister of Justice from 2002 to 2007, the IRA was involved in organised crime on both sides of the Irish border. These activities include smuggling of counterfeit goods, contraband cigarettes and oil. Casualties This is a summary. For a detailed breakdown of casualties caused by and inflicted on the IRA see Provisional IRA campaign 1969-1997#Casualties The IRA have reportedly killed more people than any other organisation since the Troubles began. In addition, they have killed more Roman Catholics, more Protestants, more civilians and more foreigners (those not from Northern Ireland) than any other organisation. Members of the IRA however have frequently disputed that the forces ranged in opposition to the IRA throughout 'the Troubles' represent separate, distinct "organisations". In the republican analysis of the conflict, organisations like the UDR, British Army, along with the UVF, and UDA represent an alliance of state and paramilitary forces, making a tally of this type nonsensical as it does not represent the nature of the conflict in their view. These accusations were particularly prevalent during the Miami Showband massacre, the 1980s Stalker Shoot to kill inquiry, the assassination of Pat Finucane, and the Brian Nelson/Force Research Unit controversy. During these episodes Republicans were quick to highlight overlap of personnel between loyalist paramilitary organisations and arms of the British security services. Two very detailed studies of deaths in the Troubles, the CAIN project at the University of Ulster, and Lost Lives, Lost Lives (2004. Ed's David McKitrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, Chris Thornton, David McVea) differ slightly on the numbers killed by the Provisional IRA but a rough synthesis gives a figure of 1,800 deaths. Of these, roughly 1,100 were members of the security forces - British Army, Royal Ulster Constabulary and Ulster Defence Regiment, between 600 and 650 were civilians and the remainder were either loyalist or republican paramilitaries (including over 100 IRA members accidentally killed by their own bombs). It has also been estimated that the IRA injured 6,000 British Army, UDR and RUC and up to 14,000 civilians, during the Troubles. (O'Brien p135) The IRA lost a little under 300 members killed in the Troubles. (Lost Lives p1531) In addition, roughly 50-60 members of Sinn Féin were killed. (cited in O'Brien, Long War p26) Far more common than the killing of IRA volunteers, however, was their imprisonment. Journalists Eamonn Mallie and Patrick Bishop estimate in their book The Provisional IRA that between eight and ten thousand members of the organisation had been imprisoned by the mid-1980s, a number they also give as the total number of past and present IRA members at that time. (Mallie, Bishop p12) Categorisation The IRA is a proscribed organisation in the United Kingdom under the Terrorism Act 2000. In Northern Ireland, the IRA are referred to as terrorists by the Ulster Unionist Party, the Democratic Unionist Party, and the Progressive Unionist Party. Members of the IRA are tried in the Republic of Ireland in the Special Criminal Court. On the island of Ireland, the largest political party to state that the IRA is not a terrorist organisation is Sinn Féin, which is currently the largest pro-Belfast Agreement political party in Northern Ireland. Sinn Féin is widely regarded as the political wing of the IRA, but the party insists that the two organisations are separate. Peter Mandelson, a former Northern Ireland Secretary (a member of the British cabinet with responsibility for Northern Ireland) contrasted the post-1997 activities of the IRA with those of Al-Qaeda, describing the latter as "terrorists" and the former as "freedom fighters" (though Mandelson subsequently denied this sentiment ). IRA supporters preferred the labels freedom fighter, guerrilla and volunteer. The IRA describes its actions throughout 'The Troubles' as a military campaign waged against the British Army, the RUC, other security forces, judiciary, loyalist politicians and loyalist paramilitaries in Northern Ireland, England and Europe. The IRA considers these groups to be all part of the same apparatus. Recently released (3 May 2006) British Government documents show that overlapping membership between British Army units like the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) and loyalist paramilitary groups was a wider problem than a "few bad apples" as was often claimed. The documents include a report titled "Subversion in the UDR" which details the problem. In 1973; an estimated 5–15% of UDR soldiers were directly linked to loyalist paramilitary groups, it was believed that the "best single source of weapons, and the only significant source of modern weapons, for Protestant extremist groups was the UDR", it was feared UDR troops were loyal to "Ulster" alone rather than to "Her Majesty's Government", the British Government knew that UDR weapons were being used in the assassination and attempted assassination of Roman Catholic civilians by loyalist paramilitaries. May 2, 2006 edition of the Irish News available here. As noted above, the IRA seeks to draw a direct descendancy from the original IRA and those who engaged in the Irish War of Independence. The IRA sees the previous conflict as a guerrilla war which accomplished some of its aims, with some remaining "unfinished business". Gerry Adam's 2006 Easter Message was that "unfinished business" remains, available here. "But in truth The Proclamation is also unfinished business. It is unfinished business which the vast majority of the Irish people want to see brought to completion." The IRA considers its members guerrillas fighting a war. A process called "Criminalisation" was begun in the mid 1970s as part of a British strategy of "Criminalisation, Ulsterisation, and Normalisation". The policy was outlined in a 1975 British strategy paper titled "The Way Ahead", which was not published but was referred to by Labour's first Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Merlyn Rees, and came to be the dominant British political theme in the conflict as it raged into the 1980s. A less loaded categorisation of IRA violence exists. It does not involve the terms "guerrilla" or "terrorist" but does view the conflict in military terms. The phrase originated with the British military strategist Frank Kitson who was active in Northern Ireland during the early 1970s. In Kitson's view, the violence of the IRA represented an "insurrection" situation, with the enveloping atmosphere of belligerence representing a "low intensity conflict" — a conflict where the forces involved in fighting operate at a greatly reduced tempo, with fewer combatants, at a reduced range of tactical equipment and limited scope to operate in a military manner. Membership of the IRA remains illegal in both the UK and the Republic of Ireland, but IRA prisoners convicted of offences committed before 1998 have been granted conditional early release as part of the Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement. In the United Kingdom a person convicted of membership of a "proscribed organisation", such as the IRA, still nominally faces imprisonment for up to 10 years. Strength and support Republican mural, Derry 1986, with evidence of vandalism. Numerical strength In the early to mid 1970s, the numbers recruited by the Provisional IRA may have reached several thousand, but these were reduced when the IRA re-organised its structures from 1977 onwards. An RUC report of 1986 estimated that the IRA had 300 or so members in Active Service Units and up to 750 active members in total in Northern Ireland. (O'Brien p161) This does not take into consideration the IRA units in the Republic of Ireland or those in Britain, continental Europe, and throughout the world. In 2005, the then Irish Minister for Justice Michael McDowell told the Dáil that the organisation had "between 1,000 and 1,500" active members. Parliamentary Debates (Official Report - Unrevised) Dáil Éireann Thursday, 23 June 2005 - Page 1 According to The Provisional IRA (Eamon Mallie and Patrick Bishop), roughly 8,000 people passed through the ranks of the IRA in the first 20 years of its existence, many of them leaving after arrest, "retirement" or disillusionment. In later years, the IRA's strength has been somewhat weakened by members leaving the organisation to join hardline splinter groups such as the Continuity IRA and the Real IRA. According to former Irish Minister for Justice Michael McDowell, these organisations have little more than 150 members each. Electoral and popular support The popular support for the IRA's campaign in the Troubles is hard to gauge, given that Sinn Féin, the IRA's political wing, did not stand in elections until the early 1980s. Even after this, most nationalists in Northern Ireland voted for the moderate Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) until the early 2000s. After the 1981 hunger strike, Sinn Féin mobilised large electoral support and won 105,000 votes or 43% of the nationalist vote in Northern Ireland, in the United Kingdom general election, 1983, only 34,000 votes behind the SDLP. (O'Brien p115) However, by the 1992 UK General Election, the SDLP won 184,445 votes and four seats to Sinn Féin's 78,291 votes and no seats. (O'Brien p198) In the 1993 Local District Council Elections in Northern Ireland, the SDLP won roughly 150,000 votes to Sinn Féin's 80,000 votes. (O'Brien p196) During the Troubles, therefore, nationalists in Northern Ireland tended to vote for non-violent nationalism rather than for Sinn Féin, who endorsed the IRA campaign. Sinn Féin did not overtake the SDLP as the main nationalist party in Northern Ireland until after the Belfast Agreement, by which time they no longer advocated violence. Few Protestant voters voted for Sinn Féin. In 1992, many of them voted for SDLP West Belfast candidate Joe Hendron rather than a unionist candidate in order to make sure Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin lost his seat in the constituency. (Coogan p284) However, it is widely recognised that the IRA possessed substantial support in parts of Northern Ireland since the early 1970s. Areas of IRA support included working class Catholic/nationalist areas of Belfast, Derry and other towns and cities. The most notable of these include parts of the north and west Belfast and the Bogside and Creggan areas of Derry City. In addition, the IRA has been strongly supported in rural areas with a strong republican tradition, these include south Armagh, east Tyrone, south Londonderry and several other localities. Such support would be indicated by the recruitment of IRA members from an area and the populace hiding weapons, providing safe houses to IRA members and providing information on the movements of the Security Forces. In the Republic of Ireland, there was some sympathy for the IRA movement in the early 1970s. However, the movement's appeal was hurt badly by bombings such as the killing of civilians attending a Remembrance Day ceremony at the cenotaph in Enniskillen in 1987 (Remembrance Day bombing) and the death of two children when a bomb exploded in Warrington, which led to tens of thousands of people demonstrating on O'Connell Street in Dublin to call for an end to the IRA's campaign. Sinn Féin did very badly in elections in the Republic of Ireland during the IRA's campaign. For example, in the December 1981 local government elections, Sinn Féin candidates won just 5% of the popular vote. (Mallie, Bishop p444) By the 1987 Irish General Election, they won only 1.7% of the votes cast. (O'Brien p199) They did not make significant electoral gains in the Republic until after the IRA ceasefires and the Belfast Agreement of 1998. Sinn Féin's highest proportion of the popular vote was 7% in the Irish general election, 2007. Sinn Féin now has 28 members of the Northern Ireland Assembly (out of 108), five Westminster MPs (out of 18 from Northern Ireland) and five Republic of Ireland TDs (out of 166). Support from other countries and organisations The IRA have had contacts with foreign governments and other illegal armed organisations. Libya has been the biggest single supplier of arms and funds to the IRA, donating large amounts (three shipments of arms in the early 1970s and another three in the mid 1980s, the latter reputedly enough to arm two regular infantry battalions) of both in the early 1970s and mid 1980s. Bowyer Bell, J. (1997). The Secret Army: The IRA. Transaction Publishers, pp. 556-571. ISBN 1560009012 The IRA has also received weapons and logistical support from Irish Americans in the United States, especially the NORAID group. Apart from the Libyan aid, this has been the main source of overseas IRA support. American support has been weakened by the War against Terrorism, and the fallout from the events of 11 September 2001. In the United States in November 1982, five men were acquitted of smuggling arms to the IRA after they revealed the Central Intelligence Agency had approved the shipment (although the CIA officially denied this). There are allegations of contact with the East German Stasi, based on the testimony of a Soviet defector to British intelligence Vasili Mitrokhin. Mitrokhin revealed that although the Soviet KGB gave some weapons to the Marxist Official IRA, it had little sympathy with the Provisionals. The IRA has received some training and support from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In 1977, the Provisionals received a 'sizable' arms shipment from the PLO, including small arms, rocket launchers and explosives, but this was intercepted at Antwerp after the Israeli intelligence alerted its European counterparts Mallie, Bishop, the Provisional IRA, p 307 . In the 1980s, the Provisionals also had some contact with Hezbollah. The IRA has been alleged to have had a co-operative relationship with Basque militant group ETA since the early 1970s. In 1973 it was accused of providing explosives for the assassination of Luis Carrero Blanco in Madrid. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/viewArticle.arc?articleId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1973-12-27-04-013&pageId=ARCHIVE-The_Times-1973-12-27-04 In the 1970s, the ETA also exchanged a quntity of handguns for training in explosives with the IRA Mallie,Bishop, p308 . In addition, the leaders of the political wings of the respective Irish Republican and Basque separatist movements have exchanged visits on several occasions to express solidarity with each others' cause for example http://www.anphoblacht.com/news/detail/17845 . Prominent former IRA prisoners such as Brendan McFarlane and Brendan Hughes have campaigned for the release of ETA prisoners. In May 1996, the Federal Security Service (FSB), Russia's internal security service, publicly accused Estonia of arms smuggling, and claimed that the IRA had contacted representatives of Estonia's volunteer defense force, Kaitseliit, and some non-government groups to buy weapons. In 2001 three Irish men who became known as the Colombia Three were arrested after allegedly training Colombian guerrillas, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), in bomb making and urban warfare techniques. The U.S. House of Representatives Committee on International Relations in its report of 24 April 2002 concluded "Neither committee investigators nor the Colombians can find credible explanations for the increased, more sophisticated capacity for these specific terror tactics now being employed by the FARC, other than IRA training". The Belfast Agreement The IRA ceasefire in 1997 formed part of a process that led to the 1998 Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement. The Agreement has among its aims that all paramilitary groups in Northern Ireland cease their activities and disarm by May 2000. This is one of many Agreement aims that have yet to be realised. Calls from Sinn Féin have led the IRA to commence disarming in a process that has been overviewed by Canadian General John de Chastelain's decommissioning body in October 2001. However, following the collapse of the Stormont power-sharing government in 2002, which was partly triggered by allegations that republican spies were operating within Parliament Buildings and the Civil Service, the IRA temporarily broke off contact with General de Chastelain. In December 2004, attempts to persuade the IRA to disarm entirely collapsed when the Democratic Unionist Party, under Ian Paisley, insisted on photographic evidence. Justice Minister Michael McDowell (in public, and often) insisted that there would need to be a complete end to IRA activity. At the beginning of February 2005, the IRA declared that it was withdrawing from the disarmament process, but in July 2005 it declared that its campaign of violence was over, and that transparent mechanisms would be used, under the de Chastelain process, to satisfy the Northern Ireland communities that it was disarming totally. End of the armed campaign On 28 July 2005, the IRA Army Council announced an end to its armed campaign. In a statement read by Séanna Breathnach, the organisation stated that it had instructed its members to dump all weapons and not to engage in "any other activities whatsoever" apart from assisting “the development of purely political and democratic programmes through exclusively peaceful means". Furthermore, the organisation authorised its representatives to engage immediately with the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning (IICD) to verifiably put its arms beyond use "in a way which will further enhance public confidence and to conclude this as quickly as possible". This is not the first time that organisations styling themselves IRA have issued orders to dump arms. After its defeat in the Irish Civil War in 1924 and at the end of its unsuccessful Border Campaign in 1962, the IRA Army Council issued similar orders. However, this is the first time in Irish republicanism that any organisation has voluntarily decided to destroy its arms. On 25 September 2005, international weapons inspectors supervised the full disarmament of the outlawed Irish Republican Army, a long-sought goal of Northern Ireland's peace process. The office of IICD Chairman John de Chastelain, a retired Canadian general who oversaw the weapons destruction at secret locations, released details regarding the scrapping of many tons of IRA weaponry at a news conference in Belfast on 26 September. He said the arms had been "put beyond use" and that they were "satisfied that the arms decommissioned represent the totality of the IRA's arsenal." The IRA permitted two independent witnesses, including a Methodist minister, Rev. Harold Good, and Father Alec Reid, a Roman Catholic priest close to Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams, to view the secret disarmament work. Maintaining belief in peace aided N. Ireland transformation By Kevin Cullen, The Boston Globe, 27 September 2005. However, Ian Paisley, the leader of the DUP, complained that since the witnesses were appointed by the IRA themselves, rather than being appointed by the British or Irish governments, they therefore cannot be said to be unbiased witnesses to the decommissioning. These claims came as expected by Nationalists and Catholics, who viewed Ian Paisley’s consistent refusal to support devolution in Northern Ireland with Catholics in power as a simple unwillingness to accept an end to Unionist rule and Catholic equality. Continuing activities of IRA members The 10th report from the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC), an organisation monitoring activity by paramilitary groups on behalf of the British and Irish governments, prefaced its remarks about IRA activity by saying: "It remains our absolutely clear view that the PIRA leadership has committed itself to following a peaceful path. It is working to bring the whole organisation fully along with it and has expended considerable effort to refocus the movement in support of its objective. In the last three months this process has involved the further dismantling of PIRA as a military structure." Its report made the following comments about current IRA activity: "We are not aware of current terrorist, paramilitary or violent activity sanctioned by the leadership. We have had no indications in the last three months of training, engineering activity, recent recruitment or targeting for the purposes of attack. There has now been a substantial erosion in PIRA’s capacity to return to a military campaign without a significant period of build-up, which in any event we do not believe they have any intentions of doing. The instructions we have previously mentioned to refrain from violence or rioting still stand." Tenth report of the Independent Monitoring Commission April 2006 available in PDF here NOTE: the IMC report is issued every six months. The IMC has come in for criticism (mainly by Republicans) as having been set up outside the terms of the Good Friday Agreement as a sop to Unionism. Sinn Féin MP Conor Murphy summed up the typical republican feeling towards the IMC in February 2006. He said, "The IMC was established outside and in breach of the terms of the Good Friday Agreement. It is a tool for the securocrats and the opponents of change. It is not and never has been independent. It is politically biased, has a clear anti Sinn Féin agenda, and its procedures are flawed." On 4 October 2006, the IMC ruled that the IRA were no longer a threat. P. O'Neill The IRA traditionally uses a well-known signature in its public statements, which are all issued under the pseudonym of "P. O'Neill" of the "Irish Republican Publicity Bureau, Dublin". Who is P O'Neill? — BBC News article, 22 September 2005. According to Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, it was Seán Mac Stiofáin, as chief of staff of the IRA, who invented the name. However, under his usage, the name was written and pronounced according to Irish orthography and pronunciation as "P. Ó Néill". Ó Brádaigh also maintains that there is no particular significance to the name. According to Danny Morrison, the pseudonym "S. O'Neill" was used during the 1940s. Infiltration The IRA has been infiltrated by British Intelligence agents, and in the past some IRA members have been informers. Members suspected of being informants were usually executed after an IRA 'court-martial'. The IRA executed 63 people as informers in the Troubles. The first large infiltrations of IRA structures occurred in the mid 1970s, around the time of the ceasefire of 1975. Many IRA volunteers were arrested when this ceasefire broke down in 1976. In the 1980s, many more IRA members were imprisoned on the testimony of former IRA members known as "supergrasses" such as Raymond Gilmour and Martin McGartland. Sean O'Callaghan, one of the IRA commanders in the Republic of Ireland, was an informer for the Garda Siochana throughout the 1980s until he was discovered and was put in protective custody in Britain. In recent years, there have been some high profile allegations of senior IRA figures having been British informers. In May 2003 a number of newspapers named Freddie Scappaticci as the alleged identity of the British Force Research Unit's most senior informer within the Provisional IRA, code-named Stakeknife, who is thought to have been head of the IRA's internal security force, charged with rooting out and executing informers. Scappaticci denies that this is the case and in 2003 failed in a legal bid to force the then Minister for NI, Jane Kennedy, to state he was not an informer. She has refused to do so, and since then Scappaticci has not launched any libel actions against the media making the allegations. On 16 December 2005, senior Sinn Féin member Denis Donaldson appeared before TV cameras in Dublin and confessed to being a British spy for twenty years. He was expelled from Sinn Féin and was said to have been debriefed by the party. Donaldson was a former Provisional IRA volunteer and subsequently highly placed Sinn Féin party member. One example of the trust put in Donaldson is that he had been entrusted by Gerry Adams with the running of Sinn Féin's operations in the U.S. in the early 1990s. On 4 April 2006 Donaldson was found shot dead at his retreat near Glenties in County Donegal. When asked whether he felt Donaldson's role as an informer in Sinn Féin was significant, the IRA double agent using the pseudonym "Kevin Fulton" described Donaldson's role as a spy within Sinn Féin as "the tip of the iceberg". "Kevin Fulton" (not his real name) made the comments on a BBC News 24 interview 10 April 2006, Realmedia available here or available on googlevideo here The former Force Research Unit and MI5 operative using the pseudonym "Martin Ingram" concurs with "Kevin Fulton" and has even gone so far as to allege that Gerry Adams knew that Donaldson was an agent. Ingram was described in court as a Walter Mitty type character, Ingram has also claimed that Martin McGuinness is a British agent. As evidence for this claim he alleges that McGuinness was involved in the death of IRA volunteer and FRU agent Frank Hegarty in May 1986. Ingram claims that Hegarty was an agent he ran as part of his duties working in the Force Research Unit. McGuinness has denied any involvement in the Hegarty case and brushed off allegations that he is a spy. For a discussion of the issue, listen to the Radio Free Éireann interview Ingram gave- see links. Also see this summary of the allegations against McGuinness here. He also brushed off the most recent allegations made by Ingram in the Sunday World newspaper on 28 May 2006. See synopsis of allegations available here. On 8 February 2008 Roy McShane was taken into police protection after being unmasked as an informer. McShane, a former IRA member, had been Gerry Adams' personal driver for many years. Adams said he was "too philosophical" to feel betrayed. Irish Times 11 February 2008, p.8 See also Chronology of Provisional IRA actions British Military Intelligence Systems in Northern Ireland History of Northern Ireland Northern Ireland peace process References Sources Martin Dillon, 25 Years of Terror - the IRA's War against the British, Richard English, Armed Struggle - A History of the IRA, MacMillan, London 2003, ISBN 1-4050-0108-9 Peter Taylor, Provos - the IRA and Sinn Féin Ed Moloney, A Secret History of the IRA, Penguin, London 2002, Eamonn Mallie and Patrick Bishop, The Provisional IRA, Corgi, London 1988. ISBN 0-552-13337-X Toby Harnden, Bandit Country -The IRA and South Armagh, Hodder & Stoughton, London 1999, ISBN 0-340-71736-X Brendan O'Brien, The Long War - The IRA and Sinn Féin. O'Brien Press, Dublin 1995, ISBN 0-86278-359-3 Tim Pat Coogan, The Troubles, Tim Pat Coogan, The IRA: A History (1994) Tony Geraghty, The Irish War, 1998 ISBN 0801864569 David McKitrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, Chris Thornton, David McVea, Lost Lives. J Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army - The IRA, 1997 3rd Edition, ISBN 1-85371-813-0 Christopher Andrews, The Mitrokhin Archive (also published as The Sword and the Shield) External links CAIN (Conflict Archive Internet) Archive of IRA statements FAS Intelligence Resource Program - Irish Republican Army (IRA) Terrorism: Q & A Irish Republican Army Royal Ulster Constabulary GC Memorial Website Behind The Mask: The IRA & Sinn Fein PBS Frontline documentary on the subject. Lengthy Interview given by Martin Ingram on Radio Free Eireann describing his FRU activities. NOTE, the interview begins twenty-five minutes in. IRA Hungerstrikes Information on the 1981 hunger strike Operation Banner be-x-old:Часовая Ірляндзкая Рэспубліканская Армія | Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army |@lemmatized provisional:44 irish:68 republican:36 army:50 ira:284 paramilitary:14 organisation:38 consider:10 direct:3 continuation:2 republic:25 fight:3 war:30 independence:5 like:5 call:12 see:16 list:2 provisionals:17 constitution:3 establish:4 óglaigh:2 na:1 héireann:1 volunteer:15 language:1 also:26 official:15 title:3 defence:7 force:31 sometimes:2 refer:5 pira:5 provo:2 supporter:5 ra:1 state:29 objective:2 end:17 british:66 rule:6 ireland:80 accord:13 want:5 socialist:1 base:10 proclamation:2 long:13 sinn:47 féin:46 arm:41 struggle:4 peace:9 talk:7 brien:20 press:4 ltd:1 dublin:10 isbn:8 pg:1 belfast:24 agreement:12 seek:2 northern:54 status:3 within:10 united:13 kingdom:8 bring:3 political:24 persuasion:1 moloney:10 page:6 classify:1 proscribed:3 terrorist:6 group:20 illegal:4 home:5 office:3 proscribe:1 terror:3 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6,897 | Book_of_Nehemiah | The Book of Nehemiah is a book of the Hebrew Bible, historically regarded as a continuation of the Book of Ezra, and is sometimes called the second book of Ezra. Traditionally, the author of this book is believed to be Nehemiah himself, although some dispute this. There are portions of the book written in the first person (ch. 1-7; 12:27-47, and 13). But there are also portions of it in which Nehemiah is spoken of in the third person (ch. 8; 9; 10). Some, following the traditional attribution to Nehemiah, suppose that these portions may have been written by Ezra (of this, however, there is no distinct evidence), and had their place assigned them in the book probably by Nehemiah, as the responsible author of the whole book, with the exception of ch. 12:11, 22, 23. Other authors think that the historical order of events in both Ezra and Nehemiah has become jumbled, from which they conclude that at least the final arrangement and revision of their text must have occurred at a later period. If Nehemiah was the author, the date at which the book was written was probably about 431 - 430 BC, when Nehemiah had returned the second time to Jerusalem after his visit to Persia. The book consists of four parts: An account of the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, and of the register Nehemiah had found of those who had returned from Babylon. Details describe how Nehemiah became governor of Judah ; various forms of opposition generated by Sanballat and others; describes earlier return under Zerubbabel See also for a similar account (ch. 1-7). An account of the state of religion among the Jews during this time (8-10). Increase of the inhabitants of Jerusalem; the census of the adult male population, and names of the chiefs, together with lists of priests and Levites (11-12:1-26). Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem, the arrangement of the temple officers, and the reforms carried out by Nehemiah (12:27-ch. 13). A work ascribed to Nehemiah, but bearing in some canons the title Esdras II. or Esdras III., having been attributed to Ezra on the ground that Nehemiah's self-assertion deserved some punishment (Sanh. 93b), or because, having ordinarily been written on the same scroll with the Book of Ezra, it came to be regarded as an appendix to it. The book consists ostensibly (i. 1) of the memoirs of Nehemiah, compiled, or at any rate completed, toward the close of his life, since he alludes to a second visit to Jerusalem "at the end of days" (xiii. 6, A. V. margin), which must mean a long time after the first. In xiii. 28 he speaks of a grandson (comp. xii. 10, 11) of the high priest Eliashib as being of mature years; whence it appears that the latest event mentioned in the book, the high-priesthood of Jaddua, contemporary of Alexander the Great (xii. 11, 22), may have fallen within Nehemiah's time. The redaction of his memoirs occurred probably later than 360 B.C., but how much later can not easily be determined. The first person is employed in ch. i.-vii. 5, xii. 31-42, xiii. 6 et seq. Sometimes, however, Nehemiah prefers to speak in the name of the community (ii. 19, iii. 33-38, x.), and in some places he himself is spoken of in the third person, either with the title "tirshatha" (viii. 9, x. 2) or "peḥah" (xii. 26, claimed by him in v. 14; A. V. "governor"), or without title (xii. 47). The style of these last passages implies somewhat that Nehemiah is not the writer, especially that of the third and fourth: "in the days of Nehemiah the governor, and of Ezra"; "in the days of Zerubbabel, and in the days of Nehemiah." The portions of the book in which the first person is used are marked by repeated prayers for recognition of the author's services, and imprecations on his enemies (iii. 36, 67; v. 19; vi. 13; xiii. 14, 22, 29, 31), which may be taken as characteristic of an individual's style; and indeed the identity of the traits of character which are manifested by the writer of the opening and closing chapters can not escape notice. Moreover, the author's enemies, Sanballat the Horonite and Tobiah the Ammonite, figure in both parts. See also References | Book_of_Nehemiah |@lemmatized book:14 nehemiah:19 hebrew:1 bible:1 historically:1 regard:2 continuation:1 ezra:7 sometimes:2 call:1 second:3 traditionally:1 author:6 believe:1 although:1 dispute:1 portion:4 write:4 first:4 person:5 ch:6 also:3 speak:4 third:3 follow:1 traditional:1 attribution:1 suppose:1 may:3 however:2 distinct:1 evidence:1 place:2 assign:1 probably:3 responsible:1 whole:1 exception:1 think:1 historical:1 order:1 event:2 become:2 jumbled:1 conclude:1 least:1 final:1 arrangement:2 revision:1 text:1 must:2 occur:2 late:2 period:1 date:1 bc:1 return:3 time:4 jerusalem:5 visit:2 persia:1 consist:2 four:1 part:2 account:3 rebuilding:1 wall:2 register:1 find:1 babylon:1 detail:1 describe:2 governor:3 judah:1 various:1 form:1 opposition:1 generate:1 sanballat:2 others:1 early:1 zerubbabel:2 see:2 similar:1 state:1 religion:1 among:1 jew:1 increase:1 inhabitant:1 census:1 adult:1 male:1 population:1 name:2 chief:1 together:1 list:1 priest:2 levite:1 dedication:1 temple:1 officer:1 reform:1 carry:1 work:1 ascribe:1 bear:1 canon:1 title:3 esdras:2 ii:2 iii:3 attribute:1 ground:1 self:1 assertion:1 deserve:1 punishment:1 sanh:1 ordinarily:1 scroll:1 come:1 appendix:1 ostensibly:1 memoir:2 compile:1 rate:1 complete:1 toward:1 close:1 life:1 since:1 allude:1 end:1 day:4 xiii:4 v:4 margin:1 mean:1 long:1 grandson:1 comp:1 xii:5 high:2 eliashib:1 mature:1 year:1 whence:1 appear:1 mention:1 priesthood:1 jaddua:1 contemporary:1 alexander:1 great:1 fall:1 within:1 redaction:1 later:2 b:1 c:1 much:1 easily:1 determine:1 employ:1 vii:1 et:1 seq:1 prefers:1 community:1 x:2 either:1 tirshatha:1 viii:1 peḥah:1 claim:1 without:1 style:2 last:1 passage:1 implies:1 somewhat:1 writer:2 especially:1 fourth:1 use:1 mark:1 repeated:1 prayer:1 recognition:1 service:1 imprecation:1 enemy:2 vi:1 take:1 characteristic:1 individual:1 indeed:1 identity:1 trait:1 character:1 manifest:1 opening:1 closing:1 chapter:1 escape:1 notice:1 moreover:1 horonite:1 tobiah:1 ammonite:1 figure:1 reference:1 |@bigram hebrew_bible:1 ezra_nehemiah:1 priest_levite:1 xii_xiii:1 et_seq:1 opening_closing:1 |
6,898 | Java_applet | A Java applet is an applet delivered to the users in the form of Java bytecode. Java applets can run in a Web browser using a Java Virtual Machine (JVM), or in Sun's AppletViewer, a stand-alone tool for testing applets. Java applets were introduced in the first version of the Java language in 1995. Java applets are usually written in the Java programming language but they can also be written in other languages that compile to Java bytecode such as Jython. Applets are used to provide interactive features to web applications that cannot be provided by HTML. Since Java's bytecode is platform independent, Java applets can be executed by browsers for many platforms, including Windows, Unix, Mac OS and Linux. There are open source tools like applet2app which can be used to convert an applet to a stand alone Java application/windows executable/linux executable. This has the advantage of running a Java applet in offline mode without the need for internet browser software. Many influential Java developers, blogs and magazines are recommending that the Java Web Start technology be used in place of Applets http://www.javaworld.com/javaworld/jw-07-2001/jw-0706-webstart.html http://javachannel.net/wiki/pmwiki.php/FAQ/Applets . A Java Servlet is sometimes informally compared to be "like" a server-side applet, but it is different in its language, functions, and in each of the characteristics described here about applets. Technical information Java applets are executed in a sandbox by most web browsers, preventing them from accessing local data. The code of the applet is downloaded from a web server and the browser either embeds the applet into a web page or opens a new window showing the applet's user interface. The applet can be displayed on the web page by making use of the deprecated applet HTML element , or the recommended object element . This specifies the applet's source and the applet's location statistics. A Java applet extends the class , or in the case of a Swing applet, . The class must override methods from the applet class to set up a user interface inside itself (Applet is a descendant of which is a descendant of ). Advantages A Java applet can have any or all of the following advantages: it is simple to make it work on Linux, Windows and Mac OS i.e. to make it cross platform the same applet can work on "all" installed versions of Java at the same time, rather than just the latest plug-in version only. However, if an applet requires a later version of the JRE the client will be forced to wait during the large download. it is supported by most web browsers it will cache in most web browsers, so will be quick to load when returning to a web page but may get stuck in the cache and have issues when new versions come out. it can have full access to the machine it is running on if the user agrees it can improve with use: after a first applet is run, the JVM is already running and starts quickly, benefitting regular users of Java but the JVM will need to restart each time the browser starts fresh. it can run at a speed that is comparable to (but generally slower than) other compiled languages such as C++, but many times faster than JavaScript it can move the work from the server to the client, making a web solution more scalable with the number of users/clients developers can develop and debug an applet direct simply by creating a main routine (either in the applet's class or in a separate class) and call init() and start() on the applet, thus allowing for development in their favorite J2SE development environment. All one has to do after that is re-test the applet in the appletviewer program or a web browser to ensure it conforms to security restrictions. Disadvantages A Java applet may have any of the following disadvantages: It requires the Java plug-in, which isn't available by default on all web browsers. Prior to version 6u12, Sun did not provide a 64-bit version of its Java plug-in, forcing users to use the 32-bit plugin with a 32-bit browser.1 It cannot start until the Java Virtual Machine is running, and this may have significant startup time the first time it is used. If untrusted, it has severely limited access to the user's system - in particular having no direct access to the client's disk or clipboard (although some would argue that this is a security benefit instead of a disadvantage, as ad-hoc unrestricted access to a client's disk would be incredibly dangerous). Some organizations only allow software installed by the administrators. As a result, many users cannot view applets by default. Applets may require a specific JRE.2 1. However, open source and freeware implementations are available, such as the GCJ plugin, and Blackdown Java plugin. 2. Applet may specify java version as of 6u10. Compatibility issues Sun has made a considerable effort to ensure compatibility is maintained between Java versions as they evolve. For example, Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the most popular web browser since the late 1990s, used to ship with the Microsoft Java Virtual Machine as the default. The MSJVM had some extra non-Java features added which, if used, would prevent MSJVM applets from running on Sun's Java (but not the other way round). Sun sued for breach of trademark, as the point of Java was that there should be no proprietary extensions and that code should work everywhere. Development of MSJVM was frozen by a legal settlement, leaving many users with an extremely outdated Java virtual machine. Later, in October 2001, MS stopped including Java with Windows, and for some years it has been left to the computer manufacturers to ship Java independently of the OS. Some browsers (notably Netscape) do not do a good job of handling height=100% on applets which makes it difficult to make an applet fill most of the browser window (JavaScript can, with difficulty, be used for this). Having the applet create its own main window is not a good solution either, as this leaves the browser window as a largely useless extra window and leads to a large chance of the applet being terminated unintentionally by the user closing the parent browser window. Alternatives Alternative technologies exist (for example, DHTML, Flash, and Microsoft Silverlight) that satisfy some of the scope of what is possible with an applet. Another alternative to applets for client side Java is Java Web Start, which runs outside the browser. In addition to the features available to applets, a simple permissions box can give Java Web Start programs read and/or write access to specified files stored on the client, and to the client's clipboard. Notes and references See also JavaFX Java Servlet Java Web Start ActiveX control Java programming language External links Latest version of Sun Microsystems Java Virtual Machine (includes browser plug-ins for running Java applets in most web browsers). Information about writing applets from Sun Microsystems Applet section of Wikibook's Java book Demonstration applets from Sun Microsystems (JDK 1.4 - include source code) Various free and downloadable Java applets Java Applet Tutorials and Examples JavaRanch Applet FAQ Software for creating Java Applet animations | Java_applet |@lemmatized java:47 applet:54 deliver:1 user:11 form:1 bytecode:3 run:10 web:18 browser:19 use:11 virtual:5 machine:6 jvm:3 sun:8 appletviewer:2 stand:2 alone:2 tool:2 test:2 introduce:1 first:3 version:10 language:6 usually:1 write:4 programming:1 also:2 compile:2 jython:1 provide:3 interactive:1 feature:3 application:2 cannot:3 html:3 since:2 platform:3 independent:1 execute:2 many:5 include:4 window:9 unix:1 mac:2 linux:3 open:3 source:4 like:2 convert:1 windows:1 executable:2 advantage:3 offline:1 mode:1 without:1 need:2 internet:2 software:3 influential:1 developer:2 blog:1 magazine:1 recommend:1 start:8 technology:2 place:1 http:2 www:1 javaworld:2 com:1 jw:2 webstart:1 javachannel:1 net:1 wiki:1 pmwiki:1 php:1 faq:2 servlet:2 sometimes:1 informally:1 compare:1 server:3 side:2 different:1 function:1 characteristic:1 describe:1 technical:1 information:2 sandbox:1 prevent:2 access:6 local:1 data:1 code:3 download:2 either:3 embed:1 page:3 new:2 show:1 interface:2 display:1 make:7 deprecated:1 element:2 recommended:1 object:1 specify:3 location:1 statistic:1 extend:1 class:5 case:1 swing:1 must:1 override:1 method:1 set:1 inside:1 descendant:2 following:2 simple:2 work:4 e:1 cross:1 instal:2 time:5 rather:1 late:4 plug:4 however:2 require:3 jre:2 client:8 force:2 wait:1 large:2 support:1 cache:2 quick:1 load:1 return:1 may:5 get:1 stick:1 issue:2 come:1 full:1 agree:1 improve:1 already:1 quickly:1 benefit:2 regular:1 restart:1 fresh:1 speed:1 comparable:1 generally:1 slow:1 c:1 faster:1 javascript:2 move:1 solution:2 scalable:1 number:1 develop:1 debug:1 direct:2 simply:1 create:3 main:2 routine:1 separate:1 call:1 init:1 thus:1 allow:2 development:3 favorite:1 environment:1 one:1 program:3 ensure:2 conform:1 security:2 restriction:1 disadvantage:3 available:3 default:3 prior:1 bit:3 plugin:3 significant:1 startup:1 untrusted:1 severely:1 limited:1 system:1 particular:1 disk:2 clipboard:2 although:1 would:3 argue:1 instead:1 ad:1 hoc:1 unrestricted:1 incredibly:1 dangerous:1 organization:1 administrator:1 result:1 view:1 specific:1 freeware:1 implementation:1 gcj:1 blackdown:1 compatibility:2 considerable:1 effort:1 maintain:1 evolve:1 example:3 microsoft:3 explorer:1 popular:1 ship:2 msjvm:3 extra:2 non:1 add:1 way:1 round:1 sue:1 breach:1 trademark:1 point:1 proprietary:1 extension:1 everywhere:1 freeze:1 legal:1 settlement:1 leave:3 extremely:1 outdated:1 later:1 october:1 stop:1 year:1 computer:1 manufacturer:1 independently:1 notably:1 netscape:1 good:2 job:1 handle:1 height:1 difficult:1 fill:1 difficulty:1 largely:1 useless:1 lead:1 chance:1 terminate:1 unintentionally:1 close:1 parent:1 alternative:3 exist:1 dhtml:1 flash:1 silverlight:1 satisfy:1 scope:1 possible:1 another:1 outside:1 addition:1 permission:1 box:1 give:1 read:1 file:1 store:1 note:1 reference:1 see:1 javafx:1 activex:1 control:1 external:1 link:1 microsystems:3 section:1 wikibook:1 book:1 demonstration:1 jdk:1 various:1 free:1 downloadable:1 tutorial:1 javaranch:1 animation:1 |@bigram java_applet:14 applet_applet:1 java_bytecode:3 web_browser:8 offline_mode:1 http_www:1 java_servlet:2 user_interface:2 ad_hoc:1 internet_explorer:1 microsoft_silverlight:1 activex_control:1 external_link:1 sun_microsystems:3 |
6,899 | Millsaps_College | Millsaps College is a private liberal arts college in Jackson, Mississippi, supported by the United Methodist Church. The college was founded by a Confederate veteran, Major Reuben Webster Millsaps in 1889-90 by the donation of the college's land and $50,000. Dr. William Belton Murrah was the college's first president, and Bishop Charles Betts Galloway of the United Methodist Church organized the college's early fund-raising efforts. Both men now have halls named in their honor. Major Millsaps and his wife are interred in a tomb near the center of campus. Academics Despite its religious affiliation, the curriculum is secular. The writing-intensive core curriculum requires each student to compile an acceptable portfolio of written work before completion of the sophomore year. Candidates for an undergraduate degree must also pass oral and written comprehensive exams in their major field of study. These exams last up to three hours, and may cover any required or elective course offered by the major department. Unacceptable performance on comprehensive exams will prevent a candidate from receiving a degree, even if all course work has been completed. "Comps" are usually associated with graduate degree requirements, so their inclusion at the undergraduate level is a source of pride (and possibly pressure) for Millsaps students. Millsaps offers B.S., B.A., B.B.A., M.B.A. and MAcc degrees and corresponding programs. Millsaps sends large numbers of graduates to graduate schools, law school, and medical school. The current undergraduate population is around 1100 students on a 103 acre (417,000 m²) campus near downtown Jackson, Mississippi. The student to faculty ratio is 11:1 with an average class size around 15 students. Millsaps offers 29 majors and 26 minors, plus a self-designed major, along with a multitude of study abroad and internship opportunities. Millsaps employs 91 full-time faculty members. Of those, 99 percent of tenure-track faculty hold a Ph.D. or the terminal degree in their field. The professors on the tenure track have the highest degree in their field. The college offers research partnerships for undergraduate students, and a variety of Study Abroad programs. Millsaps reports that 45% of their student body comes from outside Mississippi; a large portion of out-of-state students are from neighboring Louisiana. Millsaps is home to nearly 1,200 students from 33 states and territories plus 18 countries. The college also offers a Continuing Education program and the Community Enrichment Series for adults in the Jackson area. Campus The Millsaps campus is close to downtown Jackson. It is bordered by Woodrow Wilson Avenue to the north, North State Street to the east, West Street to the west, and Marshall Street to the south. The center of campus is dominated by "The Bowl", where many events occur, including Homecoming activities, concerts, the Multicultural Festival, and Commencement. Adjacent to the Bowl is the Campbell College Center, renovated in 2000, which contains the campus bookstore, post office, cafeteria, and Student Life offices. This central section of campus also holds the Gertrude C. Ford Academic Complex, Olin Science Hall, Sullivan-Harrell Hall, and the Millsaps-Wilson Library. The north part of campus includes the Hall Activities Center (commonly called "the HAC"), the sports fields, and the freshman dormitories. On the far northwestern corner is James Observatory, the oldest building on campus. Operational since 1901, the observatory underwent major renovations in 1980. It is open for celestial gazing. Upperclassmen dormitories are located on the south side of campus, with Fraternity Row and the Christian Center. Originally constructed as a memorial to students and graduates who died in service during World War II, the Christian Center houses an auditorium and the departments of Performing Arts, History and Religious Studies. Between the Christian Center and Murrah Hall, which houses the Else School of Management, is the tomb of Major Millsaps and the "M" Bench, erected by the classes of 1926, 1927, and 1928. The Nicholson Garden was added to improve the aesthetics of this area. Statistics (as of 2005) Enrollment: 1,064 Average GPA: 3.52 Average SAT: 1183 Average ACT: 26 Student to Faculty Ratio: 12:1 Rankings and distinctions Millsaps was ranked as number 81 on U.S. News & World Report's list of "Best Liberal Arts Colleges". The magazine featured Millsaps, Harvard, Amherst, and Duke among 17 schools that stress writing in all aspects of academics. The 2007 Princeton Review ranked Millsaps as number 14 in "Class Discussions Encouraged", and number 3 in "Administration". The Princeton Review of 2007 also ranked Millsaps' Else School of Business number 8, for "Best Professors". Millsaps was one of 40 schools in Loren Pope's Colleges That Change Lives. The 2008 Princeton Review Best 290 Business Schools names Millsaps' Else School of Business as one of the nation's top business schools and ranked Millsaps number 3 for "Best Classroom Experience". Athletics The school's sports teams are known as the Majors, and their colors are purple and white. They participate in the NCAA's Division III and the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference. Men participate in baseball, basketball, cheerleading, football, soccer, tennis, golf, and cross country. Women's sports include basketball, cheerleading, dance team, softball, soccer, tennis, golf, cross country, and volleyball. Both men and women will begin lacrosse teams in 2010 GoMaors.com: Millsaps to Add Men's and Women's Lacrosse in 2010-11 . The Majors had a fierce football and basketball rivalry with Mississippi College in nearby Clinton through the 1950s before competition was suspended after an infamous student brawl at a basketball game. Campus legend says the brawl was sparked by the alleged theft of the body of Millsaps founder Major Millsaps by Mississippi College students. The rivalry was considered by many as the best in Mississippi, featuring a prank by Mississippi College students who painted "TO HELL WITH MILSAPS" (sic) on the Millsaps Observatory. The football rivalry resumed in 2000 as the "Backyard Brawl", with games at Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium. The rivalry took a one-year hiatus in 2005 but resumed in 2006. Millsaps was the summer training camp home for the NFL's New Orleans Saints in 2006, 2007, and 2008. Millsaps was also home to the famous game-ending play in the 2007 Trinity vs. Millsaps football game, in which Trinity University defeated Millsaps by a score of 28-24 after the miraculous play that later won the Pontiac Game-Changing Performance of the Year award, which had never before been bestowed upon a play outside of the NCAA's Bowl Subdivision. In 2008, Millsaps quarterback Juan Joseph was awarded the Conerly Trophy, which goes to the best football player in the state of Mississippi. Organizations The school is home to five different fraternities: Alpha Phi Alpha, Kappa Alpha Order, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Pi Kappa Alpha, and Lambda Chi Alpha; as well as six sororities: Delta Delta Delta, Kappa Delta, Phi Mu, Chi Omega, Alpha Kappa Alpha, and Delta Sigma Theta. Notable alumni Dr. Rodney J. Bartlett, noted quantum chemist and Guggenheim Fellowship winner Michael Beck, actor Johnny Carson, former TV host of The Tonight Show on NBC. Roy Clyde Clark, a Bishop of the United Methodist Church Lisa D'Amour, Obie Award winning playwright David Herbert Donald, noted historian Ellen Gilchrist, author Alan Hunter, MTV VJ Chris Jackson, professional football player Clay Foster Lee Jr, a Bishop of the United Methodist Church Lewis Nordan, author Christopher Lee Nutter, journalist and author of The Way Out: The Gay Man's Guide to Freedom Casey Parks, former Jackson Free Press Assistant Editor and journalist; New York Times Win a Trip with Nicholas D. Kristof winner Casey Parks New York Times Blog Association of Alternative Newsweeklies Profile - Casey Parks Claude Passeau, an All-Star pitcher in Major League Baseball during the 1930s and 1940s Tate Reeves, Mississippi State Treasurer Robert C. Robbins, Chair of Cardiothorascic surgery at Stanford University Robin Robinson, deputy assistant secretary of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Kevin Sessums, journalist and author General Louis H. Wilson, a decorated war veteran who served as Commandant of the Marine Corps. Important dates in Millsaps history 1890 - Major Reuben Webster Millsaps founds the college with a personal gift of $50,000. 1901 - Millsaps builds the first golf course in Mississippi. 1902 - Mary Letitia Holloman becomes the first female graduate of Millsaps. 1908 - Sing-Ung Zung of Soochow, China, becomes the first international student to graduate from Millsaps. 1914 - Old Main, one of the first buildings on campus, burns and is replaced by Murrah Hall. 1916 - Major Millsaps dies and is buried on campus. 1931 - The first night football game in Mississippi is played on the Millsaps campus between the Majors and Mississippi A&M (now Mississippi State University). 1943 - Johnny Carson attends Millsaps for V-12 naval officer training, entertaining his comrades with a magic and humor act. 1944 - Louis H. Wilson, born in Brandon, Mississippi and who graduated from the college in 1941, receives the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Guam during World War II. Wilson was also promoted to General and became the 26th Commandant of the Marine Corps in 1975. He was the first Marine Corps Commandant to serve full time on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 1953 - Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis judge a Millsaps beauty contest. 1965 - Millsaps becomes the first all-white college in Mississippi to voluntarily desegregate . 1967 - Robert Kennedy speaks at the college about obligations of young Americans to give back to their country. 1975 - Jimmy Carter speaks to Millsaps students about the crisis in the Middle East. 1988 - Millsaps initiates the first campus chapter of Habitat for Humanity in Mississippi. 1989 - Millsaps becomes the first school in Mississippi to have a chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society. List of presidents of Millsaps William Belton Murrah - 1890-1910 David Carlisle Hull - 1910-1912 Dr. Alexander Farrar Watkins - 1912-1923 Dr. David Martin Key - 1923-1938 Dr. Marion Lofton Smith - 1938-1952 Dr. Homer Ellis Finger, Jr. - 1952-1964 Dr. Benjamin Barnes Graves - 1965-1970 Dr. Edward McDaniel Collins, Jr. - 1970-1978 Dr. George Marion Harmon (1978-2000) - After 22 years of leading Millsaps College, Dr. Harmon announced his resignation in the Spring of 1999. His last day as president of Millsaps College was June 30, 2000. The Magnolia Gazette: Southern ties launch a new era for Millsaps Dr. Frances Lucas (2000-2010) - Dr. Lucas was announced in February 2000 as the new president, making her the first female to hold the post at Millsaps. The Clarion-Ledger: Millsaps installs 1st female leader Before her hiring at Millsaps, she was the Senior Vice President for Campus Life at Emory University. Dr. Lucas submitted her resignation on April 23, 2009 stating her last day would be "June 30, 2010, which will mark the conclusion of my tenth year." Jackson Free Press: Millsaps President Announces Resignation Lucas cited disagreements with faculty as the reason for her resignation. Mississippi Business Journal: Lucas leaving Millsaps References External links Millsaps College Millsaps College library Millsaps College athletics | Millsaps_College |@lemmatized millsaps:54 college:23 private:1 liberal:2 art:3 jackson:7 mississippi:19 support:1 united:4 methodist:4 church:4 found:2 confederate:1 veteran:3 major:15 reuben:2 webster:2 donation:1 land:1 dr:13 william:2 belton:2 murrah:4 first:11 president:6 bishop:3 charles:1 betts:1 galloway:1 organize:1 early:1 fund:1 raise:1 effort:1 men:4 hall:6 name:1 honor:3 wife:1 inter:1 tomb:2 near:2 center:7 campus:16 academic:3 despite:1 religious:2 affiliation:1 curriculum:2 secular:1 write:4 intensive:1 core:1 require:1 student:17 compile:1 acceptable:1 portfolio:1 work:2 completion:1 sophomore:1 year:5 candidate:2 undergraduate:4 degree:6 must:1 also:6 pass:1 oral:1 comprehensive:2 exam:3 field:4 study:4 last:3 three:1 hour:1 may:1 cover:1 required:1 elective:1 course:3 offer:5 department:3 unacceptable:1 performance:2 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