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6,700 | Baseball_statistics | Statistics play an important role in summarizing baseball performance and evaluating players in the sport. Since the flow of baseball has natural breaks to it, the game lends itself to easy record keeping and statistics. This makes comparisons between players' on field performance relatively easy, and therefore gives statistics more importance in baseball than in most other sports. Statistics have been kept for professional baseball since the creation of each league. Many statistics are also available from outside of Major League Baseball, from leagues such as the National Association and the Negro Leagues. Development of statistics The practice of keeping records of player achievements was started in the 19th century by Henry Chadwick. Based on his experience with cricket, Chadwick devised the predecessors to modern day statistics including batting average, runs scored, and runs allowed. Traditionally, statistics such as batting average (the number of hits divided by the number of at bats) and earned run average (approximately the number of runs allowed by a pitcher per nine innings) have dominated attention in the statistical world of baseball. However, the recent advent of sabermetrics has created statistics drawing from a breadth of player performance measures and playing field variables. Sabermetrics and comparative statistics attempt to provide an improved measure of a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year, frequently against a statistical performance average. Comprehensive, historical baseball statistics were difficult for the average fan to access until 1951, when researcher Hy Turkin published The Complete Encyclopedia of Baseball. In 1969, Macmillan Publishing printed its first Baseball Encyclopedia, using a computer to compile statistics for the first time. Known as "Big Mac", the encyclopedia became the standard baseball reference until 1988, when Total Baseball was released by Warner Books using more sophisticated technology. The publication of Total Baseball led to the discovery of several "phantom ballplayers", including Lou Proctor, who did not belong in official record books and were removed. Use of statistics Throughout much of modern baseball, several core statistics have been traditionally referenced—batting average, RBIs, and home runs. To this day, a player who leads the league in these three statistics is referred to as the "Triple Crown" winner. For pitchers, wins, ERA, and strikeouts are the most often cited traditional statistics, with a pitcher leading a league in these statistics referred to as a "Triple Crown" winner. General managers and baseball scouts have long used the major statistics, among other factors and opinions, to understand player ability. Managers, catchers and pitchers use statistics of batters against opposing teams to develop pitching strategies and set defensive positioning on the field. Managers and batters study opposing pitcher performance and motion in attempts to improve hitting. Managers often base personnel decisions for a game on statistics, such starting lineups or relief pitcher substitutions. Some sabermetric statistics have entered the mainstream baseball world that measure a batter's overall performance including On-base plus slugging, commonly referred to as OPS. OPS adds the hitter's on base percentage (number of times reached base by any means divided by total plate appearances) to his slugging percentage (total bases divided by at bats). Some argue that the OPS formula is flawed and that more weight should be shifted towards OBP (on base percentage). OPS is also useful when determining a pitcher's level of success. "Opponent On-base Plus Slugging" (OOPS) is becoming a popular way to evaluating a pitcher's actual performance. When analyzing a pitcher's statistics, some useful categories to consider include K/9IP (strikeouts per nine innings), K/BB (strikeouts per walk), HR/9, WHIP (walks plus hits per inning pitched) and OOPS (opponent on-base plus slugging). However, since 2001, more emphasis has been placed on Defense-Independent Pitching Statistics, including Defense-Independent ERA (dERA), in an attempt to evaluate a pitcher performance regardless of the strength of the defensive players behind him. Also important are all of the above statistics in certain in-game situations. For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might incline a manager to provide increased opportunities to face left-handed pitchers. Other hitters may have a history of success against a given pitcher (or vice versa), and the manager may use this information to create a favorable match up. The use of performance-enhancing anabolic steroids in Major League Baseball has affected the value of statistics, according to the Mitchell Report, released 13 December 2007, which concluded, in part The illegal use of performance enhancing substances poses a serious threat to the integrity of the game. Widespread use by players of such substances unfairly disadvantages the honest athletes who refuse to use them and raises questions about the validity of baseball records. "Excerpts from the Mitchell Report", The Wall Street Journal, 13 December 2007. Commonly used statistics Most of these terms also apply to softball. Commonly used statistics with their abbreviations are explained here. The explanations below are for quick reference and do not fully or completely define the statistic; for the strict definition, see the corresponding article for each statistic. Batting statistics 1B—Single: hits on which the batter reached first base safely without the contribution of a fielding error. 2B—Double: hits on which the batter reached second base safely without the contribution of a fielding error. 3B—Triple: hits on which the batter reached third base safely without the contribution of a fielding error. AB—At bat: Batting appearances, not including bases on balls, hit by pitch, sacrifices, interference, or obstruction. AB/HR At bats per home run: at bats divided by home runs. BA—Batting average (also abbreviated AVG): hits divided by at bats. BB—Base on balls (also called a "walk"): times receiving four balls and advancing to first base BABIP Batting average on balls in play: frequency of which a batter reaches a base after putting the ball in the field of play. Also a pitching category. BB/K—Walk-to-strikeout ratio: number of base on balls divided by number of strikeouts XBH—Extra base hits: doubles plus triples plus home runs FC—Fielder's choice: times reaching base when a fielder chose to try for an out on another runner GO/AO—Ground ball fly ball ratio: number of ground ball outs divided by number of fly ball outs GDP or GIDP—Ground into double play: number of ground balls hit that became double plays GPA—Gross Production Average: 1.8 times on-base percentage plus slugging percentage, divided by four GS—Grand Slam: a home run with the bases loaded, resulting in four runs scoring, and four RBI credited to the batter. H—Hits: times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without error by the defense HBP—Hit by pitch: times touched by a pitch and awarded first base as a result HR—Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error. IBB—Intentional base on balls: times awarded first base on balls (see BB above) deliberately thrown by the pitcher. Also known as IW (intentional walk). K—Strike out (also abbreviated SO): number of times that strike three is taken or swung at and missed, or bunted foul LOB—Left on base: number of runners not out nor scored at the end of an inning. OBP—On base percentage: times reached base (H + BB + HBP) divided by at bats plus walks plus hit by pitch plus sacrifice flies (AB + BB + HBP + SF). OPS—On-base plus slugging: on-base percentage plus slugging average PA—Plate appearance: number of completed batting appearances RC—Runs created: statistic that attempts to measure how many runs a player has contributed to his team RP—Runs produced: statistic that attempts to measure how many runs a player has contributed RBI—Run batted in: number of runners who scored due to a batters' action, except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error RISP—Runner In Scoring Position: the batter's batting average with runners in scoring position SB%—Stolen base percentage: the percent of bases stolen successfully. (SB) divided by (SBA). SF—Sacrifice fly: number of fly ball outs to the outfield which allow a runner already on base to score SH—Sacrifice hit: number of sacrifice bunts which allows another runner to advance on the basepaths or score SLG—Slugging average: total bases divided by at-bats TA—Total average: total bases, plus walks, plus hit by pitch, plus steals, minus caught stealing divided by at bats, minus hits, plus caught stealing, plus grounded into double play TB—Total bases: one for each single, two for each double, three for each triple, and four for each home run TOB—Times on base: times reaching base as a result of hits, walks, and hit-by-pitches BsR—Base Runs: Another run estimator, like Runs Created; a favorite of writer Tom Tango XR—Extrapolated Runs: A linear run estimator developed by Jim Furtado Baserunning statistics CS—Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base SB—Stolen base: number of bases advanced other than on batted balls, walks, or hits by pitch DI—Defensive Indifference: if the catcher does not attempt to throw out a runner (usually because the run would be insignificant), the runner is not awarded a steal R—Runs scored: times reached home base legally and safely Pitching statistics BB—Base on balls (also called a "walk"): times pitching four balls, allowing the batter-runner to advance to first base BB/9: Base on balls times nine divided by innings pitched (Bases on balls per 9 innings pitched) BF—Total batters faced: opponent's total plate appearances BK—Balk: number of times pitcher commits an illegal pitching action or other illegal action while in contact with the pitching rubber, thus allowing baserunners to advance BS—Blown save: number of times entering the game in a save situation, and being charged the run (earned or not) which eliminates his team's lead CERA—Component ERA: an estimate of a pitcher's ERA based upon the individual components of his statistical line (K, H, 2B, 3B, HR, BB, HBP) CG—Complete game: number of games where player was the only pitcher for his team DICE—Defense-Independent Component ERA: an estimate of a pitcher's ERA based upon the defense-independent components of his statistical line (K, HR, BB, HBP) ER—Earned run: number of runs that did not occur as a result of errors or passed balls ERA—Earned run average: total number of earned runs (see "ER" above), multiplied by 9, divided by innings pitched ERA+—Adjusted ERA+: earned run average adjusted for the ballpark and the league average G—Games (AKA "appearances"): number of times a pitcher pitches in a season GF—Games finished: number of games pitched where player was the final pitcher for his team G/F—Ground ball fly ball ratio: ground balls allowed divided by fly balls allowed GS—Starts: number of games pitched where player was the first pitcher for his team H/9—Hits per nine innings: hits allowed times nine divided by innings pitched (also known as H/9IP—Hits allowed per 9 innings pitched) H—Hits Allowed: total hits allowed HB—Hit batsman: times hit a batter with pitch, allowing runner to advance to first base HLD (or H)—Hold: number of games entered in a save situation, recorded at least one out, did not surrender the lead, and did not complete the game HR—Home runs allowed: total home runs allowed IBB: Intentional base on balls allowed IP—Innings pitched: number of outs recorded while pitching divided by three IP/GS: Average number of innings pitched per game IR—Inherited runners: number of runners on base when the pitcher enters the game IRA—Inherited runs allowed: number of inherited runners allowed to score K—Strikeout: number of batters who received strike three K/9—Strikeouts per nine innings: strikeouts times nine divided by innings pitched (Strikeouts per 9 innings pitched) K/BB—Strikeout-to-walk ratio: number of strikeouts divided by number of base on balls L—Loss: number of games where pitcher was pitching while the opposing team took the lead, never lost the lead, and went on to win OBA—Opponents batting average: hits allowed divided by at-bats faced PIT: Pitches thrown (Pitch count) QS—Quality start: a game in which a starting pitcher completes at least six innings and permits no more than three runs RA—Run average: number of runs allowed times nine divided by innings pitched R.R.A—Relief Run Average: A function of how many inherited base runners a relief pitcher allowed to score. SHO—Shutout: number of complete games pitched with no runs allowed SO: Strikeout Also may be notated as "K". SV—Save: number of games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings W—Win: number of games where pitcher was pitching while his team took the lead and went on to win (also related: winning percentage) WHIP—Walks and hits per inning pitched: average number of walks and hits allowed by the pitcher per inning WP—Wild pitches: charged when a pitch is too high, low, or wide of home plate for the catcher to field, thereby allowing one or more runners to advance or score Fielding statistics A—Assists: number of outs recorded on a play where a fielder touched the ball, except if such touching is the putout CI—Catcher's Interference (e.g. catcher makes contact with bat) DP—Double plays: one for each double play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist. E—Errors: number of times a fielder fails to make a play he should have made with common effort, and the offense benefits as a result FP—Fielding percentage: total plays (chances minus errors) divided by the number of total chances INN—Innings: number of innings that a player is at one certain position PB—Passed ball: charged to the catcher when the ball is dropped and one or more runners advance PO—Putout: number of times the fielder tags, forces, or appeals a runner and he is called out as a result RF—Range factor: 9*(putouts + assists)/innings played. Used to determine the amount of field that the player can cover TC—Total chances: assists plus putouts plus errors TP—Triple play: one for each triple play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist General statistics G—Games played: number of games where the player played, in whole or in part GB—Games behind: number of games a team is behind the division leader Pythagorean expectation: estimates a team's expected winning percentage based on runs scored and runs allowed. MLB statistical standards It is difficult to determine quantitatively what is considered to be a "good" value in a certain statistical category, and qualitative assessments may lead to arguments. It is interesting to look at recent results for some typical statistics and let the reader draw their own conclusions. Using full-season statistics available at the Official Site of Major League Baseball Major League Baseball Historical Statistics for the through seasons, the following tables show top ranges in various statistics, in alphabetical order. For each statistic, two values are given: Top5: the top five players bettered this value in all of the reported seasons Best: this is the best of all of the players for all of the reported seasons Arguably, a statistic that falls within the range shown might be considered as excellent. +Batting Statistics Statistic Top5 Best BA .321 .372 HR 43 73 RBI 124 150 SLG .595 .863 +Pitching Statistics Statistic Top5 Best CG 4 9 ERA 3.19 1.74 G 77 94 GS 34 36 IP 231⅔ 266 K 207 372 SHO 2 5 SV 38 55 W 18 24 See also Cy Young Award winners Evolution of baseball player evaluation Rawlings Gold Glove Award winners MLB Most Valuable Player Award winners MLB Rookie of the Year Award winners Official Baseball Rules (OBR) Official Baseball Stat Abbreviations List of pitches Retrosheet Strike zone Triple Crown in Major League Baseball Sabermetrics Notes References Albert, Jim, and Jay M. Bennett. Curve Ball: Baseball, Statistics, and the Role of Chance in the Game. New York: Copernicus Books, 2001. ISBN 0-387-98816-5. A book on new statistics for baseball. Alan Schwarz, The Numbers Game: Baseball’s Lifelong Fascination with Statistics (New York: St. Martin's, 2005). ISBN 0-312-32223-2. 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6,701 | Encyclopedia | Brockhaus Konversations-Lexicon, 1902 An encyclopedia (or encyclopaedia, encyclopædia) is a comprehensive written compendium that holds information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. Encyclopedias are divided into articles with one article on each subject covered. The articles on subjects in an encyclopedia are usually accessed alphabetically by article name and can be contained in one volume or many volumes, depending on the amount of material included. Glossary of Library Terms. Riverside City College, Digital Library/Learning Resource Center. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007. Overview Etymology The word "encyclopaedia" comes from the Classical Greek (transliterated "enkyklios paideia"), literally, a "[well-]rounded education", meaning "general knowledge". Though the notion of a compendium of knowledge dates back thousands of years, the term was first used in the title of a book in 1541 by Joachimus Fortius Ringelbergius, Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia (Basel, 1541). The word encyclopaedia was first used as a noun in the title of his book by the Croatian encyclopedist Pavao Skalić in his Encyclopaedia seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam prophanarum epistemon (Encyclopaedia, or Knowledge of the World of Disciplines, Basel, 1559). One of the oldest vernacular uses was by François Rabelais in his Pantagruel in 1532. Several encyclopaedias have names that include the suffix -p(a)edia, e.g., Banglapedia (on matters relevant for Bengal). In British usage, the spellings encyclopedia and encyclopaedia are both current. "encyclopaedia", Chambers Reference Online; "encyclopaedia", AskOxford. Although the latter is considered more "proper", the former is becoming more common due to the encroachment of American English. In American usage, only the former is commonly used. "encyclopaedia", Bartleby.com; "Encyclopaedia", Merriam Webster. The spelling encyclopædia—with the æ ligature—was frequently used in the 19th century and is increasingly rare, although it is retained in product titles such as Encyclopædia Britannica and others. The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) records encyclopædia and encyclopaedia as equal alternatives (in that order), and notes the æ would be obsolete except that it is preserved in works that have Latin titles. Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1997–2002) features encyclopedia as the main headword and encyclopaedia as a minor variant. In addition, cyclopedia and cyclopaedia are now rarely-used shortened forms of the word originating in the 17th century. Characteristics The encyclopaedia as we recognize it today was developed from the dictionary in the 18th century. A dictionary primarily focuses on words and their definitions, and typically provides limited information, analysis, or background for the word defined. While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader still lacking in understanding the meaning, significance or limitations of a term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge. To address those needs, an encyclopaedia's article covers not a word, but a subject or discipline, and treats it in more depth and conveys the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject. An encyclopaedia also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography and statistics. Historically, both encyclopaedias and dictionaries have been researched and written by well-educated, well-informed content experts. Four major elements define an encyclopaedia: its subject matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its method of production: Encyclopaedias can be general, containing articles on topics in every field (the English-language Encyclopædia Britannica and German Brockhaus are well-known examples). General encyclopaedias often contain guides on how to do a variety of things, as well as embedded dictionaries and gazetteers. There are also encyclopaedias that cover a wide variety of topics but from a particular cultural, ethnic, or national perspective, such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia or Encyclopaedia Judaica. Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their subject domain, such as an encyclopaedia of medicine, philosophy, or law. Works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of discussion, depending on the target audience. (For example, the Medical encyclopaedia produced by A.D.A.M., Inc. for the U.S. National Institutes of Health.) Some systematic method of organization is essential to making an encyclopaedia usable as a work of reference. There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopaedias: the alphabetical method (consisting of a number of separate articles, organised in alphabetical order), or organization by hierarchical categories. The former method is today the most common by far, especially for general works. The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of the same content. Further, electronic media offer previously unimaginable capabilities for search, indexing and cross reference. The epigraph from Horace on the title page of the 18th century Encyclopédie suggests the importance of the structure of an encyclopaedia: "What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection." As modern multimedia and the information age have evolved, they have had an ever-increasing effect on the collection, verification, summation, and presentation of information of all kinds. Projects such as Everything2, Encarta, h2g2 and Wikipedia are examples of new forms of the encyclopaedia as information retrieval becomes simpler. Some works titled "dictionaries" are actually similar to encyclopaedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, and Black's Law Dictionary). The Macquarie Dictionary, Australia's national dictionary, became an encyclopedic dictionary after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns. History Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia, 1669 edition, title page. One of the earliest encyclopedic works to have survived to modern times is the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, a Roman statesman living in the first century AD. He compiled a work of 37 chapters covering natural history, art and architecture, medicine, geography, geology and all aspects of the world about him. He stated in the preface that he had compiled 20,000 facts from 2000 different works by 100 authors, and added many others from his own experience. The work was published in 77 AD, although he probably never finished proofing the work before his untimely death in the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. The scheme of his great work is vast and comprehensive, being nothing short of a compendium of learning and of art so far as they are connected with nature, or draw their materials from nature. He admits that My subject is a barren one - the world of nature, or in other words life; and that subject in its least elevated department, and employing either rustic terms or foreign, nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology. Moreover, the path is not a beaten highway of authorship, nor one in which the mind is eager to range: there is not one of us who has made the same venture, nor yet one Greek who has tackled single-handed all departments of the subject. And he admits the problems of writing such a work: It is a difficult task to give novelty to what is old, authority to what is new, brilliance to the common-place, light to the obscure, attraction to the stale, credibility to the doubtful, but nature to all things and all her properties to nature. Although there were earlier works of a similar nature, by Marcus Terentius Varro for example, his was the only one to survive the Dark ages. It became very popular in the Roman world, and survived, with many copies being made and distributed in the western world. It was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed in 1469, and has remained popular ever since as a source of information on the Roman world, and especially Roman art, Roman technology and Roman engineering. It is also a recognised source for medicine, Roman art, mineralogy, zoology, botany, geology and many other topics not discussed by other classical authors. Among many interesting entries are those for the elephant and the murex snail, the much sought-after source of Tyrian purple dye. Although his work has been criticized for the lack of candour in checking the "facts", some of his text has been confirmed by recent research, like the spectacular remains of Roman gold mines in Spain, especially at Las Medulas, which Pliny probably saw in operation while a Procurator there a few years before he compiled the encyclopedia. Although many of the mining methods are now redundant, such as hushing and fire-setting, it is Pliny who recorded them for posterity, so helping us understand their importance in a modern context. Pliny makes clear in the preface to the work that he had checked his facts by reading and comparing the works of others, as well as referring to them by name. Many such books are now lost works and are remembered by his references, much like the lost sources mentioned in the work of Vitruvius a century earlier. Middle ages First printed edition of 1472 (by Guntherus Zainer, Augsburg), title page of book 14 (de terra et partibus), illustrated with a T and O map. Saint Isidore of Seville, one of the greatest scholars of the early Middle Ages, is widely recognized as being the author of the first known encyclopaedia of the Middle Ages, the Etymologiae (around 630), in which he compiled all learning available at his time, both ancient and modern, forming a huge piece of knowledge of 448 chapters in 20 volumes, which is very valuable not only for its significance, but also because of the quotes and fragments of texts by other authors that would have been lost had not it been done by Saint Isidore. Bartholomeus Anglicus' De proprietatibus rerum (1240) was the most widely read and quoted encyclopedia in the High Middle Ages See "Encyclopedia" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages. while Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum Majus (1260) was the most ambitious encyclopedia in the late-medieval period at over 3 million words. Arabic and Persian The early Muslim compilations of knowledge in the Middle Ages included many comprehensive works, and much development of what we now call scientific method, historical method, and citation. About year 960, the Brethren of Purity of Basra P.D. Wightman (1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas were engaged in their Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity. Notable works include Abu Bakr al-Razi's encyclopedia of science, the Mutazilite Al-Kindi's prolific output of 270 books, and Ibn Sina's medical encyclopedia, which was a standard reference work for centuries. Also notable are works of universal history (or sociology) from Asharites, al-Tabri, al-Masudi, Tabari's History of the Prophets and Kings, Ibn Rustah, al-Athir, and Ibn Khaldun, whose Muqadimmah contains cautions regarding trust in written records that remain wholly applicable today. These scholars had an incalculable influence on methods of research and editing, due in part to the Islamic practice of isnad which emphasized fidelity to written record, checking sources, and skeptical inquiry. By preserving Latin and Greek texts which would otherwise have been lost, they helped to rekindle the search for knowledge and methods of natural philosophy which would blaze again during the Renaissance. China The enormous encyclopedic work in China of the Four Great Books of Song, compiled by the 11th century during the early Song Dynasty (960–1279), was a massive literary undertaking for the time. The last encyclopedia of the four, the Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau, amounted to 9.4 million Chinese characters in 1000 written volumes. There were many great encyclopedists throughout Chinese history, including the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) with his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, the statesman, inventor, and agronomist Wang Zhen (active 1290–1333) with his Nong Shu of 1313, and the written Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing (1587–1666), the latter of whom was termed the "Diderot of China" by British historian Joseph Needham. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 102. The Chinese emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty oversaw the compilation of the Yongle Encyclopedia, one of the largest encyclopedias in history, which was completed in 1408 and comprised over 370 million Chinese characters in 11,000 handwritten volumes, of which only about 400 remain today. In the succeeding dynasty, emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty personally composed 40,000 poems as part of a 4.7 million page library in 4 divisions, including thousands of essays, called the Siku Quanshu which is probably the largest collection of books in the world. It is instructive to compare his title for this knowledge, Watching the waves in a Sacred Sea to a Western-style title for all knowledge. Encyclopedic works, both in imitation of Chinese encyclopedias and as independent works of their own origin, have been known to exist in Japan since the ninth century CE. These works were all hand copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it. 17th–19th centuries Encyclopédie, 1773 The beginnings of the modern idea of the general-purpose, widely distributed printed encyclopedia precede the 18th century encyclopedists. However, Chambers' Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1728), and the Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert (1751 onwards), as well as Encyclopædia Britannica and the Conversations-Lexikon, were the first to realize the form we would recognize today, with a comprehensive scope of topics, discussed in depth and organized in an accessible, systematic method -- although it is notable that to an extent Chambers, in 1728, was following the still earlier lead of John Harris' Lexicon Technicum, of 1704 and later editions (see also below), which was also by its title and content "A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves". Much encyclopaedism of the French Renaissance was based upon the notion of not including every fact known to humans, but only that knowledge that was necessary, where necessity was judged by a wide variety of criteria, leading to works of greatly varying sizes. Béroalde de Verville laid the foundation for his encyclopaedic works in a hexameral poem entitled Les cognoissances nécessaires for example. Often, the criteria had moral bases, such as in the case of Pierre de La Primaudaye's L'Academie Française and Guillaume Telin's Bref sommaire des sept vertus &c.. Encyclopaedists encountered several problems with this approach, including how to decide what to omit as unnecessary, how to structure knowledge that resisted structure (often simply as a consequence of the sheer amount of material that deserved inclusion), and how to cope with the influx of newly discovered knowledge and the effects that it had on prior structures. The term encyclopaedia was coined by 15th century humanists who misread copies of their texts of Pliny and Quintilian, and combined the two Greek words "enkuklios paideia" into one word. The English physician and philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne, specifically employed the word encyclopaedia as early as 1646 in the preface to the reader to describe his Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors, a series of refutations of common errors of his age. Browne structured his encyclopaedia upon the time-honoured schemata of the Renaissance, the so-called 'scale of creation' which ascends a hierarchical ladder via the mineral, vegetable, animal, human, planetary and cosmological worlds. Browne's compendium went through no less than five editions, each revised and augmented, the last edition appearing in 1672. Pseudodoxia Epidemica found itself upon the bookshelves of many educated European readers for throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it was translated, for many years it was not thought compatible with the French and Dutcheze, into the French, Dutch and German languages as well as Latin. Harris' Lexicon Technicum, title page of 2nd edition, 1708 John Harris is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves -- to give its full title. Organized alphabetically, its content does indeed contain explanation not merely of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but of the arts and sciences themselves. Sir Isaac Newton contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710. Its emphasis was on science -- and conformably to the broad 18th-century understanding of the term 'science', its content extends beyond what would be called science or technology today, and includes topics from the humanities and fine arts, e.g. a substantial number from law, commerce, music, and heraldry. At about 1200 pages, its scope can be considered as more that of an encyclopedic dictionary than a true encyclopedia. Harris himself considered it a dictionary; the work is one of the first technical dictionaries in any language. Ephraim Chambers published his Cyclopaedia in 1728. It included a broad scope of subjects, used an alphabetic arrangement, relied on many different contributors and included the innovation of cross-referencing other sections within articles. Chambers has been referred to as the father of the modern encyclopedia for this two-volume work. A French translation of Chambers' work inspired the Encyclopédie, perhaps the most famous early encyclopedia, notable for its scope, the quality of some contributions, and its political and cultural impact in the years leading up to the French revolution. The Encyclopédie was edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Denis Diderot and published in 17 volumes of articles, issued from 1751 to 1765, and 11 volumes of illustrations, issued from 1762 to 1772. Five volumes of supplementary material and a two volume index, supervised by other editors, were issued from 1776 to 1780 by Charles Joseph Panckoucke. The Encyclopédie represented the essence of the French Enlightenment. The prospectus stated an ambitious goal: the Encyclopédie was to be a systematic analysis of the "order and interrelations of human knowledge." Jean le Rond d'Alembert, "Preliminary Discourse," in Denis Diderot's The Encyclopédie: Selections, ed. and trans. Stephen J. Gendzier (1967), cited in Hillmelfarb 2004 Diderot, in his Encyclopédie article of the same name, went further: "to collect all the knowledge that now lies scattered over the face of the earth, to make known its general structure to the men among we live, and to transmit it to those who will come after us," to make men not only wiser but also "more virtuous and more happy." Denis Diderot, Rameau's Nephew and Other Works, trans. and ed. Jacques Barzun and Ralph H. Bowen (1956), cited in Himmelfarb 2004 Realizing the inherent problems with the model of knowledge he had created, Diderot's view of his own success in writing the Encyclopédie were far from ecstatic. Diderot envisioned the perfect encyclopedia as more than the sum of its parts. In his own article on the encyclopedia, Diderot also wrote, "Were an analytical dictionary of the sciences and arts nothing more than a methodical combination of their elements, I would still ask whom it behooves to fabricate good elements." Diderot viewed the ideal encyclopedia as an index of connections. He realized that all knowledge could never be amassed in one work, but he hoped the relations among subjects could be. The Encyclopédie in turn inspired the venerable Encyclopædia Britannica, which had a modest beginning in Scotland: the first edition, issued between 1768 and 1771, had just three hastily completed volumes - A-B, C-L, and M-Z - with a total of 2,391 pages. By 1797, when the third edition was completed, it had been expanded to 18 volumes addressing a full range of topics, with articles contributed by a range of authorities on their subjects. The German-language Conversations-Lexikon was published at Leipzig from 1796 to 1808, in 6 volumes. Paralleling other 18th century encyclopedias, its scope was expanded beyond that of earlier publications, in an effort at comprehensiveness. It was, however, intended not for scholarly use but to provide results of research and discovery in a simple and popular form without extensive detail. This format, a contrast to the Encyclopædia Britannica, was widely imitated by later 19th century encyclopedias in Britain, the United States, France, Spain, Italy and other countries. Of the influential late-18th century and early-19th century encyclopedias, the Conversations-Lexikon is perhaps most similar in form to today's encyclopedias. The early years of the 19th century saw a flowering of encyclopedia publishing in the United Kingdom, Europe and America. In England Rees's Cyclopaedia (1802–1819) contains an enormous amount in information about the industrial and scientific revolutions of the time. A feature of these publications is the high-quality illustrations made by engravers like Wilson Lowry of art work supplied by specialist draftsmen like John Farey, Jr. Encyclopaedias were published in Scotland, as a result of the Scottish Enlightenment, for education there was of a higher standard than in the rest of the United Kingdom. The 17-volume Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle and its supplements were published in France from 1866 to 1890. Encyclopædia Britannica appeared in various editions throughout the century, and the growth of popular education and the Mechanics Institutes, spearheaded by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge led to the production of the Penny Cyclopaedia, as its title suggests issued in weekly numbers at a penny each like a newspaper. In the early 20th century, the Encyclopædia Britannica reached its eleventh edition, and inexpensive encyclopedias such as Harmsworth's Encyclopaedia and Everyman's Encyclopaedia were common. 20th century 1913 advertisement for Encyclopædia Britannica, the oldest and one of the largest contemporary English encyclopedias. Wikipedia is one of the first "user generated content" encyclopedias. In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the introduction of several large popular encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans. The best known of these were World Book and Funk and Wagnalls. The second half of the 20th century also saw the publication of several encyclopedias that were notable for synthesizing important topics in specific fields, often by means of new works authored by significant researchers. Such encyclopedias included The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (first published in 1967 and now in its second edition), and Elsevier's Handbooks In Economics Economics and Finance - Elsevier series. Encyclopedias of at least one volume in size exist for most if not all Academic disciplines, including, typically, such narrow topics such as bioethics and African American history. By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers. Microsoft's Encarta was a landmark example, as it had no print version. Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images. Similar encyclopedias were also being published online, and made available by subscription. All editions of Encarta except Encarta Japan are being discontinued as of October 31, 2009. Important Notice: MSN Encarta to be Discontinued (MSN Encarta) Encarta Japan will be discontinued on December 31, 2009. Traditional encyclopedias are written by a number of employed text writers, usually people with an academic degree, and distributed as proprietary content. Encyclopedias are essentially derivative from what has gone before, and particularly in the 19th century, copyright infringement was common among encyclopedia editors. However, modern encyclopedias are not merely larger compendia, including all that came before them. To make space for modern topics, valuable material of historic use regularly had to be discarded, at least before the advent of digital encyclopedias. Moreover, the opinions and world views of a particular generation can be observed in the encyclopedic writing of the time. For these reasons, old encyclopedias are a useful source of historical information, especially for a record of changes in science and technology. Kobasa, Paul A. "Encyclopedia." World Book Online Reference Center. 2008. [Place of access.] 13 Jan. 2008 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Login?ed=wb&tu=%2Fwb%2FArticle%3Fid%3Dar180800> As of 2007, old encyclopedias whose copyright has expired, such as the 1911 edition of Britannica, are also the only free content encyclopedias released in print form. (In English; works such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia which were created in the public domain exist as free content encyclopedias in other languages.) Free encyclopedia The concept of a new free encyclopedia began with the Interpedia proposal on Usenet in 1993, which outlined an Internet-based online encyclopedia to which anyone could submit content and that would be freely accessible. Early projects in this vein included Everything2 and Open Site. In 1999, Richard Stallman proposed the GNUPedia, an online encyclopedia which, similar to the GNU operating system, would be a "generic" resource. The concept was very similar to Interpedia, but more in line with Stallman's GNU philosophy. It was not until Nupedia and later Wikipedia that a stable free encyclopedia project was able to be established on the Internet. The English Wikipedia became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage "Wikipedia Passes 300,000 Articles making it the worlds largest encyclopedia", Linux Reviews, 2004 July 7. and by late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License. As of December 2008, Wikipedia has over 2.6 million articles in English and well over 8 million combined in over 250 languages. Since then other free encyclopedias like Citizendium and Knol have appeared. 21st century Encarta visual browser, an example of 21st century encyclopedias. The encyclopedia's hierarchical structure and evolving nature is particularly adaptable to a disk-based or on-line computer format, and all major printed multi-subject encyclopedias had moved to this method of delivery by the end of the 20th century. Disk-based (typically DVD-ROM or CD-ROM format) publications have the advantage of being cheaply produced and easily portable. Additionally, they can include media which are impossible to store in the printed format, such as animations, audio, and video. Hyperlinking between conceptually related items is also a significant benefit. On-line encyclopedias offer the additional advantage of being (potentially) dynamic: new information can be presented almost immediately, rather than waiting for the next release of a static format (as with a disk- or paper-based publication). Many printed encyclopedias traditionally published annual supplemental volumes ("yearbooks") to update events between editions, as a partial solution to the problem of staying up-to-date, but this of course required the reader to check both the main volumes and the supplemental volume(s). Some disk-based encyclopedias offer subscription-based access to online updates, which are then integrated with the content already on the user's hard disk in a manner not possible with a printed encyclopedia. Information in a printed encyclopedia necessarily needs some form of hierarchical structure. Traditionally, the method employed is to present the information ordered alphabetically by the article title. However with the advent of dynamic electronic formats the need to impose a pre-determined structure is less necessary. Nonetheless, most electronic encyclopedias still offer a range of organizational strategies for the articles, such as by subject area or alphabetically. CD-ROM and Internet-based encyclopedias also offer greater search abilities than printed versions. While the printed versions rely on indexes to assist in searching for topics, computer accessible versions allow searching through article text for keywords or phrases. See also Biographical dictionary Encyclopedic dictionary Fictitious entry History of science and technology Lexicography Lexicon Library science List of encyclopedias Thesaurus Notes References EtymologyOnline Blom Phillip, Enlightening the World: Encyclopaedie, the Book that Changed the Course of History, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) Collison, Robert, Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages, 2nd ed. (New York, London: Hafner, 1966) Darnton, Robert, The business of enlightenment : a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1979) ISBN 0-674-08785-2 Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), Notable encyclopedias of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: nine predecessors of the Encyclopédie (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1981) ISBN Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), Notable encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century: eleven successors of the Encyclopédie (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1994) ISBN Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Rozenzweig, Roy. "Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past." Journal of American History Volume 93, Number 1 (June, 2006): 117–46. Also available online here from the Center for History and New Media. Walsh, S. Padraig, Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703–1967 (New York: Bowker, 1968, 270 pp.) Includes a historical bibliography, arranged alphabetically, with brief notes on the history of many encyclopedias; a chronology; indexes by editor and publisher; bibliography; and 18 pages of notes from a 1965 American Library Association symposium on encyclopedias. Yeo, Richard R., Encyclopaedic visions : scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-521-65191-3 External links CNET's encyclopedia meta-search (includes Wikipedia) Encyclopaedia and Hypertext Internet Accuracy Project - Biographical errors in encyclopedias and almanacs Encyclopedia - Diderot's article on the Encyclopedia from the original Encyclopédie. What makes a scholarly encyclopedia? De expetendis et fugiendis rebus - First Renaissance encyclopedia Science Dictionary - Online Comprehensive Science Encyclopedia Errors and inconsistencies in several printed reference books and encyclopedias Digital encyclopedias put the world at your fingertips - CNET article Librarians' Internet Index - a list of encyclopedias online Encyclopedias online University of Wisconsin - Stout listing by category Chambers' Cyclopaedia, 1728, with the 1753 supplement Encarta Encyclopedia Encyclopædia Americana, 1851, Francis Lieber ed. (Boston: Mussey & Co.) at the University of Michigan Making of America site Encyclopædia Britannica, articles and illustrations from 9th ed., 1875–89, and 10th ed., 1902–03. Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., 1911, at the LoveToKnow site. 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6,702 | Aegadian_Islands | A map showing the Aegadian Islands. The Aegadian Islands (Sicilian: Ìsuli Ègadi, ; ), are a group of small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Trapani, with a total area of . Favignana (Aegusa), the largest, lies south west of Trapani; Levanzo (Phorbantia) west; while Marettimo, the ancient Iera Nesos, west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the comune of Favignana in the Province of Trapani. The overall population in 1987 was estimated at about 5,000. Though winter frost is unknown, rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing and this is where the largest tuna fishery in Sicily can be found. A view from Trapani to Favignana and Marettimo. There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favigana. The islands were the scene of the Battle of the Aegates Islands of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by C. Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. With the end of western Roman power, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081. The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when they were bought by the Florio family of Palermo. External links Residence a Levanzo | Aegadian_Islands |@lemmatized map:1 show:1 aegadian:2 island:8 sicilian:1 ìsuli:1 ègadi:1 group:2 small:1 mountainous:1 mediterranean:1 sea:1 northwest:1 coast:1 sicily:3 italy:1 near:1 city:1 trapani:5 total:1 area:1 favignana:4 aegusa:1 large:2 lie:2 south:1 west:3 levanzo:4 phorbantia:1 marettimo:2 ancient:1 iera:1 nesos:1 reckon:1 part:2 also:1 two:1 minor:1 formica:1 maraone:1 administrative:1 purpose:1 archipelago:1 constitute:1 comune:1 province:1 overall:1 population:1 estimate:1 though:1 winter:1 frost:1 unknown:1 rainfall:1 low:1 main:1 occupation:1 islander:1 fish:1 tuna:1 fishery:1 find:1 view:1 evidence:1 neolithic:1 even:1 paleolithic:1 painting:1 cave:1 less:1 extent:2 favigana:1 scene:1 battle:1 aegates:1 bc:1 carthaginian:1 fleet:1 defeat:1 c:1 lutatius:1 catulus:1 engagement:1 end:2 first:1 punic:1 war:1 western:1 roman:1 power:1 govern:1 territory:1 goth:1 vandal:1 saracen:1 norman:1 fortify:1 belong:1 pallavicini:1 rusconi:1 family:2 genoa:1 buy:1 florio:1 palermo:1 external:1 link:1 residence:1 |@bigram goth_vandal:1 external_link:1 |
6,703 | Blood | Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in a liquid called blood plasma. Plasma, which comprises 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (90% by volume), and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), platelets and blood cells themselves. The blood cells present in blood are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes) and white blood cells, including leukocytes and platelets. The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates transportation of oxygen by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is almost entirely transported extracellularly dissolved in plasma as bicarbonate ion. Vertebrate blood is bright-red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin. Insects and some molluscs use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this "blood" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system. Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals having lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- (also spelled haemo- and haemato-) from the Ancient Greek word (haima) for "blood". In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen. Functions Hemoglobingreen = heme groupsred & blue = protein subunits Heme Blood performs many important functions within the body including: Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells) Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids) Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage Regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood is in the range of 7.35 - 7.45) (covering only 0.1 pH unit) Regulation of core body temperature Hydraulic functions Constituents of human blood Two tubes of EDTA-anticoagulated blood.Left tube: after standing, the RBCs have settled at the bottom of the tube.Right tube: contains freshly drawn blood. Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density of approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 liters, composed of plasma and several kinds of cells (occasionally called corpuscles); these formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma constitutes about 54.3%, white cells constitute 0.7%. Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics; its flow properties are adapted to flow effectively through tiny capillary blood vessels with less resistance than plasma by itself. In addition, if all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively. Cells One microliter of blood contains: 4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female) erythrocytes: In mammals, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles. They contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoproteins that define the different blood types. The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface. 4,000-11,000 leukocytes: White blood cells are part of the immune system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances. The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia. 200,000-500,000 thrombocytes: thrombocytes, also called platelets, are responsible for blood clotting (coagulation). They change fibrinogen into fibrin. This fibrin creates a mesh onto which red blood cells collect and clot, which then stops more blood from leaving the body and also helps to prevent bacteria from entering the body. + Constitution of normal bloodParameterValue Hematocrit 45 ± 7 (38 – 52%) for males 42 ± 5 (37 – 47%) for females pH 7.35 – 7.45 base excess -3 to +3 PO2 10 – 13 kPa (80 – 100 mm Hg) PCO2 4.8 – 5.8 kPa (35 – 45 mm Hg) HCO3<sup>-</sub> 21 mM – 27 mM Oxygen saturation Oxygenated: 98 – 99% Deoxygenated: 75% Plasma About 55% of whole blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7 – 3.0 litres in an average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid. Other important components include: Serum albumin Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation) Immunoglobulins (antibodies) lipoprotein particles Various other proteins Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride) The term serum refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed. Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins. The normal pH of human arterial blood is approximately 7.40 (normal range is 7.35 – 7.45), a weakly alkaline solution. Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too alkaline. Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), and HCO3 are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system in order to control the acid-base balance and respiration. Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive. Physiology Cardiovascular system The circulation of blood through the human heart Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins. It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood. Additional return flow may be generated by the movement of skeletal muscles, which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium. The blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628. Production and degradation of blood cells In vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs. In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum, is an important source of lymphocytes. The proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins) is produced predominantly by the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney. Healthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen, and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids. The kidney actively secretes waste products into the urine. Oxygen transport Basic hemoglobin saturation curve. It is moved to the right in higher acidity (more dissolved carbon dioxide) and to the left in lower acidity (less dissolved carbon dioxide) About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the Hgb. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to Hgb. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species (for exceptions, see below). Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity of between 1.36 and 1.37 ml O2 per gram Hemoglobin , which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold , compared to if oxygen solely was carried by its solubility of 0.03 mL O2 per litre blood per mmHg partial pressure of oxygen (approximately 100 mmHg in arteries). With the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries, where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules, and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Under normal conditions in humans at rest, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98-99% saturated with oxygen. In a healthy adult at rest, deoxygenated blood returning to the lungs is still approximately 75% saturated. Ventilation and Endurance Performance Transplant Support- Lung, Heart/Lung, Heart MSN groups Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions. Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia. Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation of less than 90%), is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations of less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal. The 'St George' Guide To Pulmonary Artery Catheterisation A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), and, so, fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) in order to function under these conditions. Oxygen Carriage in Blood - High Altitude Carbon dioxide transport When blood flows through capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues into the blood. Some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood. Some carbon dioxide reacts with hemoglobin and other proteins to form carbamino compounds. The remaining carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions through the action of RBC carbonic anhydrase. Most carbon dioxide is transported through the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions. Carbon dioxide (CO2), the main cellular waste product is carried in blood mainly dissolved in plasma, in equilibrium with bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). 86%-90% of CO2 in the body is converted into carbonic acid, which can quickly turn into bicarbonate, the chemical equilibrium being important in the pH buffering of plasma. Biology.arizona.edu. October 2006. Clinical correlates of pH levels: bicarbonate as a buffer. Blood pH is kept in a narrow range (pH between 7.35-7.45). Transport of hydrogen ions Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin. Lymphatic system In mammals, blood is in equilibrium with lymph, which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration. Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct, which drains into the left subclavian vein where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation. Thermoregulation Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially. Hydraulic functions The restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis, nipples, and clitoris. Another example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs. Invertebrates In insects, the blood (more properly called hemolymph) is not involved in the transport of oxygen. (Openings called tracheae allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues). Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products in an open system. Other invertebrates use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity. Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature. Hemocyanin (blue) contains copper and is found in crustaceans and mollusks. It is thought that tunicates (sea squirts) might use vanabins (proteins containing vanadium) for respiratory pigment (bright-green, blue, or orange). In many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized red blood cells, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing viscosity or damaging blood filtering organs like the kidneys. Giant tube worms have unusual hemoglobins that allow them to live in extraordinary environments. These hemoglobins also carry sulfides normally fatal in other animals. Color Hemoglobin Capillary blood from a bleeding finger Venous blood collected during blood donation Hemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood in vertebrates. Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color. In vertebrates and other hemoglobin-using creatures, arterial blood and capillary blood are bright-red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. Blood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright-red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin. In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot utilize oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. While hemoglobin-containing blood is never blue, there are several conditions and diseases wherein the color of the heme groups make the skin appear blue. If the heme is oxidized, methaemoglobin, which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen, is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark-red with a bluish hue (cyanosis). Veins in the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons only weakly dependent on the color of the blood. Light scattering in the skin, and the visual processing of color play roles as well. Skinks in the genus Prasinohaema have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin. Hemocyanin The blood of most molluscs - including cephalopods and gastropods - as well as some arthropods, such as horseshoe crabs, is blue, as it contains the copper-containing protein hemocyanin at concentrations of about 50 grams per litre. Hemocyanin is colorless when deoxygenated and dark blue when oxygenated. The blood in the circulation of these creatures, which generally live in cold environments with low oxygen tensions, is grey-white to pale yellow, and it turns dark blue when exposed to the oxygen in the air, as seen when they bleed. This is due to change in color of hemocyanin when it is oxidized. Hemocyanin carries oxygen in extracellular fluid, which is in contrast to the intracellular oxygen transport in mammals by hemoglobin in RBCs. Pathology General medical disorders Disorders of volume Injury can cause blood loss through bleeding. A healthy adult can lose almost 20% of blood volume (1L) before the first symptom, restlessness, begins, and 40% of volume (2L) before shock sets in. Thrombocytes are important for blood coagulation and the formation of blood clots, which can stop bleeding. Trauma to the internal organs or bones can cause internal bleeding, which can sometimes be severe. Dehydration can reduce the blood volume by reducing the water content of the blood. This would rarely result in shock (apart from the very severe cases) but may result in orthostatic hypotension and fainting. Disorders of circulation Shock is the ineffective perfusion of tissues, and can be caused by a variety of conditions including blood loss, infection, poor cardiac output. Atherosclerosis reduces the flow of blood through arteries, because atheroma lines arteries and narrows them. Atheroma tends to increase with age, and its progression can be compounded by many causes including smoking, high blood pressure, excess circulating lipids (hyperlipidemia), and diabetes mellitus. Coagulation can form a thrombosis, which can obstruct vessels. Problems with blood composition, the pumping action of the heart, or narrowing of blood vessels can have many consequences including hypoxia (lack of oxygen) of the tissues supplied. The term ischemia refers to tissue that is inadequately perfused with blood, and infarction refers to tissue death (necrosis), which can occur when the blood supply has been blocked (or is very inadequate). Hematological disorders Anemia Insufficient red cell mass (anemia) can be the result of bleeding, blood disorders like thalassemia, or nutritional deficiencies; and may require blood transfusion. Several countries have blood banks to fill the demand for transfusable blood. A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a blood type compatible with that of the donor. Sickle-cell anemia Disorders of cell proliferation Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues. Non-cancerous overproduction of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential thrombocytosis) may be premalignant. Myelodysplastic syndromes involve ineffective production of one or more cell lines. Disorders of coagulation Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms. This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in hemarthrosis, or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling. Ineffective or insufficient platelets can also result in coagulopathy (bleeding disorders). Hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia) results from defects in regulation of platelet or clotting factor function, and can cause thrombosis. Infectious disorders of blood Blood is an important vector of infection. HIV, the virus, which causes AIDS, is transmitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected person. Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood contact. Owing to blood-borne infections, bloodstained objects are treated as a biohazard. Bacterial infection of the blood is bacteremia or sepsis. Viral Infection is viremia. Malaria and trypanosomiasis are blood-borne parasitic infections. Carbon monoxide poisoning Substances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases this can cause irreversible damage to the body. Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin is free to bind oxygen, and less oxygen can be transported in the blood. This can cause suffocation insidiously. A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air. Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco. Medical treatments Blood products Blood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank. There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused. Other blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates. Intravenous administration Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract. After severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc...) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion. Bloodletting In modern evidence-based medicine, bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia. However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine. History Classical Greek medicine In classical Greek medicine, blood was associated with air, with Springtime, and with a merry and gluttonous (sanguine) personality. It was also believed to be produced exclusively by the liver. Hippocratic medicine In Hippocratic medicine, blood was considered to be one of the four humors, the others being phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Myths Due to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships; to be "related by blood" is to be related by ancestry or descendance, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as "blood is thicker than water" and "bad blood", as well as "Blood brother". Blood is given particular emphasis in the Jewish and Christian religions because Leviticus 17:11 says "the life of a creature is in the blood." This phrase is part of the Levitical law forbidding the drinking of blood or eating meat with the blood still intact instead of being poured off. Mythic references to blood can sometimes be connected to the life-giving nature of blood, seen in such events as childbirth, as contrasted with the blood of injury or death. Indigenous Australians In many indigenous Australian Aboriginal peoples' traditions, ochre (particularly red) and blood, both high in iron content and considered Maban, are applied to the bodies of dancers for ritual. As Lawlor states:In many Aboriginal rituals and ceremonies, red ochre is rubbed all over the naked bodies of the dancers. In secret, sacred male ceremonies, blood extracted from the veins of the participant's arms is exchanged and rubbed on their bodies. Red ochre is used in similar ways in less-secret ceremonies. Blood is also used to fasten the feathers of birds onto people's bodies. Bird feathers contain a protein that is highly magnetically sensitive. Lawlor comments that blood employed in this fashion is held by these peoples to attune the dancers to the invisible energetic realm of the Dreamtime. Lawlor then connects these invisible energetic realms and magnetic fields, because iron is magnetic. Indo-European paganism Among the Germanic tribes (such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norsemen), blood was used during their sacrifices; the Blóts. The blood was considered to have the power of its originator, and, after the butchering, the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods, and on the participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called bleodsian in Old English, and the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming to bless and blessing. The Hittite word for blood, ishar was a cognate to words for "oath" and "bond", see Ishara. The Ancient Greeks believed that the blood of the gods, ichor, was a mineral that was poisonous to mortals. Judaism In Judaism, blood cannot be consumed even in the smallest quantity (Leviticus 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut). Blood is purged from meat by salting and soaking in water. Another ritual involving blood involves the covering of the blood of fowl and game after slaughtering (Leviticus 17:13); the reason given by the Torah is: "Because the life of every animal is [in] his blood" (ibid 17:14). Christianity Some Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Assyrian Church of the East teach that, when consecrated, the Eucharistic wine actually becomes the blood of Jesus. Thus in the consecrated wine, Jesus becomes spiritually and physically present. This teaching is rooted in the Last Supper, as written in the four gospels of the Bible, in which Jesus stated to his disciples that the bread that they ate was his body, and the wine was his blood. "This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you." (). Various forms of Protestantism, especially those of a Wesleyan or Presbyterian lineage, teach that the wine is no more than a symbol of the blood of Christ, who is spiritually but not physically present. Lutheran theology teaches that the body and blood is present together "in, with, and under" the bread and wine of the Eucharistic feast. Christ's blood is also seen as the means for atonement for sins for Christians. At the Council of Jerusalem, the apostles prohibited Christians from consuming blood, probably because this was a command given to Noah (Genesis 9:4, see Noahide Law). This command continued to be observed by the Eastern Orthodox. Islam Consumption of food containing blood is forbidden by Islamic dietary laws. This is derived from the statement in the Qur'an, sura Al-Ma'ida (5:3): "Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which hath been invoked the name of other than Allah." Jehovah's Witnesses Based on their interpretation of the Bible, Jehovah's Witnesses do not eat blood or accept transfusions of whole blood or its four major components namely, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (thrombocytes), and whole plasma. Members are instructed to personally decide whether or not to accept fractions and medical procedures that involve their own blood. Chinese and Japanese culture In Chinese popular culture, it is often said that, if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, this signifies that he is experiencing sexual desire. This often appears in Chinese-language and Hong Kong films as well as in Japanese culture parodied in anime and manga. Characters, mostly males, will often be shown with a nosebleed if they have just seen someone nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy; this is based on the idea that a male's blood pressure will spike dramatically when aroused. Law of Anime #40 aka Law of Nasal Sanguination at The Anime Cafe. Blood libel Various religious and other groups have been falsely accused of using human blood in rituals; such accusations are known as blood libel. The most common form of this is blood libel against Jews. Although there is no ritual involving human blood in Jewish law or custom, fabrications of this nature (often involving the murder of children) were widely used during the Middle Ages to justify Antisemitic persecution. Vampire legends Vampires are mythical creatures that drink blood directly for sustenance, usually with a preference for human blood. Cultures all over the world have myths of this kind; for example the 'Nosferatu' legend, a human who achieves damnation and immortality by drinking the blood of others, originates from Eastern European folklore. Ticks, leeches, female mosquitoes, vampire bats, and an assortment of other natural creatures do drink blood, but only bats are associated with vampires. This has no relation to vampire bats which are new world creatures discovered well after the origins of the European myths. Entertainment Art Blood is one of the body fluids that have been used in art. "Nostalgia" Artwork in blood In particular, the performances of Viennese Actionist Hermann Nitsch, Franko B, Lennie Lee, Ron Athey, Yang Zhichao, and Kira O' Reilly, along with the photography of Andres Serrano, have incorporated blood as a prominent visual element. Marc Quinn has made sculptures using frozen blood, including a cast of his own head made using his own blood. Blood is also the main leitmotiv in Maligno Art. Films Blood is commonly associated with gore in motion pictures. Films with bloody scenes tend to receive a high rating by film licensing bodies, ranging from PG-13 to NC-17, depending on its depiction and its prominence. See also Autotransfusion Blood as food: see black pudding and tiết canh Blood donation Blood substitutes ("Artificial blood") Blood test Hemophobia List of human blood components Taboo food and drink: Blood References External links be-x-old:Кроў | Blood |@lemmatized blood:246 specialized:4 bodily:1 fluid:8 delivers:1 necessary:1 substance:3 body:32 cell:48 nutrient:4 oxygen:44 transport:12 waste:9 product:12 away:2 vertebrate:8 compose:2 suspend:1 liquid:4 call:10 plasma:26 comprise:1 mostly:2 water:6 volume:8 contains:3 dissolve:8 protein:18 glucose:3 mineral:2 ion:6 hormone:4 carbon:23 dioxide:16 main:3 medium:2 excretory:1 transportation:2 platelet:11 present:6 mainly:3 red:27 also:15 rbc:5 erythrocyte:3 white:10 include:15 leukocyte:4 abundant:1 contain:16 hemoglobin:28 iron:3 containing:1 facilitate:2 reversibly:1 bind:7 respiratory:6 gas:1 greatly:1 increase:9 solubility:2 contrast:4 almost:3 entirely:1 extracellularly:1 bicarbonate:6 bright:4 oxygenate:6 animal:4 crustacean:2 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6,704 | Equivocation | Equivocation is classified as both a formal and informal fallacy. It is the misleading use of a term with more than one meaning or sense (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time). It is often confused with amphiboly; however, equivocation is ambiguity arising from the misleading use of a word and amphiboly is ambiguity arising from misleading use of punctuation or syntax. Examples Equivocation is the use in a syllogism (a logical chain of reasoning) of a term several times, but giving the term a different meaning each time. For example: A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, a feather cannot be dark. In this use of equivocation, the word "light" is first used as the opposite of "heavy", but then used as a synonym of "bright" (the fallacy usually becomes obvious as soon as one tries to translate this argument into another language). Because the "middle term" of this syllogism is not one term, but two separate ones masquerading as one (all feathers are indeed "not heavy", but is not true that all feathers are "bright"), equivocation is actually a kind of the fallacy of four terms. The fallacy of equivocation is often used with words that have a strong emotional content and many meanings. These meanings often coincide within proper context, but the fallacious arguer does a semantic shift, slowly changing the context as they go in such a way to achieve equivocation by treating distinct meanings of the word as equivalent. In English language, one equivocation is with the word "man", which can mean both "member of species Homo sapiens" and "male member of species Homo sapiens". A well-known equivocation is "Do women need to worry about man-eating sharks?" where "man-eating" is taken as "devouring only male human beings". A separate case of equivocation is metaphor: All jackasses have long ears. Karl is a jackass. Therefore, Karl has long ears. Here the equivocation is the metaphorical use of "jackass" to imply a stupid or obnoxious person instead of a male ass. Margarine is better than nothing. Nothing is better than butter. Therefore margarine is better than butter. In the first statement, "nothing" really means "dry bread" (such that the sentence means "it is preferable to have margarine [on bread] than nothing at all"), whereas in the second, it means, literally, "no thing" (so the sentence means "there exists no thing that is better than butter"). A similar example is the Politician's syllogism, satirized on the television show Yes Minister: Something must be done. This is something. Therefore, this must be done. Specific types of equivocation fallacies See main articles: False attribution, Fallacy of quoting out of context, Loki's Wager, No true Scotsman, Shifting ground fallacy. References F.L. Huntley. "Some Notes on Equivocation: Comment", PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America Vol. 81, No 1, (March 1966), p.146. A.E. Malloch. "Some Notes on Equivocation", PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America'' Vol. 81, No 1, (March 1966), pp 145–146. See also Fallacy of four terms If-by-whiskey Mental reservation Plausible deniability When a white horse is not a horse External link Logical Fallacy: Equivocation The Fallacy Files | Equivocation |@lemmatized equivocation:15 classify:1 formal:1 informal:1 fallacy:10 misleading:2 use:9 term:7 one:6 meaning:6 sense:1 gloss:1 intend:1 particular:1 time:3 often:3 confuse:1 amphiboly:2 however:1 ambiguity:2 arise:2 word:5 mislead:1 punctuation:1 syntax:1 example:3 syllogism:3 logical:2 chain:1 reason:1 several:1 give:1 different:1 feather:4 light:3 cannot:2 dark:2 therefore:4 first:2 opposite:1 heavy:2 synonym:1 bright:2 usually:1 become:1 obvious:1 soon:1 try:1 translate:1 argument:1 another:1 language:4 middle:1 two:1 separate:2 masquerade:1 indeed:1 true:2 actually:1 kind:1 four:2 strong:1 emotional:1 content:1 many:1 coincide:1 within:1 proper:1 context:3 fallacious:1 arguer:1 semantic:1 shift:2 slowly:1 change:1 go:1 way:1 achieve:1 treat:1 distinct:1 equivalent:1 english:1 man:3 mean:5 member:2 specie:2 homo:2 sapiens:2 male:3 well:1 know:1 woman:1 need:1 worry:1 eat:1 shark:1 eating:1 take:1 devour:1 human:1 case:1 metaphor:1 jackass:3 long:2 ear:2 karl:2 metaphorical:1 imply:1 stupid:1 obnoxious:1 person:1 instead:1 margarine:3 good:4 nothing:4 butter:3 statement:1 really:1 dry:1 bread:2 sentence:2 preferable:1 whereas:1 second:1 literally:1 thing:2 exist:1 similar:1 politician:1 satirize:1 television:1 show:1 yes:1 minister:1 something:2 must:2 specific:1 type:1 see:2 main:1 article:1 false:1 attribution:1 quote:1 loki:1 wager:1 scotsman:1 ground:1 reference:1 f:1 l:1 huntley:1 note:2 comment:1 pmla:2 publication:2 modern:2 association:2 america:2 vol:2 march:2 p:1 e:1 malloch:1 pp:1 also:1 whiskey:1 mental:1 reservation:1 plausible:1 deniability:1 white:1 horse:2 external:1 link:1 file:1 |@bigram informal_fallacy:1 homo_sapiens:2 external_link:1 logical_fallacy:1 |
6,705 | Athens | Athens (; , Athina, ), the capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery; as one of the world's oldest cities, its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. The Greek capital has a population of 745,514 (in 2001) within its administrative limits and a land area of . The urban area of Athens extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3,130,841 (in 2001) and a land area of . According to Eurostat, the Athens Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) is the 7th most populated LUZ in the European Union with a population of 4,013,368 (in 2004). A bustling and cosmopolitan metropolis, Athens is central to economic, financial, industrial, political and cultural life in Greece and it is rated as an alpha world city. It is rapidly becoming a leading business centre in the European Union. In 2008, Athens was ranked the world's 32nd richest city by purchasing power and the 25th most expensive in a UBS study. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state. A centre for the arts, learning and philosophy, home of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum, Athens was also the birthplace of Socrates, Pericles, Sophocles and its many other prominent philosophers, writers and politicians of the ancient world. It is widely referred to as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy, BBC History on Greek Democracy - Accessed on 26 January 2007 largely due to the impact of its cultural and political achievements during the 5th and 4th centuries BC on the rest of the then known European continent. Encarta: Ancient Greece - Retrieved on 26 January 2007 The heritage of the classical era is still evident in the city, represented by a number of ancient monuments and works of art, the most famous of all being the Parthenon on the Acropolis, widely considered a key landmark of early Western civilization. The city also retains a vast variety of Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a smaller number of remaining Ottoman monuments projecting the city's long history across the centuries. Landmarks of the modern era are also present, dating back to 1830 (the establishment of the independent Greek state), and taking in the Hellenic Parliament (19th century) and the Athens Trilogy consisting of the National Library of Greece, the Athens University and the Academy of Athens. Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics, with great success. Etymology Statue of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. In Ancient Greek, the name of Athens was ; , related tο name of the goddess Athena (Attic and Ionic ). The city's name was in the plural, like those of (Thēbai), (Mukēnai), and (Delphoi). In the 19th century, (Athinai / ) was formally re-adopted as the city's name. Since the official abandonment of Katharevousa Greek in the 1970s, Αθήνα (Athína / ) has become the city's official name. History Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 4,500 years. Classical Athens became the leading city of ancient Greece in the 5th century BC, with its cultural achievements laying the foundations of Western civilization. By the end of Late Antiquity the city experienced decline followed by recovery in the second half of the Middle Byzantine Period (9th-10th centuries AD), and was relatively prosperous during the Crusades, benefiting from Italian trade; after a long period of decline under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Athens re-emerged in the 19th century as the capital of the independent Greek state, and in 1896 hosted the first modern Olympic Games. In the 1920s a number of Greek refugees, expelled from Asia Minor after the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922), swelled Athens' population; nevertheless it was most particularly following the World War II, and from the 1950s and 1960s, that the population of the city exploded, and Athens experienced a gradual expansion in all directions. In the 1980s it became evident that smog from factories and an ever increasing fleet of automobiles, as well as a lack of adequate free space due to overcongestion, had evolved into the city's most important challenges. A series of anti-pollution measures taken by the city's authorities in the 1990s, combined with a substantial improvement of the city's infrastructure (including the Attiki Odos motorway, the expansion of the Athens Metro, and the new Athens International Airport), considerably alleviated pollution and transformed Athens into a much more functional city. Geography Processed 3D view of the Attica Basin from space. Courtesy: NASA. Athens sprawls across the central plain of Attica that is often referred to as the Attica Basin. The basin is bound by four large mountains; Mount Aegaleo to the west, Mount Parnitha to the north, Mount Penteli to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east of the Athens Metropolitan Area. The Saronic Gulf lies in the southwest. Mount Parnitha is the tallest of the four mountains () and it has been declared a national park. Well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves dot the protected area. Hiking and mountain-biking in all four mountains remain popular outdoor activities for many residents of the city. Over the years, the capital has expanded to cover almost the entire plain, making future growth in size difficult. The geomorphology of Athens causes the so-called temperature inversion phenomenon which, along with the failure of the Greek Government to control industrial pollution, is responsible for the air pollution problems the city has recently faced. (Los Angeles and Mexico City also suffer with similar geomorphology inversion problems). By the late 1970s, the pollution of Athens had become so destructive that according to the then Greek Minister of Culture, Constantine Trypanis, the carved details on the five the caryatids of the Erechtheum had seriously degenerated, while the face of the horseman on the Parthenon's west side was all but obliterated. A series of strict measures that were taken by the authorities of the city throughout the 1990s finally resulted in a dramatic improvement of air quality; the appearance of smog (or nefos as the Athenians used to call it) has nowadays become an increasingly rare phenomenon. Climate Athens enjoys a typical mediterranean climate, with the greatest amounts of precipitation mainly occurring from mid-October to mid-April; any precipitation is sparse during summer and it generally takes the form of showers and/or thunderstorms. Due to its location in a strong rain shadow because of Mount Parnitha, however, the Athenian climate is much drier compared to most of the rest of Mediterranean Europe. The mountainous northern suburbs, for their part, experience a somewhat differentiated climatic pattern, with generally lower temperatures and more substantial snowfalls during winter. Fog is highly unusual in the city centre but it is more frequent to the east, behind the Hymettus mountain range. Snowfalls occur almost on a yearly basis, though these do not normally lead to significant, if any, disruption. Nonetheless, the city has experienced several heavy snowfalls, not least in the past decade. During the blizzards of March 1987; February 1992; 4 January-6, 2002; 12 February-13, 2004 and 16 February-18, 2008, snow blanketed large parts of the metropolitan area, causing havoc across much of the city. Spring and fall (autumn) are considered ideal seasons for sightseeing and all kinds of outdoor activities. Summers can be particularly hot and at times prone to smog and pollution related conditions (however, much less so than in the past). The average daytime maximum temperature for the month of July is and heatwaves are relatively common, occurring generally during the months of July and/or August, when hot air masses sweep across Greece from the south or the southwest. On such days temperatures soar over . The all-time high temperatures for the metropolitan area of Athens of were recorded in Elefsina, a suburb of Athens. The respective low-temperature record is , recorded at Nea Filadelfia. During the February 2004 blizzard (one of the worst snowstorms ever to hit the city), temperatures plummeted to at the Technical University Campus, and at the meteorological station of the National Observatory of Athens, in Penteli. Pollution and environment Widespread measures taken by the Greek authorities throughout the 1990s have effectively improved the quality of air over the Attica Basin. Nevertheless, air pollution still remains an issue for Athens (although to a limited degree), particularly during the hottest summer days. In late June 2007, the Attica region experienced a number of brush fires, including one that burned a significant portion of a large forested national park in Mount Parnitha, which is considered critical to maintaining a better air quality in Athens all year round. Damage to the park has led to worries over a stalling in the improvement of air quality in the city. The major waste management efforts undertaken in the last decade (especially the plant built on the small island of Psytalia) have improved water quality in the Saronic Gulf, and the coastal waters of Athens are now accessible again to swimmers. In January 2007, Athens briefly faced a waste management problem when its landfill near Ano Liosia, an Athenian suburb, reached capacity. The crisis eased by mid-January when authorities began taking the garbage to a temporary landfill. Administration The Athens Prefecture (blue), within the periphery of Attica (grey). Athens became the capital of Greece in 1834, following Nafplion which was the provisional capital from 1829. In addition, the municipality of Athens is the capital of the Attica Periphery and the Athens Prefecture. Athens can refer either to the municipality of Athens or to the entire urban area. It sometimes refers only to the Athens Prefecture, which is part of the urban area. Attica Periphery Athens is located within the Attica Periphery, which encompasses the most populated region of Greece, with around 3.7 million people. The Attica Periphery itself is split into four prefectures; they include the Athens Prefecture, Piraeus Prefecture, West Attica Prefecture, and the East Attica Prefecture. It is, however, one of the smaller peripheries in Greece, with an area of . Athens Prefecture The seven districts of Athens municipality. The Athens Prefecture is the most populous of the Prefectures of Greece, accounting 2,664,776 people (in 2001), with an area of . It is made up by 48 municipalities, each one of which has an elected district council and a directly elected mayor. Along with the Piraeus Prefecture, it forms the Athens-Piraeus super-prefecture. Athens Municipality The municipality of Athens is the most populous in Greece, with a population of 745,514 people (in 2001) and an area of . The current mayor of Athens is the New Democracy politician, Nikitas Kaklamanis. It is divided into seven municipal districts, called dimotika diamerismata. The 7-district division is mainly used for administrative purposes. For Athenians the most popular way of dividing the city proper is through its neighbourhoods, each with its own distinct history and characteristics, such as Pagkrati, Ambelokipi, Exarcheia, Patissia, Ilissia, Petralona, Koukaki and Kypseli, the world's second most densely populated urban area. For a traveller unfamiliar with Athens, familiarity with the contours of these neighbourhoods can often be particularly useful in both exploring and understanding the city. Demographics Athens population distribution. Athens urban area shown here with its 55 municipalities. The municipality of Athens has an official population of 745,514 with a metropolitan population of 3.2 million (population including the suburbs). The actual population, however, is believed to be higher, because during census-taking (carried out once every 10 years) some Athenian residents travel back to their birthplaces, and register as local citizens there. Ta Nea onLine - Retrieved on 10 February 2007 Reflecting this uncertainty about population figures, various sources refer to a population of around 5 million people for Athens. Athens: Ecology + Environment + Architecture quote: Modern Athens, a city which was laid out in the 1830’s as a garden city for 50,000 inhabitants, is home today for nearly 5 million people, almost half of the population of Greece.Airmiles UK quote: Did you know...? Nearly five million people – almost half of Greece's entire population - live in Athens.Taxis.gr quote: In any other city with a population of five million..BBC News Europequote: The capital, with its population of five million,Europa quote: (the metropolitan area of Athens contains over five million inhabitants.International Railway Journal, August, 2000 quote: The Athens urban area has a population of about five million Also unaccounted for is an undefined number of unregistered immigrants originating mainly from Albania, other Eastern European countries and Pakistan. The ancient site of the city is centred on the rocky hill of the acropolis. In ancient times the port of Piraeus was a separate city, but it has now been absorbed into greater Athens. The rapid expansion of the city initiated in the 1950s and 1960s continues today, because of the transition from an agricultural to an industrial nation. Greek Tourist Organizer - Retrieved on 6 January 2007 The expansion is now particularly toward the East and North East (a tendency greatly related to the new Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport and the Attiki Odos, the freeway that cuts across Attica). By this process Athens has engulfed many former suburbs and villages in Attica, and continues to do so. Throughout its long history, Athens has experienced many different population levels. The table below shows the historical population of Athens in recent times. Year City population Urban population Metro population 1833 4,000 - - 1870 44,500 - - 1896 123,000 - - 1921 (Pre-Population exchange) 473,000 - - 1921 (Post-Population exchange) 718,000 - - 1971 867,023 - - 1981 885,737 - - 1991 772,072 - 3,444,358 2001 745,514 3,130,841 3,761,810 Athens Urban Area The Athens urban area consists of 55 munipalities, 48 of the Athens Prefecture and the 7 of the mainland Piraeus Prefecture. The second largest municipality of the urban area, after Athens city proper, is that of Piraeus, with Peristeri and Kallithea following. It spans and has a population of 3,130,841 (in 2001), which makes it one of the largest urban areas of the European Union. Culture Archaeological hub The National Archaeological Museum of Athens. The Tower of the Winds in Plaka. The city is one of the world's main centres of archaeological research. Apart from national institutions, such as Athens University, the Archaeological Society, several archaeological Museums (including the National Archaeological Museum, the Cycladic Museum, the Epigraphic Museum, the Byzantine Museum, as well as museums at the ancient Agora, Acropolis, and Kerameikos), the city is also home to the Demokritos laboratory for Archaeometry as well as several regional and national archaeological authorities that form part of the Greek Department of Culture. Additionally, Athens hosts 17 Foreign Archaeological Institutes which promote and facilitate research by scholars from their respective home countries. As a result, Athens has more than a dozen archaeological libraries and three specialized archaeological laboratories, and is the venue of several hundred specialized lectures, conferences and seminars, as well as dozens of archaeological exhibitions, per year. At any given time, Athens is the (temporary) home to hundreds of international scholars and researchers in all disciplines of archaeology. Tourism Athens has been a popular destination for travellers since antiquity. Over the past decade, the city's infrastructure and social amenities have improved, in part due to its successful bid to stage the 2004 Olympic Games. The Greek Government, aided by the EU, has funded major infrastructure projects such as the state-of-the-art Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, the expansion of the Athens Metro system, and the new Attiki Odos Motorway. Entertainment Athens is home to 148 theatrical stages, more than any other city in the world, including the famous ancient Herodes Atticus Theatre, home to the Athens Festival, which runs from May to October each year. In addition to a large number of multiplexes, Athens plays host to a variety of romantic, open air garden cinemas. The city also supports a vast number of music venues, including the Athens Concert Hall, known as the "Megaron Moussikis", which attracts world-famous artists all year round. Sports Athens has a long tradition in sports and sporting events, being home of the most important clubs in Greek sports and having a large number of sports facilities. The city has also served as a host of several sports events of international notability. The refurbished Athens Olympic Stadium was the site of the 2004 Olympic Games and the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final. Athens has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in 1896 and 2004. The 2004 Summer Olympics inspired the development of the Athens Olympic Stadium, which has gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful stadia in the world and one of the most interesting modern monuments. The biggest stadium in Greece has hosted two finals of the UEFA Champions League, in 1994 and 2007. The other major stadium of Athens, located in Piraeus area, is the Karaiskakis Stadium, a state-of-the-art sports and entertainment complex, host of the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. Athens has hosted the Euroleague final three times, the first in 1985 and second in 1993, both at the Peace and Friendship Stadium, most known as SEF, one of the largest and most attractive indoor arenas in Europe, and the third in 2007 at the Olympic Indoor Hall. A large number of events in other sports such as athletics, volleyball, water polo etc, has also been hosted in the capital's venues. Athens is home to three prestigious European multi-sport clubs: Olympiacos, Panathinaikos and AEK Athens. In football, Olympiacos have dominated the domestic competitions, Panathinaikos made it to the 1971 European Cup Final, while AEK Athens is the other member of the big three. These clubs have also prominent basketball departments; Panathinaikos and Olympiacos are among the giants of European basketball, and AEK Athens was the first Greek team to win a European trophy in any team sports. Other clubs with great tradition in sports within Athens are Panionios, Panellinios, Ethnikos Piraeus and Maroussi. Athenian clubs have made significant domestic and international success so far in other sports as well. The Athens area encompasses a variety of terrain, notably hills and mountains rising around the city, and the capital is the only major city in Europe to be bisected by a mountain range. Four mountain ranges extend into city boundaries and thousands of miles of trails crisscross the city and neighbouring areas, providing exercise and wilderness access on foot and bike. Beyond Athens and across the county a great variety of outdoor activities are available and popular, including skiing, rock climbing, hang gliding and windsurfing. Numerous outdoor clubs serve these sports, including the Athens Chapter of the Sierra Club, which leads over 4,000 outings annually in the area. Urban Landscape Architecture The Academy of Athens. Omonoia Square looking towards Aghiou Konstantinou Street. View of the Ambelokipi district in central Athens. The historic and luxurious Grande Bretagne Hotel in Syntagma Square. The Temple of Hephaestus in the central district of Thission. The city of Athens contains a variety of different architectural styles, ranging from Greco-Roman, Neo-Classical, to modern. Many of the most prominent buildings of the city are either Greco-Roman or neo-classical in style. Some of the neo-classical buildings to be found are public buildings erected during the mid-nineteenth century under the guidance of Theophil Freiherr von Hansen: Athens Academy Athens City Hall Greek Parliament Old Parliament (1875-1932) (Now the National Historical Museum) Hellenic Ministry of Culture: The Old Parliament Building - Retrieved 16 February 2007 University of Athens Zappeion Hall Athenian Neighbourhoods The Municipality of Athens is divided into several districts: Omonoia, Syntagma, Exarcheia, Aghios Nikolaos, Neapolis, Lykavittos, Lofos Strefi, Lofos Finopoulou, Lofos Filopappou, Pedion Areos, Metaxourgeio, Aghios Kostantinos, Larissa Station, Kerameikos, Psirri, Monastiraki, Gazi, Thission, Kapnikarea, Aghia Irini, Aerides, Anafiotika, Plaka, Acropolis, Pnyka, Makrygianni, Lofos Ardittou, Zappeion, Aghios Spyridon, Pangration, Kolonaki, Dexameni, Evaggelismos, Gouva, Aghios Ioannis, Neos Kosmos, Koukaki, Kynosargous, Fix, Ano Petralona, Kato Petralona, Rouf, Votanikos, Profitis Daniil, Akadimia Platonos, Kolonos, Kolokynthou, Attikis Square, Lofos Skouze, Sepolia, Kypseli, Aghios Meletios, Nea Kypseli, Gyzi, Polygono, Ampelokipoi, Panormou-Gerokomeio, Pentagono, Ellinorosson, Kato Filothei, Ano Kypseli, Tourkovounia-Lofos Patatsou, Lofos Elikonos, Koliatsou, Thymarakia, Kato Patisia, Treis Gefyres, Aghios Eleftherios, Ano Patisia, Kypriadou, Prompona. Omonoia Omonoia Square () is the oldest square in Athens. It is surrounded by hotels and fast food outlets, and contains a train station used by the Athens Metro and the Ilektrikos, appropriately named Omonoia Station. The square often becomes the focus for celebration of sporting victories, as seen after the country's winning of the Euro 2004 and the Eurobasket 2005 tournaments. Psirri and Gazi The reviving Psirri () neighbourhood - aka Athens's "meat packing district" - is dotted with renovated former mansions, artists' spaces, and small gallery areas. A number of its renovated buildings also now host a wide variety of fashionable bars, making it a hotspot for the city in the last decade, while a number of live music restaurants known as "rebetadika", after Rebetiko, a unique form of music that blossomed in Syros and Athens from the 1920s until the 1960s, are also to be found. Rebetiko is admired by many, and as a result rebetadika are often crammed with people of all ages who will sing, dance and drink till dawn. The Gazi () area, one of the latest in full redevelopment, is located around a historic gas factory, now converted into the Technopolis cultural multiplex, and also includes artists' areas, a number of small clubs, bars and restaurants, as well as Athens' nascent "Gay Village". The metro's system recent expansion to the western suburbs of the city has brought easier access to the area since spring 2007, as the blue line now stops at Gazi (Kerameikos station). Syntagma Syntagma Square, (), is the capital's central square, lying adjacent to Parliament and the city's most noted hotels. Ermou Street, an approximately 1 km-long pedestrian road connecting Syntagma Square to Monastiraki, has traditionally been a consumer paradise for both Athenians and tourists. Complete with fashion shops and shopping centres promoting most international brands, it now finds itself in the top 5 most expensive shopping streets in Europe, and the tenth most expensive retail street in the world. Nearby, the renovated Army Fund building in Panepistimiou Street includes the "Attica" department store and several upmarket designer stores. Plaka, Monastiraki, and Thission Plaka (), lying just beneath the Acropolis, is famous for its plentiful neoclassical architecture, making up one of the most scenic districts of the city. It remains a traditionally prime tourist destination with a number of picturesque tavernas, live performances and street salesmen. Nearby Monastiraki (), for its part, is well-known for its string of small shops and markets, as well as its crowded flea market and tavernas specialising in souvlaki. Another district notably famous for its student-crammed, stylish cafés is Theseum or Thission (), lying just west of Monastiraki. Thission is home to the ancient Temple of Hephaestus, standing atop a small hill. This area also has a pictursque 11th Century Byzantine church, as well as a 15th Century Ottoman mosque. Kolonaki The Kolonaki () area, at the base of Lycabettus hill, is full of boutiques catering to well-heeled customers by day, and bars and more fashionable restaurants by night, but at other points also a wide range of art galleries and museums. This is often regarded as one of the more prestigious areas of the capital. Exarcheia Exarcheia (), located north of Kolonaki, has a mixed reputation as the recent or current location of the city's anarchist scene and as a culturally active student quarter with many cafés, bars and bookshops. Exarcheia is home to the Athens Polytechnic and the National Archaeological Museum; it also contains numerous important buildings of several 20th-century styles: Neoclassicism, Art Deco and Early Modernism (including Bauhaus influences). Suburbs Attiki Odos interchange in the northern suburb of Maroussi. Section of Kifissias Avenue which connects Athens to its northern suburbs. The Athens Metropolitan Area consists of 73 densely populated municipalities, sprawling around the city in virtually all directions. According to their geographic location in relation to the city of Athens, the suburbs are divided into four zones; the northern suburbs (including Ekali, Nea Erythrea, Agios Stefanos, Drosia, Kryoneri, Kifissia, Maroussi, Pefki, Lykovrisi, Heraklio, Glyka Nera, Vrilissia, Melissia, Pendeli, Halandri, Psychiko and Filothei); the southern suburbs, (including Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Glyfada, Alimos, Voula and the southernmost suburb of Vouliagmeni); the eastern suburbs, (including Acharnes, Zografou, Vyronas, Kaisariani, Cholargos, Papagou and Aghia Paraskevi; and the western suburbs (including Peristeri, Ilion, Egaleo, Petroupoli and Nikaia). The northern and most of the southern suburbs are particularly affluent districts, inhabited primarily by middle-to-high and high income groups. The western suburbs are primarily resided in by middle income earners, with some areas resided in by middle-to-low income groups and still others by middle-to-high earners; while the eastern suburbs are primarily inhabited by middle and middle-to-high income groups. The Athens city coastline, extending from the major commercial port of Piraeus to the southernmost suburb of Varkiza for some , is also connected to the city centre by a tram (which, although modern, can be slow during rush hour), and is punctuated by a string of popular restaurants, cafes, vibrant music venues and modern sports facilities. The area is particularly packed with fashionable bars and nightclubs, that are literally crowded by the city's youth on a daily basis. Above all during the summer months, the elegant coastal suburbs of Glyfada, Voula and Vouliagmeni host countless such meeting-points, continuing the length of Poseidonos Avenue and Alkyonidon Avenue. The Mall Athens is a massive mall located in the northern suburb of Maroussi, providing an array of outlets. Nearby, the entirely new attraction of the massively upgraded main Olympic Complex (known by its Greek acronym OAKA) dominates the skyline. The whole area has been redeveloped according to a design by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, with steel arches, landscaped gardens, fountains, futuristic glass, and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main stadium. A second Olympic complex, next to the sea at the beach of Kallithea (Faliron), also features modern stadia, shops and an elevated esplanade. Work is underway to transform the grounds of the old Athens Airport - named Hellinikon - in the southern suburbs, into one of the largest landscaped parks in Europe, to be named the Hellenikon Metropolitan Park. Many of the southern suburbs (such as Alimos, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Voula, Vouliagmeni and Varkiza) host a number of sandy beaches, most of which are operated by the Greek National Tourism Organisation and require an entrance fee, which is not excessive in most cases. Casinos operate on both Mount Parnitha, some from downtown Athens, (accessible by car or cable car) and the nearby town of Loutraki (accessible by car via the Athens - Corinth National Highway, or the suburban railroad). Landmarks The Greek Parliament, located in Syntagma Square. View of the Temple of Olympian Zeus (upper right), the Arch of Hadrian (center) and the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (lower left). Parts of the city centre have been redeveloped under a masterplan called the Unification of Archeological Sites of Athens, which has also gathered funding from the EU to help enhance the project. The landmark Dionysiou Aeropagitou street has been pedestrianised, forming a scenic route. The route starts from the Temple of Olympian Zeus at Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, continues under the southern slopes of the Acropolis near Plaka, and finishes just beyond the Temple of Hephaestus in Thiseio. The route in its entirety provides visitors with views of the Parthenon and the Agora (the meeting point of ancient Athenians), away from the busy city centre. Syntagma Square (Constitution Square) is situated in central Athens and near the site of the former Royal Palace, now the Greek Parliament and other 19th century public buildings. The National Garden behind parliament, stretching to the Zappeion, is a verdant oasis for the city-centre. Syntagma is the largest square in the capital and also home to a number of luxury hotels, including the historic Grande Bretagne, Athens' first. Constitution Square is a tourist starting-point for the city, at the centre of an area where most of its famous ancient monuments are to be found, all within a radius of . Southeast of Syntagma Square stands the Kallimarmaro Stadium, the space where the first modern Olympic Games took place in 1896. It is a replica of the ancient Athenian stadium, and the only major stadium (in its capacity of 60,000) to be made entirely of white marble from Mount Penteli, the same material used for construction of the Parthenon. Athens is built around a number of hills. Lycabettus is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and according to ancient legend actually a boulder thrown down from the sky by Athena. Located in the city centre, near Alexandras Avenue and Vassilissis Sofias Avenue, it offers vistas of sprawling Athens below. At its peak stands St. George's church; Philopappos hill is another famous landmark, located just to the southwest of Acropolis. The city's classical museums include the National Archaeological Museum of Athens at Patission Street (housing the world's greatest collection of Greek art), the Benaki Museum in Pireos Street (including its new Islamic Art branch), the Byzantine Museum and the Museum of Cycladic Art (Stathatos Mansion) in the central Kolonaki district, recommended for its collection of elegant white metamodern figures dating back 3000 years. Most museums were renovated ahead of the 2004 Summer Olympics. A New Acropolis Museum, is scheduled to open on 20 June 2009. Athens Press Agency, Macedonian Press Agency, Karamanlis confers with Culture Minister, Retrieved on 2009-02-13. The Athens Planetarium, located in Andrea Syngrou Avenue, is considered among the world's best. The old campus of the University of Athens, located in the middle section of Panepistimiou Street, is one of the finest buildings in the city. This, combined with the adjacent National Library and the Athens Academy close by, form an imposing "Athens Trilogy" built in the mid-19th century. However, most of the university's workings have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of Zográfou. The second most significant academic institution in the city is the Athens Polytechnic School (Ethniko Metsovio Politechnio), to be found in Patission Street. More than 13 students were killed and hundreds injured inside the university in 17 November 1973 during the Athens Polytechnic uprising, against the military junta that ruled the nation from 21 April 1967 until 23 July 1974. Transportation The Athens Mass Transit System consists of a large bus fleet, a trolleybus fleet that mainly serves the downtown area, the city's Metro, a tram line connecting the southern suburbs to the city centre, and the Athens Suburban Railway service. Athens Metro Map of the Athens Metro. The Athens Metro is more commonly known in Greece as the Attiko Metro (). While its main purpose is transport, it also houses Greek artifacts found during construction of the system. The Athens Metro supports an operating staff of 387 and runs two of the three metro lines; its two lines (red and blue) were constructed largely during the 1990s, and the initial sections opened in January 2000, and the lines run entirely underground. The metro network operates a fleet of 42 trains consisting of 252 cars, with a daily occupancy of 550,000 passengers. The Blue Line runs from the western suburbs, namely the Egaleo station, through the central Monastiraki and Syntagma stations to Doukissis Plakentias avenue in the northeastern suburb of Halandri, covering a distance of , then ascending to ground level and reaching Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, using the Suburban Railway infrastructure and extending its distance to . The Red Line, in counterpart, runs from Aghios Antonios to Aghios Dimitrios and covers a distance of . Extensions to both these lines are under construction, most notably westwards to Piraeus, southwards to the Old Hellinikon Airport East Terminal (the future Metropolitan Park), and eastward toward the easternmost suburb of Aghia Paraskevi. The eastern part is actually no extension per se, but rather an opening of new stations between the Ethniki Amyna and Doukissis Plakentias stations. The spring 2007 extension from Monastiraki westwards, to Egaleo, connected some of the main night life hubs of the city, namely the ones of Gazi (Kerameikos station) with Psirri (Monastiraki station) and the city centre (Syntagma station). Electric railway (ISAP) An ISAP train (Green Line) passes by the Stoa of Attalus in central Athens. The third line, not run by the Athens Metro, is the ISAP (), the Electric Railway Company. This is the Green line of the Athens Metro as shown on the adjacent map, and unlike the red and blue routes running entirely underground, ISAP runs either above-ground or below-ground at different sections of its journey. This same operation runs the original metro line from Piraeus to Kifisia; it serves 22 stations, with a network length of , an operating staff of 730 and a fleet of 44 trains and 243 cars, and a daily occupancy rate of 600,000 passengers. The historic Green Line, a -long and 24-station line which forms the oldest and for the most part runs at ground level, connects the port of Piraeus to the northern suburb of Kifissia, and is set to be extended to Agios Stefanos, a suburb located to the north of the city centre, reaching to . Suburban rail (Proastiakos) The Proastiakós connects Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport to the city of Corinth, west of Athens, via the central Larissa train station and the port of Piraeus, and is sometimes considered the fourth line of the Athens Metro. The metro network, Suburban Rail not included, currently extends to a length of , expected to stretch to (72 stations) by 2009. The Proastiakos will be extended to Aigio ( west of Athens), and Chalkida by the end of 2007. The urban and suburban railway system is managed by three different companies; namely ISAP, Attiko Metro (lines 2 & 3) and Proastiakós (line 4). Buses View of the lower section of Panepistimiou Avenue in central Athens. The service operated under Ethel () Thermal Bus Company is the main operator of buses in Athens. It consists of a network of 300 bus lines which span the entire Attica Basin, with an operating staff of 5,327, and a fleet of 1,839 buses. Of those 1,839 buses 416 run on natural gas, making up the largest fleet of natural gas-run buses in Europe. Besides being served by a fleet of natural-gas and normal buses, the Athens metropolitan area is also serviced by electric buses, or ILPAP, as the service is known in Athens (). The Electric Buses of the Athens and Pireaus Region (ILPAP) consists of 22 lines and an operating staff of 1,137, and the network operates a fleet of 366 trolley buses able to run on diesel in case of power failure. Tram line The tram operator has a fleet of 42 trams which serve 48 stations, employ 345 people with an average daily occupancy of 80,000 passengers. This network runs from Syntagma Square to the southwestern suburb of Palaio Faliro, where the line splits in two branches; the first runs along the Athens coastline toward the southern suburb of Voula, while the other heads toward the Piraeus district of Neo Faliro. The Syntagma - Palaio Faliro - Neo Faliro line and the part Syntagma - Glyfada of the Syntagma - Voula line opened on 19 July 2004. The extension Glyfada - Voula opened in November 2007. Further extensions are planned towards the major commercial port of Piraeus, and the southernmost suburb of Vouliagmeni. Taxis There is a plentiful supply of taxis in Athens. They are generally cheap, and during rush hour it is often considered normal to flag down a taxi when not more than one or two other customers are already in (although, officially, this is forbidden); convention dictates that if the second passenger happens to be heading in a similar direction and the original passenger has no complaints (seldom if ever is this an issue), he/she joins the journey, and both passengers give the fare as they would if travelling alone. Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport Aerial view of part of the Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport. Athens is served by the state-of-the-art Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport (AIA) located near the town of Spata, in the eastern Messoghia plain, some east of Athens. The airport was awarded the "European Airport of the Year 2004" Award. Intended as an expandable hub for air travel in southeastern Europe, it was constructed in a record 51 months costing 2.2 billion euros, and employing a staff of 14,000. An express bus service is provided, connecting the airport to the metro system, and 2 express bus services connect the airport to the port at Piraeus and the city centre respectively. Eleftherios Venizelos accommodates 65 landings and take-offs per hour, with its 24 passenger boarding bridges, 144 check-in counters and broader main terminal, and a commercial area of which includes cafes, duty-free shops, and a small museum. In 2007, the airport handled 16,538,390 passengers, an increase of 9.7% over the previous year of 2006. Of those 16,538,390 passengers, 5,955,387 passed through the airport for domestic flights, and 10,583,003 passengers travelled through for international flights. Beyond the dimensions of its passenger capacity, AIA handled 205,294 total flights in 2007, or approximately 562 flights per day. Railways, highways and ferry connections Athens is the hub of the country's national railway system (OSE), connecting the capital with major cities across Greece and abroad (Istanbul, Sofia, and beyond). However, this system is not very extensive, due largely to geomorphological factors. Ferries departing from the major port of Piraeus connect the city to the numerous Greek islands of the Aegean Sea. There are two main highways; one heading towards the western city of Patras in Peloponessus (GR-8A, E94) and the other heading to the north, towards Greece's second largest city, Thessaloniki (GR-1, E75). From 2001-2004, a ring road toll-motorway (Attiki Odos) was gradually completed, extending from the western industrial suburb of Elefsina all the way to the Athens International Airport. The Ymittos Periphery Highway is a separate section of Attiki Odos connecting the eastern suburb of Kaisariani to the northeastern town of Glyka Nera; this is where it meets the main part of the ring road. The span of the Attiki Odos in all is . Olympic Games 1896 Summer Olympics The opening ceremony of the 1896 Summer Olympics. 1896 brought forth the revival of the modern Olympic Games, by Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin. Thanks to his efforts, Athens was awarded the first modern Olympic Games. In 1896, the city had an approximate population of 123,000 and the event helped boost the city's international profile. Of the venues used for these Olympics, the Kallimarmaro Stadium, and Zappeion were most crucial. It was to be more than 100 years before the city would restage the event. 1906 Summer Olympics The 1906 Summer Olympics, or the 1906 Intercalated games, were held very successfully in Athens. The intercalated competitions were intermediate games to the internationally organized olympics, and were meant to be organized in Greece. This idea later lost support from the IOC and these games were not made permanent. 2004 Summer Olympics Athens was awarded the 2004 Summer Olympics on 5 September 1997 in Lausanne, Switzerland, after having lost a previous bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics, to Atlanta, United States. It was to be the second time Athens would have the honour of hosting the games, following the inaugural event of 1896. After 1990's unsuccessful bid, the 1997 bid was radically improved also including an appeal to Greece's Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated Rome with 66 votes to 41. Prior to this round, the cities of Buenos Aires, Stockholm and Cape Town had already been eliminated from competition, having received fewer votes. The Olympic Flame at the Opening Ceremony of the 2004 Olympic Games, conceived by the avant garde choreographer Dimitris Papaioannou. During the first three years of preparations, the International Olympic Committee had repeatedly expressed some concern over the speed of construction progress for some of the new Olympic venues. In 2000 the Organising Committee's president was replaced by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, who was the president of the original Bidding Committee in 1997. From that point on, preparations continued at a highly accelerated, almost frenzied pace. Although the heavy cost was criticized, estimated at $1.5 billion, as is usually the case with most Olympic cities, Athens was literally transformed into a more functional city that enjoys state-of-the-art technology both in transportation and in modern urban development. Some of the finest sporting venues in the world were created in the city, all of which were fully ready for the games. The games welcomed over 10,000 athletes from all 202 countries. The 2004 Games were judged a huge success, as both security and organization were exceptionally good, and only a few visitors reported minor problems mainly concerning accommodation issues. The 2004 Olympic Games were described as Unforgettable, dream Games, by IOC President Jacques Rogge for their return to the birthplace of the Olympics, and for superbly meeting the challenges of holding the Olympic Games. The only observable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some early events. Eventually, however, a total of more than 3.5 million tickets were sold, which was higher than any other Olympics with the exception of Sydney (more than 5 million tickets were sold there in 2000). In 2008 it was reported that almost all of the Olympic venues have fallen into varying states of disrepair: according to those reports, 21 of the 22 facilities built for the games have either been left abandoned or are in a state of dereliction, with several squatter camps having sprung up around certain facilities, and a number of venues afflicted by vandalism, graffiti or strewn with rubbish. These claims, however, are disputable and most likely inaccurate, as most of the facilities used for the Athens Olympics are either in use or in the process of being converted for post-Olympics use. The Greek Government has created a corporation, Olympic Properties SA, which is overseeing the post-Olympics management, development and conversion of these facilities, some of which will be sold off (or have already been sold off) to the private sector, while other facilities are still in use just as they were during the Olympics, or have been converted for commercial use or modified for other sports. Sister cities Athens has the following sister/twin cities: Athens, Georgia, United States (1973) Barcelona, Spain (1999) Beijing, China (2005) Beirut, Lebanon Bethlehem, Palestinian Territories (1986) Bucharest, Romania Chicago, Illinois, United States (1997) Cluj-Napoca, Romania Cusco, Peru (1991) Istanbul, Turkey Kiev, Ukraine Lisbon, Portugal Ljubljana, Slovenia Los Angeles, California, United States (1984) Moscow, Russia Naples, Italy Nicosia, Cyprus (1988) Santiago de Cali, Colombia Seoul, South Korea (2006) Sofia, Bulgaria Tirana, Albania Warsaw, Poland Washington, D.C., United States (2000) Xi'an, China Yerevan, Armenia (1993) Cooperation Belgrade, Serbia (1966) Paris, France (2000) Cities nicknamed "Athens" Athens of Ayrshire - Troon, Scotland Athens of Cuba - Matanzas, Cuba Athens of Egypt- Alexandria, Egypt Athens of Finland - Jyväskylä, Finland Athens of Florida - DeLand, Florida, United States Athens of Indiana - Crawfordsville, Indiana, United States Athens of Latin America - Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Athens of Minas Gerais - Juiz de Fora, Brazil Athens of North America - Boston, United States Athens of Sicily - Catania, Italy Athens of South America - Bogotá, Colombia Athens of the Bodrog – Sárospatak, Hungary Athens of the East - Madurai, India Athens of the Middle Ages - Florence, Italy Athens of the North - Edinburgh, Scotland Athens of the South - Nashville, United States Athens of the Southern Hemisphere - Dunedin, New Zealand Athens of the West (early 19th c.) - Lexington, United States Athens of the West - Berkeley, California, United States Athens on the Isar - Munich, Germany Athens on the Spree - Berlin, Germany Athens on the Torysa - Prešov, Slovakia Brazilian Athens - São Luís, Maranhão, Brazil Czech Athens – Krnov, Czech Republic Lusa Athens - Coimbra, Portugal Sardinian Athens - Nuoro, Italy Serbian Athens - Novi Sad, Serbia Siberian Athens - Tomsk, Russia See also Agricultural University of Athens Ancient Greece Athens University of Economics and Business Eurovision Song Contest 2006 Foreign Archaeological Institutes in Greece Hellenic civilization Large Cities Climate Leadership Group List of museums in Greece Politics of Greece National and Kapodistrian University of Athens National Archaeological Museum of Athens National Library of Greece, Athens National Technical University of Athens (National Metsovion Polytechnic) Panteion University of Athens References External links City of Athens official website breathtaking Athens - The city of Athens official visitors' website Archaeology of the City of Athens Athenian Owl coins Athens contemporary architecture and suggested walking routes Athens Convention Bureau's official website Athens in 421 BC Online History of Athens be-x-old:Атэны | Athens |@lemmatized athens:202 athina:1 capital:14 large:18 city:96 greece:24 dominate:3 attica:17 periphery:8 one:19 world:14 old:9 recorded:1 history:8 span:4 around:8 year:15 greek:24 population:27 within:5 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6,706 | Albrecht_Altdorfer | Resurrection by Altdorfer, 1518 Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480 near Regensburg – 12 February 1538 in Regensburg) was a German painter, printmaker and architect of the Renaissance era, the leader of the Danube School in southern Germany, and a near-contemporary of Albrecht Dürer. He is best known as a significant pioneer of landscape in art. Painting He most often painted religious scenes, but is mainly famous as the first frequent painter of pure landscape, and also compositions dominated by their landscape. Taking and developing the landscape style of Lucas Cranach the Elder, he shows the hilly landscape of the Danube valley with thick forests of drooping and crumbling firs and larches hung with moss, and often dramatic colouring from a rising or setting sun. His Landscape with footbridge (National Gallery, London) of 1518-20 is claimed to be the first pure landscape in oil. He also made many fine finished drawings, mostly landscapes, in pen and watercolour. His best religious scenes are intense, sometimes verging on the expressionistic, and often depict moments of intimacy between Christ and his mother, or others. His most famous religious artwork is the The Legend of St. Sebastian and the Passion of Christ that decorated the altar in the St. Florian monastery in Linz, Austria. He often distorts perspective to subtle effect. His donor figures are often painted completely out of scale with the main scene, as in paintings of the previous centuries. He also painted some portraits; overall his painted oeuvre was not large. Paintings in Munich The Battle of Issus/Alexander, 1529, Wood, 158,4 x 120,3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich. His rather atypical Battle of Issus (or of Alexander) of 1529 was commissioned by William IV, Duke of Bavaria as one of a suite by various artists. It is his most famous, and certainly one of his best works. He renounced the office of Major of Regensburg to accept the commission. Few of his other paintings resemble this apocalyptic scene of two huge armies dominated by an extravagant landscape seen from a very high viewpoint, which looks south over the whole Mediterranean from modern Turkey to include the island of Cyprus and the mouths of the Nile and the Red Sea (behind the isthmus to the left) on the other side. However his style here is a development of that of a number of miniatures of battle-scenes he had done much earlier for Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in his illuminated manuscript Triumphal Procession in 1512-14. The Battle is now in the Alte Pinakothek, which has the best collection of Altdorfer's paintings, including also his small St George and the Dragon,(1510) in oil on parchment, where the saint and the dragon are small figures almost submerged in the dense forest that towers over them. A Susanna and the Elders (1526) set outside an Italianate skyscraper of a palace shows his interest in architecture. Another small oil on parchment, Danube Landscape with Castle Wörth (c 1520) is one of the earliest accurate topographical paintings of a particular building in its setting, of a type that was to become a cliché in later centuries. Printmaking St George and the Dragon, 1510, Alte Pinakothek, oil on parchment, 28 x 23 cm He was a significant printmaker with numerous engravings and about ninety-three woodcuts. These included some for the Triumphs of Maximilian, where he followed the overall style presumably set by Hans Burgkmair, although he was able to escape somewhat from this in his depictions of the more disorderly baggage-train, still coming through a mountain landscape. However most of his best prints are etchings, many of landscapes; in these he was able most easily to use his drawing style. He was one of the most successful early etchers, and was unusual for his generation of German printmakers in doing no book illustrations. He often combined etching and engraving techniques in a single plate, and produced about 122 intaglio prints altogether. Public life He was a member of the ruling town council in Regensburg for many years, as well as the city architect and worked on improving the city walls. He presumably participated in the Council's decision to expel the city's Jewish community in 1519 , as well as making two famous etchings of the synagogue just before it was destroyed after the expulsion, to be replaced with a church, which Altdorfer designed, at least in part. Later he became a Protestant, and helped to steer Regensburg to Lutheranism. Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach the Elder. Crucifixion (a scene rarely set on the banks of a large river) by Altdorfer, c. 1520 See also Early Renaissance painting References Alte Pinakotek, Munich; (Summary Catalogue -various authors),1986, Edition Lipp,ISBN 3874907015 CS Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London, ISBN 0948462469 External links Works by Albrecht Altdofer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Works by Altdorfer at Zeno.org Albrecht Altdorfer in the "History of Art" Albrecht Altdorfer Wallpapers Page at artcyclopedia.com Page at ibiblio.org Page at gallery.euroweb.hu | Albrecht_Altdorfer |@lemmatized resurrection:1 altdorfer:10 albrecht:7 c:4 near:2 regensburg:5 february:1 german:2 painter:3 printmaker:4 architect:2 renaissance:2 era:1 leader:1 danube:3 school:1 southern:1 germany:1 contemporary:1 dürer:1 best:5 know:1 significant:2 pioneer:1 landscape:13 art:2 painting:7 often:6 paint:3 religious:3 scene:6 mainly:1 famous:4 first:2 frequent:1 pure:2 also:6 composition:1 dominate:2 take:1 develop:1 style:4 lucas:2 cranach:2 elder:3 show:2 hilly:1 valley:1 thick:1 forest:2 droop:1 crumble:1 fir:1 larch:1 hang:1 moss:1 dramatic:1 colour:1 rise:1 set:4 sun:1 footbridge:1 national:1 gallery:2 london:2 claim:1 oil:4 make:2 many:3 fine:1 finish:1 drawing:1 mostly:1 pen:1 watercolour:1 intense:1 sometimes:1 verge:1 expressionistic:1 depict:1 moment:1 intimacy:1 christ:2 mother:1 others:1 artwork:1 legend:1 st:4 sebastian:1 passion:1 decorate:1 altar:1 florian:1 monastery:1 linz:1 austria:1 distort:1 perspective:1 subtle:1 effect:1 donor:1 figure:2 completely:1 scale:1 main:1 previous:1 century:2 portrait:1 overall:2 painted:1 oeuvre:1 large:2 munich:3 battle:4 issus:2 alexander:2 wood:2 x:2 cm:2 alte:4 pinakothek:3 rather:1 atypical:1 commission:2 william:1 iv:1 duke:1 bavaria:1 one:4 suite:1 various:2 artist:1 certainly:1 work:4 renounce:1 office:1 major:1 accept:1 resemble:1 apocalyptic:1 two:2 huge:1 army:1 extravagant:1 see:2 high:1 viewpoint:1 look:1 south:1 whole:1 mediterranean:1 modern:1 turkey:1 include:3 island:1 cyprus:1 mouth:1 nile:1 red:1 sea:1 behind:1 isthmus:1 left:1 side:1 however:2 development:1 number:1 miniature:1 much:1 earlier:1 maximilian:2 holy:1 roman:1 emperor:1 illuminated:1 manuscript:1 triumphal:1 procession:1 collection:1 small:3 george:2 dragon:3 parchment:3 saint:1 almost:1 submerge:1 dense:1 tower:1 susanna:1 outside:1 italianate:1 skyscraper:1 palace:1 interest:1 architecture:1 another:1 castle:1 wörth:1 early:3 accurate:1 topographical:1 particular:1 building:1 setting:1 type:1 become:2 cliché:1 late:1 printmaking:1 numerous:1 engraving:2 ninety:1 three:1 woodcut:2 triumph:1 follow:1 presumably:2 han:1 burgkmair:1 although:1 able:2 escape:1 somewhat:1 depiction:1 disorderly:1 baggage:1 train:1 still:1 come:1 mountain:1 print:2 etching:2 easily:1 use:1 draw:1 successful:1 etcher:1 unusual:1 generation:1 book:2 illustration:1 combine:1 etch:1 engrave:1 technique:1 single:1 plate:1 produce:1 intaglio:1 altogether:1 public:1 life:1 member:1 rule:1 town:1 council:2 year:1 well:2 city:3 improve:1 wall:1 participate:1 decision:1 expel:1 jewish:1 community:1 synagogue:1 destroy:1 expulsion:1 replace:1 church:1 design:1 least:1 part:1 later:1 protestant:1 help:1 steer:1 lutheranism:1 brother:1 erhard:1 pupil:1 crucifixion:1 rarely:1 bank:1 river:1 reference:1 pinakotek:1 summary:1 catalogue:1 author:1 edition:1 lipp:1 isbn:2 origin:1 reaktion:1 external:1 link:1 altdofer:1 museum:1 new:1 zealand:1 te:1 papa:1 tongarewa:1 zeno:1 org:2 history:1 wallpaper:1 page:3 artcyclopedia:1 com:1 ibiblio:1 euroweb:1 hu:1 |@bigram albrecht_altdorfer:4 painter_printmaker:2 albrecht_dürer:1 lucas_cranach:2 cranach_elder:2 linz_austria:1 battle_issus:2 illuminated_manuscript:1 baggage_train:1 reaktion_book:1 external_link:1 ibiblio_org:1 |
6,707 | Battle_of_the_Nile | Map of ship positions and movements during the Battle of Aboukir Bay, 1–2 August 1798. British ships are in red; French ships are in blue. Intermediate ship positions are shown in pale red/blue. Based upon a map from Intelligence in War, John Keegan, 2003 At the Battle of the Nile or Aboukir Bay (August 1-2, 1798), a British fleet under Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson surprised and largely destroyed a French fleet under François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers anchored near Alexandria, stranding Napoleon's army in Egypt. French losses have been estimated as high as 1,700 dead (including Vice-Admiral Brueys) and 3,000 captured. British losses were 218 dead. Background Still on the rise but not yet the primary enemy of Britain, commanding General Napoleon Bonaparte intended to threaten the British position in India via the invasion and conquest of Egypt. The expedition was also cultural and included many scientists, educators, and technical specialists — including a surveying party, as French intellectuals had long debated the feasibility of cutting a ship-canal between the Red and Mediterranean Seas. Previously, Napoleon spread misinformation about a planned invasion of Ireland, with the French Mediterranean fleet first leaving the Mediterranean to meet up with the remainder of the French fleet. This tricked the British into guarding the western Mediterranean Sea, and allowed Napoleon to launch his Egypt expedition without opposition. About three weeks after his landing in Egypt, a British fleet of 14 ships under Horatio Nelson finally came upon the 15 French ships being used to support the invasion of Egypt. Preparations The fleets met close to sunset on August 1. The French were at anchor in Abū Qīr Bay, in shallow water near a shoal less than 7 fathoms (14 m) deep. They were using the shoal to protect the southwestern, port side of their fleet, while the starboard side faced the northeast and the open sea. French Admiral Brueys had studied Nelson's tactics at the Battle of Cape St Vincent and other engagements. As a consequence, Brueys had his line of battle chained together at anchor to prevent the British from cutting the line. Brueys expected the battle to begin the next morning as he did not expect the British to risk a night encounter in shallow, uncharted waters. The French began only leisurely preparations for combat, or possibly were preparing to try to escape during the night. Battle Nelson had confidence in his captains and let each act on his own initiative. As the British fleet approached the French, Thomas Foley of the Goliath Foley welcomed women on his ship (as wives, seamstresses, and cooks) and would later ensure posthumous medals for two of them observed the gap between the first ship of the French fleet and the closest land. He judged that the chains anchoring the French vessels to the shore lay deep enough for the Goliath to pass over. The Goliath separated from the line of attack and slipped round to the other side of the French fleet. Other British ships followed, allowing the British to attack the French from both sides. Culloden ran aground, but the rest of the British ships began taking the French fleet apart, one by one, down the line. Because the wind was from the north, unengaged French ships could not come up to help their fellows. The French flagship Orient came under fire, first from Bellerophon, which received a battering and drifted away dismasted, and then from Alexander and Swiftsure. By 21:00, Orient was ablaze, and the battle paused as ships tried to distance themselves from the anticipated explosion. All of the men on both sides ceased fire and watched mouths agape for thirty minutes as the French flagship burst apart in a spectacular explosion. At about 22:00, the fire reached the magazine and the flagship exploded, hurling crew and blazing parts of ship hundreds of metres into the air. About a hundred of Orient's crew of a thousand survived by swimming from the burning ship. Only two French ships towards the end of the line, Généreux and Guillaume Tell, together with the two frigates Diane and Justice, were able to escape. The rest were burned or captured by morning. A grazing shot struck Nelson on his forehead, exposing his skull, while he was standing on the quarterdeck. Surgeon Jefferson pronounced the wound superficial, but Nelson could not believe it was not fatal and sent for his chaplain, Stephen Comyn. Crew moved Nelson to the breadroom, where he and the chaplain would not be disturbed. Nelson recovered and, following the victory, issued a memorandum to his fleet, "Almighty God having blessed His Majesty's arms with victory, the Admiral intends returning public thanksgiving for the same at 2 o'clock this day and he recommends every ship doing the same as soon as convenient." Reverend Comyn conducted the service from the quarterdeck of the Vanguard, which greatly impressed a group of captured French officers. Carola Oman Nelson Sphere Books, Limited, ISBN 0722165390 Aftermath News of the victory was delayed in reaching Britain. The surviving French 74-gun Le Généreux had captured Leander, the ship carrying Nelson's envoy Captain Edward Berry and returning home with the dispatches, in a fierce battle. Nelson headed for Italy, where Vanguard was stranded at the Bay of Palermo. It was there that Sir William Hamilton and his wife Emma were living. It was also the occasion of a less glorious incident of Nelson’s career, the execution of Prince Francesco Caracciolo. Napoleon, who had already landed with his army, finished his conquest of Egypt and went on to conquer much of Syria. However, the political situation in Paris soon changed, leading Napoleon to abandon his troops and leave for France to take charge of a coup to overthrow the constitution and secure his own election as First Consul. Napoleon then crowned himself as Emperor on 2 December 1804. The battle established British naval superiority for the remainder of the French Revolutionary Wars. It is also well-known for literary reasons: Felicia D. Hemans' poem "Casabianca", perhaps known better by its first line, "The boy stood on the burning deck", is about the son of Luc-Julien-Joseph Casabianca, who died in the explosion of the French flagship L'Orient during this battle. The "Band of Brothers" The battle brought the term "Band of Brothers" into popular use to indicate an unusually close-knit team of fighting men. The phrase originates in Shakespeare's Henry V, and Nelson used it to describe his fifteen Nile captains in letters about the battle to Earl St. Vincent on 25 September 1798, to his wife on 1 October, and most famously to Earl Howe on 8 January 1799: "I had the happiness to command a Band of Brothers...<ref>{{cite book |title= The dispatches and letters of Vice-Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson (cited at the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)|last= Nicolas|first= N. H. (ed)|year= 1844 - 46|pages= 230|url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/96/96379.html|accessdate=2008-09-10|volume= Vol.III}}</ref>". Although the term has sometimes been extended to other officers who served under Nelson at various times, Nelson used it specifically for those captains, listed below, who were with him during the Nile campaign and the battle itself. British fleet ShipGunsCommanderNotes Vanguard 74 Capt. Edward BerryNelson's flag-shipAlexander 74 Capt. Alexander BallAudacious 74 Capt. Davidge GouldBellerophon 74 Capt. Henry D'Esterre DarbyDismasted Culloden 74 Capt. Thomas TroubridgeRan aground, took no partDefence 74 Capt. John PeytonGoliath 74 Capt. Thomas FoleyMajestic 74 Capt. George Blagdon WestcottCaptain killedMinotaur 74 Capt. Thomas LouisOrion 74 Capt. Sir James Saumarez2nd in commandSwiftsure 74 Capt. Benjamin HallowellTheseus 74 Capt. Ralph Willet MillerZealous 74 Capt. Samuel HoodLeander 50 Capt. Thomas Boulden ThompsonMutine 16 Lt. Thomas HardyAssisted Culloden, took no part French fleet ShipGunsNotesLine of BattleOrient 118 Flagship, Capt. Casabianca, Blew up 1 AugustFranklin 80 Captured 2 AugustTonnant80 Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars, Captured 3 AugustAquilon 74 CapturedGuerrier 74 Captured 2 August, scuttled (burnt) 18 AugustHeureux 74 Captured 3 August, scuttled (burnt) 16 AugustSpartiate 74 CapturedPeuple Souverain 74 CapturedMercure 74 Captured 3 August, scuttled (burnt) 18 AugustConquérant 74 CapturedGénéreux 74 EscapedGuillaume Tell 80 EscapedTimoléon 74 Run aground and scuttled (blown up) 3 AugustFrigatesArtémise 36 Surrendered but run aground and scuttled (blown up) 3 AugustJustice 44 EscapedDiane 38 EscapedSérieuse 36 Sunk by Orion 1 August, later burntBrigsAlerte 12 Railleur 14 EscapedHercule 7 ScuttledSalamine 18 EscapedAlso several Gunboats Firsthand account The British attack the anchored French line of battle, by Thomas Whitcombe The French flagship L'Orient explodes, by George Arnald. Battle of the Nile by Thomas Cluny John Nicol, a sailor aboard HMS Goliath, writes this account: The Goliath led the van. There was a French frigate right in our way. Captain Foley cried, "Sink that brute, what does he there?" In a moment she went to the bottom and her crew were seen running into her rigging. The sun was just setting as we went into the bay, and a red and fiery sun it was. I would, if had I had my choice, been on the deck. There I would have seen what was passing and the time would not have hung so heavy, but every man does his duty with spirit, whether his station be in the slaughterhouse or the magazine. I saw as little of this action as I did of the one on 14 February off Cape St Vincent. My station was in the powder magazine with the gunner. As we entered the bay we stripped to our trousers, opened our ports, cleared, and every ship we passed gave them a broadside and three cheers. Any information we got was from the boys and women who carried the powder. The women behaved as well as the men, and got a present for their bravery from the grand signior. When the French Admiral's ship blew up, the Goliath got such a shake we thought the after-part of her had blown up until the boys told us what it was. They brought us every now and then the cheering news of another French ship having struck [surrendered], and we answered the cheers on deck with heartfelt joy. In the heat of the action a shot came right into the magazine but did no harm as the carpenters plugged it up and stopped the water that was rushing in. I was much indebted to the gunner's wife who gave her husband and me a drink of wine every now and then, which lessened our fatigue much. There were some of the women wounded, and one woman belonging to Leith died of her wounds and was buried on a small island in the bay. One woman bore a son in the heat of the action. She belonged to Edinburgh. When we ceased firing I went on deck to view the state of the fleets, and an awful sight it was. The whole bay was covered with dead bodies, mangled, wounded, and scorched, not a bit of clothes on them except their trousers. There were a number of French, belonging to the French Admiral's ship, the L'Orient, who had swam to the Goliath, and were cowering under her forecastle. Poor fellows! they were brought on board, and Captain Foley ordered them down to the steward's room, to get provisions and clothing. One thing I observed in these Frenchmen quite different from anything I had before observed. In the American War, when we took a French ship, the Duke de Chartres, the prisoners were as merry as if they had taken us, only saying, `Fortune de guerre - you take me today, I take you tomorrow.' Those we now had on board were thankful for our kindness, but were sullen and as downcast as if each had lost a ship of his own. The only incidents I heard of are two. One lad who was stationed by a salt-box, on which he sat to give out cartridges, and keep the lids closed - it is a trying berth - when asked for a cartridge, he gave none, yet he sat upright; his eyes were open. One of the men gave him a push; he fell all his length on the deck. There was not a blemish on his body, yet he was quite dead, and was thrown overboard. The other, a lad who had the match in his hand to fire his gun. In the act of applying it, a shot took off his arm; it hung by a small piece of skin. The match fell to the deck. He looked to his arm, and seeing what had happened, seized the match in his left hand, and fired off the gun before he went to the cockpit to have it dressed. They were in our mess, or I might never have heard of it. Two of the mess were killed, and I knew not of it until the day after. Thus terminated the glorious first of August, the busiest night in my life. Soon after the action the whole fleet set sail with the prizes, and left the Goliath as guard ship. We remained here until we were relieved by the Tigre, seventy-four, when we sailed for Naples to refit. After refitting we sailed for Malta to join the blockade, where we remained eight months without any occurrence worthy of notice. Recent archaeology A True Position of the French Fleet as they were moored near the Mouth of the Nile and the manner in which Lord Nelson formed his attack on them, by Robert Dodd In 2000, Italian archaeologist Dr. Paolo Gallo discovered a burial site on Nelson's Island in Abū Qīr Bay. The graves contained the remains of sailors, officers, marines, women - some of whom may have disguised their appearance to serve in the all-male navy - and surprisingly, three infants. Subsequent work with British historian and archaeologist Nick Slope determined that some of the graves dated to shortly after the battle, while others dated from another battle in 1801. On 18 April 2005, thirty of the British sailors and officers killed in the 1801 skirmish were given a military funeral in Alexandria, attended by the crew of the visiting HMS Chatham. Only one of the bodies, that of Commodore James Russell, was positively identified. One of his descendants attended the ceremony, and was presented with a flag. Memorials Nelson coming on deck at the Battle of the Nile, 1st August 1798, by Daniel Orme. In the background Orient burns One of the most unusual memorials to any naval battle lies just a few miles from Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire. The memorial is composed of numerous clumps of beech trees, which had been planted on otherwise arable farmland. These clumps are known as the Nile Clumps, because it is believed they were shaped from a larger piece of woodland (forest) after the Battle of the Nile, to represent the positions of French and British ships. Many of the "ships" have "sunk" over the years, but several still survive, and work is underway to replant some of them. The story behind their construction is that Emma Hamilton, mistress of Nelson, in her declining years became friends with the Marquess of Queensbury, owner of much of the land around the town of Amesbury, including Stonehenge; and, together with Captain Thomas Hardy, Nelson's flag captain at the Battle of Trafalgar, persuaded the Marquess to create the unique memorial. Most of the surviving clumps now stand on land owned by the National Trust's Stonehenge Landscape estate. Nelson's friend and sometime agent Alexander Davidson erected an obelisk on his estate at Swarland in Northumberland to commemorate the victory. Davidson also planted trees just to the west of the obelisk to represent the coastline of the Nile Delta and some of the ships that took part in the Battle of the Nile. A number of ships of the Royal Navy have been named after the battle. Four have been named HMS Aboukir, the first being the French ship Aquilon captured in the battle. Another two ships have been named HMS Nile. References Anderson, R.C. Naval Wars in the Levant, 1559–1853. Princeton, Princeton University, 1952. ISBN 1-57898-538-2 Connelly, Owen. Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1999. ISBN 0842027807 Strathern, Paul. Napoleon in Egypt: The Greatest Glory. Jonathan Cape, Random House, London, 2007. ISBN 9780224076814 Taylor, Gordon Clifford. The Sea Chaplains''. Oxford: Oxford Illustrated Press, 1978. ISBN 0902280562. Notes External links Nelson's Navy 30 Members of British Fleet Reburied Burials on Nelson's Island Italian article: Francesco Frasca, La vittoria della Royal Navy nella battaglia d'Abukir, in Informazioni della Difesa, n°2, 2003, Roma: Stato Maggiore della Difesa, pp. 49-58 | Battle_of_the_Nile |@lemmatized map:2 ship:31 position:5 movement:1 battle:24 aboukir:3 bay:9 august:9 british:19 red:4 french:36 blue:2 intermediate:1 show:1 pale:1 base:1 upon:2 intelligence:1 war:4 john:3 keegan:1 nile:11 fleet:18 rear:1 admiral:7 horatio:2 nelson:24 surprise:1 largely:1 destroy:1 françois:1 paul:2 brueys:5 aigalliers:1 anchor:4 near:3 alexandria:2 strand:2 napoleon:9 army:2 egypt:7 loss:2 estimate:1 high:1 dead:4 include:4 vice:2 capture:9 background:2 still:2 rise:1 yet:3 primary:1 enemy:1 britain:2 command:2 general:1 bonaparte:1 intend:2 threaten:1 india:1 via:1 invasion:3 conquest:2 expedition:2 also:4 cultural:1 many:2 scientist:1 educator:1 technical:1 specialist:1 survey:1 party:1 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6,708 | Lynyrd_Skynyrd | Lynyrd Skynyrd ( ) This is not completely in line with the title of their first album, (pronounced 'lĕh-'nérd 'skin-'nérd), which would suggest that Lynyrd is to be pronounced the same as the name Leonard. is an American rock band. The band became prominent in the Southern United States in 1973, and rose to worldwide recognition before several members, including lead vocalist and primary songwriter Ronnie Van Zant, died in an airplane crash in 1977. The band reformed in 1987 for a reunion tour with Ronnie's younger brother, Johnny Van Zant as the frontman, and continues to record music today. The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 13, 2006. History Early years In the summer of 1964, teenage friends Ronnie Van Zant, Allen Collins, and Gary Rossington, formed the band "The Noble Five", which then changed in 1965 to "My Backyard", when Larry Junstrom and Bob Burns joined in Jacksonville, Florida. Their early influences included British Invasion bands such as Free, The Yardbirds, the Rolling Stones, and The Beatles, as well as Southern blues and country & western music. In 1968, the group won a local Battle of the Bands contest and the opening slot on several Southeast shows for the California-based psychedelic rock band Strawberry Alarm Clock. In 1970, roadie Billy Powell became the keyboardist for the band, and Van Zant sought a new name. "One Percent" and "The Noble Five" were each considered before the group settled on Leonard Skinnerd, a mocking tribute to a gym teacher at Robert E. Lee High School, Leonard Skinner (born 1933), Honoring a namesake (5/1/09) who was notorious for strictly enforcing the school's policy against boys having long hair. Robert E. Lee. Band Name. The more distinctive spelling was adopted before they released their first album. Despite their high school acrimony, the band developed a more friendly relationship with Skinner in later years, and invited him to introduce them at a concert in the Jacksonville Memorial Coliseum. Namesake. The band continued to perform throughout the South in the early 1970s, further developing their hard-driving, blues-rock sound and image. In 1972, Leon Wilkeson replaced Larry Junstrom on bass, but left just before the band was to record its first album (Wilkeson rejoined the band shortly thereafter at Van Zant's invitation). Strawberry Alarm Clock guitarist Ed King filled in as bass player, later switching to guitar after the album's release, allowing the band to replicate the three-guitar mix used in the studio. In 1970, the band auditioned for Alan Walden who would later become their manager on the newly formed Hustler's Inc. Walden worked with the band until 1974, when management was turned over to Pete Rudge. Peak years (1973–1977) In 1972 the band was discovered by musician, songwriter, and producer Al Kooper of Blood, Sweat, and Tears, who had attended one of their shows at a club in Atlanta. They changed the spelling of their name to "Lynyrd Skynyrd", History Lessons. (pronounced 'lĕh-'nérd 'skin-'nérd) and Kooper signed them to MCA Records, producing their first album the following year "Pronounced Leh-nerd Skin-nerd". 1973's featured the hit song "Free Bird", which received national airplay, eventually reaching #19 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts, and is still considered a Rock and Roll anthem today. Lynyrd Skynyrd's fan base continued to grow rapidly throughout 1973, largely due to their opening slot on The Who's Quadrophenia tour in the United States. Their 1974 follow-up, Second Helping, was the band's breakthrough hit, and featured their most popular single, "Sweet Home Alabama" (#8 on the charts in August 1974), a tongue in cheek response to Neil Young's "Alabama" and "Southern Man." (Young and Van Zant were not rivals, but fans of each other's music and good friends; Young even wrote the song "Powderfinger" for the band, but they never recorded it Simmons, p. 135. ). The album reached #12 in 1974, eventually going multi-platinum. In July of that year, Lynyrd Skynyrd was one of the headline acts at The Ozark Music Festival at the Missouri State Fairgrounds in Sedalia, Missouri. In 1974, Burns left the band and was replaced by Kentucky native Artimus Pyle on drums. Lynyrd Skynyrd's third album, Nuthin' Fancy, was released the same year, though guitarist Ed King left midway through the tour. The album has the lowest sales and Kooper was eventually fired. In January 1976, backup singers Leslie Hawkins, Cassie Gaines and JoJo Billingsley (collectively known as The Honkettes) were added to the band. Lynyrd Skynyrd's fourth album Gimme Back My Bullets was released in the new year, but did not achieve the same success as the previous two albums. Van Zant and Collins both felt that the band was seriously missing the three-guitar attack that had been one of its early hallmarks. Although Skynyrd auditioned several guitarists, including such high-profile names as Leslie West, the solution was closer than they realized. Soon after joining Skynyrd, Cassie Gaines began touting the guitar and songwriting prowess of her younger brother, Steve. The junior Gaines, who led his own band, Crawdad (which occasionally would perform Skynyrd's "Saturday Night Special" in their set), was invited to audition onstage with Skynyrd at a concert in Kansas City on May 11, 1976. Liking what they heard, the group also jammed informally with the Oklahoma native several times, then invited him into the group in June. With Gaines on board, the newly-reconstituted band recorded the double-live album One More From the Road in Atlanta, Georgia, and toured the UK with The Rolling Stones. Both Collins and Rossington had serious car accidents over Labor Day weekend in 1976 which slowed the recording of the follow-up album and forced the band to cancel some concert dates. Rossington's accident inspired the ominous "That Smell" - a cautionary tale about drug abuse that was clearly aimed towards him and at least one other band member. Rossington has admitted repeatedly that he's the "Prince Charming" of the song who crashed his car into an oak tree while drunk and stoned on Quaaludes. Van Zant, at least, was making a serious attempt to clean up his act and curtail the cycle of boozed-up brawling that was part of Skynyrd's reputation. 1977's Street Survivors turned out to be a showcase for guitarist/vocalist Steve Gaines, who had joined the band just a year earlier and was making his studio debut with them. Publicly and privately, Ronnie Van Zant marveled at the multiple talents of Skynyrd's newest member, claiming that the band would "all be in his shadow one day." Gaines' contributions included his co-lead vocal with Van Zant on the co-written "You Got That Right" and the rousing guitar boogie "I Know A Little" which he had written before he joined Skynyrd. So confident was Skynyrd's leader of Gaines' abilities that the album (and some concerts) featured Gaines delivering his self-penned bluesy "Ain't No Good Life" - the only song in the pre-crash Skynyrd catalog to feature a lead vocalist other than Ronnie Van Zant. The album also included the hit singles "What's Your Name" and "That Smell". The band was poised for their biggest tour yet, including fulfilling Van Zant's lifelong dream of headlining New York's Madison Square Garden. Plane crash (1977) On Thursday, October 20, 1977, just three days after the release of Street Survivors, and five shows into their most successful headlining tour to date, Lynyrd Skynyrd's chartered Convair 240 ran out of fuel near the end of their flight from Greenville, South Carolina, where they had just performed at the Greenville Memorial Auditorium, to LSU in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Though the pilots attempted an emergency landing on a small airstrip, the plane crashed in a forest in Gillsburg, Mississippi. Lynyrd Skynyrd disbanded after the tragedy, reuniting just once to perform an instrumental version of "Free Bird" at Charlie Daniels' Volunteer Jam in January 1979. Collins, Rossington, Powell and Pyle performed the song with Charlie Daniels and members of his band. Leon Wilkeson, who was still undergoing physical therapy for his badly broken left arm, was in attendance, along with Judy Van Zant, Teresa Gaines, JoJo Billingsley and Leslie Hawkins. Hiatus (1977–1987) Rossington, Collins, Wilkeson and Powell formed The Rossington-Collins Band, which released two albums between 1980 and 1982. Deliberately avoiding comparisons with Ronnie Van Zant as well as suggestions that this band was Lynyrd Skynyrd reborn, Rossington and Collins chose a woman, Dale Krantz, as lead vocalist. However, as an acknowledgment of their past, the band's concert encore would always be an instrumental version of "Free Bird." Rossington and Collins eventually had a falling out over the affections of Dale Krantz, whom Rossington married and with whom he formed the Rossington Band, which released two albums in the late 1980s and opened for the Lynyrd Skynyrd Tribute Tour in 1987-1988. The other former members of Lynyrd Skynyrd continued to make music during the hiatus era. Billy Powell played keyboards in a Christian Rock band named Vision, touring with established Christian rocker Mylon LeFevre (who, like Skynyrd, had once opened for The Who). During Vision concerts, Powell's trademark keyboard talent was often spotlighted and he spoke about his conversion to Christianity after the near-fatal plane crash. Pyle formed The Artimus Pyle Band in 1982, which occasionally featured former Honkettes JoJo Billingsley and Leslie Hawkins. Tragedy seemed to stalk Allen Collins. In 1980, his wife Kathy had died of a massive hemorrhage while miscarrying their third child. He formed the Allen Collins Band in 1983 from the remnants of the Rossington-Collins Band, releasing one tepidly-received album, but many around him believed that the guitarist's heart just wasn't in it anymore. Most point to his wife's death as the moment that Collins' life began to spin hopelessly out of control; he spent several years bingeing on drugs and alcohol. Finally in 1986 Collins crashed his car while driving drunk near his home in Jacksonville, killing his girlfriend and leaving him permanently paralyzed from the chest down. Collins eventually pled no contest to DUI manslaughter, but avoided jail time since his injuries made it obvious that he would never drive or be a danger to society again. Reunion years (1987–present) In 1987, Lynyrd Skynyrd reunited for a full-scale tour with crash survivors Gary Rossington, Billy Powell, Leon Wilkeson and Artimus Pyle and former guitarist Ed King. Ronnie Van Zant's younger brother, Johnny, took over as the new lead singer and primary songwriter. Due to Collins' paralysis from the 1986 car accident, he was only able to participate as the musical director, choosing Randall Hall, his former bandmate in the Allen Collins Band, as his stand-in. As part of his plea deal, Collins would be wheeled out onstage each night to explain to the audience why he could no longer perform (usually before the performance of "That Smell," which had been partially directed at him). Collins was stricken with pneumonia in 1989 and died on January 23, 1990. The reunited band was meant to be a one-time tribute to the original lineup, captured on the double-live album Southern By The Grace Of God/Lynyrd Skynyrd Tribute Tour - 1987. The fact that the band chose to continue after the 1987 tribute tour caused legal problems for the survivors, as Judy Van Zant Jenness and Teresa Gaines Rapp (widows of Ronnie and Steve, respectively) sued the others for violating an agreement made shortly after the plane crash, stating that they would not "exploit" the Skynyrd name for profit. As part of the settlement, Jenness and Rapp collect nearly 30% of the band's touring revenues (representing the shares their husbands would have earned had they lived), and hold a proviso which forces any band touring as "Lynyrd Skynyrd" to contain at least two members of the pre-crash lineup. Since Collins, Wilkeson and Powell are now dead, Ed King unable to tour due to ongoing heart problems, and Pyle on the outs with the others and facing his own legal problems, that leaves Gary Rossington as the Skynyrd standard-bearer. Wilkeson's long time friend Byron "Red" Glover, was Skynyrd's fill-in guitarist and functioned as a substitute when needed. During several concerts, Red was dragged up on stage by Wilkeson to play with the band. The reconstituted Lynyrd Skynyrd has gone through several lineup changes and continues to record and tour today. Leon Wilkeson, Skynyrd's bassist since 1972, was found dead in his hotel room on July 27, 2001; his death was found to be due to emphysema and chronic liver disease. He was replaced in 2001 by Ean Evans. The remaining members released a double album called Thyrty which had songs from the original line up to the present. Lynyrd Skynyrd also released a live DVD of their Vicious Cycle Tour and on June 22, 2004, Lynyrd Skynyrd released the album Lyve: The Vicious Cycle Tour. On December 10, 2004, Lynyrd Skynyrd did a show for CMT, Crossroads, a concert featuring country duo Montgomery Gentry and other genres of music. In the beginning of 2005 Hughie Thomasson left the band to reform his disbanded Southern Rock band Outlaws. On February 5, 2005, Lynyrd Skynyrd did a Super Bowl party back in Jacksonville with special guests 3 Doors Down, Jo Dee Messina, Charlie Daniels and Ronnie and Johnny Van Zant's brother Donnie Van Zant of .38 Special. On February 13 of that year Lynyrd Skynyrd did a tribute to Southern Rock on the Grammy Awards with Gretchen Wilson, Tim McGraw and Keith Urban. On May 10, 2005, Johnny and Donnie Van Zant released a country album called Get Right with the Man which featured the hit single "Help Somebody". In the summer of 2005, lead singer Johnny Van Zant had to have surgery on his vocal cord to have a polyp removed. He was told not to sing for three months. On September 10, 2005, Lynyrd Skynyrd performed without Johnny Van Zant at the Music Relief Concert for the victims of Hurricane Katrina, with Kid Rock standing in for Johnny. In December 2005, Johnny Van Zant returned to sing for Lynyrd Skynyrd. The band performed live at Freedom Hall in Louisville, Kentucky, as a part of their 2007 tour. The concert was recorded in high definition for HDNet and premiered on December 1, 2007. On September 9, 2007, former Skynyrd guitarist Hughie Thomasson died of a heart attack at his home in Florida. Mark "Sparky" Matejka, formerly of the country music band Hot Apple Pie, joined Lynyrd Skynyrd in 2006. On November 2, 2007, the band performed at Gator Growl, the world's largest student-run pep rally, in Ben Hill Griffin Stadium - also known as "The Swamp." The event's 50,000 person attendance marked the largest crowd that Lynyrd Skynyrd had ever played in front of in the United States, until the July 2008 Bama Jam in Enterprise, Alabama where more than 111,000 people were in attendance. Kirkland 2008. On January 28, 2009, keyboardist Billy Powell died at age 56 at his home near Jacksonville, Florida. Powell called 911 at 12:55 a.m., complaining of shortness of breath. He had previously missed his doctor's appointment on the day before his death; the appointment was for a checkup on his heart. The EMS responders found Powell unconscious and unresponsive, with the telephone still in his hand. Rescue crews performed CPR, but he was pronounced dead at 1:52 a.m. Although a heart attack was suspected, and it was originally reported that an autopsy was to be performed, none in fact was ever done. On March 17, 2009, it was announced that Skynyrd had signed a worldwide deal with Loud & Proud/Roadrunner Records and will release their new album "God & Guns" September 29 of that year. They will tour Europe and the United States in 2009 with Peter Keys of the 420 Funk Mob on keyboards and Robert Kearns of The Bottle Rockets on bass in place of Ean Evans who stayed home due to a recent diagnosis with cancer. Evans died at age 48 on Wednesday, May 6, 2009, at his home in Columbus, Mississippi, succumbing to the cancer. The Clarion-Ledger: Lynyrd Skynryd bassist dies in Columbus Recognition Honors In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the group #95 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. The Immortals. The Originals. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame On November 28, 2005, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame announced that Lynyrd Skynyrd would be inducted alongside Black Sabbath, Blondie, Miles Davis, and the Sex Pistols. They were inducted in the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in Manhattan on March 13, 2006. Lynyrd Skynyrd had been nominated 7 times. On March 13, 2006, Lynyrd Skynyrd was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at the 21st annual induction ceremony. The inductees included Ronnie Van Zant, Allen Collins, Gary Rossington, Ed King, Steve Gaines, Billy Powell, Leon Wilkeson, Bob Burns, and Artimus Pyle (no post-crash members of the band were inducted, nor were any of the Honkettes). The current version of Skynyrd, augmented by King, Pyle, Burns and former Honkettes JoJo Billingsley and Leslie Hawkins, performed "Sweet Home Alabama" and "Free Bird" at the ceremony, which was also attended by Judy Van Zant Jenness and Ronnie's two daughters, Teresa Gaines Rapp and her daughter Corinna, Allen Collins' daughters, and Leon Wilkeson's mother. The song "Freebird" was also part of the epic ending from the movie, "The Devil's Rejects" from director, Rob Zombie. Tributes In 1994, various country music artists united to record a Skynyrd tribute album titled Skynyrd Frynds. In 2004, Sanctuary Records releases a "Jam Band Tribute to Lynyrd Skynyrd" album called "Under The Influence". Artists include Gov't Mule (Simple Man), Blues Traveler (Free Bird), Drive By Truckers (Every Mother's Son), and Les Claypool (Call Me The Breeze). Ronnie Van Zant's widow, Judy Van Zant Jenness, operates a Lynyrd Skynyrd tribute website for the educational purpose of sharing the original Lynyrd Skynyrd band's history, Lynyrd Skynyrd History Official Website as well as Freebird Live, FreeBird Live. a live music venue in Jacksonville Beach, Florida. Kid Rock would cover Free Bird in concert with either an image of the Confederate flag or a picture of Ronnie Van Zant showing behind him. Van Zant was also featured in a tribute video on Kid Rock's 2006 tour to the song Drift Away which included deceased musical icons. Kid Rock's 2008 hit song, "All Summer Long", samples both Sweet Home Alabama and Warren Zevon's Werewolves of London. Zevon's song Play It All Night Long has a line: "Sweet Home Alabama/Play that dead band's song". The Drive By Truckers dedicated their album Southern Rock Opera to Lynyrd Skynyrd. Hood. At one point there was a tribute album planned which never got released to the public. Songs recorded for the album were 3 Doors Down - That Smell, Shinedown - Simple Man, Theory of a Deadman - What's Your Name, Black Label Society - I Never Dreamed (which was released as an unlisted extra track on the end of most versions of their album Mafia), Corrosion Of Conformity - On The Hunt, and Oleander - Saturday Night Special. Members Discography Studio albums YearTitleCertifications U.S. Certifications. 1973(pronounced 'lĕh-'nérd 'skin-'nérd) 2x platinum (USA)1974Second Helping 2x platinum (USA)1975Nuthin' Fancy Platinum (USA)1976Gimme Back My Bullets Gold (USA)1977Street Survivors 2x platinum (USA)1991Lynyrd Skynyrd 1991 —1993The Last Rebel —1997Twenty —1999Edge of Forever —2000Christmas Time Again —2003Vicious Cycle — " — " denotes albums that weren't certified. Notes References External links Official Lynyrd Skynyrd website Official Lynyrd Skynyrd History site Swampland: Legends of Southern Rock, Lynyrd Skynyrd The Passing of Billy Powell Swampland: Friends Remember Billy Powell Lynyrd Skynyrd and Neil Young: Friends or Foes? Wall Street Journal: Rock's Oldest Joke: Yelling "Free Bird!" In a Crowded Theater Boston Phoenix article naming Lynyrd Skynyrd the All-Time Best Band from Florida Lost Demos And Rehearsals (1970-1976) audio file. Running time 36:29. 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6,709 | Axiom_of_regularity | In mathematics, the axiom of regularity (also known as the axiom of foundation) is one of the axioms of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory and was introduced by . In first-order logic the axiom reads: Or in prose: Every non-empty set A contains an element B which is disjoint from A. Two results which follow from the axiom are that "no set is an element of itself", and that "there is no infinite sequence (an) such that ai+1 is an element of ai for all i". With the axiom of choice, this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence, the axiom of regularity is equivalent, given the axiom of choice, to the alternative axiom that there are no downward infinite membership chains. The axiom of regularity is arguably the least useful ingredient of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, since virtually all results in the branches of mathematics based on set theory hold even in the absence of regularity (see Chapter III of [Kunen 1980]). However, it is used extensively in establishing results about well-ordering and the ordinals in general. In addition to omitting the axiom of regularity, non-standard set theories have indeed postulated the existence of sets that are elements of themselves. Given the other ZF axioms, the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the axiom of induction. Elementary implications of Regularity No set is an element of itself Let A be a set such that A is an element of itself and define B = {A}, which is a set by the axiom of pairing. Applying the axiom of regularity to B, we see that the only element of B, namely, A, must be disjoint from B. But A is both an element of itself and an element of B. Thus B does not satisfy the axiom of regularity and we have a contradiction, proving that A cannot exist. No infinite descending sequence of sets exists Suppose, to the contrary, that there is a function, f, on the natural numbers with f(n+1) an element of f(n) for each n. Define S = {f(n): n a natural number}, the range of f, which can be seen to be a set from the axiom schema of replacement. Applying the axiom of regularity to S, let B be an element of S which is disjoint from S. By the definition of S, B must be f(k) for some natural number k. However, we are given that f(k) contains f(k+1) which is also an element of S. So f(k+1) is in the intersection of f(k) and S. This contradicts the fact that they are disjoint sets. Since our supposition led to a contradiction, there must not be any such function, f. Notice that this argument only applies to functions f which can be represented as sets as opposed to undefinable classes. The hereditarily finite sets, Vω, satisfy the axiom of regularity (and all other axioms of ZFC except the axiom of infinity). So if one forms a non-trivial ultrapower of Vω, then it will also satisfy the axiom of regularity. The resulting model will contain elements, called non-standard natural numbers, which satisfy the definition of natural numbers in that model but are not really natural numbers. They are fake natural numbers which are "larger" than any actual natural number. This model will contain infinite descending sequences of elements. For example, suppose n is a non-standard natural number, then and , and so on. For any actual natural number k, . This is an unending descending sequence of elements. But this sequence is not definable in the model and thus not a set. So no contradiction to regularity can be proved. The axiom of choice and no infinite descending sequence of sets implies Regularity Let the non-empty set S be a counter-example to the axiom of regularity; that is, every element of S has a non-empty intersection with S. Let g be a choice function for S, that is, a map such that g(s) is an element of s for each non-empty subset s of S. Now define the function f on the non-negative integers recursively as follows: Then for each n, f(n) is an element of S and so its intersection with S is non-empty, so f(n+1) is well-defined and is an element of f(n). So f is an infinite descending chain. This is a contradiction, hence no such S exists. Simpler set-theoretic definition of the ordered pair The axiom of regularity enables defining the ordered pair (a,b) as {a,{a,b}}. See ordered pair for specifics. This definition eliminates one pair of braces from the canonical Kuratowski definition (a,b) = {{a},{a,b}}. Regularity does not resolve Russell's paradox In naive set theory, Russell's paradox is the fact "the set of all sets that do not contain themselves as members" leads to a contradiction. The paradox shows that that set cannot be constructed using any consistent set of axioms for set theory. Even though the axiom of regularity implies that no set contains itself as a member, that axiom does not banish Russell's paradox from Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF). In fact, if the ZF axioms without Regularity were already inconsistent, then adding Regularity would not make them consistent. Russell's paradox does not manifest in ZF because ZF does not prove that the proposed paradoxical set actually exists (e.g., ZF's axiom of separation only allows us to construct subsets of some existing set, and thus cannot be used to construct the desired set). The attempt to prove a contradiction using Russell's paradox will, in ZF, only end up proving that the collection of all sets which do not contain themselves is not a set but a proper class. Regularity and cumulative hierarchy In ZF it can be proven that the class (see cumulative hierarchy) is equal to the class of all sets. This statement is even equivalent to the axiom of regularity (if we work in ZF with this axiom omitted). From any model which does not satisfy axiom of regularity, a model which satisfies it can be constructed by taking only sets in . See also Non-well-founded set theory Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory References Jech, Thomas, 2003. Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded. Springer. ISBN 3-540-44085-2. Kunen, Kenneth, 1980. Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs. Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-86839-9. External links http://www.trinity.edu/cbrown/topics_in_logic/sets/sets.html contains an informative description of the axiom of regularity under the section on Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory. | Axiom_of_regularity |@lemmatized mathematics:2 axiom:36 regularity:25 also:4 know:1 foundation:1 one:3 zermelo:5 fraenkel:5 set:41 theory:12 introduce:1 first:1 order:3 logic:1 read:1 prose:1 every:2 non:11 empty:5 contains:1 element:19 b:13 disjoint:4 two:1 result:5 follow:2 infinite:7 sequence:7 ai:2 choice:4 reverse:1 true:1 hence:2 equivalent:3 give:3 alternative:1 downward:1 membership:1 chain:2 arguably:1 least:1 useful:1 ingredient:1 since:2 virtually:1 branch:1 base:1 hold:1 even:3 absence:1 see:6 chapter:1 iii:1 kunen:2 however:2 use:4 extensively:1 establish:1 well:3 ordering:1 ordinal:1 general:1 addition:1 omit:2 standard:3 indeed:1 postulate:1 existence:1 zf:9 induction:1 elementary:1 implication:1 let:4 define:5 pair:5 apply:3 namely:1 must:3 thus:3 satisfy:6 contradiction:6 prove:6 cannot:3 exist:3 descend:3 exists:2 suppose:2 contrary:1 function:5 f:17 natural:10 number:10 n:10 range:1 schema:1 replacement:1 definition:5 k:7 contain:7 intersection:3 contradict:1 fact:3 supposition:1 lead:2 notice:1 argument:1 represent:1 oppose:1 undefinable:1 class:4 hereditarily:1 finite:1 vω:2 zfc:1 except:1 infinity:1 form:1 trivial:1 ultrapower:1 model:6 call:1 really:1 fake:1 large:1 actual:2 example:2 unending:1 descending:2 definable:1 implies:2 counter:1 g:3 map:1 subset:2 negative:1 integer:1 recursively:1 simpler:1 theoretic:1 ordered:1 enables:1 specific:1 eliminate:1 brace:1 canonical:1 kuratowski:1 resolve:1 russell:5 paradox:6 naive:1 member:2 show:1 construct:4 consistent:2 though:1 banish:1 without:1 already:1 inconsistent:1 add:1 would:1 make:1 manifest:1 proposed:1 paradoxical:1 actually:1 e:1 separation:1 allow:1 u:1 desired:1 attempt:1 end:1 collection:1 proper:1 cumulative:2 hierarchy:2 equal:1 statement:1 work:1 take:1 found:1 reference:1 jech:1 thomas:1 third:1 millennium:1 edition:1 revise:1 expand:1 springer:1 isbn:2 kenneth:1 introduction:1 independence:1 proof:1 elsevier:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 trinity:1 edu:1 cbrown:1 html:1 informative:1 description:1 section:1 |@bigram axiom_regularity:17 axiom_zermelo:1 zermelo_fraenkel:5 axiom_choice:3 zf_axiom:4 axiom_schema:1 ordered_pair:1 kuratowski_definition:1 russell_paradox:5 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
6,710 | Foreign_relations_of_Kazakhstan | Foreign relations of Kazakhstan are primarily based on economic and political security. The Nazarbayev administration has tried to balance relations with Russia and the United States by sending petroleum and natural gas to its northern neighbor at artificially low prices while assisting the U.S. in the War on Terror. Kazakhstan is a member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (which it will chair in 2010), North Atlantic Cooperation Council, Commonwealth of Independent States, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, and NATO's Partnership for Peace program. Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 to begin the process of creating a free trade zone under a Customs Union. Border Issues Not until 2005, did Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan agree to begin demarcating their shared borders. No seabed boundary with Turkmenistan in the Caspian Sea has been agreed upon and the usage of Caspian Sea water is a matter that remains unsettled by international agreement. Kazakhstan - Transnational Issues CIA World Factbook Illicit drugs Illegal cannabis and, to a lesser extent, opium production in Kazakhstan is an international issue since much of the crop ends up being sold in other countries, particularly in other member-states of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In 1998, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that a "minimum of 1,517 tons of cannabis was harvested" in Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan Narcotics Factsheet 2004 The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program With the fall of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became a major transit country for narcotics produced in Southwest Asia, primarily from Afghanistan. In 2001, Kazakh authorities reported 1,320 cases of drug trafficking and seized 18 metric tons of narcotics. However, this is viewed as a fraction of the actual total volume trafficked and widespread corruption continues to hamper government anti-drug efforts; Transparency International gave Kazakhstan a score of 2.2, on a scale of 0-10 with 0 indicating a "highly corrupt" state. 2004 Annual Report Transparency International Russia and other parts of Europe are the main markets for these drugs although drug use is growing in Kazakhstan as well. By country Armenia Kazakhstan formed diplomatic relations with Armenia on 6 November 2006. Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev said, "The trade level cannot satisfy either side, this low indicator does not meet our states' demands." Fortunately however, "Documents signed today create a legal base for closer cooperation between our companies... As a result of talks, we confirmed the urge of our states to further strengthen our relations. Increasing trade and economic ties will contribute to this, for Kazakhstan's business and capital not to be afraid to go to Armenia." Former Armenian President Robert Kocharyan echoed Nazarbayev's statements, saying, "We want this visit to prompt the arrival of Kazakh investment in Armenia." Kazakhstan, Armenia sign agreements to develop relations RIA Novosti European Union The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Kazakhstan has been the legal framework for European Union-Kazakhstan bilateral relations since it entered into force in 1999. In November 2006 a Memorandum of Understanding on cooperation in the field of energy between the EU and Kazakhstan has been signed establishing the basis for enhanced cooperation. The future European Commission assistance will focus on the following priority areas: promotion of the ongoing reform process at political, economic, judiciary and social level, infrastructure building, and cooperation in the energy sector. The overall EU co-operation objectives, policy responses and priority fields for Central Asia can be found in the EC Regional Strategy Paper for Central Asia 2007-2013. In addition to the assistance under the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI) , Kazakhstan participates in several ongoing regional programs. European Union and Kazakhstan. European Commission: External Relations Israel Notwithstanding its membership in the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Kazakhstan has good relations with Israel. Diplomatic relations were established in 1992 and President Nazarbayev paid official visits to Israel in 1995 and 2000. About Kazakhstan–Israeli relations Embassy of Kazakhstan in Israel In 2006, during a state visit by Kazakh Deputy Prime Minister Karim Masimov, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert remarked, "Kazakhstan can show a beautiful face of Islam ... Contemporary, ever-developing Kazakhstan is a perfect example of both economic development and interethnic accord that should be followed by more Muslim states." Bilateral trade between the two countries amounted to $724 million in 2005. In 2008, Kazkahstan and Israel began to embark on joint military developments which include Self-Propelled Guns and Multiple Launch Rocket Systems. Russia Diplomatic relations between Russia and Kazakhstan has been both good and bad, but especially worse after the fall of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan has leaned more towards the West and USA in many cases, both civilian and military. Stalin and the Soviet Union treated Kazakhstan poorly in the Soviet times, and did not respect the ethnic Kazakhstani people, and many nuclear facilities have been built in the country without the wishes of Kazakhstan. USA started a program with Kazakhstan in the mid 1990's to remove and disarm several of the nuclear material in Kazakhstan to prevent the dangerous material to get on the black-market and in the hands of terrorists and/or countries like Iran, Syria or North Korea. Switzerland Rakhat Aliyev, the First Vice Foreign Minister of Kazakhstan met with Anton Tahlmann, the Vice Foreign Minister of Switzerland, in Berne, Switzerland from 13-14 November 2006. Tahlmann announced that the Swiss Federal Council is considering opening an embassy in Kazakhstan, saying, "Switzerland is interested in comprehensive development of relations with your country because of its dynamic development and the growing role in the region. In relation with this Berne regards an increase of its diplomatic presence in this country, an opening of the Swiss embassy in perspective." He confirmed his government's support for Kazakhstan's candidacy for the Chairmanship of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in 2009. The two ministers also discussed trade, migration, and the environment. Switzerland confirms support of Kazakhstan's candidacy for OSCE chairmanship Gazeta.KZ Switzerland considers opening embassy in Kazakhstan Gazeta.KZ Other Countries Notes on relations with some other countries: Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1992-08-27 See Armenia–Kazakhstan relations Since 1992, Armenia has an embassy in Almaty. Kazakhstan has an embassy in Yerevan. Both countries are full members of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Commonwealth of Independent States. There are 25,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kazakhstan. Between September 1 and September 2, 1999, Armenian president Robert Kocharyan made an official visit to Kazakhstan. In May 2001, Kazakh president Nursultan Nazarbayev made an official visit to Armenia. Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia See Azerbaijan–Kazakhstan relations See Belarus–Kazakhstan relations See Bulgaria–Kazakhstan relations See Canada–Kazakhstan relations See Croatia–Kazakhstan relations See Cuba-Kazakhstan relations See Czech Republic – Kazakhstan relations See Egypt–Kazakhstan relations See Greece–Kazakhstan relations See India–Kazakhstan relations See Israel–Kazakhstan relations 1992 Kazakhstan is part of the Central Asia plus Japan dialogue. See Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan relations 1992-12-30 Kazakhstan recognised Latvia's independence on December 23, 1991. Latvia recognised the independence of Kazakhstan on January 8, 1992. Kazakhstan is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and though an honorary consulate in Riga. Kazakh embassy in Vilnius (also accredited to Latvia) Latvia has an embassy in Astana and an honorary consulate in Almaty. Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Kazakhstan See Kazakhstan–Lithuania relations See Kazakhstan–Pakistan relations 1992-01-03 See People's Republic of China – Kazakhstan relations The two nations signed their first boundary agreement in April 1994, and their second supplementary boundary agreement in July 1998 to mark their 1,700 km shared border. Brief introduction to relations between China and Kazakhstan China Daily See Kazakhstan–Romania relations See Kazakhstan–Russia relations See Kazakhstan – South Korea relations See Kazakh–Turkish relations See Kazakhstan–Turkmenistan relations See Kazakhstan–Ukraine relations 1992-02-19 See Kazakhstan – United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Kazakhstan in October 1992. Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Britain in February 1996. See Kazakhstan – United States relations United States Vice President Dick Cheney visited Kazakhstan on 5 May 2006. Cheney, Visiting Kazakhstan, Wades Into Energy Battle New York Times See Kazakhstan–Uzbekistan relations Kazakhstan - Uzbekistan relations have always been sincere and strong. Since the rapid development of Kazakhstan the President of Uzbekistan Mr. Karimov has visited Kazakhstan several times. See also Kazakh diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Kazakhstan Terrorism in Kazakhstan References Further reading External links Kazakhstan to deliver more oil to Iran with swaps Egyptian President visits Kazakhstan 'Victorious' Kazakhs Told To Wait On OSCE Decision Azeri Parliamentarians visit Kazakhstan Central Asia: Japanese Premier Visits energy-rich region Hu Jintao Meets with Kazakh President Nazarbayev Ambassador of Israel Ends His Mission Kazakhstan keen to share experience with Iran in ports Kazakhstan: Democracy, Energy, And Ambiguity Only Kazakhstan consulate in western Europe opens in Aberdeen President of Kazakhstan visited Egypt on his way to Belgium Kazakhstan President to visit Belgium on Dec 3-6 U.S. urges Russia to withdraw from Georgia, Moldova; Russia criticizes OSCE solutions EU approves nuclear pact with Kazakhstan About the Kazakhstan-Israeli relations - Embassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the State of Israel | Foreign_relations_of_Kazakhstan 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6,711 | Kevin_Warwick | Kevin Warwick (born 9 February 1954 Coventry, UK) is a British scientist and professor of cybernetics at the University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK. He is probably best known for his studies on direct interfaces between computer systems and the human nervous system, although he has done much research in the field of robotics. Biography Kevin Warwick was born in 1954 in Coventry in the United Kingdom. He attended Lawrence Sheriff School in Rugby, Warwickshire. He left school in 1970 to join British Telecom, at the age of 16. In 1976 he took his first degree at Aston University, followed by a Ph.D and a research post at Imperial College London. He subsequently held positions at Oxford, Newcastle and Warwick universities before being offered the Chair in Cybernetics at Reading University in 1987. Warwick is a Chartered Engineer (UK), a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology and a Fellow of the City and Guilds of London Institute. He is Visiting Professor at the Czech Technical University in Prague and in 2004 was Senior Beckman Fellow at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. He is also Director of the Reading University Knowledge Transfer Partnerships Centre, which links the University with Companies. Warwick has been awarded higher doctorates (D.Sc.) by Imperial College and by the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague. He was presented with The Future of Health Technology Award from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was made an Honorary Member of the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, was awarded the University of Malta medal from the Edward de Bono Institute and in 2004 received The IEE Senior Achievement Medal. In 2008 Warwick was awarded the Mountbatten Medal http://media-newswire.com/release_1079897.html and received Honorary Doctor of Science degrees from Aston University High profile graduates celebrated by Aston University and Coventry University http://www.coventry.ac.uk/latestnewsandevents/a/4879 . Work Kevin Warwick speaking at the Tomorrow's People conference in 2006 hosted by Oxford University. Warwick carries out research in artificial intelligence, biomedical engineering, control systems and robotics. Much of Warwick's early research was in the area of Discrete time Adaptive control. He introduced the first state space based Self-tuning controller and unified Discrete time state space representations of ARMA models. Warwick, K: "Relationship between Åström control and the Kalman linear regulator - Caines revisited", Journal of Optimal Control:Applications and Methods, 11(3), pp.223-232, 1990 However he also contributed in Mathematics, Warwick,K:"Using the Cayley–Hamilton theorem with N partitioned matrices",IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, AC.28(12),pp.1127-1128, 1983 Power Engineering Warwick, K, Ekwue, A and Aggarwal, R (eds). "Artificial intelligence techniques in power systems", Institution of Electrical Engineers Press, 1997 and Manufacturing production machinery. Sutanto, E and Warwick, K: "Multivariable cluster analysis for high speed industrial machinery", IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology, 142, pp. 417-423, 1995 Artificial intelligence Warwick presently heads an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council supported research project which investigates the use of machine learning and artificial intelligence techniques in order to suitably stimulate and translate patterns of electrical activity from living cultured neural networks in order to utilise the networks for the control of mobile robots. http://technology.newscientist.com/channel/tech/mg19926696.100-rise-of-the-ratbrained-robots.html Hence a biological brain actually provides the behaviour process for each robot. It is expected that the method will be extended to the control of a robot head. Previously Warwick was behind a Genetic algorithm called Gershwyn, which was able to exhibit creativity in producing pop songs, learning what makes a hit record by listening to examples of previous hit songs. BBC News | Entertainment | To the beat of the byte Gershwyn appeared on BBC's Tomorrow's World having been successfully used to mix music for Manus, a group consisting of the four younger brothers of Elvis Costello. Another Warwick project involving artificial intelligence is the robot head, Morgui. The head contains 5 senses (vision, sound, infrared, ultrasound and radar) and is being used to investigate sensor data fusion. The head was X-rated by the University of Reading Research and Ethics Committee due to its image storage capabilities - anyone under the age of 18 who wishes to interact with the robot must apriori obtain parental approval . Warwick has very outspoken views on the future, particularly with respect to artificial intelligence and its impact on the human species, and argues that we will need to use technology to enhance ourselves in order to avoid being overtaken http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article5798625.ece . He also points out that there are many limits, such as our sensorimotor abilities, that we can overcome with machines, and is on record as saying that he wants to gain these abilities: "There is no way I want to stay a mere human." Kevin Warwick, FAQ, http://www.kevinwarwick.com/faq.htm (last question) Bioethics Warwick heads the Reading University team in a number of European Community projects such as FIDIS looking at issues concerned with the future of identity and ETHICBOTS which is considering the ethical aspects of robots and cyborgs. Warwick is also working with Daniela Cerqui, a social and cultural anthropologist from the University of Lausanne, to address the main social, ethical, philosophical and anthropological issues related to his research. www.kevinwarwick.com Warwick’s areas of interest have many ethical implications, some due to his Human enhancement experiments. The ethical dilemmas in his research are highlighted as a case study for schoolchildren and science teachers by the Institute of Physics PEEP Physics Ethics Education Project: People as a part of their formal Advanced level and GCSE studies. His work has also been directly discussed by The President's Council on Bioethics and the President’s Panel on Forward Engagements Introduction . Deep brain stimulation Along with Tipu Aziz and his team at John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, and John Stein of University of Oxford, Warwick is helping to design the next generation of Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. The blade runner generation - Times Online Instead of stimulating the brain all the time, the aim is for the device to predict when stimulation is needed and to apply the signals prior to any tremors occurring to stop them before they even start. Public awareness Warwick has headed a number of projects aimed at exciting schoolchildren about the technology with which he is involved. In 2000 he received the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Millennium Award for his Schools Robot League. Meanwhile in 2007, 16 school teams were involved in designing a humanoid robot to dance and then complete an assault course—a final competition being held at the Science Museum (London). The project, entitled 'Androids Advance' was supported by EPSRC and was presented as an evening news item on Chinese television. 英国类人机器人大赛 寓教于乐两相宜(机器人,教育,科技,发展,英国 ) - 新视界－全球资讯视频总汇 Warwick has appeared in numerous television documentary programmes on artificial intelligence, robotics and the role of science fiction in science, such as How William Shatner Changed the World, Future Fantastic and Explorations Kevin Warwick . He has also guested on a number of TV chat shows, including Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Først & sist, and Richard & Judy. Warwick has appeared on the cover of a number of magazines, for example the February 2000 edition of Wired. Cover Browser - Wired Magazine Robotics Warwick's claims that robots that can program themselves to avoid each other while operating in a group raise the issue of self-organisation, and as such might be the major impetus in following developments in this area. In particular, the works of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana, once in the province of pure speculation now have become immediately relevant with respect to synthetic intelligence. Cyborg-type systems not only are homeostatic (meaning that they are able to preserve stable internal conditions in various environments) but adaptive, if they are to survive. Testing the claims of Varela and Maturana via synthetic devices is the larger and more serious concern in the discussion about Warwick and those involved in similar research. "Pulling the plug" on independent devices cannot be as simple as it appears, for if the device displays sufficient intelligence and assumes a diagnostic and prognostic stature, we may ultimately one day be forced to decide between what it could be telling us as counterintuitive (but correct) and our impulse to disconnect because of our limited and "intuitive" perceptions. Warwick's robots seemed to have exhibited behaviour not anticipated by the research, one such robot "committing suicide" because it could not cope with its environment. Warwick, K: “I, Cyborg”, University of Illinois Press, 2004, p 66 In a more complex setting, it may be asked whether a "natural selection" may be possible, neural networks being the major operative. The 1999 edition of the Guinness Book of Records recorded that Warwick carried out the first robot learning experiment across the internet. One robot, with an Artificial Neural Network brain in Reading, UK, learnt how to move around. It then taught, via the internet, another robot in SUNY Buffalo New York State, USA, to behave in the same way. The robot in the USA was therefore not taught or programmed by a human, but rather by another robot based on what it itself had learnt. Warwick, K: “I, Cyborg”, University of Illinois Press, 2004 Hissing Sid was a robot cat which Warwick took on a British Council lecture tour of Russia, it being presented in lectures at such places as Moscow State University. Sid, which was put together as a student project, got its name from the noise made by the Pneumatic actuators used to drive its legs when walking. The robot also appeared on BBC TV's Blue Peter but became better known when it was refused a ticket by British Airways on the grounds that they did not allow animals in the cabin BA criticised over denying boarding to robotic cat | Airline Industry Information | Find Articles at BNET . Warwick was also responsible for a robotic "magic chair" which Sir Jimmy Savile used on BBC TV's Jim'll Fix It. The chair provided Jim with tea and stored Jim'll Fix it badges for him to hand out to guests Sam Delaney meets Sir Jimmy Savile | Culture | The Guardian . Warwick even appeared on the programme himself for a Fix it involving robots. Robotics: Project Cyborg Probably the most famous piece of research undertaken by Warwick (and the origin of the nickname, "Captain Cyborg", given to him by The Register) is the set of experiments known as Project Cyborg, in which he had a chip implanted into his arm, with the aim of "becoming a cyborg". The first stage of this research, which began on 1998-08-24, involved a simple RFID transmitter being implanted beneath Warwick's skin, and used to control doors, lights, heaters, and other computer-controlled devices based on his proximity. The main purpose of this experiment was said to be to test the limits of what the body would accept, and how easy it would be to receive a meaningful signal from the chip. Wired Magazine 8.02 (Feb 2000), 'Cyborg 1.0: Interview with Kevin Warwick', http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.02/warwick.html (accessed 25-12-2006) The second stage involved a more complex neural interface which was designed and built especially for the experiment by Dr. Mark Gasson and his team at the University of Reading. This device was implanted on 2002-03-14, and interfaced directly into Warwick's nervous system. The electrode array inserted contained 100 electrodes, of which 25 could be accessed at any one time, whereas the median nerve which it monitored carries many times that number of signals. The experiment proved successful, and the signal produced was detailed enough that a robot arm developed by Warwick's colleague, Dr Peter Kyberd, was able to mimic the actions of Warwick's own arm Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Andrews, B, Teddy, P and Shad, A:“The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems”, Archives of Neurology, 60(10), pp1369-1373, 2003 . By means of the implant, Warwick's nervous system was connected onto the internet in Columbia University, New York. From there he was able to control the robot arm in the University of Reading and to obtain feedback from sensors in the finger tips. He also successfully connected ultrasonic sensors on a baseball cap and experienced a form of extra sensory input. Warwick, K, Hutt, B, Gasson, M and Goodhew, I:“An attempt to extend human sensory capabilities by means of implant technology”, Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Hawaii, pp.1663-1668, October 2005 A highly publicised extension to the experiment, in which a simpler array was implanted into Warwick's wife—with the aim of creating a form of telepathy or empathy using the Internet to communicate the signal from afar—was also successful, resulting in the first purely electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems of two humans Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Schulzrinne, H and Wu, X: “Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy”, IEE Proceedings on Communications, 151(3), pp.185-189, 2004 . Finally, the effect of the implant on Warwick's hand function was measured using the University of Southampton Hand Assessment Procedure (SHAP). It was feared that directly interfacing with the nervous system might cause some form of damage or interference, but no measurable effect was found. As well as the Project Cyborg work, Warwick has been involved in several of the major robotics developments within the Cybernetics Department at Reading. These include the "seven dwarves", a version of which was given away in kit form as Cybot on the cover of Real Robots Magazine. Robotics: Implications and criticisms on Project Cyborg Warwick and his colleagues claim that the Project Cyborg research could lead to new medical tools for treating patients with damage to the nervous system, as well as opening the way for the more ambitious enhancements Warwick advocates. Some transhumanists even speculate that similar technologies could be used for technology-facilitated telepathy, or "techlepathy." Warwick himself asserts that his controversial work is important because it directly tests the boundaries of what is known about the human ability to integrate with computerised systems. A controversy arose in August 2002, shortly after the Soham murders, when Warwick reportedly offered to implant a tracking device into an 11-year-old girl as an anti-abduction measure. The plan produced a mixed reaction, with support from many worried parents but ethical concerns from a number of children's societies. As a result, the idea did not go ahead. Anti-theft RFID chips are common in jewelry or clothing in some Latin American countries due to a high abduction rate, and the company VeriChip announced plans in 2001 to expand its line of currently available medical information implants, to be GPS trackable when combined with a separate GPS device. Turing Interrogator Kevin Warwick, Organiser of the 2008 Loebner Prize for Artificial Intelligence, hosted by the School of Systems Engineering at the University of Reading. Kevin has participated as a Turing Interrogator, on two occasions, judging machines in the 2001 and 2006 Loebner Prize competitions, platforms for an 'imitation game' as devised by Alan Turing. The 2001 Prize, held at the Science Museum in London, featured Turing's 'jury service' or one-to-one Turing tests and was won by A.L.I.C.E. The A. L. I. C. E. Artificial Intelligence Foundation - chatbot - chat bot - chatterbots - verbots - natural language - chatterbot - bot - chat robot - chat bots - AIML - take a Turing Test - Loebner ... The 2006 contest staged parallel-paired Turing tests at University College London and was won by Rollo Carpenter. Kevin's findings can be found in a number of articles with co-author Huma Shah including Turing Test: Mindless Game? – A Reflection on the Loebner Prize - a paper presented at the 2007 European conference on computing and philosophy (ECAP). European Computing and Philosophy Conference , and Emotion in the Turing Test - a chapter in a new Handbook on Synthetic Emotions and Sociable Robotics: New Applications in Affective Computing and Artificial Intelligence http://www.igi-global.com/reference/details.asp?ID=34432&v=tableOfContents . He organised the 2008 Loebner Prize at the University of Reading; a report on the contest's 'theatre of two Turing tests' can be found here. Other Warwick was a member of the 2001 Higher Education Funding Council for England (unit 29) Research Assessment Exercise panel on Electrical and Electronic Engineering and is Deputy Chairman for the same panel (unit 24) in 2008 http://www.rae.ac.uk/ Current official RAE website for 2008 exercise . He also sits on the research committee of The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association. In March 2009, he was cited as an inspiration by National Young Scientist of the Year, Peter Hatfield Quotations “Shouldn’t I join the ranks of philosophers and merely make unsubstantiated claims about the wonders of human consciousness? Shouldn’t I stop trying to do some science and keep my head down? Indeed not”. Hendricks, V: “Feisty Fragments for Philosophy”, King’s College Publications, London,2004. “I feel that we are all philosophers, and that those who describe themselves as a ‘philosopher’ simply do not have a day job to go to”. On Human Consciousness: “John Searle put forward the view that a shoe is not conscious therefore a computer cannot be conscious. By the same sort of analogy though, a cabbage is not conscious therefore a human cannot be conscious”. Hendricks, V: “500 CC Computer Citations”, King’s College Publications, London, 2005 On Machine Intelligence: “Our robots have roughly the equivalent of 50 to 100 brain cells. That means they are about as intelligent as a slug or snail or a Manchester United supporter”. “An actual robot walking machine which takes one step and then falls over is worth far more than a computer simulation of 29,000 robots running the London Marathon in record time”. “When comparing human memory and computer memory it is clear that the human version has two distinct disadvantages. Firstly, as indeed I have experienced myself, due to ageing, human memory can exhibit very poor short term recall”. "There can be no absolute reality, there can be no absolute truth". Warwick, K:"The Matrix - Our Future?", Chapter in "Philosophers Explore the Matrix", edited by C.Grau, Oxford University Press, 2005 "Ask not what the surgeon can do for you - ask what you can do for the surgeon", Panel Discussion on Challenges & Opportunities in Biomedical Engineering at BIOSTEC 2008 Conference, Madeira, Portugal, 28 January 2008. See also God helmet Ray Kurzweil and The Age of Intelligent Machines Stelarc Steve Mann Transhumanism Who's Who Publications Warwick has written several books, articles and papers. A selection of his books: Lectures (inaugural and keynote lectures): 1998, Robert Boyle Lecture at Oxford University, 2000, “The Rise of The Robots”, Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, entitled . These lectures were repeated in 2001 in a tour of Japan, China and Korea. 2001, Gordon Higginson Lecture at Durham University, Hamilton institute inaugural lecture. 2003, Royal Academy of Engineering/Royal Society of Edinburgh Joint lecture in Edinburgh, 2003, IEEE (UK) Annual Lecture in London, 2004, Woolmer Lecture at University of York, Robert Hooke Lecture (Westminster) 2005, Einstein Lecture in Potsdam, Germany 2006, Bernard Price Lecture tour in South Africa; Institution of Mechanical Engineers Prestige Lecture in London. 2007, Techfest plenary lecture in Mumbai; Kshitij keynote in Kharagpur (India); Engineer Techfest keynote in NITK Surathkal (India); Annual Science Faculty lecture at University of Leicester, Graduate School in Physical Sciences and Engineering Annual Lecture, Cardiff University. 2008, Leslie Oliver Oration at Queen's Hospital, Techkriti keynote in Kanpur. 2008, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, guest lecture "Four weddings and a Funeral" for the Microsoft Research Chair. 2009, Cardiff University, 125th Anniversary Lecture. He is a regular presenter at the annual Careers Scotland Space School, University of Strathclyde. He is presenting at the 2009 World Science Festival http://www.worldsciencefestival.com/2009/battlestar-galactica . References External links Kevin Warwick's official site RTE Radio 1 debate with Kevin Warwick on Human Enhancement [podcast link http://www.rte.ie/radio1/podcast/podcast_sciencedebate.xml] Ananova story, with pictures of the chip and operation (dead link, see archive) IET Robotics Network List of articles mentioning "Captain Cyborg" at the Register Interview with Kevin Warwick in The Future Fire 1 (2005) Video of Kevin Warwick speaking at WhatTheHack Interview with Kevin Warwick in mbr:points 1 (04.02.2008) Interview with Kevin Warwick on cyborgs, viruses, Cyborg Rights and cyborg-identity (1 December 2008) Interview with Kevin Warwick in IT-BHU Chronicle http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=self-experimenters on-line Scientific American article | Kevin_Warwick |@lemmatized kevin:16 warwick:64 born:1 february:2 coventry:4 uk:8 british:4 scientist:2 professor:2 cybernetics:4 university:35 reading:9 berkshire:1 probably:2 best:1 know:4 study:3 direct:1 interface:2 computer:6 system:14 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6,712 | Adrian_Lamo | Adrian Lamo is a former grey hat hacker and is a journalist, principally known for breaking into a series of high-security computer networks, and his subsequent arrest. Best known among these were his intrusions into The New York Times and Microsoft. He is also known for identifying security flaws in computer networks of Fortune 500 companies and then notifying them of any flaws he found. Personal Lamo was born in Boston, Massachusetts to Mario Lamo and Mary Lamo-Atwood. A Duty to Hack He spent his early childhood in Arlington, VA, until moving to Bogotá, Colombia around the age of 10. When his family moved back to the United States two years later, they settled in San Francisco, where Adrian lived until he tested out of High School a year early. Popularly called the "homeless hacker" for his transient lifestyle, Lamo spent most of his travels couch-surfing, squatting in abandoned buildings and traveling to Internet cafes, libraries and universities to investigate networks, and sometimes exploit security holes. Despite performing authorized and unauthorized vulnerability assessments for several large, high-profile entities, Lamo refused to accept payment for his services. In his spare time, he donates his time and expertise to Voluntary Legal Services of Northern California, a Sacramento-based nonprofit organization providing assistance to indigent and low-income clients involved in civil litigation. Lamo was appointed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning Youth Task Force by San Francisco Supervisor Tom Ammiano. Adrian Lamo, Seat No. 10; In February 2009 Lamo was revealed to have been a donor to guerilla disclosure site Wikileaks, when an ironic twist forced Wikileaks to publish a leaked list of their own donors. http://www.securitysoftwarezone.com/wikileaks-security-gaffe-commented-by-adrian-lamo-review2046-1.html http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2009/02/wikileaks-force/ http://www.theminorityreport.org/2009/integrity-plugs-wikileaks/ Activities and techniques Lamo is featured in a segment of the webcomic xkcd Adrian Lamo is perhaps best known for breaking into The New York Times internal computer network in February 2002, adding his name to confidential databases of expert sources, and using the paper's LexisNexis account to conduct research on high-profile subjects, although his first published activities involved operating AOL watchdog site Inside-AOL.com. Brown, Janelle. "Can AOL silence its critics?" Salon.com. July 1, 1999. Poulsen, Kevin. "Hijackers take AIM accounts." SecurityFocus.com. November 29, 2000. Null, Christopher. "Hackers Run Wild and Free on AOL". Wired News. February 21, 203. If this article disappears, see mailing. The Times filed a complaint and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15 month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15 AM on September 9, after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the US Marshals in Sacramento, California. He re-surrendered to the FBI in New York City on September 11, and plead guilty to one count of computer crimes against Microsoft, Lexis-Nexis and The New York Times on January 8, 2004. Later in 2004, Lamo was sentenced to six months detention at his parent's home plus two years probation, and was ordered to pay roughly $65,000 in restitution. He was convicted of compromising security at The New York Times and Microsoft, and is alleged to have admitted to exploiting security weaknesses at Excite@Home, Lemos, Robert. "Hacker helps Excite@Home toughen defenses". News.com. May 29, 2001. Security Focus. "@Home's mis-configured proxy Excites hacker". BSDvault. May 30. Yahoo!, Poulsen, Kevin. "Yahoo! News Hacked". SecurityFocus. September 18, 2001. MCI WorldCom, Poulsen, Kevin. "Lamo's Adventures in WorldCom". SecurityFocus. December 5, 2001. Ameritech, Cingular and has allegedly violated network security at AOL Time Warner, Bank of America, Citigroup, McDonald's and Sun Microsystems. How To Keep Your Info Inside. (Powerpoint) Also see Google's cache. (You may have to highlight text in the cache in order to be able to read it.) See "Also gained access to: Bank of America, JP Morgan, Citicorp, Sun Microsystems, AOL". Companies sometimes use proxies to allow their employees access to the internet, without giving the internet access to their internal network. However, when these proxies are improperly configured, they can allow access to the company's internal network. Lamo does not program himself, and used a web browser for much of his legwork and intrusion. Lamo often exploited misconfigured proxies, sometimes using a tool called ProxyHunter. Critics have repeatedly labelled Lamo as a publicity seeker or common criminal, claims that he has refused to publicly refute. When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, his response was "Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves." When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo would frequently frustrate reporters with non sequiturs such as "Faith manages." McCullagh, Declan. "The 'homeless hacker' talks". CNET News.com. September 16, 2003. and "It was a beautiful day." McCullagh, Declan. "Judge lifts hacker's PC restrictions". CNET News.com. September 12, 2003. At his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse for harm he had caused through his intrusions, with the court record quoting him as adding "I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life." Poulsen, Kevin. "Feds say Lamo inspired other hackers". The Register. September 16, 2004. Lamo is interviewed by Leo Laporte on TechTV's The Screen SaversAs of January 16, 2007, Lamo's probation was terminated, ending a three-year period during which the U.S. District Court's ruling prevented him from exercising certain freedoms, including the ability to employ any privacy protection software, travel outside certain established boundaries, or socialize with security researchers. DNA controversy On May 9, 2006, while 18 months into a two year probation sentence, Adrian Lamo refused to give the United States government a blood sample they demanded so as to record his DNA in their CODIS system. Poulsen, Kevin. "Feds Want Hacker's Genetic Code". Wired News. May, 10, 2006. According to his attorney, Adrian Lamo has a religious objection to giving blood, but is willing to give his DNA in another form. "He went in there with fingernail clippings and hair, and they refused to accept it, because they will only accept blood," said federal public defender Mary French. One of several mugshots taken of Lamo following his arrest On June 15, 2007, lawyers for Lamo filed another motion citing the Book of Genesis as one basis for Lamo's religious opposition to the frivolous spilling of blood: "The Book of Genesis leaves unambiguous this matter. Therein, those who would spill the blood of man are rebuked as follows: 'Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image of God has God made man.' Genesis 9:6 (New International Version)." Kevin Poulsen on June 15 filing Lamo continued: "Under this admonition, not only would I be blinding myself to the direct instructions of scripture by shedding blood, but I would similarly be casting whomever facilitated this act into sin, multiplying my culpability," setting the basis for defense counsel Mary French to urge US District Court Judge Frank Damrell to exempt Lamo from the sampling entirely, or to order his probation officer to accept some other biological product in lieu of blood, as previously offered by Lamo. On June 21, 2007, it was reported that Lamo's legal counsel had reached a settlement agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice granting Lamo's original request. According to Kevin Poulsen's blog, "On Wednesday, the Justice Department formally settled the case, filing a joint stipulation along with Lamo's federal public defender dropping the demand for blood, and accepting cheek swabs instead." Reached for comment, Lamo reportedly affirmed to Poulsen his intention to "comply vigorously" with the order. Poulsen, Kevin Hacker Adrian Lamo Wins, Won't Have to Give the FBI his Blood; June 21, 2007 Professional Since Lamo's sentencing, he has entered the early stages of a career as an award-winning Adrian Lamo 2005 awards at JACC Adrian Lamo 2004 awards at JACC journalist, studying at American River College, with writing, photography, and editorial work / collaboration appearing in Network World, Mobile Magazine, 2600 Magazine, The American River Current, XY Magazine, and others. Lamo has interviewed personalities ranging from John Ashcroft, to Oliver Stone Oliver Stone set to visit CSUS to alleged members of the Earth Liberation Front. Lamo also has a history of public speaking - he was a keynote speaker at a government security conference in 2005 alongside Bruce Schneier, and a panelist at the Information Security In the Age of Terrorism conference. Information Security in the Age of Terrorism Lamo has shown signs of increased cooperation with media since his release from federal custody, including a podcast interview with Patrick Gray in Australia, and an April 2007 segment Adrian Lamo on 88.1 WMBR's darkbot radio on 88.1 WMBR out of Cambridge. A rendering of Adrian Lamo by AAlib. Film and television Lamo was removed from a segment of NBC Nightly News when, after being asked to demonstrate his skills for the camera, he gained access to NBC's internal network in under five minutes. Hackers Wanted, a documentary covering Lamo's life and times, is slated for release under the care of Trigger Street Productions. Directed by Sam Bozzo, it features Apple Computer co-founder Steve Wozniak, TechTV personality Leo Laporte, Digg and Revision3 founder Kevin Rose and narration by actor Kevin Spacey. The film explores the practical and ethical themes of modern computer hacking, intertwining Lamo's story with those of controversial figures throughout history. In May 2009, a video purporting to be a trailer for Hackers Wanted was allegedly leaked to or by Internet film site Eye Crave. http://eyecrave.net/movies/movie/2521-exclusive-untitled-hacker-movie-can-you-hack-it-trailer/ In popular culture The Wholly Book of Clichés & Cabbages, a Discordian RPG based on the Risus system cites Lamo as an embodiment of the Discordian Hacker character class, an AD&D-style prestige class of Hacker, noting "A Discordian Hacker has the abilities of the pulp hacker, but utililizes them much differently.".<ref>Prince Mu-Chao. "The Wholly Book of Clichés & Cabbages". "23 Apples of Eris. February 28, 2005.</ref> Adrian Lamo is mentioned in the web comic xkcd. Lamo mentioned in xkcd Notes References Losing His Religion: Techfocus interviews Adrian Lamo Bill Royle, TechFocus. Slashdot.org Discussion regarding TechFocus interview April 9, 2004. Inside The Hacker Mind Chris Null, New Architect December 2002. New York Times Internal Network Hacked Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus February 26, 2002. Lamo Bumped from NBC After Hacking Them Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus August 27, 2002. Adrian Lamo charged with computer crimes Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus September 5, 2003. Lamo Pleads Guilty to Times Hack Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus January 8, 2004. Off the Hook Interview - April 7, 2004; with Emmanuel Goldstein and Bernie S. on the phone 'Homeless Hacker' speaks out Tech News on ZDNet He Hacks by Day, Squats by Night Noah Shachtman, Wired News March 6, 2002. Hollywood.com Preliminary documentation of Trigger Street Productions documentary involving Lamo. BusinessWeek Stop Him Before He Hacks Again MacUser.com Woz + Kevin Spacey + Adrian Lamo = A Movie about Hacking? External links "The Homeless Hacker vs. The New York Times", by Jennifer Kahn, Wired Magazine, Issue 12.04 | April 2004. 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6,713 | Kurfürstendamm | Kurfürstendamm with Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church and Europa-Center The Kurfürstendamm, known locally as the Ku'damm, is one of the most famous avenues in Berlin. The street takes its name from the former Kurfürsten (Electors) of Brandenburg. This very broad, long boulevard can be considered the Champs-Élysées of Berlin — full of shops, houses, hotels and restaurants. In particular most important famous designers have their shops there like Gucci, Bvlgari, Chanel, Louis Vuitton, Valentino, Lacoste, Tommy Hilfiger, Cartier, Hermès, Swarovski, as well as several car manufacturers' show rooms. Description The avenue with four lines of plane trees runs for through the Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf borough in western Berlin. It branches off from the Breitscheidplatz near Bahnhof Zoo and the ruins of the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church and leads southwestward through the Charlottenburg district. At the junction with Joachimstaler Straße it passes the Café Kranzler, successor of the Café des Westens, a famous venue for artists and bohémiens of the pre-World-War-I era. Near Uhlandstraße U-Bahn station is the Kempinski hotel as well as the Theater am Kurfürstendamm at the site of a former exhibition hall of the Berlin Secession art association. At Adenauerplatz the boulevard reaches the district of Wilmersdorf, where it passes the Schaubühne theatre on Lehniner Platz. The more sober western or "upper" end of the Kurfürstendamm is marked by the Berlin-Halensee railway station on the Ringbahn line and the junction with the Bundesautobahn 100 (Stadtring) at the Rathenauplatz roundabout, featuring the long disputed 1987 "Beton Cadillacs" sculpture by Wolf Vostell. Historical notes Unlike the adjacent streets the Kurfürstendamm developed out of a historic corduroy road () laid out by the Brandenburg electors to reach the Grunewald hunting lodge erected in 1543. Though the exact date of the building is unknown, an unnamed causeway leading from the Stadtschloss through the swampy area between the settlements of Charlottenburg (then Lietzow) and Wilmersdorf to Grunewald is depicted in a 1685 map. The name Churfürsten Damm was first mentioned between 1767 and 1787. From 1875 the former bridlepath was embellished as a boulevard with a breadth of on the personal initiative of chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who also proposed the building of the Grunewald mansions colony at its western end. In 1882 Ernst Werner von Siemens presented his Elektromote trolley bus concept at an experimental track near Halensee station. Nearby the Lunapark opened in 1909, then Europe's largest amusement park modelled on Coney Island, where boxer Max Schmeling won his first title of a German Lightheavyweight Champion in 1926. After a long period of decline the park was finally closed in 1933, large parts are today covered by the Stadtautobahn. Especially during the "Golden Twenties" the Kurfürstendamm area of the "New West" was a centre of leisure and nightlife in Berlin, an era that ended with the Great Depression and the Nazi Machtergreifung in 1933. The shops and businesses owned by Jewish tradespeople became the target of several pogroms, culminating in the "Reichskristallnacht" of November 9, 1938. In World War II the boulevard suffered severe damages from air raids and the Battle of Berlin. Nevertheless after the war rebuilding started quickly and when Berlin was separated into East and West Berlin, the Kurfürstendamm became the leading commercial street of West Berlin in its Wirtschaftswunder days. It was therefore the site of protests and major demonstrations of the German student movement, while on April 11, 1968 spokesman Rudi Dutschke leaving the office of the Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund on Kurfürstendamm No. 140 was shot in the head. After German reunification the Kurfürstendamm rivaled with central places like Potsdamer Platz, Friedrichstraße or Alexanderplatz, which led to the closing of numerous cafés and cinemas. It retained the character of a flâneur and upscale shopping street as the western continuation of the Tauentzienstraße with its large department stores. External links Kurfürstendamm 360° Panorama kurfuerstendamm.de cityguide | Kurfürstendamm |@lemmatized kurfürstendamm:10 kaiser:2 wilhelm:2 memorial:2 church:2 europa:1 center:1 know:1 locally:1 ku:1 damm:2 one:1 famous:3 avenue:2 berlin:10 street:3 take:1 name:2 former:3 kurfürsten:1 elector:2 brandenburg:2 broad:1 long:3 boulevard:4 consider:1 champ:1 élysées:1 full:1 shop:3 house:1 hotel:2 restaurant:1 particular:1 important:1 designer:1 like:2 gucci:1 bvlgari:1 chanel:1 louis:1 vuitton:1 valentino:1 lacoste:1 tommy:1 hilfiger:1 cartier:1 hermès:1 swarovski:1 well:2 several:2 car:1 manufacturer:1 show:1 room:1 description:1 four:1 line:2 plane:1 tree:1 run:1 charlottenburg:3 wilmersdorf:3 borough:1 western:4 branch:1 breitscheidplatz:1 near:3 bahnhof:1 zoo:1 ruin:1 lead:4 southwestward:1 district:2 junction:2 joachimstaler:1 straße:1 pass:2 café:2 kranzler:1 successor:1 des:1 westens:1 venue:1 artist:1 bohémiens:1 pre:1 world:2 war:3 era:2 uhlandstraße:1 u:1 bahn:1 station:3 kempinski:1 theater:1 site:2 exhibition:1 hall:1 secession:1 art:1 association:1 adenauerplatz:1 reach:2 schaubühne:1 theatre:1 lehniner:1 platz:2 sober:1 upper:1 end:3 mark:1 halensee:2 railway:1 ringbahn:1 bundesautobahn:1 stadtring:1 rathenauplatz:1 roundabout:1 feature:1 disputed:1 beton:1 cadillacs:1 sculpture:1 wolf:1 vostell:1 historical:1 note:1 unlike:1 adjacent:1 streets:1 develop:1 historic:1 corduroy:1 road:1 lay:1 grunewald:3 hunt:1 lodge:1 erect:1 though:1 exact:1 date:1 building:2 unknown:1 unnamed:1 causeway:1 stadtschloss:1 swampy:1 area:2 settlement:1 lietzow:1 depict:1 map:1 churfürsten:1 first:2 mention:1 bridlepath:1 embellish:1 breadth:1 personal:1 initiative:1 chancellor:1 otto:1 von:2 bismarck:1 also:1 propose:1 mansion:1 colony:1 ernst:1 werner:1 siemens:1 present:1 elektromote:1 trolley:1 bus:1 concept:1 experimental:1 track:1 nearby:1 lunapark:1 open:1 europe:1 large:3 amusement:1 park:2 model:1 coney:1 island:1 boxer:1 max:1 schmeling:1 win:1 title:1 german:3 lightheavyweight:1 champion:1 period:1 decline:1 finally:1 close:1 part:1 today:1 cover:1 stadtautobahn:1 especially:1 golden:1 twenty:1 new:1 west:3 centre:1 leisure:1 nightlife:1 great:1 depression:1 nazi:1 machtergreifung:1 business:1 jewish:1 tradespeople:1 become:2 target:1 pogrom:1 culminate:1 reichskristallnacht:1 november:1 ii:1 suffer:1 severe:1 damage:1 air:1 raid:1 battle:1 nevertheless:1 rebuilding:1 start:1 quickly:1 separate:1 east:1 commercial:1 wirtschaftswunder:1 day:1 therefore:1 protest:1 major:1 demonstration:1 student:1 movement:1 april:1 spokesman:1 rudi:1 dutschke:1 leave:1 office:1 sozialistischer:1 deutscher:1 studentenbund:1 shoot:1 head:1 reunification:1 rival:1 central:1 place:1 potsdamer:1 friedrichstraße:1 alexanderplatz:1 closing:1 numerous:1 cafés:1 cinema:1 retain:1 character:1 flâneur:1 upscale:1 shopping:1 continuation:1 tauentzienstraße:1 department:1 store:1 external:1 link:1 panorama:1 kurfuerstendamm:1 de:1 cityguide:1 |@bigram kaiser_wilhelm:2 elector_brandenburg:1 champ_élysées:1 louis_vuitton:1 tommy_hilfiger:1 trolley_bus:1 amusement_park:1 coney_island:1 potsdamer_platz:1 external_link:1 |
6,714 | James_Stewart | James Maitland Stewart (May 20, 1908 – July 2, 1997), popularly known as Jimmy Stewart, was an American film and stage actor best known for his self-effacing persona. Over the course of his career, he starred in many films widely considered classics and was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning one in competition and one Lifetime Achievement award. He was a major MGM contract star. He also had a noted military career, rising to the rank of Brigadier General in the United States Air Force Reserve. Throughout his seven decades in Hollywood, Stewart cultivated a versatile career and recognized screen image in such classics as Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Philadelphia Story, Harvey, It's a Wonderful Life, Rear Window, Rope and Vertigo. He is the most represented leading actor on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) and AFI's 10 Top 10 lists. He is also the most represented leading actor on the 100 Greatest Movies of All Time list presented by Entertainment Weekly. As of 2007, 10 of his films have been inducted into the United States National Film Registry. Stewart left his mark on a wide range of film genres, including westerns, suspense thrillers, family films, biographies and screwball comedies. He worked for a number of renowned directors later in his career, most notably Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford, Billy Wilder, Frank Capra, George Cukor, and Anthony Mann. He won many of the industry's highest honors and earned Lifetime Achievement awards from every major film organization. He died in 1997, leaving behind a legacy of classic performances, and is considered one of the finest actors of the "Golden Age of Hollywood." He was named the third Greatest Male Star of All Time by the American Film Institute. Early life and career James Maitland Stewart was born on May 20, 1908 in Indiana, Pennsylvania, the son of Elizabeth Ruth (née Jackson) and Alexander Maitland Stewart, who owned a hardware store. James Stewart Biography (1908-). Stewart's parents were Scottish Presbyterian origin. Movies: Best Pictures. Jimmy Stewart. His Jackson ancestors served in the American Revolution, War of 1812 and the Civil War. Eliot 2006, p. 11. The eldest of three children (he had two younger sisters, Virginia and Mary), he was expected to continue his father's business, which had been in the family for three generations. His mother was an excellent pianist but his father discouraged Stewart's request for lessons. But when his father accepted a gift of an accordion from a guest, young Stewart quickly learned to play the instrument, which became a fixture off-stage during his acting career. As the family grew, music continued to be an important part of family life. Eliot 2006, p. 15. Stewart attended Mercersburg Academy prep school, graduating in 1928. At Mercersburg, Stewart was active in a variety of activities. He played on the football team and track team. He was art editor for the KARUX yearbook and member of the choir club, glee club, and John Marshall Literary Society. During his first summer break, Stewart returned to Indiana, Pennsylvania to work as a brick loader for a local construction company and on highway and road construction jobs where he painted lines on the roads. Over the following two summers, he took a job as an assistant with a professional magician. The Jimmy Stewart Museum. He also made his first appearance on the stage at Mercersburg, as Buquet in the play The Wolves. Eliot 2006, p. 31. A shy child, Stewart spent much of his after-school time in the basement working on model airplanes, mechanical drawing and chemistry — all with a dream of going into aviation. But he abandoned visions of being a pilot when his father insisted that instead of the United States Naval Academy he attend Princeton University. Stewart enrolled at Princeton in 1928 as a member of the Class of 1932. There, he excelled at studying architecture, so impressing his professors with his thesis on an airport design that he was awarded a scholarship for graduate studies, but he gradually became attracted to the school's drama and music clubs, including the famous Princeton Triangle Club. Princeton Triangle Club. He was a member of the Princeton Charter Club as well as a head cheerleader. In his spare time, he enjoyed going to the movies at the time when 'talkies' were just displacing silent films. His acting and accordion talents at Princeton led him to be invited to the University Players, an intercollegiate summer stock company in West Falmouth, a town on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. This company had been organized in 1928 and would run until 1932, with Joshua Logan, Bretaigne Windust, and Charles Leatherbee as the directors. Stewart performed in bit parts in the Players' productions in Cape Cod during the Summer of 1932 after he graduated. The troupe had previously included Henry Fonda, who married Margaret Sullavan on Christmas Day 1931 while the University Players were located in Baltimore, Maryland for an 18-week winter season. Eliot 2006, p. 43. Sullavan, who had rejoined the University Players in Baltimore in November 1931 at the close of the post-Broadway tour of A Modern Virgin, left the Players for good at the end of The Trial of Mary Dugan in Baltimore in March 1932. By the time Stewart joined the University Players on Cape Cod after his graduation from Princeton in 1932, Fonda and Sullavan's brief marriage had ended. Houghton 1951, pp. 300–310. Stewart and Fonda became great friends over the summer of 1932 when they shared an apartment with Joshua Logan and Myron McCormick. Fonda and Teishmann 1981, p. 74. When he came to New York at the end of the summer stock season, which had included the Broadway try-out of Goodbye Again, he shared an apartment with Henry Fonda, who had by then finalized his divorce from Sullavan. Along with fellow University Players Alfred Dalrymple and Myron McCormick, Stewart debuted on Broadway as a chauffeur in the comedy Goodbye Again, in which he had two lines. The New Yorker noted, "Mr. James Stewart's chauffeur... comes on for three minutes and walks off to a round of spontaneous applause." Eliot 2006, p. 57. The play was a moderate success, but times were hard. Many Broadway theaters had been converted to movie houses and the Depression was reaching bottom. "From 1932 through 1934," Stewart later recalled, "I'd only worked three months. Every play I got into folded." Eliot 2006, p. 58. By 1934, he got more substantial stage roles, including the hit, Page Miss Glory, and his first dramatic stage role in Sidney Howard's Yellow Jack, which convinced him to continue his acting career. However, Stewart and Fonda, still roommates, were both struggling. In the fall of 1934, Fonda's success in The Farmer Takes a Wife took him to Hollywood. Finally, Stewart attracted the interest of MGM scout Bill Grady who saw Stewart on the opening night of Divided by Three, a glittering première with many luminaries in attendance including Irving Berlin and Moss Hart and Fonda, who had returned to New York for the show. With Fonda's encouragement, Stewart agreed to take a screen test, after which he signed a contract with MGM in April 1935, as a contract player for up to seven years at $350 a week. Eliot 2006, p. 65. On his arrival by train to Los Angeles, Fonda greeted Stewart at the station and took him to Fonda's studio-supplied lodging, next door to Greta Garbo. His first job at the studio was as a participant in screen tests with newly-arrived starlets. At first, he had trouble being cast in Hollywood films owing to his gangling looks and shy, humble screen presence. His first film was the poorly received Spencer Tracy vehicle, The Murder Man (1935), but Rose Marie (1936), an adaptation of a popular operetta, was more successful. After mixed success in films, he received his first substantial part in 1936's After the Thin Man. On the romantic front, he found himself dating newly-divorced Ginger Rogers, whom he had revered while a student at Princeton only a few years earlier. Eliot 2006, p. 74. The romance soon cooled, however, and by chance Stewart encountered Margaret Sullavan again. Stewart found his footing in Hollywood thanks largely to Sullavan who campaigned for Stewart to be her leading man in the 1936 romantic comedy Next Time We Love. She rehearsed extensively with him, having a noticeable effect on his confidence. She encouraged Stewart to feel comfortable with his unique mannerisms and boyish charm and use them naturally as his own style. In the meantime, roommate Fonda continued to arrange parties with starlets, who found Stewart different from the other young actors and irresistible in his own way. Stewart was enjoying Hollywood life and had no regrets about giving up the stage, as he worked six days a week in the MGM factory. Eliot 2006, pp. 84, 87. In 1936, he acquired big-time agent Leland Hayward, who would eventually marry Margaret Sullavan. Hayward started to chart Stewart's career, deciding the best path for him was through loan-outs to other studios. Margaret Sullavan and James Stewart in The Shop Around the Corner (1940). Pre-war success In 1938, Stewart had a brief, tumultuous, and well-publicized romance with Hollywood queen Norma Shearer whose husband Irving Thalberg, head of production at MGM, had died two years earlier. Stewart began a successful partnership with director Frank Capra in 1938, when he was loaned out to Columbia Pictures to star in You Can't Take It With You. Frank Capra had been impressed by Stewart's minor role in Navy Blue and Gold (1937). The director had recently completed several popular movies including It Happened One Night (1934) and was looking for the right type of actor to suit his needs—which other recent actors in his films such as Clark Gable, Ronald Colman and Gary Cooper did not quite fit. Not only was Stewart just what he was looking for, but Capra also found Stewart understood that prototype intuitively and required very little directing. Later Capra commented, "I think he's probably the best actor who's ever hit the screen." Eliot 2006, p. 105. This heart-warming Depression-era film (You Can't Take It With You), starring Capra's "favorite actress", comedienne Jean Arthur, won the 1938 Best Picture Academy Award. The following year saw Stewart work with Capra and Arthur again for the political comedy-drama Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. Stewart replaced intended star Gary Cooper in the film featuring an idealistic man who is thrown into the political arena. Upon the film's October 1939 release, it garnered critical praise and became a box office success. For his performance, Stewart was nominated for the first of five Academy Awards for Best Actor. Even after this great success, Stewart's parents were still trying to talk him into leaving Hollywood and its sinful ways and to return to his home town to lead a decent life. Instead, he took a secret trip to Europe to take a break and returned home just as Germany invaded Poland. Destry Rides Again, also released in 1939, became Stewart's first western film, a genre with which he would become identified later in his career. In this Western parody, Stewart is a pacifist lawman and Marlene Dietrich is the saloon dancing girl who comes to love him, but doesn't get him. In it she sings her famous song "The Boys In the Back Room". Off-screen, Dietrich did get her man, but the romance was short-lived. Eliot 2006, p. 139. Made for Each Other (1939) had Stewart sharing the screen with irrepressible Carole Lombard in a melodrama that garnered good reviews for both stars, but did less well with the public. Newsweek wrote that they were "perfectly cast in the leading roles." Jones, McClure and Twoomey 1970, p. 67. Between movies, Stewart began a radio career and became a distinctive voice on the "Lux Radio Theater," "The Screen Guild Theater" and other radio shows. So well-known had his slow drawl become that comedians started to impersonate him, a form of flattery which continued for most of his life. Eliot 2006, p. 112. from the film The Philadelphia Story (1940) In 1940, Stewart and Margaret Sullavan reunited for two films. The first, the Ernst Lubitsch romantic comedy, The Shop Around the Corner, starred Stewart and Sullavan as co-workers unknowingly involved in a pen-pal romance who cannot stand each other in real life (this was later remade into the romantic comedy You've Got Mail with Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan). It was Stewart's fifth film of the year and that rare film shot in the story's sequence; it was completed in only 27 days. Eliot 2006, p. 144. The Mortal Storm, directed by Frank Borzage, was one of the first blatantly anti-Nazi films to be produced in Hollywood and featured the pair as a husband and wife caught in turmoil upon Hitler's rise to power. Stewart also starred with Katharine Hepburn and Cary Grant in George Cukor's classic The Philadelphia Story (1940). His performance as an intrusive, fast-talking reporter earned him his only Academy Award in a competitive category (Best Actor, 1941) and he beat out his good friend Henry Fonda (The Grapes of Wrath). Stewart thought his performance "entertaining and slick and smooth" but lacking the "guts" of "Mr. Smith." Eliot 2006, p. 167. Stewart gave the Oscar statuette to his father, who displayed it for many years in a case inside the front door of his hardware store, alongside other family awards and military medals. During the months before he began military service, Stewart appeared in a series of screwball comedies with varying levels of success. He followed the mediocre No Time for Comedy (1940) and Come Live with Me (1941) with the Judy Garland musical Ziegfeld Girl and the George Marshall romantic comedy Pot o' Gold. Stewart was drafted in late 1940 and it coincided with the lapse in his MGM contract, marking a turning point in Stewart's career, with 28 movies to his credit at that point. Eliot 2006, p. 168. Military service The Stewart family had deep military roots as both grandfathers had fought in the Civil War, and his father had served during both the Spanish-American War and World War I. Since Stewart considered his father to be the biggest influence on his life, it was not surprising that when another war eventually came, he too served. Unlike his family's previous infantry service, Stewart chose to become a military flyer. Smith 2005, pp. 25–26. An early interest in flying led Stewart to gain his Private Pilot License in 1935 and Commercial Pilot Certificate in 1938. He often flew cross-country to visit his parents in Pennsylvania, navigating by the railroad tracks. Nearly two years before the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, Stewart had accumulated over 400 hours of flying time. National Museum of the United States Air Force. Considered a highly proficient pilot, he even entered a cross-country race as a co-pilot in 1939. Smith 2005, p. 26. Along with musician/composer Hoagy Carmichael, seeing the need for trained war pilots, Stewart joined with other Hollywood celebrities to invest in Thunderbird Field, a pilot training school built and operated by Southwest Airways in Glendale, Arizona. This airfield became part of the United States Army Air Forces training establishment and trained more than 10,000 pilots during WWII, and is now the home of Thunderbird School of Global Management. Thunderbird Field. Later in 1940, Stewart was drafted into the United States Army but was rejected for failing to meet height and weight requirements for new recruits - Stewart was five pounds under the standard. To get up to 148 pounds he sought out the help of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's muscle man, Don Loomis, who was noted for his ability to add or subtract pounds in his studio gymnasium. Stewart subsequently attempted to enlist in the Army Air Corps, but still came in under the weight requirement, although he persuaded the AAC enlistment officer to run new tests, this time passing the weigh-in, Smith 2005, p. 30. Note: Stewart later confided that he had a 'friend' operating the weight scales. with the result that Stewart successfully enlisted in the Army in March 1941. He became the first major American movie star to wear a military uniform in World War II. Stewart enlisted as a private and began pilot training in the USAAC. During this time the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, bringing the US into direct involvement in the war. Stewart continued his military training and earned a commission as a second lieutenant in January, 1942. He was posted to Moffett Field and then Mather Field as an instructor pilot in single- and twin-engine aircraft. jcs-group.com/military Something About Everything Military. Brigadier General James Stewart. Retrieved September 7, 2008. Public appearances by Stewart were limited engagements scheduled by the Army Air Forces. "Stewart appeared several times on network radio with Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, he performed with Orson Welles, Edward G. Robinson, Walter Huston and Lionel Barrymore in an all-network radio program called We Hold These Truths, dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the Bill of Rights." Smith 2005, pp. 31–32. In early 1942, Stewart was asked to appear in a propaganda film to help recruit the anticipated 100,000 airmen the USAAF would need to win the war. The USAAF's First Motion Picture Unit shot scenes of Lieutenant Stewart in his pilot's flight suit and recorded his voice for narration. The short film, Winning Your Wings, appeared nationwide beginning in late May and was very successful, resulting in 150,000 new recruits. Los Angeles Times. Entertainment section. Patricia Ward Biederman. October 30, 2002. Winning the war, one frame at a time. Retrieved September 7, 2008. Stewart was concerned that his expertise and celebrity status would relegate him to instructor duties "behind the lines." Smith 2005, p. 31. His fears were confirmed when he was stationed for six months at Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, New Mexico to train bombardiers. He was transferred to Hobbs AAF to become an instructor pilot for the four-engined B-17 Flying Fortress. He trained B-17 pilots for nine months at Gowen Field. "Still, the war was moving on. For the 36-year-old Stewart, combat duty seemed far away and unreachable and he had no clear plans for the future. But then a rumor that Stewart would be taken off flying status and assigned to making training films or selling bonds called for his immediate and decisive action, because what he dreaded most was the hope-shattering spectre of a dead end." Smith 2005, pp. 49–50. Stewart appealed to his commander, a pre-war aviator, who understood the situation and reassigned him to a unit going overseas. Col. Stewart being awarded the Croix de guerre with palm by Lt. Gen. Henri Valin, Chief of Staff of the French Air Force, for his role in the liberation of France. USAF photo. In August 1943 he was finally assigned to the 445th Bombardment Group at Sioux City AAB, Iowa, first as Operations Officer of the 703rd Bombardment Squadron and then as its commander, at the rank of Captain. In December, the 445th Bombardment Group flew its B-24 Liberator bombers to RAF Tibenham, England and immediately began combat operations. While flying missions over Germany, Stewart was promoted to Major. In March 1944, he was transferred as group operations officer to the 453rd Bombardment Group, a new B-24 unit that had been experiencing difficulties. As a means to inspire his new group, Stewart flew as command pilot in the lead B-24 on numerous missions deep into Nazi-occupied Europe. These missions went uncounted at Stewart's orders. His "official" total is listed as 20 and is limited to those with the 445th. In 1944, he twice received the Distinguished Flying Cross for actions in combat and was awarded the Croix de Guerre. He also received the Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters. In July 1944, after flying 20 combat missions, Stewart was made Chief of Staff of the 2nd Combat Bombardment Wing of the Eighth Air Force. Before the war ended, he was promoted to colonel, one of very few Americans to rise from private to colonel in four years. At the beginning of June 1945, Stewart was the presiding officer of the court-martial of a pilot and navigator who were charged with dereliction of duty when they accidentally bombed the Swiss city of Zurich the previous March – the first instance of U.S. personnel being tried over an attack on a neutral country. The Court acquitted the accused. Maxwell Air Force Base. Stewart continued to play an active role in the United States Air Force Reserve after the war, achieving the rank of Brigadier General on July 23, 1959. FBI Award. Stewart did not often talk of his wartime service, perhaps due to his desire to be seen as a regular soldier doing his duty instead of as a celebrity. He did appear on the TV series, The World At War to discuss the October 14, 1943, bombing mission to Schweinfurt, which was the center of the German ball bearing manufacturing industry. This mission is known in USAF history as Black Thursday due to the high casualties it sustained; in total, 60 aircraft were lost out of 291 dispatched, as the raid consisting entirely of B-17s was unescorted all the way to Schweinfurt and back due to the contemporary escort aircraft available lacking the range. Fittingly, he was identified only as "James Stewart, Squadron Commander" in the documentary. He served as Air Force Reserve commander of Dobbins Air Reserve Base in the early 1950s. In 1966, Brigadier General James Stewart flew as a non-duty observer in a B-52 on a bombing mission during the Vietnam conflict. At the time of his B-52 flight, he refused the release of any publicity regarding his participation as he did not want it treated as a stunt, but as part of his job as an officer in the Air Force Reserve. After 27 years of service, Stewart retired from the Air Force on May 31, 1968. Together We Served. Post-war success Stewart, Donna Reed and Karolyn Grimes in It's a Wonderful Life (1946). After the war, Stewart took time off to reassess his career and spent much time with friend Fonda. Eliot 2006, p. 196. He was an early investor in Southwest Airways, founded by Leland Hayward, and he considered going into the aviation industry if his re-started film career didn't pan out. Eliot 2006, p. 199. Upon Stewart's return to Hollywood in Fall 1945, he decided not to renew his MGM contract. He signed with an MCA talent agency. His former agent Leland Hayward got out of the talent business in 1944 after selling his A-list of stars, including Stewart, to MCA. Eliot 2006, p. 197. The move made Stewart one of the first independently contracted actors, and gave him more freedom to choose the roles he wished to play. For the remainder of his career, Stewart was able to work without limits to director and studio availability. For his first film in five years, Stewart appeared in his third and final Frank Capra production, It's a Wonderful Life. Cox 2005, p. 6. Note: Although Stewart was always Capra's first choice, in an interview later in life, he conceded that "Henry Fonda was in the running." Capra paid RKO for the rights to the story and formed his own production company, Liberty Films. The female lead went to Donna Reed, after Capra's perennial first choice, Jean Arthur was unavailable, and after turndowns from Ginger Rogers, Olivia de Havilland, Ann Dvorak and Martha Scott. Eliot 2006, p. 203. Stewart appeared as George Bailey, a small-town man and upstanding citizen, who becomes increasingly frustrated by his ordinary existence and financial troubles. Driven to suicide on Christmas Eve, he is led to reassess his life by Clarence Odbody AS2, Cox 2005, p. 70. an "angel, second class," played by Henry Travers. After viewing It's a Wonderful Life, President Harry S. Truman concluded, "If Bess and I had a son, we'd want him to be just like Jimmy Stewart." James Stewart, the Hesitant Hero, Dies at 89. Although the film was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Stewart's third Best Actor nomination, it received mixed reviews and only moderate success at the box office, possibly due to its dark nature. Eliot 2006, p. 209. However, in the decades since the film's release, it grew to define Stewart's film persona and is widely considered as a sentimental Christmas film classic and, according to the American Film Institute, one of the best movies ever made. In the aftermath of the film, Capra's production company went into bankruptcy, while Stewart started to have doubts about his ability to act after his military hiatus. Eliot 2006, p. 211. His father kept insisting he come home and marry a local girl. Meanwhile in Hollywood, his generation of actors were fading and a new wave of actors would soon remake the town, including Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, and James Dean. Eliot 2006, pp. 208, 211. from the film Harvey (1950) After a poorly received Magic Town (1947) and the completion of the shooting of Rope, Stewart decided to return to the stage for the Mary Chase-penned comedy, Harvey, which had opened to nearly universal praise in November 1944. Eliot 2006, p. 214. Elwood P. Dowd, the protagonist and Stewart's character, is a wealthy eccentric living with his sister and his niece, and whose best friend is an invisible rabbit as large as a man. His eccentricity, especially the friendship with the rabbit, is ruining the niece's hopes of finding a husband. While trying to have Dowd committed to a sanatorium, his sister is committed herself while the play follows Dowd on an ordinary day in his not-so-ordinary life. Stewart took over the role from Frank Fay and gained an increased Broadway following in the unconventional play. The play, which ran for nearly three years with Stewart as its star, was successfully adapted into a 1950 film, directed by Henry Koster, with Stewart playing Dowd and Josephine Hull as his sister, Veta. Bing Crosby was the first choice for the movie but he declined. Eliot 2006, pp. 208, 213. For his performance in the film, Stewart received his fourth Best Actor nomination. After Harvey, the comedic adventure film Malaya with Spencer Tracy and the conventional but highly successful biographical film The Stratton Story in 1949, his first pairing with "on-screen wife" June Allyson, his career took another turn. Eliot 2006, p. 237. During the 1950s, he expanded into the western and suspense genres, thanks largely to collaborations with directors Anthony Mann and Alfred Hitchcock. Other notable performances by Stewart during this time include the critically acclaimed 1950 Delmer Daves western Broken Arrow, which featured Stewart as an ex-soldier and Indian agent making peace with the Apache; a troubled clown in the 1952 Best Picture The Greatest Show on Earth; and Stewart's role as Charles Lindbergh in Billy Wilder's 1957 film The Spirit of St. Louis. He also starred in the Western radio show The Six Shooter for its one season run from 1953-1954. Collaborations with Hitchcock and Mann James Stewart in the 1950 film Winchester '73 James Stewart's collaborations with director Anthony Mann increased Stewart's popularity and sent his career into the realm of the western. Stewart's first appearance in a film directed by Mann came with the 1950 western, Winchester '73. In choosing Mann (after first choice Fritz Lang declined), Stewart cemented a powerful partnership. Eliot 2006, p. 248. The film, which became a massive box office hit upon its release, set the pattern for their future collaborations. In it, Stewart is a tough, revengeful sharpshooter, the winner of a prized rifle which is stolen and then passes through many hands, until the showdown between Stewart and his brother (Stephen McNally). Other Stewart-Mann westerns, such as Bend of the River (1952), The Naked Spur (1953), The Far Country (1954) and The Man from Laramie (1955) were perennial favorites among young audiences entranced by the American West. Frequently, the films featured Stewart as a troubled cowboy seeking redemption, while facing corrupt cattlemen, ranchers and outlaws—a man who knows violence first hand and struggles to control it. Their collaborations laid the foundation for many of the westerns of the 1950s and remain popular today for their grittier, more realistic depiction of the classic movie genre. Audiences saw Stewart’s screen persona evolve into a more mature, more ambiguous, and edgier presence. Eliot 2006, p. 251. Stewart and Mann also collaborated on other films outside the western genre. 1953's The Glenn Miller Story was critically acclaimed, garnering Stewart a BAFTA Award nomination, and (together with The Spirit of St. Louis) cemented the popularity of Stewart's portrayals of 'American heroes'. Thunder Bay, released the same year, transplanted the plot arch of their western collaborations in the present day, with Stewart as a Louisiana oil-driller facing corruption. Strategic Air Command, released in 1955, allowed Stewart to use his experiences in the United States Air Force on film. Stewart in Rope (1948) Stewart's starring role in Winchester '73 was also a turning point in Hollywood. Universal Studios, who wanted Stewart to appear in both that film and Harvey, balked at his $200,000 asking price. Stewart's agent, Lew Wasserman, brokered an alternate deal, in which Stewart would appear in both films for no pay, in exchange for a percentage of the profits and cast and director approval. Eliot 2006, p. 245. It wasn't the first such deal at Universal; Abbott and Costello also had a profit participation contract, but they were no longer top-flight moneymakers by 1950. Stewart ended up earning about $600,000 for Winchester '73 alone. Hollywood's other stars quickly capitalized on this new way of doing business, which further undermined the decaying "studio system." Eliot 2006, p. 254. The second collaboration to define Stewart's career in the 1950s was with acclaimed mystery and suspense director Alfred Hitchcock. Like Mann, Hitchcock uncovered new depths to Stewart's acting, showing a protagonist confronting his fears and his repressed desires. Stewart's first movie with Hitchcock was the technologically innovative 1948 film Rope, shot in long "real time" takes. Eliot 2006, p. 220. The two collaborated for the second of four times on the 1954 hit Rear Window, one of Hitchcock's masterpieces. Stewart portrays photographer L.B. "Jeff" Jeffries, loosely based on Life photographer Robert Capa, who projects his fantasies and fears onto the people he observes out his apartment window while on hiatus due to a broken leg. Jeffries gets into more than he can handle, however, when he believes he has witnessed a salesman (Raymond Burr) commit a murder, and when his glamorous girlfriend (Grace Kelly), at first disdainful of his voyeurism and skeptical about any crime, eventually is drawn in and tries to help solve the mystery. Limited by his wheelchair, Stewart is masterfully led by Hitchcock to react to what his character sees with mostly facial responses. It was a landmark year for Stewart, becoming the highest grossing actor of 1954 and the most popular Hollywood star in the world, displacing John Wayne. Eliot 2006, p. 278. James Stewart in Vertigo (1958) After starring in Hitchcock's remake of the director's earlier production, The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), with co-star Doris Day, Stewart starred in what many consider Hitchcock's most personal film, Vertigo (1958). Eliot 2006, p. 310. The movie starred Stewart as "Scottie", a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman he is shadowing. Scottie's obsession inevitably leads to the destruction of everything he once had and believed in. Though the film is widely considered a classic today, and the pairing with Kim Novak, one of the screen's most perfect, Vertigo met with negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and marked the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. Eliot 2006, p. 321. Stewart was also disappointed. Eliot 2006, p. 322. The director blamed the film's failure on Stewart looking too old to still attract audiences, and cast Cary Grant as Roger Thornhill in North by Northwest (1959), a role Stewart had very much wanted (Grant was actually four years older than Stewart). Career in the 1960s and 1970s In 1960, James Stewart was awarded the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and received his fifth and final Academy Award for Best Actor nomination, for his role in the 1959 Otto Preminger film Anatomy of a Murder. The early courtroom drama starred Stewart as Paul Biegler, the lawyer of a hot-tempered soldier Ben Gazzara who claims temporary insanity after murdering a tavern owner who raped his wife (played by Lee Remick). The film featured a career-making performance by George C. Scott as the prosecutor. The film was sexually frank for its time (some thought it sordid), and its provocative promotional campaign helped gain it box office success, though Ben-Hur outgrossed all movies by a huge margin and swept the Academy Awards that year. Eliot 2006, p. 332. Stewart's nomination was one of seven for the film (Charlton Heston was the winner), and saw his transition into the final decades of his career. On January 1, 1960 Stewart received the devastating news that Margaret Sullavan had committed suicide, most likely over despondency from her loss of hearing and its impact on her stage career. Eliot 2006, p. 337. As a friend, mentor, and focus of his early romantic urges, she had a unique impact on Stewart's life. Stewart in How the West Was Won (1962) In the early 1960s Stewart took leading roles in three John Ford films, his first work with the acclaimed director. The first, Two Rode Together, paired him with Richard Widmark in a Western with thematic echoes of Ford's The Searchers. The next, 1962's The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (with John Wayne), is a classic "psychological" western, with Stewart featured as an Eastern attorney who goes against his non-violent principles when he is forced to confront a psychopathic outlaw (played by Lee Marvin) in a small frontier town. At story's end, Stewart's character — now a rising political figure — faces a difficult ethical choice as he attempts to reconcile his actions with his personal integrity. The film's billing is unusual in that Stewart was given top billing over Wayne in the trailers and on the posters but Wayne had top billing in the film itself, a system later repeated by Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman in All the President's Men. The film garnered so-so reviews and fared poorly at the box office, but is now considered a late Ford classic. How the West Was Won (which Ford co-directed, though without directing Stewart's scenes) and Cheyenne Autumn were western epics released in 1962 and 1964 respectively. While the Cinerama production How the West Was Won went on to win three Oscars and reaped massive box office figures, Cheyenne Autumn, in which a white-suited Stewart played Wyatt Earp in a long sequence in the middle of the movie, failed domestically and was quickly forgotten. It was Ford's final Western and Stewart's last feature film with Ford. Having played his last romantic lead in 1958's Bell, Book and Candle, and silver-haired (although not all was his – he had begun wearing a hairpiece in the early 1950s), Stewart transitioned into more family-related films in the 1960s when he signed a multi-movie deal with 20th Century Fox. These included the successful Henry Koster outing Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation (1962), and the less memorable films Take Her, She's Mine (1963) and Dear Brigitte (1965), which featured French model Brigitte Bardot as the object of Stewart's son's mash notes. The Civil War period film Shenandoah (1965) and the western family film The Rare Breed fared better at the box office; the Civil War movie was a smash hit in the South. As an aviator, Stewart was particularly interested in aviation films and had pushed to appear in several in the 1950s; most notably Strategic Air Command and The Spirit of St. Louis. He continued in this vein in the 1960s, most notably in a role as a hard-bitten pilot in Flight of the Phoenix (1965). Subbing for Stewart, famed stunt pilot and air racer Paul Mantz was killed when he crashed the "Tallmantz Phoenix P-1", the specially-made, single-engine movie model, in an abortive "touch-and-go". Stewart also narrated the film X-15 in 1961. X-15 (film) Full credits. After a progression of lesser western films in the late '60s and early '70s, James Stewart transitioned from cinema to television. In the 1950s he had made guest appearances on the Jack Benny Program (Benny was his real life neighbor and good friend). Stewart first starred in the NBC comedy The Jimmy Stewart Show, on which he played a college professor. He followed it with the CBS mystery Hawkins, in which he played a small town lawyer investigating his cases. The series garnered Stewart a Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Dramatic TV Series, but failed to gain a wide audience and was cancelled after one season. (Andy Griffith fared much better later in Matlock, based on a similar formula.) During this time, Stewart periodically appeared on Johnny Carson's The Tonight Show, sharing poems he had written at different times in his life. His poems were later compiled into a short collection titled Jimmy Stewart and His Poems (1989). Stewart returned to films after an absence of five years with a major role in John Wayne's final film, The Shootist (1976) where Stewart played a doctor giving Wayne's gunfighter a terminal cancer diagnosis. At one point, both Wayne and Stewart were flubbing their lines repeatedly and Stewart turned to director Don Siegel and said, "You'd better get two better actors." Stewart also appeared in supporting roles in Airport '77, the 1978 remake of The Big Sleep with Robert Mitchum and The Magic of Lassie (1978). The latter film received poor reviews and flopped at the box office. Some critics expressed their dismay at seeing the 70-year-old veteran singing as the grandfather. Stewart responded it was the only script he had been offered without any sex, profanity and graphic violence. Later career and death Stewart was presented an Academy Honorary Award in 1985, "for his fifty years of memorable performances, for his high ideals both on and off the screen, with respect and affection of his colleagues." Stewart's best friend Henry Fonda died in 1982 and his long-time friend Grace Kelly, his favorite female co-star, died shortly afterwards. A few months later, Stewart starred with Bette Davis in Right of Way, which had the distinction of being the first made-for-cable movie. Stewart filmed several television movies in the 1980s, including Mr. Krueger's Christmas (which allowed him to fulfill a lifelong dream, to conduct the Mormon Tabernacle Choir), Deseret News, 26 January 2009, "Utah-Hollywood connection runs deep", p. B2. after which he retired from acting to spend more time with his family, although he continued to receive offers to play "grandfather" roles. He made frequent visits to the Reagan White House and traveled on the lecture circuit. The re-release of his Hitchcock films gained Stewart renewed recognition. Rear Window and Vertigo were particularly praised by film critics, which helped bring these films to the attention of younger movie-goers. Stewart became a real life "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington" in 1988, when he made an impassioned plea in Congressional hearings, along with colleagues Burt Lancaster and Katharine Hepburn and film director Martin Scorsese, against Ted Turner's decision to 'colorize' classic black and white films, including It's a Wonderful Life. Stewart stated, "the coloring of black-and-white films is wrong. It's morally and artistically wrong and these profiteers should leave our film industry alone". Eliot 2006, p. 405. One of Hollywood's most shrewd businessmen, Stewart had diversified investments including real estate, oil wells, a charter-plane company and membership on major corporate boards. He became a multimillionaire. In the 1980s and 1990s, he did voiceovers for commercials for Campbell's Soups. In 1989, Stewart joined Peter F. Paul in founding the American Spirit Foundation to apply entertainment industry resources to developing innovative approaches to public education and to assist the emerging democracy movements in the former Iron Curtain countries. Paul arranged for Stewart, through the offices of President Boris Yeltsin, to send a special print of It's a Wonderful Life, translated by Lomonosov Moscow State University, to Russia as the first American program ever to be broadcast on Russian television. On January 5, 1992, coinciding with the first day of the existence of the democratic Commonwealth of Independent States and Russia, and the first free Russian Orthodox Christmas Day, Russian TV Channel 2 broadcast It's a Wonderful Life to 200 million Russians who celebrated an American holiday tradition with the American people for the first time in Russian history. In association with politicians and celebrities such as President Ronald Reagan, Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren Burger, California Governor George Deukmejian, Bob Hope and Charlton Heston, Stewart worked from 1987 to 1993 on projects that enhanced the public appreciation and understanding of the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1991, James Stewart voiced the character of Sheriff Wylie Burp in the movie An American Tail: Fievel Goes West, which was his final role in a film before his death. Shortly before his 80th birthday, he was asked how he wanted to be remembered. "As someone who 'believed in hard work and love of country, love of family and love of community.'" OBITUARY: "James Stewart, the Hesitant Hero, Dies at 89". - New York Times. - July 3, 1997. Stewart died at the age of 89 on July 2, 1997, at his home in Beverly Hills, of cardiac arrest and a pulmonary embolism following a long illness from respiratory problems. He had also suffered from Alzheimer's disease. His death came one day after fellow screen legend and The Big Sleep co-star Robert Mitchum had died of lung cancer and emphysema. Stewart is interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. "America lost a national treasure today," President Bill Clinton said on the day Stewart died. "Jimmy Stewart was a great actor, a gentleman and a patriot." Personal life Jimmy Stewart marries Gloria McLean, 1949 James Stewart was almost universally described by his collaborators as a kind, soft-spoken man and a true professional. Eliot 2006, pp. 164–168. Joan Crawford, Stewart's co-star in the early period, praised him as an "endearing perfectionist" with "a droll sense of humor and a shy way of watching you to see if you react to that humor." When Henry Fonda moved to Hollywood in 1934, he was again a roommate with Stewart in an apartment in Brentwood Fonda and Teichmann 1981, p. 106. and the two gained a reputation as playboys. Fonda and Teichmann 1981, pp. 107–108. Once married, both men's children noted that their favorite activity when not working seemed to be quietly sharing time together while building and painting model airplanes, a hobby they had taken up in New York, years earlier. Fonda and Teichmann 1981, p. 97. After World War II, Stewart settled down, at age 41, marrying former model Gloria Hatrick McLean (1918-1994) on August 9, 1949. As Stewart loved to recount in self-mockery, "I, I, I pitched the big question to her last night and to my surprise she, she, she said yes!". Eliot 2006, p. 239. Stewart adopted her two sons, Michael and Ronald, and with Gloria he had twin daughters, Judy and Kelly, on May 7, 1951. Jimmy and Gloria remained married until her death from lung cancer on February 16, 1994. Ronald McLean was killed in action on June 8, 1969, at the age of 24, while serving as a Marine Corps Lieutenant in Vietnam. "Stewart's Wife Dies". - New York Times. - February 18, 1994. Casualty Record for Ronald Walsh McLean. Dr. Kelly Stewart is an anthropologist at the University of California, Davis. Faculty, UC Davis Department of Anthropology. A plaque in honor of James Stewart's spirit of humanitarianism in Griffith Park, Los Angeles, California. While visiting India in 1959, Stewart reportedly smuggled the remains of a supposed yeti, the so-called Pangboche Hand, by hiding them in his luggage (specifically, in his wife's underwear) when he flew from India to London, as a favor to Tom Slick. Milestones — Jimmy Stewart. James Stewart was active in philanthropic affairs over the years. His signature charity event, "The Jimmy Stewart Relay Marathon Race", held each year since 1982, has raised millions of dollars for the Child and Family Development Center at St. John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California. Stewart was a lifelong supporter of Scouting. He was a Second Class Scout when he was a youth, an adult Scout leader, and a recipient of the prestigious Silver Buffalo Award from the Boy Scouts of America (BSA). In later years, he made advertisements for BSA, which led to him sometimes incorrectly being identified as an Eagle Scout. Lawson, Terry C. Erroneous Eagle Scouts Letter. Eagle Scout Service, National Eagle Scout Association, Boy Scouts of America, 2005. Access date: June 9, 2005. (Jefferson Smith in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, was also the leader of the "Boy Rangers", a fictional organization patterned after cub scouts.) An award for Boy Scouts, "The James M. Stewart Good Citizenship Award" has been presented since May 17, 2003. James M. Stewart Good Citizenship Award. One of Stewart's lesser-known talents was his homespun poetry. He once read a poem that he had written about his dog, entitled "Beau," while on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. By the end of this reading, Carson's eyes were welling with tears. McMahon, Ed. - "Ed McMahon says farewell to Johnny Carson" - MSNBC - September 12, 2006. - p. 3. This was later parodied on a late 1980s episode of the NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live, with Dana Carvey as Stewart reciting the poem on Weekend Update and bringing anchor Dennis Miller to tears. In addition to poetry, Stewart would talk during Tonight Show appearances about his avid gardening. Stewart purchased the house next door to his own home at 918 North Roxbury Drive, razed the house, and installed his garden in the lot. Politics Politically, Stewart was a staunch supporter of the Republican Party Political Donations. and actively campaigned for Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan. He was a strong supporter of the anti-communist movement and reportedly served as a federal spy under J. Edgar Hoover. . One of his best friends was Henry Fonda, despite the fact that the two men had very different political ideologies. A political argument in 1947 resulted in a fist fight between them, but the two apparently maintained their friendship by never discussing politics again. Robbins 1985, p. 99. This tale may be apocryphal as Jhan Robbins quotes Stewart as saying: "Our views never interfered with our feelings for each other, We just didn't talk about certain things. I can't remember ever having an argument with him – ever!" There is brief reference to their political differences in character in their movie The Cheyenne Social Club. . However, in the last years of his life, his political views may have taken a less hard-line stance, as he supported Bob Dole -- a moderate Republican—in 1996 and supported Florida governor Bob Graham in his successful run for the Senate. Political Donations. Filmography From the beginning of James Stewart's career in 1935 through his final theatrical project in 1991, he appeared in 92 films, television programs and shorts. Through the course of this illustrious career, he appeared in many landmark and critically acclaimed films, including such classics as Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Rear Window, The Spirit of St. Louis and Vertigo. His roles in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Philadelphia Story, It's a Wonderful Life, Harvey, and Anatomy of a Murder earned him Academy Award nominations (he won for Philadelphia Story). Stewart's career defied the boundaries of genre and trend, and he made his mark in screwball comedies, suspense thrillers, westerns, biographies and family films. Broadway stage performances Carry Nation (October 1932–November 1932) Goodbye Again (December 1932–July 1933) Spring in Autumn (October 1933–November 1933) All Good Americans (December 1933–January 1934) Yellow Jack (May 1934) Divided By Three (October 1934) Page Miss Glory (November 1934–March 1935) A Journey By Night (April 1935) Harvey (July–August 1947; July–August 1948, replacing vacationing Frank Fay) Harvey (revival, February 1970–May 1970) James Stewart's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was once stolen but was subsequently replaced. Honors and tributes James Stewart was presented various kinds of film industry awards, military and civilian medals, honorary degrees, memorials and tributes over the years for his contribution to performing arts, humanitarianism, and military service. Quote See also List of film collaborations References Notes Bibliography Beaver, Jim. "James Stewart." Films in Review, October 1980. Brig. Gen. James M. Stewart. "National Museum of the United States Air Force Fact Sheet." National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved: February 18, 2007. Coe, Jonathan. James Stewart: Leading Man. London: Bloomsbury, 1994. ISBN 0-7475-1574-3. Collins, Thomas W. Jr. "Stewart, James." American National Biography Online. Stewart, James, Access date: February 18, 2007. Cox, Stephen. It's a Wonderful Life: A Memory Book. Nashville, Tennessee: Cumberland House, 2003. ISBN 1-58182-337-1. Eliot, Mark. Jimmy Stewart: A Biography. New York: Random House, 2006. ISBN 1-4000-5221-1.The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page. The Jimmy Stewart Museum Home Page, Access date: February 18, 2007. Fonda, Henry as told to Howard Teichmann. Fonda: My Life. New York: A Signet Book, New American Library, 1981. ISBN 0-451-11858-8. Houghton, Norris. But Not Forgotten: The Adventure of the University Players. New York: William Sloane Associates, 1951. Jones, Ken D., Arthur F. McClure and Alfred E. Twomey. The Films of James Stewart. New York: Castle Books, 1970. McGowan, Helene. James Stewart. London: Bison Group, 1992, ISBN 0-86124-925-9. Pickard, Roy. Jimmy Stewart: A Life in Film. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. ISBN 0-312-08828-0. Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, 4th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55862-450-3. Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds. "Stewart, James". St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5th edition. London: St. James Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55862-529-1. Robbins, Jhan. Everybody's Man: A Biography of Jimmy Stewart. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1985. ISBN 0-399-12973-1. Smith, Starr. Jimmy Stewart: Bomber Pilot. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7603-2199-X. Thomas, Tony. A Wonderful Life: The Films and Career of James Stewart. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8065-1081-1. Wright, Stuart J. An Emotional Gauntlet: From Life in Peacetime America to the War in European Skies- A History of 453rd Bomb Group Crews. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004. ISBN 0-29920-520-7. External links Feaster, Felicia. James Stewart Profile Turner Classic Movies Kronenberg, Harold. Flying with Jimmy Stewart Obituary: "James Stewart, the Hesitant Hero, Dies at 89" - New York Times (July 3, 1997) Obituary: "Hollywood legend Jimmy Stewart dead at 89" - CNN - (July 2, 1997) News: "Princeton to Honor Famed Alumnus Jimmy Stewart '32 With Tribute and Theater Dedication" - Princeton University - (1997) Retrieved on 2008-07-17 Centennial Tribute to James Stewart The Jimmy Stewart Museum Jimmy Stewart fansite Brig. Gen. James M. Stewart - National Museum of the United States Air Force Kennedy Center Honors: James Stewart Jimmy Stewart - Presidential Medal of Freedom Movie stills and captions - Arabella & Company James Stewart - MovieActors.com Jimmy Stewart - ClassicMovies Entertainment Weekly's 100 Greatest Movies of All Time - Entertainment Weekly Jimmy Stewart Remembers "It's a Wonderful Life" Interview at the National Film Theatre in 1972 - British Film Institute James Stewart - Alfred Hitchcock Wiki Images: Stewart Pictures - Telecommunication & Film Department, University of Alabama Images: "Col. James M. 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6,715 | Isle_of_Man | The Isle of Man (; , Ellan is Manx for "island"; Vannin is the genitive case of Mannin, and means "of Man(n)". ), or Mann (, ), is a self-governing Crown dependency, located in the Irish Sea at the geographical centre of the British Isles. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann. The Crown is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. The island is not part of the United Kingdom but foreign relations, defence, and ultimate good-governance of the Isle of Man are the responsibility of the government of the United Kingdom. Inhabited for millennia, the island gradually became a Celtic-Norse community as the Norse settled there, starting about AD 850. This has left a legacy ranging from the Tynwald parliament to many local place names. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of England and Scotland, the Manx came under the feudal over-lordship of the English Crown. The lordship revested into the British Crown in 1764 but the island never became part of the United Kingdom and retained its status as an internally self-governing jurisdiction. The Isle of Man is not a part of the European Union, but has a limited relationship concerning the free movement of goods. History Ancient times to present The earliest traces of people on the Isle of Man can be found as far back as the Mesolithic Period, also known as the Middle Stone Age. The first residents lived in small natural shelters, hunting, fishing and gathering for their food. They used small tools made of flint or bone, which have been found near the coast. Representatives of these artifacts are kept at the Manx Museum. The Neolithic Period marked the coming of knowledge of farming, better stone tools and pottery. It was during this period that Megalithic Monuments began to appear around the island. Examples from this period can be found at Cashtal yn Ard near Maughold, King Orry's Grave in Laxey, Meayll Circle near Cregneash, and Ballaharra Stones in St. John's. The Megaliths were not the only culture during this time, there were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures. During the Bronze Age, the large communal tombs of the Megaliths were replaced with smaller burial mounds. Bodies were put in stone lined graves along with ornamental containers. The Bronze Age burial mounds created long lasting markers about the countryside. The Iron Age marked the beginning of Celtic cultural influence. Large hill forts appeared on hill summits, and smaller promontory forts along the coastal cliffs, while large timber-framed roundhouses were built. It is likely that the first Celtic tribes to inhabit the Island were of the Brythonic variety. Around AD 700 it is assumed that Irish invasion or immigration formed the basis of the early Manx population. This is evident in the change in language used in Ogham inscriptions. Manx Gaelic remains closely related to Irish and Scots Gaelic. Viking settlement of the Isle of Man began at the end of the 8th century. The Vikings established Tynwald and introduced many land divisions that still exist. They also left the Manx Runestones. Although the Manx language does contain Norse influences, they are few. The Norse Kingdom of Mann and the Isles was created by Godred Crovan in 1079 after the Battle of Skyhill. During Viking times, the islands of this kingdom were called the or ("southern isles") in contrast to the ("northern isles") of Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides. This later became Anglicised as Sodor. The Church of England diocese is still called the Diocese of Sodor and Man although it only covers Mann. (When the Rev. W.V. Awdry wrote The Railway Series, he invented the island of Sodor as an imaginary island located between the Isle of Man and the Cumbrian coast.) In 1266, as dictated in the Treaty of Perth, Norway's King Magnus VI ceded the isles to Scotland. The Isle of Man came under English control in the 14th century. During this period the Isle was dominated by the Stanley family, who also held the title of Earl of Derby, who had been given possession of Man by King Henry IV. In 1703 the Act of Settlement secured peasant rights and marked the beginning of a move away from feudal government. In 1765, however, the British Crown secured a greater control over the island, without incorporating it into Great Britain, laying the grounds for the island's status as a Crown dependency. In 1866 greater autonomy was restored to the island's parliament and a full transition to democracy began. The Isle quickly developed as a finance centre and tourist destination, becoming increasingly prosperous during the 20th century. During both the First and Second World Wars the island was used as a location for internment camps for Axis citizens and suspected sympathisers. Tynwald Tynwald, the island's parliament, was nominally founded in AD 979. It is arguably the oldest continuous parliament in the world. Both the Icelandic parliament and the Faroese parliament are older, but were abolished from 1800 to 1845 and 1816 to 1852, respectively. The annual ceremonial meeting in July on Tynwald Day, the island's national day, continues to be held at Tynwald Hill, where titles are announced and a brief description of the new laws enacted by Tynwald during the previous year is given. Geography As well as the main island of Man itself, the Isle of Man includes some nearby small islands: the partially inhabited Calf of Man, and the uninhabited Chicken Rock and St. Patrick's Isle. The Isle of Man is located geographically in the middle of the northern Irish Sea, close to the geographical centre of the British Isles. The island lies closest to Scotland followed by England, Ireland and Wales. Approximately long and between and wide, the island has an area of around . Hills in the north and south are bisected by a central valley. The extreme north is exceptionally flat, consisting mainly of deposits built up by deposition from glacial advances from western Scotland during colder times. There are more recently deposited shingle beaches at the Point of Ayre. It has only one mountain higher than , Snaefell, with a height of . According to an old saying, from the summit one can see six kingdoms: those of Mann, Scotland, England, Ireland, Wales, and Heaven. Some versions add a seventh kingdom, that of Neptune or the Sea. Ian O'Leary Lecture Population According to the 2006 interim census, the Isle of Man is home to 80,058 people, of whom 26,218 reside in the island's capital Douglas. Most of the population were born in the British Isles, with 47.6% born in the Isle of Man, 37.2% born in England, 3.4% in Scotland, 2.1% in Northern Ireland, 2.1% in the Republic of Ireland, 1.2% in Wales and 0.3% born in the Channel Islands. Census The Isle of Man Full Census, most recently held in 2001, has been a ten yearly occurrence since 1821, with interim censuses being introduced from 1966. It is separate from, but closely related to, the Census in the United Kingdom. The 2001 Census was conducted by the Economic Affairs Division of the Isle of Man Treasury, under the authority of the Census Act 1929. Government The United Kingdom is responsible for the island's defence and ultimately for good governance, and for representing the island in international forums, while the island's own parliament and government have competence over all domestic matters. Structure The island's parliament is Tynwald, which dates from at least AD 979 and is said to be the oldest continuously existing parliament in the world. Tynwald is a bicameral legislature, comprising the House of Keys (directly elected by universal suffrage) and the Legislative Council (consisting of indirectly elected and ex-officio members). These two bodies meet together in joint session as Tynwald. The executive branch of government is the Council of Ministers, which is composed of members of Tynwald. It is headed by the Chief Minister, currently Tony Brown MHK. Vice-regal functions of the Head of State are performed by a Lieutenant Governor. External relations and security See also Isle of Man Constabulary. Under British law, the Isle of Man is not part of the United Kingdom. However, the UK takes care of its external and defence affairs, and retains paramount power to legislate for the island. There are no independent military forces on the Isle of Man. There is an independent Isle of Man police force, which is controlled directly by the Isle of Man Government, but which nonetheless voluntarily submits to inspection by the UK inspectorate of police. Citizenship Citizenship in the Isle of Man is governed by UK law. Passports issued by the Isle of Man Passport Office say "British Islands - Isle of Man" on the cover but the nationality status stated on the passport is simply "British Citizen". However, although Manx passport holders are British citizens, because the Isle of Man is not part of the European Union, those without a grandparent born in the UK (or who have not lived continuously for a period of five or more years in the UK) do not have the same rights as other British citizens with regard to employment and establishment in the EU. Isle of Man passports can be issued to any British citizen in the Isle of Man (whether or not that person has "Manx status" under the local Isle of Man employment laws). They can also be issued to Manx-connected British citizens residing in the UK or any of the other Crown Dependencies. European Union The Isle of Man holds neither membership nor associate membership of the European Union. Protocol 3 of the UK's Act of Accession to the Treaty of Rome permits trade for Manx goods without tariffs. http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/ebusiness/advantages/protocol3.pdf http://www.bmdf.co.uk/ukaccessiontreaty.pdf In conjunction with the Customs and Excise agreement with the UK, this facilitates free trade with the UK. While Manx goods can be freely moved within the EU, capital and services cannot. EU citizens are entitled to travel and reside in the island without restriction. Commonwealth of Nations The Isle of Man is not itself a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. By virtue of its relationship with the United Kingdom, it takes part in several Commonwealth institutions, including the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association and the Commonwealth Games. Politics Most Manx politicians stand for election as independents rather than as representatives of political parties. Though political parties do exist, their influence is not nearly as strong as in the United Kingdom. The largest political party is the recently established Liberal Vannin Party, which promotes greater Manx independence and more accountability in Government. The LibVannin party has, however, only one member of Tynwald, Peter Karran MHK. A nationalist pressure group Mec Vannin advocates the establishment of a sovereign republic. Local government Local government on the Isle of Man is based around the concept of ancient parishes. There are two types of local authorities: a corporation for the Borough of Douglas, and bodies of 'commissioners' for the town districts of Castletown, Peel and Ramsey, the village districts of Michael, Laxey, Onchan, Port Erin and Port St Mary, and the 15 'parish districts' (those parishes or parts of parishes which do not fall within the districts previously mentioned). Local authorities are under the supervision of the Isle of Man Government's Department of Local Government and the Environnment (DOLGE). Economy The Isle of Man is a "low tax economy" with no capital gains tax, wealth tax, stamp duty or inheritance tax Direct Tax - Isle of Man Government and a top rate of income tax of 18%. A "tax cap" is in force. The maximum amount of tax payable by an individual is £100,000 or £200,000 for couples if they choose to have their incomes jointly assessed. The £100,000 tax cap equates to an assessable income of approximately £570,000. Personal income is assessed and taxed on a total 'worldwide' income basis rather than a remittance basis. This means that all income earned throughout the world is assessable for Manx tax rather than only income earned in or brought into the Island. The rate of corporation tax is 0% for almost all types of income, the only exceptions are that the profits of banks are taxed at 10%, as is rental (or other) income from land and buildings situated on the Isle of Man. New Assessor of Income Tax - Isle of Man Government Forget Monaco: Isle of Man cuts tax to tempt super-rich - Tax, Money - Independent.co.uk Offshore banking, manufacturing, and tourism form key sectors of the economy. Agriculture and fishing, once the mainstays of the economy, now make declining contributions to the Island's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Trade takes place mostly with the United Kingdom. The Manx government promotes island locations for making films by contributing to the production costs. Since 1995 over eighty films have been made on the island. Communications The main telephone provider on the Isle of Man is Manx Telecom. The island has three mobile operators: Manx Telecom, Cloud9 and Sure. Broadband internet services are available through four local providers which are Wi-Manx, Domicilium, Manx Computer Bureau and Manx Telecom. The island does not have its own ITU country code, but is accessed via the UK's code (+44) and the island's telephone numbers are part of the UK telephone numbering plan with local dialling codes 01624 (landlines) and 07624/07924 (mobiles). In 1996 the Isle of Man Government obtained permission to use the .im national top-level domain (TLD) and has ultimate responsibility for its use. The domain is managed on a daily basis by Domicilium, an island-based internet service provider. In December 2007 the Manx Electricity Authority and its telecommunications subsidiary, e-llan Communications commissioned the lighting of a new fibre-optic link that connects the island to a worldwide fibre-optic network. The Isle of Man has three radio stations: Manx Radio, Energy FM and 3 FM. There is no insular television service and local transmitters retransmit analogue broadcasts of BBC 1 and BBC 2 (with BBC North West regional programmes), ITV Border Television and Channel 4. Five and Freeview are not available via the island's relay transmitters. However, in areas where local geography is favourable, terrestrial television (including digital terrestrial) can be received direct from transmitters located in the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland. Analogue television transmissions will cease by the end of 2009 and a limited local service of digital terrestrial television will then commence. Many TV services are available by satellite, such as Sky Digital, and Freesat from the group of satellites at 28.2° east , as well as services from a range of other satellites around Europe such as the Astra satellites at 19.2° east and Hotbird. The Isle of Man has three newspapers, all weeklies, and all owned by Isle of Man Newspapers. The Isle of Man Courier (distribution 36,318) is free and distributed to homes on the island. The other two newspapers are Isle of Man Examiner (circulation 13,276) and the Manx Independent (circulation 12,255). Postal services are the responsibility of Isle of Man Post, which took over from the UK General Post Office in 1973. Transport The island has a total of Isle of Man - About the Island of public roads, all of which are paved. Many of the roads on the island have no speed limit. Douglas is served by frequent ferries to and from England and more limited summer-only services from Ireland. All ferries are operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company. The only commercial airport on the island is the Isle of Man Airport at Ronaldsway. The island used to have an extensive narrow-gauge railway system, both steam-operated and electric, but the majority of the steam railway tracks have been taken out of service and the track removed. Currently there is a steam railway which runs between Douglas and Port Erin, an electric railway which runs between Douglas and Ramsey and an electric mountain railway which climbs Snaefell. The lines are mostly operated for the benefit of tourists, though some people use them for commuting. There is a comprehensive bus network, operated by Isle of Man Transport. Culture The culture of the Isle of Man is influenced by its Celtic and to a lesser extent its Norse origins, though its close proximity to the UK, period as a UK tourist destination and recent mass immigration by British migrant workers has meant that British influence has been dominant since the Revestment period. Recent revival campaigns have attempted to preserve the surviving vestiges of Manx culture after a long period of Anglicisation, and significant interest in the Manx language, history and musical tradition have been the result. Etymology of name The origin of the name Isle of Man is unclear. In the Manx Gaelic language the Isle of Man is known as , where is a Gaelic word meaning 'island'. The earliest form of 'Man' is or The Isle of Man. A Social, Cultural and Political History. by R.H. Kinvig pp18 (1975) (3rd Edition) Liverpool University Press ISBN 0-85323-391-8 giving the genitive name leading to the word , to which a 'h' is added when used after the feminine word Ellan, giving Mhannin. As 'mh' is pronounced like a 'v' in Goidelic languages, in modern Manx the name becomes . During the period of Julius Caesar as proconsul and his visit to Britain during 55 and 54 BC Caesar referred to the Isle of Man in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico to 'an island called Mona which lies midway across the sea separating Britain from Ireland.' The Isle of Man. A Social, Cultural and Political History. by R.H. Kinvig pp18-19 (1975) (3rd Edition) Liverpool University Press ISBN 0-85323-391-8 Language The official languages of the Isle of Man are Manx Gaelic and English. A dialect of English known as Manx English is spoken. The Manx Gaelic language is a Goidelic Celtic language and is one of a number of insular Celtic languages spoken in the British Isles. Manx Gaelic has been officially recognised as a legitimate autochthonous regional language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, ratified by the United Kingdom on 27 March, 2001 on behalf of the Isle of Man government. The Manx language is closely related to the Irish language and Scottish Gaelic. By the middle of the 20th century only a few elderly native speakers remained: the last of them, Ned Maddrell, died on 27 December, 1974. By then a scholarly revival had begun to spread to the populace and many had learned Manx as a second language. The first native speakers of Manx (bilingual with English) in many years have now appeared: children brought up by Manx-speaking parents. Primary immersion education in Manx is provided by the Manx government: since 2003, the former St John's School building has been used by the (Manx language-medium school). Degrees in Manx are available from the Isle of Man College and the Centre for Manx Studies. Manx-language playgroups also exist and Manx language classes are available in island schools. In the 2001 census, 1,689 out of 76,315, or 2.2% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx, although the degree of knowledge in these cases was presumably varied. In common use are the greetings and which mean 'good morning' and 'good afternoon' respectively. The Manx language knows no 'evening' as it is 'afternoon'. Another frequently heard Manx expression is meaning 'time enough', and represents a stereotypical view of the Manx attitude to life. Symbols For centuries, the island's symbol has been its ancient triskelion, a device similar to Sicily's Trinacria: three bent legs, each with a spur, joined at the thigh. The Manx triskelion does not appear to have an official design; government publications, currency, flags, the tourist authority and others all use different variants. Most, but not all, preserve rotational symmetry, some running clockwise, others anti-clockwise. Some have the uppermost thigh at 12:00, others at 11:30 or 10:00, etc. Some have the knee bent at 90°, some at 60°, some at closer to 120°. Also the degree of ornamentation of the leg wear and spur varies considerably. The three legs refer to the island's motto (adopted late in the symbol's history): , traditionally translated from Latin as 'Whithersoever you throw it, it will stand', or 'Whichever way you throw it, it will stand'. The origin of the 'Three Legs of Man' (as they are usually called) is explained in the Manx legend that Manannan repelled an invasion by transforming into the three legs and rolling down the hill and defeating the invaders. Variations on the Manx triskelion are still in use on the coats of arms belonging to the different branches of the ancient Norwegian noble family that ruled Mann until the 13th century. This particular version belongs to the Skancke branch of the Skanke family. The name stems from skank, the Norwegian version of the word 'shank', or 'leg'. The Norse royal family of Man stayed on the island for some years after the death of Magnus III and the beginning of Scottish rule. The family's emigration only came after the final attempt on the part of the Manx at restoring the old Sudreyar dynasty in the 1275 uprising against the Scots. This revolt failed disastrously, ending in the deaths of hundreds of rebels, including the last Norse King of Mann, Godred VI Magnuson when the Manx suffered defeat in the decisive Battle of Ronaldsway, near Castletown. When the Norse-Manx royals arrived in Norway they took service as nobles of the Norwegian king, quickly becoming knights, landlords, and clergy under the Norwegian Crown. Religion See also Diocese of Sodor and Man The predominant religious tradition of the island is Christianity, and the ancient Christian Church of the island is today part of the Anglican Communion. The diocese has an unbroken history from 1154 to the present day, during which there have been many changes in tradition and detail. As with all ancient Anglican churches, the diocese was once (and until the reformation) part of the then mainstream of western Christian tradition, the Roman Catholic Church. The diocese has been part of the national churches of Norway, Scotland, and England, Full details in A Moore's comprehensive history which is available on-line in full. and within the latter has been part of both the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York of the Church of England at different times. It has also come under the influence of Irish religious tradition. Today its bishop and 45 parish churches A full list is given on the diocesan website. are formally part of the Province of York. See official entry in the Anglican Communion directory. Other Christian churches also operate on the Isle of Man. The second largest denomination is the Methodist Church, which is close in size to the Anglican diocese. There are eight Roman Catholic parish churches, under the authority of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Liverpool. Additionally there are five Baptist churches, four Pentecostal churches, and two United Reformed churches. All churches on the island are listed on this website. There is a small Jewish community on the island, with a synagogue in Douglas. Myth, legend and folklore In Manx mythology, the island was ruled by Manannán mac Lir, a Celtic sea god, who would draw his misty cloak around the island to protect it from invaders. One of the principal theories about the origin of the name Mann is that it is named after Manannan. In the Manx tradition of folklore, there are many stories of mythical creatures and characters. These include the , a malevolent spirit who according to legend blew the roof off St Trinian's Church in a fit of pique; the ; the ; and the , a ghostly black dog who wandered the walls and corridors of Peel Castle. The Isle of Man is also said to be home to fairies, known locally as 'the little folk' or 'themselves'. There is a famous Fairy Bridge and it is said to be bad luck if one fails to wish the fairies good morning or afternoon when passing over it. It used to be a tradition to leave a coin on the bridge to ensure good luck. Other types of fairies are the and the . An old Irish story tells how Lough Neagh was formed when Ireland's legendary giant Fionn mac Cumhaill (sometimes known as Finn McCool) scooped up a portion of the land and tossed it at a Scottish rival. He missed, and the chunk of earth landed in the Irish Sea, thus creating the island. Cuisine Traditionally the national dish of the island is 'Spuds and Herrin', boiled potatoes and herring. This plain dish is chosen because of its role supporting the subsistence farmers of the island, who crofted the land and fished the sea for centuries. A more recent claim for the title of national dish would the ubiquitous chips, cheese and gravy. This analog of poutine is found in most of the island's fast-food outlets, and consists of thick cut chips, covered in shredded Manx cheddar cheese and topped with a thick gravy. Isle of Man - Factfile - Daily Life Seafood has traditionally accounted for a large proportion of the local diet. Although commercial fishing has declined in recent years, local delicacies include Manx kippers (smoked herring) which are produced by the smokeries in Peel on the west coast of the island, albeit mainly from North Sea herring these days. The smokeries also produce other specialities including smoked salmon and bacon. Crab, lobster and scallops are commercially fished, and the Queen Scallop ('Queenies') is regarded as a particular delicacy, with a light, sweet flavour. Cod, ling and mackerel are often angled for the table, and freshwater trout and salmon can be taken from the local rivers and lakes, supported by the Government fish hatchery at Cornaa. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are all commercially farmed, Manx lamb from the hill-farms being a popular dish. The Loaghtan, the indigenous breed of Manx sheep, has a rich, dark meat that has found favour with chefs, featuring in dishes on the BBC's Masterchef series. Milk and cheese are produced by IOM Creameries. Manx cheese has been a particular success, featuring smoked and herb-flavoured varieties and is stocked by many of the UK's supermarket chains. Manx cheese took bronze medals in the 2005 British Cheese Awards, and sold 578 tonnes over the year. Beer is brewed on a commercial scale by Okells Brewery (established in 1850) and Bushy's Brewery. Sports The Isle of Man is represented as a nation in the Commonwealth Games and the Island Games and will be hosting the IV Commonwealth Youth Games in 2011. The island started the Island Games in 1985, and also hosted the Island Games in 2001. Isle of Man teams and individuals participate in many sports both on and off the island including rugby union, football, gymnastics, hockey, netball, bowling and cricket. Being an island, many types of watersports are also popular with residents. Mark Cavendish, a professional cyclist, was the first Manxman to win a stage of the Tour de France Allen, R. Cavendish wins Tour de France stage Isle of Man Today, July 8, 2008. He then went on to win three additional stages, becoming the first Briton to win four stages of the same Tour. Motorcycle racing The main international motorcycle event associated with the island is the Isle of Man TT, which began in 1907 and takes place in late May and early June. It is now an international road racing event for motorbikes and used to be part of the World Championship. The Manx Grand Prix is a motorcycle event for amateurs and private entrants that uses the same Snaefell Mountain Course in late August and early September. Cammag Cammag is the national sport of the Isle of Man. It is similar to the Scottish game of shinty, and Irish hurling. Once the most popular sport on the island, it ceased to be played by the start of the 20th century. It has more recently been revived with an annual match at St John's. Famous residents Born or brought up on the island Mark Cavendish, professional cyclist The Bee Gees, pop music group Andy Gibb, singer Illiam Dhone or William Christian led an uprising against English rule over the island and was executed in 1663 Frank Kermode, literary critic Charles Kerruish became, in 1961, the first Manxman to be head of government Nigel Kneale, science fiction and horror screenwriter Archibald Knox, arts and crafts designer David Knight, professional enduro dirtbike rider Moved to the island Sir Thomas Henry Hall Caine, a British novelist and playwright Jeremy Clarkson, motoring journalist and Top Gear presenter John Rhys Davies, actor George MacDonald Fraser, author Andy Kershaw, disc jockey James Toseland, World Super Bike Champion Nigel Mansell, 1992 Formula One and 1993 Indy Car World Champion Sir Norman Wisdom, comedian and actor See also Main list: List of basic Isle of Man topics Anglo-Manx Biota of the Isle of Man Coins of the Manx pound Isle of Man Incinerator List of not fully sovereign nations Manx cat Peel Engineering Company Towns in the Isle of Man Windmills in the Isle of Man Raad ny Foillan, long distance footpath References Notes Bibliography Russel, G. 1988. Distribution and development of some Manx epiphyte populations. Helgolander Meeresunters.'' 42: 477 - 492. External links isleofman.com The Isle of Man online. Manx Government A comprehensive site covering many aspects of Manx life from fishing to financial regulation CIA World Factbook listing for the Isle of Man Isle of Man Guide Manx Wiki be-x-old:Выспа Мэн | Isle_of_Man |@lemmatized isle:82 man:80 ellan:2 manx:69 island:71 vannin:3 genitive:2 case:2 mannin:1 mean:5 n:1 mann:8 self:2 govern:3 crown:8 dependency:3 locate:4 irish:9 sea:8 geographical:2 centre:4 british:17 head:4 state:3 queen:2 elizabeth:1 ii:1 hold:5 title:4 lord:1 represent:4 lieutenant:2 governor:2 part:15 united:12 kingdom:15 foreign:1 relation:2 defence:3 ultimate:2 good:10 governance:2 responsibility:3 government:21 inhabit:2 millennium:1 gradually:1 become:8 celtic:7 norse:8 community:2 settle:1 start:3 ad:4 leave:3 legacy:1 range:2 tynwald:12 parliament:9 many:12 local:16 place:3 name:8 period:11 alternate:1 rule:5 king:6 england:8 scotland:7 come:5 feudal:2 lordship:2 english:7 revested:1 never:1 retain:2 status:4 internally:1 jurisdiction:1 european:5 union:5 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6,716 | Ogden_Nash | Frederic Ogden Nash (August 19, 1902 – May 19, 1971) was an American poet well known for his light verse. At the time of his death in 1971, the New York Times said his "droll verse with its unconventional rhymes made him the country's best-known producer of humorous poetry". Biography Early life Nash was born in Rye, New York. His father owned and operated an import-export company, and because of business obligations, the family relocated often. After graduating from St. George's School in Middletown, Rhode Island, Nash entered Harvard University in 1920, only to drop out a year later. He returned to St. George's to teach for a year and left to work his way through a series of other jobs, eventually landing a position as an editor at Doubleday publishing house, where he first began to write poetry. Nash moved to Baltimore, Maryland, three years after marrying Frances Leonard, a Baltimore native. He lived in Baltimore from 1934 and most of his life until his death in 1971. Nash thought of Baltimore as home. After his return from a brief move to New York, he wrote "I could have loved New York had I not loved Balti-more." His first job in New York was as a writer of the streetcar card ads for a company that previously had employed another Baltimore resident, F. Scott Fitzgerald. Nash loved to rhyme. "I think in terms of rhyme, and have since I was six years old," he stated in a 1958 news interview. He had a fondness for crafting his own words whenever rhyming words did not exist, though admitting that crafting rhymes was not always the easiest task. In 1931 he published his first collection of poems, Hard Lines, earning him national recognition. Some of his poems reflected an anti-establishment feeling. For example, one verse, entitled Common Sense, asks: Why did the Lord give us agility, If not to evade responsibility? Writing career When Nash wasn't writing poems, he made guest appearances on comedy and radio shows and toured the United States and England, giving lectures at colleges and universities. Nash was regarded respectfully by the literary establishment, and his poems were frequently anthologized even in serious collections such as Selden Rodman's 1946 A New Anthology of Modern Poetry. Nash was the lyricist for the Broadway musical One Touch of Venus, collaborating with librettist S. J. Perelman and composer Kurt Weill. The show included the notable song "Speak Low." He also wrote the lyrics for the 1952 revue Two's Company. Nash and his love of the Baltimore Colts were featured in the December 13, 1968 issue of Life, with several poems about the American football team matched to full-page pictures. Entitled "My Colts, verses and reverses," the issue includes his poems and photographs by Arthur Rickerby. "Mr. Nash, the league leading writer of light verse (Averaging better than 6.3 lines per carry), lives in Baltimore and loves the Colts" it declares. The comments further describe Nash as "a fanatic of the Baltimore Colts, and a gentleman." Featured on the magazine cover is defensive player Dennis Gaubatz, number 53, in midair pursuit with this description: "That is he, looming 10 feet tall or taller above the Steelers' signal caller...Since Gaubatz acts like this on Sunday, I'll do my quarterbacking Monday." Memorable Colts Jimmy Orr, Billy Ray Smith, Bubba Smith, Willie Richardson, Dick Szymanski and Lou Michaels contribute to the poetry. Among his most popular writings were a series of animal verses, many of which featured his off-kilter rhyming devices. Examples include "If called by a panther / Don't anther"; "You can have my jellyfish / I'm not sellyfish"; and "The Lord in His wisdom made the fly / And then forgot to tell us why." This is his ode to the llama: The one-L lama, he's a priest The two-L llama, he's a beast And I would bet a silk pyjama There isn't any three-L lllama (Nash appended a footnote to this poem: "The author's attention has been called to a type of conflagration known as a three-alarmer. Pooh." ) Death and subsequent events Nash died of Crohn's disease at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore on May 19, 1971. He is interred in North Hampton, New Hampshire's East Side Cemetery. His daughter Isabel was married to noted photographer Fred Eberstadt, and his granddaughter, Fernanda Eberstadt, is an acclaimed author. A biography, Ogden Nash: the Life and Work of America's Laureate of Light Verse, was written by Douglas M. Parker, published in 2005 and in paperback in 2007. The book was written with the cooperation of the Nash family and quotes extensively from Nash's personal correspondence as well as his poetry. Poetic style Nash was best known for surprising, pun-like rhymes, sometimes with words deliberately misspelled for comic effect, as in his retort to Dorothy Parker's humorous dictum, Men seldom make passes/At girls who wear glasses: A girl who is bespectacled She may not get her nectacled But safety pins and bassinets Await the girl who fassinets. He often wrote in an exaggerated verse form with pairs of lines that rhyme, but are of dissimilar length and irregular meter. The critic Morris Bishop, when reviewing Nash's 1962 Everyone But Thee and Me, offered up this lyrical commentary on Nash's style: Free from flashiness, free from trashiness Is the essence of ogdenashiness. Rich, original, rash and rational Stands the monument ogdenational! Fraser, C. Gerald, "New & Noteworthy," The New York Times, July 7, 1985. Viewed Sept. 6, 2007. Nash's poetry was often a playful twist of an old saying or poem. He expressed this playfulness in what is perhaps his most famous rhyme. Nash observed the following in a turn of Joyce Kilmer's words "I think that I shall never see a poem lovely as a tree." I think that I shall never see A billboard lovely as a tree. Perhaps, unless the billboards fall, I'll never see a tree at all. Similarly, in Reflections on Ice-Breaking he wrote: Candy Is dandy But liquor Is quicker. He also commented: I often wonder which is mine: Tolerance, or a rubber spine? His one-line observations are often quoted. People who work sitting down get paid more than people who work standing up. Progress might have been all right once, but it has gone on too long. Other poems Nash was a baseball fan, and he wrote a poem titled "Lineup for Yesterday," an alphabetical poem listing baseball immortals. Published in Sport magazine in January 1949, the poem pays tribute to the baseball greats and to his own fanaticism, in alphabetical order. Here is a sampling from his A to Z list: C is for Cobb, Who grew spikes and not corn, And made all the basemen Wish they weren't born. D is for Dean, The grammatical Diz, When they asked, Who's the tops? Said correctly, I is. E is for Evers, His jaw in advance; Never afraid To Tinker with Chance. F is for Fordham And Frankie and Frisch; I wish he were back With the Giants, I wish. G is for Gehrig, The Pride of the Stadium; His record pure gold, His courage, pure radium. H is for Hornsby; When pitching to Rog, The pitcher would pitch, Then the pitcher would dodge. I is for Me, Not a hard-hitting man, But an outstanding all-time Incurable fan.'Q is for Don Quixote Cornelius Mack; Neither Yankees nor years can halt his attack. Nash wrote about the famous baseball players of his day, but he particularly loved Baltimore sports. Nash wrote humorous poems for each movement of the Camille Saint-Saëns orchestral suite The Carnival of the Animals, which are often recited when the work is performed. Ogden Nash stamp The US Postal Service released a stamp featuring Ogden Nash and six of his poems on the centennial of his birth on 19 August, 2002. The six poems are "The Turtle," "The Cow," "Crossing The Border," "The Kitten," "The Camel" and "Limerick One." It was the first stamp in the history of the USPS to include the word "sex," although as a synonym for gender. It can be found under the "O" and is part of "The Turtle". The stamp is the 18th in the Literary Arts section. Four years later, the first issue took place in Baltimore on August 19th. The ceremony was held at the home that he and his wife Frances shared with his parents on 4300 Rugby Road, where he did most of his writing. Bibliography Candy is Dandy by Ogden Nash , Anthony Burgess, Linell Smith, and Isabel Eberstadt. Carlton Books Ltd, 1994. ISBN 0233988920 Custard the Dragon and the Wicked Knight by Ogden Nash and Lynn Munsinger. Little, Brown Young Readers, 1999. ISBN 0316599050 I'm a Stranger Here Myself by Ogden Nash. Buccaneer Books, 1994. ISBN 1568494688 The Old Dog Barks Backwards by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1972. ISBN 0316598046 Ogden Nash's Zoo by Ogden Nash and Etienne Delessert. Stewart, Tabori, and Chang, 1986. ISBN 0941434958 Pocket Book of Ogden Nash by Ogden Nash. Pocket, 1990. ISBN 0671727893 Selected Poetry of Ogden Nash by Ogden Nash. Black Dog & Levanthal Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1884822308 The Tale of the Custard Dragon by Ogden Nash and Lynn Munsinger. Little, Brown Young Readers, 1998. ISBN 0316590312 Bed Riddance by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1969. ASIN B000EGGXD8 There's Always Another Windmill by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1968. ISBN 0316598399 Private Dining Room by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1952. ASIN B000H1Z8U4 Many Long Years Ago by Ogden Nash. Little Brown & Co, 1945. ISBN B000OELG1O Individual poems "Carnival of animals" The New Yorker 25/48 (7 January 1950) : 26 References External links Includes a list of over a hundred Ogden Nash poems. Most or all are under copyright and therefore not available online. This contains selected poems, and a brief bibliography Blogden Nash Catalogs the global reach and influence of Ogden Nash on contemporary life. 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6,717 | Passport | A passport is a document, issued by a national government, which certifies, for the purpose of international travel, the identity and nationality of its holder. The elements of identity are name, date of birth, sex, and place of birth. Most often, nationality and citizenship are congruent. A passport does not of itself entitle the passport holder entry into another country, nor to consular protection while abroad or any other privileges, in the absence of any special agreements which cover the situation. It does, however, normally entitle the passport holder to return to the country which issued the passport. Rights to consular protection arise from international agreements, and the right to return arises from the laws of the issuing country. A passport does not represent the right or the place of residence of the passport holder in the country which issued the passport. History Inside of the old Polish passport - 1931 One of the earliest known reference to what served the major role of a passport is found in the Hebrew Bible. In , attributed to the time of the Persian Empire in about 450 BC, it is said that Nehemiah, an official serving King Artaxerxes I of Persia, asked leave to travel to Judea, and the king granted leave and gave him a letter "to the governors beyond the river" requesting safe passage for him as he traveled through their lands. In the medieval Islamic Caliphate, a form of passport was used in the form of a bara'a, a receipt for taxes paid. Only citizens who paid their zakah (for Muslims) or jizya (for Dhimmis) taxes were permitted to travel to different regions of the Caliphate, thus the bara'a receipt was a "traveller's basic passport." It is considered unlikely that the term "passport" is derived from sea ports, but rather from a medieval document required to pass through the gate ("porte") of a city wall. In medieval Europe, such documents were issued to travelers by local authorities, and generally contained a list of towns and cities into which a document holder was permitted to pass. On the whole, documents were not required for travel to sea ports, which were considered open trading points, but documents were required to travel inland from sea ports. King Henry V of England is credited with having invented what some consider the first true passport, notwithstanding the earlier examples cited, as a means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. Early passports included a description of the passport holder. Attachment of photographs to passports began in the early decades of the twentieth century, when photography became widespread. In the later part of the nineteenth century and up to World War I, passports were not required, on the whole, for international travel in Europe, and crossing a border was easy. Consequently, comparatively few people had passports. The breakdown of the European passport system of the early part of the nineteenth century was a result of rail travel. Trains, used extensively from the mid-nineteenth century onward, traveled rapidly, carried numerous passengers, and crossed many borders. Those factors made enforcement of passport laws difficult. The general reaction was abolition of passport requirements. The Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire maintained passport requirements for international travel, in addition to an internal-passport system to control travel within their borders. During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons (to keep out spies) and to control emigration of citizens with useful skills, retaining potential manpower. These controls remained in place after the war, and became standard procedure, though not without controversy. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to a "nasty dehumanisation". Marrus, Michael, The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press (1985), p. 92. In 1920, the League of Nations held a conference on passports and through tickets. Passport guidelines resulted from the conference, League of Nations 'International' or 'Standard' passport design. which was followed up by conferences in 1926 and 1927. The United Nations held a travel conference in 1963, but passport guidelines did not result from it. Passport standardisation came about in 1980, under the auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Types Inside front cover and first page of an ordinary Azerbaijani passport The terminology related to passports has become generally standardized around the world. The typical passports include: Ordinary passport, also called tourist passport Issued to ordinary citizens. Official passport, also called service passport Issued to government employees for work-related travel, and to accompanying dependents. Diplomatic passport Issued to diplomats and consuls for work-related travel, and to accompanying dependents. Having a diplomatic passport is not the equivalent of having diplomatic immunity. A grant of diplomatic status, a privilege of which is diplomatic immunity, has to come from the government of the country in relation to which diplomatic status is claimed. Also, having a diplomatic passport does not mean visa-free travel. A holder of a diplomatic passport usually has to obtain a diplomatic visa, even if a holder of an ordinary passport may enter a country visa-free or may obtain a visa on arrival. In exceptional circumstances, a diplomatic passport is given to a foreign citizen with no passport of his own, such as an exiled VIP who lives, by invitation, in a foreign country. Emergency passport, also called temporary passport Issued to persons whose passports were lost or stolen, and who do not have time to obtain replacement passports. Collective passport Issued to defined groups for travel together to particular destinations, such as a group of school children on a school trip to a specified country. Family passport Issued to family members -- father, mother, son, daughter. There is one passport holder. He or she may travel alone, or with another family member, or with other family members. A family member who is not the passport holder can only travel with the passport holder. Laissez-passer A document which is not a passport, but which serves the function of a passport. Laissez-passer are issued by international organizations to their officers and employees for official travel. Alien's passport A document which is not a passport, but is a document issued under certain circumstances, such as statelessness, to non-citizen residents. In Latvia, an alien's passport is a passport for non-citizens - former citizens of the Soviet Union who reside in Latvia, but are not entitled to citizenship. It is used as an internal passport inside Latvia, and as a travel document outside Latvia. Internal passport A document which is not a passport, but is an identity document which keeps track of migration within a country. Examples: the internal passport of Russia, or the hukou residence-registration system in mainland China, both dating back to imperial times. Camouflage and Fantasy Passports A Camouflage passport is a document that appears to be a regular passport but is actually in the name of a country that no longer exists or never existed. Companies that sell camouflage passports make the rather dubious claim that in the event of a hijacking they could be shown to terrorists to aid escape. There is no known instance of this happening. Because a camouflage passport is not issued in the name of a real country, it is not a counterfeit and is not illegal per se to have. However attempting to use it to actually enter a country would be illegal in most jurisdictions. A fantasy passport is likewise a document not issued by a recognized government and invalid for legitimate travel. Fantasy passports are distinguished from camouflage passports in that they are issued by an actual, existent group, organization, or tribe. In some cases the goal of the fantasy passport is to make a political statement or to denote membership in the organization. In other cases they are issued more or less as a joke or for souvenir purposes. International Civil Aviation Organization Standards The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) issues passport standards which are treated as recommendations to national governments. The standard passport format includes the name of the issuing country on a passport cover, a national symbol, a description of the document (e.g., passport, official passport, diplomatic passport), and, if the passport is biometric, the biometric-passport symbol. Inside, there is a title page, also naming the country. This is followed by a data page, on which there is information about the bearer and the issuing authority, although passports of some European Union member states provide that information on the inside back cover. There are blank pages available for foreign countries to affix visas, and to stamp for entries and exit. Passports have numerical or alphanumerical designators ("serial number") assigned by the issuing authority. Standards for machine-readable passports have also been issued by the ICAO, with an area set aside where most of the information written as text is also printed in a manner suitable for optical character recognition. To conform with ICAO standards, a biometric passport has an embedded contactless smart card, which contains data about the passport holder, a photograph in digital format, and data about the passport itself. Many countries now issue biometric passports. The objectives for the biometric passports are to speed up clearance through immigration and the prevention of identity fraud. These reasons are disputed by privacy advocates. Governments are reluctant to acknowledge privacy concerns. Although many countries issue biometric passports, few introduced the equipment needed to read them at ports of entry. In the absence of an international standard, it is not possible for one country to read the biometric information in passports issued by another country. A passport contains a message, usually near the front of a passport, requesting that the bearer of the passport be allowed to pass freely, and further requests that, in the event of need, the bearer be granted assistance. The message is sometimes made in the name of the government or the head of state, notionally by the foreign minister or another representative of the government. The message may be written in more than one language, depending on the language policies of the issuing authority. For example, the English passport message in a Philippine passport is The Government of the Republic of the Philippines requests all concerned authorities to permit the bearer, a citizen of the Philippines, to pass safely and freely and in case of need to give him/her all lawful aid and protection. Other examples: United Kingdom; Queen and Passport - royal.gov.uk. United States. See "Passport Message" in the United States passport article. However, such a message is not always present, for instance not in Norwegian passports. Languages EU-languages pages of a French passport An international conference on passports and through tickets, held by the League of Nations in 1920, recommended that passports be issued in French, historically the language of diplomacy, and one other language. Nowadays, the ICAO recommends that passports be issued in English and French, or in the national language of the issuing country and in either English or French. Some unusual language combinations are: Passports issued by member states of the European Union bear all of the official languages of the EU. These are not printed in each location, however. Two or three languages are printed at the relevant point, followed by numbers which refer to the passport pages on which translations into all the remaining languages appear (illustration—right). A Bangladesh passport is printed in the national language Bengali (Bangla), English and in French. Barbadian passports are tri-lingual: English, French and Spanish. Belgium allows its citizens to choose which of its three official languages (Dutch, French, German) is to appear first. Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports are in Traditional Chinese and English. The face page of the older, pre- EU- version of the Hungarian passport ("Útlevél" in Hungarian, lit. "Roadletter") is in Hungarian only. Inside, there is a second, Hungarian-English bilingual, page. The personal-information page offers Hungarian, English, and French explanations of the details. An additional page, which has explanations in English, French, Chinese, Russian, Spanish and Arabic, was later on also added. Indian passports are in Hindi and English. The first page of a Libyan passport is in Arabic only. The last page has an English equivalent of the information on the first page. Similar arrangements are found in passports of some other Arab countries. Macao Special Administrative Region passports are in Traditional Chinese, Portuguese and English. Mexican passports are in Spanish, English and French. Montenegrin passports are in Montenegrin, English and French New Zealand passports are in English and Maori. Pakistani passports are in Urdu, English, Arabic and French. Polish passports are in Polish, English and French Swiss passports are in five languages: German, French, Italian, Rumansch and English. United States passports were once issued only in English, then were issued in English and French, and are now issued in English, French and Spanish. Common designs commons|A Peruvian passport with the name of Andean Community on the top. An Argentine passport with the name of Mercosur in the top. Colombian Passport Cover The design and layout of passports of the member states of the European Union are a result of consensus and recommendation, rather than of directive. Resolutions of 23 June 1981, 30 June 1982, 14 July 1986 and 10 July 1995 concerning the introduction of a passport of uniform pattern, OJEC, 19 September 1981, C 241, p. 1; 16 July 1982, C 179, p. 1; 14 July 1986, C 185, p. 1; 4 August 1995, C 200, p. 1. Passports are issued by member states, not by the EU. The data page can be at the front or at the back of a passport, and there are small design differences to indicate which member state is the issuer. The covers of ordinary passports are burgundy-red, with "European Union" written in the national language or languages. Below that are the name of the country, a national symbol, the word or words in the national language or languages for "passport", and, at the bottom, the symbol for a biometric passport. In Central America, the members of the CA-4 Treaty (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua) adopted a common-design passport, called the Central American passport. Although the design had been in use by Nicaragua and El Salvador since the mid-1990s, it became the norm for the CA-4 in January, 2006. The main features are the navy-blue cover with the words "América Central" and a map of Central America, and with the territory of the issuing country highlighted in gold. This substitutes one map for four national symbols. At the bottom of the cover are the name of the issuing country and the passport type. As of 2006, the Nicaraguan passport, which is the model for the passports of the three other countries, is issued in Spanish, French, and English. The member states of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) recently began issuing passports to a common design, featuring the CARICOM symbol along with the national symbol and name of the member state, rendered in an CARICOM official language (English, French, Dutch). The member states which use the common design are Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. The member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) had originally planned for a common OECS passport by January 1, 2003, but it was delayed. Plans to introduce a CARICOM common passport would have made the OECS passport redundant, since all full members of the OECS were also full members of CARICOM. Thus, by November, 2004, the OECS governments agreed to give CARICOM a deadline of May, 2005, to introduce a CARICOM passport, failure of which would have resulted in moving ahead with the introduction of the OECS Passport. The CARICOM passport was introduced in January, 2005, by Suriname, so the idea of an OECS passport was abandoned. Had the OECS passport been introduced, however, it would not have been issued to economic citizens within the OECS states. The declaration adopted in Cusco, Peru, establishing the Union of South American Nations, signalled an intention to establish a common passport design, but this appears to be a long way away. Already, some member states of regional sub-groupings such as Mercosur and the Andean Community of Nations issue passports that bear their official names and seals, along with the name of their regional grouping. Examples include Paraguay and Ecuador. The members of the Andean Community of Nations began, in 2001, the process of adopting a common passport format. Specifications for the common passport format were outlined in an Andean Council of Foreign Ministers meeting in 2002. Andean Community / Decision 525: Minimum specific technical characteristics of Andean Passport. The member states also agreed to phase in new Andean passports, bearing the official name of the regional body in Spanish (Comunidad Andina), by January, 2005. Previously-issued national passports will be valid until their expiry dates. The Andean passport is currently in use in Ecuador and Peru. Bolivia and Colombia were to start issuing Andean passports in early 2006. Andean passports are bordeaux (burgundy-red), with words in gold. Above the national seal of the issuing country is the name of the organization in Spanish, which is centred and is printed in a large font. Below the seal is the official name of the member country. At the bottom of the cover are the Spanish word for "passport" and the word "passport" in English. Venezuela left the Andean Community, so it is likely that the country will no longer issue Andean passports. National status Passports contain a statement of the nationality of the holder. A country with complex nationality laws could issue various passports which are similar in appearance but are representative of differing national statuses. Due to the British colonial history and contemporary laws, the United Kingdom has a number of classes of United Kingdom nationality, and more than one relationship of persons to the United Kingdom. The several classes and relationships cause foreign governments to subject holders of different UK passports to different entry requirements. A version of Tongan citizenship is available through investment. An investor is described in a Tongan passport as a Tongan protected person. The status does not carry with it the right of abode in Tonga. Many countries accept Tongan passports which reflect actual Tongan citizenship, but do not accept Tongan passports which reflect investment citizenship. The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) authorizes by law its Special Administrative Regions (Hong Kong and Macau) to issue passports on their own to their respective residents under the one country, two systems arrangement. Visa policies imposed by foreign authorities on Hong Kong and Macau residents holding such passports are different from those holding ordinary passports of the People's Republic of China, though it should be noted that all are considered Chinese nationals (i.e. possessing the same Chinese nationality status) under the Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China. National conditions on passport issuance Pakistan requires a Muslim citizen who applies for a passport to subscribe to the following declaration: I am a Muslim and believe in the absolute and unqualified finality of the Prophethood of Hazrat Muhammad the last of the Prophets. I do not recognize any one who claims to be a prophet in any sense of the word or any description whatsoever, after Hazrat Muhammad or recognize such a claimant as a prophet or a religious reformer as Muslim. I consider Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Qadiani to be an impostor nabi and also consider his followers whether belonging to the Lahori, Qadiani or Mirzai groups, to be non-Muslims. The declaration was instituted by the Islamist military regime of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. The reason for the declaration is to prevent Qadianis from going to Mecca or Medina for Hajj or Umrah. In the Pakistani biometric passport, there is no box for noting the religion of the passport holder. This seemingly made the religious subscription unnecessary. However, deletion of the box was reversed by the Pakistani government, in response to the religious parties. Passports have the religion box on page 3. Passports without the religion box have a rubber-stamp declaration of the passport holder's religion. However religion is not mentioned on the Pakistani CNIC (Computerised National Identity Card). In Finland male citizens of age 18–30 years have to prove that they have completed the obligatory military service when applying for passport. If they haven't yet completed the service, passport is only issued until the end of the year when they reach the age of 27 in order to ensure that they won't flee the country. Passports as government property Most countries declare by law that passports are government property (perhaps even counterfeit ones), and may be limited or revoked at any time, usually on specified grounds. A limitation or a revocation is generally subject to judicial review. Passports and bail In many countries, courts are authorized, by a law or by judicial authority, to make surrender of a passport a condition of granting bail. One passport per person Many countries issue only one passport to each national. When passport holders apply for a new passport (commonly, due to expiration of an old passport or lack of blank pages), they may be required to surrender the old passport for invalidation. In some circumstances an expired passport is not required to be surrendered or invalidated (for example, if it contains an unexpired visa). Some countries allow, under specified circumstances, the holding of more than one passport by a citizen. One circumstance is a disqualifying stamp in a passport, such as a stamp which shows travel to Israel, and the citizen intends travel to a country which does not recognize Israel. Another circumstance is frequent international travel including to countries with protracted visa application process. Awaiting a visa for a particular county, a person with two passports may travel to other countries with the second passport. Family Passports At one time it was common for a parent's passport to include the names and photos of his or her children. These "family passports" allowed children to travel together with their parents without the need to issue individual passports to each child. Family passports were not valid for children to travel by themselves or with someone other than a parent. The United States and Great Britain once issued family passports, but no longer do so, wherease some countries, as France, still do. A Uruguayan passport still has two photo pages, on which there can be a listing of up to six children, each with his thumbprint and details. In recent years concerns over international child abduction, including abduction by a parent, have led some countries to require both parents to sign a passport application. In the United States, a person aged 16 years or older can apply for a passport themselves. Applications by those aged 15 and under require the signatures of both parents or a statement, signed under penalty of perjury, as to why only one parent is physically capable of signing the application. Limitations on passport use A Brazilian passport A Taiwan Compatriot Entry Permit, issued by the PRC for Taiwan residents travelling to mainland China. Most countries accept passports of other countries as valid for international travel and valid for entry. There are exceptions, such as when a country does not recognise the passport-issuing country as a sovereign state. Likewise, the passport-issuing country may also stamp restrictions on the passports of its citizens not to go to certain countries due to poor or non-existent foreign relations, or security or health risks. Brazil Some countries do not maintain diplomatic relations with Brazil; therefore, Diplomatic, Official and Work Passports are not accepted and visas are only granted to tourist or business visitors, under Brazilian “laissez-passer”. The countries included in this group are: Bhutan, Central African Republic and Taiwan. Brazil: Entry visa for foreigners Mainland China and Taiwan Due to the cold war and the unended Chinese Civil War, the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) do not recognise each other as sovereign states. They both claim themselves as the only legal government representing the whole China. Consistent with the 1992 Consensus, the PRC and ROC consider both citizens in mainland China and Taiwan as their own citizens, but residing in different areas of the same nation. Neither the PRC nor the ROC accepts passports issued by the other as entry documents. Citizens in Taiwan use identity documents issued by PRC public-security authorities to enter mainland China. Citizens in mainland China entering Taiwan must also use identity documents issued by the ROC authority, and have their mainland documents surrendered. The identity documents cannot be used for international travel, and an endorsement must be obtained separately to enable travel. The ROC used to require its citizens who intended travel to mainland China to obtain official approval for the travel, and prescribed an administrative fine of NT$20,000 to NT$100,000 for those who did not. However, the fine was often unenforceable because such travel was untraceable by examination of travel documents, except if an ROC citizen lost his ROC passport while on the mainland, and, so, had to report the loss. The official-approval requirement was abolished, except in relation to ROC officials, of whom applications are required. Cyprus The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) issues passports, but only Turkey recognises its statehood. TRNC passports are not accepted for entry into the Republic of Cyprus via airports or sea ports, but are accepted at the designated green line crossing points. However all Turkish Cypriots are entitled by law to the issue of a Republic of Cyprus EU passport, since the opening of the borders between the two republics, Cypriot and EU citizens can travel freely to the divided sides. The United Kingdom, United States of America, Pakistan, Azerbaijan and Syria currently officially accept TRNC passports with the relevant visas. Until 2003, Turkey did not accept passports issued by the Republic of Cyprus, because the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus does not recognize the Republic of Cyprus. Presently, Turkey accepts Greek Cypriot passports, but does not stamp them. Rather, Turkish immigration officials stamp a separate visa issued by Turkey. The Republic of Turkey issues Turkish republic of northern Cyprus citizens with Turkish passports upon request to ease the travel restrictions which the TRNC passport imposes. The Republic of Cyprus however does not accept Turkish (Republic of Turkey) issued passports in any circumstances. The Republic of Cyprus refuses entry to holders of Yugoslav passports which bear a renewal stamp with "Macedonia". Austria After the fall of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918 and the establishment of the Austrian Republic, members of the former Imperial Family were exiled and forbidden to enter Austrian territory. Nevertheless, they remained Austrian citizens entitled to bear an Austrian passport. Such passports were unique in bearing the stamp stating that "this passport is valid for all countries except for Austria". The Habsburgs' exile was eventually overturned by the European Court of Human Rights and these special type of passport along with it. Hong Kong and Macau Hong Kong and Macau, local entities of the People's Republic of China, are each empowered by the Central People's Government under their respective Basic Laws to issue passports. A Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport states that the holder is a Chinese national with the right of abode in Hong Kong. Similarly, a Macao Special Administrative Region passport states that the bearer is a Chinese national with the right of abode in Macau. Hong Kong and Macau each maintains border controls at all points of entry. Even though neither travel to or from Hong Kong nor travel to or from Macau and the mainland is international travel, a Chinese passport means nothing and a traveller is required to have a permit issued by the mainland government to enter. The Public Security Bureau of Guangdong, the province adjacent to Hong Kong and Macau, issues a permit, dubbed the Home Return Permit, to Chinese citizens domiciled in Hong Kong and Macau, to allow them to enter and exit the mainlands. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport and the Macao Special Administrative Region passport are for purposes of international travel rather than interregional travel within the PRC, a proposal that the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport should supplant this permit was dismissed. Many Chinese citizens who have the right of abode in Hong Kong hold British National (Overseas) passports or British Citizen passports issued under the British Nationality Selection Scheme effected by the United Kingdom in the 1990s. The PRC, for its part, considers such Chinese citizens domiciled in Hong Kong to be solely PRC citizens. The PRC does not recognise those BN(O) passports, and does not recognise the attendant United Kingdom nationality of each, inasmuch as PRC law does not permit dual nationality. Chinese citizens domiciled in Hong Kong who hold those BN(O) and BC passports use a Home Return Permit to enter mainland China as those who do not. It is impermissible under Chinese law to renounce PRC nationality on the basis of holding a form of British nationality obtained in HK. A Chinese citizen who has the right of abode in Hong Kong may not use a BN(O) passport or an HKSAR passport in its own right for entering Taiwan. They must be used in conjunction with the Exit & Entry Permit issued by the ROC. In contrast, a British Citizen passport obtained in Hong Kong by a Chinese citizen (or a person of Chinese descent) domiciled in Hong Kong may be used in its own right to enter Taiwan. (See Visa policy of the Republic of China) A person with the right of abode in Hong Kong, a Hong Kong resident who holds a [Document of Identity for Visa Purposes], a person who has the right to land, a person who is on unconditional stay in Hong Kong, and a non-permanent resident who has a notification label, may use his smart ID card for immigration purposes, that is, to enter and exit Hong Kong. A smart ID card may not be used by a person who is under eleven years old, other than at the Lo Wu crossing. . ROC citizens who travel to Hong Kong apply for entry permits and collect them at airline counters. Repeat travellers satisfying certain conditions may apply online up to twice a month, but it is proposed that such restrictions may be relaxed. The type of permit for travel to Hong Kong, issued to a Chinese national who is domiciled on the mainland, depends on his place of residence and the purpose of his visit. . Israel The data page of an Israeli passport. In Israel's first years, Israeli passports bore the stamp "not valid for Germany", as in the aftermath of the Holocaust it was considered improper for Israelis to visit Germany on any but official state business (for which the government issued special passports to "authorized personnel"). With the gradual normalization of Israeli-German relations this limitation was removed from Israeli passports. Most Muslim countries and many African countries do not permit entry to people using an Israeli passport. In addition, Iran, Travel Advice for Iran - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Kuwait, TRAVEL REPORT - Kuwait Lebanon, Travel Advice for Lebanon - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Libya, Travel Advice for Libya - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Saudi Arabia, Michael Freund, Canada defends Saudi policy of shunning tourists who visited Israel, 7 December, 2008, Jerusalem Post Sudan, Travel Advice for Sudan - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Syria Travel Advice for Syria - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Yemen Travel Advice for Yemen - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade go further and do not allow entry to people with evidence of travel to Israel, or whose passports have a used or an unused Israeli visa. To circumvent this travel restriction, Israel did not require visitors to have passports stamped with Israeli visas or with Israeli entry and exit stamps. The procedure made it impossible to tell if a traveller had entered Israel. However, since September 2006, Israeli immigration officials will rarely agree not to stamp passports. Travel Advice for Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Foreign & Commonwealth Office The countries which do not allow entry to people with evidence of travel to Israel are aware of the entry and exit stamps stamped in passports by Egypt and Jordan at their respective land borders with Israel. Non-allowing countries prohibit entry based on the presence of a tell-tale Egyptian or Jordanian stamp. A traveller, for example, would be denied entry based on the presence of an Egyptian stamp, in his passport, which indicates that he crossed into or out of Egypt at Taba on the Egyptian-Israeli border. Furthermore, under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Yemen are classified as "enemy countries" and an Israeli citizen may not visit them without a special permit issued by the Israeli minister of the Interior. An Israeli who visits these countries, whether using an Israeli passport or not, may be prosecuted when returning to Israel. This list was set in 1954, but Egypt and Jordan were taken off the list when they signed a peace treaty with Israel. Philippines Since 2004, the Philippine Department of Foreign Affairs deemed that bearers of its passports can't travel to Iraq due to the security threats in that country. As such, Philippine passports issued from that time are stamped "Not valid for travel to Iraq". Filipino passports to be marked to prevent travel to Iraq South Korea From South Korea's viewpoint, travel from the section of the Korean peninsula under South Korean administration directly to the section of the Korean peninsula under North Korean administration is not international travel. South Korea claims by constitution the whole Korean peninsula as its territory. However, for security reasons, any South Korean who is willing to travel to the tourist area in the North has to carry his/her passport. Spain and Gibraltar Cover of a biometric Gibraltar passport. Spain does not accept United Kingdom passports issued in Gibraltar, on the ground that the Government of Gibraltar is not a competent authority for issuing UK passports. Consequently, some Gibraltarians were refused entry to Spain. The word "Gibraltar" now appears beneath the words "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" on passport covers, which is the usual format for passports of British overseas territories. Tonga Some countries decline to accept Tongan Protected Person passports, though they accept Tongan citizen passports. EU Regulation Unacceptable travel documents GEN 1.3 ENTRY, TRANSIT AND DEPARTURE OF PASSENGERS AND CREW Tongan Protected Person passports are sold by the Government of Tonga to anyone who is not a Tongan national. In the Court of the King of Tonga A holder of a Tongan Protected Person passport is forbidden to enter or settle in Tonga. Generally, those holders are refugees, stateless persons, and individuals who for political reasons do not have access to any other passport-issuing authority. United States U.S. Department of the Treasury regulations require that persons subject to U.S. jurisdiction be licensed in order to engage in any travel-related transactions pursuant to travel to, from, and within Cuba. Transactions related to tourist travel are not licensable. This restriction includes tourist travel to Cuba from or through a third country such as Mexico or Canada. . International travel without passports European Union The Belgian passport is labeled in the country's three national languages An ordinary Polish e-passport. Citizens of the member countries of the European Union are also citizens of the union itself, and this is recognised on the passports. They bear both the name of the European Union and of the issuing country (in the relevant language). Citizens of the European Economic Area (the European Union plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway) enjoy the freedom to travel and work in any European Union country without a visa, although transitory dispositions may restrict the rights of citizens of new member states to work in other countries. The same rights are also accorded to citizens of Switzerland, although they remain separate from the EEA. European citizens travelling within the European Union may use standard compliant national ID cards rather than passports. Not all EU countries produce standard compliant national ID cards, and in other countries few people obtained one, which means that many persons need a passport anyway. The up-to-now 24 countries that have signed and applied the Schengen Agreement (a subset of the EEA) do not implement passport controls between each other, unless exceptional circumstances apply. Some remaining EU countries, plus Switzerland and Liechtenstein, have signed the Schengen Agreement, but are not allowed to be included yet. The main reason is that, according to EU law, the member states which joined the EU in 2004 would have to meet strict criteria with respect to their protection of EU external borders, before intra-EU border controls between the old member states and new member states would be lifted. The Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are already admitted. Switzerland and Liechtenstein require some time to adapt their national airports and databases to the standards of the EU. As a consequence of the above, a French citizen, for example, may travel to the United Kingdom, another EEA nation, and then freely work in that country. However, since the UK has not signed the Schengen treaty, the French citizen will have to carry at least a national ID card, which will be checked at the border. On the other hand, if and when Switzerland applies the Schengen treaty, the French citizen will be able to travel to Switzerland without being stopped at the border, but he will not be able to work freely in that country without authorization, because Switzerland is not a member of the EEA. This is true notwithstanding the fact that, in most cases, authorization to work would nevertheless have to be granted by Swiss authorities according to a specific treaty on free movement which had been concluded between the EU and Switzerland. Some European countries require all persons to carry, or, at least possess, an ID card or a passport. So while Switzerland will not check French travelers' passports at the border, they may have to show their national ID cards within the country, such as when required by police officers to do so. Except at the border, ID cards are not required by UK law. There is, however, a de-facto requirement to prove one's identity to conduct business. A European has to show a European national ID card to open a UK bank account or to prove eligibility to work. Refugees and stateless persons, who do not have access to passports, may be issued a travel document by the country in which they reside. Holders of those travel documents generally require visas for international travel, and are not be entitled to consular protection. Exceptions to this include persons holding 1951 Convention Documents, who could benefit from some visa-free travel under the convention, persons who reside in the Schengen area, and persons who reside in the Nordic Passport Union area. Entering the USA without a passport (Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative) Canada and the United States: U.S. citizens flying to Canada need passports. When traveling by land between Canada and the U.S., Canadian citizens and U.S. citizens do not need passports. A government-issued ID card (e.g., Canadian Citizenship Card) or a birth certificate is accepted by each country as proof of citizenship. As of December 21, 2007, planned passport requirements have been once again delayed. U.S. citizens arriving in Canada by land or water will not need passports until June 1, 2009. The Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI) implements the requirement in the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (IRTPA) that, upon entry into the U.S. from a foreign country, each traveler is to present a passport, or some other document of identity and nationality. The WHTI does not apply to direct travel between the 50 states and the District of Columbia at the one end and United States territories at the other end. The territories include American Samoa and Swains Island, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. That travel is not foreign travel, and, so, is not subject to IRTPA. In practice, some form of identification is needed. Each air traveler must present a passport or a passport substitute. Each land or sea traveler who is a U.S. citizen must present a passport booklet; a passport card; a WHTI-compliant identity document; or a government-issued photo ID, such as a driver license, and proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Effective June 1, 2009, each land or sea traveler who is a U.S. citizen must present a passport booklet, a passport card, or a WHTI-compliant document. As of April 13, 2008, types of WHTI-compliant documents are: (1) Trusted Traveler cards (NEXUS, SENTRI, FAST); state-issued enhanced driver's licenses. Presently, only driver licenses issued by the State of Washington qualify as WHTI compliant; enhanced tribal cards; U.S. military ID cards plus military travel orders; U.S. merchant mariner ID cards, when traveling on maritime business; Native American tribal ID cards; Form I-872 American Indian card. . . Other Countries United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland: Citizens of the UK and Ireland do not require a passport to travel between those two countries (see Common Travel Area). Other EEA nationals must carry a national ID card or a passport. All other nationals require passports. The CA-4 countries: Citizens of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua do not require passports to travel between or among any of the four countries. A national ID card (cédula) is sufficient for entry. In addition, the CA-4 agreement implemented the Central American Single Visa (Visa Única Centroamericana). CARICOM countries issue a CARICOM passport to their citizens, and as of June 2009, eligible nationals in participating countries will be permitted to use the CARICOM travel card which provides for intra-community travel without a passport. Nordic countries—Denmark, including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden: The Nordic Passport Union means that Nordic citizens need only any valid identity card (which is often needed inside each country anyway). They joined the larger Schengen Agreement region in 1997, where a national identity card with citizenship is needed. The Nordic Passport Union is still valid for Nordic citizens. Lebanon and Syria: Lebanese citizens entering Syria do not require passports to enter Syria, if carrying Lebanese ID cards. Similarly, Syrian citizens do not require passports to enter Lebanon, if carrying Syrian ID cards. India, Nepal, and Bhutan: Passports are not needed by citizens of India and Nepal to travel within each other's country, but some identification is required for border crossing. Only Indians do not require passports for travelling in Bhutan while Bhutanese can travel with their citizenship identity cards. Croatia does not require passports of citizens of the member states of European Union and Bosnia and Herzegovina who have national ID cards. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Hungary, Montenegro and Slovenia do not require Croatian citizens to have a passport, only Croatian ID cards. Serbia does not require passports of citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina who have B&H ID cards. Bosnia and Herzegovina does not require Serbian citizens to have passports, only Serbian ID cards. Citizens of Serbia and citizens of Montenegro may travel between the two countries with national ID cards. Montenegro does not require passports of citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbia who have national ID cards. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbia do not require Montenegrin citizens to have a passport, only Montenegrin ID cards. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania comprise the East African Community. Each country may issue, to an eligible citizen, an East African passport. Those passports are recognised by only the three countries, and are used for travel between or among those countries. The requirements for eligibility are less rigorous than are the requirements for national passports used for other international travel. The member states of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) do not require passports for their citizens traveling within the community. National ID cards are sufficient. The member states are Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Russia and some former Soviet Union republics: The participating countries may require an internal passport, which is the equivalent of a national ID card, rather than a passport. Many Central American and South American nationals can travel within their respective regional economic zones, such as Mercosur and the Andean Community of Nations, or on a bilateral basis (e.g., between Chile and Peru, between Brazil and Chile), without passports, presenting instead their national ID cards, or, for short stays, their voter-registration cards. In some cases this travel must be done overland rather than by air. There are plans to extend these rights to all of South America under a Union of South American Nations. Turkey does not require a passport for citizens of several European countries holding national ID cards. Citizens of Greece must have the new ID card, which has the holder's details in both the Greek and the Latin alphabets. Citizens of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf countries need only national ID cards (also referred to as civil ID cards) to cross the borders of council countries. Italy and Vatican City: Italy does not require passports for travel to Vatican City, and Vatican City does not require passports for travel to Italy. The only way to get to Vatican City is through Italy, inasmuch as Vatican City is surrounded by Rome, so Italian immigration requirements are de facto those of Vatican City. The Vatican issues its own passports to officials of the Roman Catholic Church who reside in or near the Vatican, and who work there. Each Pope is always given Vatican Passport No. 1. Italy and the Republic of San Marino: San Marino is a landlocked country between the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions of Italy, and there are no border control at all between the two countries. Domestic travel that requires passports Under a special arrangement agreed during the formation of Malaysia, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak can retain their respective immigration control systems. As a result, a passport is required when traveling from Peninsular Malaysia to East Malaysia, as well as the mutual travel between the two states. Previously, Malaysian citizens from Peninsular Malaysia were required to present a Malaysian passport when travelling to East Malaysia from Peninsular Malaysia, but this is no longer required for social/business visits up to 3 months as long as they do not land in a third country (e.g. Singapore or Brunei). However, West Malaysians are required to produce a Malaysian identity card or, for children below 12 years, birth certificate, fill in a special immigration form (Document In Lieu of Internal Travel Document, IMM.114) Document In Lieu of Internal Travel Document IMM.114, Immigration Department of Malaysia; retrieved 4 March 2009 , and retain the form until they leave East Malaysia. One can avoid filling in the IMM.114 form by presenting a Malaysian passport or a Restricted Travel Document, and hence enjoy faster immigration clearance. China authorizes Hong Kong and Macau, both Special Administrative Regions, to have their own immigration control systems. Travelling between Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau, however, are not considered international. Although citizens of the People's Republic of China do not use passports to travel between the three regions (other documents, such as the Home Return Permit are used instead), foreigners are required to present their passports at the immigration control points. Holders of Hong Kong or Macau permanent resident ID cards (regardless of nationality), however, may use the ID card to enter and exit the SAR that issues it through an E-Channel, the automated immigration clearance gate. Due to the required "Shannon Stopover" in effect until 2008, early morning flights from Shannon to Dublin, Ireland were often operated as extensions of international flights from North America. Passengers travelling on such flights had to pass passport control on arrival in Dublin. Internal passport systems exist in both Russia and in China, and have historically been issued by some other countries. Immigration stamps in passports For immigration control, immigration officials of many countries stamp passports with entry stamps and exit stamps. A stamp can serve different purposes. In the United Kingdom, an immigration stamp in a passport includes the formal leave to enter granted to a person subject to entry control. Otherwise, a stamp activates or acknowledges the continuing leave conferred in the passport bearer's entry clearance. Under the Schengen system, a foreign passport is stamped with a date stamp which does not indicate any duration of stay. This stamp is taken to mean that the person is deemed to have permission to remain either for three months or for the period shown on his visa. Neither the UK nor a Schengen country is allowed to stamp the passport of a person not subject to immigration control, whether a citizen of that country or a national of another EU country. Stamping is prohibited, because a passport stamp is imposition of a control that the person is not subject to. This concept is not applicable in other countries, where a stamp in a passport simply acknowledges the entry or exit of a person. Countries have different styles of stamps for entries and exits, to make it easy to identify the movements of persons. The shape of the stamp and the colour of the ink may also provide information about movements. In Hong Kong, prior to and immediately after the 1997 transfer of sovereignty, entry and exit stamps were identical at all ports of entry, but colours differed. Airport stamps used black ink, land stamps used red ink, and sea stamps used purple ink. In Macau, under Portuguese administration, the same colour of ink was used for all stamps. The stamps had slightly-different borders to indicate entry and exit by air, land, or sea. In several countries the stamps or its colour are different if the person arrived in a car in opposite to bus/boat/train/air passenger. Immigration stamps are a useful reminder of travels. Some travellers "collect" immigration stamps in passports, and will choose to enter or exit countries via different means (for example, land, sea or air) in order to have different stamps in their passports. Visas often take the form of a stamp, although many countries now use adhesive stickers that incorporate security features to prevent forgery. Passport Cards On July 14, 2008, the United States Department of State began to issue a new form of travel document called the United States passport card, a credit card sized (ISO/IEC 7810 ID-1) ID document valid for land or sea travel to Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean and Bermuda. The passport card has the same requirements and adjudication standards for issuance as a regular passport, however it costs only $20 for those who already have a passport. The cost is $45 for those applying for the first time. The purpose of the passport card is to provide a secure document for those citizens who frequently cross the border and need a more convenient document to comply with the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative requirements. Some have speculated that the passport card may represent the format that future travel documents will take. Visas, including the "laser visa" issued to Mexican citizens, can be issued by computers and tracked electronically, eliminating the need for a traditional passport book with ink stamps. Gallery See also Biometric passport Hajj passport List of passports Nansen passport World Passport References Further reading Krueger, Stephen, Krueger on United States Passport Law. Hong Kong: Crossbow Corporation (2nd ed. 1999 & supps.). Lloyd, Martin, The Passport: The History of Man's Most Travelled Document. Canterbury, UK: Queen Anne's Fan (2nd Edition revised 2008) (ISBN 9780-95471503-8) Salter, Mark B., Rights of Passage: The Passport in International Relations. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner (2003).ISBN 9781588261458 Torpey, John, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2000). ISBN 9780521634939 The American Passport: Its History and a Digest of Laws, Rulings and Regulations Governing Its Issuance, DEPARTMENT OF STATE, (1898) at Internet Archive. League of Nations - Advisory and Technical Committee for Communications and Transit Report to Governments- 1922. At Internet Archive External links PRADO - The Council of the European Union Public Register of Authentic Travel- and ID Documents Online How Passports Work USA focused information from Howstuffworks ICAO MRTD Machine Readable Travel Documents The Optical Character Recognition standard, a free link Dateline NBC investigation into passport fraud be-x-old:Пашпарт | Passport |@lemmatized passport:349 document:44 issue:77 national:47 government:25 certify:1 purpose:8 international:24 travel:116 identity:16 nationality:14 holder:24 element:1 name:18 date:4 birth:5 sex:1 place:4 often:5 citizenship:11 congruent:1 entitle:6 entry:32 another:7 country:105 consular:3 protection:5 abroad:1 privilege:2 absence:2 special:15 agreement:6 cover:11 situation:1 however:18 normally:1 return:6 right:18 arise:1 arises:1 law:17 issuing:10 represent:3 residence:3 history:4 inside:7 old:8 polish:4 one:20 early:7 know:1 reference:2 serve:3 major:1 role:1 find:2 hebrew:1 bible:1 attribute:1 time:8 persian:1 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6,718 | London | London () is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom, and is the largest metropolitan area in the European Union. An important settlement for two millennia, London's history goes back to its founding by the Romans. Since its beginnings, London has been part of movements and phenomena, such as the English Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and the Gothic Revival in architecture. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/426 Retrieved 8 May 2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/89228.stm Retrieved 8 May 2009 The city's core, the ancient City of London, still retains its limited mediaeval boundaries; but since at least the nineteenth century, the name "London" has also referred to the whole metropolis that has developed around it. Today the bulk of this conurbation forms the London metropolitan region and the Greater London administrative area, with its own elected mayor and assembly. London is the world's foremost global city alongside New York City Global Cities: GaWC Inventory of World Cities 1999 Global cities#GaWC Inventory of World Cities (1999 Edition); Global Cities: GaWC Inventory of World Cities 2004 Global cities#GaWC Leading World Cities (2004 Edition) and the largest financial centre alongside New York City and Tokyo http://www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7654647.stm and one of the most important cultural centres. London's influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion and the arts contributes to its preeminent position. Central London is the headquarters of more than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and more than 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies. The city is a major tourist destination for both domestic and overseas visitors. London hosted the 1908 and 1948 Summer Olympic Games and will host the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. London contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; the historic settlement of Greenwich; the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; and the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey and St. Margaret's Church. London has a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, and more than 300 languages are spoken within the city. On July 2007, it had an official population of 7,556,900 within the boundaries of Greater London making it the most populous municipality in the European Union. Since 2001 the Greater London Urban Area has been the second largest in the EU after Paris with a population of 8,278,251, and the metropolitan area is estimated to have a total population of between 12 million and 14 million, the largest metropolitan area in the EU. The public transport network, administered by Transport for London, is the most extensive in the world, Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport in the world by international passenger traffic and the air space is the busiest of any city in the world. International Passenger Traffic, Airports Council International London was named by New York Magazine as the capital of the world for the 21st century. The world's longest subway system runs for 244 miles below the streets of London. The London Underground - or tube, as it's known by the locals - carries about 976 million people each year. The city's first underground railroad opened in 1863, and today it operates 500 peak trains and 275 stations. The subway's busiest station is Waterloo, which serves about 46,000 commuters during the morning rush. Throughout the subway system, some 412 escalators and 112 elevators keep commuter traffic moving. History The etymology of London remains a mystery. The earliest etymological explanation can be attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae. The name is described as originating from King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. This was slurred into Kaerludein and finally London. Many other theories have been advanced over the centuries, most of them deriving the name from Welsh or British, and occasionally from Anglo-Saxon. It is also believed the name "London" comes from the celtic word "Lyndon," which means "shadowy waters," referring to the Thames River. Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans in 43 AD as Londinium, following the Roman conquest of Britain. This Londinium lasted for just seventeen years. Around 61, the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed this first London, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000. By the 600s, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement called Lundenwic approximately upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden. It is likely that there was a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and this trading grew until the city was overcome by the Vikings and forced to relocate the city back to the location of the Roman Londinium to use its walls for protection. Viking attacks continued to increase around the rest of South East England, until 886 when Alfred the Great recaptured London and made peace with the Danish leader, Guthrum. The original Saxon city of Lundenwic became Ealdwic ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych, which is in the modern City of Westminster. Map of London in 1300, showing the medieval boundaries of the City of London In a retaliatory attack, Ethelred's army achieved victory by pulling down London Bridge with the Danish garrison on top, and English control was re-established. Canute took control of the English throne in 1016, controlling the city and country until 1035, when his death resulted in a reversion to Saxon control under his pious stepson Edward the Confessor, who re-founded Westminster Abbey and the adjacent Palace of Westminster. By this time, London had become the largest and most prosperous city in England, although the official seat of government was still at Winchester. Following a victory at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror, the then Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William granted the citizens of London special privileges, while building what is now known as the Tower of London, in the south-east corner of the city, to keep them under control. The Great Exhibition In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. Westminster became the seat of the royal court and government (persisting until the present day), while its distinct neighbour, the City of London, was a centre of trade and commerce and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. London grew in wealth and population during the Middle Ages. In 1100 its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. King Edward I issued an edict in 1290, expelling all Jews from England. Before the edict, there was an increasing population of Jews, whereas after this time, the population of Jews began to drop considerably. Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population. Apart from the invasion of London during the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, London remained relatively untouched by the various civil wars during the Middle Ages, such as the first and second Barons' Wars and the Wars of the Roses. After the successful defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, political stability in England allowed London to grow further. In 1603, James VI of Scotland came to the throne of England, essentially uniting the two countries. His enactment of harsh anti-Catholic laws made him unpopular, and an assassination attempt was made on 5 November 1605—the well-known Gunpowder Plot. The Great Fire of London destroyed many parts of the city in 1666 Plague caused extensive problems for London in the early 17th century, "A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348-1665" culminating in the Great Plague in 1665–1666 that killed 70,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of London's population. Story of the plague. Channel 4. This was the last major outbreak in England, possibly thanks to the disastrous fire of 1666. The Great Fire of London broke out in the original City and quickly swept through London's wooden buildings, destroying large swathes of the city. A first hand narrative of both plague and fire was provided by Sir Samuel Pepys. Rebuilding took over ten years, largely under direction of a Commission appointed by King Charles II, chaired by Sir Christopher Wren, and supervised by Robert Hooke as newly appointed Surveyor of London. The curious life of Robert Hooke, the man who measured London by Lisa Jardine In the 18th century, Samuel Johnson, author of A Dictionary of the English Language, famously wrote about the city: “You find no man, at all intellectual, who is willing to leave London. No, Sir, when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford." http://www.samueljohnson.com/tiredlon.html A London street hit during the Blitz of World War II Following London's growth in the 18th century, it became the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925. Rising traffic congestion on city centre roads led to the creation of the world's first rapid transit. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion. It was then replaced by the County of London, overseen by the London County Council, London's first elected city-wide administration. The Blitz and other bombing by the German Luftwaffe during World War II killed over 30,000 Londoners and destroyed large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area. Governance City Hall at night, home of the Greater London Authority Local government The administration of London is formed of two tiers — a city-wide, strategic tier and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities. The GLA consists of two elected parts; the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, who scrutinise the Mayor's decisions and can accept or reject his budget proposals each year. The GLA was set up in 2000 to replace the similar Greater London Council (GLC) which had been abolished in 1986. The headquarters of the GLA and the Mayor of London is at City Hall; the Mayor is Boris Johnson. The 33 local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for local services not overseen by the GLA, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. National government London is an important city because the Government of the United Kingdom is located around the Palace of Westminster. Many government departments are located close to Parliament, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments. Geography Scope West and central London seen from SPOT satellite London can be geographically defined in a number of ways; the situation was once open to periodic legal debate. At London's core is the small, ancient City of London which is commonly known as 'the City' or 'the Square Mile'. London's metropolitan area grew considerably during the Victorian era and again during the Interwar period, but expansion halted in the 1940s because of World War II and Green Belt legislation, and the area has been largely static since. The London region of England, also commonly known as Greater London, is the area administered by the Greater London Authority. The urban sprawl of the conurbation — or Greater London Urban Area — covers a roughly similar area, with a slightly larger population. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. Map of Central LondonForty percent of Greater London is covered by the London postal district, within which 'LONDON' forms part of the postal address. The London telephone area code covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included. The area within the orbital M25 motorway is sometimes used to define the "London area" and the Greater London boundary has been aligned to it in places. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London. Informally, the city is split into North, South, East, West and often also Central London. The Metropolitan Police District, city-wide local government area and London transport area have varied over time, but broadly coincide with the Greater London boundary. The Romans may have marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone, still visible on Cannon Street. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London (traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall) are approximately . Trafalgar Square has also become a point for celebrations and protests. Status Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have City status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are the ceremonial counties. The current area of Greater London was historically part of the counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. Unlike most capital cities, London's status as the capital of the UK has never been granted or confirmed officially — by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. According to the Collins English Dictionary definition (1994) Collins English Dictionary. Collins Education plc. of 'the seat of government,' London is not the capital of England, as England does not have its own government. However according to the Oxford English Reference dictionary definition Oxford English Reference Dictionary. Oxford English. of 'the most important town...' and many other authorities, "HC 501 0304.PDF" (PDF). Parliament Publications. Retrieved on 2008-06-06. 'England' (1994) Collins English Dictionary. Collins Education plc. London is the capital of England. Topography Greater London covers an area of . Its primary geographical feature is the Thames, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=M9qvtYYhRtAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=thames+%22iron+age%22+london+wide+geography+shallow+marsh&ots=wVDtRsVF-V&sig=GFqR9QKs45u-ggfYI0dcCA3GUzc#PPA10,M1|title=London: A History, by Francis Sheppard page 10.|publisher=Google Books|accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref> Since the Victorian era it has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound. In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2030, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed. Climate London has a temperate marine climate (Koppen climate classification Cfb), like much of the British Isles, so the city rarely sees extremely high or low temperatures. Summers are warm with average high temperatures of - and lows of - . But temperatures can exceed on many days, and in almost every year they exceed on some days. The highest temperature ever recorded was on 10th August 2003. Winters in London are chilly, but rarely below freezing with daytime highs around - , while spring has mild days and cool evenings. The lowest ever recorded temperature is . Autumn is usually mild but often unsettled as colder air from the north and warmer air from the south meet, occasionally deep depressions form like the Great Storm of 1987. London is a relatively dry city with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year, with average precipitation of every year. Snow is relatively uncommon, particularly because heat from the urban area can make London up to 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the surrounding areas in winter. Some snowfall, however, is usually seen up to a few times a year. The snowfall of February 2009 was the heaviest London had seen for 18 years. London is in USDA Hardiness zone 9, and AHS Heat Zone 2. In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, London was noted for its dense fogs and smogs. Following the deadly Great Smog of 1952, the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed, leading to the decline of such severe pollution in the capital. Districts London's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names (e.g. Bloomsbury, Knightsbridge, Mayfair, Whitechapel, Fitzrovia). These are either informal designations, or reflect the names of superseded villages, parishes and city wards. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but often with no modern official boundaries. However, since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London. The City of London is one of the world's three largest financial centres (alongside New York and Tokyo) with a dominant role in several international financial markets, including cross-border bank lending, international bond issuance and trading, foreign-exchange trading, over-the-counter derivatives, fund management and foreign equities trading. It also has the world's largest insurance market, the leading exchange for dealing in non-precious metals, the largest spot gold and gold lending markets, the largest ship broking market, and more foreign banks and investment houses than any other centre. The City has its own governance and boundaries, giving it a status as the only completely autonomous local authority in London. London's new financial and commercial hub is the Docklands area to the east of the City, dominated by the Canary Wharf complex. Other businesses locate in the City of Westminster, the home of the UK's national government and the well-known Westminster Abbey. The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, with locations such as Oxford Street, Leicester Square, Covent Garden and Piccadilly Circus acting as tourist magnets. The West London area is known for fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, Knightsbridge and Chelsea — where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for all properties in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is £894,000 with similar average outlay in most of Central London. The eastern region of London contains the East End and East London. The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which is being developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics. City of London City of Westminster Kensington and Chelsea Hammersmith and Fulham Wandsworth Lambeth Southwark Tower Hamlets Hackney Islington Camden Brent Ealing Hounslow Richmond Kingston Merton Sutton Croydon Bromley Lewisham Greenwich Bexley Havering Barking and Dagenham Redbridge Newham Waltham Forest Haringey Enfield Barnet Harrow Hillingdon Cityscape London has the most skyscrapers in Europe with 570 buildings, most of them located in Isle of Dogs and City of London Demography With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world until overtaken by New York in 1925. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of World War 2. There were an estimated 7,556,900 official residents in Greater London as of mid-2007. However, London's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 8,278,251 people in 2001, while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition used. According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe (or third if Istanbul is included). The region covers an area of . The population density is , more than ten times that of any other British region. In terms of population, London is the 25th largest city and the 17th largest metropolitan region in the world. It is also ranked 4th in the world in number of billionaires (United States Dollars) residing in the city. London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow. Ethnic groups According to the Office for National Statistics based on 2006 estimates, 58.0% of the 7.5 million inhabitants of London were classed as the indigenous White British, 2.5% were White Irish and 8.9% were classified as "Other White" - the majority of whom are Turkish Cypriots, Italians and Germans. Some 13.1% of people are of South Asian descent, the largest are Indians (6.5%), then Bangladeshis (2.3%), Pakistanis (2.3%), and 2% "Other Asian" (mostly Sri Lankan and others). 10.7% of people are Black (around 5% are Black African, 5% as Black Caribbean, 0.7% as "Other Black"). 3.5% are of mixed race; 1.5% are Chinese; and 1.5% of people belong to another ethnic group. 30% of inhabitants were born outside the European Union. The Irish born, from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, number approximately 250,000 and are the largest group born outside of Great Britain. In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken and more than 50 non-indigenous communities which have a population of more than 10,000 in London. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, as of 2006, London's foreign-born population is 2,288,000 (31%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997. The 2001 census showed that 27.1% of Greater London's population were born outside the UK, and a slightly higher proportion were classed as non-white. As of 2008, 40% of London's total population was from an ethnic minority group. London’s black and minority communities helped to have a greater voice. londoncouncils.gov.uk Across London, Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four. The table to the right shows the 'Country of Birth' of London residents in 2001, the date of the last UK Census. (Top 21). Note that a portion of the German-born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Religion Westminster Abbey is one of London's oldest and most important buildings and a World Heritage Site. The majority of Londoners - 58.2% - identify themselves as Christians. This is followed by those of no religion (15.8%), Muslims (8.5%), Hindus (4.1%), Jews (2.1%), Sikhs (1.5%), Buddhists (0.8%), Pagans/Wiccans (0.3%) and other (0.2%), though 8.7% of people did not answer this question in the 2001 Census. London has traditionally been dominated by Christianity, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is very low within the Anglican denomination, although church attendance, particularly at evangelical Anglican churches in London, has started to increase. London is also home to sizeable Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, and Jewish communities. Many Muslims live in Tower Hamlets and Newham; the most important Muslim edifice is London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park. London's large Hindu community is found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which is home to one of Europe's largest Hindu temples, Neasden Temple. Sikh communities are located in East and West London, which is also home to the largest Sikh temple in the world outside India. The majority of British Jews live in London, with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Hendon, and Edgware in North London. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe, overtaking Ilford synagogue (also in London) in 1998. The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2007 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government. Economy The City of London is the world's largest financial centre alongside New York City and Tokyo http://www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7654647.stm London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is one of three "command centres" for the world economy (with New York City and Tokyo). According to 2005 estimates by the PricewaterhouseCoopers accounting firm, London has the 6th largest city economy in the world after Tokyo, New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Paris. London generates approximately 20% of the UK's GDP (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy of the London metropolitan area — the second largest in Europe — generates approximately 30% of the UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005). London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world and vies with New York City as the most important location for international finance. London's success as a service industry and business centre can be attributed to factors such as English being the native and dominant language of business, close relationship with the U.S. and various countries in Asia. Other factors include English law being the most important and most used contract law in international business and the multi-cultural infrastructure. Government policies such as low taxes, particularly for foreigners (non-UK domiciled residents do not get taxed on their foreign earnings), a business friendly environment, good transport infrastructure and a deregulated economy with little intervention by the government have all contributed to London's economy becoming more service based. Over 85% (3.2 million) of the employed population of Greater London works in service industries. Another half a million employees resident in Greater London work in manufacturing and construction, almost equally divided between both. The three tallest skyscrapers as of 2008 in Canary Wharf as viewed from Cabot Square. It is home to such companies as HSBC and Reuters. London's largest industry remains finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. London is home to banks, brokers, insurers and legal and accounting firms. A second, smaller financial district is developing at Canary Wharf to the east of the city which includes the global headquarters of HSBC, Reuters, Barclays and the Magic Circle, which includes Clifford Chance, the largest law firm in the world. London handled 31% of global currency transactions — an average daily turnover of US$753 billion — with more US dollars traded in London than New York, and more euros traded than in every other city in Europe combined. More than half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies are headquartered in central London. Over 70% of the FTSE 100 are located within London's metropolitan area, and 75% of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. The City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyds of London insurance market. Along with professional services, media companies are concentrated in London (see Media in London) and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector (after central banking, the most competitive sector). The BBC is a key employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers are edited in London, having traditionally been associated with Fleet Street in the city; they are now primarily based around Canary Wharf. Science and research and development are playing an increasingly important role in shaping the economy of modern London with 1,340 million euros of public funding, 25 research institutes and medical schools and 23 National Health Service hospitals. The city has 175,000 health-care professionals, 6,000 scientists specialising in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology and, yearly, 80,000 medical and science students studying at universities and colleges. London's private concerns conducting scientific research, as many as 100 in the life science sector alone in 2008, are growing in number twice as fast as in the rest of the United Kingdom. Due to its prominent global role, London has been hit hard by the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. The City of London estimates that 70,000 jobs in finance will be cut within barely a year. Several foreign banks have started to move off employees from London to their national financial centres, notably Dresdner Kleinwort, BNP Paribas and Santander. Other banks, including UBS, Credit Suisse, Bank of America and Citigroup are primarily cutting their workforce in London. Tourism is one of London's prime industries and employs the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003, while annual expenditure by tourists is around £15 billion. "", Visit London. Retrieved on 3 June 2006. A study carried out by Euromonitor in October 2007 places London at first place out of 150 of the world's most popular cities, attracting 15.6 million international tourists in 2006. This puts London far ahead of 2nd place Bangkok (10.35 million) and 3rd place Paris (just 9.7 million). London attracts 27 million overnight-stay visitors every year. "", Visit London. Retrieved on 3 June 2006. The Port of London is the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 53 million tonnes of cargo each year. Architecture The O2, one of the largest dome structures in the world. London is too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, having accumulated its buildings over a long period of time and drawn on a wide range of influences. It is, however, mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings. Many grand houses and public buildings (such as the National Gallery) are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, except for a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. The disused (but soon to be rejuvenated) 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St Pancras and Paddington (at least internally). The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in the suburbs. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is achieved with medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers such as the notable "Gherkin", Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square are usually found in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape, and the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, located by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now used as an entertainment venue known as The O2. The development of tall buildings has been encouraged in the London Plan, which will lead to the erection of many new skyscrapers over the next decade, particularly in the City of London and Canary Wharf. The 72-storey, "Shard London Bridge" by London Bridge station, the Bishopsgate Tower and many other skyscrapers over are either proposed or approved and could transform the city's skyline. As of July 2008, there are 426 high-rise buildings (between 23 m to 150 m/75 ft to 491 ft) under construction, approved for construction, and proposed for construction in London. A great many monuments pay homage to people and events in the city. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of the centre. Parks and gardens The largest parks in the central area of London are the Royal Parks of Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens at the western edge of central London and Regent's Park on the northern edge. This park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is located near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Closer to central London are the smaller Royal Parks of Green Park and St. James's Park. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south-east and Bushy Park and Richmond Park to the south-west, as well as Victoria Park, East London to the east. Primrose Hill to the north of Regent's Park is a popular spot to view the city skyline. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the Hampstead Heath of North London. This incorporates Kenwood House, the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks. Society and culture The busy Piccadilly Circus. Accent Traditionally the London accent has been given the famous Cockney label, and was similar to many accents of the South East of England, developing a unique form of slang known as Cockney Rhyming Slang. The accent of a 21st century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under 30s however is some fusion of Cockney, Received Pronunciation, and a whole array of 'ethnic' accents, in particular Caribbean, which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English (MLE). Leisure and entertainment The Trooping the Colour held in 2006 to mark the Queen's 80th birthday.The Queen's Theatre in the West End theatre district Within the City of Westminster, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district, and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The United Kingdom's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, The London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre and the Royal Albert Hall as well as touring the country. Islington's long Upper Street, extending Northwards from The Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK. Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly long — which makes it the longest shopping street in the world — and home to many shops and department stores including Selfridges. Knightsbridge — home to the Harrods department store — lies just to the southwest. London is home to designers Vivienne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris, Milan and New York. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese food restaurants of Chinatown. There are a variety of regular annual events in the city. The beginning of the year is celebrated with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, while traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday. Literature and film Charles Dickens (1812–1870), whose works formed a pervasive image of Victorian London. London has been the setting for many works of literature. The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Two writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire, and Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London. The earlier (1722) A Journal of the Plague Year by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based in London, and some of his work — most notably his play The Alchemist — was set in the state. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are the afore-mentioned Dickens novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's illustrious Sherlock Holmes stories. A modern writer pervasively influenced by the city is Peter Ackroyd, in works such as London: The Biography, The Lambs of London and Hawksmoor. London was also the setting of Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street London has played a significant role in the film industry, and has major studios at Pinewood, Ealing, Shepperton, Elstree and Leavesden, as well as an important special effects and post-production community centred in Soho in central London. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. The city also hosts a number of performing arts schools, including The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), the Central School of Speech and Drama (alumni: Judi Dench and Laurence Olivier) and the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (alumni: Jim Broadbent). The London Film Festival is held each year in October. Museums and Art Galleries London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions which are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The Natural History Museum (biology and geology), Science Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum (fashion and design) are clustered in South Kensington's "museum quarter", while the British Museum houses historic artefacts from around the world. The British Library at St Pancras is the UK's national library, housing 150 million items. The city also houses extensive art collections, primarily in the National Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern. Music The Royal Albert Hall hosts concerts and musical events. London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and is home to major music corporations, such as EMI and Decca Records, as well as countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. London is home to many orchestras and concert halls such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (BBC Promenade Concerts). London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the Coliseum Theatre. London is home to the UK's largest pipe organ, at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are found at the cathedrals and major churches. Several conservatoires are located within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama, and Trinity College of Music. London has numerous renowned venues for rock and pop concerts, including large arenas such as Earls Court, Wembley Arena and the O2 Arena, as well as numerous mid-size venues, such as Brixton Academy, Hammersmith Apollo and The Shepherd's Bush Empire. London also hosts many music festivals, including the O2 Wireless Festival. London is home to the first and original Hard Rock Cafe and the illustrious Abbey Road Studios where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. Musicians such as Bob Marley, Madonna, Rick Astley, Jimi Hendrix and Freddie Mercury have lived in London. A large number of musical artists originate from or are most strongly associated with London, including Elton John, George Michael, David Bowie, Ian Dury, Ultravox, The Kinks, Adam Faith, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Madness, The Jam, Blur, Iron Maiden, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Elvis Costello, Dusty Springfield, Queen, Sarah Brightman, The Yardbirds and The Small Faces. London was instrumental in the development of punk music, http://allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:204 with figures such as the Sex Pistols, The Clash, and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include Coldplay, the Sugababes, The Libertines, Bloc Party, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Lily Allen, McFly, Razorlight, Adele, Dizzee Rascal and Natasha Bedingfield. London is also a centre for Urban music. In particular the genres UK Garage, Drum and Bass, dubstep and Grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Black music station BBC 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of homegrown urban music both in London and the rest of the UK. Sport Wembley Stadium is home to English football and is the most expensive stadium in the world. The Wimbledon Championships, a tennis Grand Slam tournament. London has hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1908 and 1948. In July 2005 London was chosen to host the Games in 2012, which will make it the first city in the world to host the Summer Olympics three times. London was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934. London's most popular sport (for both participants and spectators) is football. London has thirteen League football clubs, including five in the Premier League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Fulham, Tottenham Hotspur and West Ham United. London also has four rugby union teams in the Guinness Premiership (London Irish, Saracens, Wasps and Harlequins), although only the Harlequins play in London (all the other three now play outside Greater London, although Saracens still play within the M25). There are two professional rugby league clubs in London - Harlequins Rugby League who play in the Super League at the Stoop and the National League 2 side the London Skolars (based in Haringey). Since 1924, the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English national football team, and served as the venue for the FA Cup final as well as rugby league's Challenge Cup final. The new Wembley Stadium serves exactly the same purposes and has a capacity of 90,000. Twickenham Stadium in west London is the national rugby union stadium, and has a capacity of 84,000 now that the new south stand has been completed. Cricket in London centres on its two Test cricket grounds at Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C) in St John's Wood, and The Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C) in Kennington. One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon. Other key events are the annual mass-participation London Marathon which sees some 35,000 runners attempt a course around the city, and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the River Thames between Putney and Mortlake. Transport Transport is one of the four areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, however the mayor's financial control is limited and he does not control the heavy rail network, although in November 2007 he assumed responsibility for the North London Railway as well as several other lines, to form London Overground. The public transport network, administered by Transport for London (TfL), is one of the most extensive in the world, but faces congestion and reliability issues, which a large investment programme is attempting to address, including £7 billion (€10 billion) of improvements planned for the Olympics. London has been commended as the city with the best public transport. Cycling is an increasingly popular way to get around London. The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision. Railways The London Underground is the oldest, and one of the longest and most expansive metro systems in the world, dating from 1863. The centrepiece of the public transport network is the London Underground — commonly referred to as The Tube — which has eleven interconnecting lines. It is one of the oldest, longest, and most expansive metro systems in the world, dating from 1863. The system was home to the world's first underground electric line, the City & South London Railway, which began service in 1890. Over three million journeys a day are made on the Underground network, nearly 1 billion journeys each year. The Underground serves the central area and most suburbs to the north of the Thames, while those to the south are served by an extensive suburban rail surface network, due partly to more difficult geology south of the river. The Docklands Light Railway is a second metro system using smaller and lighter trains, which opened in 1987, serving East London and Greenwich on both sides of the Thames. Commuter and intercity railways generally do not cross the city, instead running into fourteen terminal stations scattered around its historic centre; the exception is the Thameslink route operated by First Capital Connect, with terminus stations at Bedford, Brighton and Moorgate. Since the early 1990s, increasing pressures on the commuter rail and Underground networks have led to increasing demands — particularly from businesses and the City of London Corporation — for Crossrail: a £10 billion east–west heavy rail connection under central London, which was given the green light in early October 2007. High-speed Eurostar trains link St Pancras International with Lille and Paris in France, and Brussels in Belgium. Journey times to Paris and Brussels of 2h 15 and 1h 51 respectively make London closer to continental Europe than the rest of Britain by virtue of the newly completed High Speed 1 rail link to the Channel Tunnel. From 2009 this line will also allow for high speed domestic travel from Kent into London. The redevelopment of St. Pancras was key to London's Olympic bid, as the station also serves two international airports through Thameslink, and will also provide direct rail links to the Olympic site at Stratford using British Rail Class 395 trains running under the Olympic Javelin name; these will be based on Japanese Shinkansen high-speed trains. Buses The modern Enviro400 double-decker bus London's bus network is one of the largest in the world, running 24 hours a day, with 8,000 buses, 700 bus routes, and over 6 million passenger journeys made every weekday. In 2003, the network's ridership was estimated at over 1.5 billion passenger trips per annum, more than the Underground. Around £850 million is taken in revenue each year. London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world and, from the 3rd quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. The distinctive red double-decker buses are internationally recognised, and are a trademark of London transport along with black cabs and the Tube. Air Terminal 5 at Heathrow Airport, which is the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic. London is a major international air transport hub with the largest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the words London Airport'' in their name, but most traffic passes through one of five major airports. London Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways. In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened, and plans are already being considered for a sixth terminal. Similar traffic, with the addition of some low-cost short-haul flights, is also handled at London Gatwick Airport. London Stansted Airport the main hub for Ryanair, and London Luton Airport cater mostly for low-cost short-haul flights. London City Airport, the smallest and most central airport, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic. London Southend Airport is developing new service in 2009 in addition to existing business aviation and cargo services. There has been continued controversy over expanding capacity such as building a third runway at Heathrow and building a new airport. Roads Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport, travel in outer London is car-dominated. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (in the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, outside the built-up area) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes — but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. The M25 is the longest ring-road motorway in the world at long. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s. In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay £8 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of congested central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a vastly reduced season pass which is renewed monthly and is cheaper than a corresponding bus fare. London is notorious for its traffic congestion, with the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the country. It has been worked out that the average speed of a car in the rush hour in London is 10.6 mph. Education Royal Holloway, as a part of the University of London, a federation of London higher education institutions Home to a range of universities, colleges and schools, London has a student population of about 378,000 and is a centre of research and development. Most primary and secondary schools in London follow the same system as the rest of England — comprehensive schooling. With 125,000 students, the University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the United Kingdom and in Europe. It comprises 20 colleges as well as several smaller institutes each with a high degree of autonomy. Constituent colleges have their own admissions procedures, and are effectively universities in their own right, although most degrees are awarded by the University of London rather than the individual colleges. Its constituents include multi-disciplinary colleges such as Royal Holloway, Birkbeck, UCL, King's, Goldsmiths, Queen Mary and more specialised institutions such as the London School of Economics, SOAS, the Royal Academy of Music, the Courtauld Institute of Art and the Institute of Education. Imperial College London and University College London have been ranked among the top ten universities in the world by The Times Higher Education Supplement: in 2008 Imperial was ranked the 6th best and UCL the 7th best university in the world. In addition, the London School of Economics is the world‘s leading social science institution for teaching and research, plus has the most international student body of any university in the world today. A number of colleges are dedicated to the fine arts, including the Royal College of Music, Royal College of Art, and Guildhall School of Music and Drama. Senate House, the headquarters of the federal University of London London's other universities, such as Brunel University, City University, London Metropolitan University, Middlesex University, University of East London, University of the Arts London, University of Westminster, Kingston University and London South Bank University are not part of the University of London but are still leaders in their field and popular choices among students both nationally and internationally. Some were polytechnics until they were granted university status in 1992, and others which were founded much earlier. Imperial College London left the federal University of London in 2007. Since the merger of University of North London and London Guildhall University in 2003, London Metropolitan University is the largest unitary university in the capital, with over 34,000 students from 155 countries. About London Met London Metropolitan University, August 2008 London is also known globally for its business education, with the London Business School (ranked 1st in Europe — Business Week) and Cass Business School (Europe's largest finance school) both being top world-rated business schools. In addition there are three international universities: Schiller International University, Richmond University and Regent's College. Twin cities There are 46 other places on six continents named after London. Jack Malvern. Richmond, in Surrey, is the most widely copied British place name worldwide, timesonline 2008-12-29. The original byline for the article in The Times of the same day was "The 55 corners of foreign fields that will be for ever ... Richmond" (page 9). Cites The Times Universal Atlas of the World. As well as London's twinning, the Boroughs of London have twinnings with parts of other cities across the world. Shown below is the list of cities that the Greater London Authority is twinned with : New York City, Moscow, Berlin, The following cities have a friendship agreement with London: Baku, Buenos Aires, Sofia, Delhi, Mumbai, Bogotá, Istanbul, Paris, Tehran, Tokyo, Beijing, Podgorica, Algiers, Zagreb, See also Global city Geography of England Large Cities Climate Leadership Group Largest European cities and metropolitan areas Great Smog of 1952 London Assembly Megacity References Further reading External links Mayor of London, London Assembly and the Greater London Authority – Official city government site VisitLondon.com – Official London site BBC London Office for National Statistics: Focus on London 2007 – compendium of official statistics about London Map of Early Modern London – Historical Map and Encyclopaedia of Shakespeare's London (Scholarly) Museum of London Group Portal - Home Transport for London (TfL) – city transport authority History of London – The history of London over 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6,719 | Aeacus | Aeacus and Telamon by Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune. Aeacus (also spelled Eäcus, Greek , "bewailing" or "earth borne") was a mythological king of the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf. He was son of Zeus and Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus. He was born in the island of Oenone or Oenopia, to which Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents, and whence this island was afterwards called Aegina. Apollodorus, iii. 12. § 6 Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 52 Pausanias ii. 29. § 2 comp. Nonn. Dionys. vi. 212 Ovid, Metamorphoses vi. 113, vii. 472, &c. According to some accounts Aeacus was a son of Zeus and Europa. Some traditions related that at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus changed the ants () of the island into men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or that he made men grow up out of the earth. Hesiod, Fragm. 67, ed. Gottling Pausanias, l.c. Ovid, on the other hand, supposes that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, and states that, in the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off, and that Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men. Ovid, Metamorphoses vii. 520 comp. Hygin. Fab. 52 Strabo, viii. p. 375 These legends are nothing but a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. Aeacus while he reigned in Aegina was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves. Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii. 48, &c. Pausanias, i. 39. § 5 He was such a favourite with the latter, that, when Greece was visited by a drought in consequence of a murder which had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods that it might. Diodorus Siculus, iv. 60, 61 Aeacus prayed, and it ceased in consequence. Aeacus himself showed his gratitude by erecting a temple to Zeus Panhellenius on mount Panhellenion, Pausanias, ii. 30. § 4 and the Aeginetans afterwards built a sanctuary in their island called Aeaceum, which was a square place enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar in this sacred enclosure. Pausanias, ii. 29. § 6 A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. Pindar, Olympian Odes viii. 39, &c. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and while the two of them which attacked those parts of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the part built by Aeacus. Hereupon Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall through the hands of Aeacus's descandants, the Aeacidae. Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs to protect it against pirates. Pausanias, ii. 29. § 5 Several other incidents connected with the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid. Ovid, Metamorphoses vii. 506, &c., ix. 435, &c By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon and Peleus, and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the two others, both of whom contrived to kill Phocus during a contest, and then fled from their native island. After his death, Aeacus became (along with the Cretan brothers Rhadamanthys & Minos) one of the three judges in Hades, Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. 25 Horace, Carmen ii. 13. 22 and according to Plato especially for the shades of Europeans. Plato, Gorgias p. 523 Isocrates, Evag. 5 In works of art he was represented bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Pindar, Isthmian Odes viii. 47, &c. Aeacus had sanctuaries both at Athens and in Aegina, Hesychius s.v. Schol. ad Pind. Nem. xiii. 155 and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island. Pindar, Nemean Odes viii. 22 In The Frogs (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and announces himself as Heracles. Aeacus laments Heracles's theft of Cerberus and sentences Dionysus to Acheron and torment by hounds of Cocytus, Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons. Alexander the Great traced his ancestry (through his mother) to Aeacus. References Sources External links Greek Mythology Link (Carlos Parada) - Aeacus | Aeacus |@lemmatized aeacus:23 telamon:2 jean:1 michel:1 moreau:1 le:1 jeune:1 also:2 spell:1 eäcus:1 greek:2 bewail:1 earth:2 borne:1 mythological:1 king:1 island:10 aegina:9 saronic:1 gulf:1 son:4 zeus:6 daughter:1 river:1 god:4 asopus:2 bear:4 oenone:1 oenopia:1 carry:2 secure:1 anger:1 parent:1 whence:1 afterwards:3 call:3 apollodorus:1 iii:1 gaius:1 julius:1 hyginus:1 fabulae:1 pausanias:6 ii:5 comp:2 nonn:1 dionys:1 vi:2 ovid:6 metamorphose:4 vii:3 c:7 accord:2 account:2 europa:1 tradition:1 relate:1 time:3 yet:1 inhabit:1 change:2 ant:2 men:4 myrmidon:1 rule:1 make:1 grow:1 hesiod:1 fragm:1 ed:1 gottling:1 l:1 hand:2 suppose:1 unin:1 habit:2 birth:1 state:1 reign:2 hera:1 jealous:1 ravage:1 name:1 latter:2 send:1 plague:1 fearful:1 dragon:2 nearly:1 inhabitant:1 restore:1 population:1 hygin:1 fab:1 strabo:1 viii:5 p:2 legend:2 nothing:1 mythical:1 colonization:1 seem:1 originally:1 pelasgians:1 receive:1 colonist:1 phthiotis:1 seat:1 myrmi:1 phlius:1 renowned:1 greece:2 justice:1 piety:1 fre:1 quently:1 upon:1 settle:1 dispute:1 among:2 even:1 pindar:5 isthmian:2 ode:4 favourite:1 visit:1 drought:1 consequence:2 murder:1 commit:1 oracle:1 delphi:1 declare:1 calamity:1 would:2 cease:2 unless:1 pray:2 might:1 diodorus:1 siculus:1 iv:1 show:1 gratitude:1 erect:1 temple:1 panhellenius:1 mount:1 panhellenion:1 aeginetans:3 build:4 sanctuary:2 aeaceum:1 square:1 place:1 enclose:1 wall:4 white:1 marble:1 believe:2 later:1 bury:1 altar:1 sacred:1 enclosure:1 preserve:1 relates:1 apollo:2 poseidon:1 take:1 assistant:1 troy:2 olympian:1 work:2 complete:1 three:2 rush:1 two:3 attack:1 part:2 fell:1 dead:1 third:1 force:1 way:1 city:1 hereupon:1 prophesy:1 fall:1 descandants:1 aeacidae:1 surround:1 high:1 cliff:1 protect:1 pirate:1 several:1 incident:1 connect:1 story:1 mention:1 ix:1 endeïs:1 peleus:1 psamathe:1 phocus:2 prefer:1 others:1 contrive:1 kill:1 contest:1 flee:1 native:1 death:1 become:1 along:1 cretan:1 brother:1 rhadamanthys:1 minos:1 one:1 judge:1 hades:3 xiii:2 horace:1 carmen:1 ing:1 plato:2 especially:1 shade:1 european:1 gorgias:1 isocrates:1 evag:1 art:1 represent:1 sceptre:1 key:1 athens:1 hesychius:1 v:1 schol:1 ad:1 pind:1 nem:1 regard:1 tutelary:1 deity:1 nemean:1 frog:1 bc:1 aristophanes:1 dionysus:2 descends:1 announces:1 heracles:2 lament:1 theft:1 cerberus:1 sentence:1 acheron:1 torment:1 hound:1 cocytus:1 echidna:1 tartesian:1 eel:1 tithrasian:1 gorgon:1 alexander:1 great:1 trace:1 ancestry:1 mother:1 reference:1 source:1 external:1 link:2 mythology:1 carlos:1 parada:1 |@bigram jean_michel:1 saronic_gulf:1 gaius_julius:1 julius_hyginus:1 hyginus_fabulae:1 ovid_metamorphose:4 zeus_europa:1 oracle_delphi:1 diodorus_siculus:1 pindar_olympian:1 olympian_ode:1 plato_gorgias:1 external_link:1 |
6,720 | Louis_IX_of_France | Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), commonly Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death. He was also styled Louis II, Count of Artois from 1226 to 1237. Born at Poissy, near Paris, he was a member of the House of Capet, the son of Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile. He established the Parliament of Paris. He is the only canonized king of France; consequently, there are many places named after him, most notably, St. Louis, Missouri, in the United States. Saint Louis was also a tertiary of the Order of the Holy Trinity and Captives (known as the Trinitarians). On 11 June 1256, the General Chapter of the Trinitarian Order formally affiliated Louis IX at the famous monastery of Cerfroid, which had been constructed by Felix of Valois north of Paris. Sources Much of what is known of Louis's life comes from Jean de Joinville's famous biography of Louis, Life of Saint Louis. Joinville was a close friend, confidant, and counsellor to the king, and also participated as a witness in the papal inquest into Louis' life that ended with his canonization in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII. Coin of Saint Louis, Cabinet des Médailles. – The Latin inscription reads LVDOVICVS (i.e. "Louis") DEI GRACIA (i.e. "by the Grace of God", where Latin gratia was spelt gracia) FRANCOR REX (i.e. "King of the Franks", where Francor. is the abbrevation of Francorum). Two other important biographies were written by the king's confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and his chaplain, William of Chartres. The fourth important source of information is William of Saint-Pathus' biography, which he wrote using the papal inquest mentioned above. While several individuals wrote biographies in the decades following the king's death, only Jean of Joinville, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres wrote from personal knowledge of the king. Early life Louis was born in 1214 at Poissy, near Paris, the son of King Louis VIII and Blanche of Castile. A member of the House of Capet, Louis was twelve years old when his father died on November 8, 1226. He was crowned king within the month at the Reims cathedral. Because of Louis's youth, his mother ruled France as regent during his minority. His younger brother Charles I of Sicily (1227–85) was created count of Anjou, thus founding the second Angevin dynasty. No date is given for the beginning of Louis's personal rule. His contemporaries viewed his reign as co-rule between the king and his mother, though historians generally view the year 1234 as the year in which Louis began ruling personally, with his mother assuming a more advisory role. She continued as an important counselor to the king until her death in 1252. On May 27, 1234, Louis married Marguerite of Provence (1221 – December 21, 1295), whose sister Eleanor was the wife of Henry III of England. Crusading When he was 15, Louis' mother brought an end to the Albigensian Crusade in 1229 after signing an agreement with Count Raymond VII of Toulouse that cleared his father of wrong-doing. Raymond VI of Toulouse had been suspected of murdering a preacher on a mission to convert the Cathars. Louis's piety and kindness towards the poor was much celebrated. He went on two crusades, in his mid-30s in 1248 (Seventh Crusade) and then again in his mid-50s in 1270 (Eighth Crusade). He had begun with the rapid capture of the port of Damietta in June 1249, Tyerman, p. 787 an attack which did cause some disruption in the Muslim Ayyubid empire, especially as the current sultan was on his deathbed. But the march from Damietta towards Cairo through the Nile River Delta went slowly. During this time, the Ayyubid sultan died, and a sudden power shift took place, as the sultan's slave wife Shajar al-Durr set events in motion which were to make her Queen, and eventually place the Egyptians' slave army of the Mamluks in power. On April 6, 1250 Louis lost his army at the Battle of Fariskur and was captured by the Egyptians. His release was eventually negotiated, in return for a ransom of 400,000 livres tournois (at the time France's annual revenue was only about 250,000 livres tournois, so it was necessary to obtain a loan from the Templars), and the surrender of the city of Damietta. Tyerman, pp. 789-798 Following his release from Egyptian captivity, Louis spent four years in the crusader Kingdoms of Acre, Caesarea, and Jaffe. Louis used his wealth to assist the crusaders in rebuilding their defenses and conducting diplomacy with the Islamic powers of Syria and Egypt. Upon his departure from the Middle East, Louis left a significant garrison in the city of Acre for its defense against Islamic attacks. The historic presence of this French garrison in the Middle East was later used as a justification for the French Mandate following the end of the First World War. Louis exchanged multiple letters and emissaries with Mongol rulers of the period. During his first crusade in 1248, Louis was approached by envoys from Eljigidei, the Mongol ruler of Armenia and Persia. Eljigidei suggested that King Louis should land in Egypt, while Eljigidei attacked Baghdad, in order to prevent the Saracens of Egypt and those of Syria from joining forces. Louis sent André de Longjumeau, a Dominican priest, as an emissary to the Great Khan Güyük Khan in Mongolia. However, Güyük died before the emissary arrived at his court, and nothing concrete occurred. Louis dispatched another envoy to the Mongol court, the Franciscan William of Rubruck, who went to visit the Great Khan Möngke Khan in Mongolia. Patron of arts and arbiter of Europe Pope Innocent IV with Louis IX at Cluny Louis' patronage of the arts drove much innovation in Gothic art and architecture, and the style of his court radiated throughout Europe by both the purchase of art objects from Parisian masters for export and by the marriage of the king's daughters and female relatives to foreign husbands and their subsequent introduction of Parisian models elsewhere. Louis' personal chapel, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. Louis most likely ordered the production of the Morgan Bible, a masterpiece of medieval painting. Saint Louis ruled during the so-called "golden century of Saint Louis", when the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically. The king of France was regarded as a primus inter pares among the kings and rulers of the continent. He commanded the largest army, and ruled the largest and most wealthy kingdom of Europe, a kingdom which was the European center of arts and intellectual thought (La Sorbonne) at the time. The prestige and respect felt in Europe for King Louis IX was due more to the attraction that his benevolent personality created rather than to military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince, and embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. His reputation of saintliness and fairness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions he was chosen as an arbiter in the quarrels opposing the rulers of Europe. Religious zeal The Holy Crown of Jesus Christ was bought by Louis IX from Baldwin II of Constantinople. It is preserved today in a 19th century reliquary, in Notre Dame de Paris. The perception of Louis IX as the exemplary Christian prince was reinforced by his religious zeal. Louis was a devout Catholic, and he built the Sainte-Chapelle ("Holy Chapel"), located within the royal palace complex (now the Paris Hall of Justice), on the Île de la Cité in the centre of Paris. The Sainte Chapelle, a perfect example of the Rayonnant style of Gothic architecture, was erected as a shrine for the Crown of Thorns and a fragment of the True Cross, precious relics of the Passion of Jesus. Louis purchased these in 1239–41 from Emperor Baldwin II of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, for the exorbitant sum of 135,000 livres (the chapel, on the other hand, cost only 60,000 livres to build). This purchase should be understood in the context of the extreme religious fervor that existed in Europe in the 13th century. The purchase contributed greatly to reinforcing the central position of the king of France in western Christendom, as well as to increasing the renown of Paris, then the largest city of western Europe. During a time when cities and rulers vied for relics, trying to increase their reputation and fame, Louis IX had succeeded in securing the most prized of all relics in his capital. The purchase was thus not only an act of devotion, but also a political gesture: the French monarchy was trying to establish the kingdom of France as the "new Jerusalem." Louis IX took very seriously his mission as "lieutenant of God on Earth," with which he had been invested when he was crowned in Rheims. Thus, in order to fulfill his duty, he conducted two crusades, and even though they were unsuccessful, they contributed to his prestige. Contemporaries would not have understood if the king of France did not lead a crusade to the Holy Land. In order to finance his first crusade Louis ordered the expulsion of all Jews engaged in usury and the confiscation of their property, for use in his crusade. However, he did not cancel the debts owed by Christians. One-third of the debts was forgiven, but the other two-thirds was to be remitted to the royal treasury. Louis also ordered, at the urging of Pope Gregory IX, the burning in Paris in 1243 of some 12,000 manuscript copies of the Talmud and other Jewish books. Such legislation against the Talmud, not uncommon in the history of Christendom, was due to medieval courts' concerns that its production and circulation might weaken the faith of Christian individuals and threaten the Christian basis of society, the protection of which was the duty of any Christian monarch. Tunique and cilice of Louis IX. Treasury of Notre-Dame de Paris. In addition to Louis's legislation against Jews and usury, he expanded the scope of the Inquisition in France. The area most affected by this expansion was southern France where the Cathar heresy had been strongest. The rate of these confiscations reached its highest levels in the years prior to his first crusade, and slowed upon his return to France in 1254. Louis IX allowing himself to be whipped as penance. In all these deeds, Louis IX tried to fulfill the duty of France, which was seen as "the eldest daughter of the Church" (la fille aînée de l'Église), a tradition of protector of the Church going back to the Franks and Charlemagne, who had been crowned by the Pope in Rome in 800. Indeed, the official Latin title of the kings of France was Rex Francorum, i.e. "king of the Franks," and the kings of France were also known by the title "most Christian king" (Rex Christianissimus). The relationship between France and the papacy was at its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries, and most of the crusades were actually called by the popes from French soil. Eventually, in 1309, Pope Clement V even left Rome and relocated to the French city of Avignon, beginning the era known as the Avignon Papacy (or, more disparagingly, the "Babylonian captivity"). Ancestry Issue The remains of Louis, the first-born son who died at the age of 15. Blanche (1240 – April 29, 1243) Isabelle (March 2, 1241 – January 28, 1271), married Theobald V of Champagne Louis (February 25, 1244 – January 1260) Philippe III (May 1, 1245 – October 5, 1285) Jean (1248 - 1248) Jean Tristan (1250 – August 3, 1270), married Yolande of Burgundy Pierre (1251–84), Count of Perche and Alençon; Count of Blois and Chartres in right of his wife, Joanne of Châtillon Blanche, married Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castille Marguerite (1254–71), married John I, Duke of Brabant Robert, Count of Clermont (1256 – February 7, 1317). He was the ancestor of King Henry IV of France. Agnes of France (ca 1260 – December 19, 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy Death and legacy Reliquary of Saint Louis (end 13th c.) Basilica of Saint Dominic, Bologna, Italy During his second crusade, Louis died at Tunis, August 25, 1270, and was succeeded by his son, Philip III. Louis was traditionally believed to have died from bubonic plague but the cause is thought by modern scholars to have been dysentery. The Bubonic Plague did not strike Europe until 1348, so the likelihood of him contracting and ultimately dying from the Bubonic Plague was very slim. Christian tradition states that some of his entrails were buried directly on the spot in Tunisia, where a Tomb of Saint-Louis can still be visited today, whereas other parts of his entrails were sealed in an urn and placed in the Basilica of Monreale, Palermo, where they still remain. His corpse was taken, after a short stay at the Basilica of Saint Dominic in Bologna, to the French royal necropolis at Saint-Denis, resting in Lyon on the way. His tomb at Saint-Denis was a magnificent gilt brass monument designed in the late 14th century. It was melted down during the French Wars of Religion, at which time the body of the king disappeared. Only one finger was rescued and is kept at Saint-Denis. Veneration as a saint Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French monarch to be declared a saint. Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. Because of the aura of holiness attached to his memory, many kings of France were called Louis, especially in the Bourbon dynasty, which directly descended from one of his younger sons. The Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Louis is a Roman Catholic religious order founded in 1842 and named in his honour. Places named after Saint Louis The city of San Luis Potosí in Mexico; Saint Louis, Missouri; Saint-Louis du Sénégal in Senegal; Saint-Louis in Alsace; as well as Lake Saint-Louis in Quebec, and the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in California are among the many places named after the king and saint. The Cathedral Saint-Louis in Versailles; the Basilica of St. Louis, King of France and the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis, both in St. Louis, Missouri; and the Saint Louis Cathedral in New Orleans were also named for the king. The French royal Order of Saint Louis (1693–1790 and 1814–1830) as well as a hospital in the 10th arrondissement of Paris also bear his name. Many places in Brazil called São Luís in Portuguese are named after the French Saint Louis. Famous portraits A portrait of St. Louis hangs in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives. Saint Louis is also portrayed on a frieze depicting a timeline of important lawgivers throughout world history in the Courtroom at the Supreme Court of the United States. References Bibliography Joinville, Jean de, La vie de saint Louis, ed. Noel L. Corbett. (Sherbrooke: Naaman, 1977). The Seventh Crusade, 1244-1254: Sources and Documents. Tr. by Peter Jackson (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2007), Pp. xi, 256 (Crusade Texts in Translation, 16). M. C. Gaposchkin, "Louis IX, crusade and the promise of Joshua in the Holy Land," Journal of Medieval History, 34,3 (2008), 245-274. External links John de Joinville. Memoirs of Louis IX, King of France. Chronicle, 1309. Site about The Saintonge War between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England. Account of the first Crusade of Saint Louis from the perspective of the Arabs.. A letter from Guy, a knight, concerning the capture of Damietta on the sixth Crusade with a speech delivered by Saint Louis to his men. Etext full version of the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, a biography of Saint Louis written by one of his knights Biography of Saint Louis on the Patron Saints Index |- |- |- | Louis_IX_of_France |@lemmatized louis:82 ix:16 april:3 august:3 commonly:1 saint:34 king:29 france:22 death:4 also:9 style:3 ii:4 count:6 artois:1 bear:3 poissy:2 near:2 paris:12 member:2 house:3 capet:2 son:5 viii:4 blanche:4 castile:2 establish:3 parliament:1 canonized:1 consequently:1 many:5 place:7 name:7 notably:1 st:5 missouri:3 united:3 state:4 tertiary:1 order:10 holy:5 trinity:1 captive:1 know:4 trinitarian:2 june:2 general:1 chapter:1 formally:1 affiliate:1 famous:3 monastery:1 cerfroid:1 construct:1 felix:1 valois:1 north:1 source:3 much:3 life:4 come:1 jean:5 de:12 joinville:6 biography:6 close:1 friend:1 confidant:1 counsellor:1 participate:1 witness:1 papal:2 inquest:2 end:4 canonization:2 pope:7 boniface:2 coin:1 cabinet:1 médailles:1 latin:4 inscription:1 read:1 lvdovicvs:1 e:4 dei:1 gracia:2 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6,721 | Kerosene | Kerosene, which is typically stored in a blue (or blue labeled) container Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage, Webster's New World College Dictionary, kerosene. also known as paraffin, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid. The name is derived from Greek keros (κηρός wax). The word Kerosene was registered as a trademark by Abraham Gesner in 1854 and for several years only the North American Gas Light Company and the Downer Company (to which Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call their lamp oil kerosene. It eventually became genericized. It is usually called paraffin (sometimes paraffin oil) in the UK and South Africa (not to be confused with the waxy solid also called paraffin wax or just paraffin, or the much more viscous paraffin oil used as a laxative); the term kerosene is usual in much of Canada, the United States, Australia (where it is usually referred to colloquially as kero) and New Zealand. Oxford English Dictionary, kerosene. Kerosene is widely used to power jet-engined aircraft (jet fuel) and some rockets, but is also commonly used as a heating fuel and for fire toys such as poi. The heat of combustion of Kerosene is similar to that of diesel: its Lower Heating Value is around 18,500 Btu/lb, or 43.1 MJ/kg, and its Higher Heating Value is 46.2MJ/kg. Properties Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons, with density of 0.78-0.81g/cm3. Kerosene is obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum between 150 °C and 275 °C, resulting in a mixture of carbon chains that typically contain between 6 and 16 carbon atoms per molecule. Chris Collins (2007), “Implementing Phytoremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons, Methods in Biotechnology 23:99-108. Humana Press. ISBN 1588295419. History Around the year 850 the Abbasid Caliphate introduced a refined lamp oil, or kerosene, manufactured from crude oil by distillation, named naft abyad ("white naphtha"), which was made using an apparatus called al-inbiq, the origin of the English word alembic. In his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist al-Razi (Rhazes) described two methods for the production of kerosene. One method involved using clay as an absorbent, whereas the other method involved using ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac). The distillation process was to be repeated until the final product was perfectly clear and "safe to light," i.e. volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been mostly removed. Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled. In 1846 Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner gave a public demonstration in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island of a new process he had discovered. He heated coal in a retort and distilled from it a clear, thin fluid which he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He coined the name "Kerosene" for his fuel, a contraction of keroselaion, meaning wax-oil. The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was, however, high. Fortunately, Gesner recalled from his extensive knowledge of New Brunswick's geology a naturally-occurring asphaltum called Albertite. He was however blocked from using it by the New Brunswick coal conglomerate because they had coal extraction rights for the province and he lost a court case when their experts claimed that Albertite was in fact a form of coal. Gesner subsequently moved to Newton Creek, Long Island, USA, in 1854, where he secured the backing of a group of businessmen. They formed the North American Gas Light Company, to which he assigned his patents. Despite clear priority of discovery, Gesner did not obtain his first kerosene patent until 1854, two years after James Young's US patent. Gesner's method of purifying the distillation products appears to have been superior to Young's, resulting in a cleaner and better smelling fuel. Manufacture of kerosene under the Gesner patents began in New York in 1854 and later in Boston, being distilled from bituminous coal and oil shale. In 1848 Scottish chemist James Young experimented with oil discovered seeping in a coal mine as a source of lubricating oil and illuminating fuel. When the seep became exhausted he experimented with the dry distillation of coal, especially the resinous "Boghead coal" (Torbanite). He extracted a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax. Young took out a patent on his process and the resulting products in 1850, and built the first truly commercial oil-works in the world at Bathgate in 1851, using oil extracted from locally-mined Torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal. In 1852 he took out a US patent for the same invention. These patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties. See also coal oil. In 1851 Samuel Martin Kier began selling kerosene to local miners, under the name "Carbon Oil". He distilled this by a process of his own invention from crude oil. He also invented a new lamp to burn his product. He has been dubbed the Grandfather of the American Oil Industry by historians. Since the 1840s, Kier's salt wells were becoming fouled with petroleum. At first, Kier simply dumped the useless oil into the nearby Pennsylvania Main Line Canal, but later he began experimenting with several distillates of the crude oil along with a chemist from eastern Pennsylvania. Ignacy Lukasiewicz, a Polish pharmacist residing in Lvov had been experimenting with different kerosene distillation techniques, trying to improve on Gesner's process, using local seep oil. Many people knew of his work but paid little attention to it. On the night of July 31 1853, doctors at the local hospital needed to perform an emergency operation, virtually impossible by candlelight. They therefore sent a messenger for Luka and his new lamps. The lamp burned so brightly and cleanly that the hospital officials ordered several examples plus a large supply of fuel. Luka realized the potential of his work and quit the pharmacy to find a business partner and then travelled to Vienna to register his technique with the government. Lukasiewicz moved to the Gorlice region of Poland in 1854 and sank several wells across southern Poland over the following decade, setting up a refinery near Jasło in 1859. The widespread availability of cheaper kerosene was the principal factor in the precipitous decline in the whaling industry in the mid-to-late 19th century, as the leading product of whaling was oil for lamps. Uses As a fuel Heating and Lighting At one time the fuel was widely used in kerosene lamps and lanterns. While replacing whale oil, it was considered as "explosive as gunpowder." - the 1873 edition of Elements of Chemistry notes that "The vapor of this substance [kerosene] mixed with air is as explosive as gunpowder." This may have been due to the common practice of adulterating kerosene with other, more volatile hydrocarbons, such as the cheaper benzene . Kerosene was also a fire risk; in 1880, 39% of New York City fires were caused by defective kerosene lamps. These were superseded by the electric light bulb and flashlights powered by dry cell batteries. Its use as a cooking fuel is mostly restricted to some portable stoves for backpackers and to less developed countries, where it is usually less refined and contains impurities and even debris. As a heating fuel, it is often used in portable stoves, and is sold in some filling stations. It is sometimes used as a heat source during power failures. The use of portable kerosene heaters is not recommended for closed indoor areas without a chimney due to the danger of build-up of carbon monoxide gas. Kerosene is widely used in Japan as a home heating fuel for portable and installed kerosene heaters. In Japan, kerosene can be readily bought at any filling station or be delivered to homes. In the United Kingdom and Ireland kerosene is often used as a heating fuel in areas that are unconnected to the gas pipeline network. It is used less for cooking, which has more commonly been LPG for some decades now, owing to its easier lighting. The Amish, who limit use of electric appliances for religious reasons, rely on kerosene for lighting and often purchase kerosene-powered versions of appliances such as refrigerators. More ubiquitous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, kerosene space heaters were often built into kitchen ranges and kept many farm and fishing families warm and dry through the winter. At one time citrus growers used smudge pots fueled by kerosene to create a pall of thick smoke over a grove in an effort to prevent freezing temperatures from damaging crops. Salamanders are kerosene space heaters used on construction sites to dry out building materials and to warm workers. Before the days of blinking electrically lighted road barriers, highway construction zones were marked at night by kerosene fired pot-bellied torches. Most of these uses of kerosene created thick black smoke because of the low temperature of combustion. A notable exception, discovered in the early 19th century, is the use of a mantle above the wick on a kerosene lamp. Looking like a delicate woven bag above the woven cotton wick, the mantle was a residue of mineral material (thorium dioxide) which glowed white hot as it burned the volatile gases emanating from the blue flame at the base of the wick. These types of lamps are still in use today in areas of the world without electricity. Transportation In the mid-20th century, kerosene or TVO (Tractor Vaporising Oil) was used as a cheap fuel for tractors. The engine would start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine warmed up. A heat valve on the manifold would route the exhaust gases around the intake pipe, heating the kerosene to the point where it can be ignited by an electrical spark. During the fuel crisis of the 1970s Saab-Valmet developed and series-produced the Saab 99 Petro that ran on kerosene, turpentine or gasoline. The project codenamed "Project Lapponia" was headed by Simo Vuorinen, and towards the end of the 1970s a working prototype was produced based on the Saab 99GL. The car was designed to run on two fuels. Gasoline was used for cold starts and when extra power was needed, but normally it ran on kerosene or turpentine. The idea was that the gasoline could be made from peat using the Fischer-Tropsch process. Between 1980 and 1984, 3756 Saab 99 Petros and 2385 Talbot Horizons (a version of the Chrysler Horizon that integrated many Saab components) were made. Bakrutan: "Saab 99 Petro" by Petri Tyrkös, nr 4, 2008 Today kerosene is mainly used in fuel for jet engines (more technically Avtur, Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B, JP-4, JP-5, JP-7 or JP-8). One form of the fuel known as RP-1 is burned with liquid oxygen as rocket fuel. These fuel grade kerosenes meet specifications for smoke points and freeze points. The combustion reaction can be approximated as follows, with the molecular formula C12H26: C12H26(l) + 37/2 O2(g) → 12 CO2(g) + 13 H2O(g); ∆H˚ = -7513 kJ In the initial phase of liftoff the Saturn V launch vehicle was powered by the reaction of liquid oxygen with RP-1 Ebbing, D. D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General Chemistry (8th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. . For the five ~6.4 million newton sea-level thrust F-1 rocket engines of the Saturn V, burning together, the reaction generated roughly 1.62 x 1011 watts (J/s) or 217 million horsepower. Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold temperatures. Kerosene blending, (pdf from EPA) Ultra-low sulfur kerosene is a custom-blended fuel used by the New York City Transit to power its bus fleet. The transit agency started using this fuel in 2004, prior to the widespread adoption of ultra-low sulfur diesel, which has since become the standard. In 2008, the suppliers of the custom fuel failed to tender for a renewal of the transit agency's contract, leading to a negotiated contract at a significantly increased cost. How a Plan for Bus Fuel Grew Expensive, The New York Times, 2008-09-25. Cooking In countries such as India, kerosene is the main fuel used for cooking, especially by the poor. Kerosene stoves have replaced traditional wood-based cooking appliances. The price of kerosene can be a major political and environmental issue; the Indian government subsidizes the fuel to keep the price very low (around 15 cents/liter as of Feb. 2007). Lower prices discourage dismantling of forests for cooking fuel. Cultural/Performance Art Kerosene is often used in the entertainment industry for fire performances such as poi and fire dancing, because of its low flame temperature when burnt in free air, reducing the risk, should the performer come in contact with the flame. Kerosene is not usually used as a fuel for indoor fire-dancing as it produces an unpleasant odour which becomes poisonous in sufficient concentration. Methanol is often used instead, but it also produces less impressive flames, and it can be a more dangerous fuel because of its lower flash point. Other Uses Liquid pesticides have traditionally used kerosene or some other petroleum distillate as a carrier, though water has recently begun to replace kerosene Kerosene has been used to treat pools of standing water to prevent mosquitoes from breeding, notably in the yellow fever outbreak of 1905 in New Orleans. It can be used to remove lice from hair, but this practice is painful and potentially very dangerous. Also, this practice removes all natural oils and fats from the scalp. Since kerosene is chemically stable, it is used to store substances with redox tendencies within to prevent unwanted reactions, such as alkali metals. It is used in the packaging and storing of white phosphorus to prevent contact with oxygen, which would lead to immediate combustion. Kerosene can be used to store crystals. When a hydrated crystal is left in air, dehydration may occur slowly. This makes the colour of the crystal become dull. Kerosene can keep air from the crystal. It is used as a solvent. Kerosene can be applied topically to hard-to-remove mucilage or adhesive left by stickers on a glass surface (such as in show windows of stores). Kerosene can be used to remove candle wax that has dripped onto a glass surface; it is recommended that the excess wax be scraped off prior to applying kerosene via a soaked cloth or tissue paper. Kerosene can be used to clean bicycle and motorcycle chains of old lubricant before relubrication. It can be used in conjunction with cutting oil as a thread cutting and reaming lubricant. When machining aluminium and its alloys, kerosene on its own is an excellent cutting lubricant. Military Applications -- used to make "napalm-like" incendiary devices -- as reported by the San Diego Union-Tribune Kerosene-based diluent is commonly used as a component of the organic solvent in SX/EW copper refining. http://www.meab-mx.se/en/sx_principles.htm Retail cost United States In 2008, Kerosene cost was $39.92 per 1 million BTUs for heating. See also Flash oil Gasoline gallon equivalent Tractor vaporising oil List of CO2 emitted per million Btu of energy from various fuels "Kerosene (song)",The first single off of the second album by country singer,Miranda Lambert. Notes External links "Kerosene", Webster Online Dictionary Article on Gesner Kerosene Fuel Primer San Diego Union-Tribune Article | Kerosene |@lemmatized kerosene:70 typically:2 store:4 blue:3 label:1 container:1 sometimes:4 spelled:1 kerosine:1 scientific:1 industrial:1 usage:1 webster:2 new:13 world:3 college:1 dictionary:3 also:10 know:2 paraffin:7 combustible:1 hydrocarbon:5 liquid:6 name:5 derive:1 greek:1 keros:1 κηρός:1 wax:6 word:2 register:2 trademark:1 abraham:2 gesner:10 several:4 year:3 north:2 american:3 gas:6 light:6 company:4 downer:1 grant:1 right:2 allow:1 call:5 lamp:11 oil:28 eventually:1 become:6 genericized:1 usually:4 uk:1 south:1 africa:1 confuse:1 waxy:1 solid:1 much:2 viscous:1 use:45 laxative:1 term:1 usual:1 canada:1 united:3 state:2 australia:1 refer:1 colloquially:1 kero:1 zealand:1 oxford:1 english:2 widely:3 power:6 jet:6 engined:1 aircraft:1 fuel:33 rocket:3 commonly:3 heating:8 fire:7 toy:1 poi:2 heat:6 combustion:4 similar:1 diesel:3 low:9 value:2 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6,722 | Offshore_powerboat_racing | Offshore powerboat racing is racing by large, ocean-going powerboats, typically point-to-point racing. Probably the largest, most dangerous, and most powerful racing machines of all, the extreme expense of the boats and the fuel required to participate make it an expensive and elite sport. Many different classes of boats, can compete in individual races, on the same course, at the same time. This may include single or twin piston engine V-bottom boats, single or twin piston engine catamaran style boats, four piston engine boats, and turbine boats. In Europe, Middle East & Asia, offshore powerboat racing was led by the UIM regulated Class 1 but this category is no longer recognized by the sports governing body. It has re-organised itself and is instead regulated by the Dubai based WPPA, which now allows the sport to have a bigger variety in engines and props. In the USA, offshore powerboat racing is split between the OPA Races, SBI/APBA/UIM races and the OSS races. Although there are team sponsors, the sport is still an amateur sport financed by a mixture of private funding and commercial sponsors. One of the benefits of sponsoring an offshore powerboat team, as stated by team owner and driver Bjørn Rune Gjelsten, is that in Formula One motor racing, 1 million will only allow a small space, whereas in offshore powerboating, this covers the whole of the boat. Jeremy Clarkson's Extreme Machines supplement, December 1997 Depending on the class, speeds varies from to . The sport is moving more to a circuit racing style also known as "run what you brung", which makes for a better TV & spectator experience, though there are still old fashioned endurance offshore racing classes. Powerboat P1 , the UIM sanctioned world championship is the fastest growing powerboat series in the world. Founded in 2003 with 5 boats it now has 20+ teams from 11 countries and will race in three continents in 2008. It caters for monohull boats with twin inboard engines in two classes: Supersport, for open top production models which are limited to for safety reasons and Evolution, fully canopied prototype boats with no speed limit. Engines can be either petrol or diesel depending on the team choice or the manufacturer's recommendation. A P1 grand prix consists of two races, the Sprint, and the Endurance over . The teams with most points over two races win the overall Grand Prix and take the prize money and the championship points. 2008 races 2008 races will take placee in: 9 - 11 May San Benedetto del Tronto Italy 23 - 25 May Marseille France 6 - 8 June Valletta Malta 11 - 13 July Hammamet Tunisia 12 - 14 September Vigo Spain 26 - 28 September Portimão Portugal 23 - 25 October Bahrain Middle East Manufacturers involved in 2008 include; Ilmor, Seatek, Mercury, Sterling, Yanmar and Rizzardi engines and Fountain, Outerlimits, Cigarette, Hustler, Sunseeker, Dragon, and Metamarine hulls. The Powerboat P1 World Championship was managed in 2007/2008 by CEO, Jim O'Toole. O'Toole left the company in February 2009 to establish a sports and entertainment marketing consultancy called Armstrong Kennedy Consulting LLP , www.armstrongkennedy.com References External links Class 1 World Powerboat Championship U.I.M Powerboat P1 World Championship The 2008 Round Britain Offshore Power Boat Race Offshore Boats Cigarette Racing Team offshore boats Offshore Only Scream And Fly Powerboating Magazine Offshore Down Under BoatFreaks AMF Offshore Racing Jim O'Toole Jim O'Toole | Offshore_powerboat_racing |@lemmatized offshore:12 powerboat:10 racing:7 race:14 large:2 ocean:1 go:1 typically:1 point:4 probably:1 dangerous:1 powerful:1 machine:2 extreme:2 expense:1 boat:13 fuel:1 require:1 participate:1 make:2 expensive:1 elite:1 sport:7 many:1 different:1 class:6 compete:1 individual:1 course:1 time:1 may:3 include:2 single:2 twin:3 piston:3 engine:7 v:1 bottom:1 catamaran:1 style:2 four:1 turbine:1 europe:1 middle:2 east:2 asia:1 lead:1 uim:3 regulated:1 category:1 longer:1 recognize:1 govern:1 body:1 organise:1 instead:1 regulate:1 dubai:1 base:1 wppa:1 allow:2 big:1 variety:1 prop:1 usa:1 split:1 opa:1 sbi:1 apba:1 os:1 although:1 team:7 sponsor:3 still:2 amateur:1 finance:1 mixture:1 private:1 funding:1 commercial:1 one:2 benefit:1 state:1 owner:1 driver:1 bjørn:1 rune:1 gjelsten:1 formula:1 motor:1 million:1 small:1 space:1 whereas:1 powerboating:2 cover:1 whole:1 jeremy:1 clarkson:1 supplement:1 december:1 depend:2 speed:2 varies:1 move:1 circuit:1 also:1 know:1 run:1 brung:1 good:1 tv:1 spectator:1 experience:1 though:1 old:1 fashioned:1 endurance:2 sanction:1 world:5 championship:5 fast:1 grow:1 series:1 found:1 country:1 three:1 continent:1 cater:1 monohull:1 inboard:1 two:3 supersport:1 open:1 top:1 production:1 model:1 limit:2 safety:1 reason:1 evolution:1 fully:1 canopy:1 prototype:1 either:1 petrol:1 diesel:1 choice:1 manufacturer:2 recommendation:1 grand:2 prix:2 consist:1 sprint:1 win:1 overall:1 take:2 prize:1 money:1 placee:1 san:1 benedetto:1 del:1 tronto:1 italy:1 marseille:1 france:1 june:1 valletta:1 malta:1 july:1 hammamet:1 tunisia:1 september:2 vigo:1 spain:1 portimão:1 portugal:1 october:1 bahrain:1 involve:1 ilmor:1 seatek:1 mercury:1 sterling:1 yanmar:1 rizzardi:1 fountain:1 outerlimits:1 cigarette:2 hustler:1 sunseeker:1 dragon:1 metamarine:1 hull:1 manage:1 ceo:1 jim:3 toole:4 leave:1 company:1 february:1 establish:1 entertainment:1 marketing:1 consultancy:1 call:1 armstrong:1 kennedy:1 consult:1 llp:1 www:1 armstrongkennedy:1 com:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 u:1 round:1 britain:1 power:1 scream:1 fly:1 magazine:1 boatfreaks:1 amf:1 |@bigram offshore_powerboat:4 piston_engine:3 jeremy_clarkson:1 old_fashioned:1 petrol_diesel:1 grand_prix:2 valletta_malta:1 external_link:1 |
6,723 | Foreign_relations_of_Mozambique | While allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant, Mozambique's foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic. The twin pillars of the policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Mozambique's foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in Rhodesia and South Africa as well as superpower competition and the Cold War. Mozambique's decision to enforce United Nations sanctions against Rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea led Ian Smith's regime to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country. Although the change of government in Zimbabwe in 1980 removed this threat, the apartheid regime in South Africa continued to finance the destabilization of Mozambique. The 1984 Nkomati Accord, while failing in its goal of ending South African support to RENAMO, opened initial diplomatic contacts between the Mozambican and South African governments. This process gained momentum with South Africa's elimination of apartheid, which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in October 1993. While relations with neighboring Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania show occasional strains, Mozambique's ties to these countries remain strong. In the years immediately following its independence, Mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some western countries, notably the Scandinavians. The Soviet Union and its allies, however, became Mozambique's primary economic, military, and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage. This began to change in 1983; in 1984 Mozambique joined the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Western aid quickly replaced Soviet support, with the Scandinavians, Finland the United States, the Netherlands, and the European Union becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance. Italy also maintains a profile in Mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process. Relations with Portugal, the former colonial power, are complex and of some importance as Portuguese investors play a visible role in Mozambique's economy. Mozambique is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and ranks among the moderate members of the African Bloc in the United Nations and other international organizations. Mozambique also belongs to the Organization of African Unity/African Union and the Southern African Development Community. In 1994, the Government became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country's sizeable Muslim population. Similarly, in early 1996 Mozambique joined its Anglophone neighbors in the Commonwealth. In the same year, Mozambique became a founding member and the first President of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), and maintains close ties with other Lusophone states. Disputes - international: none Illicit drugs: Southern African transit point for South Asian hashish, South Asian heroin, and South American cocaine probably destined for the European and South African markets; producer of cannabis (for local consumption) and methaqualone (for export to South Africa); corruption and poor regulatory capability makes the banking system vulnerable to money laundering, but the lack of a well-developed financial infrastructure limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center. See also Mozambique Mozambican diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Mozambique | Foreign_relations_of_Mozambique |@lemmatized allegiance:1 date:1 back:1 liberation:1 struggle:2 remain:2 relevant:1 mozambique:16 foreign:3 policy:4 become:5 increasingly:2 pragmatic:1 twin:1 pillar:1 maintenance:2 good:1 relation:4 neighbor:3 expansion:1 tie:3 development:3 partner:1 early:2 inextricably:1 link:1 majority:1 rule:1 rhodesia:2 south:10 africa:4 well:2 superpower:1 competition:1 cold:1 war:1 decision:1 enforce:1 united:3 nation:2 sanction:1 deny:1 country:7 access:1 sea:1 lead:1 ian:1 smith:1 regime:2 undertake:1 overt:1 covert:1 action:1 destabilize:1 although:1 change:2 government:3 zimbabwe:2 remove:1 threat:1 apartheid:2 continue:1 finance:1 destabilization:1 nkomati:1 accord:1 fail:1 goal:1 end:1 african:8 support:3 renamo:1 open:1 initial:1 diplomatic:4 contact:1 mozambican:2 process:2 gain:1 momentum:1 elimination:1 culminate:1 establishment:1 full:2 october:1 malawi:1 zambia:1 tanzania:1 show:1 occasional:1 strain:1 strong:1 year:2 immediately:1 follow:1 independence:1 benefit:1 considerable:1 assistance:2 western:2 notably:1 scandinavian:2 soviet:2 union:3 ally:1 however:1 primary:1 economic:1 military:1 political:1 supporter:1 reflect:1 linkage:1 begin:1 join:2 world:1 bank:1 international:4 monetary:1 fund:1 aid:1 quickly:1 replace:1 finland:1 state:2 netherlands:1 european:2 important:1 source:1 italy:1 also:4 maintain:1 profile:1 result:1 key:1 role:2 peace:1 portugal:1 former:1 colonial:1 power:1 complex:1 importance:1 portuguese:2 investor:1 play:1 visible:1 economy:1 member:4 non:1 align:1 movement:1 rank:1 among:1 moderate:1 bloc:1 organization:2 belong:1 unity:1 southern:2 community:2 organisation:1 islamic:1 conference:1 part:1 broaden:1 base:1 please:1 sizeable:1 muslim:1 population:1 similarly:1 anglophone:1 commonwealth:1 founding:1 first:1 president:1 language:1 cplp:1 maintains:1 close:1 lusophone:1 dispute:1 none:1 illicit:1 drug:1 transit:1 point:1 asian:2 hashish:1 heroin:1 american:1 cocaine:1 probably:1 destine:1 market:1 producer:1 cannabis:1 local:1 consumption:1 methaqualone:1 export:1 corruption:1 poor:1 regulatory:1 capability:1 make:1 banking:1 system:1 vulnerable:1 money:2 laundering:2 lack:1 develop:1 financial:1 infrastructure:1 limit:1 utility:1 center:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 |@bigram inextricably_link:1 overt_covert:1 apartheid_regime:1 diplomatic_relation:1 zambia_tanzania:1 soviet_union:1 monetary_fund:1 illicit_drug:1 money_laundering:2 diplomatic_mission:2 |
6,724 | Caligula | Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( 31 August 12 – 24 January 41), more commonly known by his cognomen Caligula (), was the third Roman Emperor, reigning from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41. Caligula was a member of the house of rulers conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Caligula's father, Germanicus, the adopted son of emperor Tiberius, was a very successful general and one of Rome's most beloved public figures. The young Gaius earned his nickname Caligula (the diminutive form of caliga) meaning "little [soldier's] boot", while accompanying his father on military campaigns in Germania. When Germanicus died in Antioch in 19, his mother Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with her six children, where she became entangled in an increasingly bitter feud with Tiberius. This conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Unscathed by the deadly intrigues, and seemingly unmoved by the fate of his closest relatives, Caligula accepted the invitation to accompany the emperor on the island of Capri in 31, where Tiberius himself had withdrawn in 26. At the death of Tiberius, on 16 March 37, Caligula succeeded his adoptive grandfather. There are few surviving sources on Caligula's reign, and although he is described as a noble and moderate ruler during the first two years of his rule, after this the sources focus upon his cruelty, extravagance, and sexual perversity, presenting him as an insane tyrant. While the reliability of these sources has been difficult to assess, what is known is that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the authority of the princeps, possibly contemplating the introduction of an authoritarian system of an eastern type. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects, notoriously luxurious dwellings for himself, but also two new aqueducts for the city of Rome (Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus). However, these are primarily associated with his successor Claudius, who brought these projects to completion. Caligula also annexed Mauretania. On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated as the result of a conspiracy involving officers of the Praetorian Guard as well as members of the Roman Senate and of the imperial court. The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, as the same day the Praetorian Guard declared Caligula's uncle Claudius emperor in his place. Early life Family See Julio-Claudian Family Tree. Born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on 31 August, 12 AD, at the resort of Antium. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 8 He was the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 7 Gaius' brothers were Nero and Drusus. His sisters were Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger. Gaius was also nephew to Claudius (the future emperor). Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.6 Gaius' father, Germanicus, was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian family and was revered as one of the most beloved generals of the Roman Empire. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 4 He was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor. Germanicus was grandson of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, as well as the great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Augustus. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 1 Agrippina the Elder was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. She was also a granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia. Youth and early career A caliga. As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 9</ref> The soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldier's uniform, including boots and armor. He was soon given his nickname Caligula, meaning "little (soldier's) boot" in Latin, after the small boots he wore as part of his uniform. "Caligula" is formed from the Latin word caliga, meaning soldier's boot, and the diminutive infix -ul. Gaius, though, reportedly grew to dislike this nickname. Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of a Wise Person XVIII 2-5. See also Malloch, 'Gaius and the nobiles', Athenaeum (2009) Suetonius reports that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius who viewed Germanicus as a political rival. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 2 After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until relations between her and Tiberius deteriorated. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 10 Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival. Tacitus, Annals IV.52 Agrippina and Caligula's brother, Nero, were banished in 29 on charges of treason. Tacitus, Annals V.3 Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 54 The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live first with his great-grandmother, and Tiberius' mother, Livia. Following Livia's death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia. In 30, his brother, Drusus Caesar, was imprisoned on charges of treason and his brother Nero died in exile from either starvation or suicide. Tacitus, Annals V.10 Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under close watch of soldiers. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 64 In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri, where he lived for six years. To the surprise of many, Caligula was spared by Tiberius. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 62 According to historians, Caligula was an excellent natural actor and, recognizing danger, hid all his resentment towards Tiberius. Tacitus, Annals VI.20 An observer said of Caligula, "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!" In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship, a position he held until his reign. Cassius Dio, Roman History LVII.23 Meanwhile, both Caligula's mother, and his brother Drusus, died in prison. Tacitus, Annals VI.25 Tacitus, Annals VI.23 Caligula was briefly married to Junia Claudilla in 33, though she died in childbirth the following year. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 12 Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian Prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro, an important ally. Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius, attempting to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor felt towards Caligula. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius VI.35 In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius' estate along with Tiberius Gemellus. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 76 Emperor Early reign Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647 When Tiberius died on 16 March 37, his estate and the titles of the Principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius' own grandson, Gemellus, who were to serve as joint heirs. Despite Tiberius being 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still suppose he was murdered. Tacitus, Annals VI.50 Tacitus writes that the Praetorian Prefect, Macro, smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession, much to the joy of the Roman people, while Suetonius writes that Caligula may have carried out the killing, though this is not recorded by any other ancient historian. Philo, a contemporary of Tiberius's reign, and Josephus, record Tiberius dying a natural death. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius IV.25; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIII.6.9 Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius’ will nullified with regards to Gemellus on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius' wishes. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.1 Caligula accepted the powers of the Principate as conferred by the Senate and entered Rome on 28 March amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star," among other nicknames. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 13 Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in "all the world, from the rising to the setting sun." Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius II.10 Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus, but also because he was not Tiberius. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Tiberius 75 It was also said by Suetonius that over 160,000 animals were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in his reign. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 14 Philo mentions widespread sacrifice, but no estimation on the degree, Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius II.12 Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as completely blissful. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius II.13 Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature. To gain support, he granted bonuses to those in the military including the Praetorian Guard, city troops and the army outside of Italy. He destroyed Tiberius' treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past and recalled exiles. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 15 He helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial tax system, banished certain sexual deviants, and put on lavish spectacles for the public, such as gladiator battles. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 16 Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 18 Caligula also collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his brothers and deposited their remains in the tomb of Augustus. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.3 Illness, conspiracies and a change in attitude Following an auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October 37. Philo is the main historian to describe this illness, Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius II–III though Cassius Dio mentions it in passing. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.10 Philo states that Caligula's increased bath-taking, drinking, and sex after becoming emperor caused him to become ill. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius II.14 It was said that the entire empire was paralyzed with sadness and sympathy over Caligula’s affliction. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius III.16 Caligula completely recovered from this illness, but Philo highlights Caligula's near-death experience as a turning point in his reign. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius IV.22 Josephus characterizes Caligula as a noble and moderate ruler for the first two years of his rule before a turn for the worse occurred. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.7.2 Shortly after recovering from his illness, Caligula had several loyal individuals killed who had promised their lives for his in the event of a recovery. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.8 Caligula had his wife banished and his father-in-law, Marcus Silanus, and his cousin, Tiberius Gemellus, were forced to commit suicide. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius V.29 Philo states Gemellus, in line to become emperor, plotted against Caligula while he was ill. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius V.28 Silanus, prior to killing himself, was formally put on trial by Caligula. Tacitus, Agricola 4 Julius Graecinus was ordered to prosecute Silanus, but refused and was executed as well. It is unknown if the plans of Gemellus and Silanus were related or separate. Suetonius considers these plots nothing more than Caligula's imagination. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 23 Public reform Quadran celebrating the abolition of a tax in 38 AD by Caligula. The obverse of the coin contains a picture of the liberty cap which symbolizes the liberation of the people from the tax burden. In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius. He aided those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes, and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events. He also allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.9–10 Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of democratic elections. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 16.2 Cassius Dio said that this act "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many ... many disasters would result". Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.9.7 During the same year, though, Caligula also was criticized for executing people without full trials. The most significant execution was that of Macro, to whom, in many ways, Caligula owed his status as emperor. Financial crisis and famine According to Cassius Dio, a financial crisis emerged in 39. Suetonius places the beginning of this crisis in 38. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 37 Caligula’s political payments for support, generosity and extravagance had exhausted the state’s treasury. Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 38 A number of other desperate measures by Caligula are described by historians. In order to gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 41 Caligula levied taxes on lawsuits, marriage and prostitution. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 40 Caligula began auctioning the lives of the gladiators at shows. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.14 Wills that left items to Tiberius were interpreted now to leave the items to Caligula. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.15 Centurions who had acquired property during plundering were forced to turn over spoils to the state. The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money. The Vatican Obelisk was first brought from Egypt to Rome by Caligula. It was the centerpiece of a large racetrack he built. A brief famine of an unknown size occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, according to Suetonius due to public carriages being seized by Caligula, according to Seneca because grain imports were disturbed by Caligula using boats for a pontoon bridge. Seneca the Younger, On the Shortness of Life XVIII.5 Construction Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good, while others were for himself. Josephus describes as Caligula's greatest contribution to have improved the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily, thereby allowing grain imports from Egypt to increase. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.2.5 These improvements may have been made in response to the famine. Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 21 He also had the imperial palace expanded. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 22 He began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered engineering marvels. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 21, Life of Claudius 20; Pliny the Elder, Natural History XXXVI.122 He built a large racetrack known as the circus of Gaius and Nero and had an Egyptian obelisk (now known as the Vatican Obelisk) transported to Rome by sea and erected in the middle of it. Pliny the Elder, Natural History XVI.76 At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods. He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.15; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 37 He had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps. He also planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work. The hull of one of two ships recovered from Lake Nemi during the 1930s. This massive vessel served as an elaborate floating palace to the emperor. In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19 It was said that the bridge was to rival that of Persian King Xerxes' crossing of the Hellespont. Caligula, a man who could not swim, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 54 then proceeded to ride his favorite horse, Incitatus, across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. This act was in defiance of Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". Caligula also had two large ships constructed for himself. These two sunken ships were found at the bottom of Lake Nemi during the dictatorship of Mussolini. The ships are among the largest vessels in the ancient world. The smaller of the ships was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace that counted marble floors and plumbing among its amenities. Fifteen years after being raised, the ships were burned during an attack in the Second World War, and almost nothing remains of the hulls, though many archeological treasures remain intact in the museum at Lake Nemi. Feud with the Senate In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.16; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 30 On what they disagreed is unknown. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. Prior to Caligula's appointment, the Roman Senate was accustomed to ruling without an emperor in Rome since Tiberius' departure for Capri in 26. Tacitus, Annals IV.41 Additionally, Tiberius' treason trials had eliminated a number of pro-Julian senators such as Gallus Asinius.<ref>Tacitus, Annals' IV.41 Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided that numerous senators, based on their actions during these trials, were not trustworthy. He ordered a new set of investigations and trials. He replaced the consul and had several senators put to death. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 26 Suetonius reports that other senators were degraded by being forced to wait on him and run beside his chariot. Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula was met with a number of additional conspiracies against him. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.22 A conspiracy involving his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, was foiled in late 39. Soon after, the governor of Germany, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, was executed for connections to a conspiracy. Western expansion In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia. The later action was fully realized by his successors. Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then had him suddenly executed. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 35 Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and divided into two provinces. Pliny the Elder, Natural History V.2 This annexation of Mauretania led to a rebellion of some magnitude that was put down under Claudius. Cassius Dio, Roman History LX.8, LX.24; Pliny the Elder, Natural History V.11 Details on these events are unclear. Cassius Dio had written an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.25 There also seemed to be a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted. This campaign is derided by ancient historians with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germanic tribesmen at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect seashells as "spoils of the sea". Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 45-47 Due to the lack of sources, what precisely occurred and why is a matter of debate even among the primary sources for Caligula's reign. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission. P. Bicknell, "The Emperor Gaius' Military Activities in A.D. 40", Historia 17 (1968), 496-505 The mission may have been to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius. R.W. Davies, "The Abortive Invasion of Britain by Gaius", Historia 15 (1966), 124-128; S.J.V.Malloch, 'Gaius on the Channel Coast', Classical Quarterly 51 (2001) 551-56; See Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 44 "Seashells", or conchae in Latin, may be a metaphor for something else such as female genitalia (perhaps the troops visited brothels) or boats (perhaps they captured several small British boats). D. Wardle, Suetonius' Life of Caligula: a Commentary (Brussels, 1994), 313; David Woods "Caligula's Seashells", Greece and Rome (2000), 80-87 Or he may have been insane, and actually tried to collect seashells as spoils of war. Godlike behavior Ruins of the temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum Romanum. Ancient resources as well as recent archeological evidence suggest that, at one point, Caligula had the palace extended to annex this structure. In 40, Caligula began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role. Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules, Mercury, Venus and Apollo. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XI-XV Reportedly, he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as Jupiter on occasion in public documents. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.26 Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.28 A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome. The Temple of Castor and Pollux on the Forum was linked directly to the Imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula. Sanford, J.: "Did Caligula have a God complex?, Stanford Report, 10 September 2003 He would appear here on occasion and present himself as a god to the public. Caligula also had several god statue's heads removed and replaced with his own in various temples. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.209. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. Caligula's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors. According to Cassius Dio, living Emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead Emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome. Cassius Dio, Roman History LI.20 Augustus also had the public worship his spirit on occasion, but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from. Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome, including Senators, worship him as a physical living god. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.26-28 Eastern policy Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa, who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in 37. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.6.10; Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus V.25 The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman law and the rights of Jews. Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus III.8, IV.21 In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus. Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus V.26-28 According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews. Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus V.29 Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues. Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus VI.43 As a result, riots broke out in the city. Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus VII.45 Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him. Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus XXI.185 In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was awarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.8.1 Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor. Also, disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXX.201 Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it. In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem, Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXX.203 a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XVI.115 In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his." Fearing civil war if the order were carried out, it was delayed for nearly a year by the governor of Syria, Publius Petronius. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXXI.213 Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order. Roman sestertius depicting Caligula, c. 38. The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia Livilla, with whom Caligula was rumoured to have carried on incestuous relationships. Scandals Surviving sources present a number of stories about Caligula that illustrate cruelty and insanity. The contemporaneous sources, Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger, describe an insane emperor who was self-absorbed, angry, killed on a whim, and who indulged in too much spending and sex. Seneca the Younger, On Anger xviii.1, On Anger III.xviii.1; On the Shortness of Life xviii.5; Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXIX He is accused of sleeping with other men's wives and bragging about it, Seneca the Younger, On Firmness xviii.1 killing for mere amusement, Seneca the Younger, On Anger III.xviii.1 purposely wasting money on his bridge, causing starvation, Seneca the Younger, On the Shortness of Life xviii.5 and wanting a statue of himself erected in the Temple of Jerusalem for his worship. While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio add additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia Livilla, and say he prostituted them to other men. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.11, LIX.22; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 24 They state he sent troops on illogical military exercises. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 46-47 They also allege he turned the palace into a brothel. Perhaps most famously, they say that Caligula tried to make his horse, Incitatus, a consul and a priest. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 55; Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.14, LIX.28 The validity of these accounts is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government. Assassination and aftermath Renaissance picture of Caligula. Caligula's actions as Emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, the nobility and the equestrian order. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.1 According to Josephus, these actions led to several failed conspiracies against Caligula. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 56; Tacitus, Annals 16.17; Josephus, Antiquities of Jews XIX.1.2 Eventually, a successful murder was planned by officers within the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.3 The plot is described as having been planned by three men, but many in the Senate, army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it and involved in it. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.10, XIX.1.14 According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.6 Suetonius sees the motive in Caligula calling Chaerea derogatory names. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 56 Caligula considered Chaerea effeminate because of a weak voice and for not being firm with tax collection. Seneca the Younger, On Firmness xviii.2; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.5 Caligula would mock Chaerea with watchwords like "Priapus" and "Venus". Seneca the Younger, On Firmness xviii.2; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 56 On 24 January 41, Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games and dramatics held for the Divine Augustus. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 58 Details on the events vary somewhat from source to source, but they agree that Chaerea was first to stab Caligula followed by a number of conspirators. Seneca the Younger, On Firmness xviii.2; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 58; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.14 Suetonius records that Caligula's death was similar to that of Julius Caesar. He states that both the elder Gaius Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) and the younger Gaius Julius Caesar (Caligula) were stabbed 30 times by conspirators led by a man named Cassius (Cassius Longinus and Cassius Chaerea). Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 57, 58 By the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard responded, the emperor was already dead. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.15; Suetonius, Life of Caligula 58 The Senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.2 Chaerea attempted to convince the military to support the Senate. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.4.4 The military, though, remained loyal to the office of the emperor. The grieving Roman people assembled and demanded that Caligula's murderers be brought to justice. Tacitus, Annals XI.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.20 Uncomfortable with lingering imperial support, the assassins sought out and stabbed Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and killed their infant daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head against a wall. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 59 They were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius, who was spirited out of the city to a nearby Praetorian camp. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.2.1 Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian guard and ordered the execution of Chaerea and any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.3.1 According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters. He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus; in 410 during the Sack of Rome the tomb's ashes were scattered. Legacy Historiography The history of Caligula’s reign is extremely problematic. Only two sources have survived that were contemporary with Caligula — the works of Philo and Seneca. Philo’s works, On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus, give some details on Caligula’s early reign, but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt with whom he sympathizes. Seneca’s various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula’s personality. Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in 39 likely due to his associations with conspirators. Cassius Dio, Roman History LIX.19 At one time, there were detailed contemporaneous histories on Caligula, but they are now lost. Additionally, the historians who wrote them are described as biased, either overly critical or praising of Caligula. Tacitus, Annals I.1 Nonetheless, these lost primary sources, along with the works of Seneca and Philo, were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Caligula written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporaneous historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote condemning histories on Caligula that are now lost. Fabius Rusticus was a friend of Seneca who was known for historical embellishment and misrepresentation. Tacitus, Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola X, Annals XIII.20 Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in the assassination of Caligula. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.13 Caligula’s sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that certainly included a detailed explanation of Caligula’s reign, but it too is lost. Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against Caligula. The inheritance of Nero, Agrippina's son and the future emperor, was seized by Caligula. Gaetulicus, a poet, produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula, but they too are lost. The bulk of what is known of Caligula comes from Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Suetonius wrote his history on Caligula eighty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 180 years after Caligula’s death. Though Cassius Dio’s work is invaluable because it alone gives a loose chronology of Caligula’s reign, his surviving work is only a summary written by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk. A handful of other sources also add a limited perspective on Caligula. Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula’s assassination. Tacitus provides some information on Caligula’s life under Tiberius. Tacitus, the most objective of ancient historians, did write a detailed history of Caligula, but this portion of his Annals is lost. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History also has a few brief references to Caligula. There are few surviving sources on Caligula and no surviving source paints Caligula in a favorable light. The paucity and bias of sources has resulted in significant gaps in the reign of Caligula. Little is written on the first two years of Caligula’s reign. Additionally, there are only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula’s military actions in Britannia, and his feud with the Roman Senate. Health All surviving sources, except Pliny the Elder, characterize Caligula as insane. However it is not known whether they are speaking figuratively or literally. Additionally, given Caligula's unpopularity among the surviving sources, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for Caligula's behavior, citing as possibilities encephalitis, epilepsy or meningitis. The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered. Philo of Alexandria, Josephus and Seneca also state Caligula was insane, but describe this madness as a personality trait that came through experience. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XIII Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of the Wise Person XVIII.1; Seneca the Younger, On Anger I.xx.8 Seneca states that Caligula became arrogant, angry and insulting once becoming emperor and uses his personality flaws as examples his readers can learn from. Seneca the Younger, On the Firmness of the Wise Person XVII-XVIII; Seneca the Younger, On Anger I.xx.8 According to Josephus, power made Caligula incredibly conceited and led him to think he was a god. Philo of Alexandria reports that Caligula became ruthless after nearly dying of his illness in 39. Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius III-IV Juvenal reports he was given a magic potion that drove him insane. Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from "falling sickness" when he was young. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 50 Modern historians have theorized that Caligula lived with a daily fear of seizures. D. Thomas Benediktson, "Caligula's Phobias and Philias: Fear of Seizure?", The Classical Journal (1991) p. 159-163 Despite swimming being a part of imperial education, Caligula could not swim. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus 64, Life of Caligula 54 Epileptics are encouraged not to swim because light reflecting off water can induce seizures. J.H. Pearn, "Epilepsy and Drowning in Childhood," British Medical Journal (1977) p. 1510-11 Additionally, Caligula reportedly talked to the full moon. Epilepsy was also long associated with the moon. O. Temkin, The Falling Sickness (2nd ed., Baltimore 1971) 3-4, 7, 13, 16, 26, 86, 92-96, 179 Some modern historians think that Caligula suffered from hyperthyroidism. R.S. Katz, "The Illness of Caligula" CW 65(1972),223-25, refuted by M.G. Morgan, "Caligula’s Illness Again", CW 66(1973),327-29. This diagnosis is mainly attributed to Caligula's irritability and his "stare" as described by Pliny the Elder. Caligula in fiction and popular culture In the novel I, Claudius, by Robert Graves, Caligula is presented as being a murderous sociopath from his childhood, who became clinically insane early in his reign. He drives his father Germanicus to despair and death by secretly terrorizing him. Caligula was only seven years of age when he committed this crime. "Caligula" by Albert Camus is a play in which emperor Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister, Drusilla. The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to 'bring the impossible into the realm of the likely'. Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene-stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950's, The Robe (1953) and its sequel Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954). Caligula also has been played by Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars; John Hurt in the 1976 BBC television series I, Claudius; John McEnery in the 1985 miniseries A.D.; Szabolcs Hajdu in the 1996 film Caligula; and John Simm in the 2004 miniseries Imperium Nerone. In Muriel Spark's 1976 novel The Takeover the eccentric Hubert Mallindaine believes himself to be a direct descendant of Caligula. A feature-length historical film Caligula was completed in 1979, in which Malcolm McDowell played the lead role. The film alienated audiences with extremely explicit sex and violence and received extremely negative reviews. http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=1:7895~T1 Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film I, Claudius, and Courtney Love appeared as Caligula in a fake trailer for Gore Vidal's Caligula, ostensibly a remake of the 1979 film, but actually a parodic short film by conceptual artist Francesco Vezzoli. 'Caligula' Gives a Toga Party (but No One's Really Invited) The play The Reckoning of Kit and Little Boots by Nat Cassidy, examines the lives of the Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe and Caligula, with the fictional conceit that Marlowe was working on a play about Caligula around the time of his own murder. It emphasizes the similarities between the two characters--both stabbed to death at 29, both in part as a result to their controversial perspectives on religion. The play also focuses on Caligula's love for his sister Drusilla, and his deep-rooted loathing for Tiberius. It received its world premiere in New York City in June 2008. http://www.villagevoice.com/nycguide/451942,8.html nytheatrecast » Blog Archive » Episode #223 - The Reckoning of Kit & Boots and Hope’s Arbor In the television series Xena: Warrior Princess, Caligula literally becomes a god and commits various crimes until he is talked into killing himself by Xena, the hero of the series. Ancestry Ancestors of Notes References Primary sources Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 59 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, (trans. W.Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX Philo of Alexandria, (trans. C.D.Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890): On the Embassy to Gaius Flaccus Seneca the Younger On Firmness On Anger To Marcia, On Consolation On Tranquility of Mind On the Shortness of Life To Polybius, On Consolation To Helvia, On Consolation On Benefits On the Terrors of Death (Epistle IV) On Taking One's Own Life (Epistle LXXVII) On the Value of Advice (Epistle XCIV) Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula Tacitus, Annals, Book 6 Secondary material Caligula: the corruption of power by Anthony A. Barrett (Batsford 1989) ISBN 0-7134-5487-3 Grant, Michael, The Twelve Caesars. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975 Hurley, Donna W., An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula". Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. 1993. Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis Biography of Gaius Caligula Straight Dope article Caligula A chronological account of his reign A critical account of a number of his reported activities His genealogical tree Caligula at BBC History | Caligula |@lemmatized gaius:38 julius:8 caesar:57 augustus:9 germanicus:12 august:2 january:4 commonly:1 know:9 cognomen:1 caligula:238 third:2 roman:38 emperor:30 reign:22 march:4 assassination:5 member:4 house:1 ruler:3 conventionally:1 julio:3 claudian:3 dynasty:1 father:7 adopted:1 son:5 tiberius:42 successful:2 general:2 one:7 rome:14 beloved:4 public:15 figure:1 young:19 earn:1 nickname:4 diminutive:2 form:2 caliga:3 meaning:1 little:4 soldier:6 boot:7 accompany:3 military:7 campaign:4 germania:2 die:7 antioch:1 mother:8 agrippina:11 elder:13 return:2 six:3 child:2 become:13 entangled:1 increasingly:1 bitter:1 feud:4 conflict:2 eventually:2 lead:7 destruction:1 family:4 sole:1 male:1 survivor:1 unscathed:1 deadly:1 intrigue:1 seemingly:1 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6,725 | Mars_(disambiguation) | Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. Mars or MARS may also refer to: Mars (mythology), the Roman god of war Mars (astrology), a set of qualities and influences MARS (oceanography), an acronym for Monterey Accelerated Research System, a cabled-based ocean observatory in Monterey Bay, California. Mars symbol, ♂ Jean-Baptiste Belley, also known as Mars March, Mars in French, and named for the Roman god A conjugation form of the verb "to mar" Mars (Metra) a station on Metra's Milwaukee District/West in Chicago, Illinois Businesses and products Mars, Incorporated, a confectioner Mars family, the family that owns the above business Mars Bar, a chocolate bar produced by Mars, Inc. Mars (supermarket), a U.S. grocery chain Mars (motorcycle), a now defunct German motorcycle manufacturer Mars Music, a now defunct U.S. music store chain Literature Mars (Fritz Zorn), an autobiographical essay by Fritz Angst Mars (Mitsuteru Yokoyama), a 1976 manga series by Mitsuteru Yokoyama Mars (manga), a 1996 manga series by Fuyumi Soryo Mars trilogy, three science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson Mars, a novel by Ben Bova in the Grand Tour series The Megaversity Association for Reenactments and Simulations, in Neal Stephenson's novel The Big U Television and film Mars (2004 film), a 2004 Russian film Mars or Scarface (Kinnikuman), a dMp choujin from Ultimate Muscle Mars (actor), member of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team Mars (1997 film), a 1997 movie starring Shari Belafonte Mars the Dog, canine star of A Dog's Breakfast Mars (Biker Mice from Mars), the planet as it appears in the cartoon series Commander Mars, one of the Galactic Commanders from Pokémon Music Mars (band), a short-lived No Wave band Mars (Gackt album) Mars (B'z album) "Mars, the Bringer of War", a movement in Holst's The Planets Mars, disk two of the Red Hot Chili Peppers double album Stadium Arcadium Xueyang "Mars" Ma, member of Mandopop boy band Top Combine Organizations Mauritius Amateur Radio Society Mongolian Amateur Radio Society Mumbai Amateur Radio Society Military USS Mars (AFS-1), a supply ship in the United States Pacific Fleet HMS Mars (1794), 74-gun third-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy Mars Automatic Pistol, a semi-automatic pistol developed in 1900 ITL MARS, a holographic weapon sight made by International Technologies Lasers Operation Mars, codename of the Second Rzhev-Sychevka Offensive, a Soviet offensive during World War II Military Affiliate Radio System, an auxiliary communications system for the United States armed forces Memory Array Redcode Simulator, a machine that simulates a Corewar battle JRM Mars, flying boat Technology MARS (cryptography), a block cipher that was IBM's submission to the Advanced Encryption Standard process. Mars probe program, a series of unmanned craft launched by the Soviet Union in the early 1970s MARS (ticket reservation system), a train seat reservation system used in Japan MARS Group, a British architectural think tank founded in 1933 MaRS Discovery District, a scientific research centre in Toronto Mars computer, a family of PDP-10-compatible digital computers built by Systems Concepts Mars (oil platform), the largest oil drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico Multivariate adaptive regression splines, a regression analysis technique MARS, or Molecular Adsorbents Recirculation System for liver dialysis Mars, a West Cornwall Railway locomotive Mars, the code name of Adobe Systems' PDF in XML Project Mars, Sega's 32X add-on video game console Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS), a space launch site colocated with NASA Wallops Space Flight Facility on Wallops Island, south of Chincoteague, VA. Cisco Security Monitoring, Analysis, and Response System (MARS) Places Mars, California, former name of Outingdale, California Mars, Pennsylvania, U.S. Stade 26 mars, a stadium in Mali Mars, Ardèche, France Mars, Gard, France Mars, Loire, France Mars-la-Tour, Meurthe-et-Moselle, France Mars-sous-Bourcq, Ardennes, France Mars-sur-Allier, Nièvre, France Mars, slang for Marseille, as popularised by the French hip hop group IAM Surname Alastair Mars (1915–1985), British World War II submarine commander and author Chris Mars Musician and painter Ed Mars (1866–1941), American baseball player Forrest Mars, Jr., confectionery magnate Forrest Mars, Sr. (1904–1999), confectionery magnate Franklin Clarence Mars (1883–1934), confectionery magnate Jacqueline Mars, confectionery magnate John Franklyn Mars, confectionery magnate Keith Mars, fictional TV character Kenneth Mars, (born 1936), actor Lianne Mars, fictional TV character Mademoiselle Mars (1779–1847), French actress Veronica Mars (character), fictional TV character See also MARRS Mars Hill (disambiguation) be-x-old:Марс (неадназначнасьць) | Mars_(disambiguation) |@lemmatized mar:80 fourth:1 planet:3 sun:1 may:1 also:3 refer:1 mythology:1 roman:2 god:2 war:4 astrology:1 set:1 quality:1 influence:1 oceanography:1 acronym:1 monterey:2 accelerate:1 research:2 system:9 cable:1 base:1 ocean:1 observatory:1 bay:1 california:3 symbol:1 jean:1 baptiste:1 belley:1 know:1 march:1 french:3 name:3 conjugation:1 form:1 verb:1 metra:2 station:1 milwaukee:1 district:2 west:2 chicago:1 illinois:1 business:2 product:1 incorporate:1 confectioner:1 family:3 bar:2 chocolate:1 produce:1 inc:1 supermarket:1 u:4 grocery:1 chain:2 motorcycle:2 defunct:2 german:1 manufacturer:1 music:3 store:1 literature:1 fritz:2 zorn:1 autobiographical:1 essay:1 angst:1 mitsuteru:2 yokoyama:2 manga:3 series:5 fuyumi:1 soryo:1 trilogy:1 three:1 science:1 fiction:1 novel:3 kim:1 stanley:1 robinson:1 ben:1 bova:1 grand:1 tour:2 megaversity:1 association:1 reenactment:1 simulation:1 neal:1 stephenson:1 big:1 television:1 film:4 russian:1 scarface:1 kinnikuman:1 dmp:1 choujin:1 ultimate:1 muscle:1 actor:2 member:2 jackie:1 chan:1 stunt:1 team:1 movie:1 star:2 shari:1 belafonte:1 dog:2 canine:1 breakfast:1 biker:1 mouse:1 appear:1 cartoon:1 commander:3 one:1 galactic:1 pokémon:1 band:3 short:1 live:1 wave:1 gackt:1 album:3 b:1 z:1 bringer:1 movement:1 holst:1 disk:1 two:1 red:1 hot:1 chili:1 pepper:1 double:1 stadium:2 arcadium:1 xueyang:1 mandopop:1 boy:1 top:1 combine:1 organization:1 mauritius:1 amateur:3 radio:4 society:3 mongolian:1 mumbai:1 military:2 uss:1 afs:1 supply:1 ship:2 united:2 state:2 pacific:1 fleet:1 hm:1 gun:1 third:1 rate:1 line:1 royal:1 navy:1 automatic:2 pistol:2 semi:1 develop:1 itl:1 holographic:1 weapon:1 sight:1 make:1 international:1 technology:2 laser:1 operation:1 codename:1 second:1 rzhev:1 sychevka:1 offensive:2 soviet:2 world:2 ii:2 affiliate:1 auxiliary:1 communication:1 arm:1 force:1 memory:1 array:1 redcode:1 simulator:1 machine:1 simulate:1 corewar:1 battle:1 jrm:1 fly:1 boat:1 cryptography:1 block:1 cipher:1 ibm:1 submission:1 advanced:1 encryption:1 standard:1 process:1 probe:1 program:1 unmanned:1 craft:1 launch:2 union:1 early:1 ticket:1 reservation:2 train:1 seat:1 use:1 japan:1 group:2 british:2 architectural:1 think:1 tank:1 found:1 discovery:1 scientific:1 centre:1 toronto:1 computer:2 pdp:1 compatible:1 digital:1 build:1 concept:1 oil:2 platform:2 large:1 drill:1 gulf:1 mexico:1 multivariate:1 adaptive:1 regression:2 spline:1 analysis:2 technique:1 molecular:1 adsorbent:1 recirculation:1 liver:1 dialysis:1 cornwall:1 railway:1 locomotive:1 code:1 adobe:1 pdf:1 xml:1 project:1 sega:1 add:1 video:1 game:1 console:1 mid:1 atlantic:1 regional:1 spaceport:1 space:2 site:1 colocated:1 nasa:1 wallop:2 flight:1 facility:1 island:1 south:1 chincoteague:1 va:1 cisco:1 security:1 monitoring:1 response:1 place:1 former:1 outingdale:1 pennsylvania:1 stade:1 mali:1 ardèche:1 france:6 gard:1 loire:1 la:1 meurthe:1 et:1 moselle:1 sous:1 bourcq:1 ardennes:1 sur:1 allier:1 nièvre:1 slang:1 marseille:1 popularise:1 hip:1 hop:1 iam:1 surname:1 alastair:1 submarine:1 author:1 chris:1 musician:1 painter:1 ed:1 american:1 baseball:1 player:1 forrest:2 jr:1 confectionery:5 magnate:5 sr:1 franklin:1 clarence:1 jacqueline:1 john:1 franklyn:1 keith:1 fictional:3 tv:3 character:4 kenneth:1 born:1 lianne:1 mademoiselle:1 actress:1 veronica:1 see:1 marrs:1 hill:1 disambiguation:1 x:1 old:1 марс:1 неадназначнасьць:1 |@bigram monterey_bay:1 jean_baptiste:1 chicago_illinois:1 manga_manga:1 mar_trilogy:1 science_fiction:1 kim_stanley:1 ben_bova:1 neal_stephenson:1 jackie_chan:1 hot_chili:1 chili_pepper:1 automatic_pistol:2 semi_automatic:1 block_cipher:1 soviet_union:1 gulf_mexico:1 regression_analysis:1 hip_hop:1 confectionery_magnate:5 |
6,726 | Industry_Standard_Architecture | Industry Standard Architecture (in practice almost always shortened to ISA) was a computer bus standard for IBM compatible computers. History The ISA bus was developed by a team lead by Mark Dean at IBM as part of the IBM PC project in 1981. It originated as an 8-bit system and was extended in 1983 for the XT system architecture. The newer 16-bit standard, the IBM AT bus, was introduced in 1984. In 1988, the Gang of Nine IBM PC compatible manufacturers put forth the 32-bit EISA standard and in the process retroactively renamed the AT bus to "ISA" to avoid infringing IBM's trademark on its PC/AT computer. IBM designed the 8-bit version as a buffered interface to the external bus of the Intel 8088 (16/8 bit) CPU used in the original IBM PC and PC/XT, and the 16-bit version as an upgrade for the external bus of the Intel 80286 CPU used in the IBM AT. Therefore, the ISA bus was synchronous with the CPU clock, until sophisticated buffering methods were developed and implemented by chipsets to interface ISA to much faster CPUs. Designed to connect peripheral cards to the motherboard, ISA allows for bus mastering although only the first 16 MB of main memory are available for direct access. The 8-bit bus ran at 4.77 MHz (the clock speed of the IBM PC and IBM PC/XT's 8088 CPU), while the 16-bit bus operated at 6 or 8 MHz (because the 80286 CPUs in IBM PC/AT computers ran at 6 MHz in early models and 8 MHz in later models.) IBM RT/PC also used the 16-bit bus. It was also available on some non-IBM compatible machines such as the short-lived AT&T Hobbit and later PowerPC based BeBox. In 1987, IBM moved to replace the AT bus with their proprietary Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) in an effort to regain control of the PC architecture and the PC market. (Note the relationship between the IBM term "I/O Channel" for the AT-bus and the name "Micro Channel" for IBM's intended replacement.) MCA had many features that would later appear in PCI, the successor of ISA, but MCA was a closed standard, unlike ISA (PC-bus and AT-bus) for which IBM had released full specifications and even circuit schematics. The system was far more advanced than the AT bus, and computer manufacturers responded with the Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) and later, the VESA Local Bus (VLB). In fact, VLB used some electronic parts originally intended for MCA because component manufacturers already were equipped to manufacture them. Both EISA and VLB were backwards-compatible expansions of the AT (ISA) bus. Users of ISA-based machines had to know special information about the hardware they were adding to the system. While a handful of devices were essentially "plug-n-play," this was rare. Users frequently had to configure several parameters when adding a new device, such as the IRQ line, I/O address, or DMA channel. MCA had done away with this complication, and PCI actually incorporated many of the ideas first explored with MCA (though it was more directly descended from EISA). This trouble with configuration eventually led to the creation of ISA PnP, a plug-n-play system that used a combination of modifications to hardware, the system BIOS, and operating system software to automatically manage the nitty-gritty details. In reality, ISA PnP can be a major headache, and didn't become well-supported until the architecture was in its final days. This was a major contributor to the use of the phrase "plug-n-pray." PCI slots were the first physically-incompatible expansion ports to directly squeeze ISA off the motherboard. At first, motherboards were largely ISA, including a few PCI slots. By the mid-1990s, the two slot types were roughly balanced, and ISA slots soon were in the minority of consumer systems. Microsoft's PC 97 specification recommended that ISA slots be removed entirely, though the system architecture still required ISA to be present in some vestigial way internally to handle the floppy drive, serial ports, etc. ISA slots remained for a few more years, and towards the turn of the century it was common to see systems with an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) sitting near the central processing unit, an array of PCI slots, and one or two ISA slots near the end. Now (in late 2008), even floppy disk drives and serial ports are disappearing, and the extinction of vestigial ISA from chipsets may be on the horizon. It is also notable that PCI slots are "rotated" compared to their ISA counterparts—PCI cards were essentially inserted "upside-down," allowing ISA and PCI connectors to squeeze together on the motherboard. Only one of the two connectors can be used in each slot at a time, but this allowed for greater flexibility. The AT Attachment (ATA) hard disk interface is directly descended from ISA (the AT bus). ATA has its origins in hardcards that integrated a hard disk controller (HDC) — usually with an ST-506/ST-412 interface — and a hard disk drive on the same ISA adapter. This was at best awkward from a mechanical structural standpoint, as ISA slots were not designed to support such heavy devices as hard disks (and the 3.5" form-factor hard disks of the time were about twice as tall and heavy as modern drives), so the next generation of Integrated Drive Electronics drives moved both the drive and controller to a drive bay and used a ribbon cable and a very simple interface board to connect it to an ISA slot. ATA, at its essence, is basically a standardization of this arrangement, combined with a uniform command structure for software to interface with the controller on a drive. ATA has since been separated from the ISA bus, and connected directly to the local bus (usually by integration into the chipset), to be clocked much much faster than ISA could support and with much higher throughput. (Notably when ISA was introduced as the AT bus, there was no distinction between a local and extension bus, and there were no chipsets.) Still, ATA retains details which reveal its relationship to ISA. The 16-bit transfer size is the most obvious example; the signal timing, particularly in the PIO modes, is also highly correlated, and the interrupt and DMA mechanisms are clearly from ISA. (The article about ATA has more detail about this history.) ISA bus architecture The PC/XT-bus is an eight-bit ISA bus used by Intel 8086 and Intel 8088 systems in the IBM PC and IBM PC XT in the 1980s. Among its 62 pins were demultiplexed and electrically buffered versions of the eight data and 20 address lines of the 8088 processor, along with power lines, clocks, read/write strobes, interrupt lines, etc. Power lines included -5V and +/-12 V in order to directly support pMOS and enhancement mode nMOS circuits such as dynamic RAMs among other things. The XT bus architecture uses a single Intel 8259 PIC, giving eight vectorized and prioritized interrupt lines. It has four DMA channels, three of which are brought out to the XT bus expansion slots; of these, two are normally already allocated to machine functions (diskette drive and hard disk controller): DMA channel Expansion Standard function 0 No Dynamic RAM refresh 1 Yes Add-on cards 2 Yes Floppy disk controller 3 Yes Hard disk controller The PC/AT-bus is a 16-bit (or 80286-) version of the PC/XT bus introduced with the IBM PC/AT, officially termed I/O Channel by IBM. It extends the XT-bus by adding a second shorter edge connector in-line with the eight-bit XT-bus connector, which is unchanged, retaining compatibility with most 8-bit cards. The second connector adds four additional address lines for a total of 24, and eight additional data lines for a total of 16. It also adds new interrupt lines connected to a second 8259 PIC (connected to one of the lines of the first) and four 16-bit DMA channels, as well as control lines to select 8 or 16 bit transfers. The 16-bit AT bus slot originally used two standard edge connector sockets in early IBM PC/AT machines. However, with the popularity of the AT-architecture and the 16-bit ISA bus, manufacturers introduced specialized 98-pin connectors that integrated the two sockets into one unit. These can be found in almost every AT-class PC manufactured after the mid-1980s. The ISA slot connector is typically black (distinguishing it from the brown EISA connectors and white PCI connectors). Varying bus speeds Originally, the bus clock was synchronous with the CPU clock, resulting in varying bus clock frequencies among the many different IBM "clones" on the market (sometimes as high as 16 or 20 MHz), leading to software or electrical timing problems for certain ISA cards at bus speeds they were not designed for. Later motherboards and/or integrated chipsets used a separate clock generator or a clock divider which either fixed the ISA bus frequency at 4, 6 or 8 MHz or allowed the user to adjust the frequency via the BIOS setup. When used at a higher bus frequency, some ISA cards (certain Hercules-compatible video cards, for instance), could show significant performance improvements. 8/16-bit Incompatibilities Memory address decoding for the selection of 8 or 16-bit transfer mode was limited to 128 KB sections - A0000..BFFFF, C0000..DFFFF, E0000..FFFFF leading to problems when mixing 8 and 16-bit cards, as they could not co-exist in the same 128 KB area. Current use Apart from specialized industrial use, ISA is all but gone today. Even where present, system manufacturers often shield customers from the term "ISA bus", referring to it instead as the "legacy bus" (see legacy system). The PC/104 bus, used in industrial and embedded applications, is a derivative of the ISA bus, utilizing the same signal lines with different connectors. The LPC bus has replaced the ISA bus as the connection to the legacy I/O devices on recent motherboards; while physically quite different, LPC looks just like ISA to software, so that the peculiarities of ISA such as the 16 MiB DMA limit (which corresponds to the full address space of the Intel 80286 CPU used in the original IBM AT) are likely to stick around for a while. Starting with Windows Vista, Microsoft is phasing out support for ISA cards in Windows. Vista still supports ISA-PnP for the time being, although it's not enabled by default. However, consumer market PCs discontinued the ISA port feature on their motherboards before Windows XP was released. As explained in the History section, ISA was the basis for development of the ATA interface, used for ATA (a.k.a. IDE) and more recently Serial ATA (SATA) hard disks. Physically, ATA is essentially a simple subset of ISA, with 16 data bits, support for exactly one IRQ and one DMA channel, and 3 address bits plus two IDE address select ("chip select") lines, plus a few unique signal lines specific to ATA/IDE hard disks (such as the Cable Select/Spindle Sync. line.) ATA goes beyond and far outside the scope of ISA by also specifying a set of physical device registers to be implemented on every ATA (IDE) drive and accessed using the address bits and address select signals in the ATA physical interface channel; ATA also specifies a full set of protocols and device commands for controlling fixed disk drives using these registers, through which all operations of ATA hard disks are performed. A further deviation between ISA and ATA is that while the ISA bus remained locked into a single standard clock rate (for backward compatibility), the ATA interface offered many different speed modes, could select among them to match the maximum speed supported by the attached drives, and kept adding faster speeds with later versions of the ATA standard (up to 100 MB/s for ATA-6, the latest.) In most forms, ATA ran much faster than ISA. Before the 16-bit ATA/IDE interface, there was an 8-bit XT-IDE (also known as XTA) interface for hard disks, though it was not nearly as popular as ATA has become, and XT-IDE hardware is now fairly hard to find (for those vintage computer enthusiasts who may look for it.) Some XT-IDE adapters were available as 8-bit ISA cards, and XTA sockets were also present on the motherboards of Amstrad's later XT clones. The XTA pinout was very similar to ATA, but only eight data lines and two address lines were used, and the physical device registers had completely different meanings. A few hard drives (such as the Seagate ST351A/X) could support either type of interface, selected with a jumper. A derivation of ATA was the PCMCIA specification, merely a wire-adapter away from ATA. This then meant that Compact Flash, based on PCMCIA, were (and are) ATA compliant and can, with a very simple adapter, be used on ATA ports. Emulation by embedded chips Although most computers do not have physical ISA buses all IBM compatible computers — x86, and x86-64 (most non-mainframe, non-embedded) — have ISA buses allocated in virtual address space. Embedded controller chips (southbridge) and CPUs themselves provide services such as temperature monitoring and voltage readings through these buses as ISA devices. Standardization IEEE started a standardization of the ISA bus in 1985, called the P996 specification. However, despite there even having been books published on the P996 specification, it never officially progressed past draft status. See also PC/104 - Embedded variant of ISA Low Pin Count (LPC) - Low pin count version of ISA Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) Micro Channel architecture (MCA) VESA Local Bus (VESA) Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) PCI-X Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) PCI Express (PCI-E or PCIe) List of computer bus interfaces Amiga Zorro II NuBus Switched fabric List of device bandwidths CompactPCI PC card Universal Serial Bus Legacy port References | Industry_Standard_Architecture |@lemmatized industry:3 standard:11 architecture:12 practice:1 almost:2 always:1 shorten:1 isa:60 computer:9 bus:54 ibm:26 compatible:6 history:3 develop:2 team:1 lead:4 mark:1 dean:1 part:2 pc:25 project:1 originate:1 bit:27 system:13 extend:3 xt:14 new:3 introduce:4 gang:1 nine:1 manufacturer:5 put:1 forth:1 eisa:6 process:1 retroactively:1 rename:1 avoid:1 infringe:1 trademark:1 design:4 version:6 buffered:2 interface:13 external:2 intel:6 cpu:8 use:22 original:2 upgrade:1 therefore:1 synchronous:2 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pin_connector:1 window_vista:2 window_xp:1 ata_interface:2 serial_ata:1 ata_sata:1 ata_ide:3 backward_compatibility:1 pci_express:1 |
6,727 | Church_of_Christ,_Scientist | The Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, by Mary Baker Eddy, author of the book Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, which offered a unique interpretation of Christian faith. Christian Science teaches that the reality of God denies the reality of sin, sickness, death, and the material world. Accounts of miraculous healing are common within the church, and adherents often refuse modern medical treatments. The church, headquartered in Boston, with branches around the world, currently has a membership estimated at 100,000 to 400,000. History Mary Baker Eddy The church was founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1879 following a personal healing in 1866, which she claimed resulted from reading the Bible. She called this experience "the falling apple" that led to her discovery of Christian Science. She was convinced that: "The divine Spirit had wrought the miracle — a miracle which later I found to be in perfect scientific accord with divine law." Ret 24 She spent the next three years investigating the law of God according to the Bible, especially in the words and works of Jesus. The Bible and Eddy's textbook on Christian healing, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, are together the church's key doctrinal sources and have been ordained as the church's "dual impersonal pastor". The First Church of Christ, Scientist, is widely known for its publications, especially The Christian Science Monitor, a daily newspaper published internationally in print and on the Internet. Skeptics consider the church to be controversial due to its emphasis on healing through prayer when others would likely choose modern medicine. There have also been periodic tensions with other Christian denominations who reject the idea that Christian Science is a Christian denomination because of what some consider to be unorthodox tenets. (An example of these tenets is: "We acknowledge Jesus' atonement as the evidence of divine, efficacious Love, unfolding man's unity with God through Christ Jesus the Way-shower; and we acknowledge that man is saved through Christ, through Truth, Life, and Love as demonstrated by the Galilean Prophet in healing the sick and overcoming sin and death." Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures p. 497 The Church of Christ, Scientist is sometimes confused with the Church of Scientology, an unrelated organization founded about 75 years after Christian Science. It is also sometimes confused with Religious Science, a recent denomination in line with the New Thought tradition. Christian Science's most common symbol is the Cross and Crown. Theology and healing Origins and early development In February 1866, Mary Baker Eddy (known at the time as Mary Glover) was healed of an injury "that neither medicine nor surgery could reach..." (Ret 24:12). According to her personal accounts, when she appeared to be near death, she called out for her Bible. She turned it to Matthew 9:2, which tells the story of Jesus healing a man who was sick with palsy, and after pondering the meaning of the passage, found herself suddenly well and able to get up. In her autobiography, Retrospection and Introspection, (Ret 24:17) she wrote: Even to the homeopathic physician who attended me, and rejoiced in my recovery, I could not then explain the modus of my relief. I could only assure him that the divine Spirit had wrought the miracle—a miracle which later I found to be in perfect scientific accord with divine law. She referred to this event as her "Great Discovery", the "falling apple" that led to her "discovery how to be well" herself (ibid.) (Later, she gave it the name of "Christian Science" stating that she "...named it Christian, because it is compassionate, helpful, and spiritual." (ibid).) Not knowing how it had occurred, she spent the next three years studying the Bible, experimenting and praying to discover if the experience was repeatable and if there were knowable laws that governed it. She claimed that she was able to heal others and began to be called out to the bedsides of those whom the medical faculty had not been able to help. A doctor attending a severe case in New Hampshire is said to have witnessed her healing one of his patients and asked if she could explain her system. At the time, she said only that God did it. But he urged her to write about it and soon she began her main work explaining her system of Christian healing, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. Soon others began to ask her to teach her healing method and she claimed that her students were able to approximate her ability to heal. The readers of her book gathered into an organization and gradually developed into a church, with Mary Baker Eddy as its pastor. Possible influences Although she had little formal education, Mary Baker Eddy spent much of her youth reading the Bible, as well as works in natural philosophy, logic, moral science, and other Christian works. Prior to her recovery in 1866, she had investigated a number of common healing methods of her day, including the conventional medicine of the day, homeopathy, and hydropathy. However, it was her experience as a patient of P.P. Quimby that was to have the most controversial effect on her religious development. Mary Baker Eddy asked her husband at the time, Daniel Patterson, to seek out Quimby's help for her in 1862, during a severe illness. Until Quimby's death in January 1866, Eddy relied heavily on Quimby for her physical health. Some feel that Quimby provided inspiration for Eddy's early writing on Christian Science, asserting that Quimby used the phrase "Christian Science" (in 1863). Incidentally, William Adams used the term "Christian Science" before Quimby and Eddy in a book he wrote entitled, The Elements of Christian Science, first copyrighted in 1850 and published in 1857. Eddy would later claim that she had provided much of the foundation of Quimby's thoughts on healing (My 306:22). Those more sympathetic to Quimby and the New Thought religions stemming from his teachings find this to be unlikely, arguing that Quimby introduced some key elements as early as 1859 that would later appear in Christian Science. However, Christian Science practice does not resemble Quimby's healing system, nor are their respective theologies remotely similar. Eddy biographer Gillian Gill, who is not a Christian Scientist, acknowledges that Quimby "had a profound influence on" Eddy, but also notes that her religion was quite different from his (in her Mary Baker Eddy (1998), 146). The American religious scholar Ann Taves probes for specific differences and argues that "Quimby's rejection of special revelation was in keeping with both Spiritualism and the later New Thought tradition, while Eddy's insistence on revelation aligned Christian Science more strategically with evangelical Protestantism as represented by Edwards and Wesley and with Seventh-day Adventism" (in her Fits, Trances, and Visions (1999), 218). Theology In Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Eddy argues that given the absolute goodness and perfection of God, sin, disease, and death were not created by Him, and therefore cannot be truly real. She bases this reading on Genesis 1, calling that the true record of creation in contrast to Genesis 2, the false record of creation obscuring the true (which occurred when "a mist went up from the face of the ground"). Rather than being ontologically real, in Christian Science evil and its manifestations are instead terrible lies about God and His creation. This, it contends, is what Jesus meant when he said that "the devil is a liar and the father of it" (John 8:44). The demand for Christians, therefore, is to "unmask" the devil's lies through Christ, revealing the true and eternal perfection of God's creation. Eddy therefore called evil "error" and felt it could be remedied through a better spiritual understanding of one's relationship to God. She contended that this understanding was what enabled the biblical Jesus to heal and accords with the Scripture: "We are of God: he that knoweth God heareth us; he that is not of God heareth not us. Hereby know we the spirit of truth, and the spirit of error." (I John 4:6) This teaching is the foundation of the Christian Science principle that disease – and any other adversity – can be cured through prayerful efforts, made possible only by God's grace, to fully understand this spiritual relationship. It is encapsulated in Science and Health as "The Scientific Statement of Being". It is read aloud in churches and Sunday schools at the end of every Sunday service, along with I John 3:1-3 and a biblical benediction: There is no life, truth, intelligence, nor substance in matter. All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is All-in-all. Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is mortal error. Spirit is the real and eternal; matter is the unreal and temporal. Spirit is God, and man is His image and likeness. Therefore man is not material; he is spiritual. (p. 468) This belief in the unreality of imperfection, stemming from the allness of God, Spirit, is the basis of Christian Scientists' characteristic reliance on prayer in place of traditional medical care, often with the aid of Christian Science practitioners. Christian Science practitioners are listed in the Christian Science Journal, with the permission of the church's Board of Directors, their only form of official recognition by the church and among the Christian Science laity. (Some "unlisted" practitioners maintain active practices as well, but they do so without the prestige that a Journal listing brings. Additionally, medical insurance plans that cover Christian Science treatment generally only cover treatment provided by Journal-listed practitioners). Practitioners treat patients, in Christian Science parlance, through prayer. Such treatment often, though not always, is for health-related problems, and a practitioner's patient may request help for personal problems as well, such as relationships, problems of employment or housing and so on. Practitioners generally charge a modest fee for their services since this is their only form of employment. Christian Scientists believe that through scientific study of the inspired word of the Bible, especially Jesus' words and works, one can learn to heal. Healing is understood not as an end in itself, but a natural result of drawing closer to God. Healing sin is particularly important. Eddy called this the "emphatic purpose" of Christian Science, writing that it is also sometimes more difficult than healing sickness, because "while mortals love to sin, they do not love to be sick" (Rudimental Divine Science, 2). Christian Scientists celebrate the sacraments of baptism and eucharist in an entirely non-material way. "Our baptism," wrote Eddy, "is purification from all error...Our Eucharist is spiritual communion with the one God. Our bread, 'which cometh down from heaven,' is Truth. Our cup is the cross. Our wine the inspiration of Love, the draught the Master drank and commended to his followers" (Science and Health 35). The only ritual in the Christian Science church is voluntary kneeling at the Sacrament service twice a year, while repeating the Lord's prayer. Marriage is not a sacrament of the Christian Science church, but marriage does hold a special place in Christian Science as the moral and legal institution within which a man and woman can partner to help one another grow into a fuller "demonstration," or lived understanding, of their spiritual completeness as expressions of the Father-Mother God. The church's by-laws require a legal, religious ceremony for marriage: "If a Christian Scientist is to be married, the ceremony shall be performed by a clergyman who is legally authorized." (Church Manual 49) Christ Jesus is both "Wayshower" and savior in Christian Science theology. Eddy distinguished between the corporeal Jesus, the human man in the flesh (the Son of Man), and the incorporeal Christ (the Son of God). According to Christian Science, Christ is "the divine manifestation of God, which comes to the flesh to destroy incarnate error" (Science and Health 583). This incorporeal Christ is the "spiritual selfhood" (or spiritual identity) of Jesus (Science and Health 38). In Eddy's Message to The Mother Church for 1901, in the section titled CHRIST IS ONE AND DIVINE, she writes: The Christ was Jesus' spiritual selfhood; therefore Christ existed prior to Jesus, who said, "Before Abraham was, I am." Jesus, the only immaculate, was born of a virgin mother, and Christian Science explains that mystic saying of the Master as to his dual personality, or the spiritual and material Christ Jesus, called in Scripture the Son of God and the Son of man — explains it as referring to his eternal spiritual selfhood and his temporal manhood. (Message for 1901, p. 8) This accords with a basic plank in the platform of Christian Science: The invisible Christ was imperceptible to the so-called personal senses, whereas Jesus appeared as a bodily existence. This dual personality of the unseen and the seen, the spiritual and material, the eternal Christ and the corporeal Jesus manifest in flesh, continued until the Master's ascension, when the human, material concept, or Jesus, disappeared, while the spiritual self, or Christ, continues to exist in the eternal order of divine Science, taking away the sins of the world, as the Christ has always done, even before the human Jesus was incarnate to mortal eyes. (Science and Health 334) Christian Science teaches that Christ Jesus was sent by God and that his history is factual, including the virgin birth, the crucifixion, the resurrection, and the ascension. (Science and Health 46). Because of his special status due to the virgin birth and his pure, unselfish nature, Jesus voluntarily faced his struggle in Gethsemane, death, resurrection, and ascension to show humanity that no phase of mortal existence was beyond God's redeeming love. Eddy wrote: "Jesus of Nazareth taught and demonstrated man's oneness with the Father, and for this we owe him endless homage" (Science and Health 18). Jesus could have withdrawn himself from his enemies. He had power to lay down a human sense of life for his spiritual identity in the likeness of the divine; but he allowed men to attempt the destruction of the mortal body in order that he might furnish the proof of immortal life. Nothing could kill this Life of man. Jesus could give his temporal life into his enemies' hands; but when his earth-mission was accomplished, his spiritual life, indestructible and eternal, was found forever the same. (Science and Health 51) Christian Science teaches that we are not Christians until we "go and do likewise," until we in some degree "come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ," as it says in the Scriptures (Ephesians 4:13). We never become Christ, but we are called upon to become fully Christly or Christ-like, to emulate our Master's great words and works in some measure. This was Eddy's understanding of Jesus' saying: "He that believeth on me, the works that I do shall he do also; and greater works than these shall he do, because I go unto my Father" (John 14:12). No one's ministry, however, can equal that of Christ Jesus in Christian Science. Eddy even stipulated in her Church Manual that "careless comparison or irreverent reference to Christ Jesus is abnormal in a Christian Scientist and is prohibited" (41). She also wrote: "The cardinal points of Christian Science cannot be lost sight of, namely — one God, supreme, infinite, and one Christ Jesus." (Miscellany 339) Christian Scientists are trinitarian, but in an unorthodox way. One plank of the platform of Christian Science says: Life, Truth, and Love constitute the triune Person called God, — that is, the triply divine Principle, Love. They represent a trinity in unity, three in one, — the same in essence, though multi-form in office: God the Father-Mother; Christ the spiritual idea of sonship; divine Science or the Holy Comforter. These three express in divine Science the threefold, essential nature of the infinite. They also indicate the divine Principle of scientific being, the intelligent relation of God to man and the universe. (Science and Health 331) Here, Eddy calls God "Father-Mother," signifying not an androgynous God but a God "without body, parts or passions," as in the Westminster creed, who nevertheless functions both to govern and comfort. She calls the Holy Ghost "divine Science or the Holy Comforter," the spiritual law of God operating as the Holy Ghost in the world. One further note regarding Christ and the Trinity. To her students, Mrs. Eddy sent a definition of the Trinity (circa 1898), which read in part: "Jesus in the flesh was the prophet or wayshower to Life, Truth, and Love, and out of the flesh Jesus was the Christ, the spiritual idea, or image and likeness of God." (Christian Science Journal, July 1915, p. 192). This statement clearly reflects Mrs. Eddy's doctrine regarding the uniqueness, unity, and individuality of Christ Jesus' eternal, spiritual identity. Spiritual healing in the material world Christian Science's focus on the idea of spiritual healing led to some measure of stir in the theological realm at first. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, many mainstream denominations had relegated spiritual healing to the realm of a one-time dispensation rather than a modern practice. During Christian Science's early days of rapid growth, claims of healing with Mary Baker Eddy's and the Science and Health's teachings became a subject of heated debate at Christian conventions, but for the same reason it also became a subject of reawakened interest in the 1960s and 1970s. While reliance on the theology of spiritual healing is important to Christian Scientists, it is also not officially required of them, which has led to mixed legal opinions as to what constitutes negligence in its use. Orthodox practitioners treating a patient who decides to switch to medical care will typically no longer pray for that person. "Mixing" of methods is discouraged among orthodox Christian Scientists because, according to Eddy, they work from opposite standpoints. In Christian Science, God made "man" perfect, so "prayerful treatment" works from the standpoint of perfection, seeing man in "reality" as God made him; whereas medical science works from the standpoint that something is wrong, which must first be diagnosed, then fixed. Christian Science teaches that spiritual healing is a natural result of following Jesus' teachings. Healing was a major part of Jesus' ministry, and Christian Scientists see no basis for excluding it from the practice of modern day Christians. They believe that Jesus proved his teachings by his healings. The Church claims to have over 50,000 testimonies of healing through Christian Science treatment alone. While most of these testimonies represent ailments neither diagnosed nor treated by medical professionals, the Church does require three other people to vouch for any testimony published in its official organ, the Christian Science Journal. However, some critics of the Church complain that the verification guidelines are not strict enough, allowing verifiers who have not witnessed the claimed healing to "vouch for [the healing's] accuracy based on their knowledge of [the claimant]." (Taken from the Church's "Testimony guidelines".) The Church also has a number of statements regarding diagnosed conditions accompanied by legal affidavits of authenticity signed by medical practitioners who witnessed a non-medical healing. A book entitled Spiritual Healing in a Scientific Age by Robert Peel chronicles many of these accounts and quotes from the affidavits. Peel is the most academic/scholarly writer of the church's published biographers of Mary Baker Eddy. Christian Scientists who wish to become public practitioners of Christian Science—spiritual healers—complete an intensive two-week "Primary" class. The instruction in this class is provided by a teacher. Teachers are added every three years by the church from the pool of active public practitioners. To become a teacher, they must first be selected by the church, then they take another class designated "Normal". Both classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy. In particular, the "Primary" class focuses upon the chapter entitled "Recapitulation" in Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and is where the "Scientific Statement of Being" is located. The "Normal" class focuses upon the Platform of Christian Science which is also found in Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, but begins on page 330 in the chapter entitled "Science of Being". Mrs. Eddy, the founder of the Church, said one may accept certain temporary aid from "materia medica" if a person is in such pain that he is unable to pray for himself. "If patients fail to experience the healing power of Christian Science, and think they can be benefited by certain ordinary physical methods of medical treatment, then the Mind-physician should give up such cases, and leave invalids free to resort to whatever other systems they fancy will afford relief." Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures page 443 While the Church does not require members to forgo medical treatment, most Christian Scientists do so voluntarily because of their faith and they feel they have a history of success with this alternative form of healing. Indeed, outsiders believe that the social pressures to eschew medical care is so strong among Christian Scientists that those who feel they must see a doctor endanger their social standing in the congregation, and depending on the policies of their local branch church, may be stripped of any church office or position they hold. However, the vast majority of Christian Scientists would feel this perspective is not borne out in their own actual experiences around choosing medical care. Medical Studies of Spiritual Healing The medical community (and others) have taken some interest in spirituality and healing. The Harvard Medical School Department of Continuing Education continues to offer a course entitled "Spirituality and Healing in Medicine; The Importance of the Integration of Mind/Body Practices and Prayer" which the Mother Church has supported. In addition, some studies on the effectiveness of prayer on recovering heart attack patients have shown a small benefit to prayer or other spiritual treatment in recovery. Byrd RC. Positive therapeutic effects of intercessory prayer in a coronary care unit population. South Med J 1988;81:826-9. PMID 3393937. However, it is important to note that the patients in these studies received some form of spiritual healing (i.e. not Christian Science 'treatment') in addition to, not instead of, conventional medical care. Later studies (again not involving Christian Science treatment) with larger numbers of heart patients showed prayer has no effect on recovery. Power of prayer flunks an unusual test - Heart health - MSNBC.com Organization The Mother Church, Boston, Massachusetts. The First Church of Christ, Scientist in Boston, from another perspective The First Church of Christ, Scientist is the legal title of The Mother Church and administrative headquarters of the Christian Science Church. The complex is located in a plaza alongside Huntington Avenue in the Back Bay neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The church itself was built in 1894, and an annex larger in footprint than the original structure was added in 1906. It boasts one of the world's largest pipe organs, built by the Aeolian-Skinner Company of Boston. The Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity is housed in an 11-story structure originally built for The Christian Science Publishing Society constructed between 1932 and 1934, and the present plaza was constructed in the 1970s to include a large administration building, a colonnade, and a reflecting pool with fountain, designed by Araldo Cossutta of I. M. Pei and Partners (now Pei Cobb Freed). Branch churches of The Mother Church may take the title of First Church of Christ, Scientist; Second; but the article The must not be used. An international daily newspaper, the Christian Science Monitor, founded by Eddy in 1908 and winner of seven Pulitzer prizes, is published by the church through the Christian Science Publishing Society. Branch Christian Science churches and Christian Science Societies are subordinate to the Mother Church, but are self-governed in the sense that they have their own constitutions, bank accounts, assets, etc., but in order to be recognised must abide by the practices that Mary Baker Eddy laid out in the Manual of The Mother Church. Church services, along with every other aspect of church government, are regulated by the Manual, a constitution of sorts written by Eddy, and consisting of various regulations covering everything from the duties of officers, to discipline, to provisions for church meetings and publications. Board of Directors The Christian Science Board of Directors is a five-person executive entity created by Mary Baker Eddy to administer the Christian Science Church under the terms defined in her equivalent of a church constitution, the Church Manual. Its functions and restrictions are defined by various by-laws throughout the Manual. The Board (occasionally TCSBD or the BoD for short) also includes functions defined by a Deed of Trust written by Eddy (one of several, in fact) under which it consisted of four persons, though she later expanded the Board to five persons, thus in effect leaving one of its members out of Deed functions. This later bore on a dispute during the 1920s, known as the Great Litigation in CS circles, pivoting on whether the CSBD could remove trustees of the Christian Science Publishing Society or whether the CSPS trustees were established independently. While Eddy's Manual established limited executive functions under the rule of law in place of a traditional hierarchy, the controversial 1991 publication of a book by Bliss Knapp led the then Board of Directors to make the unusual affidavit during a suit over Knapp's estate that neither acts by it violating the Manual, nor acts refraining from required action, constituted violation of the Manual. A traditionally-minded minority held that the Board's act in publishing Knapp's book constituted a fundamental violation of several by-laws and its legal trust, automatically mandating the offending Board's resignations under Article I, Section 9. Another minority believed that Eddy intended various requirements for her consent (in their view, "estoppels") to effect the church's dissolution on her passing, since they could no longer be followed literally. Ironically, one of the stronger arguments against this position came from an individual highly respected by their theological quarter, Bliss Knapp, who claimed that Eddy understood through her lawyer that these consent clauses would not hinder normal operation after her decease. Services Churches worldwide hold a one-hour service each Sunday, consisting of hymns, prayer, and currently, readings from the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible (although there is no requirement that this version of the Bible be used) and Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. These readings are the weekly Lesson-Sermon, which is read aloud at all Sunday services in all Christian Science churches worldwide, and is studied by individuals at home throughout the preceding week. The Lesson, as it is informally called, is compiled by a committee at the Mother Church, and is made up of alternating passages from the Bible and Science and Health. There are 26 set topics for the Lesson-Sermon, selected by Eddy herself. The topics follow each other in an unchanging, predetermined order, and the progression starts over mid-year so that every week in the year has a topic devoted to it. In years in which there are 53 Sundays, the topic "Christ Jesus" occurs a third time, in December. There is also a Lesson-Sermon for Thanksgiving Day. See List of Christian Science tenets, prayers, and statements for the complete list of topics. Because there are no clergy in the church, branch church Sunday services are conducted by two Readers: the First Reader, who reads passages from Science and Health, and the Second Reader, who reads passages from the Bible. First Readers determine the beginning "scriptural selection", hymns to be sung on Sundays, and the benediction. The vast majority of the service is the reading of the weekly Bible lesson supplied by Boston, and order of service set out by the Manual. To be elected the First Reader in one's branch church is one of the highest and most prestigious positions the lay Christian Scientist can aspire to. Churches also hold a one-hour Wednesday evening testimony meeting, with similar readings and accounts of healing from prayer by those attending. At these services, the First Reader reads extended passages from the Bible and Science and Health. They may choose alternate Bible translations at these services (i.e. Phillips). Branch churches also sponsor annual public talks given by speakers selected annually by the Board of Lectureship in Boston. Recent problems Broadcasting Beginning in the mid-1980s, church executives undertook a controversial and ambitious foray into electronic broadcast media. The first significant effort was to create a weekly half-hour syndicated television program, The Christian Science Monitor Reports. "Monitor Reports" was anchored in its first season by newspaper veteran Rob Nelson. He was replaced in the second by the Christian Science Monitor'''s former Moscow correspondent, David Willis. The program was usually broadcast by independent stations — often at odd hours. In 1988, Monitor Reports was supplanted by a nightly half-hour news show, World Monitor, which was broadcast by the Discovery Channel. The program was anchored by veteran journalist John Hart. The Church then purchased a Boston cable TV station for elaborate in-house programming production. In parallel, the church purchased a shortwave radio station and syndicated radio production to National Public Radio. However, revenues fell far short of optimistic predictions by church managers, who had ignored early warnings by members and media experts. In October 1991, after a series of conflicts over the boundaries between Christian Science teachings and his journalistic independence, John Hart resigned. /http://backissues.cjrarchives.org/year/92/5/godssake.asp The Monitor Channel went off the air in June 1992. Most of the other operations closed in well under a decade. Public accounts in both the mainstream and trade media reported that the church lost approximately $250 million on these ventures. The hundreds of millions lost on broadcasting brought the church to the brink of bankruptcy. However, with the 1991 publication of The Destiny of The Mother Church by the late Bliss Knapp, the church secured a $90 million bequest from the Knapp trust. The trust dictated that the book be published as "Authorized Literature," with neither modification nor comment. Historically, the church had censured Knapp for deviating at several points from Eddy's teaching, and had refused to publish the work. The church's archivist, fired in anticipation of the book's publication, wrote to branch churches to inform them of the book's history. Many Christian Scientists thought the book violated the church's bylaws, and the editors of the church's religious periodicals and several other church employees resigned in protest. Alternate beneficiaries subsequently sued to contest the church's claim it had complied fully with the will's terms, and the church ultimately received only half of the original sum. The fallout of the broadcasting debacle also sparked a minor revolt among some prominent church members. In late 1993, a group of Christian Scientists filed suit against the Board of Directors, alleging a willful disregard for the Manual of the Mother Church in its financial dealings. The suit was thrown out by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1997, but a lingering discontent with the church's financial matters persists to this day. Membership Decline and Financial Setbacks In spite of its early meteoric rise, it appears likely that the Christian Science Church has suffered a decline in membership over recent decades. Though the Church is prohibited by the Manual from publishing membership figures, the number of branch churches in the United States has fallen steadily since World War II. A 1992 study in the Christian Research Journal found that church membership had fallen from 269,000 in the 1930s to about 150,000. DC375 - equip.org Some believe membership has fallen further since then, however current estimates for church membership vary widely, from under 100,000 to 400,000. Dr. Stephen Barrett has reported that since 1971, the number of practitioners and teachers listed in the Christian Science Journal has fallen from about 5,000 to about 1,160 and the number of churches has fallen from about 1,800 to about 1,000. Christian Science Statistics: Practitioners, Teachers, and Churches in the United States In 2005 the Boston Globe reported that the church is considering consolidating Boston operations into fewer buildings and leasing out space in buildings it owns. Church official Philip G. Davis noted that the administration and Colonnade buildings have not been fully used for many years and that vacancy increased after staff reductions last year. The church posted an $8 million financial loss in fiscal 2003, and in 2004 cut 125 jobs, a quarter of the staff, at The Christian Science Monitor. Davis said however that "the financial situation right now is excellent" that the church is not facing financial problems. Controversies and Criticisms From the moment Mark Twain published his 1907 attack on Christian Science, the Church and Mary Baker Eddy, herself, Christian Science has been subject to significant criticism and public controversy. Twain aimed much of his ridicule at the idea of healing through prayer — particularly when practiced remotely. However, according to his biographer, Albert Paine, Twain seemed to quarrel more with what he saw as Mary Baker Eddy's cult of personality than with the actual ideas of Christian Science saying:"Clemens never had any quarrel with the theory of Christian Science or mental healing, or with any of the empiric practices. He acknowledged good in all of them, and he welcomed most of them in preference to materia medica. ... His quarrel with Mrs. Eddy lay in the belief that she herself, as he expressed it, was "a very unsound Christian Scientist." 'I believe she has a serious malady--self-edification--and that it will be well to have one of the experts demonstrate over her. [But he added]: Closely examined, painstakingly studied, she is easily the most interesting person on the planet, and in several ways as easily the most extraordinary woman that was ever born upon it.'". Later, Twain seemed to reverse his stance towards Eddy as Paine quoted Twain as saying: "... Christian Science is humanity's boon. ... [Mary Baker Eddy] has organized and made available a healing principle that for two thousand years has never been employed, except as the merest kind of guesswork. She is the benefactor of the age." Twain also expressed grave doubts about the authorship of Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, showing through content analysis that the quality of the writing was much better than any of Eddy's previous or subsequent work (for example her autobiography and her later writings in the Christian Science Journal): That she wrote the Autobiography, and that preface, and the Poems, and the Plague-spot Bacilli, we are not permitted to doubt. Indeed, we know she wrote them. But the very certainty that she wrote these things compels a doubt that she wrote Science and Health. Today, the most publicized controversies are still over the issue of medicine. While church members point out that followers are free to choose to seek conventional medical treatment, most rely exclusively on healing by prayer. Christian Scientists distinguish their method from “faith healing.” To a Christian Scientist, “faith healing” is something that relies merely on blind faith in miraculous cures. Christian Scientists see themselves as practicing a well-defined process with a proven track record by means of the spiritualization of thought through prayer aimed at shedding the false beliefs of the mortal mind that manifest themselves as physical ailments. This issue is most controversial regarding children. In a number of nationally publicized cases in the early 1990s, prosecutors charged parents belonging to the Christian Science church with murder or manslaughter after their children died of likely curable ailments without being medically treated. The best-known of these was the Twitchell Case in Massachusetts, in which parents David and Ginger Twitchell were convicted in 1990 of involuntary manslaughter in the death of their two-year-old son Robyn, who succumbed to a bowel obstruction. In other cases, parents have been legally exonerated — often because of exemptions in state laws to taking legal action against people who relied on religious cures. Such cases are also controversial inside the Church. Many members believe that the parents involved received poor guidance from church leaders, while others contend that the process of healing through Christian Science wasn't done correctly. Since the episodes with regard to The Monitor Channel and the Bliss Knapp book, the church has at times been accused of attempting to silence dissenters by methods such as unlisting them as practitioners in the Christian Science Journal, or revoking their membership. Some dissenting groups continue to solicit support among current members of the church. There have also been tensions over theological and religious concerns. While members of the Christian Science church claim their religion is based in, reconcilable with, and part of Christianity (being based upon the teachings of Jesus), there are Orthodox Christian theologians and others who disagree. These critics state that Mary Baker Eddy's interpretation of Christian scripture diverges too greatly from basic tenets of Christianity. They often cite the faith's views on the nature/existence of evil or sin, the divinity and resurrection of Jesus, the trinity, and a few others as meaning that the faith can no longer be considered a Christian denomination. In response, Christian Scientists say that Jesus never claimed to be God and that even implicitly denied it in . A quip often used to discuss this is attributed to George Bernard Shaw who was a friend of the well-known Christian Scientist Viscountess Nancy Astor. The quip states "Christian Science is neither Christian nor scientific" and has been quoted by many Evangelical Christians in relation to the faith to the extent that it has become a cliche. Many members of the mainstream scientific community believe that the reliance on spiritual healing, and some of the Church's other beliefs, are non-scientific. See also Christian Science - description of the beliefs/principles termed Christian Science. Christian Science Reading Room Reader (Christian Science Church) List of Christian Science tenets, prayers, and statements also includes Lesson-Sermon topics List of Former Christian Science Churches, Societies and Buildings Notable Christian Scientists Principia College - college for Christian Scientists in Elsah, IL References External links The Christian Science Church Home Page of The First Church of Christ, Scientist Information on Christian Science and official Christian Science Church-sponsored Web sites The Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity Spirituality.com The official website of the Christian Science Publishing Society The current weekly Bible Lesson in Webcast The Christian Science Monitor (International Daily Newspaper) Writings of Mary Baker Eddy Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (1906 edition) official site of the CSPS. Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Final 1910 Edition, independently published by AEQUUS Prose Works, Other Published Writings of MBE Manual of The Mother Church, The First Church of Christ Scientist in Boston, Massachusetts (88th Edition) Religious Criticism of Christian Science Apologetics Index on Christian Science CARM Apologetics: Christian Science Christian Way: Former Christian Scientists for Jesus Christ The Watchman Expositor: Christian Science Profile Other Links Concerning Christian Science Christian Science Statistics: Practitioners, Teachers, and Churches Phineas Parkhurst Quimby Children's Healthcare Is a Legal Duty Biographies, Histories and Commentary Mary Baker Eddy: The Years of Discovery; Mary Baker Eddy: The Years of Trial; and Mary Baker Eddy: The Years of Authority comprise the three-volume biography of Eddy favored by Christian Scientists. It was written by Christian Scientist, scholar and longtime Mother Church employee Robert Peel. It is the church's de facto "official biography" of Eddy, though it was not published by the church. The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science by Willa Cather and Georgine Milmine (1909) began as a famous Muckraking magazine series 1907-08. Scholars who are not Christian Scientists rely on it, but church members strongly disfavor it. It was reprinted by the University of Nebraska Press in 1993. God's Perfect Child: Living and Dying in the Christian Science Church by Caroline Fraser (2000), a biography of Mary Baker Eddy and a history of the Christian Science church from its founding to the present day, with a detailed section on the "child cases" of the 1980s. Fraser was raised in Christian Science, but later left the church. Christian Science Mark Twain's famous, vitriolic 1907 polemic mocking Mary Baker Eddy, her writings, and the church's financial arrangements. Mrs. Eddy, the Biography of a Virginal Mind Book by Edwin Franden Dakin (1929); C. 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6,728 | Demographics_of_Hong_Kong | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Hong Kong, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world with an overall density of some 6,300 people per square kilometre. The term "densely populated, green city" is used to describe the majority of the people living in apartments in high-rise buildings, and most land reserved for open spaces, country parks, and woodland. According to statistics released in 2006, Hong Kong has the world’s lowest birth rate--0.9 per woman of child-bearing age, far below the replacement rate of 2.1. With just 966 babies being born to every 1000 fertile women, it is estimated that 26.8% of the population will be aged 65 or more in 2033, up from 12.1% in 2005. Terminology Han Chinese residents generally refer to themselves as Hèung Góng Yàhn (), literally "Hong Kong people", which are often referred to as Hong Kong Chinese () outside Hong Kong. Non-Han-Chinese individuals born in the area are technically classified as "Hong Kong people", though they may choose to be identified by their original heritage instead. But there is also a name to group all the people from Hong Kong, it is known as "Hong Kongers" (or sometimes Hongkongers). Recently, the word 'Hongkongese' is also found and is getting more popular to describe the unique local culture of Hong Kong or to refer to Hongkongers. Poon Angela and Jenny Wong, Struggling for Democracy Under China: The Implications of a Politicised 'Hongkongese' Identity http://www.civic-exchange.org/publications/Intern/2004-JennyandAngela.pdf . Sidney Cheung, Hong Kong Handover http://www.umich.edu/~iinet/journal/vol5no1/sidney2.html Demographic statistics Population Census data Year Count Source 1841 5000-7,500 census 1841 Sanderson, Edgar. [1897] (1897) The British Empire in the Nineteenth Century: Its Progress and Expansion at Home and Abroad. Blackie publishing. No ISBN digitalized doc from Stanford university 1848 24,000 1855 72,000 1862 120,000 1881 160,402 Britannica 1911 1891 221,441 Britannica 1911 1901 283,978 Britannica 1911 1906 326,961 1916 530,000 1921 625,166 Sweeting, Anthony. [1990] (1990). Education in Hong Kong, pre-1841 to 1941. HK University Press. ISBN 9622092586 1925 725,000 Stanford, David. [2006] (2006). Roses in December. Lulu press. ISBN 1847539661 1931 849,800 census 1931 1941 1,600,000 1945 600,000 Chan, Shun-hing. Leung, Beatrice. [2003] (2003). Changing Church and State Relations in Hong Kong, 1950-2000. Hong Kong: HK university press. Page 24. ISBN 962-2096123 1945 750,000 Rees, Laurence. Iriye, Akira. [2002] (2002). Horror in the East: Japan and the Atrocities of WWII. Da Capo Preess. ISBN 0306811782 1950 2,200,000 1960 3,000,000 Manion, Melanie. [2004](2004). Corruption by Design: Building Clean Government in Mainland China and Hong Kong. Harvard University press. ISBN 0674014863 1971 4,000,000 1980 5,000,000 1985 5,500,000 1995 6,300,000 1999 6,900,000 2003 6,900,000 2003, UN 2005 6,965,900 census 2005 2006 6,994,500 census 2006 2008 7,018,636 US Census Bureau, International Data Base People of Hong Kong CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure: (End of 2006 est.) HK Census. "HK Census." Statistical Table of population. Retrieved on 2007-03-16. 0-14 years: 13.5% (male 482,500; female 452,100) 15-24 years: 13.1% (male 445,400; female 459,300) 25-34 years: 15.3% (male 462,000; female 592,000) 35-44 years: 18.1% (male 547,000; female 698,400) 45-54 years: 17.5% (male 594,200; female 613,400) 55-64 years: 10.0% (male 353,500; female 337,400) 65 and over: 12.5% (male 339,500; female 464,800) Average age: 41.7 (2008 est.) Population growth rate: 0.53% (2008 est.) Birth rate: 7.37 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate: 5.93 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: 8.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.12 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female total population: 0.914 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Average marriage age: male: 30 female: 27 Marriage: (2006 est.) Never Married 32% (1,920,522) Now married 57.8% (3,423,995) Divorced 3.2% (189,563) Separated 0.6% (34,722) Infant mortality rate: 5.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 82.88 years male: 81.85 years female: 84.41 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.00 children born/woman (2008 est.) Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 92.2% male: 96% female: 88.2% (1996 est.) By ethnicity An anti-discrimination poster in Admiralty MTR station. Chinese make up 95% of the population with the other groups floating at around 5% HK Census. "HK Census." Statistical Table. Retrieved on 2007-03-08. . The national census classify any group of European descent together. Neither are Chinese ethnic subgroups separated in the statistics. Chinese 2001 Number % of Total 2006 Number % of Total Chinese 6,364,439 94.9% 6,522,148 95.0% Filipino 142,556 2.1% 112,453 1.6% Indonesian 50,494 0.8% 87,840 1.3% Caucasian 46,584 0.7% 36,384 0.5% Indian 18,543 0.3% 20,444 0.3% Nepalese 12,564 0.2% 15,950 0.2% Japanese 14,180 0.2% 13,189 0.2% Thai 14,342 0.2% 11,900 0.2% Pakistani 11,017 0.2% 11,111 0.2% Other Asian 12,835 0.2% 12,663 0.2% Others 20,835 0.3% 20,264 0.3% Total 6,708,389 100.0% 6,864,346 100.0% Group category Stanley Market, one of the more diverse destinations The current list is in alphabetical order after category. By Ethnicity Chinese Cantonese Hakka Hokkien Shanghainese Teochew Other Asian Filipinos Indonesians Japanese Koreans South Asians Thais Vietnamese Caucasian (by Majority) Americans Britons Canadians By Migration Indigenous inhabitants New immigrants Returnees Expatriates Religion The Tian Tan Buddha on Lantau, Hong Kong, the tallest outdoor buddha statue in the world. Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected through its constitutional document, the Basic Law. The majority of Hong Kong's population (90%) practise a mix of local religions, CIA Factbook - Hong Kong Buddhism (mainly Chinese Mahayana) alongside with Taoism. Buddhist and Taoist Communities, Hong Kong Tourism Board. General Information - Religion marimari.com Hong Kong Year Book (2006):Chapter 18 - Religion and Custom: Buddhism Hong Kong Year Book (2006):Chapter 18 - Religion and Custom: Taoism Hong Kong Year Book (2006):Chapter 18 - Religion and Custom: Confucianism Buddhists and Taoists share a common background of Confucian theory, Chinese folk religion (worship of folk deities and figures of Chinese mythology) and ancestor worship. A sizable Christian community of around 560,000 local adherents (320 thousand Protestant Christians, 240 thousand Roman Catholics) International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - Hong Kong to 660,000 exists (if including over 100 thousand Filipino Catholics) Hong Kong Year Book (2006):Chapter 18 - Religion and Custom: Christianity , forming about 8% to 9% of the total population; it is roughly equally divided between Catholics and Protestants. Apart from the major religions, there are also a significant number of followers of other religions, including an estimated 90,000 Muslims; 22,000 members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints LDS Newsroom - China — Hong Kong ; 4,000 Jews; 4,789 Jehovah's Witnesses and a number of Hindus, Sikhs and Bahá'ís. There is also a small group of Jains in Hong Kong and their temple is situated in an apartment. Apart from offering religious instructions, many major religious bodies have established schools and provided social welfare facilities.Hong Kong Immaculate Conception Cathedral at 16 Caine Road, Central. Hong Kong's religious beliefs are tied to the region's early role as a fishing community. Tin Hau, the protector of seafarers, has been honoured with several temples throughout Hong Kong for at least 300 years. Hong Kong residents, especially elder generations, visit Taoist or Buddhist temples to appease the deities and, usually, to request compassion, good health or good fortune. Gifts of food, and in particular fruit, are presented, and incense and paper offerings are burnt in respect. With the transfer of Hong Kong to the PRC, there were significant concerns over religious freedom in Hong Kong. So far, this has proved mostly unfounded. Despite the banning of the Falun Gong movement by Beijing in 1999, adherents are still free to practice in Hong Kong. Similarly, the Catholic Church freely appoints its own bishops in Hong Kong, unlike on mainland China where the only approved 'Catholic' institution is the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association where bishops and priests are appointed by Beijing (though there is also an unofficial and illegal part of the Catholic Church that maintains contact with the Vatican). A significant issue in the normalisation of ties between the PRC and the Vatican is Beijing's insistence that the Vatican drops its diplomatic ties with the ROC. See also Right of abode issue, Hong Kong Hongkonger or Hongkongese Hong Kong British, Hongkonger citizens in the United Kingdom References External links Hong Kong Population History HK Facts Census and Statistics Department - Latest Official HK Population Statistics | Demographics_of_Hong_Kong |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:18 hong:39 kong:38 include:3 density:2 ethnicity:3 education:2 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:7 affiliation:1 aspect:1 one:2 densely:2 populated:1 area:2 world:5 overall:1 people:6 per:2 square:1 kilometre:1 term:1 populate:1 green:1 city:1 use:1 describe:2 majority:3 live:2 apartment:2 high:2 rise:1 building:2 land:1 reserve:1 open:1 space:1 country:1 park:1 woodland:1 accord:1 statistic:7 release:1 low:1 birth:6 rate:8 woman:3 child:2 bearing:1 age:6 far:2 replacement:1 baby:1 bear:3 every:1 fertile:1 estimate:1 terminology:1 han:2 chinese:12 resident:2 generally:1 refer:3 hèung:1 góng:1 yàhn:1 literally:1 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6,729 | Heracleidae | In Greek mythology, the Heracleidae () or Heraclids were the numerous descendants of Heracles (Hercules), especially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianira (Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as Heracles' son by Melite.) Other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus. These Heraclids were a group of Dorian kings who conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos; according to the literary tradition in Greek mythology, they claimed a right to rule through their ancestor. Since Karl Otfried Müller's Die Dorier (1830, English translation 1839), I. ch. 3, their rise to dominance has been associated with a "Dorian invasion". Though details of genealogy differ from one ancient author to another, the cultural significance of the mythic theme, that the descendants of Heracles, exiled after his death, returned after some generations in order to reclaim land that their ancestors had held in Mycenaean Greece, was to assert the primal legitimacy of a traditional ruling clan that traced its origin, thus its legitimacy, to Heracles. Hercules with his son Telephus, one of the Heracleidae Origin Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae, adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphilus and Dymas, voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in Herodotus V. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three heroes. Desiring to reconquer his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for "the third fruit", (or "the third crop") and then enter Peloponnesus by "a narrow passage by sea". Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus, both unsuccessful. Dorian Invasion At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They received the answer that by the "third fruit" the "third generation" was meant, and that the "narrow passage" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium. They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heracleidae had slain an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account, a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heracleidae repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain. This conquest was traditionally dated sixty years after the Trojan War. The Heracleidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of Aristodemus; and Messene to Cresphontes. The fertile district of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heracleidae ruled in Lacedaemon till 221 BC, but disappeared much earlier in the other countries. This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called the "Dorian invasion" or "Return of the Heraclidae", is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. Herodotus (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles. In Euripides' tragedy The story was first amplified by the Greek tragedians, who probably drew their inspiration from local legends, which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus. The Heracleidae are the main subject of Euripides' play, Heracleidae. It is the first of two surviving plays by Euripides where the family of Heracles are suppliants (the second being Heracles Mad). J. A. Spranger found the political subtext of Heracleidae, never far to seek, so particularly apt in Athens towards the end of the peace of Nicias, in 419 BCE, that he suggested the date as its first performance. J. A. Spranger, "The Political Element in the Heracleidae of Euripides" The Classical Quarterly 19.3/4 (July 1925), pp. 117-128. In the tragedy, Iolaus, Heracles' old comrade, and his children, Macaria and her brothers and sisters have hidden from Eurystheus in Athens, which was ruled by King Demophon; as the first scene makes clear, their expectation is that the blood relationship of the kings with Heracles and their father's past indebtedness to Theseus, will finally provide them sanctuary. As Eurysttheus prepared to attack, an oracle told Demophon that he would win if and only if a noble woman was sacrificed to Persephone. Macaria volunteered for the sacrifice and a spring was named the Macarian spring in her honor. Sources Apollodorus ii. 8 Diodorus Siculus iv. 57, 58 Pausanias i. 32, 41, ii. 13, 18, iii. I, iv. 3, v. 3 Euripides, Heracleidae Pindar, Pythia, ix. 137 Herodotus ix. 27 Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. vii Grote, History of Greece, pt. i. ch. xviii Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list of modern authorities is given References External links Article by George Hinge Greek Mythology Links Timeless Mythology Article at Pantheon Article about Dorian Invasion | Heracleidae |@lemmatized greek:5 mythology:4 heracleidae:12 heraclids:2 numerous:1 descendant:4 heracles:13 hercules:2 especially:1 apply:1 narrow:3 sense:1 hyllus:7 eldest:1 four:1 son:8 deianira:1 also:1 sometimes:1 think:1 melite:1 include:1 macaria:3 lamos:1 manto:1 bianor:1 tlepolemus:1 telephus:2 group:1 dorian:11 king:5 conquer:1 peloponnesian:1 kingdom:1 mycenae:2 sparta:1 argo:3 accord:3 literary:1 tradition:3 claim:2 right:1 rule:3 ancestor:5 since:1 karl:1 otfried:1 müller:1 die:1 dorier:1 english:1 translation:1 ch:4 rise:1 dominance:1 associate:1 invasion:6 though:1 detail:1 genealogy:1 differ:1 one:5 ancient:1 author:1 another:2 cultural:1 significance:1 mythic:1 theme:1 exile:1 death:4 return:2 generation:2 order:1 reclaim:1 land:1 hold:1 mycenaean:1 greece:3 assert:1 primal:1 legitimacy:2 traditional:1 ruling:2 clan:1 trace:1 origin:2 thus:4 zeus:1 originally:1 intend:1 ruler:4 lacedaemon:3 messenian:1 pylos:1 supplant:1 cunning:1 hera:1 intended:1 possession:1 fall:1 hand:1 eurystheus:5 child:2 many:1 wandering:1 find:2 refuge:1 athens:5 demand:1 surrender:1 refuse:1 attack:3 defeat:2 slay:4 brother:2 invade:1 peloponnesus:7 year:4 stay:1 force:1 pestilence:1 quit:1 withdraw:1 thessaly:1 aegimius:2 mythical:2 assist:1 war:2 lapithae:1 adopt:1 make:3 third:6 part:1 territory:2 two:2 pamphilus:1 dymas:1 voluntarily:1 submit:1 herodotus:3 v:2 really:1 achaean:1 become:2 three:5 branch:1 race:1 name:2 hero:3 desire:1 reconquer:1 paternal:1 inheritance:2 consult:2 delphic:1 oracle:4 tell:2 wait:1 fruit:2 crop:1 enter:1 passage:2 sea:1 accordingly:2 march:1 across:1 isthmus:2 corinth:2 atreus:1 successor:1 single:1 combat:1 echemus:1 tegea:1 second:2 attempt:1 follow:3 cleodaeus:1 fourth:1 aristomachus:2 unsuccessful:1 last:1 temenus:4 cresphontes:2 aristodemus:3 complain:1 instruction:1 prove:1 fatal:1 receive:1 answer:1 mean:1 strait:1 rhium:2 build:1 fleet:2 naupactus:3 set:1 sail:2 strike:1 lightning:1 shoot:1 apollo:1 destroy:1 acarnanian:1 soothsayer:1 bid:1 offer:1 expiatory:1 sacrifice:3 banish:1 murderer:1 ten:1 look:1 man:1 eye:4 act:1 guide:1 way:1 back:1 fell:2 oxylus:3 aetolian:1 lose:2 rid:1 horse:1 immediately:2 press:1 service:2 account:2 mule:1 rode:1 repair:1 ship:1 antirrhium:1 thence:1 decisive:1 battle:1 fight:1 tisamenus:1 orestes:1 chief:1 peninsula:1 conquest:2 traditionally:1 date:2 sixty:1 trojan:1 practically:1 master:1 proceed:1 distribute:1 among:1 lot:1 procles:1 eurysthenes:1 twin:1 messene:1 fertile:1 district:1 elis:1 reserve:1 agreement:1 till:1 bc:1 disappear:1 much:1 earlier:1 country:1 commonly:1 call:1 heraclidae:2 represent:2 recovery:1 rightful:1 custom:1 tribe:1 family:2 legendary:1 must:1 regard:1 entirely:1 joint:1 aetolians:1 latter:1 drive:1 southward:1 original:1 northern:1 home:1 pressure:1 thessalian:1 noticeable:1 mention:1 homer:1 hesiod:1 vi:1 speaks:1 poet:1 celebrate:1 deed:1 limit:1 event:1 succeed:1 euripides:5 tragedy:2 story:1 first:4 amplify:1 tragedian:1 probably:1 draw:1 inspiration:1 local:1 legend:1 glorify:1 render:1 main:1 subject:1 play:2 survive:1 suppliant:1 mad:1 j:2 spranger:2 political:2 subtext:1 never:1 far:1 seek:1 particularly:1 apt:1 towards:1 end:1 peace:1 nicias:1 bce:1 suggest:1 performance:1 element:1 classical:1 quarterly:1 july:1 pp:1 iolaus:1 old:1 comrade:1 sister:1 hide:1 demophon:2 scene:1 clear:1 expectation:1 blood:1 relationship:1 father:1 past:1 indebtedness:1 theseus:1 finally:1 provide:1 sanctuary:1 eurysttheus:1 prepare:1 would:1 win:1 noble:1 woman:1 persephone:1 volunteer:1 spring:2 macarian:1 honor:1 source:1 apollodorus:1 ii:3 diodorus:1 siculus:1 iv:2 pausanias:1 iii:1 pindar:1 pythia:1 ix:2 thirlwall:1 history:2 vii:1 grote:1 pt:1 xviii:1 busolt:1 griechische:1 geschichte:1 sec:1 list:1 modern:1 authority:1 give:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 article:3 george:1 hinge:1 timeless:1 pantheon:1 |@bigram heracles_hercules:2 delphic_oracle:1 isthmus_corinth:2 homer_hesiod:1 greek_tragedian:1 diodorus_siculus:1 external_link:1 |
6,730 | Federalism | A map showing current federal states (in green). Federalism is a political philosophy in which a group of members are bound together (Latin: foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. The term federalism is also used to describe a system of the government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces). Federalism is a system in which the power to govern is shared between national and central(state) governments, creating what is often called a federation. Proponents are often called federalists. In Europe, "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor stronger federal government, at a national or supranational level, as is the case of the European Union. The term is also used to describe those who favor weaker provincial governments. In the federal nations of Europe (including Germany, Austria and Switzerland) or South America (including Argentina or Brazil), the term "strong federalism" labels situations where sub-national states may have more power than the national (federal) government; it does not imply a strong central government. Some nations with federal systems, such as Switzerland and Canada, are officially confederations, because membership in the federation is voluntary. In Canada, federalism implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (usually those of Quebec). The same is historically true in the United States. Advocates of a weaker federal government and stronger state governments are those that generally favor confederation, often related to early "anti-federalists" and later the Confederacy. Australia, Brazil and India, among others, are also federal countries. Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium. Ecclesiastic and theological federalism also exist within some Christian denominations. In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished. In practice, however, there is always a mixture of both. Types Cooperative federalism (or intrastate federalism) Cooperative federalism is a concept of federalism in which federal, state, and local governments interact cooperatively and collectively to solve common problems, rather than making policies separately but more or less equally or clashing over a policy in a system dominated by the federal government. Germany and the European Union are unique cases, since state governments are respectively directly represented in the upper houses of the Bundesrat and Council at the federal level; in this way states are directly involved at a very high degree in federal decision making. Dual federalism There is a clear separation of powers between the federal and state powers. Examples of Federalism Federalism in Europe Several federal systems do exist in Europe, such as Switzerland, Austria, Germany and Belgium. Germany is the only example in the world where the upper federal house (the Bundesrat) in Germany, is neither elected nor appointed, but is composed of the governments of their constituents. In Germany, during the first part of the twentieth century, Adolf Hitler viewed federalism as an obstacle. As he wrote in Mein Kampf, National Socialism must claim the right to impose its principles on the whole German nation, without regard to what were hitherto the confines of federal states. In Britain, federalism has long been proposed as a solution to the "Irish Problem", and more lately, the "West Lothian question" Following the end of World War II, several movements began advocating a European federation, such as the Union of European Federalists or the European Movement, founded in 1948. Those organizations were influential in the European unification process, but never in a decisive way. The European Union has many of the characteristics of federalism. The European federalists campaigned in favor of a directly elected European Parliament (est. 1979), and were among the first to put a European Constitution on the agenda. Opponents of European federalists are both those in favor of a lesser role for the EU and those who wish for the EU to be ruled by national governments rather than by an indirectly elected parliament, and an unelected commission, President and Foreign Minister. Although federalism was mentioned both in the drafts of the Maastricht treaty and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, it was never accepted by the representatives of the member countries. The strongest advocates of European federalism have been Germany, Italy, Belgium and Luxemburg while those historically most strongly opposed have been France and the United Kingdom; also other countries that have never pronounced specifically about the way of governance in Europe are considered as federalists. It is the case of states such as Spain, Portugal, Greece, or even Hungary. It is also remarkable that in recent times the French government have become increasingly pro-European Union and countries like Poland or the Czech Republic have taken on the roles of primary opponents to a stronger EU. Despite claims to the contrary it is important to note that the EU is not a federal system. It remains today as an interstate system that is one of a kind and while having some federalist characteristics is not a federal system. Lisbon Treaty (to be ratified) In the upcoming Lisbon Treaty the distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the European union is explicitly stated in the following three categories: Exclusive competence The Union has exclusive competence to make directives and conclude international agreements when provided for in a Union legislative act. the customs union the establishing of the competition rules necessary for the functioning of the internal market monetary policy for the Member States whose currency is the euro the conservation of marine biological resources under the common fisheries policy common commercial (trade) policy </div>Shared competence Member States cannot exercise competence in areas where the Union has done so. the internal market social policy, for the aspects defined in this Treaty economic, social and territorial cohesion agriculture and fisheries, excluding the conservation of marine biological resources environment consumer protection transport trans-European networks energy the area of freedom, security and justice common safety concerns in public health matters, for the aspects defined in this Treaty </div>Supporting competence The Union can carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement Member States' actions. the protection and improvement of human health industry culture tourism education, youth, sport and vocational training civil protection (disaster prevention) administrative cooperation </div> Australia On 1 January 1901 the Australian nation emerged as a federation. The model of Australian federalism adheres closely to the original model of the United States of America, though through a Westminster system. Brazil The fall of Brazilian monarchy in 1889 by a military coup d'état led to the rise of the presidential system, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca. Aided by well-known jurist Ruy Barbosa, Fonseca established federalism in Brazil by decree, but this system of government would be confirmed by every Brazilian constitution since 1891, although some of them would distort some of the federalist principles. The 1937 Constitution, for example, granted the federal government the authority to appoint State Governors (called interventors) at will, thus centralizing power in the hands of President Getúlio Vargas. Brazil also uses the Fonseca system to regulate trade. The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 introduced a new component to the ideas of federalism, including local governments as federal entities. Brazilian cities are now invested with some of the traditional powers usually granted to states in federalism, and although they are not allowed to have a Constitution, they are structured by an organic law. Canada In Canada, the system of federalism is described by the division of powers between the federal parliament and the country's provincial governments. Under the Constitution Act (previously known as the British North America Act) of 1867, specific powers of legislation are allotted. Section 91 of the constitution gives rise to federal authority for legislation, whereas section 92 gives rise to provincial powers. For matters not directly dealt with in the constitution, the federal government retains residual powers; however, conflict between which level of government has legislative jurisdiction over various matters has been a longstanding and evolving issue. Areas of contest include legislation with respect to regulation of the economy, taxation, and natural resources. India The Government of India (referred to as the Union Government or Central Government) was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of a federal union of 28 states and 7 union territories. The governance of India is based on a tiered system, wherein the Constitution of India appropriates the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers. The Constitution uses the Seventh Schedule to delimit the subjects under three categories, namely the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. Asymmetric federalism A distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism is that unlike American federalism, it is asymmetric Indian Constitution at Work The Philosophy of the Constitution, NCERT, Pg. 232. . Article 370 makes special provisions for the state of Jammu and Kashmir as per its Instrument of Accession. Article 371 makes special provisions for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim as per their accession or state-hood deals. Coalition politics Although the Constitution did not envisage it, India is now a multi-lingual federation Indian Constitution at Work The Philosophy of the Constitution, NCERT, Pg. 233. . India has a multi-party system with political allegiances frequently based on linguistic, regional and caste identities Johnson, A "Federalism: The Indian Experience ", HSRC Press,1996, Pg 3, ISBN 0796916993 , necessitating coalition politics, especially at the Union level. United States The United States is divided into a number of separate states, each with varying amounts of government and power. Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States. Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section. However, it contains numerous mentions of the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials vis-à-vis the federal government. The federal government has certain express powers (also called enumerated powers), including the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, the Necessary and Proper Clause gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper" for the execution of its express powers. Powers that the Constitution does not delegate to the federal government or forbid to the states—the reserved powers—are reserved to the people or the states. The power delegated to the federal government was significantly expanded by amendments to the Constitution following the Civil War, and by some later amendments--as well as the overall claim of the Civil War, that the states were legally subject to the final dictates of the federal government. The Federalist party of the United States was dissolved in 1824. Prior to this, they were heavily opposed by the anti-federalist party, which included powerful figures such as Thomas Jefferson. The anti-federalists mainly believed that: a) The Legislative had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked. b) The Executive branch had too much power, and that there was no check on him. A dictator would arise. c) A bill of rights should be coupled with the constitution to prevent a dictator (then believed to eventually be the president) from exploiting citizens. The federalists, on the other hand, argued that it was impossible to list all the rights, and those that were not listed could be easily overlooked because they were not in the official bill of rights. Rather, rights in specific cases were to be decided by the judicial system of courts. After the Civil War, the federal government increased greatly in size and influence, in terms of its influence on everyday life and its size relative to the state governments. There are several reasons for this, including the need to regulate businesses and industries that span state borders, attempts to secure civil rights, and the provision of social services. Many people believe that the federal government has grown beyond the bounds permitted by the express powers. From 1938 until 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress' power under the Commerce Clause for over fifty years until United States v. Lopez overturned the power of the Federal government under the Commerce Clause (see also, challenging the Gun-Free School Zones Act). However, most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the Commerce Clause. The Commerce Clause is used by Congress to justify certain federal laws, but its applicability has been narrowed by the Supreme Court in recent years. For example, the Supreme Court rejected the Gun-Free School Zones Act in the aforementioned Lopez decision, and they also rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 in the United States v. Morrison decision. Recently, the Commerce Clause was interpreted to include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision. Dual federalism holds that the federal government and the state governments are co-equals, each sovereign. In this theory, parts of the Constitution are interpreted narrowly, such as the Tenth Amendment, the Supremacy Clause, the Necessary and Proper Clause, and the Commerce Clause. Under this narrow interpretation, the federal government has jurisdiction only if the Constitution clearly grants such. In this case, there is a large group of powers belonging to the states or the people, and the federal government is limited to only those powers explicitly listed in the Constitution. However, dual federalism also holds the federal government as the final judge of its own powers. The establishment of Native American governments ( who are separate and distinct from state and federal government) exercising limited powers of sovereignty, has given rise to the concept of "bi-federalism." Federalism with two components Belgium Main articles: Belgian federal government, Belgian federal parliament and Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium Federalism in the Kingdom of Belgium is an evolving system. Belgian federalism reflects both the linguistic communities (French and Dutch, and to a lesser extent German) and the economic regions (Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia). These correspond to the language areas in Belgium. Although officially there are four language areas, for all practical purposes only two languages are relevant on the federal level, Dutch and French: Brussels is officially a bilingual area, but it has a French-speaking majority. ”Taalgebruik in Brussel en de plaats van het Nederlands. Enkele recente bevindingen”, Rudi Janssens, Brussels Studies, Nummer 13, 7 January 2008 (see page 4). Flanders is the region associated with the Belgium's Dutch-speaking majority, i.e. the Flemish Community. Due to its relatively small size (approximately one percent) the German-speaking Community of Belgium does not have much influence on national politics. Wallonia is a French-speaking area, except for the East Cantons. French is the second most spoken first language in Belgium, following Dutch. Within the French-speaking Community of Belgium, there is a geographical and political distinction between Wallonia and Brussels for historical and sociological reasons. Historically, the Walloons were for a federalism with three components and the Flemings for two. (See: Witte, Els & Craeybeckx, Jan. Politieke geschiedenis van België. Antwerpen, SWU, pp. 455, 459-460.) This difference is one of the elements which makes the Belgian issue so complicated. The Flemings wanted to defend their language while the Walloons wanted to defend their economy: It is true that the Walloon movement, which has never stopped affirming that Wallonia is part of the French cultural area, has never made this cultural struggle a priority, being more concerned to struggle against its status as a political minority and the economic decline which was only a corollary to it. (Wallonia today - The search for an identity without nationalist mania - (1995) On one hand, this means that the Belgian political landscape, generally speaking, consists of only two components: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels, represented by their French-speaking parties. The Brussels region emerges as a third component. Charles Picqué, Minister-President of the Brussels-Capital Region said in a September, 2008 declaration in Namur at the National Walloon Feast : It is impossible to have a debate about the future institutions of Belgian State without Brussels. (French Il n'est d'ailleurs, pas question d'imaginer un débat institutionnel dont Bruxelles serait exclu. ) The Brussels-Capital Region has claimed and obtained a special place in the current negotiations about the reformation of the Belgian state. (French Pendant 18 ans, Bruxelles est demeurée sans statut (...) L'absence de statut pour Bruxelles s'expliquait par la différence de vision que partis flamands et partis francophones en avaient: [les partis flamands étaient] allergiques à la notion de Région (...) les francophones (...) considéraient que Bruxelles devait devenir une Région à part entière (...) Les partis flamands ont accepté [en 1988] la création d'une troisième Région et l'exercice par celle-ci des mêmes compétences que celles des deux autres... C.E. Lagasse, Les nouvelles institutions politiques de la Belgique et de l'Europe, Erasme, Namur, 2003, pp. 177- 178 ISBN 2-87127-783-4) This specific dual form of federalism, with the special position of Brussels, consequentially has a number of political issues -even minor ones- that are being fought out over the Dutch/French-language political division. With such issues, a final decision is only possible in the form of a compromise. This tendency gives this dual federalism model a number of traits that generally are ascribed to confederalism, and makes the future of Belgian federalism contentious. On the other hand, Belgian federalism is federated with three components. An affirmative resolution concerning Brussels' place in the federal system passed in the parliaments of Wallonia and Brussels. La Libre Belgique 17 juillet 2008 La Libre Belgique, 19 juillet 2008 These resolutions passed against the desires of Dutch-speaking parties, who are generally in favour of a federal system with two components (i.e. the Dutch and French Communities of Belgium). However, the Flemish representatives in the Parliament of the Brussels Capital-Region voted in favour of the Brussels resolution, with the exception of one party. The chairman of the Walloon Parliament stated on July 17, 2008 that, "Brussels would take an attitude". Le Vif Brussels' parliament passed the resolution on July 18, 2008: The Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region approves with great majority a resolution claiming the presence of Brussels itself at the negotiations of the reformation of the Belgian State. July 18, 2008 This aspect of Belgian federalism helps to explain the difficulties of partition; Brussels, with its importance, is linked both to Wallonia and Flanders and vice-versa. This situation, however, does not erase the traits of a confederation in the Belgian system. Other examples Historical examples of two-sided federalism include: Czechoslovakia, until the Czech Republic and Slovakia separated in 1993. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, from 1992 to 2003 when it became a confederation titled the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. This confederation expired 2006 as Montenegro declared its independence. The 1960 Constitution of Cyprus was based on the same ideas, but the union of Greeks and Turks failed. Also, Tanzania, which is the union of Tanganika and Zanzibar. Similar power-sharing arrangements between two communities can be found in Fiji, Saint Kitts and Nevis, in Northern Ireland (the Belfast Agreement) and in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. Official flag of Iraqi Kurdistan Ratio: 2:3 Iraq adapted a federal system in 15 October 2005, and formally recognized the Kurdistan region of Iraq as the county's first and currently only federal region. See Constitution of Iraq for more information regarding Iraq's method of creating federal entities. Christian Church Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism (a form of political federalism) to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in political federalism, in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty. Other ecclesiologies also have significant representational and federalistic components, including the more anarchic congregational ecclesiology, and even in more hierarchical episcopal ecclesiology. Some Christians argue that the earliest source of political federalism (or federalism in human institutions; in contrast to theological federalism) is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible. They point to the structure of the early Christian Church as described (and to many, prescribed) in the New Testament. This is particularly demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem, described in Acts chapter 15, where the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church; the Apostles being representatives of the universal Church, and elders being such for the local church. To this day, elements of federalism can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others. Although the Catholic has almost completely rejected this model in favour of the absolute and indeed infallible power of the pope and a completely centralized top down approach. See also Asymmetrical federalism Federalism in the United States Anti-Federalism European Union Confederation Federalist Federalist Society Federation Subsidiarity principle Layer cake federalism States' rights Cooperative Federalism Democratic World Federalists is a civil society organization advocating for a democratic federal world government. References External links A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law National Teaching about Federalism in the United States - From the Education Resources Information Center Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education Bloomington, Indiana. An Ottawa, Canada-based international organization for federal countries that share best practices among countries with that system of government Tenth Amendment Center Federalism and States Rights in the U.S. BackStory Radio episode on the origins and current status of Federalism | Federalism |@lemmatized map:1 show:1 current:3 federal:52 state:54 green:1 federalism:60 political:13 philosophy:3 group:2 member:7 bind:1 together:2 latin:1 foedus:1 covenant:1 govern:4 representative:5 head:2 term:4 also:15 use:6 describe:5 system:22 government:49 sovereignty:4 constitutionally:1 divide:2 central:4 governing:1 authority:5 constituent:3 unit:1 like:2 province:1 power:31 share:5 national:9 create:2 often:3 call:4 federation:6 proponent:1 federalist:16 europe:7 sometimes:1 favor:5 strong:6 supranational:1 level:7 case:6 european:16 union:20 weak:2 provincial:3 nation:4 include:10 germany:7 austria:2 switzerland:3 south:1 america:3 argentina:1 brazil:5 label:1 situation:2 sub:1 may:2 imply:1 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6,731 | Gone_with_the_Wind | Gone with the Wind is a romantic drama and the only novel written by Margaret Mitchell. It is set in Jonesboro and Atlanta, Georgia during the American Civil War and Reconstruction. See linked terms for more explanation and source references. and follows the life of Scarlett O'Hara, the daughter of an Irish immigrant plantation owner. The novel won the 1937 Pulitzer Prize and was adapted into an Academy Award-winning 1939 film of the same name. It was also adapted during the 1970s into a stage musical Scarlett; there is also a 2008 new musical stage adaptation in London's West End titled Gone With The Wind. It is the only novel by Mitchell published during her lifetime, and it took her ten years to write it. The novel is one of the most popular books of all time, selling more than 30 million copies (see list of best-selling books). Over the years, the novel has also been analyzed for its symbolism and treatment of mythological archetypes. O. Levitski and O. Dumer, "Bestsellers: Color Symbolism and Mythology in Margaret Mitchell’s Novel Gone with the Wind" (of "Bonnie Blue"), Americana: The Institute for the Study of American Popular Culture, September 2006, webpage: APC-Mitchell. Time magazine included the novel in its TIME 100 Best English-language Novels from 1923 to 2005. http://www.time.com/time/2005/100books/ Title The title is taken from the first line of the third stanza of the poem Non Sum Qualis eram Bonae Sub Regno Cynarae RPO - Ernest Dowson: Non Sum Qualis Eram Bonae sub Regno Cynarae by Ernest Dowson: "I have forgot much, Cynara! gone with the wind." The novel's protagonist Scarlett O'Hara also uses the title phrase in a line in the book: when her home area is overtaken by the Yankees, she wonders to herself if her home, a plantation called Tara, is still standing, or if it was "also gone with the wind which had swept through Georgia". More generally, the title has been interpreted as referring to the entire way of life of the antebellum South as having "Gone with the Wind". The book was almost titled quoting the end line in the book, "Tomorrow is another day"; but the publisher at the time noted there were several books close to the same title, so she was asked to find another title, and "Gone with the Wind" was chosen. Part One The novel opens at Tara, the O'Hara plantation in Georgia, with Scarlett O'Hara flirting idly with Brent and Stuart Tarleton, twin brothers who live on a nearby plantation. The twins are talking about the upcoming war which is of no interest to Scarlett. According to the twins, the Yankees had already been shelled out of Fort Sumter "the day before yesterday" (which occurred on April 13, 1861), leaving the impression that the date of the opening is probably April 15, 1861. Amidst the chatter, the pair tell Scarlett that Ashley Wilkes, the man Scarlett is secretly in love with, is to marry his cousin Melanie Hamilton, a plain and gentle lady from Atlanta. Scarlett hurries to find her father, Gerald O'Hara, who confirms that Ashley does intend to marry Melanie. He warns Scarlett that she and Ashley would make a terrible match and encourages her to consider the attentions of one of the other local beaux. Scarlett is miserable until she concludes that Ashley does not know she is in love with him. She plots to make Ashley jealous by surrounding herself with men at the barbecue the next day at the Wilkes plantation of Twelve Oaks, then tell him that she prefers him above all the others. Among the fawning gentlemen are Melanie's brother, Charles Hamilton, and Frank Kennedy, the beau of her sister, Suellen O'Hara. Things do not go according to plan. After Scarlett pulls Ashley into the library and confesses her love, Ashley says that he loves her, but he will still marry Melanie. The unreceived Rhett Butler, resting on a couch during the emotional scene, sees Scarlett throw a vase across the room in anger after Ashley leaves. Surprised by his presence, Scarlett tells Rhett that he is no gentleman, and Rhett responds by telling her that she is no lady. Rhett is impressed by her fire, thus cementing the saga that soon will unfold. Later in the day, when the news of Lincoln's call for troops arrives and as the men at the party excitedly leave to join the war, Scarlett impulsively accepts a marriage proposal from Charles Hamilton in an attempt to make Ashley jealous. Both couples marry a day apart. Scarlett bitterly regrets her decision, but receives a warm welcome from Melanie, who now considers Scarlett to be her sister. Two months later, Charles dies of measles and pneumonia at a military camp, before he had an opportunity to fight on the battlefield, confirming Scarlett's opinion of his unheroic weakness. Scarlett is not only a widow but she is a new mother, giving birth to a baby boy named Wade Hampton who she cares little for and pays no attention to. Her contempt for motherhood is equaled only by her interminable impatience with the customary protocol for Southern women in mourning. Her lamentations include the fact that she is forced to dress in all-black and she cannot go to any parties. Scarlett finds, to her disgust, that she is living quietly at home, with limited social interactions like an old widow. She is more distressed over her boredom and new motherhood than at Charles' death. Her mother, Ellen O'Hara, believing Scarlett to be pining away from a broken heart, sends her, little Wade and Prissy (a young slave of the O'Haras) on trips to visit family in an effort to revive her spirits. Scarlett comes back sooner than is expected from these trips; it is common for these trips to last many months, but her early returns are attributed to her broken heart rather than the boredom and her impatience with the mourning customs she is forced to adhere to. It is not until after returning from a trip to Savannah where she was visiting her mother's sisters that she decides to visit Atlanta. Scarlett has been receiving letters from Melanie and Charles' elderly aunt Aunt Pittypat and Melanie who are living together in Atlanta. These letters beg Scarlett to come live with them as the two women are all alone and would love to see Charles’ only son, Wade. Scarlett takes immediately to the hustle and bustle of Atlanta and finds Aunt Pittypat to be an easy enough pushover. Even though she is contemptuous of Melanie the lure of Atlanta proves a fair trade for Scarlett. Part Two At the bazaar, Melanie and Scarlett donated their gold wedding rings for the cause. Rhett returns Melanie's ring, and she then sees Rhett as a perfect gentleman. Against the background of war, Scarlett stays in Atlanta and enjoys the company of Rhett. He ostensibly calls on Aunt Pittypat, as widows cannot properly receive male callers. Aunt Pittypat is uncomfortable with Rhett's presence, but Melanie firmly declares that he is a good man. Rhett's sharp wit and sarcastic charm infuriate and beguile Scarlett, although she continues to carry a torch for Ashley. When Ashley comes home for Christmas in 1863, Scarlett becomes acutely aware of the privileges Melanie holds as his wife. The day Ashley leaves, Scarlett again reveals her feelings to him, hoping Ashley will break down and allow himself to reveal he loves her, too. Ashley has a more important matter to discuss with Scarlett. Sensing the end of the war and the fall of the South, he makes Scarlett promise that she will look after Melanie and see his family through the upcoming crisis in his absence. Scarlett blindly agrees to his promise. As Ashley heads for the door, Scarlett clings to him desperately and they share a passionate, forbidden kiss. Scarlett sobs that she loves him and that she only married Charles to hurt him. Ashley says nothing and wrenches himself from her grasp. He hurries from the house and away from Scarlett. As Melanie has hoped, Ashley has left her with child. Scarlett is none too excited about the news but this shock pales in comparison with the fear and dread that ensues when word comes that Ashley is missing, perhaps dead. Scarlett and Melanie’s fears are somewhat relieved when Rhett Butler pulls strings in order bring the frantic women information on Ashley. Rhett relays that Ashley is in one of the most infamous Yankee prison camps, and Scarlett’s fears mount as she thinks about the starvation and hardships Ashley must be enduring at the hands of the Yankees. Part Three The tide of war turns against the South. When the Yankees finally begin their siege of Atlanta, the city evacuates. Aunt Pittypat flees to family in Macon, while Scarlett, Melanie, Wade and Prissy remain in the house. In the nearly deserted town, Rhett comes to see Scarlett and asks her to become his mistress. She refuses because she sees nothing in it for herself except a "passel of brats". Dr. Meade forbids Melanie and Scarlett to leave Atlanta, as Melanie is about to give birth. Scarlett delivers Melanie's baby with only the help of Prissy, as everyone has fled or is too busy caring for wounded soldiers to spare time to help. After a drawn out and damaging birthing, Melanie is nearly dead from blood loss. Scarlett goes outside for air as Prissy bathes the infant. A soldier walks by, informing Scarlett that the army is leaving Atlanta. Scarlett sends Prissy to find Rhett. He arrives to assist them but the best he can provide is a broken-down horse and a dilapidated wagon stolen from the Army. He carts the weakened Melanie, her infant son Beau, Prissy, Wade, and Scarlett out of Atlanta. In a fit of conscience, he abandons them at Rough and Ready on the road to Tara to turn back and fight for the South. Before he leaves, he kisses Scarlett and tells her that he loves her, but she angrily pushes him away. Arriving at Tara, Scarlett finds the house in ruins, the crops burned, most of the slaves run off, her mother dead, her father demented, and her two sisters sick with typhoid. The reins of authority are thrust into her hands. Forced to take up "slave work" and bouts of near starvation, Scarlett realizes her compassion and loyalty to Tara. When a lone Yankee soldier arrives looking to loot and assault Scarlett, she shoots him. There was one actual case of a Yankee scout being killed in a North Georgia home in 1864– although the circumstances are different than reported in the book and movie. See Melanie, still weak, comes running with Charles' sword, but it is too heavy for her to lift. Nonetheless, Scarlett feels the beginnings of comradeship with her sister-in-law. The two loot the dead soldier's pockets and knapsack before swearing each other to secrecy about his death. They bury him under the arbor. Months later, news reaches Tara that the war is over and the Confederacy dissolved. Soldiers begin straggling home. On their way, some stop at Tara for food and hospitality. Comrades bring a wounded soldier named Will Benteen, whom Carreen nurses back to health. Benteen remains at Tara after he recovers, takes on more responsibility, and takes Scarlett's heavy load onto his own shoulders. Suellen's beau Frank Kennedy asks Scarlett for her sister’s hand in marriage and Scarlett gives her consent. The only word of Ashley is that he was in a Yankee prison for the last year of the war and a letter to Melanie telling her that he is on his way. One day, he appears coming up the long road towards Tara. Melanie and Scarlett both rush to greet him, but Will stops Scarlett, saying, "Don't ruin the moment". Scarlett reluctantly hangs back, but is euphoric over Ashley's return. Part Four Will returns from town with the news that the Union has raised taxes on Tara to $300. Dejected, Scarlett seeks comfort from Ashley as he chops wood. She laments her life at Tara and asks him to run away with her. When Scarlett cries, Ashley embraces her. Telling her to stop crying, Ashley kisses her. After kissing her, he says he loves her. He tells her his honour will not allow him to leave Melanie and their child. Scarlett says that if she doesn't have him, nothing is left her. Ashley picks up the red dirt clay from the ground, presses it to her skin, and reminds her she still has Tara. As Scarlett returns to the house, Jonas Wilkerson, former overseer of Tara, arrives. He wants to buy Tara for himself and his wife, Emmy Slattery, thinking that Scarlett does not have the money to pay the taxes. Scarlett orders him to leave, throwing a handful of dirt at him. Wilkerson threatens to buy Tara once she and her family are evicted for being unable to pay the taxes. Frantic to save Tara and anxious to keep Jonas and Emmy out, Scarlett goes to Atlanta to beg Rhett for money, willing to offer herself to him as his mistress to save her home and family. By asking Mammy to make her a new dress out of her late mother's draperies, Scarlett is able to feign wealth to Rhett and pretends an interest in him. Rhett buys it until he sees her hands, which suggest the back-breaking work she has been doing. He announces that he couldn't give her the money even if he wanted to. She says that she hopes he gets hanged and storms out in the rain. Upon leaving the jail, she runs into Frank Kennedy, now a successful store owner. In desperation, Scarlett manipulates Frank to believe that an impatient Suellen is to marry someone else. Frank, saddened by Suellen's supposed defection and unable to resist Scarlett's charms, marries her and gives her the tax money. After Rhett gets out of jail, he lends her more so that she can buy a sawmill, with the promise that she will not use the money to help Ashley Wilkes. To her dismay, Scarlett becomes pregnant with Frank’s child. She earns the wrath of Atlanta society's "Old Guard" when she appears pregnant in public and succeeding in business, although she compromises by agreeing not to be seen outside the house whilst pregnant after a certain date. Her daughter is named Ella Lorena, a subtle reference to the Civil War Era song Lorena (Joseph Philbrick Webster, the composer of the song, had an interest in a girl named Ella at the time of writing, in addition to the title "Lorena"). Ella was named after her grandmother, Ellen. Scarlett receives word from Tara that her father, Gerald, has died. When she returns to Tara for the funeral, Will tells her about the circumstances of his death. Suellen had tried to persuade a disoriented Gerald to sign the Ironclad Oath (to the Union government) for a fee. Briefly lucid, Gerald realizes her intentions, flies into a rage and disowns Suellen. In an attempt to jump a fence with his horse, he falls and breaks his neck. The community despises Suellen for her part in Gerald's death. Scarlett, struggling with her family’s poverty, quietly agrees with her. Despite his love for Carreen, Will announces his intention to marry Suellen to assuage the community’s animosity toward her. Carreen, unable to recover from the death of Brent Tarleton at Gettysburg, enters the convent. After Gerald's funeral, Scarlett plots to stop Ashley from going North to find work. By faking a flood of tears, she persuades Melanie to compel Ashley to help her with the mill as a way of repaying Scarlett for evacuating her and Beau from a falling Atlanta. Thus, Scarlett manipulates Ashley into returning to Atlanta to run her sawmill. Scarlett regularly drives alone to and from the sawmill, despite being warned against it by acquaintances. One day, she is assaulted by a poor white man and his black companion as she drives through the woods near a shantytown. Her former slave, Big Sam, appears and fights off the attackers. To avenge the attack, Frank, Ashley, and local men (part of the Ku Klux Klan), plan to raid the shantytown. Local law enforcement officers find out and inform Rhett of their plans over a game of cards. During the raid, Ashley is injured and Frank is killed. To save the survivors from being hanged, Rhett persuades Belle Watling, the local madam, to fabricate a phony alibi by letting the survivors into her brothel through the back door and pretending to throw them out the front door in full sight of the public. She threatens her prostitutes that she will beat them if they don't tell the authorities that the men were there all evening. The men are furious that Rhett humiliated them like this, but Rhett earns the admiration of Melanie Wilkes for saving their lives and Caroline Meade silently agrees. Following Frank’s funeral, Rhett unceremoniously proposes to Scarlett, wanting to marry her before she marries someone else. Belle Watling hears that Melanie wishes to pay a call on her in order to thank her for saving Ashley's life on the night of the raid. To forestall the visit, which would scandalize Atlanta society, Belle stops by Melanie's house in a closed carriage to see Melanie. Melanie offers Belle her friendship in return. Scarlett remains disapproving of Belle Watling, even after her part in saving her beloved Ashley's life. Part Five Scarlett marries Rhett in 1868 and finds her marriage surprisingly pleasant. Other than refusing to help Ashley Wilkes, Rhett spoils her. Scarlett spends time with newly rich Yankees, portrayed as having few scruples. Scarlett builds a mansion and spends lavishly. The Old Guard cut Scarlett and Rhett out of society for keeping company with Yankees and flaunting their wealth. Only Melanie's undying loyalty keeps Scarlett in the fold at all. Scarlett learns that she is pregnant and gives birth to a baby girl. While they name the infant Eugenia Victoria (for Queen Victoria and French Empress Eugénie de Montijo), Melanie, while talking to Rhett, mentions the child's eyes are as blue as the Bonnie Blue flag, inadvertently creating the lasting nickname of Bonnie Blue Butler. Rhett is immensely proud of the child and spoils her unashamedly. Ashley mentions he hates the thought of Rhett's hands on Scarlett's body and feels chagrined at the ruin of her figure. Not wanting to further betray her love for Ashley, Scarlett informs Rhett she does not want to have any more children and she will no longer share his bed. Rhett becomes bitterly angry, but does nothing to change her mind. He tells her that "the world is full of beds - and most of the beds are full of women." Now rejected by Scarlett, Rhett turns to their daughter Bonnie for comfort. Rhett decides Bonnie should have every desire and turns to winning over Atlanta. He lavishes Bonnie with the love and affection he intended to give to his wife. In April 1871, Melanie plans a surprise birthday party for Ashley. Scarlett goes to the mill after Melanie asks her to stall him. She and Ashley chat about old times at Twelve Oaks. He hugs her in an attempt to console her, because she is overwhelmed by the memories and hates to look back at the past. However, India Wilkes, Mrs. Elsing, and Archie witness and misinterpret this embrace, all suspecting Scarlett's true feelings for Ashley. They eagerly spread the rumour. Later that evening, Rhett, having heard from Archie, drags Scarlett out of bed and takes her to the party in her most flamboyant dress. Incapable of believing anything bad about her beloved sister-in-law, Melanie stands by Scarlett's side so that all will know she believes the gossip to be false. At home later that night, Scarlett finds Rhett drunk. Blind with jealousy, he tells Scarlett he loves her and could kill her to make her forget Ashley. Picking her up, he carries her up the stairs and the two make passionate, uninhibited love. Scarlett wakes up alone the next morning, eager to see her husband. Rhett stays away as he is horrified at his behaviour, returning three days later to inform Scarlett that he is leaving with Bonnie for an extended trip. Atlanta society chooses sides between India and Scarlett. Melanie continues to support Scarlett and rejects India, her husband's own sister. Scarlett discovers she is pregnant again. For the first time, she is glad. In July 1871, Rhett returns after three months. After he rebuffs Scarlett's attempts at reconciliation, she tells him she does not want the baby. Hurt, Rhett scornfully says, "Cheer up. Maybe you'll have a miscarriage." Enraged, Scarlett tries to attack him, but he dodges her slap. She is thrown off balance and can't prevent herself from falling down the stairs. She suffers a miscarriage. Rhett, frantic with guilt, sits in his room drinking to the point of oblivion, convinced that he has killed Scarlett. When Melanie visits to tell him Scarlett is doing better, he cries to Melanie about his jealousy. He refrains from telling Melanie about Scarlett's true feelings for Ashley. Scarlett goes to Tara to recuperate with Wade and Ella. After she recovers, Rhett tricks Scarlett into selling the sawmills to Ashley. Rhett spends his time edging Bonnie back into Southern society. After her fourth birthday (by most estimations sometime in the summer of 1873), Bonnie dies while trying to jump her horse, 'Mr. Butler', the same way as her grandfather Gerald O'Hara did. Scarlett blames Rhett, Rhett blames himself, and they refuse to see each other. Scarlett regrets what she said and desperately wants to see him, but a chasm has formed between the two. They continue living together as strangers passing in the halls. While Scarlett is away at Marietta with Wade and Ella, she receives an urgent telegram from Rhett that Melanie is gravely ill. Scarlett rushes back to Atlanta to learn that Melanie is dying from complications of a miscarriage. After having Beau, she was warned by doctors not to have any more children, but Melanie always wanted more children and became pregnant. Rhett drops Scarlett off at the Wilkes home and leaves. On her deathbed, Melanie tells Scarlett to watch out for Ashley and to be good to Rhett because he loves her. Scarlett goes to Ashley to find strength to help him in his grief, but she finds someone more adrift than she is. She realizes that she never really loved Ashley. She had been attracted to Ashley because he represented the unattainable, which was made more potent because he embodied the Southern "noble knight" ideal that had been romanticized throughout her childhood. She rushes home through the mist to share her revelation with Rhett, now drained of his love for Scarlett. He rejects her overtures and tells her he is leaving her, that he had already planned to before Scarlett left for Marietta. Scarlett cries, "If you go, what shall I do?" Rhett replies with the famous line, "My dear, I don't give a damn." (The movie inserted the word "frankly.") He goes up the stairs to prepare to leave Atlanta. Earlier in the conversation he told Scarlett that at age 45 he was confronted by desire to recapture what he viewed as the gentler pace of past. He specifically raised the possibility of returning to his hometown of Charleston. Devastated by her realization of true love and the consequences of her past selfishness, Scarlett decides to go back to Tara. She is sure she can think of a solution. She still believes Rhett will return to her if she tries to reconcile. The book ends with Scarlett's proclamation: "After all, tomorrow is another day!" Characters Butler Family Scarlett O'Hara – protagonist, willful and spoiled Southern debutante and daughter of a rich plantation owner. Scarlett will do anything to keep her land and get what she wants. Rhett Butler – Scarlett's love interest and third husband, often publicly shunned for scandalous behavior, sometimes accepted for his charm. He is financially a very shrewd man and initially appears to love Scarlett dearly. Eugenia Victoria "Bonnie Blue" Butler – Scarlett and Rhett's pretty, beloved, pampered daughter. Note: In the movie, Scarlett didn't have any children with her first two husbands. The only child she had was Bonnie with Rhett Butler. Wilkes Family Ashley Wilkes – the man Scarlett loves, Melanie's husband, a gentleman and dreamer, who nevertheless sees that the Southern way of life is doomed. Melanie Hamilton Wilkes – Ashley's wife and second cousin, a true lady. Called "mealy-mouth" by Scarlett, but she quietly has a backbone of steel. Although maligned by Scarlett, she is actually Scarlett's most stalwart supporter. Beau Wilkes – Melanie's and Ashley's lovable son, delivered by Scarlett. India Wilkes – Ashley's sister. Almost engaged to Stuart Tarleton, she bitterly hates Scarlett for stealing his attention before he is killed at Gettysburg. Lives with Aunt Pittypat after Scarlett marries Rhett and moves out. Honey Wilkes – boy-crazy sister of India and Ashley. Originally "intended" to marry Charles Hamilton until Scarlett marries him, following the war, she marries a man from Mississippi, and moves to his home state with him. John Wilkes- Owner of Twelve Oaks Plantation and patriarch of the Wilkes family. Killed in the Civil War. Note: In the film, India Wilkes was in love with Charles Hamilton and hates Scarlett for stealing him away. O'Hara Family Gerald O'Hara – Scarlett's fiery Irish father. Ellen O'Hara – Scarlett's beloved mother, of aristocratic French ancestry, a true southern lady. Scarlett O'Hara – Protagonist of the novel. Suellen O'Hara – Scarlett's younger sister, whiny and lazy, originally is to be married to Frank Kennedy, but later marries Will Benteen. Carreen O'Hara – Scarlett's youngest sister, gentle and kind, joins a convent in Charleston after her beloved Brent Tarleton died at Gettysburg Eulalie & Pauline – Ellen's sisters who live in Charleston. They are aristocratic, and are concerned with social status. Other characters Mammy – Scarlett's nurse from birth; a slave. Cited by Rhett as "the real head of the household." She has a no-nonsense attitude and is outspoken and opinionated. She chastises Scarlett often. Prissy – A young slave girl who features in Scarlett's life. She is portrayed as flighty and silly. Pork – The O'Hara family's butler, favored by Gerald. Dilcey – Pork's wife, a strong, outspoken slave woman, Prissy's mother. Charles Hamilton – Melanie's brother, Scarlett's first husband, shy and loving. Frank Kennedy – Suellen's former beau, Scarlett's second husband, an older man who only wants peace and quiet. Belle Watling – a madam; Rhett is her friend and loyal customer. She is portrayed as a kind-hearted, poor, country woman. Archie; An ex-convict and former Confederate soldier who is taken in by Melanie. Jonas Wilkerson – former overseer of Tara, father of Emmy Slattery's illegitimate baby. Emmy Slattery – later wife of Jonas Wilkerson Will Benteen – Confederate soldier who seeks refuge at Tara and stays on to help with the plantation, in love with Carreen but marries Suellen. Aunt Pittypat Hamilton – Charles' and Melanie's vaporish aunt who lives in Atlanta. Uncle Peter – Aunt Pittypat's houseman and driver. Setting Tara Plantation – The O'Hara home and plantation Twelve Oaks – The Wilkes plantation. Peachtree Street – location of Aunt Pittypat's home in Atlanta, where much of the book takes place, and site of Scarlett and Rhett's own large home. Politics The book includes a vivid description of the fall of Atlanta in 1864 and the devastation of war (some of that aspect was missing from the 1939 film). The novel showed considerable historical research. According to her biography, Mitchell herself was ten years old before she learned that the South had lost the war. Mitchell's sweeping narrative of war and loss helped the book win the Pulitzer Prize on May 3, 1937. An episode in the book dealt with the early Ku Klux Klan. In the immediate aftermath of the War, Scarlett is assaulted by poor southerners living in shanties, whereupon her former black slave Big Sam saves her life. In response, Scarlett's male friends attempt to make a retaliatory nighttime raid on the encampment. Northern soldiers try to stop the attacks, and Rhett helps Ashley, who is shot, to get help through his prostitute friend Belle. Scarlett's husband Frank is killed. This raid is presented sympathetically as being necessary and justified, while the law-enforcement officers trying to catch the perpetrators are depicted as oppressive Northern occupiers. Although the Klan is not mentioned in that scene (though Rhett tells Archie to burn the "robes"), the book notes that Scarlett finds the Klan abominable. She believed the men should all just stay at home (she wanted both to be petted for her ordeal and to give the hated Yankees no more reason to tighten martial law, which is bad for her businesses). Rhett is also mentioned to be no great lover of the Klan. At one point, he said that if it were necessary, he would join in an effort to join "society". The novel never explicitly states whether this drastic step was necessary in his view. The local chapter later breaks up under the pressure from Rhett and Ashley. Scarlett expresses views that were common of the era. Some examples: "How stupid negroes were! They never thought of anything unless they were told." — Scarlett thinks to herself, after returning to Tara after the fall of Atlanta. "How dared they laugh, the black apes!...She'd like to have them all whipped until the blood ran down...What devils the Yankees were to set them free!" — Scarlett again thinking to herself, seeing free blacks after the war. However, she is kind to Pork, her father's trusted manservant. He tells Scarlett that if she were as nice to white people as she is to black, a lot more people would like her. She almost loses her temper when the Yankee women say they would never have a black nurse in their house and talk about Uncle Peter, Aunt Pittypat's beloved and loyal servant, as if he were a mule. Scarlett informs them that Uncle Peter is a member of the family, which bewilders the Yankee women and leads them to misinterpret the situation. Inspirations As several elements of Gone with the Wind have parallels with Margaret Mitchell's own life, her experiences may have provided some inspiration for the story in context. Mitchell's understanding of life and hardship during the American Civil War, for example, came from elderly relatives and neighbors passing war stories to her generation. Arehart-Treichel, J: "Novel That Brought Fame, Riches Had a Surprising Birth", Psychiatric News, 40(4):20 While Margaret Mitchell used to say that her Gone with the Wind characters were not based on real people, modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in Mitchell's own life as well as to individuals she knew or she heard of. Gone With The Wind - Finding the Real Margaret Mitchell Mitchell's maternal grandmother, Annie Fitzgerald Stephens, was born in 1845; she was the daughter of an Irish immigrant, who owned a large plantation on Tara Road in Clayton County, south of Atlanta, and who married an American woman named Ellen, and had several children, all daughters. Many researchers believe that the physical brutality and low regard for women exhibited by Rhett Butler was based on Mitchell's first husband, Red Upshaw. She divorced him after she learned he was a bootlegger amid rumors of abuse and infidelity. After a stay at the plantation called The Woodlands, and later Barnsley Gardens, Mitchell may have gotten the inspiration for the dashing scoundrel from Sir Godfrey Barnsley of Adairsville, Georgia. Martha Bulloch Roosevelt, the mother of US president Theodore Roosevelt may have been an inspiration for Scarlett O'Hara. Roosevelt biographer David McCullough discovered that Mitchell, as a reporter for The Atlanta Journal, conducted an interview with one of Martha's closest friends and bridesmaid, Evelyn King Williams, then 87. In that interview, she described Martha's physical appearance, beauty, grace, and intelligence in detail. The similarities between Martha and the Scarlett character are striking. George Trenholm as historical basis for Rhett Butler It made international news in 1989 when Dr. E. Lee Spence, an underwater archaeologist and shipwreck expert from Charleston, South Carolina, announced his discovery that Margaret Mitchell had actually taken much of her compelling story of love, greed and war from real life "Newsmakers: Frankly, My Dear, Historian is on Pins and Needles," Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1989, p. 2-A and that Mitchell had actually based most of Rhett Butler on the life of George Alfred Trenholm. See link The Real Rhett Butler Revealed. Like Rhett, Trenholm was a tall, handsome, shipping magnate from Charleston, South Carolina, and made millions of dollars from blockade running. Both the real life Trenholm and the fictional Rhett were accused of making off with much of the Confederate treasury and were thrown in prison after the Civil War where they were visited by a beautiful woman with a "fast" reputation. Oggi (Italian weekly magazine), 5 dicembre 1994, pp. 38-40 "The Rhett Butler Connection," Treasure Diver, Volume 1, Number One, pp. 35-40 Spence's literary discovery that had its roots in his prior discoveries of some of Trenholm's wrecked blockade runners made international news. "Rhett Butler," La Stampa, Turin, Italy, 18/4/1989, p.5 In his book, Treasures of the Confederate Coast: The "Real Rhett Butler" and Other Revelations, Dr. Spence reveals what the editors of Life magazine called "overwhelming evidence" that shipping and banking magnate George Trenholm was the historical basis for Mitchell's romantic sea captain. Spence's book gives a compelling case against Mitchell's statements that Rhett was pure fiction. Amazon Press book review "A superb unveiling of the real Rhett & his hidden treasures", March 8, 1997 Symbolism Over the past years, the novel Gone with the Wind has also been analyzed for its symbolism and mythological treatment of archetypes. "SparkNotes: Gone with the Wind: Themes, Motifs & Symbols" (book notes), Spark Notes, 2006, webpage: SparkN-GWTW. Scarlett has been characterized as a heroic figure struggling and attempting to twist life to suit her own wishes. The land is considered a source of strength, as in the plantation Tara, whose name is almost certainly drawn from the Hill of Tara in Ireland, a mysterious and poorly-understood archeological site that has traditionally been connected to the temporal and/or spiritual authority of the ancient Irish kings. Sequels Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to Gone With The Wind, Mitchell's estate authorised Alexandra Ripley to write the novel Scarlett in 1991. Author Pat Conroy was approached to write a follow-up, but the project was ultimately abandoned. In 2000, the copyright holders attempted to suppress publication of Alice Randall’s The Wind Done Gone, a book that retold the story from the point of view of the slaves. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction against publication in Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin (2001), on the basis that the book was parody protected by the First Amendment. The parties subsequently settled out of court to allow the book to be published. After its release, the book became a New York Times bestseller. In 2002, the copyright holders blocked distribution of an unauthorised sequel published in the U.S, The Winds of Tara by Katherine Pinotti, alleging copyright infringement. The story follows Scarlett as she returns to Tara where a family issue threatens Tara and the family's reputation. In it Scarlett shows just how far she will go to protect her family and her home. The book was immediately removed from bookstores by publisher Xlibris. The book sold in excess of 2,000 copies within 2 weeks before being removed. More recently, in 2008, Australian publisher Fontaine Press re-published "The Winds of Tara" exclusively for their domestic market, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions. A second sequel was released in November 2007. The story covers the same time period as Gone with the Wind and is told from Rhett Butler’s perspective – although it begins years before and ends after. Written by Donald McCaig, this novel is titled Rhett Butler's People (2007). Adaptations Gone With The Wind has been adapted several times for stage and screen, most famously in the 1939 film starring Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh. On stage it has been adapted as a musical Scarlett (premiering in 1972). The musical opened in the West End followed by a pre-Broadway tryout in 1973 (with Leslie Ann Warren as Scarlett). The book and was again adapted as a musical called Gone With The Wind which premiered at the New London Theatre in 2008 in a production directed by Trevor Nunn. The Japanese Takarazuka Revue has also adapted the novel into a musical with the same name. The first performance was in 1977, performed by the Moon Troupe. It has been performed several times since by the group, the most recent being in 2004 (performed by the Cosmos Troupe). See also Southern Renaissance Southern literature Lost Laysen, a 1916 novella written by Mitchell and the only other known literary work of hers to ever be published. Western Costume, a costume supplier for the film Scarlett, an authorized sequel to Gone with the Wind Rhett Butler's People, an authorized sequel to Gone with the Wind Bibliography O. Levitski and O. Dumer, "Bestsellers: Color Symbolism and Mythology in Margaret Mitchell’s Novel Gone with the Wind" (literary analysis), Americana: The Institute for the Study of American Popular Culture, September 2006, webpage:APC-Mitchell Treasures of the Confederate Coast: the "real Rhett Butler" & Other Revelations by Dr. E. Lee Spence, (Narwhal Press, Charleston/Miami, ©1995)[ISBN 1886391017] [ISBN 1886391009] OCLC: 32431590 Matthews, James W. “The Civil War of 1936: Gone with the Wind and Absalom, Absalom!” Georgia Review 21 (Winter 1967): 462-69 May, Robert E. “Gone with the Wind as Southern History: A Reappraisal.” Southern Quarterly 17.1 (Fall 1978): 51-64 Ryan, Tim A. Calls and Responses: The American Novel of Slavery since Gone with the Wind Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 2008 Molly Haskall, Frankly, My Dear: Gone with the Wind Revisited, Yale University Press Book Review, Armond White References External links The story behind Gone with the Wind as told by the Margaret Mitchell House and Museum Gone with the Wind (the film) Photos of the first edition of Gone With the Wind Free public domain eBook for people who live in Australia The Scarlett Letter, a quarterly publication devoted to the GWTW phenomenon Gone With the Wind Books, a website detailing the printing history of the GWTW book Gone With the Wind online exhibition at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin | Gone_with_the_Wind |@lemmatized go:41 wind:31 romantic:2 drama:1 novel:20 write:7 margaret:8 mitchell:25 set:3 jonesboro:1 atlanta:26 georgia:6 american:6 civil:6 war:21 reconstruction:1 see:19 linked:1 term:1 explanation:1 source:2 reference:3 follow:6 life:17 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6,732 | Grammatical_tense | Grammatical tense is a temporal linguistic quality expressing the time at, during, or over which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. Tense is one of at least five qualities, along with mood, voice, aspect, and person, which verb forms may express. Tenses cannot always be translated from one language to another. While verbs in all languages have typical forms by which they are identified and indexed in dictionaries, usually the most common present tense or an infinitive, their meanings vary among languages. There are languages (such as isolating languages, like Chinese) in which tense is not used, but implied in temporal adverbs when needed, and some (such as Japanese) in which temporal information appears in the inflection of adjectives, lending them a verb-like quality. In some languages (such as Russian) a simple verb may indicate aspect and tense. The number of tenses in a language may be controversial, since its verbs may indicate qualities of uncertainty, frequency, completion, duration, possibility, and even whether information derives from experience or hearsay (the last two are evidentiality). Basic tenses in English English has two tenses by which verbs are inflected: a non-past tense (present tense) and a past tense (indicated by ablaut or the suffix -ed). What is commonly called the future tense in English is indicated with a modal auxiliary, not verbal inflection. The following chart shows how TAM (tense/aspect/mood) is expressed in English: Tense Modal Aspect Verb Perfect Progressive -Ø (nonpast) -ed (past) Ø (none) will (future) Ø (none) have -ne (perfect) Ø (none) be -ing (progressive) do Because will is a modal auxiliary, it cannot occur with other modals, such as can, may, and must. Only aspects can be used in infinitives ("to have talked": perfect aspect; "to be talking": progressive aspect). Grammarians and linguists typically consider will to be a future marker and give English two non-inflected tenses, a future tense and a conditional, marked by will and would respectively. In general parlance, all combinations of aspects, moods, and tenses are often referred to as "tenses". Further tenses The more complex tenses in Indo-European languages are formed by combining a particular tense of the verb with certain verbal auxiliaries, the most common of which are various forms of "be", various forms of "have", and modal auxiliaries such as English will. Romance and Germanic languages often add "to hold", "to stand", "to go", or "to come" as auxiliary verbs. For example, Spanish uses estar ("to be") with the present gerund to indicate the present continuous. Portuguese uses ter ("to have") with the past participle for the perfect aspect. Swedish uses kommer att ("come to") for the simple future. These constructions are often known as complex tenses or compound tenses (a more accurate technical term is periphrastic tenses). Examples of some generally recognized Indo-European and Finno-Ugric tenses using the verb "to go" are shown in the table below. TenseGermanic: English: to goGermanic: Swedish: att gåGermanic: German: gehenCeltic: Irish: téighRomance: Italian: andareRomance: Spanish: irSlavic: Bulgarian: отивам/отида1Finno-Ugric: Finnish: mennäNotes Present simpleI go. Jag går. Ich gehe.Téim.(Io) vado.(Yo) voy.(Аз) отивам.(Аз да) отида.(Minä) menen.In most languages this is used for most present indicative uses. In English, it is used mainly to express habit or ability (I play the guitar). Present continuousI am going.Tá mé ag dul.(Io) sto andando.(Yo) estoy yendo.(Аз) отивам.(Minä) olen menossa.This form is prevalent in English to express current action, but is absent or rarer in other Indo-European languages, which prefer the simple present tense. The continuous is more an aspect than a tense and is included here only because of its prevalence in English to substitute for the simple present. Present perfectI have gone.Jag har gått.Ich bin gegangen.Tá me i ndiaidh dul.(Io) sono andato.(Yo) he ido.Аз съм отишъл.Аз съм отивал.(Minä) olen mennyt.Common past compound tense. In some languages indicates recent past, in others indicates an unknown past time. Preterite/AoristI went. Jag gick. Ich ging.Chuaigh mé.(Io) andai.(Yo) fui.(Аз) отидох.(Аз) отивах.(Minä) menin. In English, unlike other languages with aorist tenses, this implies that the action took place in the past and that it is not taking place now. ImperfectI used to go.Théinn.(Io) andavo.(Yo) iba.(Аз) отивах.(Аз да) отидех. The English construction I used to go has a very restricted use, compared to the imperfect tenses of other languages, which often translate better as I was going, I would go, or even I went. Although not shown here, Finnish, Swedish, and German can explicitly express a habit (Swedish jag brukade gå, Finnish tapasin mennä, German Ich ging). Past continuousI was going.Jag var gående2Bhí mé ag dul.(Io) stavo andando.(Yo) estaba yendo.(Аз) отивах.(Minä) olin menossa. ConditionalI would go.Jag skulle gåIch würde gehen. Rachainn.(Io) andrei.(Yo) iría.(Аз) бих отишъл.(Аз) бих отивал.(Minä) menisin. The conditional is regarded as a tense in the grammars of some languages, although others treat it as a mood. Notice that it can refer to the past, for example in reported speech: I warned him that I would call the Police if he did not turn the music down. This implies a condition not met. The past is also referred to by I would have called the Police if he had not turned the music down. This implies a condition which was met. Pluperfect (past perfect)I had gone.Jag hade gått.Ich war gegangen.Bhí mé i ndiaidh dul.(Io) ero andato / (Io) fui andato.(Yo) había ido.(Аз) бях отишъл.(Аз) бях отивал.(Minä) olin mennyt.This expresses a past action that was completed before some other past event. FutureI will go.Jag ska gå.3Ich werde gehen.Rachaidh mé.(Io) andrò.(Yo) iré.(Аз) ще отида.(Аз) ще отивам.Tulen menemään.4This can be used to express intention, prediction, and other senses. </td></tr> Future perfectI will have gone.Jag kommer att ha gått.Ich werde gegangen sein.Beidh mé i ndiaidh dul.(Io) sarò andato.(Yo) habré ido.(Аз) ще съм отишъл.(Аз) ще съм отивал.This expresses a future action that will be completed before another future action. As Finnish has no future tense, the present perfect is used instead. 1 Oтивам and отида are two different verbs meaning "to go", which do not differ semantically, but grammatically. Their aspect is different, the first one is an incompletive verb and the second one is a completive verb. 2 This only works with adverbs, as in "I was going when someone suddenly stopped me"; not just "I was going to their house". Otherwise, the corresponding simple tense is used. 3 This is not a true future tense, but a going-to future, as its exact meaning is I am going to go. 4 The use of the verb tulla "to come" to express a future tense is a sveticism and is recommended against by the language regulator. Official Finnish has no future tense, and even the use of this tulen-construction is uncommon in unofficial contexts. Thus, the present tense is used. However, a telic object may implicitly communicate the time, which has no direct equivalent in English. Tense, aspect, and mood The distinction between grammatical tense, aspect, and mood is fuzzy and at times controversial. The English continuous temporal constructions express an aspect as well as a tense, and some therefore consider that aspect to be separate from tense in English. In Spanish the traditional verb tenses are also combinations of aspectual and temporal information. Going even further, there's an ongoing dispute among modern English grammarians (see English grammar) regarding whether tense can only refer to inflected forms. In Germanic languages there are very few tenses (often only two) formed strictly by inflection, and one school contends that all complex or periphrastic time-formations are aspects rather than tenses. The abbreviation TAM, T/A/M or TMA is sometimes found when dealing with verbal morphemes that combine tense, aspect and mood information. In some languages, tense and other TAM information may be marked on a noun, rather than a verb. This is called nominal TAM. Classification of tenses Tenses can be broadly classified as: absolute tense: indicates time in relationship to the time of the utterance (i.e. "now"). For example, "I am sitting down", the tense is indicated in relation to the present moment. relative tense: in relationship to some other time, other than the time of utterance, e.g. "While strolling through the shops, she saw a nice dress in the window". Here, the "saw" is relative to the time of the "strolling". The relationship between the time of "strolling" and the time of utterance is not clearly specified. absolute-relative: indicates time in relationship to some other event, whose time in turn is relative to the time of utterance. (Thus, in absolute-relative tense, the time of the verb is indirectly related to the time of the utterance; in absolute tense, it is directly related; in relative tense, its relationship to the time of utterance is left unspecified.) For example, "When I walked through the park, I saw a bird." Here, "saw" is present relative to the "walked", and "walked" is past relative to the time of the utterance, thus "saw" is in absolute-relative tense. All of the following tenses may occur in either an absolute or a relative frame. Tenses can be quite finely distinguished from one another, although no language will express simply all of these distinctions. As we will see, some of these tenses in fact involve elements of modality (e.g. predictive and not-yet tenses), but they are difficult to classify clearly as either tenses or moods. Many languages define tense not just in terms of past/future/present, but also in terms of how far into the past or future they are. Thus they introduce concepts of closeness or remoteness, or tenses that are relevant to the measurement of time into days (hodiernal or hesternal tenses). Some languages also distinguish not just between past, present, and future, but also nonpast, nonpresent, nonfuture. Each of these latter tenses incorporates two of the former, without specifying which. Some tenses: Future tenses. Some languages have different future tenses to indicate how far into the future we are talking about. Some of these include: Near future tense: in the near future, soon Hodiernal future tense: sometime today Post-hodiernal future tense: sometime after today Remote future tense: in the more distant future Predictive future tense: a future tense which expresses a prediction rather than an intention, i.e., "I predict he will lose the election, although I want him to win". As such, it is really more of a mood than a tense. (Its tenseness rather than modality lies in the fact that you can predict the future, but not the past.) Nonfuture tense: refers to either the present or the past, but does not clearly specify which. Contrasts with future. Nonpast tense: refers to either the present or the future, but does not clearly specify which. Contrasts with past. Not-yet tense: has not happened in present or past (nonfuture), but often with the implication that it is expected to happen in the future. (As such, is both a tense and a modality). In English, it is expressed with "not yet", hence its name. Past tenses. Some languages have different past tenses to indicate how far into the past we are talking about. Hesternal past tense: yesterday or early, but not remote Hodiernal past tense: sometime earlier today Immediate past tense: very recent past tense, e.g., in the last minute or two Recent past tense: in the last few days/weeks/months (exact definition varies) Remote past tense: more than a few days/weeks/months ago (exact definition varies) Nonrecent past tense: not recent past tense, contrasting with recent past tense Nonremote past tense: not remote past tense, contrasting with remote past tense Prehesternal past tense: before hesternal past tense Prehodiernal past tense: before hodiernal past tense Preterite: past, conceived as a whole Present tense Still tense: indicates a situation held to be the case, at or immediately before the utterance Absolute-relative tenses future perfect tense: by some time in the future, before some time in the future future-in-future tense: at some time in the future, will still be in the future future-in-past tense: at some time in the past, will be in the future future-perfect-in-past tense: by some time which is in the future of some time in the past, e.g., Sally went to work; by the time she should be home, the burglary would have been completed. past perfect tense: at some time in the past, was already in the past Bibliography Bybee, Joan L., Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca (1994) The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World. University of Chicago Press. Comrie, Bernard (1985) Tense. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN 0-521-28138-5] Downing, Angela, and Philip Locke (1992) "Viewpoints on Events: Tense, Aspect and Modality". In A. Downing and P. Locke, A University Course in English Grammar, Prentice Hall International, 350--402. Guillaume, Gustave (1929) Temps et verbe. Paris: Champion. Hopper, Paul J., ed. (1982) Tense-Aspect: Between Semantics and Pragmatics. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Smith, Carlota (1997). The Parameter of Aspect. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Tedeschi, Philip, and Anne Zaenen, eds. (1981) Tense and Aspect. (Syntax and Semantics 14). New York: Academic Press. See also English grammar Grammar Grammatical conjugation Grammatical mood Grammatical aspect Sequence of tenses Verb External links Tenses Flowchart and worksheet (pdf-file) 12 Verb Tenses Explained + Exercises Greek tenses English tenses | Grammatical_tense |@lemmatized grammatical:5 tense:116 temporal:5 linguistic:1 quality:4 express:14 time:28 state:1 action:6 denote:1 verb:20 occur:3 one:6 least:1 five:1 along:1 mood:10 voice:1 aspect:21 person:1 form:8 may:8 cannot:2 always:1 translate:2 language:24 another:3 typical:1 identify:1 index:1 dictionary:1 usually:1 common:3 present:20 infinitive:2 meaning:2 vary:1 among:2 isolate:1 like:2 chinese:1 use:14 imply:4 adverb:2 need:1 japanese:1 information:5 appear:1 inflection:3 adjective:1 lend:1 russian:1 simple:5 indicate:11 number:1 controversial:2 since:1 uncertainty:1 frequency:1 completion:1 duration:1 possibility:1 even:4 whether:2 derives:1 experience:1 hearsay:1 last:3 two:7 evidentiality:1 basic:1 english:21 inflect:1 non:2 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6,733 | Terror_of_Mechagodzilla | Terror of Mechagodzilla, released in Japan as , is a 1975 tokusatsu kaiju film. The film was titled The Terror of Godzilla in its original American theatrical release. The 15th film in Toho's Godzilla series, it was directed by Ishiro Honda with special effects by Teruyoshi Nakano. Akira Ifukube provides the music score. The movie was written by Yukiko Takayama, who was the second female writer for a Godzilla film (the first was Kazue Shiba, who wrote for 1967's Son of Godzilla). The monsters featured in this film are Godzilla, Mechagodzilla and a new monster, Titanosaurus. Terror of Mechagodzilla was the last movie in the Showa series of Godzilla movies before The Return of Godzilla began the Heisei series of Godzilla films in 1984. Because of the crash of Japanese cinema and the oil crisis of the mid-to-late 1970s (which had also affected some television shows), the Godzilla film series was forced to go on hiatus. As a result, Terror of Mechagodzilla had the lowest attendance figures of all the movies in the series. Plot Continuing after the end of Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla, Interpol agents, led by Inspector Kusaka, search for the wreck of Mechagodzilla at the bottom of the Okinawan Sea in the submarine, Akatsuki, to gather information on its builders, the aliens of the third planet from the black hole. But, the Akatsuki is suddenly attacked by a giant aquatic dinosaur called Titanosaurus, and the crew is apparently lost. In response to the incident, Interpol begins to investigate. With the help of marine biologist Akira Ichinose, they trace the incident and Titanosaurus to a reclusive, mad scientist named Shinzô Mafune, who was forced to leave the institute, and now wants to destroy them as well as all of mankind. When visiting his old house in the seaside forest of Manazuru, they meet Mafune's lone daughter Katsura, who tells them that not only is her father dead, but she also burned all of his notes on the giant dinosaur (at her father's request). But unbeknownst to them, Mafune himself is alive and well, visited by his scientist friend Tsuda, who turns out to be an aide to the new black hole alien leader Mugal, who is leading the project to quickly rebuild Mechagodzilla. Mugal offers their services to Mafune, so that his Titanosaurus and their Mechagodzilla 2 will be the ultimate weapons. The ultimate goal of this new wave of black hole aliens is to wipe out mankind and rebuild cities around the world as a high-tech dystopia. But things are complicated for both factions when Ichinose falls in love with Katsura, and unwittingly giving her Interpol's secret information against Titanosaurus, the new Mechagodzilla, and the aliens. We also find that Katsura is actually a cyborg, and Mugal may have use for her. In the course of the film, Interpol discovers Titanosaurus' weakness: Supersonic waves. But when they construct a Supersonic Wave Oscillator, Katsura sabotages the machine, prompting Interpol to hastily repair it before Mafune and the aliens unleash Mechagodzilla and Titanosaurus on Tokyo. And when the situation gets desperate, Godzilla comes to the rescue. While Interpol distracts Titanosaurus with the Supersonic Wave Oscillator, Godzilla is able to destroy Mechagodzilla and then has a final battle with Titanosaurus while he is confused by the Supersonic Wave Oscillator. Godzilla blasts Titanosaurus with atomic ray and Titanosaurus then falls back into into the water, his death was never known Trivia This was the last Godzilla film directed by Ishirō Honda. He was slated to direct Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla II (1993), but he died early that year. This was Akihiko Hirata's final appearance in a Godzilla film. He was slated to play Professor Hayashida in The Return of Godzilla (1984), but he died of lung cancer before production even began. This was Tomoko Ai's film debut. She was previously a semi-regular in the television series Ultraman Leo. In Takayama's original script, Titanosaurus was the singular, combined form of twin "Titan" dinosaurs, which were to meet and unite at some point in the story. Due to budgetary constraints, this concept was not used. This film, much unlike the films prior to it, had a much darker tone and returned to the original style of the series. The original U.S. release was quite faithful to the original Japanese version. Broadcasters requested that the film be edited due to scenes involving the suicide of a character. This was at a time when there were a rash of teen suicides in the United States. Broadcasters began requesting that story elements involving suicide be removed from motion pictures, television programs and even cartoons. This is the first Godzilla film to feature an original score by Akira Ifukube since 1968's Destroy All Monsters; although Ifukube's music had previously been used in 1972's Godzilla vs. Gigan, it was all stock music from previous scores. Current U.S. prints are edited for violent content (some important plot points removed in the process). This film also had the first shot of nudity in a Godzilla film (gone from all U.S. prints): Katsura's prosthetic breasts exposed while black hole surgeons graphically operate on her lower heart area. Katsumi Nimiamoto, the actor who played Titanosaurus, occasionally wore the suit backwards in order to give the kaiju less human-like movements. U.S. Versions The film was released theatrically during in March 1977 in North America by Bob Conn Enterprises under the title The Terror of Godzilla. This version runs 78 minutes, five minutes shorter than the Japanese print. Alterations made: Dialogue was dubbed to English (this was the International Dubbing commissioned by Toho and produced in Hong Kong). Deleted: scenes of shootings, strangulations, and other acts of physical brutality (excised in order to receive a "G" rating from the MPAA). Deleted: Scene with Mugal whipping his underlings for failure. Deleted: A scene where two young boys watch Titanosaurus' rampage and are trampled by him. The film was released to television in late 1978, this time under the title Terror of Mechagodzilla. This version runs 89 minutes, which is actually six minutes longer than the Japanese version. It included an odd prologue about the history of Godzilla, with footage from Monster Zero and Godzilla's Revenge (comprising scenes from Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster and Son of Godzilla). Box office In Japan, the film sold 970,000 tickets. It would be the least-attended Godzilla film in Japan and also one of only two Godzilla films to sell less than one million tickets. As a result, the series was put on hold until 1984. Despite this, the film is gradually becoming a favorite among fans due to its bleak atmosphere, strong violence, and entertaining, albeit brief, monster fights. DVD release Classic Media Released: November 20, 2007 in the Godzilla Collection box set. Singular release April 29, 2008. Aspect Ratio: 2.35:1 Sound: English, Japanese Supplements: Women of Godzilla Featurette, Audio commentary. Region 1 External links Godzilla on the web(Japan) | Terror_of_Mechagodzilla |@lemmatized terror:6 mechagodzilla:13 release:8 japan:4 tokusatsu:1 kaiju:2 film:23 title:3 godzilla:30 original:6 american:1 theatrical:1 toho:2 series:8 direct:3 ishiro:1 honda:2 special:1 effect:1 teruyoshi:1 nakano:1 akira:3 ifukube:3 provide:1 music:3 score:3 movie:4 write:2 yukiko:1 takayama:2 second:1 female:1 writer:1 first:3 kazue:1 shiba:1 son:2 monster:6 feature:2 new:4 titanosaurus:14 last:2 showa:1 return:3 begin:4 heisei:1 crash:1 japanese:5 cinema:1 oil:1 crisis:1 mid:1 late:2 also:5 affect:1 television:4 show:1 force:2 go:2 hiatus:1 result:2 low:2 attendance:1 figure:1 plot:2 continue:1 end:1 v:4 interpol:6 agent:1 lead:2 inspector:1 kusaka:1 search:1 wreck:1 bottom:1 okinawan:1 sea:2 submarine:1 akatsuki:2 gather:1 information:2 builder:1 alien:5 third:1 planet:1 black:4 hole:4 suddenly:1 attack:1 giant:2 aquatic:1 dinosaur:3 call:1 crew:1 apparently:1 lose:1 response:1 incident:2 investigate:1 help:1 marine:1 biologist:1 ichinose:2 trace:1 reclusive:1 mad:1 scientist:2 name:1 shinzô:1 mafune:5 leave:1 institute:1 want:1 destroy:3 well:2 mankind:2 visit:2 old:1 house:1 seaside:1 forest:1 manazuru:1 meet:2 lone:1 daughter:1 katsura:5 tell:1 father:2 dead:1 burn:1 note:1 request:3 unbeknownst:1 alive:1 friend:1 tsuda:1 turn:1 aide:1 leader:1 mugal:4 project:1 quickly:1 rebuild:2 offer:1 service:1 ultimate:2 weapon:1 goal:1 wave:5 wipe:1 city:1 around:1 world:1 high:1 tech:1 dystopia:1 thing:1 complicate:1 faction:1 fall:2 love:1 unwittingly:1 give:2 secret:1 find:1 actually:2 cyborg:1 may:1 use:3 course:1 discovers:1 weakness:1 supersonic:4 construct:1 oscillator:3 sabotage:1 machine:1 prompt:1 hastily:1 repair:1 unleash:1 tokyo:1 situation:1 get:1 desperate:1 come:1 rescue:1 distracts:1 able:1 final:2 battle:1 confuse:1 blast:1 atomic:1 ray:1 back:1 water:1 death:1 never:1 know:1 trivia:1 ishirō:1 slat:2 ii:1 die:2 early:1 year:1 akihiko:1 hirata:1 appearance:1 play:2 professor:1 hayashida:1 lung:1 cancer:1 production:1 even:2 tomoko:1 ai:1 debut:1 previously:2 semi:1 regular:1 ultraman:1 leo:1 script:1 singular:2 combined:1 form:1 twin:1 titan:1 unite:1 point:2 story:2 due:3 budgetary:1 constraint:1 concept:1 much:2 unlike:1 prior:1 darker:1 tone:1 style:1 u:4 quite:1 faithful:1 version:5 broadcaster:2 edit:2 scenes:1 involve:2 suicide:3 character:1 time:2 rash:1 teen:1 united:1 state:1 element:1 remove:2 motion:1 picture:1 program:1 cartoon:1 since:1 although:1 gigan:1 stock:1 previous:1 current:1 print:3 violent:1 content:1 important:1 process:1 shot:1 nudity:1 prosthetic:1 breast:1 expose:1 surgeon:1 graphically:1 operate:1 heart:1 area:1 katsumi:1 nimiamoto:1 actor:1 occasionally:1 wear:1 suit:1 backwards:1 order:2 less:2 human:1 like:1 movement:1 theatrically:1 march:1 north:1 america:1 bob:1 conn:1 enterprises:1 run:2 minute:4 five:1 short:1 alteration:1 make:1 dialogue:1 dub:1 english:2 international:1 dubbing:1 commission:1 produce:1 hong:1 kong:1 delete:3 scene:4 shooting:1 strangulation:1 act:1 physical:1 brutality:1 excise:1 receive:1 g:1 rating:1 mpaa:1 whip:1 underling:1 failure:1 two:2 young:1 boy:1 watch:1 rampage:1 trample:1 six:1 longer:1 include:1 odd:1 prologue:1 history:1 footage:1 zero:1 revenge:1 comprise:1 box:2 office:1 sell:2 ticket:2 would:1 least:1 attend:1 one:2 million:1 put:1 hold:1 despite:1 gradually:1 become:1 favorite:1 among:1 fan:1 bleak:1 atmosphere:1 strong:1 violence:1 entertain:1 albeit:1 brief:1 fight:1 dvd:1 classic:1 medium:1 november:1 collection:1 set:1 april:1 aspect:1 ratio:1 sound:1 supplement:1 woman:1 featurette:1 audio:1 commentary:1 region:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 |@bigram ishiro_honda:1 akira_ifukube:2 black_hole:4 akihiko_hirata:1 lung_cancer:1 budgetary_constraint:1 motion_picture:1 hong_kong:1 rating_mpaa:1 external_link:1 |
6,734 | George_Frideric_Handel | George Frideric Handel (23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German-English Baroque composer, who is famous for his operas, oratorios, and concerti grossi. His life and music may justly be described as "cosmopolitan": he was born in Germany, trained in Italy, and spent most of his life in England. Born as Georg Friedrich Händel () in Halle in the Duchy of Magdeburg, he settled in England in 1712, becoming a naturalized subject of the British crown on 22 January 1727. British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel His works include Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks. Strongly influenced by the techniques of the great composers of the Italian Baroque era, as well as the English composer Henry Purcell, Handel's music became well-known to many composers, including Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Early years Handel was born in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt in the Duchy of Magdeburg (a province of Brandenburg-Prussia) to Georg and Dorothea (née Taust) Händel in 1685, Otto Erich Deutsch. Handel A Documentary Biography. London: Adams and Charles Black Limited, 1955, the same year that both Johann Sebastian Bach and Domenico Scarlatti were born. Handel displayed considerable musical talent at an early age; by the age of seven he was a skillful performer on the harpsichord and pipe organ, However, his father, a distinguished citizen of Halle and an eminent barber-surgeon who served as valet and barber to the courts of the Duchy of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, Adams Aileen, K., Hofestadt, B., " Georg Handel (1622–97): the barber-surgeon father of George Frideric Handel (1685–1759)", Journal of Medical Biography, 2005, Aug; 13(3):142–49. was opposed to his son's wish to pursue a musical career, preferring him to study law. By contrast, Handel's mother, Dorothea, encouraged his musical aspirations. Nevertheless, the young Handel was permitted to take lessons in musical composition and keyboard technique from Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, the organist of the Liebfrauenkirche, Halle. Handel learned about harmony and contemporary styles. He analyzed scores and learned to work fugue subjects and copy music. Sometimes he would take his teacher's place as organist for services. Jonathan Keates.Handel, the man and his music. New York: St Martin's Press, 1985 For his seventh birthday his aunt, Anna, gave him a spinet, which was placed in the attic for Handel to play, whenever he could avoid his father. Deutsch, Otto Erich, "Handel: A Documentary Biography", Music & Letters, 36(3) (July 1955), pp. 269–72. Hird, Edward, Rev., Rediscovering Handel's Messiah, April 1993, Deep Cove Crier, North Vancouver, B.C., Canada. From Halle to Italy Handel's progress was interrupted in 1697 when his father died. In 1702, following his father's wishes, Handel began the study of law at the University of Halle; however, he abandoned law for music, becoming the organist at the Protestant Cathedral. In 1704, he moved to Hamburg, accepting a position as violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of the opera house. Donald Burrows. Handel. Oxford University Press, 1994. There, he met Johann Mattheson, Christoph Graupner and Reinhard Keiser. His first two operas, Almira and Nero, were produced in 1705. Two other early operas, Daphne and Florindo, were produced in 1708. During 1706–09, Handel travelled to Italy at the invitation of Gian Gastone de' Medici. During his visit to Hamburg, Medici had become acquainted with Handel. Handel also met Medici's brother Ferdinando, who was a musician himself. While opera was temporarily banned at this time by the Pope, Handel found work as a composer of sacred music; the famous Dixit Dominus (1707) is from this era. He wrote many cantatas in operatic style for gatherings in the palace of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni. Rodrigo, his first all-Italian opera, was produced in Florence in 1707. Agrippina was first produced at Venice in 1709. Agrippina, which ran for an unprecedented 27 performances, showed remarkable maturity and established his reputation as an opera composer. Two oratorios, La Resurrezione and Il Trionfo del Tempo, were produced in Rome in a private setting for Ruspoli and Ottoboni in 1709 and 1710, respectively. The move to London In 1710, Handel became Kapellmeister to George, Elector of Hanover, who would soon be King George I of Great Britain. He visited Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici on his way to London in 1710, where he settled permanently in 1712, receiving a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne. During his early years in London, one of his most important patrons was the young and wealthy Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, who showed an early love of his music. Handel. A Celebration of his Life and Times 1685–1759. National Portrait Gallery, p. 92. Handel spent the most carefree time of his life at Cannons and laid the cornerstone for his future choral compositions in the twelve Chandos Anthems. Bukofzer, M. (1983) Music in the Baroque Era. From Monteverdi to Bach, p. 333-335 Romain Rolland stated that these anthems were as important for his oratorios as the cantatas were for his operas. Rolland also highly estimated Acis and Galatea, like Winton Dean, who wrote that "the music catches breath and disturbs the memory". Dean, W. Handel's Operas 1704-1726, p. 209. During Handel's lifetime it was his most performed work. In July of 1717 Handel's Water Music was first performed for a water party on the Thames. The composition was written and performed as a reconciliation between the king and Handel. In 1723 Handel moved into a newly built house at 25 Brook Street, London, which he rented until his death in 1759. This house is now the Handel House Museum, a restored Georgian house open to the public with an events programme of baroque music. There is a blue commemorative plaque on the outside of the building. It was here that he composed Messiah, Zadok the Priest and Music for the Royal Fireworks. (In 2000, the upper stories of 25 Brook Street were leased to the Handel House Trust, and after an extensive restoration program, the Handel House Museum opened to the public on 8 November 2001.) In 1726 Handel's opera Scipio was performed for the first time—the march from which remains the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards. He was naturalised a British subject in 1727. In 1727 Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the coronation ceremony of King George II. One of these, Zadok the Priest, has been played at every British coronation ceremony since. Handel was director of the Royal Academy of Music 1720–1728, and a partner of J.J. Heidegger in the management of the King's Theatre 1729–1734. During March of 1734 Handel composed a wedding anthem for the Princess of Orange. Handel also had a long association with the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden, where many of his Italian operas were premiered. See E.A. Bucchianeri: Handel's Path to Covent Garden: A Rocky Journey, (1stBooks / Authorhouse, 2002) In April 1737, at age 52, Handel suffered a stroke (or similar malady) which left his right arm temporarily paralysed—preventing him from performing. He also complained of difficulties in focusing his sight. To aid recovery, Handel travelled to Aachen, Germany — taking hot baths and eventually playing the organ for the local audience. For new insights on this episode, see Ilias Chrissochoidis: "Handel Recovering: Fresh Light on his Affairs in 1737," Eighteenth-Century Music 5/2 (2008): 237-44. Having lost a fortune in operatic management, Handel gave up the business in 1740. Later years Following his recovery, Handel focused on composing oratorios instead of opera. Handel's Messiah was first performed in New Musick Hall in Fishamble Street, Dublin on 13 April 1742, with 26 boys and five men from the combined choirs of St Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals participating. Percy M Young Handel. New York: David White Company, 1966. In 1749 he composed Music for the Royal Fireworks; 12,000 people came to listen. Three people died, including one of the trumpeters, on the day after. In 1750 Handel arranged a performance of Messiah to benefit the Foundling Hospital. The performance was considered a great success and was followed by annual concerts that continued throughout his life. In recognition of his patronage, Handel was made a governor of the Hospital the day after his initial concert. He bequeathed a fair copy of Messiah to the institution upon his death. His involvement with the Foundling Hospital is today commemorated with a permanent exhibition in London's Foundling Museum, which also holds the Gerald Coke Handel Collection. In addition to the Foundling Hospital, Handel also gave to a charity that helped to assist impoverished musicians and their families. Also, during the summer of 1741, the Duke of Devonshire invited Handel to Dublin to give concerts for the benefit of local hospitals. In August 1750, on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured in a carriage accident between The Hague and Haarlem in the Netherlands. In 1751 his eyesight started to fail in one eye. The cause was unknown and progressed into his other eye as well. Jephtha was first performed on February 26, 1752; even though it was his last oratorio, it was no less a masterpiece than his earlier works. He died some eight years later, in 1759, in London, his last attended performance being his own Messiah. More than three thousand mourners attended his funeral, which was given full state honours, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey. Handel never married, and kept his personal life very private. Unlike many composers, he left a sizable estate at his death — worth £20,000 (an enormous amount for the day), the bulk of which he left to a niece in Germany — as well as gifts to his other relations, servants, friends and to favourite charities. Works Main articles: List of compositions by George Frideric Handel and List of operas by Handel. Handel's compositions include 42 operas; 29 oratorios; more than 120 cantatas, trios and duets; numerous arias; chamber music; a large number of ecumenical pieces; odes and serenatas; and sixteen organ concerti. His most famous work, the Messiah oratorio with its "Hallelujah" chorus, is among the most popular works in choral music and has become a centerpiece of the Christmas season. Also popular are the Opus 3 and 6 Concerti Grossi, as well as "The Cuckoo and the Nightingale", in which birds are heard calling during passages played in different keys representing the vocal ranges of two birds. Also notable are his sixteen keyboard suites, especially The Harmonious Blacksmith. Handel introduced various previously uncommon musical instruments in his works: the viola d'amore and violetta marina (Orlando), the lute (Ode for St. Cecilia's Day), three trombones (Saul), clarinets or small high cornets (Tamerlano), theorbo, French horn (Water Music), lyrichord, double bassoon, viola da gamba, bell chimes, positive organ, and harp (Giulio Cesare, Alexander's Feast).<ref>Textbook in CD Sacred Arias with Harp & Harp Duets by Rachel Ann Morgan & Edward Witsenburg.</ref> Handel's works have been catalogued and are commonly referred to by a HWV number. For example, Handel's Messiah is also known as HWV 56. Legacy After his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, save for selections such as the ubiquitous aria from Serse, "Ombra mai fù". His reputation throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the Anglophone countries, rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by enormous choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions. These include Esther (1718); Athalia (1733); Saul (1739); Israel in Egypt (1739); Messiah (1742); Samson (1743); Judas Maccabaeus (1747); Solomon (1748); and Jephtha (1752). His best are based on a libretto by Charles Jennens. Since the 1960s, with the revival of interest in baroque music, original instrument playing styles, and the prevalence of countertenors who could more accurately replicate castrato roles, interest has revived in Handel's Italian operas, and many have been recorded and performed onstage. Of the fifty he wrote between 1705 and 1738, Agrippina (1709), Rinaldo (1711, 1731), Orlando (1733), Alcina (1735), Ariodante (1735), and Serse (1738, also known as Xerxes) stand out and are now performed regularly in opera houses and concert halls. Arguably the finest, however, are Giulio Cesare (1724) and Rodelinda (1725), which, thanks to their superb orchestral and vocal writing, have entered the mainstream opera repertoire. Also revived in recent years are a number of secular cantatas and what one might call secular oratorios or concert operas. Of the former, Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (1739) (set to texts of John Dryden) and Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne (1713) are particularly noteworthy. For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as Acis and Galatea (1719), Hercules (1745), and Semele (1744). In terms of musical style, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts, these works have close kinship with the above-mentioned sacred oratorios, but they also share something of the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas. As such, they are sometimes performed onstage by small chamber ensembles. With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists. Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since. BBC Press Release Bach even attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet with Handel while he was visiting Halle. Mozart is reputed to have said of him, "Handel understands effect better than any of us. When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt." and to Beethoven he was "the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived. I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb." The latter emphasized above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, "Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means." After Handel’s death, many composers wrote works based on or inspired by his music. The first movement from Louis Spohr’s Symphony No. 6, Op. 116, "The Age of Bach and Handel", resembles two melodies from Handel's Messiah. In 1797 Ludwig van Beethoven published the 12 Variations in G major on ‘See the conqu’ring hero comes’ from Judas Maccabaeus by Handel, for cello and piano. Guitar virtuoso Mauro Giuliani composed his Variations on a Theme by Handel, Op. 107 for guitar, based on Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major, HWV 430, for harpsichord. In 1861, using a theme from the second of Handel's harpsichord suites, Johannes Brahms wrote the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24, one of his most successful works (it even received praise from Richard Wagner). Several works by the French composer Félix-Alexandre Guilmant use themes by Handel, for example his March on a Theme by Handel for organ, which uses a theme from the Messiah. French composer and flautist Philippe Gaubert wrote his Petite marche for flute and piano based on the fourth movement of Handel’s Trio Sonata, Op. 5, No. 2, HWV 397. Argentine composer Luis Gianneo composed his Variations on a Theme by Handel for piano. In 1911, Australian born composer and pianist Percy Grainger based one of his most famous works on the final movement of Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major (just like Giuliani). He first wrote some variations on the theme, which he titled Variations on Handel’s ‘The Harmonious Blacksmith’ . Then he used the first sixteen bars of his set of variations to create Handel in the Stand one of his most beloved pieces, of which he made several versions (for example, the piano solo version from 1930). Arnold Schoenberg’s Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra in B flat major (1933) was composed after Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6/7. He is commemorated as a musician in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on July 28, with Johann Sebastian Bach and Heinrich Schütz. Handel's works were edited by Samuel Arnold (40 vols., London, 1787–1797), and by Friedrich Chrysander, for the German Händel-Gesellschaft (100 vols., Leipzig, 1858–1902). Handel adopted the spelling "George Frideric Handel" on his naturalization as a British subject, and this spelling is generally used in English-speaking countries. The original form of his name (Georg Friedrich Händel) is generally used in Germany and elsewhere, but he is known as "Haendel" in France, which causes no small amount of grief to cataloguers everywhere. There was another composer with a similar name, Handl, who was a Slovene and is more commonly known as Jacobus Gallus. Media Scores and recordings : includes Complete Works Edition (Ausgabe der Deutschen Händelgesellschaft) The Mutopia Project provides free downloading of sheet music and MIDI files for some of Handel's works. Free typeset sheet music of Handel's works from Cantorion.org Handel cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. Kunst der Fuge: George Frideric Handel - MIDI files Water Music, Organ Concertos op. 4, Tamerlano, etc. Creative Commons recordings See also John Baptist Grano Handel Commemoration Charles Jennens List of compositions by George Frideric Handel List of operas by Handel Primary Sources Handel Reference Database (in progress) Further reading Dean, W. (2006) “Handel’s Operas, 1726-1741” (The Boydell Press) E.A. Bucchianeri: Handel's Path to Covent Garden: A Rocky Journey: (1st Books / Authorhouse, 2002). Notes References Burrows, Donald. Handel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-816470-X Chrissochoidis, Ilias. "Early Reception of Handel's Oratorios, 1732-1784: Narrative – Studies – Documents" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 2004), available through UMI. Deutsch, Otto Erich, Handel: A Documentary Biography, 1955. Frosch, W.A., The "case" of George Frideric Handel, New England Journal of Medicine, 1989; 321:765-769, Sep 14, 1989. Harris, Ellen T. (general editor) The librettos of Handel's operas: a collection of seventy librettos documenting Handel's operatic career New York: Garland, 1989. ISBN 0-8240-3862-2 Hogwood, Christopher. Handel. London: Thames and Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0-500-01355-1 Keates, Jonathan. Handel, the man and his music. London: V. Gollancz, 1985. ISBN 0-575-03573-0 Dean, Winton and John Merrill Knapp. Handel's Operas, 1704-1726 (Volume 1) Oxford: Clarendon Press. (1987; 2nd Ed. 1994 (softcover) ISBN 0-198-16441-6 Meynell, Hugo. The Art of Handel's Operas The Edwin Mellen Press (1986) ISBN 0-889-46425-1 External links Edward Dent's Handel biography from Project Gutenberg The second volume of Winton Dean for "Handel's Operas" covering the years 1726-1741 Friedrich Chrysander's Handel biography (in German) Handel Houses: The Handel House Museum The Händel-Haus in Halle (Saale) | George_Frideric_Handel |@lemmatized george:11 frideric:8 handel:112 february:2 april:4 german:3 english:5 baroque:5 composer:15 famous:4 opera:28 oratorio:12 concerto:6 grossi:2 life:6 music:28 may:1 justly:1 describe:1 cosmopolitan:1 bear:5 germany:5 train:1 italy:3 spend:2 england:3 georg:4 friedrich:5 händel:5 halle:8 duchy:3 magdeburg:2 settle:2 become:6 naturalized:1 subject:5 british:6 crown:1 january:1 citizen:2 act:1 parliament:1 work:21 include:6 messiah:12 water:5 royal:5 firework:3 strongly:1 influence:1 technique:2 great:6 italian:6 era:3 well:6 henry:1 purcell:1 know:5 many:6 haydn:1 mozart:2 beethoven:3 early:7 year:7 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6,735 | Kelly_Johnson_(engineer) | Kelly Johnson participated in the design of the Lockheed L-10 Electra, testing a model with single vertical stabilizer of the design in the wind tunnel of the University of Michigan. Clarence Leonard "Kelly" Johnson (February 27, 1910 – December 21, 1990) was an aircraft engineer and aeronautical innovator. As a member and first team leader of the Lockheed Skunk Works, Johnson worked for more than four decades and is said to have been an 'organizing genius.' Bennis, Warren and Patricia Ward Biederman. Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration. Perseus Books, 1997. He played a leading role in the design of over forty aircraft including several that were honored with the prestigious Collier Trophy. Johnson acquired a reputation as one of the most talented and prolific aircraft design engineers in the history of aviation. In 2003, as part of its commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the Wright Brothers' flight, Aviation Week & Space Technology ranked Johnson 8th on its list of the top 100 "most important, most interesting, and most influential people" in the first century of aerospace. All-Time Top 100 Stars of Aerospace and Aviation Announced | SpaceRef. June 18 2003 Hall Hibbard, Kelly's Lockheed boss, once remarked to Ben Rich: "That damned Swede can actually see air". Jim Wilson. Kelly Johnson's Skunk Works Created The World's Most Amazing Planes. Popular Mechanics, September 1999 Life Born to immigrant Swedish parents in the remote mining town of Ishpeming, Michigan, Johnson was 13 years old when he won a prize for his first aircraft design. He worked his way through school, first at Flint Junior College, and then at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. While attending grade school in Michigan, he was ridiculed for his name, Clarence. Some boys started calling him "Clara". One morning while waiting in line to get into a classroom, one boy started with the normal routine of calling him "Clara". Johnson tripped him so hard the boy broke a leg. The boys then decided that he wasn't a "Clara" after all, and started calling him "Kelly". The nickname came from the popular song at the time, "Kelly With the Green Neck Tie". Henceforth he was always known as "Kelly" Johnson. Johnson married Althea Louise Young in 1937, who died in December 1969. In May 1971, he married Mary Ellen Elberta Meade of New York, who died on October 13, 1980, at 38 years of age. He married Nancy Powers Horrigan in November 1980. His autobiography, titled Kelly: More Than My Share of it All, ISBN 0-87474-491-1, was published in 1985. Johnson died at the age of 80 at St Joseph Medical Center, after an illness that lasted for several years. He is buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery, Los Angeles, California. Lockheed career At Michigan, he conducted a wind tunnel test of Lockheed's proposed twin-engined Lockheed L-10 Electra airliner. He found that the aircraft did not have adequate directional stability, and proposed adding a "H" tail to address the problem. Lockheed accepted his suggestion and the L-10 went on to be a success. This brought Johnson to the attention of Lockheed management. Upon completing his master's degree in 1933, Johnson joined the Lockheed Company as a tool designer at a salary of $83 a month. After assignments as flight test engineer, stress analyst, aerodynamicist, and weight engineer, he became chief research engineer in 1938. In 1952, he was appointed chief engineer of Lockheed's Burbank, California plant, which later became the Lockheed-California Company. In 1956 he became Vice President of Research and Development. Johnson became Vice President of Advanced Development Projects (ADP) in 1958. The first ADP offices were nearly uninhabitable; the stench from a nearby plastic factory was so vile one of the engineers began answering the intra-Lockheed "house" phone "skonk works!" Big Barnsmell's Skonk Works spelled with an "o" was where Kickapoo Joy Juice was brewed in the comic strip L'il Abner by Al Capp. When the name "leaked" out, Lockheed ordered it changed to "Skunk Works" to avoid potential legal trouble over use of a copyrighted term. The term rapidly circulated throughout the aerospace community, and became a common nickname for research and development offices however, reference to "The Skunk Works" means the Lockheed ADP shop. Here the F-104 Starfighter, and the secret reconnaissance planes, the U-2 and the SR-71 Blackbird, were developed. In 1955, at the request of the Central Intelligence Agency, Johnson initiated construction of the airbase at Groom Lake, Nevada, later known as Area 51. This project provided a secret location for flight testing the U-2. Rich, Ben; Janos, Leo. (1996) Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, ISBN 0-316-74300-3 He served on Lockheed's board of directors from 1964 to 1980, becoming a senior vice president in 1969. He officially retired from Lockheed in 1975 and was succeeded by Ben Rich, but continued as a consultant at the Skunk Works. In June 1983, the Lockheed Rye Canyon Research facility was renamed Kelly Johnson Research and Development Center, Lockheed-California Company, in honor of Johnson's 50 years of service to the company. Aircraft contributions While at Lockheed, Johnson designed the P-38 Lightning fighter, made Fowler flaps work on the L-14 Super Electra, and played a major role in converting the type into the Royal Air Force's Lockheed Hudson on short notice in 1938. He worked on the development of the Constellation for Howard Hughes' TWA airline. Johnson contributed to the design of the following Lockheed aircraft: Kelly Johnson with an early variant of the U-2. Orion 9D Model 10 Electra/XC-35/C-36/Y1C-37 Model 12 Electra Junior Model 14 Super Electra Model 18 Lodestar Model 22 PV-1 Ventura/B-37 P-38 Lightning Constellation/Super Constellation F-80 Shooting Star, the first successful American jet fighter; T-33/TV-2 trainers P2V Neptune XF-90 F-94 Starfire X-7 F-104 Starfighter F-117A Nighthawk C-130 Hercules U-2 Blackbird family: A-12, YF-12, SR-71, M-21, and D-21 JetStar/C-140 AH-56 Cheyenne Kelly Johnson's 14 Rules of Management Johnson's famed 'down-to-brass-tacks' management style was summed up by his motto, "Be quick, be quiet, and be on time." He ran Skunk Works by the Kelly's 14 Rules The Skunk Works manager must be delegated practically complete control of his program in all aspects. He should report to a division president or higher. Strong but small project offices must be provided both by the military and industry. The number of people having any connection with the project must be restricted in an almost vicious manner. Use a small number of good people (10% to 25% compared to the so-called normal systems). A very simple drawing and drawing release system with great flexibility for making changes must be provided. There must be a minimum number of reports required, but important work must be recorded thoroughly. There must be a monthly cost review covering not only what has been spent and committed but also projected costs to the conclusion of the program. Don't have the books 90 days late, and don't surprise the customer with sudden overruns. The contractor must be delegated and must assume more than normal responsibility to get good vendor bids for subcontract on the project. Commercial bid procedures are very often better than military ones. The inspection system as currently used by the Skunk Works, which has been approved by both the Air Force and Navy, meets the intent of existing military requirements and should be used on new projects. Push more basic inspection responsibility back to subcontractors and vendors. Don't duplicate so much inspection. The contractor must be delegated the authority to test his final product in flight. He can and must test it in the initial stages. If he doesn't, he rapidly loses his competency to design other vehicles. The specifications applying to the hardware must be agreed to well in advance of contracting. The Skunk Works practice of having a specification section stating clearly which important military specification items will not knowingly be complied with and reasons therefore is highly recommended. Funding a program must be timely so that the contractor doesn't have to keep running to the bank to support government projects. There must be mutual trust between the military project organization and the contractor with very close cooperation and liaison on a day-to-day basis. This cuts down misunderstanding and correspondence to an absolute minimum. Access by outsiders to the project and its personnel must be strictly controlled by appropriate security measures. Because only a few people will be used in engineering and most other areas, ways must be provided to reward good performance by pay not based on the number of personnel supervised. Note that Kelly had a 15th rule that he passed on by word of mouth. According to the book "Skunkworks" the 15th rule is: "Starve before doing business with the damned Navy. They don't know what the hell they want and will drive you up a wall before they break either your heart or a more exposed part of your anatomy." Honors and awards 1932 (September) Sheehan Fellowship in Aeronautics, at the University of Michigan. 1937 Lawrence Sperry Award, Presented by the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences for "Important improvements of aeronautical design of high speed commercial aircraft." 1940 The Wright Brothers Medal, presented by SAE for "Rudder control problems on four-engined airplanes." 1956 The Sylvanus Albert Reed Award, presented by the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, for "Design and rapid development of high performance subsonic and supersonic aircraft." 1956 Elected Aviation Man of the Year by a group of Aviation writers and editors appointed by the Airlines Activities Committee, representing 7,000 airline employees. 1958 Elected Distinguished Member of the Jet Pioneers Association of U.S.A. 1959 Co-Recipient of the Collier Trophy as designer of the airframe of the F-104 Starfighter, sharing the honor with General Electric (J79 engine) and U.S. Air Force (Flight Records). The F-104 was designated the previous year's "Greatest achievement in aviation in America." 1960 The General Hap Arnold Gold Medal, presented by the Veterans of Foreign Wars for "Design of the U-2 high altitude research plane." 1961 Chosen as one of 50 outstanding Americans of meritorious performance in the fields of endeavor, to be honored as a Guest of Honor to the first annual banquet of the Golden Plate. Honor was awarded by vote of the National Panel of Distinguished Americans of the Academy of Achievement of Monterey, California. 1963 The Theodore von Karman Award, presented by the Air Force Association for "Designing and directing development of the U-2, thus providing the Free World with one of its most valuable instruments in the defense of freedom." 1963 Elected an Honorary Member of the Aerospace Medical Association, in appreciation of his sincere and effective interest and activities in behalf of their work. 1964 The Medal of Freedom, presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson in ceremonies at the White House. The highest civil honor the President can bestow, this recognizes "Significant contributions to the quality of American life." Johnson was cited for his advancement of aeronautics. 1964 The Award of Achievement, presented by the national Aviation club of Washington D.C., for "Outstanding achievement in airplane design and development over many years, including such models as the Constellation, P-80, F-104, JetStar, the U-2, and climaxed by the metallurgical and performance breakthroughs of the A-11 (YF-12A). 1964 The Collier Trophy (his second), following his work on the YF-12 Interceptor, capable of flying at more than 2,000 mph. His achievement for the previous year was called the greatest in American aviation. 1964 The Theodore von Karman Award (his second), presented by the Air force Association for his work with the A-11 (YF-12A) Interceptor. 1964 Honorary degree of Doctor of Engineering, University of Michigan. 1964 Honorary degree of Doctor of Science, University of Southern California. 1965 Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, University of California at Los Angeles. 1965 San Fernando Valley Engineer of the Year, so designated by the San Fernando, California, Valley Engineers Council. 1965 Elected a Member of the National Academy of Engineering. 1965 Elected a Member of the National Academy of Sciences. 1965 Selected as one of the first 20 men to be included in the International Aerospace Hall of Fame in San Diego, California. 1966 The Sylvanus Albert Reed Award (his second) given by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics "In recognition of notable contributions to the aerospace sciences resulting from experimental or theoretical investigations." 1966 National Medal of Science, presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson at the White House. 1966 The Thomas D. White National Defense Award, presented by the U.S. Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in recognition of "Your great contributions to the national defense and security of the United States. ' 1967 Elected Honorary Fellow of American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 1968 Elected a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. 1969 The General William Mitchell Memorial Award, presented by the Aviators Post #743 of the American Legion. 1970 Awarded the Spirit of St. Louis Medal by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 1970 On behalf of Lockheed's Advanced Development Projects facility, which he directed until his retirement in 1975, accepted the first annual Engineering Materials Achievements Award of the American Society for Metals. 1970 The Engineering Merit Award-Presented by the Institute for the Advancement of Engineering, Beverly Hills, California. 1970 Honored by the Air Force Association, Washington D.C., for design of the P-38 Lightning. 1971 Awarded the Sixth Annual Founders Medal by the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) at the Statler-Hilton Hotel, Washington D.C.. in recognition of his fundamental contributions to engineering. 1972 Awarded the Silver Knight Award by the Lockheed Management Club of California at the Hollywood Palladium for his contributions to Lockheed's success. 1973 Awarded the first "Clarence L. Johnson Award" by The Society of Fight Test Engineers in Las Vegas, Nevada, for his contributions to aviation and flight test engineering. 1973 Civilian Kitty Hawk Memorial Award by Los Angeles Area Chamber of Commerce for his outstanding contributions in the field of aviation. 1974 Air Force Exceptional Service Award for his many outstanding contributions to the United States Air Force. Presented by the Secretary of the Air force, John McLucas. 1974 Enshrined in the Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio for his outstanding contributions to aviation. 1975 Awarded the Central Intelligence Agency's Distinguished Intelligence Medal for his work on reconnaissance systems. 1975 Awarded the Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy for his vital and enduring contributions over a period of 40 years to the design and development of military and commercial aircraft. 1978 The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics presented "A Salute to Kelly Johnson" night. 1980 Awarded the Bernt Balchen Trophy, the highest award of the New York State Air Force Association. The trophy is presented annually to "An individual of national prominence whose contribution to the field of aviation has been unique, extensive or of great significance." It followed announcement of the A-12. 1981 Presented the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service. Presented by Harold Brown. 1981 Honored by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) for his ability to motivate a small staff to work within a tight time frame and budget in creating revolutionary aircraft design. 1981 The U.S. Air Force creates the "Kelly Johnson Blackbird Achievement Trophy" to recognize the individual or group who has made the most significant contribution to the U-2, SR-71 or the TR-1 Program since the previous annual reunion. 1981 The Daniel Guggenheim Medal, "For his brilliant design of a wide range of pace-setting, commercial, combat and reconnaissance aircraft, and for his innovative management techniques which developed these aircraft in record time at minimum cost." 1982 The Meritorious Service to Aviation Award from National Business Aircraft Association, recognizing design of more than 40 aircraft, including the world's first business jet, the JetStar. 1983 The Aero Club of Southern California presented the Howard Hughes Memorial Award for 1982 to C. L. "Kelly" Johnson as a leader in aviation. The recipient must have devoted a major portion of his life to the pursuit of aviation as a science and as an art. Engraved on the medal was the sentence: "His vision formed the concept, His courage forged the reality". 1983 The National Security Medal was presented by President Ronald Reagan to Clarence L. Johnson for "Exceptional meritorious service performed in a position of high responsibility and have made an outstanding contribution to the National Security of the Nation". 1984 Honorary Royal Designer for Industry (HonRDI), in recognition of achievements in aircraft design, conferred by the Royal Society for the encouragement of the Arts, Manufacturers, and Commerce, London. 2003 Listed at number eight in Aviation Week's "All-Time Top 100 Stars of Aerospace and Aviation".<ref>[http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=11860 Aviation Week. June 18, 2003. All-Time Top 100 Stars of Aerospace and Aviation Announced'.]</ref> References Lockheed Martin Corporation, How the Skunk Works got its name. Lockheed Martin Corporation, P-38 Lightning. Lockheed Martin Corporation, Kelly's 14 Rules. Lockheed Martin Corporation, The Skunk Works Today. Lockheed Martin Corporation, Collier Trophy. Rich, Ben; Janos, Leo. (1996) Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, ISBN 0-316-74300-3 Memberships Honorary fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society Member of the Society of Automotive Engineers Member of Tau Beta Pi engineering fraternities. Member of Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Society Further reading Johnson, Clarence L. "Kelly", and Maggie Smith, 1985. Kelly: More Than My Share of It All. Smithsonian Institution Press, ISBN 0-87474-564-0 Johnson, Clarence L., Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. The Design of High-Speed Military Airplanes (1941). Reprinted from the Journal of Aeronautical Sciences Rich, Ben, and Leo Janos, 1996. Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, ISBN 0-316-74300-3 External links Clarence Leonard (Kelly) Johnson. Kelly Johnson's rules for Skunkworks aircraft. "Lord of the Skunk Works," from Air Force Magazine''. 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6,736 | Angular_momentum | This gyroscope remains upright while spinning due to its angular momentum. The angular momentum of a particle about an origin is a vector quantity related to rotation, equal to the mass of the particle multiplied by the cross product of the position vector of the particle with its velocity vector. Angular Momentum - from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics The angular momentum of a system of particles is the sum of those of the particles within it. conservation of angular momentum - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Angular momentum is important in physics because it is a conserved quantity: the angular momentum of an isolated system stays constant unless an external torque acts on it. Rotational symmetry of space is related to the conservation of angular momentum by Noether's theorem. The conservation of angular momentum explains many phenomena found in nature and angular momentum has numerous applications in physics and engineering. Angular momentum in classical mechanics Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), and momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system Definition Angular momentum (also known as moment of momentum) of a particle about a given origin is defined as: where: is the angular momentum of the particle, is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, is the linear momentum of the particle, and is the vector cross product. As seen from the definition, the derived SI units of angular momentum are newton metre seconds (N·m·s or kg·m2s-1) or joule seconds. Because of the cross product, L is a pseudovector perpendicular to both the radial vector r and the momentum vector p and it is assigned a sign by the right-hand rule. Angular momentum of a collection of particles If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum about an origin can be obtained by adding (or integrating) all the angular momenta of the constituent particles. Angular momentum can also be calculated by multiplying the square of the displacement r, the mass of the particle and the angular velocity. Angular momentum in the center of mass frame It is very often convenient to consider the angular momentum of a collection of particles about their center of mass, since this simplifies the mathematics considerably. The angular momentum of a collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle: where is the distance of particle i from the reference point, is its mass, and is its velocity. The center of mass is defined by: where the total mass of all particles is given by It follows that the velocity of the center of mass is If we define as the displacement of particle i from the center of mass, and as the velocity of particle i with respect to the center of mass, then we have and and also and so that the total angular momentum is The first term is just the angular momentum of the center of mass. It is the same angular momentum one would obtain if there were just one particle of mass M moving at velocity V located at the center of mass. The second term is the angular momentum that is the result of the particles moving relative to their center of mass. This second term can be even further simplified if the particles form a rigid body, in which case a spin appears. An analogous result is obtained for a continuous distribution of matter. Fixed axis of rotation For many applications where one is only concerned about rotation around one axis, it is sufficient to discard the pseudovector nature of angular momentum, and treat it like a scalar where it is positive when it corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotations, and negative clockwise. To do this, just take the definition of the cross product and discard the unit vector, so that angular momentum becomes: where θr,p is the angle between r and p measured from r to p; an important distinction because without it, the sign of the cross product would be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the following: where is called the lever arm distance to p. The easiest way to conceptualize this is to consider the lever arm distance to be the distance from the origin to the line that p travels along. With this definition, it is necessary to consider the direction of p (pointed clockwise or counter-clockwise) to figure out the sign of L. Equivalently: where is the component of p that is perpendicular to r. As above, the sign is decided based on the sense of rotation. For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector: where is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity) is the angular velocity. As the kinetic energy K of a massive rotating body is given by it is proportional to the square of the angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque (since torque is the time derivative of angular momentum). This causes the top to precess. In a closed system angular momentum is constant. This conservation law mathematically follows from continuous directional symmetry of space (no direction in space is any different from any other direction). See Noether's theorem. "The classical theory of fields", L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz( Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995) ISBN 0750627689 The time derivative of angular momentum is called torque: (The cross-product of velocity and momentum is zero, because these vectors are parallel.) So requiring the system to be "closed" here is mathematically equivalent to zero external torque acting on the system: where is any torque applied to the system of particles. It is assumed that internal interaction forces obey Newton's third law of motion in its strong form, that is, that the forces between particles are equal and opposite and act along the line between the particles. In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet itself and the angular momentum of its orbit: ; If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared between the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved. The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called central force motion. If the net force on some body is directed always toward some fixed point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, and so the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. Constant angular momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the orbits of planets and satellites, and also when analyzing the Bohr model of the atom. The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of mass of her body closer to the axis she decreases her body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is constant in the absence of external torques, the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater has to increase. The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars (indeed, decreasing the size of object 104 times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor 108). The conservation of angular momentum in Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon (due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth). This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth (at about 42 nsec/day), and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit (at ~4.5 cm/year rate). Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics In modern (late 20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum is described using a different formalism. Under this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance (As a result, angular momentum is not conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant). For a system of point particles without any intrinsic angular momentum, it turns out to be (Here, the wedge product is used.). Angular momentum in quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain allowed values. The angular momentum of a subatomic particle, due to its motion through space, is always a whole-number multiple of ("h-bar," known as the reduced Planck's constant), defined as Planck's constant divided by 2π. Furthermore, experiments show that most subatomic particles have a permanent, built-in angular momentum, which is not due to their motion through space. This spin angular momentum comes in units of . For example, an electron standing at rest has an angular momentum of . Basic definition The classical definition of angular momentum as depends on six numbers: , , , , , and . Translating this into quantum-mechanical terms, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six of these numbers to be measured simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis. Mathematically, angular momentum in quantum mechanics is defined like momentum - not as a quantity but as an operator on the wave function: where r and p are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no electric charge and no spin, the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as where is the vector differential operator "Del" (also called "Nabla"). This orbital angular momentum operator is the most commonly encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the only one. It satisfies the following canonical commutation relations: , where εlmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. From this follows Since, it follows, for example, Addition of quantized angular momenta Given a quantized total angular momentum which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta and , the quantum number associated with its magnitude can range from to in integer steps where and are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta. Angular momentum as a generator of rotations If is the angle around a specific axis, for example the azimuthal angle around the z axis, then the angular momentum along this axis is the generator of rotations around this axis: The eigenfunctions of Lz are therefore , and since has a period of , ml must be an integer. For a particle with a spin S, this takes into account only the angular dependence of the location of the particle, for example its orbit in an atom. It is therefore known as orbital angular momentum. However, when one rotates the system, one also changes the spin. Therefore the total angular momentum, which is the full generator of rotations, is Being an angular momentum, J satisfies the same commutation relations as L, as will be explained below. namely from which follows Acting with J on the wavefunction of a particle generates a rotation: is the wavefunction rotated around the z axis by an angle . For an infinitesmal rotation by an angle , the rotated wavefunction is . This is similarly true for rotations around any axis. In a charged particle the momentum gets a contribution from the electromagnetic field, and the angular momenta L and J change accordingly. If the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations, as in spherically symmetric problems, then according to Noether's theorem, it commutes with the total angular momentum. So the total angular momentum is a conserved quantity Since angular momentum is the generator of rotations, its commutation relations follow the commutation relations of the generators of the three-dimensional rotation group SO(3). This is why J always satisfies these commutation relations. In d dimensions, the angular momentum will satisfy the same commutation relations as the generators of the d-dimensional rotation group SO(d). SO(3) has the same Lie algebra (i.e. the same commutation relations) as SU(2). Generators of SU(2) can have half-integer eigenvalues, and so can m. Indeed for fermions the spin S and total angular momentum J are half-integer. In fact this is the most general case: j and m are either integers or half-integers. Technically, this is because the universal cover of SO(3) is isomorphic SU(2), and the representations of the latter are fully known. Ji span the Lie algebra and J2 is the Casimir invariant, and it can be shown that if the eigenvalues of Jz and J2 are mj and j(j+1) then mj and j are both integer multiples of one-half. j is non-negative and mj takes values between -j and j. Relation to spherical harmonics Angular momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with spherical symmetry in spherical coordinates. Then, the angular momentum in space representation is: When solving to find eigenstates of this operator, we obtain the following where are the spherical harmonics. Angular momentum in electrodynamics When describing the motion of a charged particle in the presence of an electromagnetic field, the "kinetic momentum" p is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so-called canonical momentum, is where is the electric charge, c the speed of light and A the vector potential. Thus, for example, the Hamiltonian of a charged particle of mass m in an electromagnetic field is then where is the scalar potential. This is the Hamiltonian that gives the Lorentz force law. The gauge-invariant angular momentum, or "kinetic angular momentum" is given by The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations. See also Moment of inertia Angular momentum coupling Areal velocity Control moment gyroscope Rotational energy Rigid rotor Yrast Noether's theorem Spatial quantization Falling cat problem External links Conservation of Angular Momentum - a chapter from an online textbook Angular Momentum in a Collision Process - derivation of the three dimensional case Footnotes References Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Laloë, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons. E. U. Condon and G. H. Shortley (1935) The Theory of Atomic Spectra. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-09209-4. Esp. chpt. 3. Edmonds, A.R. (1957) Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-07912-9. Jackson, John David (1998) Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. Thompson, William J. (1994) Angular Momentum: An Illustrated Guide to Rotational Symmetries for Physical Systems. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-55264. | Angular_momentum |@lemmatized gyroscope:2 remain:1 upright:1 spin:9 due:4 angular:96 momentum:100 particle:37 origin:5 vector:14 quantity:5 relate:2 rotation:17 equal:2 mass:17 multiply:2 cross:6 product:8 position:4 velocity:12 eric:1 weisstein:1 world:1 physic:4 system:12 sum:3 within:1 conservation:9 britannica:1 online:2 encyclopedia:1 important:2 conserved:2 isolated:1 stay:1 constant:7 unless:2 external:4 torque:11 act:4 rotational:5 symmetry:5 space:6 noether:5 theorem:4 explain:3 many:2 phenomenon:2 find:3 nature:2 numerous:1 application:2 engineering:1 classical:4 mechanic:8 relationship:1 force:7 f:1 τ:1 p:11 l:7 rotating:2 definition:7 also:7 know:5 moment:6 give:6 define:5 relative:2 linear:1 see:3 derived:1 si:1 unit:3 newton:2 metre:1 second:4 n:1 kg:1 joule:1 pseudovector:2 perpendicular:2 radial:1 r:7 assign:1 sign:4 right:1 hand:1 rule:1 collection:3 consist:1 several:1 total:9 obtain:4 add:1 integrate:1 constituent:1 calculate:1 square:2 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6,737 | Full_disclosure | Full disclosure may refer to: Full disclosure, a policy in computer security A feature of the scientific method Full disclosure (law), a legal term Full disclosure (journalism), a policy in journalism Full Disclosure (film), a 2001 thriller film Full Disclosure (short film), a 2005 comedy/romance short film "Full Disclosure" (The West Wing), an episode of the TV series The West Wing "Full Disclosure", an episode of the TV series Alias Full Disclosure (novel), a 1978 novel by William Safire "Full Disclosure", a song by Fugazi from their 2001 album The Argument Full Disclosure: Do you really want to be a lawyer, a compilation of essays produced by the American Bar Association | Full_disclosure |@lemmatized full:11 disclosure:11 may:1 refer:1 policy:2 computer:1 security:1 feature:1 scientific:1 method:1 law:1 legal:1 term:1 journalism:2 film:4 thriller:1 short:2 comedy:1 romance:1 west:2 wing:2 episode:2 tv:2 series:2 alias:1 novel:2 william:1 safire:1 song:1 fugazi:1 album:1 argument:1 really:1 want:1 lawyer:1 compilation:1 essay:1 produce:1 american:1 bar:1 association:1 |@bigram william_safire:1 |
6,738 | Politics_of_Iraq | The politics of Iraq takes place in a framework of a more or less federal parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Iraq is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Council of Representatives. Politics of Iraq includes the social relations involving authority or power in Iraq. Before the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, the Ba'ath Party officially ruled. The occupation yielded to an transitional administrative law, which was replaced by a permanent constitution following approval in a referendum held on October 15, 2005. A permanent 275-member Council of Representatives was elected in a general election in December 2005, initiating the formation of a new government. The Prime Minister of Iraq is Nouri al-Maliki, who holds most of the executive authority and appoints the cabinet. The current President of Iraq is Jalal Talabani, who serves largely as a figurehead, with few powers. The vice presidents are Tariq al-Hashimi and Adel Abdul Mehdi, deputy leader of SCIRI, the largest party in the Iraqi National Assembly. Occupation Iraq has been occupied by foreign troops since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, with military forces coming primarily from the United States. Most foreign militaries operate under the umbrella of the Multinational force in Iraq (the MNF–I), authorized under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790 until December 31, 2008. Since 1 January 2009, bi-lateral State of Forces Agreements exist between Iraq and the US and other foreign armed forces. Details about a Status of Forces Agreement between the U.S. and Iraq emerged in mid-October 2008 which included a timetable for withdrawal. It immediately encountered significant opposition over vague withdrawal terms and immunity for U.S. troops. There has also been mention of negotiations for a separate "strategic framework agreement" that would potentially cover "in addition to security, the political, the economic, [and] cultural … relations." Federal government The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as an Islamic, Constitution of Iraq, Section 1, Article 2 democratic, federal parliamentary republic. Constitution of Iraq, Section 1, Article 1] The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Legislative branch The legislative branch is composed of the Council of Representatives and a Federation Council. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 1, Article 48. As at 2009, the Federation Council had not yet come into being. Council of Representatives The Council of Representatives is the main elected body of Iraq. The Constitution defines the "number of members at a ratio of one representative per 100,000 Iraqi persons representing the entire Iraqi people." Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 1, Article 49 The members are elected for terms of 4 years. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 1, Article 56 The council elects the President of Iraq; approves the appointment of the members of the Federal Supreme Court, the Chief Public Prosecutor, and the President of Judicial Oversight Commission on proposal by the Higher Juridical Council; and approves the appointment of the Army Chief of Staff, his assistants and those of the rank of division commanders and above, and the director of the intelligence service, on proposal by the Cabinet. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 1, Article 61 Federation Council The Federation Council will be composed of representatives from the regions and the governorates that are not organized in a region. The council is regulated in law by the Council of Representatives. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 1, Article 65 Executive branch The executive branch is composed of the President / Presidency Council and the Council of Ministers. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 63 President The President of the Republic is the head of state and "safeguards the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, the security of its territories in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution." Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 67 The President is elected by the Council of Representatives by a two-thirds majority, Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 70 and is limited to two four-year terms. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 72 The President ratifies treaties and laws passed by the Council of Representatives, issues pardons on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and performs the "duty of the Higher Command of the armed forces for ceremonial and honorary purposes." Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 70 There also exists a Vice President which shall assume the office of the President in case of his absence or removal. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 72 Presidency Council The Presidency Council is an entity currently operating under the auspices of the "transitional provisions" of the Constitution. According to the Constitution, the Presidency Council functions in the role of the President until one successive term after the Constitution is ratified Constitution of Iraq, Section 6, Chapter 2, Article 138 and a government is seated. Constitution of Iraq, Section 6, Chapter 2, Article 139 The Presidency Council will have the additional power to send legislation back to the Council of Representatives for revision. Council of Ministers The Council of Ministers is composed of the Prime Minister and his cabinet. The President of Iraq names the nominee of the Council of Representatives bloc with the largest number to form the Cabinet. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 76 The Prime Minister is the direct executive authority responsible for the general policy of the State and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, directs the Council of Ministers, and presides over its meetings and has the right to dismiss the Ministers on the consent of the Council of Representatives. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 78 The cabinet is responsible for overseeing their respective ministries, proposing laws, preparing the budget, negotiating and signing international agreements and treaties, and appointing undersecretaries, ambassadors, the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and his assistants, Division Commanders or higher, the Director of the National Intelligence Service, and heads of security institutions. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 2, Article 80 Judicial branch The federal judiciary is composed of the Higher Judicial Council, the Federal Supreme Court, the Court of Cassation, the Public Prosecution Department, the Judiciary Oversight Commission, and other federal courts that are regulated by law. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 3, Article 89 One such court is the Central Criminal Court. Higher Judicial Council The Higher Judicial Council manages and supervises the affairs of the federal judiciary. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 3, Article 91 It oversees the affairs of the various judicial committees, Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 3, Article 90 nominates the Chief Justice and members of the Court of Cassation, the Chief Public Prosecutor, and the Chief Justice of the Judiciary Oversight Commission, and drafts the budget of the judiciary. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 3, Article 91 Central Criminal Court The Central Criminal Court of Iraq is the main criminal court of Iraq. The CCCI is based on an inquisitorial system and consists of two chambers: an investigative court, and a criminal court. Supreme Court The Supreme Court is an independent judicial body that interprets the constitution and determines the constitutionality of laws and regulations. It acts as a final court of appeals, settles disputes amongst or between the federal government and the regions and governorates, municipalities, and local administrations, and settles accusations directed against the President, the Prime Minister and the Ministers. It also ratifies the final results of the general elections for the Council of Representatives. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 3, Article 93 Independent commissions and institutions The High Commission for Human Rights, the Independent High Electoral Commission, and the Commission on Public Integrity are independent commissions subject to monitoring by the Council of Representatives. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 4, Article 102 The Central Bank of Iraq, the Board of Supreme Audit, the Communications and Media Commission, and the Endowment Commission are financially and administratively independent institutions. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 4, Article 103 The Foundation of Martyrs is attached to the Council of Ministers. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 4, Article 104 The Federal Public Service Council regulates the affairs of the federal public service, including appointment and promotion. Constitution of Iraq, Section 3, Chapter 4, Article 107 Local government The basic subdivisions of the country are the autonomous regions and the governates. The last local elections for the governates were held in the 2009 Iraqi governorate elections on 31 January 2009. Governates Iraqi Governates and Districts Iraq is divided into 18 governorates (or muhafazah): <tr>Baghdād (بغداد) Salāh ad-Dīn (صلاح الدين) Diyālā (ديالى) Wāsit (واسط) Maysān (ميسان) Al-Basrah (البصرة) Dhī Qār (ذي قار) Al-Muthannā (المثنى) Al-Qādisiyyah (القادسية)<li>Bābil (بابل) <li>Al-Karbalā' (كربلاء) <li>An-Najaf (النجف) <li>Al-Anbar (الأنبار) <li>Nīnawā (نينوى) <li>Dahūk (دهوك) <li>Arbīl (أربيل) <li>Kirkuk (or At-Ta'mim) (التاميم) <li>As-Sulaymāniyyah (السليمانية) The governorates are further divided into districts (or qadhas). As of 1 September 2008, eleven of the eighteen governorates are under direct Iraqi control: Al-Muthannā, Dhī Qār, An-Najaf, Maysān, Arbīl, As-Sulaymāniyyah, Dahūk, Al-Karbalā', Al-Basrah, Al-Qādisiyyah and Al-Anbar. Seven governorates are controlled by multi-national coalition forces: Baghdād, Salāh ad-Dīn, Diyālā, Wāsit, Bābil, Nīnawā, and Kirkuk (or At-Ta'mim). Autonomous regions The constitution requires that the Council of Representatives enact a law which provides the procedures for forming a new region 6 months from the start of its first session. Constitution of Iraq, Article 114 A law was passed 11 October 2006 by a unanimous vote with only 138 of 275 representatives present, with the remaining representatives boycotting the vote. Legislators from the Iraqi Accord Front, Sadrist Movement and Islamic Virtue Party all opposed the bill. Under the law, a region can be created out of one or more existing governorates or two or more existing regions, and a governorate can also join an existing region to create a new region. A new region can be proposed by one third or more of the council members in each affected governorate plus 500 voters or by one tenth or more voters in each affected governorate. A referendum must then be held within three months, which requires a simple majority in favour to pass. In the event of competing proposals, the multiple proposals are put to a ballot and the proposal with the most supporters is put to the referendum. In the event of an affirmative referendum a Transitional Legislative Assembly is elected for one year, which has the task of writing a constitution for the Region, which is then put to a referendum requiring a simple majority to pass. The President, Prime Minister and Ministers of the region are elected by simple majority, in contrast to the Iraqi Council of Representatives which requires two thirds support. Political parties and elections Iraqi Transitional National Assembly Election, January 2005 On January 30, 2005, the Iraqi people chose representatives for the newly-formed and transitional 275-member Iraqi Transitional National Assembly in legislative elections nationwide. Following the ratification of the constitution of Iraq on October 15, 2005, a general election was called for 15 December to elect a full 4 year term 275-member Council of Representatives of Iraq. The Transitional National Assembly (Majlis al-Watani), had 275 seats, the same number as the Council of Representatives of Iraq, but its members were elected for a mandate of no more that a year. No Ba'ath candidates were allowed to run. In November 2003, the US-managed Coalition Provisional Authority had announced plans to turn over sovereignty to an Iraqi Interim Government by mid-2004. The actual transfer of sovereignty occurred on 28 June 2004. The interim president installed was Sheikh Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer, and the interim prime minister was Iyad Allawi, a man who had been a CIA asset according to former U.S. intelligence officials (New York Times, June 9, 2004). The election was seen by some as a victory for democracy in the Middle East, but that opinion is not shared by all, especially as most of the Arab Sunnis boycotted the vote. Seymour Hersh has reported that there was an effort by the U.S. government to shift funds and other resources to Allawi and that there may have been similar under-the-table dealings by other parties. Although he did not get the most seats in the Transitional Assembly, Allawi's delegation jumped from a projected 3-4% of the vote to 14% of the vote, giving him power in the writing of the Constitution. The Iraqi Transitional Assembly would: Serve as Iraq's national legislature. It has named a Presidency Council, consisting of a President and two Vice Presidents. (By unanimous agreement, the Presidency Council will appoint a Prime Minister and, on his recommendation, cabinet ministers.) Draft Iraq's new constitution. This constitution was presented to the Iraqi people for their approval in a national referendum in October 2005. Under the new constitution, Iraq would elect a permanent government in December 2005 as new legislative elections were held for the Council of Representatives of Iraq. Under the Transitional Administrative Law, signed March 2004, the country's executive branch was led by a three-person presidential council. The election system for the council effectively ensures that all three of Iraq's major ethnic / religious groups are represented. The constitution also includes basic freedoms like freedom of religion, speech, and assembly, and is perceived by some to be more progressive than the U.S. Constitution. Controversially, however, it states that all laws that were in effect on the transfer date cannot be repealed. Furthermore, since the coalition forces are currently working to maintain order and create a stable society under the United Nations, coalition troops can remain in effective control of the country despite the transfer of sovereignty. Since Iraqi forces were then considered not fully trained and equipped to police and secure their country, it was expected that coalition troops will remain until Iraqi forces no longer required their support. On 5 April 2005, the Iraqi Transitional National Assembly appointed Jalal Talabani, a prominent Kurdish leader, President. It also appointed Adel Abdul Mehdi, a Shiite Arab, and Ghazi al-Yawar, the former Interim President and a Sunni Arab, as Vice Presidents. Ibrahim al-Jaafari a Shiite, whose United Iraq Alliance Party won the largest share of the vote, was appointed the new Prime Minister of Iraq. Most power was vested in him. The new government was faced with two major tasks. The first was to attempt to rein in a violent insurgency, which had blighted the country in recent months, killing many Iraqi civilians and officials as well as a number of U.S. troops. (As of mid-2005, approximately 135,000 American troops remained in Iraq with 2,214 U.S. soldiers killed.) The second major task was to re-engage in the writing of a new Iraqi constitution, as outlined above, to replace the Transitional Administrative Law of 2004. After the legislative elections held in December 2005, where 76,4% of registered voters participated, the Iraqi government is considered by 44 international governments to be a legitimate government. According to the U.S. administration, the judiciary in Iraq operates under the primacy of rule of law, so those convicted of war crimes from the former regime of Saddam Hussein will get a open trial, in which their rights will be subjected to due process and be protected by the scrutiny of a free press, the requirements of modern court proceedings. There has however been considerable criticism of criminal justice system presently operating in Iraq. Iraqi Council of Representatives Election, December 2005 December 2005 election results by plurality (not proportional representation, as was used). See also Reconstruction of Iraq Human rights abuses in Iraq Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present References External links Bios of Iraq's Government Officials (as of May 1, 2007) -- An EPIC Resource Who Are Iraq's New Leaders? What Do They Want? U.S. Institute of Peace Special Report, March 2006 BBC Report: Who's Who in Post-Saddam Iraq Iraq Elections newswire Video Seminar on Iraq Coalition Politics: April 20, 2005, sponsored by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security at the University of Illinois. Global Justice Project: Iraq M. Ismail Marcinkowski, Religion and Politics in Iraq. Shiite Clerics between Quietism and Resistance, with a foreword by Professor Hamid Algar of the University of California at Berkeley. Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2004 (ISBN 9971-77-513-1) | Politics_of_Iraq |@lemmatized politics:4 iraq:71 take:1 place:1 framework:2 less:1 federal:13 parliamentary:2 representative:25 democratic:2 republic:3 whereby:1 prime:10 minister:19 head:3 government:18 multi:2 party:7 system:4 executive:7 power:7 exercise:1 legislative:8 vest:2 council:46 include:4 social:1 relation:2 involve:1 authority:4 fall:1 saddam:3 hussein:2 ba:2 ath:2 officially:1 rule:2 occupation:2 yield:1 transitional:12 administrative:3 law:13 replace:2 permanent:3 constitution:47 follow:2 approval:2 referendum:6 hold:6 october:5 member:9 elect:10 general:4 election:15 december:7 initiate:1 formation:1 new:12 nouri:1 al:16 maliki:1 appoint:6 cabinet:6 current:2 president:21 jalal:2 talabani:2 serve:2 largely:1 figurehead:1 vice:4 tariq:1 hashimi:1 adel:2 abdul:2 mehdi:2 deputy:1 leader:3 sciri:1 large:3 iraqi:21 national:9 assembly:9 occupy:1 foreign:3 troop:6 since:4 invasion:2 military:2 force:12 come:2 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foreword:1 professor:1 hamid:1 algar:1 california:1 berkeley:1 singapore:1 pustaka:1 nasional:1 isbn:1 |@bigram prime_minister:10 saddam_hussein:2 ba_ath:2 vice_president:4 judicial_branch:2 legislative_branch:2 supreme_court:4 chief_staff:2 commander_chief:1 court_cassation:2 ad_dīn:2 al_qādisiyyah:2 al_anbar:2 legislative_assembly:1 iraqi_transitional:4 majlis_al:1 registered_voter:1 proportional_representation:1 external_link:1 |
6,739 | Alban_Berg | Bust of Alban Berg at Schiefling, Carinthia, Austria Alban Maria Johannes Berg (February 9, 1885 – December 24, 1935) was an Austrian composer. He was a member of the Second Viennese School with Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern, and produced compositions that combined Mahlerian Romanticism with a personal adaptation of Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. Life and work Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived comfortably until the death of his father in 1900. He was more interested in literature than music as a child and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. In late February or early March 1902 he fathered a child with Marie Scheuchl, a servant girl in the Berg family household. His daughter, Albine, was born on December 4, 1902. Berg had little formal music education before he became a student of Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904. With Schoenberg he studied counterpoint, music theory, and harmony. By 1906, he was studying music full-time; by 1907, he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas. He also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs (Sieben Frühe Lieder), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that year. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Berg's Piano Sonata (Op. 1) (1907–1908); it is one of the most formidable "first" works ever written (Lauder, 1986). Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Berg admired him as a composer and mentor, and they remained close lifelong friends. Berg may have seen the older composer as a father figure, as Berg's father had died when he was only 15. Among Schoenberg's teaching was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a single basic idea; this idea was later known as developing variation. Berg passed this on to his students, one of whom, Theodor Adorno, stated: "The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different". The Piano Sonata is an example—the whole composition is derived from the work's opening quartal gesture and its opening phrase. Berg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. In 1906, Berg met the singer Helene Nahowski, daughter of a wealthy family (said by some to be in fact the illegitimate daughter of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria from his liaison with Anna Nahowski) Georg Markus, Der Kaiser Franz Joseph I.: Bilder und Dokumente; Anna Nahowski and Friedrich Saathen, Anna Nahowski und Kaiser Franz Joseph : Aufzeichnungen / erstmalig herausgegeben und kommentiert von Friedrich Saathen, Böhlau, 1986. ; despite the outward hostility of her family, the two were married on May 3, 1911. In 1913, two of Berg's Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg (1912) were premièred in Vienna, conducted by Schoenberg. Settings of aphoristic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted; the work was not performed in full until 1952 (and its full score remained unpublished until 1966). From 1915 to 1918, Berg served in the Austrian Army and during a period of leave in 1917 he began work on his first opera, Wozzeck. After the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run his Society for Private Musical Performances, which sought to create the ideal environment for the exploration and appreciation of unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeat performances, and the exclusion of professional critics. Three excerpts from Wozzeck were performed in 1924, and this brought Berg his first public success. The opera, which Berg completed in 1922, was not performed in its entirety until December 14, 1925, when Erich Kleiber directed a performance in Berlin. Today Wozzeck is seen as one of Berg's most important works. Berg completed only the first two acts of his later opera, the critically acclaimed Lulu, before he died. Berg's best-known piece is his elegiac Violin Concerto. Like much of his mature work, it employs a personal adaptation of Schoenberg's twelve tone technique that enables the composer to combine frank atonality with passages that use more traditional tonal harmonies; additionally, Berg incorporates quotations from historical tonal music, including a Bach chorale and a Carinthian folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated to Manon, the deceased daughter of architect Walter Gropius and Alma Mahler. Other well known Berg compositions include the Lyric Suite (seemingly a significant influence on the String Quartet No. 3 of Béla Bartók), Three Pieces for Orchestra and the Chamber Concerto for violin, piano and 13 wind instruments. Berg died in Vienna, on Christmas Eve 1935, apparently from blood poisoning caused by an insect bite. He was 50 years old. Douglas Jarman writes in the New Grove: "As the 20th century closed, the 'backward-looking' Berg suddenly came as Perle remarked, to look like its most forward-looking composer." Jarman, Grove Major compositions See also List of compositions by Alban Berg Piano Piano Sonata, Op.1 Kammerkonzert (1925) for piano, violin and 13 wind instruments Chamber String Quartet, Op. 3 Four Pieces for Clarinet and Piano, Op. 5 Lyric Suite Orchestra Three Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6 Violin Concerto Opera Wozzeck, Op. 7 Lulu Vocal Seven Early Songs Four Songs, Op. 2 Five Orchestral Songs on Postcard Texts of Peter Altenberg, Op. 4 Der Wein Schliesse mir die Augen beide Bibliography Analytical writings Adorno, Theodor W. Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Bruhn, Siglind, ed. Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music. New York: Garland Publishing, 1998. Headlam, Dave. The Music of Alban Berg. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. Jarman, Douglas. Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu. Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970). Jarman, Douglas. Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu. Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970). Jarman, Douglas. Lulu: The Sketches. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978). Jarman, Douglas. The Music of Alban Berg. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. Jarman, Douglas. Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?. Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81). Jarman, Douglas. Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu. In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981. Jarman, Douglas. Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure. Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981. Jarman, Douglas. The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu'''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982). Lauder, Robert Neil. Two Early Piano Works of Alban Berg: A Stylistic and Structural Analysis. Thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1986. Perle, George. The Operas of Alban Berg. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Schmalfeldt, Janet. "Berg’s Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1". Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pp. 79-110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Schweizer, Klaus. Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970. Wilkey, Jay Weldon. Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965. Biographical writings Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters. New York: Norton, 1987. Grun, Bernard, ed. Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife. London: Faber and Faber, 1971. Floros, Contantin. Trans. by Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch. Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007. Redlich, H.F. Alban Berg, the Man and His Music. London: John Calder, 1957. Reich, Willi. The life and work of Alban Berg. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982. Monson, Karen. Alban Berg: a biography. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1979. Carner, Mosco. Alban Berg: the man and the work. London: Duckworth, 1975. Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. Alban Berg, the man and his music. London: J. Calder, 1957. Leibowitz, René. Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949. References Douglas Jarman: "Alban Berg", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed April 9, 2007), (subscription access)The Oxford Dictionary of Opera'', by John Warrack and Ewan West (1992), 782 pages, ISBN 0-19-869164-5 See also List of Austrians in music List of Austrians Notes External links The Lied and Art Song Texts Page greated and mantained from Emily Ezust Texts of the Lieder of Berg with translations in various languages. 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6,740 | Barnabas | Saint Barnabas of the first century, born Joseph, was an Early Christian convert, one of the earliest Christian disciples in Jerusalem. Harris names him as a "prominent leader" of the early church in Jerusalem. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Like almost all Christians at the time, see also Jewish Christians, Barnabas was Jewish, specifically a Levite. Termed an apostle, he and Saint Paul undertook missionary journeys together and defended Gentile converts against the demands of stricter church leaders, see also Judaizers. They gained many converts in Antioch (c 43-44) and traveled together making more converts (c 45-47), and participated in the Council of Jerusalem (c 50). Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972 Barnabas and Paul successfully evangelized among the "God-fearing" gentiles who attended synagogues in various Hellenized cities of Anatolia. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. . Barnabas' story appears in Acts of the Apostles, and Paul mentions him in some of his epistles. "Barnabas." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Tertullian named him as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, but this and other attributions are conjecture. "Hebrews, Epistle to the" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Clement of Alexandria ascribed an early Christian epistle to Barnabas (Epistle of Barnabas), but that is highly improbable. "Epistle of Barnabas." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 He is traditionally identified as the founder of the Cypriot Church, martyred at Salamis (AD 61). The feast day of St Barnabas is celebrated on June 11. Some traditions hold that Aristobulus of Britannia, one of the Seventy Disciples, was the brother of Barnabas. Etymologies His Hellenic Jewish parents called him Joseph (although the Byzantine text-type calls him , Iōsēs, 'Joses', a Greek variant of 'Joseph'), but when he sold all his goods and gave the money to the apostles in Jerusalem, they gave him a new name: Barnabas. This name appears to be from the Aramaic , , meaning 'the (son of the) prophet'. However, the Greek text of the explains the name as , hyios paraklēseōs, meaning "son of consolation" or "son of encouragement". Barnabas in the New Testament Barnabas appears mainly in Acts, a Christian history of the early Christian church. He also appears in certain of Saint Paul's epistles. St Barnabas is one of the first teachers of the church at Antioch (Acts 13:1). Like all the apostles, Barnabas was Jewish, a Levite (one of the twelve Israelite tribes, which was assigned the task of serving in the Jewish Temple). His aunt was the mother of John, surnamed Mark (Colossians 4:10), widely assumed to be the same Mark as the person traditionally believed to be the author of the Gospel of Mark. He was a native of Cyprus, where he possessed land (Acts 4:36, 37), which he sold, and gave the proceeds to the church in Jerusalem. When Saint Paul returned to Jerusalem after his conversion, Barnabas took him and introduced him to the apostles (9:27). Easton, in his Bible Dictionary, supposes that they had been fellow students in the school of Rabbi Gamaliel. The prosperity of the church at Antioch led the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem to send Barnabas there to superintend the movement. He found the work so extensive and weighty that he went to Tarsus in search of Paul to assist him. St Paul returned with him to Antioch and labored with him for a whole year (Acts 11:25, 26). At the end of this period, the two were sent up to Jerusalem (AD 44) with the contributions the church at Antioch had made for the poorer members of the Jerusalem church (11:28-30). Shortly after they returned, bringing John Mark with them, they were appointed as missionaries to Asia Minor, and in this capacity visited Cyprus and some of the principal cities of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia (Acts 13:14). With the conversion of Sergius Paulus, Paul begins to gain prominence over Barnabas from the point where the name "Paul," his Roman name, is substituted for "Saul" (13:9); instead of "Barnabas and Saul" as heretofore (11:30; 12:25; 13:2, 7) we now read "Paul and Barnabas" (13:43, 46, 50; 14:20; 15:2, 22, 35); only in 14:14 and 15:12, 25 does Barnabas again occupy the first place, in the first passage with recollection of 14:12, in the last two, because Barnabas stood in closer relation to the Jerusalem church than Paul. St. Paul appears as the preaching missionary (13:16; 14:8-9, 19-20), whence the Lystrans regarded him as Hermes, St. Barnabas as Zeus http://www.covenantseminary.edu/worldwide/en/CC310/CC310_T_14.html Note that the King James version uses Jupiter instead of Zeus (14:12). Returning from this first missionary journey to Antioch, they were again sent up to Jerusalem to consult with the church there regarding the relation of Gentiles to the church (Acts 15:2; Galatians 2:1). According to Gal. 2:9-10, Barnabas was included with Paul in the agreement made between them, on the one hand, and James, St. Peter, and St. John, on the other, that the two former should in the future preach to the pagans, not forgetting the poor at Jerusalem. This matter having been settled, they returned again to Antioch, bringing the agreement of the council that Gentiles were to be admitted into the church. Having returned to Antioch and spent some time there (15:35), St Paul asked Barnabas to accompany him on another journey (15:36). Barnabas wished to take John Mark along, but Paul did not, as he had left them on the former journey (15:37-38). The dispute ended by Paul and Barnabas taking separate routes. Paul took Silas as his companion, and journeyed through Syria and Cilicia; while Barnabas took his younger cousin, John Mark, to visit Cyprus (15:36-41). St Barnabas is not mentioned again by St. Luke in the Acts of the Apostles. However, in Gal. 2:13 a little more is learned about him, and his weakness under the taunts of the Jewish Christians is evident; and from 1 Corinthians 9:6 it may be gathered that he continued to labor as missionary. Barnabas and Antioch Antioch, the third-most important city of the Roman Empire, Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Antioch then the capital city of Syria province, today Antakya, Turkey, was where Christians were first called thus. It was indeed the site of an early Christian community, traditionally said to be founded by Peter . A considerable minority of the Antioch church of Barnabas's time belonged to the merchant class, and they provided support to the poorer Jerusalem church. Council of Jerusalem Barnabas participated in the Council of Jerusalem, which dealt with the admission of gentiles into the Christian community. This was the most crucial problem in the history of Christianity. Paul and Barnabas proposed that gentiles be allowed into the community without being circumcized. Martyrdom Church tradition describes the martyrdom of many saints. Barnabas's martyrdom is legend. It relates that certain Jews coming to Syria and Salamis, where Barnabas was then preaching the gospel, being highly exasperated at his extraordinary success, fell upon him as he was disputing in the synagogue, dragged him out, and, after the most inhumane tortures, stoned him to death. His kinsman, John Mark, who was a spectator of this barbarous action, privately interred his body in a cave, where it remained until the time of the Emperor Zeno, in the year 485 AD. "The Life of our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: And the Lives and Sufferings of His Holy Evangelists and Apostles," p.455, 1857 AD, Miller, Orton & Co., 25 Park Row, New York. A monastery built in his name at Salamis, Cyprus, is where a tomb reputed to hold his remains was found in the year 488. Encyclopedia Britannica, micropedia vol. 2, p.903. Chicago:Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 0-85229-633-0. He is venerated as the Patron Saint of Cyprus. Other sources Other sources bring St Barnabas to Rome and Alexandria. In the "Clementine Recognitions" (i, 7) he is depicted as preaching in Rome even during Christ's lifetime, and Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, ii, 20) makes him one of the Seventy Disciples that are mentioned in the Gospel of Luke. Not older than the 3rd century is the tradition of the later activity and martyrdom of St Barnabas in Cyprus, where his remains are said to have been discovered under the Emperor Zeno. The Cypriot Church claimed Saint Barnabas as its founder in order to rid itself of the supremacy of the Patriarch of Antioch, as did the Archbishop of Milan afterwards, to become more independent of Rome. Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Barnabas In this connection, the question whether St. Barnabas was an apostle became important, and was often discussed during the Middle Ages Compare C. J. Hefele, Das Sendschreiben des Apostels Barnabas, Tübingen, 1840; O. Braunsberger, "Der Apostel Barnabas," Mainz, 1876. . The statements as to the year of St Barnabas's death are discrepant and untrustworthy. Alleged writings Tertullian and other Western writers regard Barnabas as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. This may have been the Roman tradition -- which Tertullian usually follows -- and in Rome the epistle may have had its first readers. But the tradition has weighty considerations against it. According to Photius (Quaest. in Amphil., 123), Barnabas wrote the Acts of the Apostles. (Current consensus ascribes the book to the author of Luke.) He is also traditionally associated with the Epistle of Barnabas, although modern scholars think it more likely that that epistle was written in Alexandria in the 130s. The sixth century Decretum Gelasianum includes a Gospel of Barnabas amongst works condemned as apocryphal; but no certain text or quotation from this work has been identified. Another book using that same title, the "Gospel of Barnabas," survives in two post-medieval manuscripts in Italian and Spanish Compare T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, ii, 292, Leipsig, 1890. . Contrary to the canonical Christian Gospels, and in accordance with the Islamic view of Jesus, this later "Gospel of Barnabas" states that Jesus was not the son of God, but a prophet, and calls Paul "the deceived." The book also says Jesus rose alive into Heaven without having been crucified, and that Judas Iscariot was crucified in his place. Allegedly also it mentions by name the Comforter, as Mohammad. http://numerical19.tripod.com/muhammad_in_barnabas.htm This discord between Paul and Barnabas would be unlikely, according to the author of the Acts of the Apostles, whether Doctor Luke or Saint Barnabas, mentions several times the comradery between Paul and Barnabas. Literature: Epistle of Barnabas Die Apostolischen Väter. Griechisch-deutsche Parallelausgabe. J.C.B. Mohr Tübingen 1992. ISBN 3-16-145887-7 Der Barnabasbrief. Übersetzt und erklärt von Ferdinand R. Prostmeier. Series: Kommentar zu den Apostolischen Vätern (KAV, Vol. 8). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: Göttingen 1999. ISBN 3-525-51683-5 Notes References Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. "The Penguin Dictionary of Saints," 3rd edition, New York: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0140513124. External links Biography of St Barnabas Gospel of Barnabas Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Barnabas The Ecole Glossary about Barnabas The Epistle of Barnabas St. Barnabas the Apostle Catholic Encyclopedia: The Epistle of Barnabas Jewish Encyclopedia: Barnabas Parish of St Barnabas in Tunbridge Wells, England, UK Barnabas Community Church, Shrewsbury, England, UK Cyprus44, the North Cyprus Guide: St Barnabas Monastery and Icon Museum | Barnabas |@lemmatized saint:9 barnabas:64 first:7 century:3 bear:1 joseph:3 early:6 christian:16 convert:4 one:6 disciple:2 jerusalem:15 harris:3 names:1 prominent:1 leader:2 church:22 stephen:2 l:6 understand:2 bible:3 palo:2 alto:2 mayfield:2 like:2 almost:1 time:5 see:2 also:6 jewish:7 specifically:1 levite:2 term:1 apostle:12 paul:21 undertook:1 missionary:5 journey:5 together:2 defend:1 gentile:6 demand:1 stricter:1 judaizers:1 gain:2 many:2 antioch:13 c:5 travel:1 make:4 participate:2 council:4 durant:1 caesar:1 christ:3 new:9 york:7 simon:1 schuster:1 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6,741 | Politics_of_Finland | Politics of Finland takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic and of a multi-party system. The President of Finland is the head of state, leads the foreign policy, and is the Commander-in-Chief of the Defense Forces. The Prime Minister of Finland is the head of government; executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Finland, and the government has limited rights to amend or extend legislation. The president has the power of veto over parliamentary decisions although it can be overrun by the parliament. Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Judiciary consists of two systems, regular courts and administrative courts, headed by the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court, respectively. Administrative courts process cases where official decisions are contested. There is no "Constitutional Court", i.e. the constitutionality of a law cannot be contested. Though Finland has a primarily parliamentary system, the president has some notable powers. The foreign policy is led by the president, "in co-operation" with the cabinet, and the same applies to matters concerning national security. The main executive power lies in the cabinet headed by the prime minister. Before the constitutional rewrite, which was completed in 2000, the president enjoyed more power. Finns enjoy individual and political freedoms, and suffrage is universal at 18; Finland was the first country to give full eligibility to women. The country's population is ethnically homogeneous with no sizable immigrant population. Few tensions exist between the Finnish-speaking majority and the Swedish-speaking minority, although in certain circles there is an unending debate about the status of the Swedish language. According to Transparency International, Finland has had the lowest level of corruption in all the countries studied in their survey for the last several years. The labor agreements also pose significant political questions. Bargaining is highly centralized and often the government participates to coordinate fiscal policy. Finland has universal validity of collective labour agreements and often, but not always, the trade unions, employers and the government reach a Comprehensive Income Policy Agreement. Significant trade unions are SAK, STTK, AKAVA and EK. Constitution The Constitution was rewritten on March 1, 2000 after first being adopted in July 17 1919. The former constitution consisted of four constitutional laws and several amendments, which the new constitution replaces. The civil law system is based on Swedish law. The Supreme Court or korkein oikeus may request legistlation that interprets or modifies existing laws. Judges are appointed by the president. The constitution of Finland and its place in the judicial system are unusual in that there is no constitutional court and the supreme court does not have an explicit right to declare a law unconstitutional. In principle, the constitutionality of laws in Finland is verified by a simple vote in the parliament (see Parliamentary sovereignty). However, the Constitutional Law Committee of the parliament reviews any doubtful bills and recommends changes, if needed. In practice, the Constitutional Law Committee fulfils the duties of a constitutional court. A Finnish peculiarity is the possibility of making exceptions to the constitution in ordinary laws that are enacted in the same procedure as constitutional amendments. An example of such a law is the State of Preparedness Act which gives the Council of State certain exceptional powers in cases of national emergency. As these powers, which correspond to US executive orders, affect constitutional basic rights, the law was enacted in the same manner as a constitutional amendment. However, it can be repealed in the same manner as an ordinary law. In addition to preview by the Constitutional Law Committee, all Finnish courts of law have the obligation to give precedence to the constitution when there is an obvious conflict between the constitution and a regular law. That is, however, very rare. Executive branch Finland has a semi-presidential system with Parliamentarism. The President of Finland is formally responsible for foreign policy. Most executive power lies in the cabinet (the Finnish Council of State) headed by the prime minister. Responsibility for forming the cabinet out of several political parties and negotiating its platform is granted to the leader of the party gaining largest support in the elections for the parliament. This person also becomes prime minister of the cabinet. Any minister and the cabinet as a whole however must have continuing trust of the parliament and may be voted out, resign or be replaced. The Council of State is made up of the prime minister and the ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex-officio member, the Chancellor of Justice. In the official usage, the "cabinet" (valtioneuvosto) are the ministers including the prime minister and the Chancellor of Justice, while the "government" (hallitus) is the cabinet presided by the president. In the popular usage, hallitus (with the president) may also refer to valtioneuvosto (without the president). President Main article: President of Finland Elected for a six year term, the president: Handles Finland's foreign affairs in cooperation with the Cabinet, except for certain international agreements and decisions of peace or , which must be submitted to the parliament Is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces; Has some decree and appointive powers Approves laws, and may call extraordinary parliamentary sessions Formally appoints the Prime Minister of Finland selected by the Parliament, and formally appoints the rest of the cabinet (Council of State) as proposed by the Prime Minister Council of State Main article: Cabinet of Finland The Council of State is made up of the prime minister and ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex-officio member, the Chancellor of Justice. Ministers are not obliged to be members of the Eduskunta (parliament) and need not be formally identified with any political party. The president, after hearing the parliament, nominates a prime minister candidate for the parliament to approve in a vote. The prime minister chooses the rest of the cabinet, which is formally appointed by the president. Responsibility in the European Union There is currently an ongoing controversy as to whether the president or the prime minister is the primary representative of Finland to the EU. The 2000 rewrite of the constitution did not address this problem. Implicitly it places EU matters under domestic policy and therefore in the prime ministers domain. At the same time, discourse with other leaders of state constitutes exercising of foreign policy, which is the president's responsibility. An amendment has recently been made to the constitution to demarcate at least the responsibility for EU military operations, which are unambiguously matters of national security and foreign policy. Nevertheless, a full demarcation has not been done. It has been questioned whether President Tarja Halonen represented only Finland or the entire EU when she met with President of Russia Vladimir Putin. Parliament The 200-member unicameral Parliament of Finland is called the Eduskunta (Finnish) or Riksdag (Swedish). It is the supreme legislative authority in Finland. The parliament may alter the Constitution of Finland, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes. Its acts are not subject to judicial review. Legislation may be initiated by the Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta members, who are elected for a four-year term on the basis of proportional representation through open list multi-member districts. Persons 18 or older, except military personnel on active duty and a few high judicial officials, are eligible for election. The regular parliamentary term is four years; however, the president may dissolve the eduskunta and order new elections at the request of the prime minister and after consulting the speaker of parliament. The parliament has, since equal and common suffrage was introduced in 1906, been dominated by secular Conservatives, the Centre Party (former Agrarian Union), and Social Democrats. Nevertheless, none of these has held a single-party majority, with the notable exception of 1916 elections where Social Democrats gained 103 of the 200 seats. After 1944 Communists were a factor to consider for a few decades, and the Finnish People's Democratic League, formed by Communists and others to the left of Social Democrats, even was the largest party after 1958 elections. Support for Communists decreased sharply in the early 1980s, while later on the same decade environmentalists formed the Green League, which is now a medium-sized party. The Swedish People's Party represents Finland-Swedes, especially in language politics. The relative strengths of the parties vary only slightly in the elections due to the proportional election from multi-member districts but there are some visible long-term trends. Political parties and elections Finland's proportional representation system encourages a multitude of political parties and has resulted in many coalition-cabinets. Formerly the life expectancy of the coalition governments has been short, but since about 1980 the trend has been that the same coalition rules for the whole period between elections. Finland elects on national level a head of state - the president - and a legislature. The president is elected for a six year term by the people. The Diet (eduskunta/Riksdag) has 200 members, elected for a four year term by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies. Finland has a multi-party system, with three strong parties, in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments. In addition to the presidential and parliamentary elections, there are European Parliament elections every five years, and local municipal elections (held simultaneously in every municipality) every four years. Judicial system The judicial system of Finland is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with responsibility for litigation between the individuals and the administrative organs of the state and the communities. Their jurisdiction can be illustrated with an example: Parents unsatisfied with the school placement of their child would appeal against the board of education in an administrative court as the school placement is subject to an administrative decision. Finnish law is codified and its court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the Supreme Court. The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the Supreme Administrative Court. The administrative process has more popularity as it is cheaper and has lower financial risk to the person making claims. In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration. There is also a High Court of Impeachment for criminal charges (for an offence in office) against the President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme courts, members of the Council of State, the Chancellor of Justice and the Ombudsman of Parliament. Although there is no writ of habeas corpus or bail, the maximum period of pre-trial detention has been reduced to four days. For further detention, a court must order the imprisonment. One does not have the right for one phonecall: the police officer leading the investigation may inform relatives or similar if the investigation permits. However, a lawyer can be invited. Search warrants are not strictly needed, and are usually issued by a police officer. Wiretapping does need a court order. Administrative divisions Finland is divided into democratically independent municipalities. A municipality can call itself either a "city" or "municipality". A municipality is governed by a municipal council (or city council) elected by proportional representation once every four years. Most of the tax burden, namely two thirds, is levied by the municipalities. Democratic decision making takes place on either the municipal or national level with few exceptions. Municipalities co-operate in subregions and regions. Moreover, the capital zone has a Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council (YTV, Pääkaupunkiseudun yhteistyövaltuuskunta). The state organization is divided into six provinces. The 5 mainland provinces are administered by provincial boards composed of civil servants, each headed by a presidentially appointed governor. The boards are responsible to the Ministry of the Interior and play a supervisory and coordinating role within the provinces. The island province of Åland is located near the 60th parallel between Sweden and Finland. It enjoys local autonomy by virtue of an international convention of 1921, implemented most recently by the Act on Åland Self-Government of 1951. The islands are further distinguished by the fact that they are entirely Swedish-speaking. Government is vested in the provincial council, which consists of 30 delegates elected directly by Åland's citizens. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Finland After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland freed itself from the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947. The Finnish-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance (and the restrictions included therein) was annulled but Finland recognised the Russian Federation as the successor of the USSR and was quick to draft bilateral treaties of goodwill as well as reallocating Soviet debts. Finland deepened her participation in the European integration by joining the European Union with Sweden and Austria in 1995. It could be perhaps said that the country's policy of neutrality has been moderated to "military non-alignment" with an emphasis on maintaining a competent independent defence. Peacekeeping under the auspices of the United Nations is the only real extra-national military responsibility which Finland undertakes. 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factbook:1 |@bigram commander_chief:2 prime_minister:14 judiciary_independent:1 supreme_court:5 ethnically_homogeneous:1 constitutional_amendment:2 ex_officio:2 foreign_affair:1 tarja_halonen:1 vladimir_putin:1 unicameral_parliament:1 proportional_representation:4 life_expectancy:1 seat_constituency:1 appellate_court:1 writ_habeas:1 habeas_corpus:1 tax_burden:1 decision_making:1 head_presidentially:1 presidentially_appoint:1 soviet_union:1 bilateral_treaty:1 external_link:1 |
6,742 | Lateral_pass | In American football a lateral pass or lateral, officially referred to as a backward pass, and an "onside pass" in Canadian football; is a sideways or rearward throwing of the football. The pass cannot itself advance the ball, though of course the receiver can advance after catching it. This is distinguished from a forward pass, which moves the ball in the direction of the opponent's end zone. Restrictions As opposed to a forward pass, which can only be thrown by the team on offense from within or behind the neutral zone, there are no restrictions on the use of backward passes; any player may throw a backward pass from any position on the field, and any player may receive such a pass. If a backward pass is completed, and the receiver has not crossed the line of scrimmage, the receiver may in turn throw a forward pass, though only one forward pass is allowed per down. NFL Rules Digest: Forward Pass, NFL.com. Moreover, any number of backward passes may be thrown on a single play, and after a turnover, the team recovering the ball may throw backward passes freely in an attempt to advance the ball, but cannot attempt any forward passes. Differences Unlike a forward pass, if a backward pass hits the ground or an official, play continues. Like a fumble, a backward pass that has hit the ground may be recovered and advanced by either team. NFL Rules Digest: Backward Pass, NFL.com. Alternate uses The oxymoron "forward lateral" is used to describe an attempted "lateral" (backward pass) that actually goes forward. A variant, the hook and lateral, where a forward pass is immediately passed backward to a second receiver to fool the defense, is used on occasion. In college football, the backward pass is used more extensively than in professional football, more in the same manner as is done in the two different sports of rugby union and rugby league. Famous plays in history The lateral pass rule, or rather the lack of restrictions contained therein, has given rise to some of the most memorable and incredible plays in professional football history. Both collegiate and NFL football have certain examples of football lore which involve laterals. One famous college play involving the backward passes is simply known as The Play. In the 1982 Big Game between Stanford and University of California, Berkeley (also known as California or Cal), with four seconds left and trailing by one point, Cal ran the ball back on a kickoff all the way for the game-winning touchdown using five backward passes, eventually running through the Stanford Band who had already taken the field (assuming that the game was already over). A well-known NFL lateral pass occurred during the Music City Miracle play at the end of the 2000 playoff game between the Tennessee Titans and the Buffalo Bills. Another well known backward pass in the NFL was the River City Relay in a game between the New Orleans Saints and the Jacksonville Jaguars. With time winding down the Saints threw backward passes and brought it all the way down the field for a touchdown, but kicker John Carney missed the potentially game-tying extra point for the Saints, so the Saints lost 20–19. In a Division III college football game on October 27 2007, Trinity University was trailing by two points with two seconds left in a game against conference rival Millsaps College. Starting from their own 40-yard line, Trinity called a play for a short pass across the middle. The receiver pitched the ball backward, with a sequence of additional backward passes as players were in danger of being tackled. The "Mississippi Miracle" ultimately included 15 backward passes as it covered 60 yards for the winning touchdown. References | Lateral_pass |@lemmatized american:1 football:9 lateral:8 pas:23 officially:1 refer:1 backward:19 onside:1 canadian:1 sideways:1 rearward:1 throwing:1 cannot:2 advance:4 ball:6 though:2 course:1 receiver:5 catch:1 distinguish:1 forward:10 move:1 direction:1 opponent:1 end:2 zone:2 restriction:3 oppose:1 throw:6 team:3 offense:1 within:1 behind:1 neutral:1 use:6 pass:10 player:3 may:6 position:1 field:3 receive:1 complete:1 cross:1 line:2 scrimmage:1 turn:1 one:3 allow:1 per:1 nfl:7 rule:3 digest:2 com:2 moreover:1 number:1 single:1 play:8 turnover:1 recover:2 freely:1 attempt:2 difference:1 unlike:1 hit:2 ground:2 official:1 continue:1 like:1 fumble:1 either:1 alternate:1 oxymoron:1 describe:1 attempted:1 actually:1 go:1 variant:1 hook:1 immediately:1 second:3 fool:1 defense:1 occasion:1 college:4 extensively:1 professional:2 manner:1 two:3 different:1 sport:1 rugby:2 union:1 league:1 famous:2 history:2 rather:1 lack:1 contain:1 therein:1 give:1 rise:1 memorable:1 incredible:1 collegiate:1 certain:1 example:1 lore:1 involve:2 simply:1 know:4 big:1 game:8 stanford:2 university:2 california:2 berkeley:1 also:1 cal:2 four:1 left:1 trail:2 point:3 run:2 back:1 kickoff:1 way:2 win:2 touchdown:3 five:1 eventually:1 band:1 already:2 take:1 assume:1 well:2 occur:1 music:1 city:2 miracle:2 playoff:1 tennessee:1 titan:1 buffalo:1 bill:1 another:1 river:1 relay:1 new:1 orleans:1 saint:4 jacksonville:1 jaguar:1 time:1 wind:1 bring:1 kicker:1 john:1 carney:1 miss:1 potentially:1 tie:1 extra:1 lose:1 division:1 iii:1 october:1 trinity:2 leave:1 conference:1 rival:1 millsaps:1 start:1 yard:2 call:1 short:1 across:1 middle:1 pitch:1 sequence:1 additional:1 danger:1 tackle:1 mississippi:1 ultimately:1 include:1 cover:1 reference:1 |@bigram backward_pas:9 forward_pas:7 line_scrimmage:1 rugby_union:1 tennessee_titan:1 jacksonville_jaguar:1 |
6,743 | Chalmers_University_of_Technology | Chalmers University of Technology (, abbreviated CTH, often shortened to Chalmers), is a university in Gothenburg, Sweden, that focuses on research and education in technology, natural science and architecture. The THES (2005) ranking classified it as the top university in Sweden and among the top research schools in Europe. However, by the ranking of 2008 it has fallen to a number 3 position in Sweden. The University has very strong Environmental Science, Nanotechnology, IT, Bioengineering, Industrial Design, Management and Architecture departments. History The University was founded in 1829 following a donation by William Chalmers, a director of the Swedish East India Company, whose ships sailed across the world to supply Europe with goods from the East. He donated some of his fortune for the establishment of an “industrial school”. Chalmers was run as a private institution until 1937, when the institute became a state owned university. In 1994, the school once again became a private institution, owned by a foundation. Chalmers is the only university in Sweden named after a person. Departments On January 1, 2005, the old schools were replaced by new departments: Applied Mechanics Applied Physics Architecture Chemical and Biological Engineering Civil and Environmental Engineering Computer Science and Engineering Energy and Environment Fundamental Physics Materials and Manufacturing Technology Mathematical Sciences Microtechnology and Nanoscience Product and Production Development Radio and Space Science Shipping and Marine Technology Signals and Systems Technology Management and Economics Woodshop In addition to these, Chalmers is home to six national competence centres in key fields like Mathematical Modelling, Environmental Science and Vehicle Safety (SAFER). Students Approximately 40 per cent of Sweden’s graduate engineers and architects are educated at Chalmers. Each year around 250 post graduate degrees are awarded as well as 850 graduate degrees. About 1,000 post-graduate students attend programmes at the university and many students are taking Master of Science engineering programmes and the Master of Architecture programme. From the year 2007 all Master's programmes are taught in English for both national and international students. This was a result of the adaption to the Bologna process that started in 2004 at Chalmers (as the first technical university in Sweden). Currently about 10% of all students at Chalmers come from countries outside Sweden to enroll in a Master's or Ph.D. programme. List of International Masters Programmes at Chalmers Around 2,700 students also attend Bachelor of Science engineering programmes, merchant marine and other undergraduate courses at Campus Lindholmen. Chalmers also shares some students with Gothenburg University in the joint IT University project. The IT University focuses exclusively on information technology and offers Bachelor and Master programmes with degrees issued from either Chalmers or Gothenburg University, depending on the programme. Chalmers confers honorary doctoral degrees to people outside the university who have shown great merit in their research or in society. Organisation Chalmers is an aktiebolag with 100 shares à 1000 SEK Statues of Chalmers University of Technology Foundation, paragraph 3 (this is a translation of the swedish text.) , all of which is owned by a private foundation (Chalmers University of Technology Foundation) which appoints the university board and the president. The foundation has its members appointed by the Swedish government (4 to 8 seats), the departments appoints one member, the student union appoints one member and the president automatically gains one chair. Statues of Chalmers University of Technology Foundation, paragraph 5 Each department is led by a department head, usually a member of the faculty of that department. The faculty senate represents members of the faculty when decisions are taken. Faculty Campuses the gate of Chalmers(Gibraltar Campus) In 1937, the school moved from the city center to the new Gibraltar Campus, named after the mansion which owned the grounds, where it is now located. The Lindholmen College Campus was created in the early 1990s and is located on the island of Hisingen. Both campuses are connected by bus line number 16, but there have been numerous complaints that the campuses are too isolated from each other. Societies and traditions In Chalmers tradition is taken very seriously. From the pompous graduation ceremony to the for-fun Cortège procession everything is based on long-standing traditions. Chalmers Students' Union Chalmers Aerospace Club - founded in 1981. In Swedish frequently also referred to as Chalmers rymdgrupp (roughly Chalmers Space Group). CAC participated in the ESA funded CACTEX experiment where the thermal conductivity of alcohol at zero gravity was investigated using a sounding rocket. Chalmers Ballong Corps Chalmers Computer Society CETAC Chalmers Choir Chalmersspexet - Amateur theater group which has produced new plays since 1948 The Cortège Chalmers International Reception Committee (CIRC) XP Chalmers Program Committee - PU Chalmers Students for Sustainability - CSS promoting sustainable development among the students and runs projects, campaigns and lectures. Ties and Partnerships Chalmers has partnerships with major industries mostly in the Gothenburg region such as Ericsson, Volvo and SKF. The University has general exchange agreements with many European and US universities and maintains a special exchange program agreement with National Chiao Tung University (NCTU) in Taiwan where the exchange students from the two universities maintains offices for, among other things, helping local students with applying and preparing for an exchange year as well as acting as representatives (NCTU Europe - NCTU students at Chalmers, Chalmers Asia - Chalmers students at NCTU). It contributes also to the Top Industrial Managers for Europe (TIME) network. A close collaboration between the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Chalmers and ICVR at ETH Zurich is being established. Notable alumni Abraham Langlet, chemist Gustaf Dalén, Nobel Prize Laureate Leif Johansson, CEO Volvo Leif Östling, CEO Scania AB Peter Augustsson, CEO Saab Automobile Sigfrid Edström, director ASEA, president IOC Carl Abraham Pihl, engineer and director of first Norwegian railroad (Hovedbanen). Gert Wingårdh, architect Peter Nordin, computer scientist and entrepreneur Rectors (Presidents) Although the official Swedish title for the head is “rektor”, the university now uses “President” as the English translation. 1829-1852 Carl Palmstedt 1852-1881 Eduard von Schoultz 1881-1913 August Wijkander 1913-1933 Hugo Grauers 1934-1943 Sven Hultin 1943-1958 Gustav Hössjer 1958-1966 Lennart Rönnmark 1966-1974 Nils Gralén <tr> 1974-1989 Sven Olving 1989-1998 Anders Sjöberg 1998-2006 Jan-Eric Sundgren 2006- Karin Markides See also University of Gothenburg (Göteborg University) IT University of Göteborg List of universities in Sweden External links Chalmers University of Technology - Official site Chalmers Student Union Chalmers Alumni Association Chalmers International Reception Committee References | Chalmers_University_of_Technology |@lemmatized chalmers:38 university:28 technology:10 abbreviate:1 cth:1 often:1 shorten:1 gothenburg:5 sweden:8 focus:2 research:3 education:1 natural:1 science:9 architecture:4 thes:1 rank:1 classify:1 top:3 among:3 school:5 europe:4 however:1 ranking:1 fall:1 number:2 position:1 strong:1 environmental:3 nanotechnology:1 bioengineering:1 industrial:3 design:1 management:2 department:8 history:1 found:2 follow:1 donation:1 william:1 director:3 swedish:5 east:2 india:1 company:1 whose:1 ship:1 sail:1 across:1 world:1 supply:1 good:1 donate:1 fortune:1 establishment:1 run:2 private:3 institution:2 institute:1 become:2 state:1 foundation:6 name:2 person:1 january:1 old:1 replace:1 new:3 apply:1 mechanic:1 applied:1 physic:2 chemical:1 biological:1 engineering:6 civil:1 computer:4 energy:1 environment:1 fundamental:1 material:1 manufacture:1 mathematical:2 microtechnology:1 nanoscience:1 product:1 production:1 development:2 radio:1 space:2 shipping:1 marine:2 signal:1 system:1 economics:1 woodshop:1 addition:1 home:1 six:1 national:3 competence:1 centre:1 key:1 field:1 like:1 modelling:1 vehicle:1 safety:1 safer:1 student:16 approximately:1 per:1 cent:1 graduate:4 engineer:2 architect:2 educate:1 year:3 around:2 post:2 degree:4 award:1 well:2 attend:2 programme:9 many:2 take:3 master:6 teach:1 english:2 international:4 result:1 adaption:1 bologna:1 process:1 start:1 first:2 technical:1 currently:1 come:1 country:1 outside:2 enroll:1 ph:1 list:2 also:5 bachelor:2 merchant:1 undergraduate:1 course:1 campus:6 lindholmen:2 share:2 joint:1 project:2 exclusively:1 information:1 offer:1 issue:1 either:1 depend:1 confers:1 honorary:1 doctoral:1 people:1 show:1 great:1 merit:1 society:3 organisation:1 aktiebolag:1 à:1 sek:1 statue:2 paragraph:2 translation:2 text:1 appoint:3 board:1 president:5 member:5 government:1 seat:1 one:3 union:3 appoints:1 automatically:1 gain:1 chair:1 lead:1 head:2 usually:1 faculty:4 senate:1 represent:1 decision:1 campuses:1 gate:1 gibraltar:2 move:1 city:1 center:1 mansion:1 ground:1 locate:2 college:1 create:1 early:1 island:1 hisingen:1 connect:1 bus:1 line:1 numerous:1 complaint:1 isolated:1 tradition:3 seriously:1 pompous:1 graduation:1 ceremony:1 fun:1 cortège:2 procession:1 everything:1 base:1 long:1 standing:1 aerospace:1 club:1 frequently:1 refer:1 rymdgrupp:1 roughly:1 group:2 cac:1 participate:1 esa:1 fund:1 cactex:1 experiment:1 thermal:1 conductivity:1 alcohol:1 zero:1 gravity:1 investigate:1 use:2 sounding:1 rocket:1 ballong:1 corp:1 cetac:1 choir:1 chalmersspexet:1 amateur:1 theater:1 produce:1 play:1 since:1 reception:2 committee:3 circ:1 xp:1 program:2 pu:1 sustainability:1 cs:1 promote:1 sustainable:1 campaign:1 lecture:1 tie:1 partnership:2 major:1 industry:1 mostly:1 region:1 ericsson:1 volvo:2 skf:1 general:1 exchange:4 agreement:2 european:1 u:1 maintain:2 special:1 chiao:1 tung:1 nctu:4 taiwan:1 two:1 office:1 thing:1 help:1 local:1 applying:1 preparing:1 act:1 representative:1 asia:1 contribute:1 manager:1 time:1 network:1 close:1 collaboration:1 icvr:1 eth:1 zurich:1 establish:1 notable:1 alumnus:1 abraham:2 langlet:1 chemist:1 gustaf:1 dalén:1 nobel:1 prize:1 laureate:1 leif:2 johansson:1 ceo:3 östling:1 scania:1 ab:1 peter:2 augustsson:1 saab:1 automobile:1 sigfrid:1 edström:1 asea:1 ioc:1 carl:2 pihl:1 norwegian:1 railroad:1 hovedbanen:1 gert:1 wingårdh:1 nordin:1 scientist:1 entrepreneur:1 rector:1 although:1 official:2 title:1 rektor:1 palmstedt:1 eduard:1 von:1 schoultz:1 august:1 wijkander:1 hugo:1 grauers:1 sven:2 hultin:1 gustav:1 hössjer:1 lennart:1 rönnmark:1 nil:1 gralén:1 tr:1 olving:1 anders:1 sjöberg:1 jan:1 eric:1 sundgren:1 karin:1 markides:1 see:1 göteborg:2 external:1 link:1 site:1 alumni:1 association:1 reference:1 |@bigram gothenburg_sweden:1 mathematical_modelling:1 per_cent:1 merchant_marine:1 doctoral_degree:1 graduation_ceremony:1 thermal_conductivity:1 eth_zurich:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_laureate:1 eduard_von:1 external_link:1 |
6,744 | Detective_fiction | Detective fiction is a branch of crime fiction in which a detective (or detectives), either professional or amateur, investigate a crime, usually murder. Detective fiction is the most popular form of both mystery fiction and hardboiled crime fiction. Commonly in detective fiction, the investigator has some source of income other than detective work and some undesirable eccentricities or striking characteristics. He or she frequently has a less able assistant (or foil) who acts as an audience surrogate for the explanation of the mystery at the end of the story. Beginnings of detective fiction Early Arabic detective fiction The earliest known example of a detective story was "The Three Apples", one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights). In this tale, a fisherman discovers a heavy locked chest along the Tigris river and he sells it to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, who then has the chest broken open only to find inside it the dead body of a young woman who was cut into pieces. Harun orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and find the murdererer within three days, or be executed if he fails his assignment. Suspense is generated through multiple plot twists that occur as the story progesses. This may thus be considered an archetype for detective fiction. The main difference between Ja'far in "The Three Apples" and later fictional detectives such as Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot, however, is that Ja'far has no actual desire to solve the case. The whodunit mystery is solved by the murderer himself confessing his crime, which in turn leads to another assignment in which Ja'far has to find the culprit who instigated the murder within three days or else be executed. Ja'far again fails to find the culprit before the deadline, but due to his chance discovery of a key item, he eventually manages to solve the case through reasoning, in order to prevent his own execution. Early Chinese detective fiction Another strand of detective fiction is the Ming Dynasty Chinese detective fiction such as Bao Gong An (Chinese:包公案) and the 18th century novel Di Gong An (Chinese:狄公案). The latter was translated into English as Dee Goong An (Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee) by Dutch sinologist Robert Van Gulik, who then used the style and characters to write an original Judge Dee series. The hero of these novels is typically a traditional judge or similar official based on historical personages such as Judge Bao (Bao Qingtian) or Judge Dee (Di Renjie). Although the historical characters may have lived in an earlier period (such as the Song or Tang dynasty) the novels are often set in the later Ming or Manchu period. These novels differ from the Western tradition in several points as described by van Gulik: the detective is the local magistrate who is usually involved in several unrelated cases simultaneously; the criminal is introduced at the very start of the story and his crime and reasons are carefully explained, thus constituting an inverted detective story rather than a "puzzle"; the stories have a supernatural element with ghosts telling people about their death and even accusing the criminal; the stories were filled with digressions into philosophy, the complete texts of official documents, and much more, making for very long books; the novels tended to have a huge cast of characters, typically in the hundreds, all described as to their relation to the various main actors in the story; Van Gulik chose Di Gong An to translate because it was in his view closer to the Western tradition and more likely to appeal to non-Chinese readers. Early Western detective fiction Daguerreotype of Edgar Allan Poe One of the earliest examples of detective fiction is Voltaire's Zadig (1748), which features a main character who performs feats of analysis. The Danish crime story The Rector of Veilbye by Steen Steensen Blicher was written in 1829, and the Norwegian crime novel "Mordet på Maskinbygger Rolfsen" ("The Murder of Engine Maker Rolfsen") by Maurits Hansen was published in 1839. Maurits Hansen (1794 - 1842). Das Fräulein von Scuderi, by E.T.A. Hoffmann 1819, in which Mlle de Scudery, a kind of 18th century Miss Marple, establishes the innocence of the police's favorite suspect in the murder of a jeweller, is sometimes cited as the first detective story and a direct influence on Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue". The Seven Basic Plots, Christopher Booker, Continuum, 2004, page 507 However, detective fiction is more often considered to have begun in 1841 with the publication of "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" itself, featuring "the first fictional detective, the eccentric and brilliant C. Auguste Dupin". Poe set up a plot formula that's been successful ever since, give or take a few shifting variables." Kismaric, Carole and Heiferman, Marvin. The Mysterious Case of Nancy Drew & The Hardy Boys. New York: Simon & Shuster, 1998. p. 56. ISBN 0-684-84689-6 Poe followed with further Auguste Dupin tales: "The Mystery of Marie Roget" in 1843, and "The Purloined Letter" in 1844. Poe referred to his stories as "tales of ratiocination". In stories such as these, the primary concern of the plot is ascertaining truth, and the usual means of obtaining the truth is through a complex and mysterious process combining intuitive logic, astute observation, and perspicacious inference. "Early detective stories tended to follow an investigating protagonist from the first scene to the last, making the unraveling a practical rather than emotional matter." "The Mystery of Marie Roget" is particularly interesting because it is a barely fictionalized account based on Poe's theory of what happened to the real-life Mary Cecilia Rogers. The style of the analysis, with its attention to forensic detail, makes it a precursor and perhaps inspiration for the stories about the most famous of all fictional detectives, Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes. Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001. p. 162-163. ISBN 081604161X Indeed, Holmes mentions the Poe story in the first Conan Doyle novel. Emile Gaboriau, was a pioneer of the detective fiction genre in France. In Monsieur Lecoq the eponymous detective is adept at disguise, a key characteristic of detectives. Bonnoit, R: Émile Gaboriau ou la Naissance du Roman Policier, Paris: Librairie Philosophique J Vrin, 1985, p.198 Gaboriau's writing is also considered to be the first example of a detective minutely examining a crime scene for clues. Gunning, T.: Lynx-Eyed Detectives and Shadow Bandits: Visuality and Eclipse in French Detective Stories, Yale French Studies 108, 2005, p.75 Another early example of a whodunit is a sub-plot in the vast novel Bleak House (1853) by Charles Dickens. The conniving lawyer Tulkinghorn is killed in his office late one night, and the crime is investigated by Inspector Bucket of the Metropolitan police force. Numerous characters appeared on the staircase leading to Tulkinghorn's office that night, some of them in disguise, and Inspector Bucket must penetrate these mysteries to identify the murderer. Dickens's protégé, Wilkie Collins (1824–1889)—sometimes referred to as the "grandfather of English detective fiction"—is credited with the first great mystery novel, The Woman in White. His novel The Moonstone (1868) was described by T. S. Eliot as "the first and greatest of English detective novels" and by Dorothy L. Sayers as "probably the very finest detective story ever written". Although technically preceded by Charles Felix's The Notting Hill Mystery (1865), The Moonstone can claim to have established the genre with several classic features of the twentieth-century detective story: A country house robbery An "inside job" A celebrated investigator Bungling local constabulary Detective enquiries False suspects The "least likely suspect" A rudimentary "locked room" murder A reconstruction of the crime A final twist in the plot Some readers have suggested much earlier prototypes for the whodunnit, most notably the Old Testament story of Susanna and the Elders (Daniel 13; in the Protestant Bible this story is found in the apocrypha); Oedipus Rex, Sophocles' dramatic masterpiece, in which the young Oedipus tries to find out what happened to his murdered father and to his mother; the story of the dog and the horse related in the third chapter of Voltaire's Zadig (1747). Golden Age detective novels Many English and some North American readers, in what became known as the Golden Age of Detective Fiction between the wars, generally preferred a type of detective story in which an outsider -- sometimes a salaried investigator or a police officer, but often a gifted amateur -- investigates a murder committed in a closed environment by one of a limited number of suspects. The most widespread subgenre of the detective novel became the whodunit (or whodunnit), where great ingenuity may be exercised in narrating the events of the crime, usually a homicide, and of the subsequent investigation in such a manner as to conceal the identity of the criminal from the reader until the end of the book, when the method and culprit are revealed. "The golden age of detective fiction began with high-class amateur detectives sniffing out murderers lurking in rose gardens, down country lanes, and in picturesque villages. Many conventions of the detective-fiction genre evolved in this era, as numerous writers -- from populist entertainers to respected poets -- tried their hands at mystery stories." The four original Queens of Crime were Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, Ngaio Marsh and Margery Allingham. Apart from Ngaio Marsh (New Zealand) they were all female British writers; perhaps Josephine Tey could be added. The most popular writer of the Golden Age whodunnit, and one of the most popular writers of all time, was Agatha Christie, who produced a long series of books featuring her detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, amongst others, and usually including a complex puzzle for the baffled and misdirected reader to try and unravel. Also popular were the stories featuring Dorothy L. Sayers's Lord Peter Wimsey and S. S. Van Dine's Philo Vance. The "puzzle" approach was carried even further into ingenious and seemingly impossible plots by John Dickson Carr—also writing as Carter Dickson—who is regarded as the master of the "locked room mystery" and Cecil Street, who also wrote as John Rhode, whose detective Dr. Priestley specialised in elaborate technical devices, while in the US the whodunnit was adopted and extended by Rex Stout and Ellery Queen, among others. The emphasis on formal "rules" during the Golden Age (as codified in 1929 by Ronald Knox) produced a variety of reactions. Most writers were content to follow the rules slavishly, some flouted some or all of the conventions, and some exploited the conventions with genius to produce new and startling results. The private eye novel Private eye Martin Hewitt, created by British author Arthur Morrison, is perhaps the first example of the modern style of fictional private detective. By the late 1920s, Al Capone and the Mob were inspiring not only fear, but piquing genuine mainstream curiosity about the American underworld. Popular pulp fiction magazines like Black Mask capitalized on this, as authors such as Carrol John Daly published violent stories that focused on the mayhem and injustice surrounding the criminals, not the circumstances behind the crime. Very often, no actual mystery even existed: the books simply revolved around justice being served to those who deserved harsh treatment, which was described in explicit detail." In the 1930s, the private eye genre was adopted wholeheartedly by American writers. The tough, stylish detective fiction of Dashiell Hammett, Jonathan Latimer, Erle Stanley Gardner and others explored the "mean streets" and corrupt underbelly of the United States. Their style of crime fiction came to known as "hardboiled," which encompasses stories with similar attitudes concentrating not on detectives but gangsters, crooks, and other committers or victims of crimes. "Told in stark and sometimes elegant language through the unemotional eyes of new hero-detectives, these stories were an American phenomenon." In the late 1930s, Raymond Chandler updated the form with his private detective Philip Marlowe, who brought a more intimate voice to the detective than Hammett's distant, third-person viewpoint. His cadenced dialogue and cryptic narrations were musical, evoking the dark alleys and tough thugs, rich women and powerful men about whom he wrote. Several feature and television movies have been made about the Philip Marlowe character. James Hadley Chase wrote a few novels with private eyes as the main hero, including "Blonde's Requiem" (1945), "Lay Her Among the Lilies" (1950), and "Figure It Out for Yourself" (1950). Heroes of these novels are typical private eyes which are very similar to Philip Marlowe. Ross Macdonald, pseudonym of Kenneth Millar, updated the form again with his detective Lew Archer, while still writing in what is considered the PI's Golden Age of Detective Fiction, begun by Hammett. Archer, like Hammett's fictional heroes, was a camera eye, with hardly any known past. "Turn Archer sideways, and he disappears," one reviewer wrote. Two of Macdonald's strengths were his use of psychology and his beautiful prose, which was full of imagery. Like other 'hardboiled' writers, Macdonald aimed to give an impression of realism in his work through violence, sex and confrontation; this is illusory, however, and any real private eye undergoing a typical fictional investigation would soon be dead or incapacitated. The 1966 movie Harper starring Paul Newman was based on the first Lew Archer story The Moving Target (1949). Newman reprised the role in The Drowning Pool in 1976. Michael Collins, pseudonym of Dennis Lynds, is generally considered the author who led the form into the Modern Age. His PI, Dan Fortune, was consistently involved in the same sort of David-and-Goliath stories that Hammett, Chandler, and Macdonald wrote, but he took a sociological bent, exploring the meaning of his characters' places in society and the impact society had on people. Full of commentary and clipped prose, his books were more intimate than his predecessors, dramatizing that crime can happen in one's own living room. The PI novel was a male-dominated field in which female authors seldom found publication until Marcia Muller, Sara Paretsky, and Sue Grafton were finally published in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Each author's detective was brainy, physical, and could hold her own. Their acceptance, then success, caused publishers to seek out other female authors. The PI novel today is rich in variety. The strongest characteristic that binds them is that the detective now has a past and a life, while solving cases. Police procedural Many detective stories have police officers as the main characters. Of course these stories may take a variety of forms, but many authors try to realistically depict the routine activities of a group of police officers who are frequently working on more than one case simultaneously. Some of these stories are whodunits; in others the criminal is well known, and it is a case of getting enough evidence. Other subgenres There is also a subgenre of historical detectives. See historical whodunnit for an overview. The first amateur railway detective, Thorpe Hazell, was created by Victor Whitechurch and his stories impressed Ellery Queen and Dorothy L. Sayers. Stories of the Railway, reprinted Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1977, ISBN 0710086350: Foreword by Bryan Morgan "Cozy mysteries" began in the late 20th century as a reinvention of the Golden Age whodunnit; these novels generally shy away from violence and suspense and frequently feature female amateur detectives. Modern cozy mysteries are frequently, though not necessarily in either case, humorous and thematic (culinary mystery, animal mystery, quilting mystery, etc.) Another subgenre of detective fiction is the serial killer mystery, which might be thought of as an outcropping of the police procedural. There are early mystery novels in which a police force attempts to contend with the type of criminal known in the 1920s as a homicidal maniac, such as a few of the early novels of Philip Macdonald and Ellery Queen's Cat of Many Tails. However, this sort of story became much more popular after the coining of the phrase "serial killer" in the 1970s and the publication of The Silence of the Lambs in 1988. These stories frequently show the activities of many members of a police force or government agency in their efforts to apprehend a killer who is selecting victims on some obscure basis. They are also often much more violent and suspenseful than other mysteries. Suspense – the core tenet of detective fiction A beginner to detective fiction would generally be advised against reading anything about a piece of work in the genre (such as a review or even a blurb) before starting the story itself. Even if they do not mean to, advertisers, reviewers, scholars and aficionados usually have a habit of giving away details or parts of the plot, and sometimes—for example in the case of Mickey Spillane's novel I, the Jury—even the solution. (After the credits of Billy Wilder's film Witness for the Prosecution, the cinemagoers are asked not to talk to anyone about the plot so that future viewers will also be able to fully enjoy the unravelling of the mystery.) Unresolved problem of plausibility and coincidence Up to the present, some of the problems inherent in crime fiction have remained unsolved (and possibly also insoluble). Some of them can be dismissed with a shrug: Why bother at all, even if it is obvious to everyone that an ordinary person is not likely to keep stumbling across corpses? After all, this is just part of the game of crime fiction. Still the fact that an old spinster like Miss Marple meets with an estimated two bodies per year does raise a few doubts as to the plausibility of the Miss Marple mysteries. De Andrea has described the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead as having "put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of Sodom and Gomorrah". Similarly, TV heroine Jessica Fletcher is confronted with bodies wherever she goes, but over the years people who have met violent deaths have also piled up in the streets of Cabot Cove, Maine, the cozy little village where she lives. Generally, therefore, it is much more convincing if a policeman, private eye, forensic expert or similar professional is made the hero or heroine of a series of crime novels. This implausibility is satirized frequently on the TV show Monk, in which the main character, Adrian Monk, is frequently accused of being a "bad luck charm" and a "murder magnet" as the result of the frequency with which otherwise normal people attempt to pull off elaborate schemes for perfect murders when he is in the vicinity. Likewise Kogoro Mori of Detective Conan got that kind of unflattering reputation. Although Mori is actually a private investigator with his own agency, the police has never been intentionally consulting him and he just keeps stumbling from one crime scene to another. Also, the role and legitimacy of coincidence has frequently been the topic of heated arguments ever since Ronald A. Knox categorically stated that "no accident must ever help the detective" (Commandment No.6). Effects of technology Technological progress has also rendered many plots implausible and antiquated. For example, the predominance of mobile phones, pagers, and PDAs has significantly altered the previously dangerous situations in which investigators traditionally might have found themselves. Some authors have not succeeded in adapting to the changes brought about by modern technology; others, such as Carl Hiaasen, have. One tactic that avoids the issue of technology altogether is the historical detective genre. As global interconnectedness makes legitimate suspense more difficult to achieve, several writers -- including Elizabeth Peters, P. C. Doherty, Steven Saylor, and Lindsey Davis -- have eschewed fabricating convoluted plots in order to manufacture tension, instead opting to set their characters in some former period. Such a strategy forces the protagonist to rely on more inventive means of investigation, lacking as they do the scientific tools available to modern detectives. Proposed rules Several authors have attempted to set forth a sort of list of “Detective Commandments” for prospective authors of the genre. According to "Twenty rules for writing detective stories," by Van Dine in 1928: "The detective story is a kind of intellectual game. It is more--it is a sporting event. And for the writing of detective stories there are very definite laws--unwritten, perhaps, but nonetheless binding; and every respectable and self-respecting concocter of literary mysteries lives up to them. Herewith, then, is a sort of credo, based partly on the practice of all the great writers of detective stories, and partly on the promptings of the honest author's inner conscience." Twenty rules for writing detective stories (1928) by S.S. Van Dine Ronald Knox wrote a set of Ten Commandments or Decalogue in 1929, see article on the Golden Age of Detective Fiction. Famous fictional detectives The full list of fictional detectives is immense. The format is well suited to dramatic presentation, and so there are also many television and film detectives, besides those appearing in adaptations of novels in this genre. Fictional detectives are generally applicable to one of four archetypes: the amateur detective (Marple, Jessica Fletcher); the private investigator (Holmes, Marlowe, Spade, Poirot); the police detective (Dalgliesh, Kojak, Morse); the forensic specialists (Scarpetta, Quincy, Cracker, CSI). Notable fictional detectives and their creators include: Amateur detectives Father Brown – G. K. Chesterton Encyclopedia Brown – Donald J. Sobol Mrs. Bradley – Gladys Mitchell Jonathan Creek – Jonathan Creek (TV series) Bulldog Drummond – ("Sapper", a pseudonym of Herman Cyril McNeile) C. Auguste Dupin – Edgar Allan Poe Dr. Gideon Fell – John Dickson Carr Jessica Fletcher – Murder, She Wrote Reggie Fortune (doctor and detective) – H.C. Bailey Thorpe Hazell – Victor Whitechurch Joseph Koster – J. G. Sandom Miss Marple – Agatha Christie Perry Mason – Erle Stanley Gardner Travis McGee – John D. MacDonald Ellery Queen – Ellery Queen (a pseudonym of Manfred Bennington Lee and Frederic Dannay) Rabbi David Small – Harry Kemelman Lord Peter Wimsey – Dorothy L. Sayers Max Carrados (the blind detective) – Ernest Bramah Alex Delaware – Jonathan Kellerman Private Investigators Mike Hammer – Mickey Spillane Sherlock Holmes – Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Thomas Magnum – Magnum, P.I. Philip Marlowe – Raymond Chandler Elvis Cole – Robert Crais Veronica Mars – Veronica Mars (TV Show) Adrian Monk – Monk (TV series) Hercule Poirot – Agatha Christie Vincent Calvino – Christopher G. Moore Michael Shayne – Brett Halliday Sam Spade – Dashiell Hammett Angel – Angel (TV series) Spenser – Robert B. Parker Nero Wolfe – Rex Stout The Continental Op (unnamed) – Dashiell Hammett (This character, who actually works for a fictional detective "agency" isn't a "private" investigator in the sense that, say, a Spade or Marlowe, is; rather, he is an "Op"[operative] for the "Continental"[cp. Pinkerton].) Harry Angel – William Hjortsberg Jayanta – Hemendrakumar Roy Feluda, a.k.a. Pradosh C. Mitter – Satyajit Ray Byomkesh Bakshi – Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay P.K. Basu – Narayan Sanyal Kudou Shin'ichi/Edogawa Conan – Japanese anime Detective Conan Tim Diamond – Anthony Horowitz Lew Archer – Ross Macdonald Gabe & Tycho – alternate universe versions of the main characters of the online comic strip Penny Arcade, in the computer game On The Rain-Slick Precipice of Darkness. Rue Ryuzaki – Nisio Isin Milo Milodragovitch, C.W.Sughrue – James Crumley Jim Rockford [[The Rockford Files"", (TV Series)]] Easy Rawlins Walter Mosley Police detectives Commissaire Jean-Baptiste Adamsberg – Fred Vargas Roderick Alleyn – Ngaio Marsh Detective Chief Inspector Alan Banks – Peter Robinson DCI Thomas "Tom" Barnaby – Midsomer Murders (played by John Nettles) Martin Beck – Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö Detective Lennie Briscoe – Dick Wolf Harry Bosch – Michael Connelly Charlie Chan – Earl Derr Biggers Detective Guido Brunetti – Donna Leon Chen Cao – Qiu Xiaolong Inspector Clouseau – Pink Panther Lieutenant Columbo – Columbo James "Sonny" Crockett – Miami Vice Adam Dalgliesh – P. D. James DI De Cock (or De Kok) – A. C. Baantjer DCS Christopher Foyle – Foyle's War (played by Michael Kitchen) Inspector Joseph French – Freeman Wills Crofts George Gideon – John Creasey Detective Inspector Mike Bridge – S.J. Crossenger Robert Goren – Law & Order: Criminal Intent DI Gunnarstranda – K O Dahl DI John Handford – Lesley Horton DS Barbara Havers – The Inspector Lynley Mysteries Inspector Jacobson – Iain McDowall Lt. Theo Kojak – Kojak (played by Telly Savalas) DI Thomas Lynley – The Inspector Lynley Mysteries Vic Mackey – The Shield Jules Maigret – Georges Simenon Inspector Montalbano – Andrea Camilleri Inspector Morse – Colin Dexter DI John Rebus – Ian Rankin DI Charlie Resnick – John Harvey Jesse Stone – Robert B. Parker DCI Jane Tennison – Prime Suspect DCI Van Veeteren – Håkan Nesser Kurt Wallander – Henning Mankell Inspector Lestrade – Arthur Conan Doyle Chief Inspector Japp – Agatha Christie Inspector Karl Lohmann – Fritz Lang Forensic specialists Raymond Langston – CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Temperance Brennan – Kathy Reichs Lt. Horatio Caine – CSI: Miami Gil Grissom, Ph.D. – CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Rhona MacLeod – Lin Anderson Dr Donald "Ducky" Mallard – N.C.I.S. (Naval Criminal Investigative Services) Dr Quincy – Quincy, M.E. Dr. Kay Scarpetta – Patricia Cornwell Detective Mac Taylor – CSI: NY Dr John Thorndyke – R. Austin Freeman Elizabeth Rodgers – "Law & Order", and "Law & Order: Criminal Intent" Catholic Church detectives Father Brown – G. K. Chesterton William of Baskerville – (Middle Ages, Italy) Umberto Eco Brother Cadfael – (Middle Ages, England/Wales) Edith Pargeter Father Dowling Mysteries Father "Blackie" Ryan – Andrew Greeley Government agents Alex Cross – Kiss The Girls Jack Bauer – 24 James Bond – Ian Fleming Jason Bourne – Robert Ludlum Fox Mulder and Dana Scully – The X-Files Agent Dale Cooper – Twin PeaksOthers Simon Templar, a.k.a "The Saint" – Leslie Charteris Batman, a.k.a. Bruce Wayne – Bob Kane & Bill Finger Jimmy Kudo- a.k.a Detective Conan – Case Closed Karel "Carl" Kolchak – Jeffrey Grant Rice L Lawliet The Greatest Detective on Earth – Death Note Near (Death Note) – Death Note Arsène Lupin Gentleman/thief – Maurice Leblanc/Boileau-Narcejac Ben Matlock – Dean Hargrove Detective Chimp – DC Comics For younger readers Judy Bolton The Boxcar Children Encyclopedia Brown – Donald J. Sobol Nancy Drew – Carolyn Keene and others Inspector Gadget Ginny Gordon The Hardy Boys – Franklin W. Dixon and others Trixie Belden The Three Investigators Scooby Doo The Happy Hollisters Inspector Rex Roman Mysteries Historical Cadfael monk (Middle Ages, England) – Edith Pargeter Judge Dee (Tang dynasty China) – Robert van Gulik Sister Fidelma (7th Cen. CE Ireland) – Peter Tremayne Gordianus the Finder (1st Cen. BCE Roman Republic) – Steven Saylor Marcus Didius Falco (Vespasian) – Lindsey Davis Li Kao (7th Cen. CE China) – Barry Hughart Bak (Ancient Egypt) – Lauren Haney Sano Ichiro (17th Cen. CE Japan) – Laura Joh Rowland William of Baskerville British Friar (14 Century, Italy) – Umberto Eco Science-fiction and Fantasy Judge Dredd – John Wagner and Carlos Ezquerra Thursday Next – Jasper Fforde Elijah Baley and R. Daneel Olivaw – Isaac Asimov Gil Hamilton – Larry Niven Dirk Gently – Douglas Adams Sam Vimes – Terry Pratchett Dr. Phil D'Amato – Paul Levinson Harry Dresden – Jim Butcher's novels, The Dresden Files TV series Rick Deckard – Blade Runner, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (Philip K. Dick) Garrett – Glen Cook Takeshi Kovacs – Richard Morgan Detective debuts and swansongs Many detectives appear in more than one novel or story. Here is a list of a few debut and swansong stories: Detective Author Debut Swansong Roderick Alleyn Ngaio Marsh A Man Lay Dead Light Thickens Harry Bosch Michael Connelly The Black Echo Father Brown G. K. Chesterton "The Blue Cross" Guido Brunetti Donna Leon Death at La Fenice Brother Cadfael Ellis Peters A Morbid Taste for Bones Brother Cadfael's Penance Albert Campion Margery Allingham The Crime at Black Dudley Elvis Cole Robert Crais The Monkey's Raincoat Dr. Phil D'Amato Paul Levinson "The Chronology Protection Case" Peter Decker Faye Kellerman The Ritual Bath Alex Delaware Jonathan Kellerman When the Bough Breaks Gone Nancy Drew Carolyn Keene The Secret of the Old Clock Marcus Didius Falco Lindsey Davis The Silver Pigs Erast Fandorin Boris Akunin The Winter Queen Kate Fansler Carolyn Gold Heilbrun/Amanda Cross In the Last Analysis Dr. Gideon Fell John Dickson Carr Hag's Nook Dark of the Moon Gervase Fen Edmund Crispin The Case of the Gilded Fly Sir John Fielding and Jeremy Proctor Bruce Alexander Blind Justice Gordianus the Finder Steven Saylor Roman Blood Heiji Hattori Gosho Aoyama Detective Conan Sherlock Holmes Sir Arthur Conan Doyle A Study in Scarlet (in Beeton's Christmas Annual) His Last Bow (see also "The Final Problem") Anastasya Kamenskaya Alexandra Marinina Confluence of Circumstances Shin'ichi Kudo / Conan Edogawa Gosho Aoyama Detective Conan Thomas Lynley and Barbara Havers Elizabeth George A Great Deliverance Miss Marple Agatha Christie The Murder at the Vicarage Sleeping Murder Jasi McLellan Cheryl Kaye Tardif Divine Intervention Travis McGee John D. MacDonald The Deep Blue Good-by The Lonely Silver Rain Sir Henry Merrivale Carter Dickson The Plague Court Murders The Cavalier's Cup Kinsey Millhone Sue Grafton 'A' is for Alibi Inspector Morse Colin Dexter Last Bus to Woodstock Remorseful Day Nick Naught John E. Stith Naught for Hire Terrell Newman Bernard J. Taylor The Deliverer Thursday Next Jasper Fforde The Eyre Affair Stephanie Plum Janet Evanovich One for the Money Hercule Poirot Agatha Christie The Mysterious Affair at Styles Curtain Ellery Queen Ellery Queen The Roman Hat Mystery A Fine and Private Place Jack Reacher Lee Child Killing Floor Dave Robicheaux James Lee Burke The Neon Rain Rabbi David Small Harry Kemelman Friday the Rabbi Slept Late That Day the Rabbi Left Town Spenser Robert B. Parker The Godwulf Manuscript V.I. Warshawski Sara Paretsky Indemnity Only Lord Peter Wimsey Dorothy Sayers Whose Body? Busman's Honeymoon Nero Wolfe Rex Stout Fer-de-Lance A Family Affair Angel (Angel Investigations) Joss Whedon & David Greenwalt City Of Not Fade Away BooksBloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel - A History by Julian Symons ISBN 0-571-09465-1 Stacy Gillis and Philippa Gates (Editors), The Devil Himself: Villainy in Detective Fiction and Film, Greenwood, 2001. ISBN 0-313-31655-4The Manichean Investigators: A Postcolonial and Cultural Rereading of the Sherlock Holmes and Byomkesh Bakshi Stories by Pinaki Roy, Sarup and Sons, New Delhi'' ISBN 978-81-7625-849-4 See also Crime fiction List of Ace Mystery Double Titles List of Ace Mystery Letter-Series Single Titles List of Ace Mystery Numeric-Series Single Titles List of crime writers List of detective fiction authors Mystery fiction Mystery film Whodunit Japanese detective fiction Inverted detective story References External links Classic Crime Fiction Website Private Eye Writers of America website Most Honored Mystery Books The Golden Age of Detective Fiction Wiki All About Agatha Christie Sherlock Holmes Cases A compilation of some of the most famous Sherlock Holmes cases. 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6,745 | Physics | A magnet levitating above a superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. Physics (Greek: physis – φύσις meaning "nature") a natural science, is the study of matter R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963), The Feynman Lectures on Physics, ISBN 0-201-02116-1 Hard-cover. p.1-1 Feynman begins with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." vol. I p. I–2 and its motion through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force. James Clerk Maxwell (1878), Matter and Motion. New York: D. Van Nostrand. p.1: "Nature of Physical Science – Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature." | accessdate=2008-11-04 More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave.<ref>H.D. Young & R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics: 11th Edition: International Edition (2004), Addison Wesley. Chapter 1, section 1.1, page 2 has this to say: "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles." Steve Holzner, Physics for Dummies (2006), Wiley. Chapter 1, page 7 says: "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." See Amazon Online Reader: Physics For Dummies (For Dummies(Math & Science)), retrieved 24 Nov 2006</ref> Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000BC, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Over the last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymous with philosophy, chemistry, and certain branches of mathematics and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique modern science in its own right. Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method. However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical physics and quantum chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish. Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding have often translated into new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often resonate with the other sciences, mathematics and philosophy. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society (e.g., television, computers, and domestic appliances); advances in thermodynamics led to the development of motorized transport; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus. Scope and Aims This parabola-shaped lava flow illustrates Galileo's law of falling bodies as well as blackbody radiation – you can tell the temperature from the color of the blackbody. Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from the smallest sub-atomic particles, to the largest galaxies. Included in this are the very most basic objects from which all other things are composed of, and therefore physics is sometimes said to be the "fundamental science". The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume I. Feynman, Leighton and Sands. ISBN 0-201-02115-3 See Chapter 3 : "The Relation of Physics to Other Sciences" for a general discussion. For the philosophical issue of whether other sciences can be "reduced" to physics, see reductionism and special sciences). Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things we see around us to root causes, and then to try to connect these causes together in the hope of finding an ultimate reason for why nature is as it is. For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone) were attracted to one another by some invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, and was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. A little earlier than the Chinese, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century, and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force – electromagnetism. This process of "unifying" forces continues today (see section Current research for more information). The Scientific Method Physics uses the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory, using a methodical approach to compare the implications of the theory in question with the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and observations conducted to test it. Experiments and observations are to be collected and matched with the predictions and hypotheses made by a theory, thus aiding in the determination or the validity/invalidity of the theory. Theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed any competent empirical test are often called scientific laws, or natural laws. Of course, all theories, including those called scientific laws, can always be replaced by more accurate, generalized statements if a disagreement of theory with observed data is ever found. Some principles, such as Newton's laws of motion, are still generally called "laws" even though they are now known to be limiting cases of newer theories. Thus, for example, in Thomas Brody (1993, Luis de la Peña and Peter Hodgson, eds.) The Philosophy Behind Physics ISBN 0-387-55914-0, pp 18–24 (Chapter 2), explains the 'epistemic cycle' in which a student of physics discovers that physics is not a finished product but is instead the process of creating [that product]. Theory and experiment The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall Dispersion of light by a prism Lightning is electric current The culture of physics has a higher degree of separation between theory and experiment than many other sciences. Since the twentieth century, most individual physicists have specialized in either theoretical physics or experimental physics. In contrast, almost all the successful theorists in biology and chemistry (e.g. American quantum chemist and biochemist Linus Pauling) have also been experimentalists, although this is changing as of late. Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire new experiments. In the absence of experiment, theoretical research can go in the wrong direction; this is one of the criticisms that has been leveled against M-theory, a popular theory in high-energy physics for which no practical experimental test has ever been devised. It is also worth noting there are some physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment who are called phenomenologists. Phenomenologists look at the complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to fundamental theory. Theoretical physics is closely related to mathematics, which provides the language of physical theories, and large areas of mathematics, such as calculus, have been invented specifically to solve problems in physics. Theorists may also rely on numerical analysis and computer simulations. The fields of mathematical and computational physics are active areas of research. Theoretical physics has historically rested on philosophy and metaphysics; electromagnetism was unified this way. See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Oersted. Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues, Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth century physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach's critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical. such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Physicists speculate on these possibilities, and from them, hypothesize theories. Experimental physics informs, and is informed by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well explored by theorists. Relation to mathematics and the other sciences In the Assayer (1622), Galileo noted that mathematics is the language in which Nature expresses its laws. "Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." – Galileo (1623), The Assayer, as quoted by G. Toraldo Di Francia (1976), The Investigation of the Physical World ISBN 0-521-29925-X p.10 Most of the experimental results in physics are numerical measurements and theories in physics use mathematics to give numerical results to match these measurements. Physics relies on mathematics to provide the logical framework in which physical laws can be precisely formulated and predictions quantified. Whenever analytic solutions of equations are not feasible, numerical analysis and simulations can be utilized. Thus, scientific computation is an integral part of physics, and the field of computational physics is an active area of research. A key difference between physics and mathematics is that since physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its theories by comparing the predictions of its theories with data procured from observations and experimentation, whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, not limited by those observed in the real world. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as mathematical physics. Physics is also intimately related to many other sciences, as well as applied fields like engineering and medicine. The principles of physics find applications throughout the other natural sciences as some phenomena studied in physics, such as the conservation of energy, are common to all material systems. Other phenomena, such as superconductivity, stem from these laws, but are not laws themselves because they only appear in some systems. Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science" (chemistry is sometimes included), because each of the other disciplines (biology, chemistry, geology, material science, engineering, medicine etc.) deals with particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of collections of matter (such as gases and liquids formed of atoms and molecules) and the processes known as chemical reactions that result in the change of chemical substances. The structure, reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which can be described by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics (called in this case quantum chemistry), thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Philosophical implications Physics in many ways stemmed from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterize matter, to Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle's book Physics, different Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Well into the 18th century, physics was known as "Natural philosophy". By the 19th century physics was realized as a positive science and a distinct discipline separate from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science to give an adequate description of the scientific method. See Chapter 1 for a discussion on the necessity of philosophy of science. The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory. Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 14 "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3 The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism. Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 15 "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3 Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism, See Laplace, Pierre Simon, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, translated from the 6th French edition by Frederick Wilson Truscott and Frederick Lincoln Emory, Dover Publications (New York, 1951) and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on Quantum Mechanics. See "The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" Ox Bow Press (1995) ISBN 1881987094. and "My View of the World" Ox Bow Press (1983) ISBN 0918024307. The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking, Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose (1996), The Nature of Space and Time ISBN 0-691-05084-8 p.4 "I think that Roger is a Platonist at heart but he must answer for himself." a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality. Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality ISBN 0-679-45443-8 Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes issue with Penrose's views. History Aristotle Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of the natural world. One great mystery was the predictable behavior of celestial objects such as the Sun and the Moon. Several theories were proposed, the majority of which were disproved. Early physical theories were largely couched in philosophical terms, and never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today. Many of the commonly accepted works of Ptolemy and Aristotle are not always found to match everyday observations. Even so, Indian philosophers and astronomers gave many correct descriptions in atomism and astronomy, and the Greek thinker Archimedes derived many correct quantitative descriptions of mechanics and hydrostatics. Branches of Physics Domains of major fields of physics While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research; for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727). These "central theories" are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. Research fields Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support research in Physics education. Since the twentieth century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare. Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for arXiv.org Condensed matter Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding and electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid and the Bose-Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices. Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. By one estimate, one third of all American physicists identify themselves as condensed matter physicists. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group — previously solid-state theory — in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics at the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics. Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering. Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All three areas include both classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics, the collective behavior of atoms in weakly interacting gases (Bose-Einstein Condensates and dilute Fermi degenerate systems), precision measurements of fundamental constants, and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomenon such as fission and fusion are considered part of high energy physics. Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. High energy/particle physics A simulated event in the CMS detector of the Large Hadron Collider, featuring the appearance of the Higgs boson. Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them. It may also be called "high energy physics", because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high energy collisions of other particles, as can be detected in particle accelerators. Currently, the interactions of elementary particles are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging messenger particles that carry the forces. These messenger particles are known as gluons; W− and W+ and Z bosons; and the photons, respectively. The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson, the existence of which has not yet been verified. Astrophysics The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth’s atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy. Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang. The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established a precise model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter. Application and influence Archimedes' screw uses simple machines to lift water. Applied physics is a general term for physics research which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem. The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists can also be interested in the use of physics for scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics. Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, Statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations. With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, one can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, over time. It also allows for simulations in engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology. Current research Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts. In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers. In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. In the next several years, particle accelerators will begin probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence 584 co-authors "Direct observation of the strange 'b' baryon " Fermilab-Pub-07/196-E, June 12, 2007 http://arxiv.org/abs/0706.1690v2 finds a mass of 5.774 GeV for the for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric particles. Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity. Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies. Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections. These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932, Horace Lamb said: See also General Classical physics Glossary of classical physics List of basic physics topics List of physics topics Perfection in physics and chemistry Philosophy of physics Physics (Aristotle) – an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view Unsolved problems in physics Related fields Astronomy Chemistry Engineering Mathematics Science References External links A large number of textbooks, popular books, and webpages about physics are available for further reading. Important publications in physics General HyperPhysics website – HyperPhysics, a physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University Physics.org – Web portal run by the Institute of Physics The Skeptic's Guide to Physics Usenet Physics FAQ – A FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups Website of the Nobel Prize in physics World of Physics – An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics Organizations AIP.org – Website of the American Institute of Physics APS.org – Website of the American Physical Society IOP.org – Website of the Institute of Physics PlanetPhysics.org Royal Society – Although not exclusively a physics institution, it has a strong history of physics SPS National – Website of the Society of Physics Students be-x-old:Фізыка | Physics |@lemmatized magnet:1 levitate:1 superconductor:1 demonstrate:1 meissner:1 effect:3 physic:140 greek:5 physis:1 φύσις:1 mean:2 nature:13 natural:5 science:28 study:14 matter:28 r:4 p:7 feynman:8 b:2 leighton:2 sand:2 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6,746 | Bus | A bus (archaically also omnibus, multibus, or autobus) is a road vehicle designed to carry passengers. A bus can generally seat a maximum of anywhere from 8 to 300 passengers. Buses are the most widely used form of public transportation, although they are also used in tourism and as private transport. The most common type of bus is the single-decker bus, with larger loads carried by double-decker buses and articulated buses, and smaller loads carried by midibuses and minibuses. A more luxurious version of the bus is the coach. Buses are usually powered by a diesel engine, although early buses were horse drawn and there were experiments with steam propulsion. Trolleybuses use power drawn from overhead power lines. In common with the car industry bus manufacturing is increasingly a globalised activity, with the same design of bus appearing on roads around the world. Etymology Bus is a derivation of Omnibus Vehicle meaning "vehicle for all", where omnibus means "for all" in Latin (omnes meaning "all"), reflecting its early usage for public transport. When motorized transport replaced horse-drawn transport starting around 1905, a motorized omnibus was for a time sometimes called an autobus, a term still used in French and other languages, and in some varieties of English. Pronunciation IPA , or in some dialects , plural may be either "buses" or "busses", both pronounced . History There are indications of the first bus dating back to 1662, web-page (in French) at http://www.herodote.net/histoire/evenement.php?jour=18260810. Retrieved 13 June 2008. although serious horse drawn public transport bus services were not launched until the 1820s. Early buses were horse drawn vehicles, a combination of the hackney carriage and stagecoach concepts. From the 1830s the steam powered bus also existed. In parallel to the development of the bus, was the invention of the electric trolleybus running under a system of wires, which actually preceded, and in many urban areas outnumbered, the conventional engine powered bus. The first engine powered buses emerged along with development of the automobile. After the first engine powered bus of 1895, models expanded in the 1900s, leading to the widespread introduction of the contemporary recognisable form of full size buses from the 1950s. Designs The names of different types of bus vary around the world according to local tradition or marketing, although buses can be classified into basic types based on their general features. Double-decker bus of Kowloon Motor Bus, Hong Kong Since motorisation, the traditional configuration of a bus was an engine in the front and an entrance at the rear. Since the 1960s, with the transition to one man operation, buses in the developed world have taken the form of mid or rear-engined designs, with a single door at the front, or multiple doors, depending on need. Front-engined buses still persist for niche markets such as American school buses, some minibuses, and buses in less developed countries, which may be derived from truck chassis, rather than purpose built bus designs. A bus may have an open platform so that passengers can join and alight without for the driver to open doors, but in many countries this is considered dangerous and is discouraged or indeed illegal. On the other hand, in some countries bus use is so heavy that passengers will cling to the outside of the vehicle if it is full. Buses will often have a legal maximum capacity of passengers. While most bus and coach designs will normally have two axles (or three for articulated buses), buses and coaches may often be fitted with additional axles to accommodate extra length or weight. This is common on three-axle rigid coaches. This is subject to local regulations. Single deckers The most common design of bus is a rigid single-decker bus with two axles, or if needed, a second rear axle. The midibus is a lighter and smaller purpose built development of the single deck bus, which emerged in the 1990s. The minibus, originally developed from van conversions, fulfils the lowest capacity needs of buses. Minibuses today are both still derived from vans, or built specifically as minibuses. Double deckers Where more capacity is needed, a double-decker bus or articulated bus may be used, the prevalence of which varies from country to country. A double-decker is a rigid vehicle with an extra upper deck, the two conjoined for access by a staircase— usually in modern vehicles a spiral staircase near the front, but often at the rear on older vehicles, which may have an open platform. Larger double deckers might have both front and rear staircases. Articulated buses Volvo B10M articulated bus in Adelaide, South Australia. Articulated buses take the form of single-decker bus with a 'trailer' portion attached. In articulated buses, drive can be through the front or rear section's axles. In modern articulated buses one can walk between the front and rear sections through an "accordion joint". In the and Australia they are often called bendy buses. Low-floor buses For many new fleets, particularly in local transit systems, there is an increasing shift to low-floor buses (primarily for easier accessibility). High-floor buses, whose design allows for luggage compartments underneath the passenger seating area, are used for longer-distance intercity travel (see Coaches). The move to the low-floor design has all but eliminated the mid-engined design, although some coaches still have mid mounted engines. Bi-articulated An uncommon departure from the standard rigid or articulated buses, there also exist limited instances of bi-articulated buses, and passenger-carrying trailers— either towed behind a conventional bus (a bus trailer), or hauled as a trailer by a truck (a trailer bus). Open top A bus may be "open top", that is to say, it has little or no roof. The aim is for passengers to get a better feel for of the outdoors (for good or bad), and a better view. Typically they are used as tourist buses on short city tours. The coachbuilding is generally done when the vehicle is first made, but sometimes an open top bus is converted from a double-decker that has scraped or lost its roof on a low bridge or other impediment, since its chassis will generally be intact. Coaches Coaches parked at Chichen Itza, Mexico A coach or motorcoach describes a more luxurious version of a bus, designed for more comfortable or longer-distance travel. In the UK, an old-fashioned word for it is a charabanc. Coaches can come in the same general configurations as buses, as single- or double-deckers, articulated, or small 'mini-coaches'. Coaches have a higher floor level than buses, to let luggage be stored in compartments under the passenger floor. Larger coach designs are often heavier and have more power than buses of the same size, to let them travel at higher speeds on motorway or autoroute, and have more capacity for luggage. Coaches do not generally allow for standing passengers, and feature upholstered, high-backed, individual seats. Coaches often have passenger comforts such as reclining seats, hand luggage storage, toilets, and audio-visual entertainment systems. As a low-cost version of a coach, buses may be fitted with coach-style, higher-backed, more comfortable seats, termed 'dual-purposed' bodywork. These may be used on long-distance public transport services, or as low-cost charter coaches. Increasingly in some areas individual upholstered coach-style seating, either fully high-backed or standard bus-seat height, is being deployed on higher-specification transit buses, sometimes with leather upholstery. Trolleybuses A trolleybus is essentially an electrically powered bus that is attached to and draws power from overhead lines. The trolleybus can be seen as a branch of, and a parallel development to, the conventional bus, and is exclusively used for public transport (apart from some systems recreated in transport museums). Trolleybuses appeared at nearly the same time as combustion engine powered buses, with a system in Dresden, Germany, in 5 May 1901. As with conventional buses, double-deck and articulated versions of the trolleybus have been developed. Accessibility Increasingly in some countries, buses and coaches are designed with accessibility features, often in response to regulations and recommendations laid out in disability discrimination laws. While such access laws apply to public transport, accessible features are also often adopted by private operators as a customer service differentiator, or due to the accessible designs becoming the market standard for new buses and coaches. Historically, accessible buses were specially modified standard buses, as mobility buses, produced by post manufacture, or niche manufacturers. Later, many standard bus types have become accessible, although mobility buses are still in production, usually as minibus-size vehicles. Mobility buses can be modified with a side or rear wheelchair lift, additional doors, wider doors, or an extendible access ramp. For standard buses, a major part of accessibility is achieved by the low-floor bus design, although for coaches, accessibility is being achieved through wheelchair lifts due to their higher floor level. Easier access for wheelchairs, pushchairs and the elderly can also be achieved through the use of kneeling air suspension and electrically or hydraulically extended under-floor ramps. Other accessibility features include wide entrances and interior gangways for wheelchairs and baby carriages; brightly colored interior fittings; and clear destination displays to aid the visually impaired. Alternative propulsion Since the 1930s, transit operators and researchers have experimented with alternatives to the diesel engine, which is currently the predominant method of powering buses. Technologies that have reached operational usage have included electricity, the hybrid electric engine, compressed natural gas, and bio-diesel. Trials with buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells are underway in several locations. Experiments with the gyrobus (a vehicle powered by flywheel momentum) have been conducted since the 1940s, but have yet to result in sustained use by any transit operator. Uses Public transport A local transit bus in Canberra, Australia Public transport forms the major use of buses and coaches, designed for the transport of the general public as a public service, rather than the private hire or use of buses for transport or other purposes. The use and design of public transport buses varies around the world, and utilises the entire range of bus designs and capacities. The design of buses and coaches is often specialised to a particular type of service. Buses may operated fixed routes, or be used as flexible services. Public buses can be organised in large fleets or as small concerns, and be publicly or privately owned and operated. The transit bus is the predominant design of public bus, which features specific features to allow use as a public transport vehicle. Transit buses have utilitarian fittings designed for efficient movement of large numbers of people, and often have multiple doors. A dual purpose bus is a transit bus fitted with coach style higher backed more comfortable seats, used on longer distance routes where standing passengers are not likely to be present. Specially adapted mobility buses may be used on specialist services for the transport of passengers with mobility issues (See Accessibility section). |Intercity bus Autosan Eurolider High capacity bus rapid transit (BRT) services may use the bi-articulated bus, an extension of the articulated bus concept with two trailer sections. BRT schemes (and other uses) may also use tram style buses, which certain bus manufacturers have tried to emulate the tram with modified articulated bus designs, with features such as a ‘pilot’ style driving position and streamlined styling, for example the Wright StreetCar and the Irisbus Civis. Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Guidance can be mechanical, optical or electromagnetic. Guidance is often, but not exclusively, employed as part of a BRT scheme. Extensions of the guided technology include the Guided Light Transit and Translohr systems, although these are more often termed 'rubber tyred trams' as they have limited or no mobility away from their guideways. Schools In some countries, particularly the U.S., buses used to transport school children have evolved in to a specific design with specified mandatory features. These buses feature things such as the school bus yellow livery and crossing guards. Other countries may mandate the use of seat belts. As a minimum many countries require that a school bus displays a sign, and may also adopt yellow liveries. School buses are also often older buses cascaded from service use, retro-fitted as a school bus, with more seats and/or seatbelts. School buses may be operated by local authorities or private contractors. Schools may also own and operate their own buses for other transport needs, such as class field trips, or to transport associated sports, music or other school groups. Private charter Due to the costs involved in owning, operating and driving buses and coaches, many bus and coach uses come about from the private hire of vehicles from charter bus companies, either for a day or two, on a longer contract basis, where the charter company provides the vehicles and qualified drivers. Charter bus operators may be completely independent businesses, or charter hire may be a subsidiary business of a public transport operator who might maintain a separate fleet or use surplus buses, coaches, and dual purpose coach seated buses. Many private taxicab companies also operate larger minibus vehicles to cater for group fares. Companies, private groups and social clubs may hire buses or coaches as a cost effective method of transporting a group to an event or site, such as a group meeting, racing event, or organised recreational activity such as a summer camp. Entertainment or event companies may also hire temporary shuttles buses for transport at events such as festivals or conferences. Party buses are used by companies in a similar manner to limousine hire, for luxury private transport to social events or as a touring experience. Sleeper buses are used by bands or other organisations that tour between entertainment venues and require mobile rest and recreation facilities. Some couples hire preserved buses for their wedding transport instead of the traditional car. Buses are often hired for parades or processions. Victory parades are often held for triumphant sports teams, who often tour their home town or city in an open-top bus. Sports teams may also contract out their transport to a team bus, for travel to away games, to a competition or to a final event. These buses are often specially decorated in a livery matching the team colours. Private companies often contract out private shuttle bus services, for transport of their customers or patrons, such as hotels, amusement parks, university campuses or private airport transfer services. This shuttle usage can be as transport between locations, or to and from parking lots. High specification luxury coaches are often chartered by companies for executive or VIP transport. Charter buses may also be used in Tourism and for promotion (See Tourism and Promotion sections) Promotion All-over advert bus for Landsbanki in Iceland Buses are often used for advertising, political campaigning, public information campaigns, public relations or promotional purposes. These may take the form of temporary charter hire of service buses, or the temporary or permanent conversion and operation of buses, usually of second-hand buses. Extreme examples include converting the bus with displays and decorations or awnings and fittings. Interiors may be fitted out for exhibition or information purposes with special equipment and/or audio visual devices. Bus advertising takes many forms, often as interior and exterior adverts and all-over advertising liveries. The practice often extends into the exclusive private hire and use of a bus to promote a brand or product, appearing at large public events, or touring busy streets. The bus is sometimes staffed by promotions personnel, giving out free gifts. Campaign buses are often specially decorated for a political campaign or other social awareness information campaign, designed to bring a specific message to different areas, and/or used to transport campaign personnel to local areas/meetings. Exhibition buses are often sent to public events such as fairs and festivals for purposes such as recruitment campaigns, for example by private companies or the armed forces. Complex urban planning proposals may be organised into a mobile exhibition bus for the purposes of public consultation. Not for profit Many not for profit, social or charitable groups with a regular need for group transport may find it practical or cost-effective to own and operate a bus for their own needs. These are often minibuses for practical, tax and driver licensing reasons, although they can also be full size buses. Cadet or scout groups or other youth organizations may also own buses. Specific charities may exist to fund and operate bus transport, usually using specially modified mobility buses or otherwise accessible buses (See Accessibility section). Some use their contributions to buy vehicles, and provide volunteer drivers. Specialist users A New York police bus converted for use as a command post Airport operators make use of special airside airport buses for crew and passenger transport in the secure airside parts of an airport. Some public authorities, police forces and military forces make use of armoured buses where there is a special need to provide increased passenger protection. Police departments make use of police buses for a variety of reasons, such as prisoner transport, officer transport, temporary detention facilities and as command and control vehicles. Many are drawn from retired school or service buses. Tourism Buses play a major part in the tourism industry. Tour buses around the world allow tourists to view local attractions or scenery. These are often open-top buses, but can also be by regular bus or coach. In local sightseeing, City Sightseeing is the largest operator of local tour buses, operating on a franchised basis all over the world. Specialist tour buses are also often owned and operated by safari parks and other theme parks or resorts. Longer distance tours are also carried out by bus, either on a turn up and go basis or through a tour operator, and usually allow disembarkation from the bus to allow touring of sites of interest on foot. These may be day trips or longer excursions incorporating hotel stays. Tour buses will often carry a tour guide, although the driver or a pre-recorded audio commentary may also perform this function. The tour operator may itself be a subsidiary of a bus operating company that operates buses and coaches for other uses, or an independent company that charters buses or coaches. Commuter transport operators may also use their coaches to conduct tours within the target city between the morning and evening commuter transport journey. Buses and coaches are also a common component of the wider package holiday industry, providing private airport transfers (in addition to general airport buses) and organised tours and day trips for holidaymakers on the package. Public long distance coach networks are also often used as a low-cost method of travel by students or young people travelling the world. Some companies such as Topdeck Travel were set up to specifically use buses to drive the hippie trail or travel to places like north Africa. In many tourist or travel destinations, a bus is part of the tourist attraction, such as the North American tourist trolleys, London’s Routemaster heritage routes, or the customised buses of Malta, Asia and the Americas. Use of retired buses Retired NWFB buses in Hong Kong, now in the training bus fleet Most public or private buses and coaches, once they have reached the end of their service with one or more operators, are sent to the wrecking yard for breaking up for scrap and spare parts. Some buses, while not economical to keep running as service buses, are often converted in some way for use by the operator, or another user, for purposes other than revenue earning transport. Much like old cars and trucks, buses often pass through a dealership where they can be bought for a price or at auction. Bus operators will often find it economical to convert retired buses to use as permanent training buses for driver training, rather than taking a regular service bus out of use. Some large operators have in the past also converted retired buses into tow bus vehicles, to act as tow trucks. With the outsourcing of maintenance staff and facilities, the increase in company health and safety regulations, and the increasing curb weights of buses, many operators now contract their towing needs to a professional vehicle recovery company. Many retired buses have been converted to static or mobile cafés, often using historic buses as a tourist attraction. Food is also provided from a catering bus, in which a bus is converted into a mobile canteen and break room. These are commonly seen at external filming locations to feed the cast and crew, and at other large events to feed staff. Some organisations adapt and operate playbuses or learning buses to provide a playground or learning environments to children who might not have access to proper play areas. A Routemaster ex-London bus has been converted to a mobile theatre and catwalk fashion show. Event preview: Fashion Bus On The Square, London The Guardian, 16 August 2008 Some buses meet a destructive end by being entered in banger races or at demolition derbys. Manufacturing Early bus manufacturing grew out of carriage coachbuilding, and later out of automobile or truck manufacturers. Early buses were merely a bus body fitted to a truck chassis. This body+chassis approach has continued with modern specialist manufacturers, although there also exist integral designs such as the Leyland National where the two are practically inseperable. Specialist builders also exist and concentrate on building buses for special uses, or modifying standard buses into specialised products. Integral designs have the advantages that they are have been well tested for strength, stability and so forth, and also are off-the-shelf. But there are, however, two incentives to use the chassis+body model. First it allows the buyer and manufacturer both to shop for the best deal for their needs, rather than having to settle on one fixed design— the buyer can choose the body and the chassis separately. Second it is likely that over the lifetime of a vehicle (in constant service and heavy traffic) that it will get minor damage now and again, and to be able easily to replace a body panel or window etc. can vastly increase its service life and save the cost and inconvenience of removing it from service. As with the rest of the automotive industry, into the 20th century bus manufacturing increasingly became globalized, with manufacturers producing buses far from their intended market to exploit labour and material cost advantages. As with the cars, new models are often exhibited by manufacturers at prestigious industry shows to gain new orders. Euro Bus Expo Euro Bus Expo is a trade show, which is held bi-annually at the UK's National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham. As the official show of the Confederation of Passenger Transport, the UK’s trade association for the bus, coach and light rail industry, the three day event offers visitors from Europe and beyond the chance to see and experience, at first hand, the very latest vehicles and product and service innovations right across the industry. The next show will be held in November 2010. Buses around the world Historically, the types and features of buses have developed according to local needs. Buses were fitted with technology appropriate to the local climate or passenger needs, such as air conditioning in Asia, or cycle mounts on North American buses. The bus types in use around the world where there was little mass production were often sourced second hand from other countries, such as the Malta bus, and buses in use in Africa. Other countries such as Cuba required novel solutions to import restrictions, with the creation of the “camellos” (camel bus), a specially manufactured trailer bus. After the Second World War, manufacturers in Europe and the Far East, such as Mercedes-Benz buses and Mitsubishi Fuso expanded into other continents influencing the use of buses previously served by local types. Use of buses around the world has also been influenced by colonial associations or political alliances between countries. Several of the Commonwealth nations followed the British lead and sourced buses from British manufacturers, leading to a prevalence of double-decker buses. Several Soviet countries adopted trolleybus systems, and their manufacturers such as Trolza exported trolleybuses to other friendly states. The buses to be found in countries around the world often reflect the quality of the local road network, with high floor resilient truck based designs prevalent in several less developed countries where buses are subject to tough operating conditions. Population density also has a major impact, where dense urbanisation such as in Japan and the far east has led to the adoption of high capacity long multi-axle buses, often double-deckers, while South America and China are implementing large numbers of articulated buses for bus rapid transit schemes. Bus preservation Preserved Mercedes-benz bus Rather than being scrapped or converted for other uses, sometimes retired buses are saved for preservation. This can be done by individuals, volunteer preservation groups or charitable trusts, museums, or sometimes by the operators themselves as part of a heritage fleet. These buses often need to undergo a degree of vehicle restoration to restore them to their original condition, and will have their livery and other details such as internal notices and rollsigns restored to be authentic to a specific time in the buses actual history. Some buses that undergo preservation are rescued from a state of great disrepair, while others enter preservation with very little wrong with them. As with other historic vehicles, many preserved buses either in a working or static state form part of the collections of transport museums. Working buses will often be exhibited at rallies and events, and are also used as charter buses. While many preserved buses are quite old or even vintage, in some cases relatively new examples of a bus type can enter restoration, while in service examples are still in use by other operators. This often happens when a change in design or operating practice, such as the switch to one person operation or low floor technology, renders some buses redundant while still relatively new. Liveries Marcopolo buses in ADO livery at Valladolid, Mexico Normally, buses will be painted in a scheme that ties the bus to its operator (either an enterprise or a public authority). Occasionally, a livery will reflect the use of the vehicle, rather than its ultimate owner, such tour operators having specific liveries. Specific parts of a fleet may also have special liveries for their specific use, such as shuttle buses. Operators may often hark back to their history by applying commemorative centenary schemes reflecting historic operators. Large transport groups may apply a corporate logo across their fleets. Operators may also have different liveries for different operating areas, or use special liveries to demarcate low-cost or premium service buses from their main fleet. Bus liveries were traditionally painted onto the vehicle and still are in many cases. With the advent of adhesive vinyl technologies, some liveries have begun to be applied as decals. Bus liveries are commonly used in bus advertising, by fully or partially using a bus livery as a mobile billboard. This has greatly increased and become more complex with the ease of using vinyl technology. Other special-use buses may also display special schemes, such as training buses, school buses, tour buses, product promotion buses, parade buses, and political or public awareness campaign buses. See also Bicycle carrier (Bus mounted bike racks) Bus spotting Public transport bus service Queueing theory The man on the Clapham omnibus Trackless train Transport in present-day nations and states References Notes | Bus |@lemmatized bus:259 archaically:1 also:35 omnibus:5 multibus:1 autobus:2 road:4 vehicle:25 design:29 carry:6 passenger:17 generally:4 seat:10 maximum:2 anywhere:1 widely:1 used:1 form:8 public:26 transportation:1 although:11 use:60 tourism:5 private:16 transport:42 common:5 type:9 single:7 decker:14 large:12 load:2 double:11 articulated:8 small:4 midibuses:1 minibus:8 luxurious:2 version:4 coach:39 usually:6 power:14 diesel:3 engine:9 early:5 horse:4 drawn:4 experiment:3 steam:2 propulsion:2 trolleybus:8 overhead:2 line:2 car:4 industry:7 manufacturing:2 increasingly:4 globalised:1 activity:2 appear:3 around:9 world:12 etymology:1 derivation:1 mean:3 latin:1 omnes:1 reflect:4 usage:3 motorized:2 replace:2 start:1 time:3 sometimes:6 call:2 term:3 still:8 french:2 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instance:1 tow:3 behind:1 haul:1 top:5 say:1 little:3 roof:2 aim:1 get:2 good:3 feel:1 outdoors:1 bad:1 view:2 typically:1 tourist:6 short:1 city:4 tour:16 coachbuilding:2 make:4 convert:10 scrap:3 lose:1 bridge:1 impediment:1 intact:1 park:5 chichen:1 itza:1 mexico:2 motorcoach:1 describe:1 comfortable:3 uk:3 fashion:3 word:1 charabanc:1 come:2 mini:1 level:2 let:2 store:1 speed:1 motorway:1 autoroute:1 stand:2 upholstered:2 individual:3 comfort:1 recline:1 storage:1 toilet:1 audio:3 visual:2 entertainment:3 cost:9 style:5 dual:3 bodywork:1 charter:11 seating:1 fully:2 height:1 deploy:1 specification:2 leather:1 upholstery:1 trolleybuses:1 essentially:1 electrically:2 branch:1 exclusively:2 apart:1 recreate:1 museum:3 nearly:1 combustion:1 dresden:1 germany:1 response:1 recommendation:1 lay:1 disability:1 discrimination:1 law:2 apply:4 accessible:5 adopt:3 operator:22 customer:2 differentiator:1 due:3 become:4 historically:2 specially:6 modify:5 mobility:7 produce:2 post:2 manufacture:4 manufacturer:10 later:2 production:2 side:1 wheelchair:4 lift:2 wider:2 extendible:1 ramp:2 major:4 part:9 achieve:3 pushchair:1 elderly:1 kneel:1 air:2 suspension:1 hydraulically:1 extend:2 include:4 wide:1 interior:4 gangway:1 baby:1 brightly:1 color:1 fitting:3 clear:1 destination:2 display:4 aid:1 visually:1 impaired:1 alternative:2 researcher:1 currently:1 predominant:2 method:3 technology:7 reach:2 operational:1 electricity:1 hybrid:1 compress:1 natural:1 gas:1 bio:1 trial:1 hydrogen:1 fuel:1 cell:1 underway:1 several:4 location:3 gyrobus:1 flywheel:1 momentum:1 conduct:2 yet:1 result:1 sustain:1 canberra:1 hire:10 utilise:1 entire:1 range:1 specialise:1 particular:1 operate:14 fixed:2 route:3 flexible:1 organise:4 concern:1 publicly:1 privately:1 specific:8 utilitarian:1 efficient:1 movement:1 number:2 people:2 likely:2 present:2 adapted:1 specialist:5 issue:1 autosan:1 eurolider:1 rapid:2 brt:3 extension:2 scheme:6 us:4 tram:3 certain:1 try:1 emulate:1 pilot:1 position:1 streamline:1 styling:1 example:5 wright:1 streetcar:1 irisbus:1 civis:1 guide:3 designated:1 guideways:2 control:2 alignment:1 stop:1 space:1 lane:2 guidance:2 mechanical:1 optical:1 electromagnetic:1 employ:1 guided:2 light:2 translohr:1 rubber:1 tyred:1 limit:1 away:2 u:1 child:2 evolve:1 specified:1 mandatory:1 thing:1 yellow:2 livery:16 crossing:1 guard:1 mandate:1 belt:1 minimum:1 require:3 sign:1 cascade:1 retro:1 seatbelt:1 authority:3 contractor:1 class:1 field:1 trip:3 associated:1 sport:3 music:1 group:10 involve:1 company:14 day:5 longer:1 contract:4 basis:3 provide:6 qualified:1 completely:1 independent:2 business:2 subsidiary:2 maintain:1 separate:1 surplus:1 taxicab:1 cater:1 fare:1 social:4 club:1 effective:2 event:12 site:2 meeting:2 race:2 recreational:1 summer:1 camp:1 temporary:4 shuttle:4 festival:2 conference:1 party:1 similar:1 manner:1 limousine:1 luxury:2 touring:2 experience:2 sleeper:1 band:1 organisation:2 venue:1 mobile:6 rest:2 recreation:1 facility:3 couple:1 preserved:2 wedding:1 instead:1 parade:3 procession:1 victory:1 hold:3 triumphant:1 team:4 home:1 town:1 game:1 competition:1 final:1 decorate:2 match:1 colour:1 patron:1 hotel:2 amusement:1 university:1 campus:1 airport:6 transfer:2 lot:1 executive:1 vip:1 promotion:5 advert:2 landsbanki:1 iceland:1 advertising:4 political:4 campaigning:1 information:3 campaign:7 relation:1 promotional:1 permanent:2 extreme:1 decoration:1 awning:1 exhibition:4 special:8 equipment:1 device:1 exterior:1 practice:2 exclusive:1 promote:1 brand:1 product:4 busy:1 street:1 staff:3 personnel:2 give:1 free:1 gift:1 awareness:2 bring:1 message:1 send:2 fair:1 recruitment:1 armed:1 force:3 complex:2 planning:1 proposal:1 consultation:1 profit:2 charitable:2 regular:3 find:3 practical:2 tax:1 licensing:1 reason:2 cadet:1 scout:1 youth:1 organization:1 charity:1 fund:1 otherwise:1 contribution:1 buy:2 volunteer:2 user:2 york:1 police:4 command:2 airside:2 crew:2 secure:1 military:1 armoured:1 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6,747 | Kareem_Abdul-Jabbar | Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (born Ferdinand Lewis 'Lew' Alcindor on April 16, 1947) is an American retired basketball player, widely considered one of the greatest players of all time. During his 20-year professional career in the NBA, from 1969 to 1989, he scored the highest points total of any player in league history (38,387), in addition to winning a record six Most Valuable Player Awards and six NBA championships. He was known for his "skyhook" shot, which was famously difficult to block because it put his 7'2" body between the basket and the ball. Abdul-Jabbar's success began well before his professional career; in college at UCLA, he played on three championship teams, and his high school team won 71 consecutive games. Abdul-Jabbar (Alcindor at the time) grew up in the neighborhood of Inwood at the northern end of Manhattan, New York CIty, the son of Cora Lillian, a department store price checker, and Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Sr., a police officer and jazz musician. College took him to Los Angeles, and he returned there for 14 seasons in the NBA after six seasons with the Milwaukee Bucks. In 1971, several years after converting to Islam, he changed his name to Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (Arabic: كريم عبد الجبار Karīm ‘Abd al-Jabbār). Since retiring from basketball, he has been known as a coach and author, and sometimes an actor. Biography Early life Abdul-Jabbar was born Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Jr on April 16, 1947, and grew up in the Inwood section of Manhattan, in New York City, the son of Cora Lillian, a department store price checker, and Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor, Sr, a transit police officer and jazz musician. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Biography (1947-) He was their only child. At birth, he weighed 12 pounds, 10 ounces (5.73 kg), and was twenty-two and a half inches (57.2 cm) long. African American Registry: Mr. Basketball and much more, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar! He was raised as a Roman Catholic and attended St. Jude School in Inwood. From an early age he began his record-breaking basketball accomplishments. In high school, he led Power Memorial Academy to three straight New York City Catholic championships, a 71-game winning streak, and a 79–2 overall record. He scored 2067 points in his high school career. College Heavily sought by collegiate basketball programs, he played for the UCLA Bruins from 1966 to 1969 under coach John Wooden, contributing to the team's three-year record of 88 wins and only two losses, one to Houston (see below) and the other to crosstown rival USC who played a "stall game" (i.e., there was no shot clock, so a team could exploit the rules by, basically, holding the ball as long as it wanted before attempting to score). During his college career he was twice named Player of the Year (1967, 1969), was a three-time First Team All-American (1967-69), played on three NCAA Basketball champion teams (1967, 1968, 1969), was honored as the Most Outstanding Player in the NCAA Tournament (1967, 1968, 1969), and became the first-ever Naismith College Player of the Year in 1969. In 1967, 1968 he also won USBWA College Player of the Year which later became the Oscar Robertson Trophy. Alcindor became the only player to win the Helms Foundation Player of the Year award 3 times. Note: Freshmen were not eligible to play, so Alcindor only had 3 years to play, not four. The 1965-1966 UCLA Bruin team was the preseason #1. But on November 27 1965, the freshmen team led by Alcindor defeated the varsity team 75-60 in the first game in the new Pauley Pavilion. Florence, Mal - Who's No. 1? UCLA Frosh Too Hot for Varsity, 75-60. Los Angeles Times, November 28, 1965. Quote:Lew Alcindor strode onto the Pauley Pavilion court Saturday night and captured the town, completely demoralizing the UCLA varsity basketball team in the process. This defeat had no effect on the varsity's national ranking. It was still number one the following week. Alcindor scored 51 points in that game. UCLA became the first school to have a top winner in both basketball and football in the same year with Gary Beban winning the Heisman Trophy and Abdul-Jabbar winning the U.S. Basketball Writers Association player of the year award in 1968. The dunk was banned in college basketball after the 1967 season, primarily because of Alcindor's dominant use of the shot. Lew's Still Loose. Time Magazine, April 14, 1967. Quote:First there was the Wilt Chamberlain Rule, designed to force him away from the basket by widening the "3-sec. zone," in which an offensive player can remain for only 3 sec. at a time. Next came the Bill Russell Rule, which forbids blocking a shot when the ball is on its downward course. Now there is the Lew Alcindor Rule. College basketball's rules makers decided last week that players may no longer "dunk" or "stuff" the ball by ramming it through the hoop from directly above. While playing for UCLA, he suffered a scratched left cornea on January 12, 1968 at the Cal game when he got struck by Ted Henderson of Cal in a rebound battle. Jeff Prugh - Bruins win again without Alcindor. Big Lew Sidelined By Eye Injury Suffered in Game against Bears. Los Angeles Times, January 14, 1968 He would miss the next two games against Stanford and Portland. This happened right before the momentous game against Houston. His cornea later would be scratched again during his pro career and he would then wear goggles for protection. Game of the Century On January 20, 1968, Alcindor and the UCLA Bruins faced the Houston Cougars in the first-ever nationally televised regular season college basketball game. In front of a record 52,693 fans at the Houston Astrodome, Elvin Hayes scored 39 points and had 15 rebounds -- while limiting Alcindor to just 15 points -- as Houston beat UCLA 71-69. The Bruins 47-game winning streak ended in what has been called the "Game of the Century". Hayes and Alcindor would have a rematch in the 1968 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament where UCLA would defeat Houston in the semi-finals 101-69. School records Abdul-Jabbar had an outstanding career at UCLA. As of the 2007-2008 season, Abdul-Jabbar still holds a number of individual records at UCLA — remarkable, in part, because at the time freshmen were ineligible for varsity basketball: Highest career Scoring Average: 26.4 Most career Field Goals: 943 Most season Points: 870 (1967) Highest season Scoring Average: 29.0 (1967) Most season Field Goals: 346 (1967) Most season Free Throw Attempts: 274 (1967) Most single game Points: 61 Most single game field goals: 26 (vs. Washington State, 2/25/67) Milwaukee Bucks The Harlem Globetrotters offered him $1 million to play for them, but he declined, and was picked first in the 1969 NBA Draft by the Milwaukee Bucks, only in their second season, who won the coin-toss for first pick over the Phoenix Suns. He was also chosen first overall in the 1969 American Basketball Association draft by the New York Nets. The Nets believed that they had the upper hand in receiving Kareem's services because he was from New York; however, when Kareem told both the Bucks and the Nets that he would accept one offer only from each team, the Nets bid too low. Thus, Kareem chose the National Basketball Association over the struggling American Basketball Association. Lew Alcindor's entry into the NBA was timely, as center Bill Russell had just left the Boston Celtics, and Wilt Chamberlain, though still effective, was then 33 years old. Alcindor's presence enabled the 1969-70 Bucks to claim second place in the NBA's Eastern Division with a 56-26 record (up from 27-55 the previous year), and he was an instant star, ranking second in the league in scoring (28.8 ppg) and third in rebounding (14.5 rpg), for which he was awarded the title of NBA Rookie of the Year. With the addition of Oscar Robertson, known to sports fans as "the Big 'O'," Milwaukee went on to record the second-best record with 66 victories in 1970-71, including a then-record of 20 straight wins. Alcindor was awarded his first of six NBA Most Valuable Player Awards, along with his first scoring title (31.7 ppg). In the playoffs, the Bucks went 12-2 (including a four-game sweep of the Baltimore Bullets in the NBA Finals), won the championship, and Alcindor was named Finals MVP. On May 1, 1971, the day after the Bucks won the NBA championship, he adopted the muslim name Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, its Arabic translation roughly "generous (Kareem), servant of (Abdul) the mighty/stern one (Jabbar) [i.e., of Allah]." Abdul-Jabbar remained a dominant force for Milwaukee, repeating as scoring champion (34.8 ppg) and NBA Most Valuable Player the following year, and helping the Bucks to repeat as division leaders for four straight years. In 1973, Abdul-Jabbar won his third MVP Award in five years and was among the top five NBA players in scoring (27.0 ppg, third), rebounding (14.5 rpg, fourth), blocked shots (283, second), and field goal percentage (.539, second). While remaining relatively injury-free throughout his NBA career, Abdul-Jabbar twice broke his hand. The first time was during a pre-season game in 1974, when he was bumped hard and got his eye scratched, which angered him enough to punch the basket support stanchion. When he returned, after missing the first 16 games of the season, he started to wear protective goggles. The second time he broke his hand was in the opening game of the 1977-78 season. Two minutes into the game, Abdul-Jabbar punched Milwaukee's Kent Benson in retaliation for an overly aggressive elbow. He was out for two months. Although Abdul-Jabbar always spoke well of Milwaukee and its fans, he said that being in the Midwest did not fit his cultural needs and requested a trade to either New York or Los Angeles in October 1974. Los Angeles Lakers In 1975, the Lakers acquired Abdul-Jabbar and reserve center Walt Wesley from the Bucks for center Elmore Smith, guard Brian Winters, and rookie "blue chippers" Dave Meyers and Junior Bridgeman. In the 1975-76 season, Jabbar's first season with Los Angeles, Abdul-Jabbar had a dominating season, averaging 27.7 points per game and leading the league in rebounding, blocked shots, and minutes played. His 1,111 defensive rebounds remains the NBA single-season record (defensive rebounds were not recorded prior to the 1973-74 season). He earned his fourth MVP award, but missed the post-season for the second straight season. Once he joined the Lakers, Abdul-Jabbar began wearing his trademark goggles. Years of battling under NBA backboards, and being hit and scratched in the face in the process, had taken their toll on his eyes and he developed corneal erosion syndrome, where the eyes begin to dry out easily and cease to produce moisture. He once missed a game in the 1986-87 season due to his eyes drying out and swelling as a result. In the 1976-77 season, Abdul-Jabbar had another strong season. He led the league in field goal percentage, finished second in rebounds and blocked shots, and third in points per game. He helped lead the Lakers to the best record in the NBA, and he won his record-tying fifth MVP award. In the playoffs, the Lakers beat the Golden State Warriors in the Western Conference semi-finals, setting up a confrontation with the Portland Trail Blazers. The result was a memorable matchup, pitting Abdul-Jabbar against a young, injury-free Bill Walton. Although Abdul-Jabbar dominated the series statistically, Walton and the Trail Blazers (who were experiencing their first-ever run in the playoffs) swept the Lakers, behind Walton's skillful passing and leadership. Abdul-Jabbar's play remained strong during the next two seasons, being named to the All-NBA Second Team twice, the All-Defense First Team once, and the All-Defense Second Team once. The Lakers, however, continued to be stymied in the playoffs, being eliminated by the Seattle SuperSonics in both 1978 and 1979. In 1979, the Lakers acquired 1st overall draft pick Earvin "Magic" Johnson. The trade and draft paved the way for a second Abdul-Jabbar dynasty as the Lakers went on to become the most dominant team of the 1980s, appearing in the finals eight times and winning five NBA championships. Individually, while Jabbar was not the dominant center he was in the 1970s, he experienced a number of highlight moments. Among them were his record sixth MVP award in 1980, four more All-NBA First Team designations, two more All-Defense First Team designations, the 1985 Finals MVP, and on April 5, 1984 breaking Wilt Chamberlain's record for career points. Later in his career, he bulked up to about 265 pounds, to be able to withstand the strain of playing the highly physical center position into his early 40s. While in L.A., Abdul-Jabbar started doing yoga in 1976 to improve his flexibility, and was notable for his physical fitness regimen. http://www.yogaexpo.com/press/press27.htm In 1983, Abdul-Jabbar's house burnt down, incinerating many of his belongings including his beloved jazz LP collection. Many Lakers fans sent and brought him albums, which he found uplifting. http://lakersblog.latimes.com/lakersblog/2006/01/talking_with_ka_1.html. On June 28, 1989, after twenty professional seasons, Abdul-Jabbar announced his retirement. On his "retirement tour" he received standing ovations at all the games, home and away. In his biography My Life, Magic Johnson recalls that in Abdul-Jabbar's farewell game, many Lakers and Celtics legends participated. Every player wore Abdul-Jabbar's trademark goggles and had to try a sky hook at least once, which led to comic results. The Lakers made the NBA Finals in each of Abdul-Jabbar's final three seasons, defeating Boston in 1987, and Detroit in 1988. The Lakers lost, however, to the Pistons in a four-game sweep in his final season. In his final season every NBA team gave him presents ranging from a yacht that said "Captain Skyhook" to framed jerseys from his basketball career to an Afghan rug. Post-NBA career Since 2005, Abdul-Jabbar has served as special assistant coach for the Los Angeles Lakers. Abdul-Jabbar had been interested in coaching since his retirement, and given the influence he had on the league, he thought that the opportunity would present itself. However, during his playing years, Abdul-Jabbar had developed a reputation of being introverted and sullen. He did not speak to the press, leading to the impression that he disliked them. In his biography My Life, Magic Johnson recalls instances when Abdul-Jabbar brushed him off when Magic (as a ballboy) asked for his autograph, Abdul-Jabbar froze out reporters who gave him a too enthusiastic handshake or even hugged him, or refused to stop reading the newspaper while giving an interview. Many basketball observers, in addition to Abdul-Jabbar, believe that Kareem's reticence, whether through disdain for the press corps or simply because of introversion, contributed to the dearth of coaching opportunities offered to Kareem by the NBA. In his words, he said he had a mindset he could not overcome, and proceeded through his career oblivious to the effect his reticence may have had on his coaching prospects in the future. Kareem said: "I didn't understand that I also had affected people that way and that's what it was all about. I always saw it like they were trying to pry. I was way too suspicious and I paid a price for it." Lakers Blog : Los Angeles Times : Talking with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Part I Since he began lobbying for a coaching position in 1995, he has managed to obtain only low-level assistant and scouting jobs in the NBA, and a head coaching position only in a minor professional league. Abdul-Jabbar has worked as an assistant for the Los Angeles Clippers and the Seattle SuperSonics, helping mentor, among others, their young centers, Michael Olowokandi and Jerome James. Abdul-Jabbar was the head coach of the Oklahoma Storm of the United States Basketball League in 2002, leading the team to the league's championship that season, but he failed to land the head coaching position at Columbia University a year later. He then worked as a scout for the New York Knicks. Finally, on September 2, 2005, he returned to the Lakers as a special assistant to Phil Jackson to help the Lakers' centers, and in particular their young draftee Andrew Bynum. Abdul-Jabbar's influence has been credited with Bynum's emergence as a top level NBA center. Abdul-Jabbar has also served as a volunteer coach at Alchesay High School on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation in Whiteriver, Arizona since 1998. Acting career Playing in Los Angeles facilitated Abdul-Jabbar's trying his hand at acting. Abdul-Jabbar made his movie debut in Bruce Lee's posthumous 1978 film Game of Death, in which his character Hakim fought Billy Lo (played by Lee). His character was the last and most dangerous guardian that Bruce Lee's character had to face. In the extended footage of the final fight scenes of the film (which was shot in 1973), which last about half an hour, Abdul-Jabbar and Lee fight on the highest level of a pagoda in which Lee's character had to fight his way up. In 1980, he played co-pilot Roger Murdock in Airplane!. Abdul-Jabbar has a memorable scene in which a little boy looks at him and remarks that he is in fact Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Staying in character, Abdul-Jabbar states that he is merely Roger Murdock, an airline co-pilot, but the boy continues to insist that he is "the greatest", but that, according to his father, he doesn't "work hard on defense" and "never really tries, except during the playoffs". This causes Abdul-Jabbar's character to blow a fuse, grab the boy and snarl he has heard "that crap since UCLA", he "busts his buns every night" and the boy should tell his old man to "drag [Bill] Walton and [Bob] Lanier up and down the court for 48 minutes". When Murdock passes out later in the film, he is carried out wearing Abdul-Jabbar's goggles and yellow Lakers' shorts. He has had numerous other television and film appearances, often playing himself, including appearances in the movie Fletch, the sitcoms Full House, Living Single, Amen, Everybody Loves Raymond, Martin, Diff'rent Strokes (his height humorously contrasted with that of diminutive child star Gary Coleman), The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Scrubs, and Emergency!. He also appeared in the telemovie version of Stephen King's The Stand, played himself in Slam Dunk Ernest, and a brief non-speaking cameo appearance in BASEketball. Kareem was also the co-executive producer of the 1994 TV movie, The Vernon Johns Story. In 2008 Kareem appeared on The Colbert Report as a stage manager who is sent out on a mission to find Nazi Gold. The Colbert Report appearance Player profile Abdul-Jabbar played the center position and is regarded as one of the best players of all time. He is the all-time leading NBA scorer with 38,387 points, having collected six titles, six regular season MVP and two Finals MVP awards, fifteen NBA First or Second Teams, a record nineteen NBA All-Star call-ups and averaging 24.6 points, 11.2 rebounds, 3.6 assists and 2.6 blocks per game. He is also the third all-time in registered blocks (3,189), which is even more impressive because this stat had not been recorded until the fourth year of his career (1974). On offense, Abdul-Jabbar was an unstoppable low-post threat. In contrast to other low-post dominators like Wilt Chamberlain, Artis Gilmore or Shaquille O'Neal, Abdul-Jabbar was a relatively slender player, standing 7-2 but only weighing 225 lbs (though in his latter years the Lakers listed Abdul-Jabbar's weight as 265). However, he made up for his relative lack of bulk by showing textbook finesse, strength and was famous for his ambidextrous skyhook shot (see below), which defenders found impossible to block. It contributed to his high .559 field goal accuracy, making him the eighth most accurate scorer of all time Career Leaders and Records for Field Goal Pct - Basketball-Reference.com and a feared clutch shooter. Abdul-Jabbar was also quick enough to run the "Showtime" fast break led by Magic Johnson and was well-conditioned, standing on the hardwood an average 36.8 minutes. In contrast to other big men, Abdul-Jabbar also could reasonably hit his free throws, finishing with a career 72% average. On defense, Abdul-Jabbar maintained a dominant presence. He was selected to the NBA All-Defensive Team eleven times. He frustrated opponents with his superior shot-blocking ability, denying an average 2.6 shots a game. As a teammate, Abdul-Jabbar exuded natural leadership and was affectionately called "Cap" or "Captain" by his colleagues. He was also known for his strict fitness regime, which made him one of the most durable players of all time. In the NBA, his 20 seasons and 1,560 games are performances surpassed only by fellow legend Robert Parish. Abdul-Jabbar made the NBA's 35th and 50th Anniversary Teams and in 1996 was named one of the 50 Greatest Players of All Time. Sky hook Abdul-Jabbar was well known for his trademark "sky hook", a hook shot in which he bent his entire body (rather than just the arm) like a straw in one fluid motion to raise the ball and then release it at the highest point of his arm's arching motion. Combined with his long arms and great height in which he stood 7 feet 2 inches tall, the sky hook was nearly impossible for a defender to block without goaltending. Only a few have blocked his legendary skyhook, including basketball greats Wilt Chamberlain and Hakeem Olajuwon. It was a reliable and feared offensive weapon and contributed to his high lifetime field goal percentage of .559. As a twist, he was adept at shooting the skyhook with either hand, which made him even more difficult to defend. According to Abdul-Jabbar, he learned the move in fifth grade and soon learned to value it, as it was "the only shot I could use that didn't get smashed back in my face". Lakers Blog : Los Angeles Times : Talking with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Part II Professional basketball career and statistics Teams and years 1969-75 Milwaukee Bucks 1975-89 Los Angeles Lakers Statistics Games played - 1560 (2nd most in NBA history) Field goal % - 55.9 (8th highest in NBA history) Free throw % - 72.1 Three-point % - 05.6 Rebounds - 17,440 (3rd most in NBA history) Rebounds per game - 11.2 (tied for 24th highest in NBA history) Assists - 5,660 (31st in NBA history) Assist per game - 3.6 Steals - 1,160 Steals per game - 0.74 Blocks - 3,189 (3rd most in NBA history) (Note: blocks were not officially tabulated until the 1973-74 season) Blocks per game - 2.57 Points per game - 24.6 (12th highest) Holds NBA career record for: Most points - 38,387 Most minutes played (57,446) Most field goals made (15,837) Most field goals attempted (28,307) Most All-Star selections (19) Most All-Star games played (18) Athletic honors Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame (May 15, 1995) College: Player of the Year (1967, 1969) Three-time First Team All-American (1967-69) Three-time NCAA champion (1967, 1968, 1969) Most Outstanding Player in NCAA Tournament (1967, 1968, 1969) Naismith College Player of the Year (1969) National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame (2007) JOHN MARSHALL: Abdul-Jabbar Honored by College Hall Associated Press. November 18, 2007. National Basketball Association: Rookie of the Year (1970) Six-time NBA champion (1971, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988) Most Valuable Player (1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1980) Sporting News NBA MVP (1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1980) Finals Most Valuable Player (1971, 1985) Sports Illustrated magazine's "Sportsman of the Year" (1985) One of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History (1996) First player in NBA history to play 20 seasons #7 in SLAM Magazine's Top 75 NBA Players of all time in 2003. Books authored Kareem Abdul-Jabbar at a book signing. Abdul-Jabbar is also a bestselling author, the latest of his books being On the Shoulders of Giants: My Journey Through the Harlem Renaissance. His previous book, co-written with Anthony Walton, was Brothers In Arms: The Epic Story of the 761st Tank Battalion, WWII's Forgotten Heroes (Publisher: Broadway 2004, ISBN 0-385-50338-5), the history of the 761st Battalion, an all-black armored unit that served in Europe in World War Two. Other books: Giant Steps, with Peter Knobler (1987) ISBN 0-553-05044-3 (The book's title is an homage to jazz great John Coltrane.) Kareem (1990) ISBN 0-394-55927-4 Selected from Giant Steps (Writers' Voices) (1999) ISBN 0-7857-9912-5 Black Profiles in Courage: A Legacy of African-American Achievement, with Alan Steinberg (1996) ISBN 0-688-13097-6 A Season on the Reservation: My Sojourn with the White Mountain Apaches, with Stephen Singular (2000) ISBN 0-688-17077-3 Brothers in Arms: The Epic Story of the 761st Tank Battalion, WWII's Forgotten Heroes with Anthony Walton (2005) ISBN 978-0767909136 On the Shoulders of Giants: My Journey Through the Harlem Renaissance with Raymond Obstfeld (2007) ISBN 978-1416534884 Audio Book: On the Shoulders of Giants: An Audio Journey Through the Harlem Renaissance 8 CD Set Vol. 1-4, with Avery Brooks, Jesse L. Martin, Maya Angelou, Herbie Hancock, Billy Crystal, Charles Barkley, James Worthy, Julius Erving, Jerry West, Clyde Drexler, Bill Russell, Coach John Wooden, Stanley Crouch, Quincy Jones and other chart-topping musicians, as well as legendary actors and performers such as Samuel L. Jackson. (2008) ISBN 978-0-615-18301-5 In 2007, Abdul-Jabbar participated in the national UCLA alumni commercial entitled "My Big UCLA Moment." The UCLA commercial is featured on YouTube. Personal life Abdul-Jabbar was married to Habiba Abdul-Jabbar (born Janice Brown), and together they had three children: daughters Habiba and Sultana and son Kareem Jr., who also played basketball. They were divorced in 1978. He has another son, Amir, with Cheryl Pistono. Another child was his son Adam, who made an appearance on the TV sitcom Full House with his father. He has also previously dated actress Pam Grier. http://ps1.sportsline.com/b/member/playboy/8606_b9.html Speaking about the thinking behind his change of name when he converted to Islam he said to Playboy magazine that he was "latching on to something that was part of my heritage, because many of the slaves who were brought here were Muslims. My family was brought to America by a French planter named Alcindor, who came here from Trinidad in the 18th Century. My people were Yoruba, and their culture survived slavery (...) My father found out about that when I was a kid, and it gave me all I needed to know that, hey, I was somebody, even if nobody else knew about it. When I was a kid, no one would believe anything positive that you could say about black people. And that's a terrible burden on black people, because they don't have an accurate idea of their history, which has been either suppressed or distorted." Sportsline Abdul-Jabbar reached a settlement after suing Miami Dolphins running back Karim Abdul-Jabbar (now Abdul-Karim al-Jabbar, born Sharmon Shah) because he felt Karim was sponging off the name he made famous by having the Abdul-Jabbar moniker and number 33 on his Dolphins jersey, even though names are not protectable under U.S. copyright laws. As a result, the younger Abdul-Jabbar had to change his jersey nameplate to simply 'Abdul' while playing for the Dolphins. Find Articles The football player had also been an athlete at UCLA. Kareem suffers from migraines, TRANSFERRING A HEADACHE - New York Times and his use of cannabis to reduce the symptoms has caused legal ramifications. BBC SPORT | OTHER SPORTS | Abdul-Jabbar in drug arrest Appearances in the media Abdul-Jabbar has twice appeared on Celebrity Jeopardy!, coasting to dominant victories each time. His first appearance was against Larry King and Alexandra Paul in 1994; his second was against Martina Navratilova and Reggie Jackson in a special athletes edition in 1998. He also plays the role of Roger Murdock, one of the co-pilots in the movie Airplane!. The running joke is that he keeps changing the subject when the kid (played by Rossie Harris) points out his resemblance to Abdul-Jabbar, until the kid mentions his father's criticisms of Abdul-Jabbar, at which point Kareem breaks out of his character and defends his basketball performance. He also appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 1995 with Jennifer Aniston. Abdul-Jabbar appeared in the series premiere of the short-lived 1991 sitcom Good Sports with Ryan O'Neal and Farrah Fawcett. While he was still a student at UCLA, Kareem was a Jeet Kune Do student of Bruce Lee. He later appeared with Bruce in his film Game of Death as Bruce's character's ultimate foe, The Unknown Fighter (unknown style). He made a short appearance in the ABC miniseries The Stand based on the Stephen King book. He played a doomsayer, who was killed by Randall Flagg for foretelling his coming. He appeared in the movies BASEketball and The Mighty Ducks. In 2007, Abdul-Jabbar launched his official website On the Shoulders of Giants with his partner Deborah Morales, from Iconomy. In 2008, he appeared in the video "Yes We Can" with will.i.am from the Black Eyed Peas and many other celebrities, including John Legend, Scarlett Johansson and rapper Nick Cannon, supporting U.S. Presidential candidate Barack Obama. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar has been appearing on various radio stations and TV shows, as well as the most relevant websites talking about his life and his new audio book, On the Shoulders of Giants. In January 2008, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar launched his Blog with the L.A. Times. In May 2008 the blog was moved to his website Kareemabduljabbar.com/blog. In July 2008, the blog was spoofed by NotTheLATimes.com. This Wikipedia article on Abdul-Jabbar was featured in an advert for the Apple iPhone. Serbian hip hop group Prti Bee Gee recorded a song about Kareem Abdul-Jabbar called " K'o Kareem Abdul Jabbari". Kareem Abdul Jabbar Jr. made an appearance as a "stranger" on the TV game show Identity. Pearl Jam has a B-side called "Sweet Lew", which is about bassist Jeff Ament's experience meeting Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (Lew Alcindor). Abdul-Jabbar made an appearance as himself in the 1986 Disney television movie, Ask Max. Abdul-Jabbar made an appearance in the television sitcom Full House in the episode "Air Jesse". Abdul-Jabbar appeared as a guest in "Will's Misery", a 1994 episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, in which he broke the Banks' window while playing golf. Abdul-Jabbar appeared as a guest star as himself in the Scrubs Season 5 episode "My Cabbage" and in "Frank the Writer", an episode of Everybody Loves Raymond. Sports Illustrated Kareem Abdul-Jabbar has appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated 29 times. December 5, 1966* April 3, 1967* January 29, 1968* April 1, 1968* March 31, 1969* October 27, 1969* March 9, 1970* April 27, 1970* April 19, 1971* February 8, 1971* April 24, 1972* February 19, 1973 October 14, 1974 May 20, 1974 February 14, 1977 May 27, 1977 December 15, 1980 May 5, 1980 May 9, 1983; February 1984 December 23, 1985 June 10, 1985 June 17, 1985 May 26, 1986 June 22, 1987 April 18, 1988 January 23, 1989 November 11, 1996 December 27, 2004 * as Lew Alcindor 18 06 History I.indd See also List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 2000 points and 1000 rebounds List of individual National Basketball Association scoring leaders by season References External links Official Kareem Abdul-Jabbar website Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's Blog nba.com historical playerfile Kareem's Career NBA Statistics Kareem's complete bio @ NBA.com Basketball Hall of Fame profile 1967-68 Oscar Robertson Trophy USBWA College Player of the Year Kareem Abdul-Jabbar playerfile, stats, draft, NBA at 50, wallpapers SPORT magazine, February 1976: Goodbye Schlitz, Hello Smog: Kareem Goes West Again Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Profile and Stats at LakersWeb.com Kareem Abdul-Jabbar: My Big UCLA Moment Video: Kareem Abdul-Jabbar speaks about Coach John Wooden Video: Kareem Abdul-Jabbar gives the keynote address during the inauguration of UCLA Chancellor Gene D. 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6,748 | October_Revolution | Bolshevik (1920), by Boris Kustodiev. The October Revolution (, Oktyabr'skaya revolyuciya), also known as the Soviet Revolution or Bolshevik Revolution, was a revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution—that began with an armed insurrection in Petrograd traditionally dated to 25 October 1917 Julian calendar (7 November 1917 Gregorian calendar). "SparkNotes: The October Revolution" (timeline), SparkNotes LLC, 2006, webpage: SN-5: accessed 2007-01-28. It was the second phase of the overall Russian Revolution of 1917, after the February Revolution of the same year. The October Revolution overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and gave the power to the Soviets dominated by Bolsheviks. It was followed by the Russian Civil War (1917–1922) and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks, who used their influence in the Petrograd Soviet to organize the armed forces. Bolshevik Red Guards forces under the Military Revolutionary Committee began the takeover of government buildings on 24 October. On 25 October (JC) the Winter Palace (the seat of the Provisional government located in Petrograd, then capital of Russia), was captured. Etymology Initially, the event was referred to as the October uprising (Октябрьский переворот) or the Uprising of 25th, as seen in contemporary documents (for example, in the first editions of Lenin's complete works). With time, the term October Revolution came into use – it is also known as the "November Revolution", having occurred in November according to the Gregorian Calendar –, and the event became seen as an event of major importance. The Great October Socialist Revolution (Russian: Великая Октябрьская Социалистическая Революция, Velikaya Oktyabr'skaya sotsialisticheskaya revolyutsiya) was the official name for the October Revolution in the Soviet Union's [Советский Союз's] since the 10th anniversary of the Revolution in 1927. Background A nationwide crisis had developed in Russia affecting social, economic, and political relations. The policies of the Provisional Government had brought the country to the brink of a national catastrophe. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased. Gross industrial production in 1917 had decreased by over 36 percent from what it had been in 1916. In the autumn, as much as 50 percent of all enterprises were closed down in the Urals, the Donbas, and other industrial centers, leading to mass unemployment. At the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. The real wages of the workers fell about 50 percent from what they had been in 1913. Russia’s national debt in October 1917 had risen to 50 billion rubles. Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion rubles. The country faced the threat of financial bankruptcy. [http://www.cultinfo.ru/fulltext/1/001/008/003/821.htm In September and October 1917, there were strikes by the Moscow and Petrograd workers, the miners of the Donbas, the metalworkers of the Urals, the oil workers of Baku, the textile worker of the Central Industrial Region, and the railroad workers on 44 different railway lines. In these months alone more than a million workers took part in mass strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants. Until October 1917 there were over four thousand peasant uprisings against landowners. When the Provisional Government sent out punitive detachments it only enraged the peasants. The garrisons in Petrograd, Moscow, and other cities, the Northern and Western fronts, and the sailors of the Baltic Fleet in September openly declared through their elected representative body Tsentrobalt that they did not recognize the authority of the Provisional Government and would not carry out any of its commands. In a diplomatic note of 1 May the minister of foreign affairs P.Miliukov, expressing the Provisional Government’s desire to carry the war through “to a victorious conclusion” aroused broad indignation and brought people out in open anti-government demonstrations. On May 1-4 about 100 thousand workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and after them the workers and soldiers of other cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading “Down with the war!” and “all power to the soviets!” The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for the Provisional Government. On July 1 about 500,000 workers and soldiers in Petrograd demonstrated for the demands “all power to the soviets”, “down with the war”, and “down with the ten capitalist ministers.” The Provisional Government opened an offensive against the Germans on July 1, but it soon collapsed. The news of the offensive and its collapse intensified the struggle of the workers and the soldiers. A new crisis in the Provisional Government began on July 15. On July 16 spontaneous demonstrations of workers and soldiers began in Petrograd, demanding that power be turned over to the soviets. The Central Committee of the RSDLP provided the leadership to the spontaneous movements. A peaceful demonstration was held in Petrograd with more than 500,000 participants. By order of the Provisional Government, and with the knowledge of the SR-Menshevik leaders of the All-Russian Executive Committee of the Soviets, there was an armed attack by military officers against the demonstrators. 56 people were killed and 650 wounded. A period of repression began. On July 5-6 attacks were made on the editorial offices and printing presses of Pravda and on the Palace of Kshesinskaia, where the Central Committee and the Petrograd Committee of the Bolsheviks were located. On 7 July a government decree ordering the arrest and trial of Lenin was published. He was forced to go underground, just as he had been under the tsarist regime. Bolsheviks began to be arrested, workers were disarmed, and revolutionary military units in Petrograd were disbanded or sent off to the front. On July 12 the Provisional Government published a law introducing the death penalty at the front. The formation of the second coalition government, with Kerensky as chairman, was completed on July 24. A conspiracy against the country begun, headed by General Kornilov, who had been supreme commander in chief since July 18. In response to a Bolshevik appeal, Moscow’s working class began a protest strike of 400 thousand workers. The Moscow workers were supported by strikes and protest rallies by workers in Koev, Kharkov, Nizhny Novgorod, Ekaterinburg, and other cities. On August 25, General Kornilov began a military revolt and started troops moving toward Petrograd. The Central Committee of the RSDLP appealed on August 27 to the workers, soldiers, and sailors of Petrograd to come to defense of the revolution. The Bolshevik Party mobilized and organized the people to defeat the Kornilov revolt. The Red Guard in the capital, which by then numbered about 25 thousand fighters, was supported by the garrison of the city, the Baltic sailors, the railroad workers, the workers of Moscow, the Donbas, the Urals, and the soldiers at the front and in the rear. The defeat of Kornilov’s revolt disorganized and weakened the counterrevolutionary group, demonstrated the strength of the revolutionary forces, increased the authority of the Bolsheviks, and proved to be one of the decisive stages in the struggle for the victory of the socialist revolution. With Kornilov’s failed putsch, the Bolsheviks' popularity with the soviets significantly increased. During and after the defeat of Kornilov a mass turn of the soviets toward the Bolsheviks began, both in the central and local areas. On 31 August the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies and on September 5 the Moscow Soviet Workers Deputies adopted the Bolshevik resolutions on the question of power. The Bolsheviks won a majority in the soviets of Briansk, Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Minsk, Kiev, Tashkent, and other cities. In one day alone, September 1, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets received demands from 126 local soviets uring it take power into its own hands. Events Cruiser Aurora. On 10 October JC (all dates hereafter are from the Julian calendar unless otherwise noted), the Bolsheviks' Central Committee voted 10-2 for a resolution saying that "an armed uprising is inevitable, and that the time for it is fully ripe". Central Committee Meeting—10 Oct 1917 On 23 October 1917 (November 5 by the Gregorian calendar (GC)), Bolshevik leader Jaan Anvelt led his leftist revolutionaries in an uprising in Tallinn, the capital of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia. On 25 October (7 November GC) 1917, Bolsheviks led their forces in the uprising in Saint Petersburg (then known as Petrograd), the capital of Russia, against the ineffective Kerensky Provisional Government. For the most part, the revolt in Petrograd was bloodless, with the Red Guards led by Bolsheviks taking over major government facilities with little opposition before finally launching an assault on the Winter Palace on the night of 25/26 October. The assault led by Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko was launched at 9:45 p.m. signaled by a blank shot from the cruiser Aurora. (The Aurora was placed in Petrograd (modern Saint Petersburg) and still stands there now.) The Winter Palace was guarded by Cossacks, cadets (military students), and a Women's Battalion. It was taken at about 2 a.m. The earlier date was made the official date of the Revolution, when all offices except the Winter Palace had been taken. Later official accounts of the revolution from the Soviet Union would depict the events in October as being far more dramatic than they actually had been. (See firsthand account by British General Knox). This was helped by the historical reenactment, entitled The Storming of the Winter Palace staged in 1920. This reenactment, watched by 100,000 spectators, provided the model for subsequent official films which made much later showed a huge storming of the Winter Palace and fierce fighting (See Sergei Eisenstein's October: Ten Days That Shook the World). In reality the Bolshevik insurgents faced little or no opposition and were practically able just to walk into the building and take it over. The insurrection was timed and organized to hand state power to the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which began on 25 October. After a single day of revolution eighteen people had been arrested and two had been killed. Outcomes Petrograd Milrevcom proclamation about the deposing of the Russian Provisional Government The Second Congress of Soviets consisted of 670 elected delegates; 300 were Bolshevik and nearly a hundred were Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, who also supported the overthrow of the Kerensky Government. Service, Robert. A history of twentieth-century Russia. Massachusetts:Harvard University Press Cambridge, 1998. ISBN 0-674-40347-9 When the fall of the Winter Palace was announced, the Congress adopted a decree transferring power to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies, thus ratifying the Revolution. The transfer of power was not without disagreement. The center and Right wings of the Socialist Revolutionaries as well as the Mensheviks believed that Lenin and the Bolsheviks had illegally seized power and they walked out before the resolution was passed. As they exited, they were taunted by Leon Trotsky who told them "You are pitiful isolated individuals; you are bankrupts; your role is played out. Go where you belong from now on — into the dustbin of history!" The following day, the Congress elected a Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) as the basis of a new Soviet Government, pending the convocation of a Constituent Assembly, and passed the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land. This new government was also officially called "provisional" until the Assembly was dissolved. The Decree on Land ratified the actions of the peasants who throughout Russia seized private land and redistributed it among themselves. The Bolsheviks viewed themselves as representing an alliance of workers and peasants and memorialized that understanding with the Hammer and Sickle on the flag and coat of arms of the Soviet Union. Other decrees: The Russian banks were all nationalized. Control of the factories was given to the soviets. Private bank accounts were confiscated. The Church's properties (including bank accounts) were seized. Wages were fixed at higher rates than during the war and a shorter, eight-hour working day was introduced. All foreign debts were repudiated. Bolshevik-led attempts to seize power in other parts of the Russian Empire were largely successful in Russia proper — although the fighting in Moscow lasted for two weeks — but they were less successful in ethnically non-Russian parts of the Empire, which had been clamoring for independence since the February Revolution. For example, the Ukrainian Rada, which had declared autonomy on 23 June 1917, created the Ukrainian People's Republic on 20 November, which was supported by the Ukrainian Congress of Soviets. This led to an armed conflict with the Bolshevik government in Petrograd and, eventually, a Ukrainian declaration of independence from Russia on 25 January 1918. See Encyclopedia of Ukraine online In Estonia, two rival governments emerged: the Estonian Provincial Assembly proclaimed itself the supreme legal authority of Estonia on 28 November 1917 and issued the Declaration of Independence on 24 February 1918, while an Estonian Bolshevik sympathizer, Jaan Anvelt, was recognized by Lenin's government as Estonia's leader on 8 December, although forces loyal to Anvelt controlled only the capital. See the article on Estonian independence in the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia online The success of the October Revolution transformed the Russian state from parliamentarian to socialist in character. A coalition of anti-Bolshevik groups including invading armies from the victorious Allies attempted to unseat the new government in the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1922. The United States did not recognize the new Russian government until 1933. The European powers recognized the Soviet Union in the early 1920s and began to engage in business with it after the New Economic Policy (NEP) was implemented. Soviet in memoriam of the event The term Red October (Красный Октябрь, Krasny Oktyabr) has also been used to describe the events of the month. This name has in turn been lent to a steel factory made notable by the Battle of Stalingrad, a Moscow sweets factory that is well-known in Russia, and a fictional Soviet submarine. Sergei Eisenstein's film October describes and glorifies the revolution and was commissioned to commemorate the event. 7 November, the anniversary of the October Revolution, was an official holiday in the Soviet Union and still is in Belarus. The October revolution of 1917 also marks the inception of the first Communist government in Russia. After this Russia became the USSR, which existed up until its dissolution in 1991. See also February Revolution Russian Revolution (1917) Arthur Ransome John Reed Ten Days that Shook the World Russian Civil War Revolutions of 1917-23 Footnotes External links The October Revolution Archive From Liberty to Brest-Litovsk -- Eye-witness to the first year of the bolshevik revolution Let History Judge Russia’s Revolutions, commentary by Roy Medvedev, Project Syndicate, 2007 | October_Revolution |@lemmatized bolshevik:28 boris:1 kustodiev:1 october:26 revolution:32 oktyabr:3 skaya:2 revolyuciya:1 also:7 know:4 soviet:28 part:5 russian:17 begin:12 arm:4 insurrection:2 petrograd:19 traditionally:1 date:4 julian:2 calendar:5 november:8 gregorian:3 sparknotes:2 timeline:1 llc:1 webpage:1 sn:1 accessed:1 second:4 phase:1 overall:1 february:4 year:2 overthrow:2 provisional:14 government:28 give:2 power:12 dominate:1 follow:1 civil:3 war:7 creation:1 union:6 lead:9 use:3 influence:1 organize:3 armed:2 force:6 red:4 guard:4 military:5 revolutionary:6 committee:9 takeover:1 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6,749 | Lazio | Lazio, also called Latium in English, Entry Latium on the Merriam-Webster OnLine is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo to the east, Campania to the south, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. Geography Latium is bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Marche, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Its coast is low-lying and very sandy, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo (541 m) and Orlando (171). The Pontine Islands, which are part of Latium, lie opposite the southern coast. Behind the coastal strip, to the North we find: the Latium Maremma (the continuation of Tuscan Maremma), interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains (616 m), in the centre by the Roman Campagna and to the South by Agro Pontino. This area, once swampy and unhealthy, was reclaimed over the centuries (though work was finished only in the 1930s) for repopulation and agricultural exploitation. The Latium Preapennines, marked by the Tiber valley and the Liri with the Sacco tributary, includes on the right of the Tiber, three groups of mountains of volcanic origin: the Volsini, Cimini and Sabatini, whose principal craters are occupied by the Bolsena, Vico and Bracciano lakes. To the South of the Tiber other mountain groups form part of the Preapennines: the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin, and the calcareous Lepini, Ausoni and Aurunci Mountains. The Latium Apennines are part of the Abruzzo Apennines: the Reatini Mountains with Terminillo (2,213 m), Mounts Sabini, Prenestini, Simbruini and Ernici which continue East of the Liri into the Mainarde Mountains. The highest peak is Gorzano Mount (2,458 m) on the border with Abruzzo. History The name of the region also survives in the tribal designation of the ancient population of Latins, from whom the Romans originated. In Roman mythology, the shadowy king Latinus allegedly gave his name to the region. The name is most likely derived from the Latin word "latus", meaning "wide", expressing the idea of "flat land" (in contrast to the local Sabine high country) but the name may originate from an earlier, non Indo-European one. Latium, originally inhabited by the Latins, extended its boundaries to the territories of the Sanniti, the Marsi and Campania thanks to the Roman conquests, taking in the lands of the Ernici, the Equi, the Aurunci and Volsci. This territory was called Latium Novi to differentiate it from Latium veteres, which indicated the original boundaries. In the administrative system of the emperor Augustus, Latium - together with the present region of Campania - became the first Italian region. After the Gothic War (535-554) and the Byzantine conquest, this region regained its freedom, because the "Roman Duchy" became the property of the Eastern Emperor. However the long wars against the barbarian Longobards weakened the region, which was seized by the Roman Bishop who already had several properties in those territories. The strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between lords and the Roman bishop until the middle of the XVI century. Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power, wishing to assert his authority in the provincial administrations of Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, in order to reduce the power of the Colonna family. Other popes tried to do the same. During the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France (1309-1377), the feudal lords' power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome. Small communes, and Rome above all, opposed the lords' increasing power, and with Cola di Rienzo, they tried to present themselves as antagonists of the ecclesiastical power. However, between 1353 and 1367, the papacy regained control of Latium and the rest of the Papal States. From the middle of the 16th century, the papacy politically unified Latium with the Papal States, so that these territories became provincial administrations of St. Peter's estate; governors in Viterbo, in Marittima and Campagna, and in Frosinone administered them for the papacy. After the short-lived Roman Republic and the region's annexation to France, by Napoleon I, Latium became again part of the Papal States. In 1870 when the French troops abandoned Rome, General Cadorna entered the pontifical territory, occupying Rome on 20 September, and Latium was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. Economy Agriculture, crafts, animal husbandry and fishery are the main traditional sources of income. Agriculture is characterized by the cultivation of wine grapes, fruit, vegetables and olives. Industrial development in Lazio is limited to the areas south of Rome. Communications have influenced the position of industry, favouring the areas with the best links to Rome and those near the Autostrada del Sole (motorway), especially around Frosinone. Firms are often small to medium in size and operate in the building and building materials (Rome, Civitavecchia), paper (Sora), petrochemical (Gaeta, Rome), textile (Frosinone), engineering (Rieti, Anagni), automobile (Cassino), electronic and electrotechnical (Viterbo) sectors. Approximately 73% of the working population are employed in the services sector; this is a considerable proportion, but is justified by the presence of Rome, which is the core of public administration, banking, tourism, insurance and other sectors. Many national and multinational corporations, public and private, have their headquarters in Rome (ENI, Enel, Finmeccanica, Alitalia, RAI). Demographics The population density ranges from 765 inhabitants per km2 in the province of Rome to less than 60 inhabitants per km2 in the province of Rieti (2008 est.). The overall population density in the region of Lazio is of 326 inhabitants per km2, which is the third highest amongst the Italian regions after Campania and Lombardia. As of 2006, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 275,065 foreign-born immigrants live in Lazio, equal to 5.2% of the total regional population. Government and politics Rome is center-left politically oriented by tradition, while the rest of Lazio is center-right oriented. In the 2008 general election, Lazio gave 44.2% of its vote to the centre-right coalition, while the centre-left block took 41.4% of vote. Administrative divisions Lazio is divided into five provinces: ProvinceArea (km²)PopulationDensity (inh./km²) Province of Frosinone 3,244 496,545 153.1 Province of Latina 2,251 543,844 241.4 Province of Rieti 2,749 158,545 57.7 Province of Rome 5,352 4,097,085 765.5 Province of Viterbo 3,612 314.690 87.1 References External links Official Site of the Regione Lazio Official Site of the Regione Lazio Map of Lazio Dialects of southern Lazio | Lazio |@lemmatized lazio:11 also:3 call:2 latium:15 english:1 entry:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 region:10 central:1 italy:2 border:3 tuscany:2 umbria:2 marche:2 north:2 abruzzo:4 east:2 campania:5 south:4 tyrrhenian:2 sea:2 west:1 geography:1 molise:1 coast:2 low:1 lying:1 sandy:1 punctuate:1 headland:1 circeo:1 orlando:1 pontine:1 island:1 part:4 lie:1 opposite:1 southern:2 behind:1 coastal:1 strip:1 find:1 maremma:2 continuation:1 tuscan:1 interrupt:1 civitavecchia:2 tolfa:1 mountain:5 centre:3 roman:8 campagna:3 agro:1 pontino:1 area:3 swampy:1 unhealthy:1 reclaim:1 century:3 though:1 work:1 finish:1 repopulation:1 agricultural:1 exploitation:1 preapennines:2 mark:1 tiber:3 valley:1 liri:2 sacco:1 tributary:1 include:1 right:3 three:1 group:2 volcanic:2 origin:2 volsini:1 cimini:1 sabatini:1 whose:1 principal:1 crater:1 occupy:2 bolsena:1 vico:1 bracciano:1 lake:1 form:1 alban:1 hill:1 calcareous:1 lepini:1 ausoni:1 aurunci:2 apennines:2 reatini:1 mountains:1 terminillo:1 mount:2 sabini:1 prenestini:1 simbruini:1 ernici:2 continue:1 mainarde:1 high:3 peak:1 gorzano:1 history:1 name:4 survive:1 tribal:1 designation:1 ancient:1 population:5 latin:3 originate:2 mythology:1 shadowy:1 king:1 latinus:1 allegedly:1 give:2 likely:1 derive:1 word:1 latus:1 meaning:1 wide:1 express:1 idea:1 flat:1 land:2 contrast:1 local:1 sabine:1 country:1 may:1 early:1 non:1 indo:1 european:1 one:1 originally:1 inhabit:1 extend:1 boundary:2 territory:5 sanniti:1 marsi:1 thanks:1 conquests:1 take:2 equi:1 volsci:1 novi:1 differentiate:1 veteres:1 indicate:1 original:1 administrative:2 system:1 emperor:2 augustus:1 together:1 present:2 become:4 first:1 italian:3 gothic:1 war:2 byzantine:1 conquest:1 regain:2 freedom:1 duchy:1 property:2 eastern:1 however:2 long:1 barbarian:1 longobards:1 weaken:1 seize:1 bishop:2 already:1 several:1 strengthening:1 religious:1 ecclesiastical:2 aristocracy:1 lead:1 continuous:1 power:6 struggle:1 lord:3 middle:2 xvi:1 innocent:1 iii:1 try:3 strengthen:1 territorial:1 wish:1 assert:1 authority:1 provincial:2 administration:3 tuscia:1 marittima:2 church:1 representative:1 order:1 reduce:1 colonna:1 family:1 pope:2 period:1 papacy:4 reside:1 avignon:1 france:2 feudal:1 increase:2 due:1 absence:1 rome:13 small:2 commune:1 oppose:1 cola:1 di:1 rienzo:1 antagonist:1 control:1 rest:2 papal:3 state:3 politically:2 unified:1 st:1 peter:1 estate:1 governor:1 viterbo:3 frosinone:4 administer:1 short:1 live:2 republic:1 annexation:1 napoleon:1 french:1 troop:1 abandon:1 general:2 cadorna:1 enter:1 pontifical:1 september:1 incorporate:1 kingdom:1 economy:1 agriculture:2 craft:1 animal:1 husbandry:1 fishery:1 main:1 traditional:1 source:1 income:1 characterize:1 cultivation:1 wine:1 grape:1 fruit:1 vegetable:1 olive:1 industrial:1 development:1 limit:1 communication:1 influence:1 position:1 industry:1 favour:1 best:1 link:2 near:1 autostrada:1 del:1 sole:1 motorway:1 especially:1 around:1 firm:1 often:1 medium:1 size:1 operate:1 building:2 material:1 paper:1 sora:1 petrochemical:1 gaeta:1 textile:1 engineering:1 rieti:3 anagni:1 automobile:1 cassino:1 electronic:1 electrotechnical:1 sector:3 approximately:1 working:1 employ:1 service:1 considerable:1 proportion:1 justify:1 presence:1 core:1 public:2 banking:1 tourism:1 insurance:1 many:1 national:2 multinational:1 corporation:1 private:1 headquarters:1 eni:1 enel:1 finmeccanica:1 alitalia:1 rai:1 demographics:1 density:2 range:1 inhabitant:3 per:3 province:8 less:1 est:1 overall:1 third:1 amongst:1 lombardia:1 institute:1 statistic:1 istat:1 estimate:1 foreign:1 born:1 immigrant:1 equal:1 total:1 regional:1 government:1 politics:1 center:2 leave:1 orient:2 tradition:1 election:1 vote:2 coalition:1 left:1 block:1 division:1 divide:1 five:1 provincearea:1 populationdensity:1 inh:1 latina:1 reference:1 external:1 official:2 site:2 regione:2 map:1 dialect:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 tyrrhenian_sea:2 low_lying:1 indo_european:1 animal_husbandry:1 wine_grape:1 fruit_vegetable:1 multinational_corporation:1 external_link:1 |
6,750 | Alabaster | An uplighter lamp made from Italian alabaster (white and brown types). The base is in diameter Alabaster vase of Tutankhamun Alabaster is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals: gypsum (a hydrous sulfate of calcium) and calcite (a carbonate of calcium). The former is the alabaster of the present day; the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients. The two kinds are readily distinguished from one another by their relative hardness. The gypsum kind is so soft as to be readily scratched by a fingernail (Mohs hardness 1.5 to 2), while the calcite kind is too hard to be scratched in this way (Mohs hardness 3), though it does yield readily to a knife. Moreover, the calcite alabaster, being a carbonate, effervesces on being touched with hydrochloric acid, whereas the gypsum alabaster, when so treated, remains practically unaffected. Due to the characteristic color of white alabaster, the term has entered the vernacular as a metonym for white things, particularly "alabaster skin". The usage as whiteness also occurs in a line from the poem and song, America the Beautiful. Etymology The origin of alabaster is in Middle English, through Old French alabastre, in turn derived from Latin alabaster and that from Greek αλάβαστρος (alabastros) or αλάβαστος (alabastos), the latter being the word for a vase made of alabaster. Alabastos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus This may further derive from the ancient Egyptian word a-labaste (vessel of the Egyptian goddess Bast). alabaster - definition at YourDictionary alabaster - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary It has been suggested that the name was derived from the town of Alabastron in Egypt, while an Arabic etymological origin has also been suggested. Alabaster, Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition Types Calcite alabaster This substance, the "alabaster" of the Bible, is often termed Oriental alabaster, since the early examples came from the Far East. The Greek name alabastrites is said to be derived from the town of Alabastron, in Egypt, where the stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name to the mineral; the origin of the mineral name is obscure. This "Oriental" alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume bottles or ointment vases called alabastra, and this has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Alabaster was also employed in Egypt for canopic jars and various other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid sarcophagus, sculptured in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from Alabastron, is in the Sir John Soane's Museum, London. This was discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 in the tomb of Seti I near Thebes. It was purchased by Sir John Soane, having previously been offered to the British Museum. When cut in thin sheets, alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows, and has been used so in medieval churches, especially in Italy. Large alabaster sheets are used extensively in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (dedicated 2002) of the Los Angeles (California) Archdiocese. The cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque. Calcite alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit, from the floor and walls of limestone caverns, or a kind of travertine, similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as onyx — a term which should, however, be restricted to siliceous minerals. Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near Suez and near Assiut; there are many ancient quarries in the hills overlooking the plain of Tell el Amarna. The Algerian onyx-marble has been largely quarried in the province of Oran. In Mexico, there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla. Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of Tehuacán and at several localities in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia. Gypsum alabaster Statue made of Alabaster,Yemen When the term "alabaster" is used without any qualification, it invariably means a fine-grained variety of gypsum. This mineral, or alabaster proper, occurs in England. However, thousands of gypsum alabaster artifacts dating to the late 4th millennium BC have been found in Tell Brak (present day Nagar), in Syria. http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&item=1988.323.8&viewmode=0&isHighlight=1 And in Mesopotamia, a gypsum alabaster sculpture, believed to represent the god Abu, dates to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&viewmode=0&item=40%2E156 Mineral alabaster occurs in England in the Keuper marls of the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in Derbyshire, at Fauld in Staffordshire and near Newark in Nottinghamshire. All these localities have been extensively worked. In the 15th century its carving into icons and altarpieces was a valuable local industry in Nottingham, as well as a major English export. Besides examples of these still in Britain (especially at the Nottingham Castle Museum, British Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum), that trade in itself (rather than just the antiques trade) has scattered examples as far afield as the Musée de Cluny, Spain and Scandinavia. Alabaster is also found, though in subordinate quantity, at Watchet in Somerset, near Penarth in Glamorganshire, and elsewhere. In Cumbria it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or "floors" in spheroidal masses known as "balls" or "bowls," and in smaller lenticular masses termed "cakes." At Chellaston, where the alabaster is known as "Patrick," it has been worked into ornaments under the name of "Derbyshire spar" — a term more properly applied to fluorspar. Black alabaster Black Alabaster is a rare form of the gypsum-based mineral found in only three veins in the world, one each in Oklahoma (USA), Italy, and the People's Republic of China. Alabaster Caverns State Park, near Freedom, Oklahoma is home to a natural gypsum cave in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster. There are several types of alabaster found at the site, including pink, white, and the rare black alabaster. Uses This alabaster sculpture is untreated: its translucency and satin lustre are preserved. Its base is of marble. The finer kinds of alabaster are largely employed as an ornamental stone, especially for ecclesiastical decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls. Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms, but its solubility in water renders it unsuitable for outdoor work. The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine tiniforni grain, but it is often associated with an oxide of iron, which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of Paris, whence they are sometimes known as "plaster stone." On the continent of Europe, the centre of the alabaster trade is Florence, Italy. Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene and Pliocene age. The mineral is largely worked by means of underground galleries, in the district of Volterra. Several varieties are recognized — veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, and others. The finest kind, obtained principally from Castellina, is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, while the common kinds are carved at a very cheap rate locally into vases, clock-cases and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried on, especially in Florence, Pisa and Livorno. In order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling-point — an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature is not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white, chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely resembles true marble and is known as marmo di Castellina. Sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with the modern stone. Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated in various pigmentary solutions. In this way a good imitation of coral has been produced (alabaster coral). References Further reading J. A. Harrell, "Misuse of the term 'alabaster' in Egyptology," Göttinger Miszellen, v. 119, 1990, pp. 37–42. See also List of minerals External links Alabaster Craftmanship in Volterra Alabaster Craftsmen Association "ArteInBottega" | Alabaster |@lemmatized uplighter:1 lamp:1 make:4 italian:1 alabaster:55 white:6 brown:2 type:3 base:3 diameter:1 vase:2 tutankhamun:1 name:7 apply:2 variety:5 two:2 distinct:1 mineral:9 gypsum:12 hydrous:1 sulfate:1 calcium:2 calcite:6 carbonate:2 former:1 present:2 day:2 latter:2 generally:1 ancient:5 kind:7 readily:4 distinguish:1 one:2 another:1 relative:1 hardness:3 soft:1 scratch:2 fingernail:1 mohs:2 hard:1 way:2 though:2 yield:1 knife:1 moreover:1 effervesces:1 touch:1 hydrochloric:1 acid:1 whereas:1 treated:1 remain:1 practically:1 unaffected:1 due:1 characteristic:1 color:1 term:6 enter:1 vernacular:1 metonym:1 thing:1 particularly:1 skin:1 usage:1 whiteness:1 also:7 occur:6 line:1 poem:1 song:1 america:1 beautiful:1 etymology:1 origin:3 middle:1 english:3 old:1 french:1 alabastre:1 turn:2 derive:4 latin:1 greek:3 αλάβαστρος:1 alabastros:1 αλάβαστος:1 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represent:1 god:1 abu:1 first:1 half:1 keuper:1 marl:2 midland:1 chellaston:2 derbyshire:3 fauld:1 staffordshire:1 newark:1 nottinghamshire:2 century:1 carve:3 icon:1 altarpiece:1 valuable:1 local:1 industry:1 nottingham:2 well:1 major:1 export:1 besides:1 still:1 britain:1 castle:1 victoria:1 albert:1 trade:4 rather:1 antique:1 scatter:1 afield:1 musée:1 de:1 cluny:1 spain:1 scandinavia:1 subordinate:1 quantity:1 watchet:1 somerset:1 penarth:1 glamorganshire:1 elsewhere:1 cumbria:1 new:1 red:1 rock:1 low:1 geological:1 horizon:1 thick:1 nodular:2 bed:1 spheroidal:1 mass:3 ball:1 bowls:1 lenticular:1 cake:1 patrick:1 ornament:1 spar:1 properly:2 fluorspar:1 black:3 rare:2 form:3 three:1 vein:2 world:1 oklahoma:2 usa:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 state:1 park:1 freedom:1 home:1 natural:1 cave:1 much:1 site:1 include:1 pink:1 untreated:1 translucency:2 satin:1 lustre:1 preserve:1 ornamental:2 ecclesiastical:1 decoration:1 rail:1 staircase:1 hall:1 softness:1 enable:1 elaborate:1 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miszellen:1 v:1 pp:1 see:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 craftmanship:1 craftsman:1 association:1 arteinbottega:1 |@bigram mohs_hardness:2 hydrochloric_acid:1 george_liddell:1 liddell_robert:1 lexicon_perseus:1 merriam_webster:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 britannica_eleventh:1 canopic_jar:1 los_angeles:1 el_amarna:1 fine_grained:1 millennium_bc:2 http_www:2 far_afield:1 miocene_pliocene:1 closely_resemble:1 external_link:1 |
6,751 | Lake_Tana | Lake Tana (also spelled T'ana, Amharic: ጣና ሐይቅ Ṭānā Hāyḳ,"Lake Tana," an older variant is Tsana, Ge'ez ጻና Ṣānā; sometimes called "Dembiya" after the region to the north of the lake) is the source of the Blue Nile and is the largest lake in Ethiopia. Located in the north-western Ethiopian highlands, according to the Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia for 1967/68, the lake is approximately 84 kilometers long and 66 kilometers wide, with a maximum depth of 15 meters, and an elevation of 1,840 meters. Lake Tana is fed by the Lesser Abay, Reb and Gumara Rivers and its surface area ranges from 3,000 to 3,500 km² depending on season and rainfall. The lake level has been regulated since the construction of the control weir where the lake discharges into the Blue Nile, which regulates the flow to the Tis Abbai falls and hydro-power station. The lake has a number of islands, whose numbers vary depending on the level of the lake; it has fallen about 6 feet in the last 400 years. According to Manoel de Almeida (who was a Portuguese missionary in the early 17th century), there were 21 islands, seven to eight of which had monasteries on them "formerly large, but now much diminished." When James Bruce visited the area in the later 18th century, he noted that the locals counted 45 inhabited islands, but stated he believed that "the number may be about eleven." A more modern geographer named 37 islands, of which he believed 19 have or had monasteries or churches on them. C.F. Beckham and G.W.B. Huntingford, Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-1646, (series 2, no. 107; London: Hakluyt Society, 1954), p. 35 and note. Lake Tana supports a notable fishing industry; according to the Ethiopian Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 1,454 tonnes of fish are landed each year at Bahir Dar, which the department estimates is 15% of its sustainable amount. "Information on Fisheries Management in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia" (report dated January, 2003) Lake Tana seen from SPOT satellite Remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors and treasures of the Ethiopian Church are kept in the isolated island monasteries (including Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema, Kota Maryam and Mertola Maryam). On the island of Tana Qirqos is a rock shown to Paul B. Henze, on which he was told the Virgin Mary had rested on her journey back from Egypt; he was also told that Frumentius, who introduced Christianity to Ethiopia, is "allegedly buried on Tana Cherqos." Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p.73. The body of Yekuno Amlak is interred in the monastery of St. Stephen on Daga Island; other Emperors whose tombs are on Daga include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel and Fasilides. Other important islands in Lake Tana include Dek Island and Meshralia. The monasteries are believed to rest on earlier religious sites and include the fourteenth century Debre Maryam, the eighteenth century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos (said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant before it was moved to Axum), and Ura Kidane Mecet, known for its regalia. A ferry service links Bahir Dar with Gorgora via Dek Island and various lake shore villages. References External links The Tana Project Lake Tana Photographs of the lake Unesco plan for Lake T'ana LakeNet Profile Pictures from Lake Tana and the Monasteries | Lake_Tana |@lemmatized lake:18 tana:12 also:2 spell:1 ana:2 amharic:1 ጣና:1 ሐይቅ:1 ṭānā:1 hāyḳ:1 old:1 variant:1 tsana:1 ge:1 ez:1 ጻና:1 ṣānā:1 sometimes:1 call:1 dembiya:1 region:1 north:2 source:1 blue:2 nile:2 large:2 ethiopia:6 locate:1 western:1 ethiopian:4 highland:1 accord:3 statistical:1 abstract:1 approximately:1 kilometer:2 long:1 wide:1 maximum:1 depth:1 meter:2 elevation:1 feed:1 less:1 abay:1 reb:1 gumara:1 river:1 surface:1 area:2 range:1 depend:2 season:1 rainfall:1 level:2 regulate:2 since:1 construction:1 control:1 weir:1 discharge:1 flow:1 ti:1 abbai:1 fall:2 hydro:1 power:1 station:1 number:3 island:10 whose:2 vary:1 foot:1 last:1 year:2 manoel:1 de:1 almeida:1 portuguese:1 missionary:1 early:1 century:4 seven:1 eight:1 monastery:6 formerly:1 much:1 diminish:1 james:1 bruce:1 visit:1 late:1 note:2 local:1 count:1 inhabited:1 state:1 believe:3 may:1 eleven:1 modern:1 geographer:1 name:1 church:2 c:1 f:1 beckham:1 g:1 w:1 b:3 huntingford:1 record:1 series:1 london:1 hakluyt:1 society:1 p:2 support:1 notable:1 fishing:1 industry:1 department:2 fishery:2 aquaculture:1 tonne:1 fish:1 land:1 bahir:2 dar:2 estimate:1 sustainable:1 amount:1 information:1 management:1 federal:1 democratic:1 republic:1 report:1 date:1 january:1 see:1 spot:1 satellite:1 remain:1 ancient:1 emperor:2 treasure:1 keep:1 isolated:1 include:4 kebran:1 gabriel:1 ura:2 kidane:2 mehret:1 narga:2 selassie:2 daga:3 estifanos:1 medhane:1 alem:1 rema:1 kota:1 maryam:3 mertola:1 qirqos:2 rock:1 show:1 paul:2 henze:2 tell:2 virgin:1 mary:1 rest:2 journey:1 back:1 egypt:1 frumentius:1 introduce:1 christianity:1 allegedly:1 bury:1 cherqos:1 layer:1 time:1 history:1 new:1 york:1 palgrave:1 body:1 yekuno:1 amlak:1 inter:1 st:1 stephen:1 tomb:1 dawit:1 zara:1 yaqob:1 za:1 dengel:1 fasilides:1 important:1 dek:2 meshralia:1 earlier:1 religious:1 site:1 fourteenth:1 debre:1 eighteenth:1 say:1 house:1 ark:1 covenant:1 move:1 axum:1 mecet:1 know:1 regalia:1 ferry:1 service:1 link:2 gorgora:1 via:1 various:1 shore:1 village:1 reference:1 external:1 project:1 photograph:1 unesco:1 plan:1 lakenet:1 profile:1 picture:1 |@bigram lake_tana:8 ge_ez:1 elevation_meter:1 london_hakluyt:1 hakluyt_society:1 fishery_aquaculture:1 virgin_mary:1 ark_covenant:1 external_link:1 |
6,752 | Telecommunications_in_Botswana | Communications in Botswana A fiber-optic telecommunications network has been completed in Botswana connecting all major population centers. In addition to the government-owned newspaper and national radio network, there is an active, independent press (six weekly newspapers). Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. At the end of July 2000, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV) was launched, which is Botswana's first national television station. It began broadcasting with 3 hours of programming on weekdays and 5 on weekends, and offers news (Setswana and English), entertainment, and sports, with plans eventually to produce 60% of its programming locally. Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana, and there are three commercial Internet service providers. Two cellular phone providers cover most of the country. Telephones - main lines in use: 132,000 (2005) CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html 131,000 (September 2001) 78,000 (1998) Telephones - mobile cellular 1,000,000 system: CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html general: the system is expanding with the growth of mobile cellular service and participation in regional development domestic: small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations; mobile cellular service is growing fast international: two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 13, shortwave 4 (2001) CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998) Radios: 237,000 (1997) Television broadcast stations: 1 (2001) CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html 0 (1997) Televisions: 80,000 (2006) 31,000 (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 11 (2001) 2 (1999) Internet users: 60,000 (2002) CIA World Fact Book https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html ADSL has been introduced in the following areas: Gaborone, Tlkokweng, Mogoditsane, Phakalane, Francistown, Lobatse, Palapye, Maun, Kasane, Selibe-Phikwe, Letlhakane, Jwaneng, Orapa Country codes: BW References External links GSM World page on Botswana PanAfriL10n page on Botswana | Telecommunications_in_Botswana |@lemmatized communication:2 botswana:7 fiber:1 optic:1 telecommunication:1 network:2 complete:1 connect:1 major:1 population:1 center:1 addition:1 government:2 newspaper:2 national:2 radio:6 active:1 independent:1 press:1 six:1 weekly:1 two:3 privately:1 station:6 begin:2 operation:1 end:1 july:1 television:4 btv:1 launch:1 first:1 broadcast:3 hour:1 program:1 weekday:1 weekend:1 offer:1 news:1 setswana:1 english:1 entertainment:1 sport:1 plan:1 eventually:1 produce:1 programming:1 locally:1 foreign:1 publication:6 sell:1 without:1 restriction:1 three:1 commercial:1 internet:3 service:4 provider:3 cellular:4 phone:1 cover:1 country:2 telephone:2 main:1 line:2 use:1 cia:10 world:11 fact:5 book:5 http:5 www:5 gov:5 library:5 factbook:5 geos:5 bc:5 html:5 september:1 mobile:3 system:3 general:1 expand:1 growth:1 participation:1 regional:1 development:1 domestic:1 small:1 open:1 wire:1 microwave:2 relay:2 link:3 radiotelephone:1 grow:1 fast:1 international:2 exchange:1 digital:1 namibia:1 zambia:1 zimbabwe:1 south:1 africa:1 satellite:1 earth:1 intelsat:1 indian:1 ocean:1 fm:2 shortwave:2 isps:1 user:1 adsl:1 introduce:1 following:1 area:1 gaborone:1 tlkokweng:1 mogoditsane:1 phakalane:1 francistown:1 lobatse:1 palapye:1 maun:1 kasane:1 selibe:1 phikwe:1 letlhakane:1 jwaneng:1 orapa:1 code:1 bw:1 reference:1 external:1 gsm:1 page:2 |@bigram fiber_optic:1 cellular_phone:1 http_www:5 cia_gov:5 factbook_geos:5 mobile_cellular:3 radiotelephone_communication:1 zambia_zimbabwe:1 station_intelsat:1 fm_shortwave:2 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 external_link:1 |
6,753 | Cerebrospinal_fluid | Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain. Essentially, the brain "floats" in it. More specifically, the CSF occupies the space between the arachnoid mater (the middle layer of the brain cover, meninges) and the pia mater (the layer of the meninges closest to the brain). It constitutes the content of all intra-cerebral (inside the brain, cerebrum) ventricles, cisterns and sulci (singular sulcus), as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. It acts as a "cushion" or buffer for the cortex, providing a basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at glance. Circulation It is produced in the brain by modified ependymal cells in the choroid plexus (approx. 50-70%), and the remainder is formed around blood vessels and along ventricular walls. It circulates from the choroid plexus through the interventricular foramina (foramen of Monro) into the third ventricle, and then through the cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius) into the fourth ventricle, where it exits through two lateral apertures (foramina of Luschka) and one median aperture (foramen of Magendie). It then flows through the cerebellomedullary cistern down the spinal cord and over the cerebral hemispheres. Traditionally, it has been thought that CSF returns to the vascular system by entering the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid granulations/villi. However, some have suggested that CSF flow along the cranial nerves and spinal nerve roots allow it into the lymphatic channels; this flow may play a substantial role in CSF reabsorbtion, particularly in the neonate, in which arachnoid granulations are sparsely distributed. Amount and constitution The cerebrospinal fluid is produced at a rate of 500 ml/day. Since the brain can only contain from 135-150 ml, large amounts are drained primarily into the blood through arachnoid granulations in the superior sagittal sinus. Thus the CSF turns over about 3.7 times a day. This continuous flow into the venous system dilutes the concentration of larger, lipoinsoluble molecules penetrating the brain and CSF. The CSF contains approximately 0.3% plasma proteins, or 15 to 40 mg/dL, depending on sampling site. CSF pressure ranges from 80 - 100 mmH2O or 4.4 - 7.3 mmHg in newborns, and <200mmH20 in normal children and adults, with most variations due to coughing or internal compression of jugular veins in the neck. Function The cerebrospinal fluid has many putative roles including mechanical protection of the brain, distribution of neuroendocrine factors and prevention of brain ischemia. The actual weight of the human brain is about 1400 grams, however the net weight of the brain suspended in the cerebrospinal fluid is 25 grams. The prevention of brain ischemia is made by decreasing the amount of cerebrospinal fluid in the limited space inside the skull. This decreases total intracranial pressure and facilitates blood perfusion. It also cushions the spinal cord against jarring shock. Pathology and laboratory diagnosis When CSF pressure is elevated, cerebral blood flow may be constricted. When disorders of CSF flow occur, they may therefore affect not only CSF movement, but also craniospinal compliance and the intracranial blood flow, with subsequent neuronal and glial vulnerabilities. The venous system is also important in this equation. Infants and patients shunted as small children may have particularly unexpected relationships between pressure and ventricular size, possibly due in part to venous pressure dynamics. This may have significant treatment implications but the underlying pathophysiology needs to be further explored. CSF connections with the lymphatic system have been demonstrated in several mammalian systems. Preliminary data suggest that these CSF-lymph connections form around the time that the CSF secretory capacity of the choroid plexus is developing (in utero). There may be some relationship between CSF disorders, including hydrocephalus and impaired CSF lymphatic transport. Cerebrospinal fluid can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of neurological diseases. It is usually obtained by a procedure called lumbar puncture(Removal of CSF during lumber puncture can cause a severe headache after the fluid is removed, because the brain hangs on the vessels and nerve roots, and traction on them stimulates pain fibers. The pain can be relieved by intrathecal injection of sterile isotonic saline) in an attempt to count the cells in the fluid and to detect the levels of protein and glucose. These parameters alone may be extremely beneficial in the diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage and central nervous system infections (such as meningitis). Moreover, a cerebrospinal fluid culture examination may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection. By using more sophisticated methods, such as the detection of the oligoclonal bands, an ongoing inflammatory condition (for example, multiple sclerosis) can be recognized. A beta-2 transferrin assay is highly specific and sensitive for the detection for e.g. cerebrospinal fluid leakage. Lumbar puncture Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which might be increased in certain types of hydrocephalus. However a lumbar puncture should never be performed if increased intracranial pressure is suspected because it could lead to brain herniation and ultimately death. Baricity This fluid has an importance in anethesiology. Baricity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of human cerebral spinal fluid. Baricity is used in anesthesia to determine the manner in which a particular drug will spread in the intrathecal space. Cause Appearance Polymorphonuclear cell Lymphocyte Protein Glucose Pyogenic bacterial meningitis Yellowish, turbid Markedly increase Slightly increase or Normal Slightly increase or Normal Decrease Viral meningitis Clear fluid Slightly increase or Normal Markedly increase Markedly increase Normal Tuberculous meningitis Yellowish and viscous Slightly increase or Normal Markedly increase Slightly increase or Normal Decrease Fungal meningitis Yellowish and viscous Slightly increase or Normal Markedly increase Slightly increase or Normal Normal or decrease References | Cerebrospinal_fluid |@lemmatized cerebrospinal:9 fluid:15 csf:19 liquor:1 cerebrospinalis:1 clear:2 bodily:1 occupy:2 subarachnoid:2 space:4 ventricular:3 system:7 around:3 inside:4 brain:16 essentially:1 float:1 specifically:1 arachnoid:4 mater:2 middle:1 layer:2 cover:1 meninges:2 pia:1 closest:1 constitute:1 content:1 intra:1 cerebral:5 cerebrum:1 ventricle:3 cistern:2 sulcus:2 singular:1 well:1 central:2 canal:1 spinal:5 cord:3 act:1 cushion:2 buffer:1 cortex:1 provide:1 basic:1 mechanical:2 immunological:1 protection:2 skull:2 glance:1 circulation:1 produce:2 modified:1 ependymal:1 cell:3 choroid:3 plexus:3 approx:1 remainder:1 form:2 blood:5 vessel:2 along:2 wall:1 circulate:1 interventricular:1 foramen:4 monro:1 third:1 aqueduct:2 sylvius:1 fourth:1 exit:1 two:1 lateral:1 aperture:2 luschka:1 one:1 median:1 magendie:1 flow:7 cerebellomedullary:1 hemisphere:1 traditionally:1 think:1 return:1 vascular:1 enter:1 dural:1 venous:4 sinus:2 via:1 granulation:3 villus:1 however:3 suggest:2 cranial:1 nerve:3 root:2 allow:1 lymphatic:3 channel:1 may:8 play:1 substantial:1 role:2 reabsorbtion:1 particularly:2 neonate:1 sparsely:1 distribute:1 amount:3 constitution:1 rate:1 ml:2 day:2 since:1 contain:2 large:2 drain:1 primarily:1 superior:1 sagittal:1 thus:1 turn:1 time:2 continuous:1 dilute:1 concentration:1 lipoinsoluble:1 molecule:1 penetrate:1 approximately:1 plasma:1 protein:3 mg:1 dl:1 depend:1 sample:1 site:1 pressure:7 range:1 mmhg:1 newborn:1 normal:10 child:2 adult:1 variation:1 due:2 cough:1 internal:1 compression:1 jugular:1 vein:1 neck:1 function:1 many:1 putative:1 include:2 distribution:1 neuroendocrine:1 factor:1 prevention:2 ischemia:2 actual:1 weight:2 human:2 gram:2 net:1 suspend:1 make:1 decrease:5 limited:1 total:1 intracranial:4 facilitates:1 perfusion:1 also:4 jar:1 shock:1 pathology:1 laboratory:1 diagnosis:3 elevate:1 constrict:1 disorder:2 occur:1 therefore:1 affect:1 movement:1 craniospinal:1 compliance:1 subsequent:1 neuronal:1 glial:1 vulnerability:1 important:1 equation:1 infant:1 patient:1 shunt:1 small:1 unexpected:1 relationship:2 size:1 possibly:1 part:1 dynamic:1 significant:1 treatment:1 implication:1 underlying:1 pathophysiology:1 need:1 far:1 explore:1 connection:2 demonstrate:1 several:1 mammalian:1 preliminary:1 data:1 lymph:1 secretory:1 capacity:1 develop:1 utero:1 hydrocephalus:2 impaired:1 transport:1 test:1 variety:1 neurological:1 disease:1 usually:1 obtain:1 procedure:1 call:1 lumbar:4 puncture:5 removal:1 lumber:1 cause:3 severe:1 headache:1 remove:1 hang:1 traction:1 stimulate:1 pain:2 fiber:1 relieve:1 intrathecal:2 injection:1 sterile:1 isotonic:1 saline:1 attempt:1 count:1 detect:1 level:1 glucose:2 parameter:1 alone:1 extremely:1 beneficial:1 hemorrhage:1 nervous:1 infection:2 meningitis:5 moreover:1 culture:1 examination:1 yield:1 microorganism:1 use:2 sophisticated:1 method:1 detection:2 oligoclonal:1 band:1 ongoing:1 inflammatory:1 condition:1 example:1 multiple:1 sclerosis:1 recognize:1 beta:1 transferrin:1 assay:1 highly:1 specific:1 sensitive:1 e:1 g:1 leakage:1 perform:2 measure:1 might:1 increase:14 certain:1 type:1 never:1 suspect:1 could:1 lead:1 herniation:1 ultimately:1 death:1 baricity:3 importance:1 anethesiology:1 refers:1 density:2 substance:1 compare:1 anesthesia:1 determine:1 manner:1 particular:1 drug:1 spread:1 appearance:1 polymorphonuclear:1 lymphocyte:1 pyogenic:1 bacterial:1 yellowish:3 turbid:1 markedly:5 slightly:7 viral:1 tuberculous:1 viscous:2 fungal:1 reference:1 |@bigram cerebrospinal_fluid:9 fluid_csf:2 bodily_fluid:1 subarachnoid_space:1 spinal_cord:3 cerebral_hemisphere:1 cranial_nerve:1 mg_dl:1 intracranial_pressure:3 lumbar_puncture:4 multiple_sclerosis:1 |
6,754 | Economy_of_Mauritania | Economy - overview: A majority of the population of Mauritania still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood, even though most of the nomads and many subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. Mauritania has extensive deposits of iron ore, which account for almost 50% of total exports. The decline in world demand for this ore, however, has led to cutbacks in production. With the current rise in metal prices, gold and copper mining companies are opening mines in the interior. The nation's coastal waters are among the richest fishing areas in the world, but overexploitation by foreigners threatens this key source of revenue. The country's first deep water port opened near Nouakchott in 1986. In recent years, drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a buildup of foreign debt. In March 1999, the government signed an agreement with a joint World Bank-IMF mission on a $54 million enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF). The economic objectives have been set for 1999-2002. Privatization remains one of the key issues. Mauritanian exports in 2006 Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Mauritania at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Mauritanian Ougulyas. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 37,211 45.93 Ougulyas 23 1985 60,197 77.07 Ougulyas 36 1990 97,819 80.64 Ougulyas 52 1995 158,443 129.76 Ougulyas 73 2000 258,245 240.00 Ougulyas 100 2005 514,642 265.55 Ougulyas 144 Current GDP per capita of Mauritania grew 82% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 166% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and growth consequently scaled back to 14% in the Eighties. Finally, it shrank by 29% in the Nineties. Average wages in 2007 hover around $4-5 per day. Diversification In 2007, mining industries accounted for well over 35 per cent of the Mauritanian economy, with the fish industry so much as 54% (with big changes between these industries in the power relationship). Diversification of the economy into non-mining industries remains a long-term issue. Mauritania is a net importer of food, reportedly importing 70% of its domestic food needs. IRIN 2008, 'MAURITANIA: Record hunger predicted in 2008', www.irinnews.org, 19 March. Retrieved on 20 March 2008. Dispute with Woodside Petroleum In February 2006, the Mauritanian government denounced amendments to an oil contract made by former leader Maaouiya Ould Taya with Woodside Petroleum, an Australian company. In 2004, Woodside had agreed to invest $US 600 million in developing Mauritania's Chinguetti offshore oil project. The controversial amendments, which Mauritanian authorities declared had been signed "outside the legal framework of normal practice, to the great detriment of our country", could cost Mauritania up to $200 million a year, according to BBC News. Signed by Woodside two weeks after the February 1, 2005 legislation authorizing the four amendments, they provided for a lower state quota in the profit-oil, and reduced taxes by 15 percent in certain zones. They also eased environmental constraints, and extended the length and scope of the exploitation and exploration monopoly, among other measures. The disputed amendments were signed by former oil minister Zeidane Ould Hmeida in February 2004 and March 2005. Hmeida was arrested in January 2006 on charges of "serious crimes against the country's essential economic interests". Nouakchott's authorities declared that the government would likely seek international arbitration, which Woodside (which operated for Hardman, BG Group, Premier, ROC Oil, Fusion, Petronas, Dana Petroleum, Energy Africa and the Hydrocarbons Mauritanian Society) also contemplated. Discovered in 2001, Chinguetti has proven reserves of about 120 million barrels of oil. At the end of December 2005, authorities estimated that in 2006, the oil profits would be 47 billion ouguiyas (about US$180 million) and represent a quarter of the state budget, according to RFI. The Australian Federal Police are currently investigating Woodside for allegations of bribery and corruption in Mauritania (according to the Sydney Morning Herald ). U.S. oil companies are believed to be playing a part in Mauritania's oil related corruption. See also Economy of Africa Slavery in Mauritania References External links | Economy_of_Mauritania |@lemmatized economy:4 overview:1 majority:1 population:1 mauritania:11 still:1 depend:1 agriculture:1 livestock:1 livelihood:1 even:1 though:1 nomad:1 many:1 subsistence:1 farmer:1 force:1 city:1 recurrent:1 drought:2 extensive:1 deposit:1 iron:1 ore:2 account:2 almost:1 total:1 export:2 decline:1 world:3 demand:1 however:1 lead:1 cutback:1 production:1 current:2 rise:1 metal:1 price:2 gold:1 copper:1 mining:2 company:3 open:2 mine:2 interior:1 nation:1 coastal:1 water:2 among:2 rich:1 fishing:1 area:1 overexploitation:1 foreigner:1 threatens:1 key:2 source:1 revenue:1 country:3 first:1 deep:1 port:1 near:1 nouakchott:2 recent:1 year:3 economic:4 mismanagement:1 result:1 buildup:1 foreign:1 debt:1 march:4 government:3 sign:4 agreement:1 joint:1 bank:1 imf:1 mission:1 million:6 enhanced:1 structural:1 adjustment:1 facility:1 esaf:1 objective:1 set:1 privatization:1 remain:2 one:1 issue:2 mauritanian:6 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:3 product:2 market:1 estimate:2 international:2 monetary:1 fund:1 figure:1 ougulyas:7 u:4 dollar:1 exchange:1 inflation:1 index:1 gdp:1 per:3 caput:1 grow:1 sixty:1 reach:1 peak:1 growth:2 seventy:1 prove:2 unsustainable:1 consequently:1 scale:1 back:1 eighty:1 finally:1 shrink:1 ninety:1 average:1 wage:1 hover:1 around:1 day:1 diversification:2 industry:4 well:1 cent:1 fish:1 much:1 big:1 change:1 power:1 relationship:1 non:1 long:1 term:1 net:1 importer:1 food:2 reportedly:1 import:1 need:1 irin:1 record:1 hunger:1 predict:1 www:1 irinnews:1 org:1 retrieve:1 dispute:1 woodside:6 petroleum:3 february:3 denounce:1 amendment:4 oil:9 contract:1 make:1 former:2 leader:1 maaouiya:1 ould:2 taya:1 australian:2 agree:1 invest:1 develop:1 chinguetti:2 offshore:1 project:1 controversial:1 authority:3 declare:2 outside:1 legal:1 framework:1 normal:1 practice:1 great:1 detriment:1 could:1 cost:1 accord:3 bbc:1 news:1 two:1 week:1 legislation:1 authorize:1 four:1 provide:1 low:1 state:2 quota:1 profit:2 reduced:1 tax:1 percent:1 certain:1 zone:1 also:3 ease:1 environmental:1 constraint:1 extend:1 length:1 scope:1 exploitation:1 exploration:1 monopoly:1 measure:1 disputed:1 minister:1 zeidane:1 hmeida:2 arrest:1 january:1 charge:1 serious:1 crime:1 essential:1 interest:1 would:2 likely:1 seek:1 arbitration:1 operate:1 hardman:1 bg:1 group:1 premier:1 roc:1 fusion:1 petronas:1 dana:1 energy:1 africa:2 hydrocarbon:1 society:1 contemplate:1 discover:1 reserve:1 barrel:1 end:1 december:1 billion:1 ouguiya:1 represent:1 quarter:1 budget:1 rfi:1 federal:1 police:1 currently:1 investigate:1 allegation:1 bribery:1 corruption:2 sydney:1 morning:1 herald:1 believe:1 play:1 part:1 relate:1 see:1 slavery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram subsistence_farmer:1 iron_ore:1 structural_adjustment:1 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:1 ougulyas_ougulyas:5 per_caput:1 prove_unsustainable:1 unsustainable_growth:1 wage_hover:1 per_cent:1 net_importer:1 www_irinnews:1 irinnews_org:1 bbc_news:1 sydney_morning:1 morning_herald:1 external_link:1 |
6,755 | Battle_of_Berestechko | The Battle of Berestechko (; ) was fought between rebellious Zaporozhian Cossack, led by Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, aided by their Crimean Tatar allies, and a Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth army under King John II Casimir. Lasting from June 28 to June 30, 1651, it took place in Volhynia. The number of Polish troops is uncertain. Duke Bogusław Radziwiłł (one of Polish commanders) wrote that the Polish army had had 80,000 soldiers. Jan Widacki, Kniaź Jarema p. 255. Modern historians [Zbigniew Wójcik, Józef Gierowski,Władysław Czapliński] estimate that the Polish army had 60,000-63,000 soldiers. Zbigniew Wójcik, Jan Kazimierz Waza, p. 75; Władysław Czapliński, Glosa do Trylogii, p.45; Józef Gierowski, Historia Polski, p.223. The Cossacks had around 100,000 plus 40,000 Crimean Tatar cavalry and a few thousand Turks and Vlachs. Both sides had about 40,000 cavalry each. Fighting was close, with the core of excellent Cossack infantry making up for the weakness of their cavalry; much of the decisive fighting was by the infantry and dismounted dragoons of each side. The Polish Army On June 19, the Polish Army totaled 14,844 Polish cavalry, 2,250 German type cavalry, 11,900 German type infranty and dragoons, 2,950 Hungarian type foot soldiers, 1,550 Lithuanian volunteers, 960 Tatars Tadeusz Wasilewski, Ostatni Waza na polskim tronie. p. 102. and 30,000 levée en masse. The Cossack-Tatar Army Before the battle, the Uprisers army totaled 80,000 Cossacks, 28,000-33,000 Tatars and uncertain number of Ukrainian peasants. Tadeusz Wasilewski, Ostatni Waza na polskim tronie. p. 103. First day of battle 2000 Polish cavalry (one regiment under the command of Aleksander Koniecpolski, supported by Jerzy Lubomirski, six pancerni cavalry companies of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki and winged hussars under the command of Stefan Czarniecki ) repulsed the Tatars, who suffered heavy losses. During the first day of the battle, the Poles were victorious. Second day of battle The Poles, encouraged by their victory in the first day, deployed all available cavalry. Polish infantry and artillery stayed in the camp and didn't support the cavalry. But, this time, the tide turned. The Tatar cavalry won against its Polish counterpart. The Tatars came near to the Polish camp but were repulsed by heavy fire from the Polish infantry. The Poles lost 300 soldiers, including many officers. During the second day of the battle, the uprisers were victorious. Third day of battle At 3 p.m. Duke Jeremi Wiśniowiecki led a successful charge of 18 cavalry companies against the right wing of the Cossack-Tatar Army. The Polish centre, under the command of John Casimir, moved forward. The Tatars tried to attack it, but were repulsed. During the fight, a Polish nobleman called Otwinowski noticed a banner of the Khan. Polish artillery started to fire in that direction. A Tatar standing next to the Khan fell dead. Panicked, the Khan escaped and the Tatars retreated, kidnapping Khmelnytsky. Only the Cossack wagons remained at the field of battle. The siege of the Cossack wagons Polish forces laid siege to the Cossack wagons. Initially, the wagons were commanded by colonel Filon Dzhalalii but after some days, he was replaced by Ivan Bohun. On July 10, the Cossacks got into a panic, believing that their commanders had escaped. The Polish forces attacked the panicked Cossacks and the battle turned into a slaughter. There were 30,000 dead in the camp, including some women and children. Results of the battle As a result, Khmelnytsky was forced to sign the Treaty of Bila Tserkva with the Poles. As the battle ended, King Kazimierz committed an error by not pursuing the fleeing and disoriented Cossacks. Later, Khmelnytsky, who was released by the Khan, and the Zaporozhians would continue the revolt. Battle of Berestechko by Vermeer. Jeremi Wiśniowiecki during battle of Beresteczko. Painting by Juliusz Kossak Polish noble families Members of noble families had the personal obligation to take part in the battle with men from their towns and villages. The officers and their supplied men for this battle were: Czarniecki, Stefan Dołęga-Ossowski, Piotr Grzymała-Kazanowski, Adam Janina-Rzeczycki, Mikołaj Kalinowa-Kalinowski, Marcin Hetman Leliwa-Czapski, Franciszek Rawicz-Przyjemski, Zygmunt Quotations "Naszego wojska było doboru effective ośmdziesiąt tysięcy." "There were in total 80 000 our troops" Duke Bogusław Radziwiłł, "Autobiography" External links http://www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/Berest.htm Notes | Battle_of_Berestechko |@lemmatized battle:15 berestechko:2 fight:2 rebellious:1 zaporozhian:1 cossack:12 lead:2 hetman:2 bohdan:1 khmelnytsky:4 aid:1 crimean:2 tatar:12 ally:1 polish:19 lithuanian:2 commonwealth:1 army:8 king:2 john:2 ii:1 casimir:2 last:1 june:3 take:2 place:1 volhynia:1 number:2 troop:2 uncertain:2 duke:3 bogusław:2 radziwiłł:2 one:2 commander:2 write:1 soldier:4 jan:2 widacki:1 kniaź:1 jarema:1 p:7 modern:1 historian:1 zbigniew:2 wójcik:2 józef:2 gierowski:2 władysław:2 czapliński:2 estimate:1 kazimierz:2 waza:3 glosa:1 trylogii:1 historia:1 polski:1 around:1 plus:1 cavalry:11 thousand:1 turk:1 vlachs:1 side:2 fighting:2 close:1 core:1 excellent:1 infantry:4 make:1 weakness:1 much:1 decisive:1 dismounted:1 dragoon:2 total:3 german:2 type:3 infranty:1 hungarian:1 foot:1 volunteer:1 tadeusz:2 wasilewski:2 ostatni:2 na:2 polskim:2 tronie:2 levée:1 en:1 masse:1 uprisers:2 ukrainian:1 peasant:1 first:3 day:7 regiment:1 command:4 aleksander:1 koniecpolski:1 support:2 jerzy:1 lubomirski:1 six:1 pancerni:1 company:2 jeremi:3 wiśniowiecki:3 wing:2 hussar:1 stefan:2 czarniecki:2 repulse:3 suffer:1 heavy:2 loss:1 pole:4 victorious:2 second:2 encourage:1 victory:1 deploy:1 available:1 artillery:2 stayed:1 camp:3 time:1 tide:1 turn:2 win:1 counterpart:1 come:1 near:1 fire:2 lose:1 include:2 many:1 officer:2 third:1 successful:1 charge:1 right:1 centre:1 move:1 forward:1 try:1 attack:2 nobleman:1 call:1 otwinowski:1 notice:1 banner:1 khan:4 start:1 direction:1 stand:1 next:1 fell:1 dead:2 panic:2 escape:2 retreat:1 kidnap:1 wagon:4 remain:1 field:1 siege:2 force:3 lay:1 initially:1 colonel:1 filon:1 dzhalalii:1 replace:1 ivan:1 bohun:1 july:1 get:1 believe:1 panicked:1 slaughter:1 woman:1 child:1 result:2 sign:1 treaty:1 bila:1 tserkva:1 end:1 commit:1 error:1 pursue:1 fleeing:1 disoriented:1 later:1 release:1 zaporozhians:1 would:1 continue:1 revolt:1 vermeer:1 beresteczko:1 painting:1 juliusz:1 kossak:1 noble:2 family:2 member:1 personal:1 obligation:1 part:1 men:2 town:1 village:1 supply:1 dołęga:1 ossowski:1 piotr:1 grzymała:1 kazanowski:1 adam:1 janina:1 rzeczycki:1 mikołaj:1 kalinowa:1 kalinowski:1 marcin:1 leliwa:1 czapski:1 franciszek:1 rawicz:1 przyjemski:1 zygmunt:1 quotation:1 naszego:1 wojska:1 było:1 doboru:1 effective:1 ośmdziesiąt:1 tysięcy:1 autobiography:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 kismeta:1 com:1 digrasse:1 berest:1 htm:1 note:1 |@bigram bohdan_khmelnytsky:1 crimean_tatar:2 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 gierowski_historia:1 historia_polski:1 levée_en:1 en_masse:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
6,756 | Church_of_England | The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the oldest among the communion's thirty-eight independent national and regional churches. The Church also extends to the Isle of Man via the Diocese of Sodor and Man, while the Channel Islands form part of the Diocese of Portsmouth, and a number of Anglican communities in continental Europe, the former Soviet Union, Turkey and Morocco are formed into the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe. The Church of England understands itself to be both Catholic and Reformed: http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/ Catholic in that it views itself as a part of the universal church of Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic and later medieval church. This is expressed in its strong emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, in particular as formalised in the Apostolic, Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/churchlawlegis/canons/church.pdf Reformed to the extent that it has been shaped by some of the doctrinal and institutional principles of the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The more Reformed character finds expression in the Thirty-Nine Articles of religion, established as part of the settlement of religion under Queen Elizabeth I. The customs and liturgy of the Church of England, as expressed in the Book of Common Prayer, are based on pre-Reformation traditions but have been influenced by Reformation liturgical and doctrinal principles. http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/churchlawlegis/canons/church.pdf History According to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the first or second century (probably via the tin trade route through Ireland and Iberia), and existed independently of the Church of Rome, as did many other Christian communities of that era. The earliest unquestioned historical evidence of an organized Christian church in the area that is now called England is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century, although the first Christian communities probably were established some decades earlier. Three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th-century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who nearly defeated Augustine of Hippo's doctrine of original sin. The Church of England traces its formal corporate history from the 597 Augustinian mission, stresses its continuity and identity with the primitive universal Western church, and notes the consolidation of its particular independent and national character in the post-Reformation events of Tudor England, and confirmed by the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. Pope Gregory sent Saint Augustine from Rome to evangelise the Angles in 597. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent he established his church in Canterbury, the capital of the kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England. Simultaneously the Celtic church of St Columba continued to evangelise Scotland and later the English kingdom of Northumbria. The Celtic church of North Britain submitted in some sense to the 'authority' of Rome at the Synod of Whitby in 664. Over the next few centuries the Roman system introduced by Augustine gradually absorbed the pre-existing Celtic Christian churches. The English church was under papal authority for nearly a thousand years, before separating from Rome in 1534 during the reign of King Henry VIII. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English church such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Under pressure from Catherine's nephew, the Emperor Charles V, Pope Clement VII refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically a doctrinal Catholic, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III HistoryMole: King Henry VIII (1491-1547) . Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics. Under his son, Edward VI, more Protestant-influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles. The confession of the new reformed church was set out in the Forty-two Articles (later revised to thirty-nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, sought to return England again to the authority of the Pope and undo the reforms. Many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution has led to her nickname of "Bloody Mary". Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half-sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan settlement, developed the via media (middle way) character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty-nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century. Stained glass window in Rochester Cathedral, Kent. For the next century, through the reigns of James I, who ordered the creation of what became known as the King James Bible, and Charles I, and culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far-reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By Continental standards, the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king, Charles I, and an Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud. Under the Commonwealth and then the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660, Anglicanism was disestablished and outlawed, and in its place, Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. In addition, the 39 Articles were replaced with the Westminster Confession, and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism. With the Restoration of Charles II, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the National Church rather than controlling it. Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the nineteenth century. Doctrine and practice Canterbury Cathedral from the southwest. It houses the cathedra or throne of the Archbishop of Canterbury, and is the mother church of the Diocese of Canterbury (east Kent) and the Church of England, and the focus for the Anglican Communion. Church of England doctrine can be summarised in its canon law as follows: Canon A 5 Of the doctrine of the Church of England: "The doctrine of the Church of England is grounded in the Holy Scriptures, and in such teachings of the ancient Fathers and Councils of the Church as are agreeable to the said Scriptures. In particular such doctrine is to be found in the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, The Book of Common Prayer, and the Ordinal." As the Church of England bases its teachings on the Holy Scriptures, the ancient Catholic teachings of the Church Fathers and some of the doctrinal principles of the Protestant Reformation (as expressed in the 39 Articles, and other documents such as the Anglican Homilies), Anglicanism can therefore be described as 'Reformed Catholic' in character rather than Protestant. In practice, however, it is more mixed, with Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others the Reformed tradition. There is also a long history of more liberal or latitudinarian views. These three 'parties' in the C of E are sometimes called high church or (Anglo-Catholic), low church (or Evangelical) and broad church (or Liberal). In terms of church government, unlike many of the Protestant denominations it has retained episcopal (bishop) leadership.The teachings of Richard Hooker, the 16th century divine, summarised the Anglican position well, affirming bishops as ancient, allowable and for the wellbeing of the church. Hooker's ecclesiastical polity: http://www.churchsociety.org/issues_new/history/hooker/iss_history_hooker_carter-position.asp In many people's eyes today the Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth and "open-mindedness". This range of belief and practice includes those of the Anglo-Catholics, who emphasise liturgy and sacraments, to the far more preaching-centred and less ritual-based services of Evangelicals and gatherings of the Charismatics. But this "broad church" faces various contentious doctrinal and social questions. Women's ministry Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have been lay readers for a long time. During the First World War some women were appointed as "Bishop's Messengers" who were licensed to teach and preach, essentially as lay readers. The last one was Miss Bessie Bangay who died in 1987 aged 97. Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994. In July 2005 the synod voted to "set in train" the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006 the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration" of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a woman bishop. Church votes overwhelmingly for compromise on women bishops - news from ekklesia | Ekklesia On 7 July 2008 the church's governing body voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept women bishops . Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate will require further legislation which is anticipated to be considered before 2014 Synod struggles on women bishops . Worship and liturgy The Church of England's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer (BCP). The BCP remains the touchstone of all Anglican liturgy. In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book, Common Worship, dating from 2000, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book, it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP-based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei) before communion. The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship. See also: and, on the history of Anglo-Catholic liturgy Membership In addition to England proper, the current jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire and Radnorshire in Wales (the present Church in Wales was an integral part of the Church of England until 1920). Cross, F. L. (ed.) (1957) Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church; p. 1436 Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe. Churchgoing in the United Kingdom, including the Church of England, has been declining steadily since around 1890. Peter J. Bowler, Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century Britain (University of Chicago Press, 2001), page 194. In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 per cent of the population to just 1.9 per cent. Robin Gill, The Empty Church Revisited, (Ashgate Publishing, 2003) page 161. One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends continue, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and just 87,800 in 2050. Christian Research, Religious Trends (2008), cited in Ruth Gledhill, "Churchgoing on its knees as Christianity falls out of favour", The Times, 8 May 2008. The Church of England responded by stating that the figures on which this were based overlooked the level of midweek attendance and that 1.7 million people attend Church of England parish and cathedral services each month, and argued that this figure has remained stable since 2000. Ruth Gledhill, "Churchgoing on its knees as Christianity falls out of favour", The Times, 8 May 2008. Structure Dioceses of the Church of England, showing the Provinces of Canterbury (yellow) and York (pink). The grey areas are Wales (on the left), and Scotland (top). The Church of England article XIX (Of the Church) defines the church as follows: "The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same." Despite the complexities of the structure now to be outlined, at its heart, the Church of England views the local parish church as the basic unit and heartbeat of its life. The British monarch, at present Queen Elizabeth II, has the constitutional title of "Supreme Governor of the Church of England". The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the Queen’s most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil." In practice this power is often exercised through parliament and the prime minister. The church is then structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards): Parish, this is the most local level, often consisting of one church building and community, although nowadays many parishes are joining forces in a variety of ways for financial reasons. The parish will be looked after by a parish priest who for various historical or legal reasons may also be called by one of the following offices: vicar, rector, priest in charge, team rector, team vicar. The first, second, and fourth of these may also be known as the 'incumbent'. The running of the parish is the joint responsibility of the incumbent and the Parochial Church Council (PCC), which consists of the parish clergy and elected representatives from the congregation. There are also a number of local churches which do not have a parish. In urban areas there are a number of proprietary chapels (mostly built in the 19th century to cope with urbanisation and growth in population). Also in more recent years there are increasingly church plants and Fresh expressions of church, whereby new congregations are planted in a variety of locations (such as schools or pubs) in order to spread the Gospel of Christ in fresh and non-traditional ways. Deanery, e.g., Lewisham, or Runnymede. This is the area for which a rural dean is responsible. It will consist of a number of parishes in a particular district. The rural dean will usually be the incumbent of one of the constituent parishes. The parishes each elect lay (that is non-ordained) representatives to the deanery synod. Deanery synod members each have a vote in the election of representatives to the diocesan synod. Archdeaconry, e.g., Dorking. This is the area under the jurisdiction of an archdeacon. It will consist of a number of deaneries. Diocese, e.g., Diocese of Durham, Diocese of Guildford, Diocese of St Albans. This is the area under the jurisdiction of a diocesan bishop, e.g., the Bishops of Durham, Guildford and St Albans, and will have a cathedral. There may also be one or more assisting bishops, usually called suffragan bishops, within the diocese who assist the diocesan bishop in his ministry, e.g., in Guildford diocese, the Bishop of Dorking. In some very large dioceses a legal measure has been enacted to create "episcopal areas", in which case the diocesan bishop will run one such area himself and will appoint an "area bishop" to run each of the other areas as mini-dioceses; in such cases, the diocesan bishop legally delegates many of his powers to the area bishops. Dioceses with episcopal areas include London, Southwark, Chichester and Lichfield. The bishops will work with an elected body of lay and ordained representatives, known as the diocesan synod, to run the diocese. A diocese is subdivided into a number of archdeaconries. Province, i.e., York or Canterbury (these are the only two in the Church of England). This is the area under the jurisdiction of an archbishop, i.e. the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Decision making within the province is the responsibility of the General Synod (see also above). A province is subdivided into dioceses. Primacy, i.e., Church of England. In addition to his specific authority in his own province, each archbishop is "Primate of All England" (Canterbury) or "Primate of England" (York) and has certain powers that extend over the whole country—for example his license to marry without the banns (marriage licence). Royal Peculiar, a small number of churches are more closely associated with the Crown, and a very few with the law and are outside the usual church hierarchy though conforming to the rite. These are outside episcopal jurisdiction. All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or even appointed directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest" to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the actual possession of the benefice property—church and parsonage. Curates are appointed by rectors and vicars, but if priests-in-charge then by the bishop after consultations with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed (e.g. curates), or simply with permission. Primates The Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams. The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the archbishop of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He also has the status of Primate of All England and Metropolitan. He is also the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. The Most Reverend and Right Honourable Rowan Williams has served as Archbishop of Canterbury since 2002. The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the archbishop of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England. The Most Reverend and Right Honourable John Sentamu has served as the Archbishop of York since 2005. The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions. Diocesan bishops The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex and is handled by a body called the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the prime minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration. Representative bodies The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, measures and canons. Measures have to be approved but cannot be amended by the UK Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land. Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy (older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly). There are also diocesan synodss and deanery synods. House of Lords Of the forty-four diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, only twenty-six are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining twenty-one seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords. House of Lords: alphabetical list of Members. Retrieved on 12 December 2008. Financial situation Hereford is one of the church's forty-three cathedrals, many with histories stretching back centuries. The Church of England, although an established church, does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, though it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. , the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £900 million. outgoings Historically, individual parishes both raised and spent the vast majority of the Church's funding, meaning that clergy pay depended on the wealth of the parish, and parish advowsons (the right to appoint clergy to particular parishes) could become extremely valuable gifts. Individual dioceses also held considerable assets: the Diocese of Durham possessed such vast wealth and temporal power that its bishop became known as the 'Prince-Bishop'. Since the mid-19th century, however, the Church has made various moves to 'equalise' the situation, and clergy within each diocese now receive standard stipends paid from diocesan funds. Meanwhile, the Church moved the majority of its income-generating assets (which in the past included a great deal of land, but today mostly take the form of financial stocks and bonds) out of the hands of individual clergy and bishops to the care of a body called the Church Commissioners, which uses these funds to pay a range of non-parish expenses, including clergy pensions, and the expenses of cathedrals and bishops' houses. These funds amount to around £3.9 billion, and generate income of around £164 million each year (), around a fifth of the Church's overall income. funds The Church Commissioners give some of this money as 'grants' to local parishes; but the majority of the financial burden of church upkeep and the work of local parishes still rests with individual parish and diocese, which meet their requirements from donations. Direct donations to the church (not including legacies) come to around £460 million per year, while parish and diocese reserve funds generate another £100 million. Funds raised in individual parishes account for almost all of this money, and the majority of it remains in the parish which raises it, meaning that the resources available to parishes still vary enormously, according to the level of donations they can raise. Most parishes give a portion of their money, however, to the diocese as a 'quota' or 'parish share'. While this is not a compulsory payment, dioceses strongly encourage and rely on it being paid; it is usually only withheld by parishes either if they are unable to find the funds or as a specific act of protest. As well as paying central diocesan expenses such as the running of diocesan offices, these diocesan funds also provide clergy pay and housing expenses (which total around £260 million per year across all dioceses), meaning that clergy living conditions no longer depend on parish-specific fundraising. The old and new Coventry Cathedrals, in the Diocese of Coventry. The new cathedral was built next to the ruins of the old, which was destroyed in the Second World War. Although asset-rich, the Church of England has to look after and maintain its thousands of churches nationwide — the lion's share of England's built heritage. As current congregation numbers stand at relatively low levels and as maintenance bills increase as the buildings grow older, many of these churches cannot maintain economic self-sufficiency; but their historical and architectural importance make it difficult to sell them. In recent years, cathedrals and other famous churches have met some of their maintenance costs with grants from organisations such as English Heritage; but the church congregation and local fundraisers must foot the bill entirely in the case of most small parish churches. local fundraisers (The government, however, does provide some assistance in the form of tax breaks, for example a 100% VAT refund for renovations to religious buildings.) In addition to consecrated buildings, the Church also controls numerous ancillary buildings attached to or associated with churches, including a good deal of clergy housing. As well as vicarages and rectories, this housing includes residences (often called 'palaces') for each of the Church's 114 bishops. In some cases, this name seems entirely apt; buildings such as Archbishop of Canterbury's Lambeth Palace in London and Old Palace at Canterbury have truly palatial dimensions, while the Bishop of Durham's Auckland Castle has 50 rooms, a banqueting hall and 30 acres (120,000 m²) of parkland. However, many bishops have found the older palaces inappropriate for today's lifestyles, and some bishops' 'palaces' are ordinary four bedroomed houses. Many dioceses which have retained large palaces now employ part of the space as administrative offices, while the bishops and their families live in a small apartment within the palace; and in recent years some dioceses have managed to put their palaces' excess space and grandeur to profitable use as conference centres. All three of the more grand bishop's palaces mentioned above — Lambeth Palace, Canterbury Old Palace and Auckland Castle — serve as offices for church administration, conference venues, and only in a lesser degree the personal residence of a bishop. The size of the bishops' households has shrunk dramatically and their budgets for entertaining and staff form a tiny fraction of their pre-twentieth-century levels. Prayer for the Current Financial Situation The Prayer for the Current Financial Situation was launched in September 2008 to offer the opportunity for prayer and reflection during the credit crisis. The prayer notes that "we live in disturbing days", with rising prices, increasing debts, job losses and collapsing banks, and calls God to be a "a tower of strength amidst the shifting sands" of the economic turmoil. When the prayer was published by the Church of England on its official website, traffic to that section of the website increased by more than 25 percent. Thousands turn to online prayer and advice as financial situation worsens, The Episcopal Church, October 9, 2008. References See also Appointment of Church of England bishops Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England British monarchy Church of England Newspaper Church of England parish church Historical development of Church of England dioceses List of Church of England bishops List of Church of England dioceses Religion in the United Kingdom Ritualism Shrinking the footprint List of the first 32 women ordained as Church of England priests External links Church of England official website Historical resources on the Church of England Church of England history in the West Indies | Church_of_England |@lemmatized church:122 england:61 officially:1 establish:9 christian:10 mother:2 worldwide:2 anglican:15 communion:6 old:9 among:1 thirty:5 eight:1 independent:3 national:4 regional:2 also:22 extend:2 isle:2 man:4 via:3 diocese:30 sodor:2 channel:2 islands:2 form:11 part:7 portsmouth:1 number:11 community:4 continental:2 europe:5 former:1 soviet:1 union:1 turkey:1 morocco:1 gibraltar:3 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6,757 | Jacob_Neusner | Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932) is an American academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, New York. Biography Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Neusner was educated at Harvard University, the Jewish Theological Seminary (where he received rabbinic ordination), the University of Oxford, and Columbia University. Neusner is often celebrated as one of the most published authors in history (he has written or edited more than 950 books.) See , 4th paragraph. Since 1994, he has taught at Bard College. He has also taught at Columbia University, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Brandeis University, Dartmouth College, Brown University, and the University of South Florida. Neusner is a member of the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton, and a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University. He is the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts. He also has received scores of academic awards, honorific and otherwise. Scholarship Neusner's scholarly activity is vast. Generally, his research centers around rabbinic Judaism of the Mishnaic and Talmudic Eras. He was a pioneer in the application of "form criticism" approach to Rabbinic texts. Much of Neusner's work has been to de-construct the prevailing approach viewing Rabbinic Judaism as a single religious movement within which the various Rabbinic texts were produced. In contrast, Neusner views each rabbinic document as an individual piece of evidence that can only shed light on the more local Judaisms of such specific document's place of origin and the specific Judaism of the author. His Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishnah (Chicago, 1981; translated into Hebrew and Italian) is the classic statement of his work and the first of many comparable volumes on the other documents of the rabbinic canon. Neusner’s method of studying documents individually without contextualizing them with other Rabbinic documents of the same era or genre, led to a series of very important studies on the way Judaism creates categories of understanding and how those categories relate to one another, even as they emerge diversely in discrete rabbinic documents. Neusner’s work shows, for instance, how deeply Judaism is integrated with the system of the Pentateuch, how such categories as "merit" and "purity" work in Judaism, and how classical Judaism absorbed and transcended the destruction of the Jerusalem in 70 CE. Neusner has translated into English nearly the entire Rabbinic canon. This work has opened up many Rabbinic documents to scholars of other fields unfamiliar with Hebrew and Aramaic. His translation technique utilizes a "Harvard-outline" format which attempts to make the argument flow of Rabbinic texts easier to understand for those unfamiliar with Talmudic reasoning. Neusner's enterprise has been aimed at a humanistic and academic reading of classics of Judaism. Neusner has been drawn from studying text to context. Treating a religion in its social setting, as something a group of people do together, rather than as a set of beliefs and opinions. Theological works In addition to his historical and textual works Neusner has also contributed to the area of Theology. He is the author of "Israel:" Judaism and its Social Metaphors and The Incarnation of God: The Character of Divinity in Formative Judaism. Contributions to Academia In addition to his scholarly activities, Neusner has been heavily involved in the shaping of Jewish and Religious Studies in the American University. He has sponsored a number of conferences and collaborative projects that drew different religions into conversation on common themes and problems. Neusner’s efforts have produced conferences and books on, among other topics, the problem of difference in religion, religion and society, religion and material culture, religion and economics, religion and altruism, and religion and tolerance. These collaborations build on Neusner’s intellectual vision, his notion of a religion as a system, and would not have happened otherwise. By working in the realm of Judaism and Jewish Religion, he developed methods and theories applicable to the study of Religion generally. Neusner has written a number of works exploring the relationship of Judaism to other religions. His A Rabbi Talks with Jesus (Philadelphia, 1993; translated into German, Italian, and Swedish), attempts to establish a religiously sound framework for Judaic-Christian interchange. It has earned the praise of Pope Benedict XVI and the nickname "The Pope's Favorite Rabbi". In his book Jesus of Nazareth, Benedict refers to it as "by far the most important book for the Jewish-Christian dialogue in the last decade." He also has collaborated with other scholars to produce comparisons of Judaism and Christianity, as in The Bible and Us: A Priest and A Rabbi Read Scripture Together (New York 1990; translated into Spanish and Portuguese). He has collaborated with scholars of Islam, conceiving World Religions in America: An Introduction (third edition, Nashville 2004), which explores how diverse religions have developed in the distinctive American context. He also has composed numerous textbooks and general trade books on Judaism. The two best-known examples are The Way of Torah: An Introduction to Judaism (Belmont 2003); and Judaism: An Introduction (London and New York 2002; translated into Portuguese and Japanese). Throughout his career, Neusner has established publication programs and series with various academic publishers. Through these series, through reference works that he conceived and edited, and through the conferences he has sponsored, Neusner has advanced the careers of dozens of younger scholars from across the globe. Few others in the American study of religion have had this kind of impact on students of so many approaches and interests. Neusner has aimed to make Rabbinic literature useful to specialists in a variety of fields within the academic study of religion, as well as in ancient history, culture and Near and Middle Eastern Studies. His work has concerned the classic texts of Judaism and how they form a cogent statement of a religious system. Critical assessment of Neusner's work Although he is highly influential, Neusner has been criticized by scholars in his field of study. This summarizes the published studies that are critical of Neusner's work. Shaye J. D. Cohen, "Jacob Neusner, Mishnah and Counter-Rabbinics," Conservative Judaism, Vol.37(1) Fall 1983 p. 48-63 Craig A. Evans, "Mishna and Messiah 'In Context'," Journal of Biblical Literature, (JBL), 112/2 1993, p. 267-289 Saul Lieberman, "A Tragedy or a Comedy" Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.104(2) April/June 1984 p. 315-319 Hyam Maccoby, "Jacob Neusner's Mishnah," Midstream, 30/5 May 1984 p. 24-32 Hyam Maccoby, "Neusner and the Red Cow," Journal for the Study of Judaism (JSJ), 21 1990, p. 60-75. John C. Poirier, "Jacob Neusner, the Mishnah and Ventriloquism," The Jewish Quarterly Review, LXXXVII Nos.1-2, July-October 1996, p. 61-78 *E.P.Sanders, Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishnah. Philadelphia, 1990. Solomon Zeitlin, "A Life of Yohanan ben Zakkai. A Specimen of Modern Jewish Scholarship," Jewish Quarterly Review, 62, 1972, p. 145-155. Solomon Zeitlin, "Spurious Interpretations of Rabbinic Sources in the Studies of the Pharisees and Pharisaim," Jewish Quarterly Review, 62, 1974, p. 122-135. Evan M. Zuesse, "The Rabbinic Treatment of 'Others' (Criminals, Gentiles) according to Jacob Neusner," Review of Rabbinic Judaism, Vol. VII, 2004, p. 191-229 Evan M. Zuesse, "Phenomenology of Judaism," in: Encyclopaedia of Judaism, ed. J. Neusner, A. Avery-Peck, and W.S. Green, 2nd Edition Leiden: Brill, 2005 Vol.III, p. 1968-1986. (Offers an alternative to Neusner's theory of "Judaisms.") Some scholars are critical of Neusner's methodology, and assert that many of his arguments are circular or attempt to prove "negative assumptions" from a lack of evidence (e.g., Cohen, Evans, Maccoby, Poirier, Sanders). Others are critical of Neusner's reading and interpretations of Rabbinic texts, finding that his account is forced and inaccurate (e.g., Cohen, Evans, Maccoby, Poirier and in detail, Zuesse). One methodological and historical critique of Neusner is by E. P. Sanders. In his earliest work, Neusner had argued that the most credible evidence showed that the Second Commonwealth Pharisees were a sectarian group centered on "table fellowship" and ritual food purity practices, and less interested in wider Jewish values or social issues. Zeitlin and Maccoby challenged this account. Sanders proposed that many of Neusner's interpretations of Pharisaic discussions and rulings were questionable (e.g., Neusner concludes that 67% of the debates between Pharisaic "houses" dealt with ritual food purity; Sanders concludes that less than 1% do -- see Sanders, p. 177). Some scholars have questioned Neusner's grasp of Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic. Probably the most famous and biting criticism came from Saul Lieberman. Saul Lieberman, "A Tragedy or a Comedy" Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.104(2) April/June 1984 p. 315-319. Lieberman wrote: ...one begins to doubt the credibility of the translator [Neusner]. And indeed after a superficial perusal of the translation, the reader is stunned by [Neusner's] ignorance of Rabbinic Hebrew, of Aramaic grammar, and above all of the subject matter with which he deals. Books by Jacob Neusner A complete list of books by Professor Jacob Neusner may be found here: Jacob Neusner bibliography Additional biographical source: Jacob Neusner. "From History to Religion." Pp. 98-116 in The Craft of Religious Studies, edited by Jon R. Stone. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998. External links Prof. Jacob Neusner's homepage Scholar of Judaism, Professional Provocateur, Dinitia Smith, The New York Times, April 13, 2005 Second to the Saints, Shahar Smooha, 'Haaretz Daily Newspaper', June 22, 2007 References | Jacob_Neusner |@lemmatized jacob:10 neusner:44 bear:2 july:2 american:6 academic:5 scholar:10 judaism:27 live:1 rhinebeck:1 new:5 york:5 biography:1 hartford:1 connecticut:1 educate:1 harvard:2 university:10 jewish:10 theological:2 seminary:1 receive:2 rabbinic:19 ordination:1 oxford:1 columbia:2 often:1 celebrate:1 one:4 published:2 author:3 history:3 write:3 edit:3 book:7 see:2 paragraph:1 since:1 teach:2 bard:1 college:2 also:5 wisconsin:1 milwaukee:1 brandeis:1 dartmouth:1 brown:1 south:1 florida:1 member:2 institute:1 advanced:1 study:14 princeton:1 life:2 clare:1 hall:1 cambridge:1 serve:1 national:2 endowment:2 humanity:1 art:1 score:1 award:1 honorific:1 otherwise:2 scholarship:2 scholarly:2 activity:2 vast:1 generally:2 research:1 center:2 around:1 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6,758 | Demographics_of_Kyrgyzstan | Musicians A Yurt family The Demographics of Kyrgyzstan is about the demographic features of the population of Kyrgyzstan, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. The name Kyrgyz, both for the people and the country, means "forty girls" or "forty tribes", a reference to the epic hero Manas who unified forty tribes against the Mongols, as symbolized by the 40-ray sun on the flag of Kyrgyzstan. Demographic trends Kyrgyzstan's population increased from 2.1 million to 4.8 million between the censuses of 1959 and 1999. Official estimates set the population at 5.2 million in 2007. Of those, 34.4% are under the age of 15 and 6.2% are over the age of 65. The country is rural: only about one-third of Kyrgyzstan's population live in urban areas. The average population density is 69 people per square mile (29 people per km²). The nation's largest ethnic group are the Kyrgyz, a Turkic people, which comprise 69% of the population (2007 estimate). Other ethnic groups include Russians (9.0%) concentrated in the north and Uzbeks (14.5%) living in the south. Small but noticeable minorities include Tatars (1.9%), Uyghurs (1.1%), Tajiks (1.1%), Kazakhs (0.7%) and Ukrainians (0.5%), and other smaller ethnic minorities (1.7%). Of the formerly sizable Volga German community, exiled here by Stalin from their earlier homes in the Volga German Republic, most have returned to Germany, and only a few small groups remain. A small percentage of the population are also Koreans, who are the descendants of the Koreans deported in 1937 from the Soviet Far East to Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan has undergone a pronounced change in its ethnic composition since independence. The percentage of ethnic Kyrgyz increased from around 50% in 1979 to nearly 70% in 2007, while the percentage of European ethnic groups (Russians, Ukrainians, and Germans) as well as Tatars dropped from 35% to about 10%. Ethnic composition of the population in Kyrgyzstan 1999-2007. The Kyrgyz have historically been semi-nomadic herders, living in round tents called yurts and tending sheep, horses and yaks. This nomadic tradition continues to function seasonally (see transhumance) as herding families return to the high mountain pasture (or jailoo) in the summer. The retention of this nomadic heritage and the freedoms that it implies continue to have an impact on the political atmosphere in the country. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Data from CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age distribution pyramid (2005) Population 5,356,869 (July 2008 est.) Birth rate 22.8 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) Death rate 7.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate -2.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.64 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 34.49 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 68.49 years male: 64.48 years female: 72.7 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 2.69 children born/woman (2000 est.) The differences in the number of children by nationality are significant: Uzbeks (3.0 children), Tajiks (3.0 children), Turks (2.9), Kyrgyz (2.9), Dungans (2.8) Russians (1.7), Koreans (1.7), Germans (1.8), Ukrainians (2.1), Tatars (2.1), Kazakhs (2.3) and Ugyhurs (2.5). The TFR for Russians in Kyrgyzstan is more than 60% higher than that in Russia and the TFR for Ukrainians is 100% higher than in Ukraine. TFR for Koreans in Kyrgyzstan is also very high compared to TFR of South Korea. Same is true for Germans. Nationality noun: Kyrgyzstani(s) adjective: Kyrgyzstani Religions Muslim 85%, Russian Orthodox 10%, other 5% Languages Kirghiz (Kyrgyz) - official language, Russian - official language In March 1996, the Kyrgyzstani legislature amended the constitution to make Russian an official language, along with Kyrgyz, in territories and work places where Russian-speaking citizens predominate. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98.7% male: 99.3% female: 98.1% (1989 est.) Ethnic groups According to the 1999 census, Population census for Kyrgyzstan, 1999 the ethnic composition of the population was as follows: Kyrgyz (Kara Kyrgyz) 64.9%, Uzbeks 13.8%, Russians 12.5%, Dungans 1.1%, Ukrainians 1%, Ugyhurs 1%, other 5.7%, including Koreans 0.4% and Germans 0.4% (among them Plattdeutsch-speaking Mennonites). Most Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Germans, and Koreans lived in northeast, especially around the city of Karakol. Most of the Dungans and Ugyhurs are found along the Chinese border. Most of the Tajiks and Uzbeks live in the south. The emigration of non-Turkic people to Russia, Ukraine, and Germany is now negligible, in part because most of them left prior to 1999 and in part because Kyrgyzstan is the most tolerant Central Asian nation. There is a very small Kalmyk minority living in eastern Kyrgyzstan, especially in villages around Karakol. These are the Kalmyks who remained when the bulk of the nation moved westward in the early 16th century. The Kalmyk language and their traditions are dying out rapidly due to small numbers and majority pressures. Although some of these Kalmyks are now Muslims, most Kalmyks throughout the world remain Tibetan Buddhists (Lamaists). The Kalmyk culture has seen a resurgence of interest in the last 20 years, and most Kalmyks regard the Dalai Lama as their spiritual leader. The table shows the ethnic composition of Kyrgyzstan's population (in percent) according to three population censuses between 1979 and 1999, with estimates for 2003 and 2007. Ethnic composition of the population in Kyrgyzstan 1999-2007. There has been a sharp decline in the European ethnic groups (Russians, Ukrainians, Germans) and also Tatars since independence (as captured in the 1989 and 1999 censuses). Nationality 1979 census 1989 census 1999 census 2003 estimate 2007 estimate Total population (thou.) 3,522.8 4,257.8 4,822.9 4,984.4 5,189.8 Kyrgyz 47.9 52.4 64.9 66.9 68.9 Uzbeks 12.1 12.9 13.8 14.1 14.4 Russians 25.9 21.5 12.5 10.6 9.1 Ukrainians 3.1 2.5 1.0 0.8 0.5 Tatars 2.0 1.6 0.9 0.8 0.7 Dungans 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 Uyghurs 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 Kazakhs 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 Tajiks 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 Turks 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 Koreans 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Germans 2.9 2.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 Others 2.5 2.3 1.5 1.5 1.4 References | Demographics_of_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized musician:1 yurt:2 family:2 demographic:4 kyrgyzstan:14 feature:1 population:24 include:4 growth:1 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 name:1 kyrgyz:10 people:5 country:3 mean:1 forty:3 girl:1 tribe:2 reference:2 epic:1 hero:1 manas:1 unify:1 mongol:1 symbolize:1 ray:1 sun:1 flag:1 trend:1 increase:2 million:3 census:8 official:4 estimate:5 set:1 age:4 rural:1 one:1 third:1 live:5 urban:1 area:1 average:1 per:2 square:1 mile:1 nation:3 large:1 ethnic:12 group:6 turkic:2 comprise:1 russian:12 concentrate:1 north:1 uzbek:2 living:2 south:3 small:6 noticeable:1 minority:3 tatar:6 uyghurs:2 tajik:3 kazakh:2 ukrainian:7 formerly:1 sizable:1 volga:2 german:9 community:1 exile:1 stalin:1 early:2 home:1 republic:1 return:2 germany:2 remain:3 percentage:3 also:3 korean:7 descendant:1 deport:1 soviet:1 far:1 east:1 central:2 asia:1 undergone:1 pronounced:1 change:1 composition:5 since:2 independence:2 around:3 nearly:1 european:2 well:1 drop:1 historically:1 semi:1 nomadic:3 herder:1 round:1 tent:1 call:1 tend:1 sheep:1 horse:1 yak:1 tradition:2 continue:2 function:1 seasonally:1 see:2 transhumance:1 herd:1 high:4 mountain:1 pasture:1 jailoo:1 summer:1 retention:1 heritage:1 freedom:1 imply:1 impact:1 political:1 atmosphere:1 cia:2 world:3 factbook:2 statistic:1 data:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 distribution:1 pyramid:1 july:1 est:9 birth:5 rate:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 male:7 female:7 year:7 total:5 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:4 bear:1 woman:1 difference:1 number:2 nationality:3 significant:1 turk:2 dungans:4 ugyhurs:3 tfr:4 russia:2 ukraine:2 compare:1 korea:1 true:1 noun:1 kyrgyzstani:3 adjective:1 religion:1 muslim:1 orthodox:1 language:5 kirghiz:1 march:1 legislature:1 amend:1 constitution:1 make:1 along:2 territory:1 work:1 place:1 speaking:2 citizen:1 predominate:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 accord:2 follow:1 kara:1 uzbeks:3 among:1 plattdeutsch:1 mennonite:1 northeast:1 especially:2 city:1 karakol:2 find:1 chinese:1 border:1 emigration:1 non:1 negligible:1 part:2 leave:1 prior:1 tolerant:1 asian:1 kalmyk:3 eastern:1 village:1 kalmyks:4 bulk:1 move:1 westward:1 century:1 die:1 rapidly:1 due:1 majority:1 pressure:1 although:1 muslims:1 throughout:1 tibetan:1 buddhist:1 lamaist:1 culture:1 resurgence:1 interest:1 last:1 regard:1 dalai:1 lama:1 spiritual:1 leader:1 table:1 show:1 percent:1 three:1 sharp:1 decline:1 capture:1 thou:1 ukrainians:1 kazakhs:1 tajiks:1 others:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 semi_nomadic:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 male_female:6 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 tibetan_buddhist:1 dalai_lama:1 |
6,759 | Electroweak_interaction | In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force. Thus if the universe is hot enough (approximately 1015 K, a temperature reached shortly after the Big Bang) then the electromagnetic force and weak force will merge into a combined electroweak force. For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. Sander Bais (2005), The Equations. Icons of knowledge ISBN 0-674-01967-9 p 84 The existence of the electroweak interactions was experimentally established in two stages: the first being the discovery of neutral currents in neutrino scattering by the Gargamelle collaboration in 1973, and the second in 1983 by the UA1 and the UA2 collaborations that involved the discovery of the W and Z gauge bosons in proton-antiproton collisions at the converted Super Proton Synchrotron. Formulation Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an SU(2) × U(1) gauge group. The corresponding gauge bosons are the photon of electromagnetism and the W and Z bosons of the weak force. In the Standard Model, the weak gauge bosons get their mass from the spontaneous symmetry breaking of the electroweak symmetry from SU(2) × U(1)Y to U(1)em, caused by the Higgs mechanism (see also Higgs boson). The subscripts are used to indicate that these are different copies of U(1); the generator of U(1)em is given by Q = Y/2 + I3, where Y is the generator of U(1)Y (called the weak hypercharge), and I3 is one of the SU(2) generators (a component of weak isospin). The distinction between electromagnetism and the weak force arises because there is a (nontrivial) linear combination of Y and I3 that vanishes for the Higgs boson (it is an eigenstate of both Y and I3, so the coefficients may be taken as −I3 and Y): U(1)em is defined to be the group generated by this linear combination, and is unbroken because it doesn't interact with the Higgs. Lagrangian Before Electroweak Symmetry Breaking The Lagrangian for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before electroweak symmetry breaking The g term describes the interaction between the three W particles and the B particle. The f term gives the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions. The interaction of the gauge bosons and the fermions are through the covariant derivative. The h term describes the Higgs field F. The y term gives the Yukawa interaction that generates the fermion masses after the Higgs acquires a vacuum expectation value. After Electroweak Symmetry Breaking The Lagrangian reorganizes itself after the Higgs boson acquires a vacuum expectation value. Due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows. The kinetic term contains all the quadratic terms of the Lagrangian, which include the dynamic terms (the partial derivatives) and the mass terms (conspicuosly absent from the Lagrangian before symmetry breaking) where the sum runs over all the fermions of the theory (quarks and leptons), and the fields , , , and are given as , (replace X by the relevant field, and fabc with the structure constants for the gauge group). The neutral current and charged current components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons. , where the electromagnetic current and the neutral weak current are , and and are the fermions electric charges and weak isospin. The charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms. contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons. contains the gauge three-point self interactions. contains the gauge four-point self interactions and contains the Yukawa interactions between the fermions and the Higgs field. See also Fundamental forces Formulation of the standard model Weinberg angle Particle physics References Textbooks Journal Articles S.F. Novaes, Standard Model: An Introduction, hep-ph/0001283 D.P. Roy, Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions — A Progress Report, hep-ph/9912523 Y. Hayato et al., Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector. Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 1529 (1999). Ernest S. Abers and Benjamin W. Lee, Gauge theories. Physics Reports (Elsevier) C9, 1-141 (1973). J. Hucks, Global structure of the standard model, anomalies, and charge quantization, Phys. Rev. D 43, 2709–2717 (1991). | Electroweak_interaction |@lemmatized particle:5 physic:4 electroweak:9 interaction:16 unified:1 description:1 two:4 four:4 fundamental:2 nature:1 electromagnetism:3 weak:10 although:1 force:9 appear:1 different:3 everyday:1 low:1 energy:2 theory:3 model:6 aspect:1 unification:3 order:1 gev:1 would:1 merge:2 single:1 thus:1 universe:1 hot:1 enough:1 approximately:1 k:1 temperature:1 reach:1 shortly:1 big:1 bang:1 electromagnetic:3 combined:1 contribution:1 elementary:1 abdus:1 salam:1 sheldon:1 glashow:1 steven:1 weinberg:2 award:1 nobel:1 prize:1 sander:1 bai:1 equation:1 icon:1 knowledge:1 isbn:1 p:3 existence:1 experimentally:1 establish:1 stage:1 first:1 discovery:2 neutral:3 current:6 neutrino:1 scattering:1 gargamelle:1 collaboration:2 second:1 involve:1 w:4 z:2 gauge:11 boson:10 proton:3 antiproton:1 collision:1 converted:1 super:1 synchrotron:1 formulation:2 mathematically:1 accomplish:1 su:3 u:7 group:3 corresponding:1 photon:1 standard:5 get:1 mass:3 spontaneous:1 symmetry:6 breaking:2 em:3 cause:1 higgs:10 mechanism:1 see:2 also:2 subscript:1 use:1 indicate:1 copy:1 generator:3 give:5 q:1 call:1 hypercharge:1 one:1 component:2 isospin:2 distinction:1 arises:1 nontrivial:1 linear:2 combination:2 vanish:1 eigenstate:1 coefficient:1 may:1 take:1 define:1 generate:2 unbroken:1 interact:1 lagrangian:8 break:4 divide:1 part:3 g:1 term:10 describe:3 three:3 b:1 f:3 kinetic:2 fermion:7 covariant:1 derivative:2 h:1 field:4 yukawa:2 acquire:2 vacuum:2 expectation:2 value:2 reorganize:1 due:1 complexity:1 best:1 several:1 follow:1 contain:7 quadratic:1 include:1 dynamic:1 partial:1 conspicuosly:1 absent:1 sum:1 run:1 quark:1 lepton:1 replace:1 x:1 relevant:1 fabc:1 structure:2 constant:1 charge:4 electric:1 point:4 self:3 vector:1 angle:1 reference:1 textbooks:1 journal:1 article:1 novaes:1 introduction:1 hep:2 ph:2 roy:1 basic:1 constituent:1 matter:1 progress:1 report:2 hayato:1 et:1 al:1 search:1 decay:1 νk:1 large:1 water:1 cherenkov:1 detector:1 phys:2 rev:2 lett:1 ernest:1 abers:1 benjamin:1 lee:1 elsevier:1 j:1 huck:1 global:1 anomaly:1 quantization:1 |@bigram electroweak_interaction:3 big_bang:1 elementary_particle:1 abdus_salam:1 steven_weinberg:1 nobel_prize:1 gauge_boson:5 proton_antiproton:1 boson_photon:1 z_boson:1 spontaneous_symmetry:1 symmetry_breaking:2 higgs_mechanism:1 higgs_boson:3 boson_fermion:1 covariant_derivative:1 quark_lepton:1 hep_ph:2 et_al:1 phys_rev:2 rev_lett:1 |
6,760 | Chiang_Kai-shek | Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975) was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He was an influential member of the Kuomintang (KMT) and Sun Yat-sen's close ally. He became the commandant of Kuomintang's Whampoa Military Academy and took Sun's place in the party when the latter died in 1925. In 1928, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader. He served as Generalissimo (Chairman of the National Military Council) of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, during which the Nationalist Government's power severely weakened, but his prominence grew. During the civil war after the Japanese surrender in 1945, he attempted to eradicate the Chinese Communists but ultimately failed, forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to Taiwan, where he continued the struggle against the communist regime. Ruling as the President of the Republic of China and Director-General of the Kuomintang, Chiang died in 1975. Early life Chiang Kai-shek was born in Xikou, a town that is approximately southwest of downtown Ningbo, in Fenghua County, Ningbo Prefecture, Zhejiang Province. However, his ancestral home, a concept important in Chinese society, was the town of Heqiao (和橋鎮) in Yixing County, Wuxi, Jiangsu (approximately southwest of downtown Wuxi, and from the shores of the Lake Tai). His father, Chiang Zhaocong (蔣肇聰), and mother, Wang Caiyu (王采玉), were members of an upper to upper-middle-class family of salt merchants. His father died when Kai-shek was only eight years of age, and he wrote of his mother as the "embodiment of Confucian virtues." In an arranged marriage, Chiang was married to a fellow villager by the name of Mao Fumei. While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two concubines (concubinage was still a common practice for non-Christian well-to-do males in China): he married Yao Yecheng ( 1889-1972) in 1912 and Chen Jieru (陳潔如, 1906-1971) in December 1921. Mao raised the adopted Wei-kuo. Chen had an adopted daughter in 1924, named Yaoguang (瑤光), who later adopted her mother's surname. Chen's autobiography disclaimed the idea that she was a concubine and claimed that by the time she married Chiang, Chiang had already been divorced from Mao, and that therefore Chen was a wife. Chiang and Mao had a son Ching-Kuo and a daughter Chien-hua. Chiang grew up in an era in which military defeats and civil wars among warlords had left China destabilized and in debt, and he decided to pursue a military career. He began his military education at the Baoding Military Academy, in 1906. He left for a preparatory school for Chinese students to enter Rikugun Shikan Gakko in Japan in 1907. There he was influenced by his compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and to set up a Chinese republic. He befriended fellow Zhejiang native Chen Qimei, and, in 1908, Chen brought Chiang into the Tongmenghui, a precursor organization of the Kuomintang. Chiang served in the Imperial Japanese Army from 1909 to 1911. Chiang returned to China in 1911 after learning of the outbreak of the Wuchang Uprising, intending to fight as an artillery officer. He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment in Shanghai under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei, one of Yat-sen's chief lieutenants. The revolution which aimed at the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty ultimately succeeded. Chiang became a founding member of the Kuomintang. After the takeover of the Republican government by Yuan Shikai and the failed Second Revolution, Chiang, like his Kuomintang comrades, divided his time between exile in Japan and havens in Shanghai's foreign concession areas. In Shanghai, Chiang also cultivated ties with the underworld gangs dominated by the notorious Green Gang and its leader Du Yuesheng. On 15 February 1912, several KMT members which included Chiang, killed Tao Chengzhang, the leader of the Restoration Society, in a Shanghai French Concession hospital, thus ridding Sun Yat-sen of his chief rival. (There is no evidence that Sun Yat-sen himself was involved in the affair in any way.) On 18 May 1916 agents of Yuan Shikai assassinated Chen Qimei. Chiang succeeded Chen as leader of the Chinese Revolutionary Party in Shanghai. Sun Yat-sen's career was at the lowest point then, with most of his old Revolutionary Alliance comrades refusing to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party. In 1917, Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to Guangzhou and Chiang joined him in 1918. Sun, at the time was largely sidelined and, without arms or money, was soon expelled from Guangzhou in 1918 and exiled again to Shanghai, but was restored again with mercenary help in 1920. However, a rift had developed between Sun, who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Guangdong Governor Chen Jiongming, who wanted to implement a federalist system with Guangdong as a model province. On 16 June 1923 Chen attempted to assassinate Sun from Guangzhou and had his residence shelled. Sun and his wife Soong Ching-ling narrowly escaped under heavy machine gun fire and were rescued by gunboats under Chiang's direction. The incident earned Chiang Sun Yat-sen's trust. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed by Sun Yat-sen as Commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy. Sun regained control in Guangzhou in early 1924 with the help of mercenaries from Yunnan, and accepted aid from the Comintern. He then undertook a reform of the Kuomintang and established a revolutionary government aimed at unifying China under the KMT. That same year, Sun sent Chiang Kai-shek to spend three months in Moscow studying the Soviet political and military system. During his trip in Russia, Chiang met Trotsky and other Soviet leaders, but Chiang quickly drew the conclusion that the bolshevik's way did not suit China. However, Chiang sent eldest son, Ching-kuo, to study in Russia. Ching-kuo was forced to stay there as a hostage until 1937. Chiang Kai-shek returned to Guangzhou and in 1924 was appointed Commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy by Sun. Chiang, who had once resigned from the office for one month in disagreement with Sun's too close cooperation with the Comintern, returned later at Sun's demand. The early years at Whampoa allowed Chiang to cultivate a cadre of young officers loyal to KMT and himself. However, the academy was rife with communists, many of whom later became leaders of the Chinese Red Army including Zhou Enlai, who was selected to be Whampoa's deputy Political Commissar. Chiang was deeply critical of the Kuomintang-Communist Party United Front, foreseeing the Communists' plan to take over the KMT from within. By 1925, Chiang's proto-army was scoring victories against local rivals in Guangdong province. Throughout his rise to power, Chiang Kai-shek also benefited from membership of the nationalist Tiandihui fraternity, to which Sun Yat-Sen also belonged, and which remained a source of support during his leadership of China and later Taiwan. Succession of Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen died on 12 March 1925, creating a power vacuum in the KMT. A contest ensued between Chiang, who leaned towards the right wing of the KMT, and Sun Yat-sen's close comrade-in-arms Wang Jingwei, who leaned towards the left wing of the party. Although Wang had succeeded Sun as Chairman of the National Government, Chiang ranked relatively low in the party's internal hierarchy, was bolstered by Chiang's military power and political maneuvering following the Zhongshan Warship Incident. Chiang became Commander-in-Chief of the National Revolutionary Army in 1925, and launched a military campaign on 27 July 1926 known as the Northern Expedition, to defeat the warlords controlling northern China and unify the country under the KMT. General Chiang Kai-shek in 1926, during the Northern Expedition. The National Revolutionary Army branched into three divisions - to the west, Wang Jingwei led a column to take Wuhan; Bai Chongxi's column went east to take Shanghai; while Chiang led in the middle to take Nanking before they were to press ahead to take Beijing. However, in January 1927, allied with the Chinese Communists and Soviet Agent Mikhail Borodin, Wang Jingwei and his KMT leftist allies having taken the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare, declared the National Government to have moved to Wuhan. After taking Nanking in March (and with Shanghai under the control of his close ally General Bai), Chiang was forced to halt his campaign and decided to first clean house and break with the leftists. On 12 April, Chiang began a swift attack on thousands of suspected Communists. He then established a National Government in Nanking, supported by conservative allies including Hu Hanmin. The expulsion of the communists and their Soviet advisers from the KMT led to the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. Wang Jingwei's National Government, unpopular with the masses, was weak militarily and was soon overtaken by Chiang with a local warlord (Lee Zhong-Ren of Guangxi). Eventually, Wang and his leftist party surrendered to Chiang and joined him in Nanking. Finally, the warlord capital of Beijing was taken in June 1928 and in December the Manchurian warlord Zhang Xueliang pledged allegiance to Chiang's government. Chiang attempted gestures to cement himself as the successor of Sun Yat-sen. In a pairing of much political significance, Chiang positioned himself as Sun Yat-sen's brother-in-law when he married Soong May-ling, the younger sister of Soong Ching-ling, Sun Yat-sen's widow, on 1 December 1927. He had proposed to her beforehand but had been swiftly rejected. In order to gain acceptance of Soong's parents, Chiang had to first divorce his first wife and concubines and promise eventually to convert to Christianity. He was baptized in the Methodist church in 1929. Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the capital Nanking to be enshrined in a grand mausoleum. Tutelage over China Chiang Kai-shek gained control of China, and his party enjoyed popular support; however, there were still "surrendered" warlords who were autonomous within their own regions. In 1928, Chiang was named Generalissimo of all Chinese forces and Chairman of the National Government, a post he held until 1932. According to Sun Yat-sen's plans, the Kuomintang was to rebuild China in three steps: military rule, political tutelage, and constitutional rule. The ultimate goal of the Kuomintang revolution was democratic rule, which was not feasible in China's fragmented state. Since the Kuomintang had completed the first step of the revolution through its seizure of power in 1928, Chiang's rule thus began the period of political tutelage under the guidance of the Kuomintang, to prepare China for the final transition to constitutional democracy. During this period, many features of a modern, functional Chinese state emerged and developed. (Left to right) Feng Yuxiang, Chiang Kai-shek and Yan Xishan during a Kuomintang conference before the outbreak of the Central Plains War. The decade of 1928 to 1937 was one of consolidation and accomplishment for Chiang's government. Some of the harsh aspects of foreign concessions and privileges in China were moderated through diplomacy. The government acted energetically to modernize the legal and penal systems, stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics, and augment industrial and agricultural production. Great strides also were made in education and, in an effort to help unify Chinese society, the New Life Movement was launched to stress Confucian moral values and personal discipline. Standard Mandarin, then known as Guoyu, was promoted as an standard tongue. The widespread establishment of communications facilities further encouraged a sense of unity and pride among the people. These successes, however, were met with constant upheavals with need of further political and military consolidation. Though much of the urban areas were now under the control of his party, the countryside still lay under the influence of severely-weakened yet undefeated warlords and communists. The warlords' unwillingness to drop their arms forced Chiang to resolve the issue through military, with one northern rebellion – against the warlords Yen Hsi-shan and Feng Yuxiang – in 1930 during the Central Plains War. The war almost bankrupted the government and cost almost 250,000 casualties on both sides. When Hu Han-min established a rival government in Guangzhou in 1931 Chiang was forced to fight another battle (political). A complete eradication of the Communist Party of China eluded Chiang. The Communists regrouped in Jiangxi and established the Chinese Soviet Republic. Chiang's anti-communist stance and the help of foreign military advisers allowed Chiang's fifth campaign to defeat the Communists in 1934. He surrounded the Red Army and allowed the Communists to escape through the epic Long March to Yan'an. Many said it was Chiang's plan to let the communists run through the warlord-controlled regions so that Chiang could have the warlords fight against the communists to try to "kill two birds with one stone", but the plan did not work, as warlords refused to fight with the communists and just let them run through their land. Wartime leader of China Wang Jingwei was the official collaborationist Chinese government leader who sided with Japan and was the rival of Chiang Kai-Shek. After Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Chiang resigned as Chairman of the National Government. He returned shortly, adopting a slogan "first internal pacification, then external resistance", which meant that the government would first attempt to defeat the Communists before engaging the Japanese directly. But Japan's advance on Shanghai and bombardment of Nanjing in 1932 disrupted Chiang Kai-shek's offensives against Communists. Even though on the surface Chiang seemed more preoccupied with eradicating the communists first, Chiang was preparing to fight an eventual showdown with Japan. During the period from 1931 to the beginning of full-scale war in 1937, the central government under Chiang worked assiduously to expand and modernize its armed forces, build fortifications and communication lines around the country, and develop a viable military industry capable of supporting the war effort. All these war preparations required temporary peace with Japan, which was precisely what Chiang sought in his policy. Any premature act of war before the country was ready would likely spell disaster for China. However, this policy of avoiding a frontal war was widely unpopular. In December 1936, Chiang flew to Xi'an to coordinate a major assault on Red Army forces holed up in Yan'an. However, Chiang's allied commander Chang Hsueh-liang, whose forces were to be used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been invaded by the Japanese, had other plans. On 12 December, Chang Hsueh-liang and several other previously surrendered warlords (now Nationalist generals) kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek for two weeks in what is known as the Xi'an Incident. They forced Chiang into making a "Second United Front" with the Communists against Japan. The rising tide of Chinese nationalism and the cessation of warfare against the communists propelled Chiang Kai-shek in the pinnacle of his political career. He was the only leader with both the popular support and international recognition to be capable of leading the nation into a war against Japan. Generalissimo and Madame Chiang with General Stilwell in Burma (1942). The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in July 1937. In August of the same year, Chiang sent 600,000 of his best-trained and -equipped soldiers to defend Shanghai. With over 200,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost his political base of Whampoa-trained officers. Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled Japanese claims that it could conquer China in three months and demonstrated to the Western powers (which occupied parts of the city and invested heavily in it) that the Chinese would not surrender under intense Japanese fire. This was skillful diplomatic maneuvering on the part of Chiang, who knew the city would eventually fall, but wanted to make a strong gesture in order to secure Western military aid for China. By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the Japanese, and Chiang moved the government inland first to Wuhan and later to Chongqing. Devoid of economic and industrial resources, Chiang masterfully used the tactic of "using space to trade for time" to prolong the war as long as possible; his strategy succeeded in stretching Japanese supply lines and bogging down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior, who would otherwise have been sent to conquer southeast Asia and the Pacific islands. Communist guerrilla bases behind the Japanese front lines also drew plenty of Japanese troops. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill met at the Cairo Conference in 1943 during World War II.With the Attack on Pearl Harbor and the opening of the Pacific War, China became one of the Allied Powers. During and after World War II, Chiang and his American-educated wife Soong May-ling held the unwavering support of the United States China Lobby which saw in them the hope of a Christian and democratic China. Chiang was even named the Supreme Commander of allied forces of China Warzone (which included India and Southeast Asia). He was created a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath by King George VI in 1942. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,777742,00.html?promoid=googlep Losing Mainland China In 1945 when Japan surrendered, Chiang's Chongqing government was ill-equipped and damaged from fighting the Japanese which made it difficult to reassert its authority in eastern China. Sometimes it gained cities that were formerly held by Japanese troops, which was a deeply unpopular course of action. However, with American help, it was able to reclaim the coastal cities. Following the war, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and Communist leader Mao Zedong in Chongqing. Due to the concerns about widespread corruption in Chiang's government and sympathies for the Chinese Communist Carroll, Ann W., Who Lost China http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR89102.TXT the U.S. government suspended aid to Chiang Kai-shek for much of the period of 1946 to 1948, in the midst of fighting against the People's Liberation Army led by Mao Zedong. Alleged infiltration of the U.S. government by Chinese Communist agents may have also played a role in the aid suspension. Haynes, John Earl; Harvey Klehr, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America, New Haven: Yale University Press (2000), ISBN 0300084625, pp. 142–145 Though Chiang had achieved status abroad as a world leader, his government was deteriorating as a result of corruption and inflation. In his diary on June 1948, Chiang wrote that the Kuomintang had failed, not because of external enemies but because of disintegration and rot from within; and it was this, more than any alleged foreign intrigue, that contributed to his defeat. Hoover Institution - Hoover Digest - Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for China The war had severely weakened the Nationalists both in terms of resources and popularity, while the Communists were strengthened by aid from Stalin, and guerrilla organizations extending throughout rural areas. The Nationalists initially had superiority in arms and men; but their lack of popularity, heavy infiltration by communist agents in the nationalist government, and apparent disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand. Meanwhile a new Constitution was promulgated in 1947, and Chiang Kai-shek was formally elected by the National Assembly to be the first term President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1948. Meanwhile, a new Constitution was promulgated in 1947, and Chiang was elected by the National Assembly to be President. This marked the beginning of the 'democratic constitutional government' period in KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists refused to recognise the new Constitution and its government as legitimate. Chiang resigned as President on 21 January 1949, as KMT forces suffered massive losses against the communists. Vice-President Li Tsung-jen took over as Acting President, but his relationship with Chiang soon deteriorated. Li fled to the United States under the pretense of seeking medical treatment. He absconded with millions of dollars of government money, and was later formally impeached by the Control Yuan. In the early morning of 10 December 1949, Communist troops laid siege to Chengdu, the last KMT occupied city in mainland China, where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defense at the Chengdu Central Military Academy. The aircraft May-ling evacuated them to Taiwan on the same day, forever removing them from the Chinese mainland. Presidency In Taiwan Statue of Generalissimo Chiang. Chiang moved the government to Taipei, Taiwan, where he formally resumed his duties as president on 1 March 1950. ROC Chronology: Jan 1911 - Dec 2000 Chiang was reelected by the National Assembly to be the President of the ROC on 20 May 1954 and again in 1960, 1966, and 1972. He continued, as the President of the Republic of China, to claim sovereignty over all of China, which he defined as including China proper as well as Taiwan, Mongolia, and Tibet. In the context of the Cold War, most of the Western world recognized this position and the ROC represented China as a whole in the United Nations and other international organizations until the 1970s. Despite the democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a single-party state, consisting almost completely of mainlanders; the "Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion" greatly enhanced executive powers and the goal of "retaking the mainland" allowed the KMT to maintain its monopoly on power and to outlaw opposition parties. The government's official line for these martial law provisions stemmed from the claim that emergency provisions were necessary, since the Communists and KMT were still technically under a state of war, without any cease-fire signed, after Chiang retreated to Taiwan. His government sought to promote Chinese nationalism and ignored local cultural expression, such as forbidding the use of local languages in mass media broadcasts or in schools. The government offered limited civil, economic freedom, property rights (personal and intellectual), among other liberties which permitted free debate within the confines of the legislature, but jailed dissidents who were labeled by the KMT as supporters of either communism or Taiwan independence. His son, Chiang Ching-kuo, and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor, Lee Teng-hui, would, in the 1980s and 1990s, increase native Taiwanese representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the early ROC-on-Taiwan era. Since new elections could not be held in Communist-occupied constituencies, the National Assembly, Legislative Yuan, and Control Yuan members held their posts indefinitely. It was also under the Temporary Provisions that Chiang was able to bypass term limits to remain as president. He was reelected by the National Assembly as president four times—in 1954, 1960, 1966, and 1972. After losing the mainland to the Communists, Chiang attempted to purge crookedness by dismissing members of the KMT previously accused of corruption; major figures in the previous mainland government such as H.H. Kung and T.V. Soong exiled themselves to the United States. Though the government was, to some extent, politically authoritarian and controlled government-owned industries, it encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector. A popular sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American foreign aid during the 1950s, laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success, becoming one of the East Asian Tigers. Death and legacy Chiang's body was not buried in the traditional Chinese manner but entombed in his former residence in Cihu in respect for his wish to be buried in his native Fenghua. The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, built by the ROC government to honor Chiang. In 1975, 26 years after Chiang fled to Taiwan, he died in Taipei at the age of 87. He had suffered a major heart attack and pneumonia in the months before and died from renal failure aggravated with advanced cardiac malfunction at 23:50 on 5 April. A month of mourning was declared, during which the Taiwanese people were ordered to put on black armbands. On the mainland, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent mourning and Communist state-run newspapers gave the brief headline "Chiang Kai-shek Has Died." Chiang's body was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in Cihu, Daxi, Taoyuan County. When his son Chiang Ching-kuo died in 1988, he was also entombed in a separate mausoleum in nearby Touliao (頭寮). The hope was to have both buried at their birthplace in Fenghua if and when the mainland was recovered. In 2004, Chiang Fang-liang, the widow of Chiang Ching-kuo, asked that both father and son be buried at Wuchih Mountain Military Cemetery in Hsichih, Taipei County. His ultimate funeral ceremony became a political battle issue. Chiang was succeeded as President by Vice President Yen Chia-kan and as KMT party leader by his son Chiang Ching-kuo, who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the position of Chairman. Yen Chia-kan's presidency was interim; Chiang Ching-kuo, who was the prime minister became President after Yen's term ended three years later. The main vault of the National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall contains a statue of Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang's legacy has been target of heated debates among Taiwanese people because of the different views among traditional-conservative voters and liberals. For some, Chiang was a champion of anti-communism, as he was a key figure during the formative years of the World Anti-Communist League. During the Cold War, he was also seen as the leader who led "Free China", and the bulwark against a possible communist invasion. However, Chiang has also been accused of using his political power using KMT's dominance over the media and public sector. His opponents, often DDP supporter charged Chiang's effort in developing Taiwan was mostly to make the island a strong base to return to mainland. Today, Chiang Kai-shek's popularity in Taiwan is divided among political lines, enjoying greater support among KMT supporters. He is unpopular among DPP voters and supporters. In sharp contrast to his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, and to Dr. Sun Yat-sen, his memory is rarely invoked by current political parties, including the Kuomintang. As of late, his image has been further diluted by the renaming of several landmarks named for himself by DPP President Chen Shui-bian. Names Pres. Chiang Kai-shek's portrait adorns the Republic of China's NT$200 bill. His image appeared on previous series of NT$500 and NT$1000 notes; the NT$1, $5, and $10 coins still bear his portrait on the obverse. Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang Kai-shek used several names throughout his life. That inscribed in the genealogical records of his family is Jiang Zhoutai (蔣周泰). This so-called "register name" (譜名) is the one under which his extended relatives knew him, and the one he used in formal occasions, such as when he got married. In deference to tradition, family members did not use the register name in conversation with people outside of the family. In fact, the concept of real or original name is not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world. In honor of tradition, Chinese families waited a number of years before officially naming their offspring. In the meantime, they used a "milk name" (乳名), given to the infant shortly after his birth and known only to the close family. Thus, the actual name that Chiang Kai-shek received at birth was Jiang Ruiyuan (蔣瑞元). In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang Kai-shek went to Ningbo to be a student, and he chose a "school name" (學名). This was actually the formal name of a person, used by older people to address him, and the one he would use the most in the first decades of his life (as the person grew older, younger generations would have to use one of the courtesy names instead). (Colloquially, the school name is called "big name" (大名), whereas the "milk name" is known as the "small name" (小名).) The school name that Chiang Kai-shek chose for himself was Zhiqing (志清 - meaning "purity of intentions"). For the next fifteen years or so, Chiang Kai-shek was known as Jiang Zhiqing. This is the name under which Sun Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in Guangzhou in the 1910s. In 1912, when Chiang Kai-shek was in Japan, he started to use (蔣介石) as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded (Voice of the Army - 軍聲). (Jieshi is the pinyin romanization of the name, based on Mandarin, but the common romanized rendering is Kai-shek which is in Cantonese romanization. As the republicans were based in Guangzhou (a Cantonese speaking area), Chiang Kai-shek became known by Westerners under the Cantonese romanization of his courtesy name, while the family name as known in English seems to be the Mandarin pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated in Wade-Giles). In mainland China, Jiang Jieshi is the name under which he is commonly known today. The entrance to Chiang's tombsite at Tzuhu (Cihu) uses the official posthumous rendering of Chiang Kai-shek (from right to left): The President (space) Lord Chiang Mausoleum. Garden at Tzuhu (Cihu), home to many relocated Chiang statues. Jieshi soon became his courtesy name (字). Some think the name was chosen from the classic Chinese book the Book of Changes; other note that the first character of his courtesy name is also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother and other male relatives on the same generation line, while the second character of his courtesy name shi (石 - meaning "stone") suggests the second character of his "register name" tai (泰 - the famous Mount Tai of China). Courtesy names in China often bore a connection with the personal name of the person. As the courtesy name is the name used by people of the same generation to address the person, Chiang Kai-shek soon became known under this new name. Sometime in 1917 or 1918, as Chiang became close to Sun Yat-sen, he changed his name from Jiang Zhiqing to Jiang Zhongzheng (蔣中正 Chiang Chung-cheng). By adopting the name Chung-cheng ("central uprightness"), he was choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen, who was (and still is) known among Chinese as Zhongshan (中山 - meaning "central mountain"), thus establishing a link between the two. The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas. Not surprisingly, the Chinese Communists always rejected the use of this name and it is not well-known in mainland China. However, it was readily accepted by members of the Chinese Nationalist Party and is the name under which Chiang Kai-shek is still commonly known in Taiwan. Often the name is shortened to Chung-cheng only (Chung-cheng in Wade-Giles). For many years passengers arriving at the Chiang Kai-shek International Airport were greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the "Chung Cheng International Airport." Similarly, the monument erected to Chiang's memory in Taipei known in English as Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall was literally named "Chung Cheng Memorial Hall" in Chinese. His name is also written in Taiwan as "The Late President Lord Chiang" (先總統 蔣公), where the one-character-wide space known as nuo tai shows respect; this practice has lost some popularity. However, he is still known as Lord Chiang (蔣公) (without the title or space), along with the similarly positive-sounding name Chiang Chung-cheng, in Taiwan. See also National Revolutionary Army Whampoa Military Academy Northern Expedition (1926–1927) Central Plains War New Life Movement Xi'an Incident Second Sino-Japanese War National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall Chiang Kai-shek statues Cihu Presidential Burial Place Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song Sino-German cooperation (1911–1941) History of the Republic of China Military of the Republic of China Politics of the Republic of China Madame Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Ching-kuo Chiang Wei-kuo Kuomintang Claire Lee Chennault Flying Tigers Chinese nationalism Democide Mao Zedong Notes Wives Further reading Taylor, Jay. "The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China" (2009), 722 pages, ISBN 0674033388 Crozier, Brian. The Man Who Lost China (1976) ISBN 0-684-14686-X John King Fairbank and Denis Twitchett, eds. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 1 (1983) 1120 pages Fenby, Jonathan. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek and the China he lost: 2003, The Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-3144-9 Laura Tyson Li. Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady (2006) May, Ernest R. "1947-48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China." Journal of Military History 2002 66(4): 1001-1010. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Swetswise and Jstor Romanus, Charles F. and Riley Sunderland, Time Runs Out in CBI (Washington, 1959), official U.S. Army history online edition Sainsbury, Keith. The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang-Kai-Shek, 1943. The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences. Oxford U. Press, 1985. Seagrave, Sterling. The Soong Dynasty: 1996, Corgi Books, ISBN 0-552-14108-9 Stueck, William. The Wedemeyer Mission: American Politics and Foreign Policy during the Cold War. U. of Georgia Press, 1984. 177 pp. Tang Tsou. America's Failure in China, 1941-50 (1963) Barbara W. Tuchman. Stillwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-45 (1971) External links Obituary, NY Times, 6 April 1975, The Life of Chiang Kai-shek: A Leader Who Was Thrust Aside by Revolution ROC Government Biography Time magazine's "Man and Wife of the Year", 1937 The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall Official Site The Chungcheng Cultural and Educational Foundation Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek Association Hong Kong Order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek supplementing the Act of Surrender - by Japan on 9 September 1945 Family tree of his descendants (in Simplified Chinese) 1966 GIO Biographical video "The Memorial Song of Late President Chiang Kai-shek" (Ministry of National Defence of ROC) Chiang Kai-shek Biography - From Spartacus Educational The Collected Wartime Messages Of Generalissimo Chiang Kai Shek at archive.org The National Chiang Kai-shek Cultural Center Official Site Chiang Kai-shek Diaries at the Hoover Institution Archives | Chiang_Kai-shek |@lemmatized chiang:169 kai:56 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6,761 | Cult_film | A cult film (also known as a cult movie/picture or a cult classic) is a film that has acquired a highly devoted but specific group of fans. All Movie Guide glossary Often, cult movies have failed to achieve fame outside of the small fanbases; however, there have been exceptions that have managed to gain fame among mainstream audiences. Many cult movies have gone on to transcend their original cult status and have become recognized as classics; others are of the "so bad it's good" variety and are destined to remain in obscurity. Cult films often become the source of a thriving, obsessive, and elaborate subculture of fandom, hence the analogy to cults. However, not every film with a rabid fanbase is necessarily a cult film. Usually, cult films have limited but very special, noted appeal. Cult films are often known to be eccentric and do not follow traditional standards of mainstream cinema and usually explore topics not considered in any way mainstream—yet there are examples that are relatively normal. They are often considered controversial because they step outside standard narrative and technical conventions known. Cult films at Film site; accessed October 5, 2007 General overview A cult film is a movie that attracts a devoted group of followers or obsessive fans, despite having failed on its initial release. The term also describes films that have remained popular over a long period of time amongst a small group of followers. In many cases, cult films may have failed to achieve mainstream success on original release although this is definitely not always the case. Whilst they may only have a short cinema release cult films often enjoy ongoing popularity due to myriad VHS, LaserDisc and DVD releases. In some cases, these films tend to enjoy long runs on video, thus being issued in video "runs" with more copies than other movies. The box office bomb Office Space (1999) managed to financially redeem itself when word-of-mouth made it a popular video rental. Harold and Maude (1971) was not successful financially at the time of its original release in 1971, but has since nevertheless earned a huge cult following and has become successful following its video and DVD releases. This has also happened with The Big Lebowski (1998), among others. Many cult films were independently made and were not expected by their creators to have much mainstream success. Carnival of Souls (1962), Night of the Living Dead (1968), Pink Flamingos (1972), Basket Case (1982), The Evil Dead (1981) and its sequels, and Eraserhead (1977) have all been commonly acknowledged as having become cult films. Sometimes the audience response to a cult film is somewhat different from what was intended by the film makers. Many films that become cult contain unusual elements. Cult films usually offer something different or innovative in comparison to more mainstream films but cult films can also be popular across a wide audience. A film can be both a major studio release and a cult film, particularly if despite its affiliation with a major studio, it failed to achieve broad success on either the theatrical or home video markets but was championed by a small number of dedicated film fanatics who seek out lesser-known offerings, which can also be said about Freddy Got Fingered. It is also true that the content of certain films (such as dark subjects, alienation, transgressive content, or other controversial subject matter) can also decide whether or not a film is a "cult film", regardless of the film's budget or studio affiliations. An example may be Paul Verhoeven's big budgeted, highly sexualized Showgirls (1995), initially intended to be a drama film about the rise of a Las Vegas stripper, that flopped both critically and commercially. Today, it is a favorite of gay audiences and audiences in general have considered it to be a comedy thanks to frequent midnight madness. According to activist writer Naomi Klein, ironic enjoyment of the film initially arose among those with the video before MGM, the film's chief marketer, capitalized on the idea. MGM noticed the video was performing all right, since "trendy twenty-somethings were throwing Showgirls irony parties, laughing sardonically at the implausibly poor screenplay and shrieking with horror at the aerobic sexual encounters." Naomi Klein, No Logo, Vintage Canada Edition, 2000, p. 79. History Early period: 1959-1970s Plan 9 from Outer Space (1959) and other films by Edward D. Wood, Jr. were considered cult classics, attracting devotees who reveled in his incompetence. Other low-budget science fiction and horror films of the 1950s (for example Robot Monster), along with exploitation films of the 1930s, which resurfaced in the home video market of the 1980s (including the infamous Reefer Madness), were accorded that status. The low budget horror film Night of the Living Dead (1968) directed by George A. Romero earned moderate box office takings but was critically polarized at the time. However, the culture of Vietnam-era America had a tremendous impact on the film and the film was given a cult status after playing frequently at midnight movie circuits. It is so thoroughly laden with critiques of late-1960s American society that one historian described the film as "subversive on many levels." Adam Rockoff, Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978–1986 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2002), p. 35, ISBN 0-7864-1227-5. While not the first zombie film made, Night of the Living Dead influenced countless films and is perhaps the defining influence on the modern pop-culture zombie archetype. "Zombie Movies" in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, ed. John Clute and John Grant (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 1048, ISBN 0-312-19869-8 The film is the first of five Dead films (completed or pending) directed by Romero. John Waters' notorious Pink Flamingos (1972), was wildly controversial (being an exercise in "poor taste") featuring incest and coprophagia, became the best known of a group of campy midnight films focusing on sexual perversions and fetishism. Waters (2006). Filmed on weekends in Waters's hometown of Baltimore, with a mile-long extension cord as a power conduit, it was also crucial in inspiring the growth of the independent film movement. Pink Flamingos Production Notes. Retrieved 11/15/06. In 1973, the Elgin Theater started midnight screenings of both Pink Flamingos and a crime drama from Jamaica with a remarkable soundtrack. In its mainstream release, The Harder They Come (1972) had been a flop, panned by critics after its U.S. distributor, Roger Corman's New World Pictures, marketed it as a blaxploitation picture. Re-released as a midnight film, it screened around the country for six years, helping spur the popularity of reggae in the United States. While the midnight-movie potential of certain films was recognized only some time after they opened, a number during this period were distributed to take advantage of the market from the beginning—in 1973, for instance, Broken Goddess, Dragula, The White Whore and the Bit Player, and Elevator Girls in Bondage (as well as Pink Flamingos) had their New York premieres at midnight screenings. Hoberman and Rosenbaum (1983), p. 13. In 1974, midnight opener Flesh Gordon evidenced how the phenomenon lent itself to flirtations with pornography. The Rocky Horror Picture Show satirizes conventions of science fiction and horror films of its time, and includes elements of transvestism, incest and homosexuality — all within the context of a musical film. The film received little critical attention or mainstream cinema exhibition when first released in 1975, but built up a base of fans who repeatedly showed up at midnight screenings at inexpensive neighborhood cinemas, dressed in costume and "participating" in the film by doing such things as throwing rice during its wedding scene. See History of the Rocky Horror Picture Show and Rocky Horror Timeline. Retrieved 11/14/06. In this case, the film intentionally ridiculed its own subject matter, thereby entering into the spirit of sarcastic fun often surrounding the attainment of cult status and gained a new life on VHS. The Rocky Horror Picture Show can be seen as a standard to help determine if a movie is indeed a cult film, as it is likely the most famous cult film. Much of the attention has stemmed from the fanbase, rather than the film itself. If a movie is more widely known than The Rocky Horror Picture Show, it is not likely to be considered a cult film. Network television, cable television and pay-per-view stations have also changed the nature of cult films. David Lynch's experimental Eraserhead (1977), an example of shoe-string surrealism was a flop both critically and commercially, yet was saved from obscurity thanks to home video in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Comedy films have also been cult classics. In 1979, Steven Spielberg, after two blockbuster hits (Jaws and Close Encounters of the Third Kind), decided to try the comedy genre with 1941, set days after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The film, spoofing all popular film genres of the 1940s (and World War II in general), is considered by critics as Spielberg's first flop, although statistically it made a small profit for Columbia Pictures and Universal Studios--that is when compared to Spielberg's earlier (and later) blockbuster hits. Whatever the case, it gained a cult following after it aired in an extended version on the U.S. ABC network, and years after on Laserdisc and DVD. Other cult films from this period are those of director and actor Tom Laughlin, including the Billy Jack series. Later period: 1980s to present The commercial viability of the sort of big-city arthouses that launched outsider pictures for the midnight movie circuit began to decline in the late 1970s as broad social and economic shifts weakened their countercultural base. Leading midnight movie venues were beginning to fold as early as 1977 — that year, New York's Bijou switched back permanently to the live entertainment for which it had been built, and the Elgin, after a brief run with gay porn, shut down completely. Bijou Theatre; Elgin Theatre. Retrieved 11/15/06. In succeeding years, the popularization of the VCR and the expansion of movie-viewing possibilities on cable television meant the death of many additional independent theaters, which as a result, developed a stream of newer cult films. The first, possibly, was the biographical Mommie Dearest (1981), which details the life of Joan Crawford and her alleged abusive relationship with her adopted daughter. The over-acting by Faye Dunaway as Crawford gave the film a campy tone, and critics were very negative of the film. While Dunaway garnered some critical acclaim for her astonishing physical metamorphosis and her portrayal of Crawford (finishing a narrow second in the voting for the New York Film Critics Circle Awards for Best Actress of the Year), she also received a Razzie Award for Worst Actress and caused considerable damage to her career. It did manage to develop a cult classic status, especially with gay audiences and became famous for Crawford's emphasis on the line "No wire hangers, ever!", when urging her daughter not to use them in her closet. While Rocky Horror soldiered on, by then a phenomenon unto itself, and new films like The Warriors (1979), The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980), The Evil Dead (1981), Heavy Metal (1981), and Pink Floyd The Wall (1982)—all from mainstream distributors—were picked up by the midnight movie circuit, the core of exhibitors that energized the movement was disappearing. In 1984, Dino DeLaurentiis released Dune, based on Frank Herbert's best-selling sci-fi novel. Directed by David Lynch, Dune was a big-budget flop, partially because of the fact that the movie had already been edited from an intended three-to-four hours to 137 minutes, leaving the story incomprehensible. Knowing that a great deal of footage had been deleted in the first place, Universal Studios took it upon themselves to release a longer version for syndicated television that would interest the fans, and in the process, return some of the cohesiveness to the story, and thus Dune became a cult classic, albeit too late, as David Lynch had removed his name from the credits of the television cut. Both major versions have been successful thanks to a recent DVD release. 1985 saw the making of two Arnon Milchan films that were, like Dune before it, substantially altered by Universal Studios in an attempt to find a mainstream audience. Terry Gilliam's Brazil (1985), an Orwellian inspired science fiction film about a man and his dreams of a better life and relationship with the woman of his dreams became a huge failure (largely because of the difficulties involved in marketing the film), yet was critically acclaimed and subsequently revitalized by video releases. Then, by the time Legend, directed by Ridley Scott, opened in European theatres, it had already been edited by 20 minutes by Universal. Having failed at the U.K. box office, it was further edited by five minutes for U.S. release a year later and Jerry Goldsmith's original orchestral score replaced by a rock score by Tangerine Dream. Interest in the missing footage and score helped to build the film's cult status, which paid off when in 2002, DVD audiences finally saw Legend in a version closer to director Scott's intent. A year later, David Lynch's landmark, highly influential neo-noir thriller Blue Velvet (1986) became a cult classic, having initially failed at the box office in 1986 (because of its limited release in theatres) but was revitalized with video releases in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The film became hugley controversial and well-known because of its bizarre, often graphic depiction of small town America and male-female relationships featuring a psychotic Dennis Hopper and his drug-fueled sexual relationship with Dorothy Vallens, played by Isabella Rossellini. Lynch continued his career with various other cult films: Wild at Heart (1990), Lost Highway (1997) and the critically acclaimed Mulholland Dr. (2001) as well as his short lived cult phenomenon television series Twin Peaks (90-91), and its subsequent movie adaptation: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992). Another cult item is the Jim Jarmusch film from 1989 Mystery Train, which includes Joe Strummer and Tom Waits. Alan Parker's mystery horror hybrid movie, Angel Heart (1987), starring Mickey Rourke and Robert De Niro, fared poorly at the box office, only just breaking even. Angel Heart (1987) - Box office / business Despite this, the film became a hit once released on VHS, and has become something of a cult classic ever since, known for its spooky tone, excellent cinematography (by Michael Seresin), a sad and spooky score (by Trevor Jones), and an unusual but effective blend of genres, all encompassing a highly atmospheric movie. Also notable, some of the producers of the movie, Andrew G. Vajna and Mario Kassar were also the producers of the movie Jacob's Ladder which had a very similar narrative structure to it, as well as a twist ending. Michael Lehmann's satirical teenage comedy Heathers (1989), starring Winona Ryder and Christian Slater, was intended to take on the John Hughes teenage films (The Breakfast Club, Sixteen Candles) and give them a much darker, realistic and comedic approach. However, the film was a failure at the box office (mainly because of its limited release). Despite this, it was hugely popular on VHS in the early 1990s and launched cutting-edge dialogue spoken by its characters ('What's your damage?', 'I love my dead, gay son!') into mainstream popular culture. In 1993, the comedy horror Army of Darkness, a sequel to the Evil Dead series, was released. The movie had a considerably higher budget than the prior two Evil Dead films. The budget was estimated to be around $11 million; while Evil Dead II had a budget of $3.5 million and The Evil Dead a budget of $350,000. At the box office, Army of Darkness was not a big success as hoped, only grossing $11,501,093 domestically. After its video release, however, it has obtained an ever-growing cult following, along with the other two films in the trilogy. One of the most successful of the 1990s generation of cult films was the Australian drag queen road saga The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994). One of the theaters to show it regularly at midnight was New York's Waverly (also now closed), where Rocky Horror had played for a house record ninety-five weeks. A celebrated episode of television's The Drew Carey Show features a song-and-dance battle between Rocky Horror fans (led by Drew Carey) and Priscilla fans (led by Mimi Bobeck). Writer/director Todd Solondz, a favorite cult director, had his first major success with the black comedy Welcome to the Dollhouse (1995), a brutally-honest look at the persecution of a young junior high student by her classmates. His next film was the challenging, controversial dark comedy of sex and perversion in American suburbia—titled Happiness (1998). Paul Verhoven's big budget production of Showgirls (1995), given an NC-17 rating by the MPAA in the United States, was strongly criticised for its graphic sexuality. The Big Lebowski (1998) was a flop on its initial release, yet became a cult classic and has been called "the first cult film of the Internet era." Canadian actor and comedian Tom Green's 2001 film Freddy Got Fingered, was lambasted by many critics, and flopped at the box office. Freddy Got Fingered at Rotten Tomatoes; accessed October 5, 2007. The film quickly gained a cult following amongst fans of the film's genre due to its gross-out humour. The 2001 comic book adaptation Ghost World became popular on home video and quickly affirmed a cult status with audiences. In the world of animation, like the The Nightmare Before Christmas and the 2007 animated film Flatland which has garnered modest cult status from critics and fans alike, being likened by film review magazines such as Film Threat to older animation cult films like Yellow Submarine and Fritz The Cat. Since the turn of the millennium, the most notable success among newly minted cult and midnight movies has been Donnie Darko (2001). Also notable is the 2001 comedy Wet Hot American Summer, an absurdist parody of the pre-MTV summer camp genre. Notably, both "Darko" and "Wet Hot" take place in the 1980s. Lastly, the 2008 film "Repo! The Genetic Opera", directed by Darren Lynn Bousman (Saw II-IV) is a notable exception to the dearth of movies that come out as it has fast gained a cult following much along the lines of "The Rocky Horror Picture Show", a film which it claims is part of its influence. Many times, in fact though, "Repo! The Genetic Opera" plays right alongside "The Rocky Horror Picture Show", both with their own Shadow Casts. Older films are also popular on the circuit, appreciated largely in an imposed camp fashion—a midnight movie tradition that goes back to the 1972 revival of the hectoring anti-drug movie Reefer Madness (1938). See Hoberman and Rosenbaum (1983), pp. 261–262. For their consideration of Freaks as part of the early midnight movie phenomenon, see pp. 3, 95, 99, 295–297. (Tod Browning's 1932 horror classic Freaks, the original midnight movie revival, is both too dark and too sociologically acute to readily consume as camp.) Where the irony with which Reefer Madness was adopted as a midnight favorite had its roots in a countercultural sensibility, in the latter's place there is now the paradoxical element of nostalgia: the leading revivals on the circuit currently include the crème de la crème of the John Hughes oeuvre—The Breakfast Club (1985), Pretty in Pink (1986), and Ferris Bueller's Day Off (1986)—and the preteen adventure film The Goonies (1985). Beale (2005). Cult films within a particular culture Occasionally, a film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has some unusual significance to that region or culture. An example is the cult status of British comedic actor Norman Wisdom's films in Albania. Wisdom's films, in which he usually played a family man worker who outsmarts his boss, were some of the few Western films considered acceptable by the country's communist rulers, thus Albanians grew familiar and attached to Wisdom. Curiously, he and his films are now acquiring nostalgic cult status in Britain. Another example is the place of The Wizard of Oz (1939) in American homosexual culture, although a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture. Male homosexuals sometimes refer to themselves as "friends of Dorothy". Singin' in the Rain is another film adopted by the American homosexual subculture which used to regularly be shown during the 1980s and early 1990s for extended runs. Slaves of New York, released in 1989, has also found a cult audience in the homosexual community. In the world of anime, the MTV spoof series Ultracity 6060 created by Beavis and Butt-Head director Mike deSeve has become a hard-to-acquire cult classic among American anime fans. DeSeve's gory send-up When Animated Animals Attack is also a cult hit among animation festival fans in North America, as are the works of Don Hertzfeldt (Billy's Balloon, Rejected, The Meaning of Life) and Robert Smigel. The 1938 anti-marijuana propaganda film Reefer Madness has become a cult film within the stoner subculture due to its humorously sensationalized, outdated and inaccurate descriptions of the effects of marijuana. 20th Century Fox and Legend Films released a colorized version of the film on DVD on April 20, 2004, an obvious reference to its ironic appeal (see 420 (cannabis culture)). The World War II-era Department of Agriculture film Hemp for Victory, encouraging the growing of hemp for war uses, has achieved a similar cult status. Lower IT workers and white-collar American workers alike have given Mike Judge's 1999 comedy film Office Space a cult following because of its heroic portrayal of ordinary office employees who become fed up with their jobs, make a stand, and try to overthrow the very corporation for which they work. Belgian cult movie Man Bites Dog with Benoit Poelvoorde and the surrealist movie Camping Cosmos starring cult figures like Lolo Ferrari, Noël Godin and Arno Hintjens, are an element of the Belgian visual landscape with reminiscences to Belgian Surrealism. British comedies have enjoyed a cult status in America. These films include the Monty Python series, most notably Monty Python and the Holy Grail. International cult cinema Asian cinema, particularly Hong Kong martial arts films, such as wuxia, and Japanese tokusatsu, primarily from the Daikaiju Eiga, and anime, also has a cult following in the Western hemisphere. The Kaiju genre of films, most famously the Godzilla films, while enjoying much mainstream popularity in Japan, has a large following in the U.S.. Battle Royale has gained cult status in Britain due to the resonance the film has with the disaffected youth of that country. The action film Red Heat (1988) has found a cult audience amongst fluent Russian speakers because of the movie's weak portrayal of the Russian language and stereotypes. In India, Bollywood productions like Hera Pheri (2000 film), Satya, Andaz Apna Apna, Jaane Bhi Do Yaaron and Mohra have achieved cult-status. So-bad-they're-good cult films and camp classics Many films enjoy cult status because they are seen as ridiculously awful, for example Plan 9 from Outer Space (1958). The critic Michael Medved characterized examples of the "so bad it's good" class of low-budget cult film through books such as The Golden Turkey Awards. These films include such financially fruitless and critically scorned films as The Lonely Lady, Mommie Dearest, Cool as Ice, Boxing Helena, Manos: The Hands of Fate, Fatal Deviation, Silent Night, Deadly Night Part 2, Troll 2 and Showgirls, which have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs. Movies have even achieved cult status by successfully imitating the awfulnesses of so-bad-it's-good movies (The Lost Skeleton of Cadavra, The Wild Man of the Navidad and Amazon Women on the Moon being just three examples.) In other cases, little-known or forgotten films from the past are revived as cult films, largely because they are considered goofy and senseless by modern standards, with laughable special effects and corny plotlines. These include Breakin', The Beastmaster, Santa Claus Conquers the Martians, The Creeping Terror, Robot Monster, The Incredibly Strange Creatures Who Stopped Living and Became Mixed-Up Zombies, Attack of the 50 Foot Woman, The Man Who Saves the World and the works of Edward D. Wood, Jr. The Beastmaster is an example of the strange vectors which can lead to cult filmdom, as its reputation stems as much from ubiquitous cable-TV overplay as anything in the film itself. These films should not be confused with comedic cult movies like The Toxic Avenger, Bad Taste, Army of Darkness, and the films of John Waters, which purposely utilize elements from films "so bad they're good" for comedic effect. This can be seen as related to the artistic style known as "camp". The most recent film to gain widespread acclaim under this jurisdiction is Samuel L. Jackson's Snakes on a Plane (2006), because this movie has been cited as trying for "so-bad-it's-good" status. See also B-movie Cult television Cult figure Midnight movies Underground film Exploitation film References External links The Worldwide Celluloid Massacre | Cult_film |@lemmatized cult:81 film:130 also:20 know:10 movie:37 picture:11 classic:12 acquire:3 highly:4 devote:1 specific:1 group:4 fan:10 guide:1 glossary:1 often:7 fail:6 achieve:6 fame:2 outside:2 small:5 fanbases:1 however:5 exception:2 manage:3 gain:7 among:6 mainstream:12 audience:11 many:9 go:3 transcend:1 original:5 status:17 become:21 recognize:2 others:2 bad:8 good:7 variety:1 destine:1 remain:2 obscurity:2 source:1 thriving:1 obsessive:2 elaborate:1 subculture:3 fandom:1 hence:1 analogy:1 every:1 rabid:1 fanbase:2 necessarily:1 usually:4 limit:1 special:2 noted:1 appeal:2 eccentric:1 follow:10 traditional:1 standard:4 cinema:6 explore:1 topic:1 consider:8 way:1 yet:4 example:10 relatively:1 normal:1 controversial:5 step:1 narrative:2 technical:1 convention:2 site:1 access:2 october:2 general:3 overview:1 attract:2 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6,762 | Memory_consolidation | Memory Consolidation is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after the initial acquisition Dudai, Y. (2004). The neurobiology of consolidations, or, how stable is the engram? Annu. Rev. Psychol., 55, pp. 51-86 . Consolidation is distinguished into two specific processes, Synaptic Consolidation, which occurs within the first few hours after learning and System Consolidation, where hippocampus-dependent memories become independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years. Recently a third process has become the focus of research, Reconsolidation, in which a previously consolidated memories can be made labile again through reactivation of the memory trace. History Memory consolidation was first made reference to in the writings of the renowned Roman teacher of rhetoric Quintillian. He noted the “curious fact… that the interval of a single night will greatly increase the strength of the memory,” and presented the possibility that “… the power of recollection .. undergoes a process of ripening and maturing during the time which intervenes.” The process of consolidation was later proposed based on clinical data illustrated in 1882 by Ribot’s Law of Regression, “progressive destruction advances progressively from the unstable to the stable”. This idea was elaborated on by William H. Burnham a few years later in a paper on amnesia integrating findings from experimental psychology and neurology. The creation of the term “consolidation” is credited to the German researchers Müller and Alfons Pilzecker who rediscovered the concept that memory takes time to fixate or undergo “Konsolidierung” in their studies conducted between 1892 and 1900 . Systematic studies of retrograde amnesia started to emerge in the 1960s and 1970s. These were accompanied by the creation of animal models of human amnesia in an effort to identify brain substrates critical for slow consolidation. Meanwhile, neuropharmacological studies of selected brain areas began to shed light on the molecules possibly responsible for fast consolidation. Advancements in cellular preparations, molecular biology, and neurogenetics have revolutionized the study of consolidation in recent decades. Synaptic Consolidation Synaptic consolidation is one form of memory consolidation seen across all species and long-term memory tasks. Long-term memory, when discussed in the arena of synaptic consolidation, is memory that lasts for at least 24 hours. An exception to this 24-hour rule is long-term potentiation, or LTP, a model of synaptic plasticity related to learning, in which an hour is thought to be sufficient. Synaptic consolidation is achieved faster than systems consolidation, within only minutes to hours of learning. LTP, one of the best understood forms of synaptic plasticity, is thought to be a possible underlying process in synaptic consolidation. Standard Model The standard model of synaptic consolidation suggests that alterations of synaptic protein synthesis and changes in membrane potential are achieved through activating intracellular transduction cascades. These molecular cascades trigger transcription factors that lead to changes in gene expression. The result of the gene expression is the lasting alteration of synaptic proteins, as well as synaptic remodeling and growth. In a short time-frame immediately following learning, the molecular cascade, expression and process of both transcription factors and immediate early genes, are susceptible to disruptions. Disruptions caused by specific drugs, antibodies and gross physical trauma can block the effects of synaptic consolidation. Long-term Potentiation LTP can be thought of as the prolonged strengthening of synaptic transmission Tronson, N. C. & Taylor, J. R. (2007). Molecular mechanisms of memory consolidation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 262-275. , and is known to produce increases in the neurotransmitter production and receptor sensitivity, lasting minutes to even days. The process of LTP is regarded as a contributing factor to synaptic plasticity and in the growth of synaptic strength, which are suggested to underlie memory formation. LTP is also considered to be an important mechanism in terms of maintaining memories within brain regions Spencer, J. P. E. (2008). Food for thought: the role of dietary flavanoids in enhancing human memory, learning and neuro-cognitive performance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 67, 238-252. , and therefore is thought to be involved in learning. There is compelling evidence that LTP is critical for fear conditioning in rats suggesting that it mediates learning and memory in mammals. Specifically, NMDA-receptor antagonists appear to block the induction of both LTP and fear conditioning and that fear conditioning increases amygdaloidal synaptic transmission that would result in LTP Maren, S. (1999). Long-term potentiation in the amygdala: a mechanism for emotional learning and memory. Trends Neurosci, 22, 261-267. . Timeline of Consolidation Synaptic consolidation, when compared to systems consolidation; which is said to take weeks to months to years to be accomplished, is considerably faster. There is evidence to suggest that synaptic consolidation takes place within minutes to hours of memory encoding or learning, and as such is considered the ‘fast’ type of consolidation. As soon as six hours after training, memories become impervious to interferences that disrupt synaptic consolidation and the formation of long-term memory. Spacing Effect Distributed learning has been found to enhance memory consolidation, specifically for relational memory. Experimental results suggest that distributing learning over the course of 24 hours decreases the rate of forgetting compared to massed learning, and enhances relational memory consolidation. When interpreted in the context of synaptic consolidation, mechanisms of synaptic strengthening may depend on the spacing of memory reactivation to allow sufficient time for protein synthesis to occur, and thereby strengthen long-term memory Litman, L. & Davachi, L. (2008). Distributed learning enhances relational memory consolidation. Learn. Mem., 15, 711-716. . Protein Synthesis Protein synthesis has been suggested to play a critical role in the formation of new memories. Studies have shown that protein synthesis inhibitors administered after learning, weaken memory, suggesting that protein synthesis is required for memory consolidation. Additionally, reports have suggested that the effects of protein synthesis inhibitors also inhibit LTP Gold, P. E. (2008). Protein synthesis inhibition and memory: formation vs amnesia. Neurobiol Learn Mem, 89, 201-211. . However, it should be noted that other results have shown that protein synthesis may not in fact be necessary for memory consolidation, as it has been found that the formation of memories can withstand vast amounts of protein synthesis inhibition, suggesting that this criterion of protein synthesis as necessary for memory consolidation is not unconditional. Dietary Flavanoids There is evidence to suggest that dietary flavanoids have effects on encouraging LTP and synaptic plasticity, therefore affecting memory. Specifically, it was found that dietary-derived flavanoids might protect neurons, enhance neuronal function, and stimulate neuronal regeneration. Additionally, these dietary phytochemicals interact with several neuronal signaling cascade pathways that are responsible for alterations in LTP, and consequently, learning and human memory. Flavanoids may trigger certain events, including the activation of the CREB transcription factor, which is important to the enhancement of short-term and long-term memory. This activation then triggers the synthesis of important proteins related to LTP, ultimately leading to synapse growth and eventually long-term memory . System Consolidation System Consolidation is the second form of memory consolidation. It is a reorganization process in which memories from the hippocampal region where memories are first encoded are moved to the neo-cortex in a more permanent form of storage Roediger, H. L., Dudai, Y., & Fitzpatrick, S. M. (2007). Science of memory: concepts. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. . System consolidation is a slow dynamic process that can take from one to two decades to be fully formed in humans, unlike synaptic consolidation that only takes minutes to hours for new information to stabilize into memories. Standard Model The Standard model of systems consolidation was first developed by Paul W. Frankland; it states that when novel information is originally encoded and registered; memory of these new stimuli becomes retained in both the hippocampus and cortical regions Frankland, P. W. & Bontempis, B. (2005). The organization of recent and remote memories. Nature Reviews / Neuroscience, 6, pp. 119-129. . Later the hippocampus’ representations of this information become active in explicit (conscious) recall or implicit (unconscious) recall like in sleep and ‘offline’ processes. Memory is retained in the hippocampus for up to one week after initial learning, representing the hippocampus-dependent stage. During this stage the hippocampus is ‘teaching’ the cortex more and more about the information and when the information is recalled it strengthens the cortico-cortical connection thus making the memory hippocampus-independent. Therefore from one week and beyond the initial training experience, the memory is slowly transferred to the neo-cortex where it becomes permanently stored. Multiple Trace Theory Nadel and Moscovitch argued that when studying the structures and systems involved in memory consolidation, the type of memories; semantic and episodic, need to be treated separately rather than as one. Evidence from extensive neuro-imaging research on the different function of cortical and hippocampus memory traces have found that the hippocampus provides temporal and spatial context, whereas the cortical traces are primarily context-free. Episodic memory; no matter whether new or old, relies on hippocampus-cortical networks whereas remote semantic memories can be retrieved independent of the hippocampus. The Multiple Trace Theory (MTT) therefore differs with the Standard Model in that Frankland did not consider the types of memory as separate, so the Standard model needed to be altered to conform to episodic as well as semantic memories and state that proper hippocampus functioning is necessary for the retention and retrieval of episodic memories. REM Sleep Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep has been implicated in the overnight learning in humans by the re-organization of novel information in the hippocampal and cortical regions of the brain Walker, M.P., Stickgold, R., Alsop, D., Gaab, N., & Schlaug, G. (2005). Sleep-dependent motor memory plasticity in the human brain. Neuroscience 133, 911-917. . REM sleep elicits an increase in neuronal activity following an enriched or novel waking experience. Thus increasing neuronal plasticity and therefore playing an essential role in the consolidation of memories Riberio, S., Goyal, G., Mello, C. V., & Pavlides C. (1999). Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. Learning and Memory 6, 500-508. . In particular studies have been done on sensory and motor related tasks. In one study testing finger-tapping, people were split into two groups and tested post-training with or without intervening sleep; results concluded that sleep post-training increases both speed and accuracy in this particular task, while increasing the activation of both cortical and hippocampal regions; whereas the post-training awake group had no such improvements. Zif268 & REM Sleep Zif268 is an Immediate Early Gene (IEG) thought to be involved in neuroplasticity by an up-regulation of the transcription factor during REM sleep after pre-exposure to an enriched environment. Results from studies testing the effects of zif268 on mice brains postmortem, suggest that a waking experience prior to sleep can have an enduring effect in the brain, due to an increase of neuroplasticity . Reconsolidation Memory reconsolidation is the process of previously consolidated memories being recalled and actively consolidated. It is a distinct process that serves to maintain, strengthen and modify memories that are already stored in the long-term memory. Once memories undergo the process of consolidation and become part of long-term memory, they are thought of as stable. However, the retrieval of a memory trace can cause another labile phase that then requires an active process to make the memory stable after retrieval is complete. It is believed that post-retrieval stabilization is different and distinct from consolidation, despite its overlap in function (e.g. storage) and its mechanisms (e.g. protein synthesis). Memory modification needs to be demonstrated in the retrieval in order for this independent process to be valid. History The theory of reconsolidation has been debated for many years and has become quite controversial. Reconsolidation was first conceptualized after studies were done on elimination of phobias with electroconvulsive shock therapy; the disruption of the consolidated fear memory after shock administration led to further investigation into the concept. In many early studies electroconvulsive shock therapy was used to test for reconsolidation, as it was a known amnesic agent, and lead to memory loss if administered directly after the retrieval of a memory. Later research using Pavlovian fear conditioning on rats found that a consolidated fear memory can return to a labile state, with immediate amygdala infusions of the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin, but not infusions made six hours afterwards Nader, K., Schafe, G. E. & LeDoux, J. E. Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature 406, 722–726 (2000). . It was concluded that consolidated fear memory, when reactivated, enters a changeable state that requires de novo protein synthesis for new consolidation or reconsolidation of the old memory. Since these break through studies many more have been done testing the theory of reconsolidation. Studies have been done on numerous subjects including; crabs, chicks, honeybees, medaka fish, lymnaea, humans and rodents. Criticisms Some studies have supported this theory, while others have failed to demonstrate disruption of consolidated memory after retrieval. It is important to note that negative results may be examples of conditions where memories are not susceptible to a permanent disruption, thus a determining factor of reconsolidation. After much debate and a detailed review of this field it had been concluded that reconsolidation was a real phenomenon Sara SJ. 2000. Retrieval and reconsolidation: toward a neurobiology of remembering. Learn. Mem. 7:73–84 . More recently Tronson and Taylor compiled a lengthy summary of multiple reconsolidation studies, noting a number of studies were unable to show memory impairments due to blocked reconsolidation. However the need for standardized methods was underscored as in some learning tasks such as fear conditioning, certain forms of memory reactivation could actually represent new extinction learning rather then activation of an old memory trace. Under this possibility, traditional disruptions of reconsolidation might actually maintain the original memory trace but preventing the consolidation of extinction learning. Reconsolidation experiments are more difficult to run then typical consolidation experiments as disruption of a previously consolidated memory must be shown to be specific to the reactivation of the original memory trace. Furthermore, it is important to demonstrate that the vulnerability of reactivation occurs in a limited time frame, which can be assessed by delaying infusion till six hours after reactivation. It is also useful to show that the behavioral measure used to assess disruption of memory is not just due to task impairment caused by the procedure, which can be demonstrated by testing control groups in absence of the original learning. Finally, it is important to rule out alternative explanations, such as extinction learning by lengthening the reactivation phase. Distinctions from Consolidation Questions arose if reconsolidation was a unique process or merely another phase of consolidation. Both consolidation and reconsolidation can be disrupted by pharmacological agents (e.g. the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin) and both require the transcription factor CREB. However, recent amygdala research suggests that BDNF is required for consolidation (but not reconsolidation) whereas the transcription factor and immediate early gene Zif268 is required for reconsolidation but not consolidation Debiec, J., Doyere, V., Nader, K., LeDoux, J.E. (February 28, 2006). Directly reactivated, but not indirectly reactivated, memories undergo reconsolidation in the amygdala. PNAS, Volume 103, Number 9, 3428-3433. . A similar double dissociation between Zif268 for reconsolidation and BDNF for consolidation was found in the hippocampus for fear conditioning Lee, J. L., Everitt, B. J. & Thomas, K. L. (2004). Independent cellular processes for hippocampal memory consolidation and reconsolidation. Science 304, 839–843. . However not all memory tasks show this double dissociation, such as object recognition memory Bozon, B., Davis, S. & Laroche, S. (2003). A requirement for the immediate early gene zif268 in reconsolidation of recognition memory after retrieval. Neuron 40, 695–701. . See Also Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model Coherence therapy Engram Patient HM Multiple trace theory References | Memory_consolidation |@lemmatized memory:89 consolidation:54 category:1 process:18 stabilize:2 trace:11 initial:3 acquisition:1 dudai:2 neurobiology:2 stable:4 engram:2 annu:1 rev:1 psychol:1 pp:2 distinguish:1 two:3 specific:3 synaptic:24 occur:2 within:4 first:5 hour:11 learn:12 system:8 hippocampus:14 dependent:3 become:7 independent:5 period:1 week:4 year:4 recently:2 third:1 focus:1 research:4 reconsolidation:24 previously:3 consolidated:7 make:5 labile:3 reactivation:7 history:2 reference:2 writing:1 renowned:1 roman:1 teacher:1 rhetoric:1 quintillian:1 note:4 curious:1 fact:2 interval:1 single:1 night:1 greatly:1 increase:8 strength:2 present:1 possibility:2 power:1 recollection:1 undergo:4 ripen:1 mature:1 time:5 intervene:2 later:4 propose:1 base:1 clinical:1 data:1 illustrate:1 ribot:1 law:1 regression:1 progressive:1 destruction:1 advance:1 progressively:1 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much:1 detailed:1 field:1 real:1 phenomenon:1 sara:1 sj:1 toward:1 remember:1 compile:1 lengthy:1 summary:1 number:2 unable:1 impairment:2 blocked:1 standardized:1 method:1 underscored:1 could:1 actually:2 extinction:3 traditional:1 original:3 prevent:1 experiment:2 difficult:1 run:1 typical:1 must:1 furthermore:1 vulnerability:1 occurs:1 limited:1 assess:2 delay:1 till:1 useful:1 behavioral:1 measure:1 procedure:1 control:1 absence:1 finally:1 alternative:1 explanation:1 lengthen:1 distinction:1 question:1 arise:1 unique:1 merely:1 pharmacological:1 bdnf:2 debiec:1 doyere:1 february:1 indirectly:1 pnas:1 volume:1 similar:1 double:2 dissociation:2 lee:1 everitt:1 thomas:1 object:1 recognition:2 bozon:1 davis:1 laroche:1 requirement:1 atkinson:1 shiffrin:1 coherence:1 patient:1 hm:1 |@bigram synaptic_consolidation:13 molecular_biology:1 term_potentiation:3 synaptic_transmission:2 nmda_receptor:1 receptor_antagonist:1 episodic_memory:2 rem_sleep:6 |
6,763 | Mormons | REDIRECT Mormon | Mormons |@lemmatized redirect:1 mormon:1 |@bigram |
6,764 | Catan:_Cities_ | The Cities and Knights of Catan () is an expansion to the board game Settlers of Catan for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with the Settlers and Cities and Knights five to six player extensions). It contains features taken from the Settlers of Catan, with emphasis on city development and the use of knights, which are used as a method of attacking other players as well as helping opponents defend Catan against a common foe. Cities and Knights can also be combined with the Seafarers of Catan expansion (again, five to six player play only possible with the Seafarers five to six player extension). Because of the new gameplay elements introduced in Cities and Knights, the game is typically played to 13 victory points, as opposed to 10 as in the Settlers of Catan base game. Commodities One of the main additions to the game is commodities, which effectively act as secondary resources produced only by cities (and not settlements). Like resources, commodities are associated with a type of terrain, can be stolen by the robber (with Seafarers, also the pirate), can count against the resource hand limit, and may not be collected if the robber is on the terrain. Resources may be traded for commodities, and commodities may be traded for resources. Commodities can then be used to build city improvements (provided the player has a city), which provide additional benefits. The commodities are paper (which comes from forest terrain), coin (which comes from mountain terrain), and cloth (which comes from pasture terrain). When combining Cities and Knights with Seafarers, the rules are ambiguous with regards to whether commodities are collected along with normal resources when collecting from a Gold River tile, as well as whether or not commodities can be collected directly from Gold River tiles. A city on grain or clay gives two of each, as in the original Settlers. A city on wool, ore and wood, on the other hand, can either give you two of each (as in the original) OR one of the original plus one special commodity: cloth, coin, and paper. Grain and clay, however, act as fuel in special functions: grain activates knights, and clay can be used to build city walls. City improvements A player with a city may use commodities to build city improvements, which allow several advantages. There are city improvements in five levels, and in three different categories. Each category of improvements requires a different commodity and higher levels require more cards in that commodity. At the third level, players earn a special ability. The first player with an improvement at the fourth level can claim any of their cities as a metropolis, worth an additional two victory points. Each type of improvement has only one associated metropolis, and no city can be a metropolis of two different types (because of this, a player with only metropolises and settlements may not build improvements beyond the third level). If a player is the first to build an improvement to the final level (out-building the current holder of the metropolis), they may take the metropolis from its current holder. Knights The other significant concept in Cities and Knights is the concept of knights, which replace the concept of soldiers and the largest army. Knights are units that require continuous maintenance through its activation mechanism, but have a wide variety of functions. Knights can be promoted through three ranks, although promotion to the final rank is a special ability granted by a city improvement. Knights are placed on the board in a similar manner to settlements, and can be used to block opposing roads, active or not. However, knights must be activated in order to perform other functions, which immediately deactivates the knight. Knights cannot perform actions on the same turn they are activated, but can be reactivated on the same turn as performing an action. These actions include: Moving along a road (with Seafarers, a line of ships) Displacing opposing knights of a lower rank, forcing the lower ranked knight to retreat Dispelling the robber (with Seafarers, also the pirate) if the robber is stationed nearby If a knight is promoted or forced to retreat, its active status does not change. Barbarian attacks Cities and Knights introduce a third die, known as the event die, which serves two functions, the first of which applies to the concept of barbarians, a periodic foe that all players must work together to defend against. The barbarians are represented by a ship, which is positioned on a track in special "double-hex", representing the distance between the ship and Catan (ie. the board). Each time the event die shows a black ship, the barbarian ship takes one step closer to Catan. When the barbarians arrive at Catan, a special phase is immediately performed before all other actions (including collecting resources). In this special phase, the barbarians' attack strength, corresponding to the combined number of cities and metropolises held by all players, is compared to Catan's defense strength, corresponding to the combined levels of all activated knights in play. Should the barbarian attack be successful (that is, the attack strength be greater than the defense strength), the player who contributed the least amount of defensive points is forced to reduce a city (not a metropolis) down to a settlement. If there is a tie among this distinction, then all tied players must (if possible) reduce a city to a settlement. If the lowest contibutor(s) only have metropolises, then the next-lowest contributor(s) must reduce a city to a settlement. It may be the case where players tie for the lowest contribution, with some of the players lacking cities to reduce (in which case the players without cities is exempt), or the case where all players are reduced to settlements and metropolises, in which case nothing happens. There may also be the case where reducing a city would leave a player with six settlements (a player is only given five settlements), in which case the city token is turned on its side until another city is built. Should Catan prevail, the player who contributes the most to Catan's defense receives a special Defender of Catan card, worth an extra victory point. Regardless of the outcome, all knights are immediately deactivated, and the barbarian ship returns to its starting point on the track. In the event of a tie among the greatest contributors of knights, none of the tied players earn a Defender of Catan card. Instead, each of the tied players would draw a progress card (explained below) of the type of their choosing. Similarly, if there are no Defender of Catan cards remaining, a progress card is drawn instead. As the likelihood of having the barbarian move closer to Catan is very likely, under Cities and Knights the robber (and with Seafarers, the pirate) does not move until the first barbarian attack, nor can a knight move the robber before that point. Examples where cities are lost: 1) Player A has 3 cities and 2 active knights. Player B has 1 city and 2 active knights. Player C has 2 cities and 1 active knight. When the barbarians attack, player C will lose one of his cities, because the attack strength (6 cities) is greater than all knights combined (5 knights). 2) Player A has 3 cities and 2 active knights. Player B has 1 city, which is a metropolis, and no active knights. Player C has 2 cities and 3 active knights. Player B's city is a metropolis, and metropolises cannot be destroyed by the barbarians, so Player A loses a city because they have the next fewest number of active knights. 3) Player A has 2 cities and 2 active knights. Player B has 3 cities and 2 active knights. Player C has 2 cities and 2 active knights. All players will lose a city, because they all tie in the number of knights activated, and the barbarian attack strength (7 cities) is greater than number of active knights (6 knights). 4) Player A has 3 cities and 4 active knights. Player B has 2 cities, which both are metropolises, and 1 active knight. Player C has 1 city, which is a metropolis, and no active knights. First in line to lose a city is player C, but because his city is a metropolis we need to look at the person next in line. This would be player B, but the same applies for him: he has activated only 1 knight, but both of his cities are metropolises. This leaves player A left to lose a city. Progress cards The other significant function of the event die concerns itself with Progress cards, which replace development cards. Because of the mechanics of progress cards explained below, one of the two white dice used in Settlers is replaced by a red die. Progress cards are organized into three categories, corresponding to the three types of improvements. Yellow progress cards aid in commercial development, green progress cards aid in technological advancements, and blue progress cards allow for political moves. When a castle appears on the event die, progress cards of the corresponding type may be drawn depending on the value of the red die. Higher levels of city improvements increase the chance that progress cards will be drawn, with the highest level of city improvement allowing progress cards to be drawn regardless of the value on the red die. Progress cards, unlike the development cards they replace, can be played on the turn that they are drawn, and more than one progress card can be played per turn. With the exception of two types of progress cards, however, they can only be played after the dice are rolled. Progress cards granting victory points are played immediately (without regards to whose turn it is), while the Alchemist progress card, which allows a player to predetermine the roll of the white and red dice, necessitates the card being played instead of rolling the numerical dice. (The event die is still rolled as normal.) Players are allowed to keep four progress cards (five in a five to six player game), and any additional ones must be discarded on the spot (unless the 5th card is a victory point, which is played immediately and the original progress cards remain). City walls City walls are a minor addition to Cities and Knights that increase the number of resource and commodity cards a player is allowed in their hand before having to discard on a roll of 7. However, they do not protect the player from the robber---he still may not produce resources or commodities from a hex on which the robber has been placed. Only cities and metropolises may have walls, and each city or metropolis can only have one wall, up to three walls per player. Each wall that the player has deployed permits the player to hold two more cards before being required to discard on a roll of seven. This results in a maximum of 13 cards. If the barbarians pillage your city, then the city wall is also destroyed and the wall is removed from the board. The Merchant The merchant is another addition to Cities and Knights. Like the robber, the merchant is placed on a single land hex. Unlike the robber, the merchant has a beneficial effect. The merchant can only be deployed through the use of a Merchant progress card (of which there are six), on a land hex near a city or a settlement. The player with the control of the merchant can trade the resource (not commodity) of that type at a two-to-one rate, as if the player had a control of a corresponding two-to-one harbor. The player with the control of the merchant also earns a victory point. Both the victory point and the trade privilege are lost if another player takes control of the merchant. External links Unofficial online version of Cities & Knights of Catan | Catan:_Cities_ |@lemmatized city:66 knight:47 catan:17 expansion:2 board:4 game:5 settler:6 three:6 four:2 player:56 five:8 six:7 play:10 also:7 possible:3 extension:2 contain:1 feature:1 take:4 emphasis:1 development:4 use:8 method:1 attack:9 well:2 help:1 opponent:1 defend:2 common:1 foe:2 combine:3 seafarer:7 new:1 gameplay:1 element:1 introduce:2 typically:1 victory:7 point:10 oppose:3 base:1 commodities:1 one:12 main:1 addition:3 commodity:15 effectively:1 act:2 secondary:1 resource:10 produce:2 settlement:10 like:2 associate:2 type:8 terrain:5 steal:1 robber:10 pirate:3 count:1 hand:3 limit:1 may:11 collect:5 trade:4 build:7 improvement:12 provide:2 additional:3 benefit:1 paper:2 come:3 forest:1 coin:2 mountain:1 cloth:2 pasture:1 rule:1 ambiguous:1 regard:2 whether:2 along:2 normal:2 gold:2 river:2 tile:2 directly:1 grain:3 clay:3 give:3 two:10 original:4 wool:1 ore:1 wood:1 either:1 plus:1 special:8 however:4 fuel:1 function:5 activate:6 wall:9 improvements:1 allow:6 several:1 advantage:1 level:9 different:3 category:3 require:4 high:3 card:31 third:3 earn:3 ability:2 first:5 fourth:1 claim:1 metropolis:18 worth:2 beyond:1 final:2 current:2 holder:2 significant:2 concept:4 replace:4 soldier:1 large:1 army:1 unit:1 continuous:1 maintenance:1 activation:1 mechanism:1 wide:1 variety:1 promote:2 rank:4 although:1 promotion:1 grant:2 place:3 similar:1 manner:1 block:1 road:2 active:16 must:5 order:1 perform:4 immediately:5 deactivate:2 cannot:2 action:4 turn:6 reactivate:1 include:2 move:5 line:3 ship:6 displace:1 low:5 force:3 retreat:2 dispel:1 station:1 nearby:1 status:1 change:1 barbarian:14 die:9 know:1 event:6 serve:1 applies:2 periodic:1 work:1 together:1 represent:2 position:1 track:2 double:1 hex:4 distance:1 ie:1 time:1 show:1 black:1 step:1 closer:2 arrive:1 phase:2 strength:6 correspond:3 combined:2 number:5 hold:2 compare:1 defense:3 successful:1 great:4 contribute:2 least:1 amount:1 defensive:1 reduce:6 tie:5 among:2 distinction:1 contibutor:1 next:3 contributor:2 case:6 contribution:1 lack:1 without:2 exempt:1 nothing:1 happen:1 would:3 leave:2 token:1 side:1 another:3 prevail:1 receive:1 defender:3 extra:1 regardless:2 outcome:1 return:1 start:1 none:1 tied:2 instead:3 draw:6 progress:20 explain:2 choosing:1 similarly:1 remain:2 likelihood:1 likely:1 example:1 lose:7 b:6 c:6 metropolises:1 destroy:2 need:1 look:1 person:1 left:1 concern:1 mechanic:1 white:2 dice:4 red:4 organize:1 yellow:1 aid:2 commercial:1 green:1 technological:1 advancement:1 blue:1 political:1 castle:1 appear:1 corresponding:2 depend:1 value:2 increase:2 chance:1 unlike:2 per:2 exception:1 roll:6 whose:1 alchemist:1 predetermine:1 necessitate:1 numerical:1 still:2 keep:1 discard:3 spot:1 unless:1 minor:1 protect:1 deploy:2 permit:1 seven:1 result:1 maximum:1 pillage:1 remove:1 merchant:9 single:1 land:2 beneficial:1 effect:1 near:1 control:4 rate:1 harbor:1 privilege:1 external:1 link:1 unofficial:1 online:1 version:1 |@bigram settler_catan:3 technological_advancement:1 dice_roll:1 external_link:1 |
6,765 | Ä%92ostre | Ostara (1884) by Johannes Gehrts. The goddess flies through the heavens surrounded by Roman-inspired putti, beams of light, and animals. Germanic people look up at the goddess from the realm below. Old English Ēostre (also Ēastre) and Old High German Ôstarâ are the names of a putative Germanic goddess whose Anglo-Saxon month, Ēostur-monath, has given its name to the Christian festival of Easter. Eostre is attested only by Bede, in his 8th century work De temporum ratione, where he states that Ēostur-monath was the equivalent to the month of April, and that feasts held in her honor during Ēostur-monath had died out by the time of his writing, replaced by the "Paschal month." The possibility of a Common Germanic goddess called *Austrōn-, reflecting the name of the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn, was examined in detail in 19th century Germanic philology, by Jacob Grimm and others, without coming to a definite conclusion. Subsequently scholars have discussed whether or not Eostra is an invention of Bede's, and produced theories connecting Eostra with records of Germanic Easter customs (including hares and eggs). Etymology Ēostre derives from Proto-Germanic *austrō, ultimately from a PIE root *au̯es-, "to shine" and closely related to the name of the dawn goddess, , whence Greek Eos, Roman Aurora and Indian Ushas. Pokorny (1959), s.v. "au̯es- The modern English term Easter is the direct continuation of Old English Ēastre, which is attested from the late 9th century. Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, "Eástre, the goddess of the rising sun, whose festivities were in April. Hence used by Teutonic Christians for the rising of the sun of righteousness, the feast of the resurrection," noting Bede, Grimm 1855 (on-line text) Ēostre is the Northumbrian form while Ēastre is West Saxon. OED Bede states that the name refers to a goddess named Ēostre, who was celebrated at the Spring equinox. In the 19th century Hans Grimm cited Bede when he proposed the existence of an Old High German equivalent named ōstarūn, plural, "Easter" (modern German language Ostern). There is no certain parallel to Ēostre in North Germanic languages though Grimm speculates that the east wind, "a spirit of light" named Austri found in the 13th century Icelandic Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, might be related. Bede's account Eástre (1909) by Jacques Reich. Directly derived from Gehrts' image (above), with the Germanic worshipers replaced by a picturesque landscape. In chapter 15 of his work De temporum ratione, Bede describes the indigenous month names of the English people. After describing the worship of the goddess Hretha during the Anglo-Saxon month of Hrethmonath, Bede writes about Eosturmonath, the month of the goddess Eostra: Original Latin: Eostur-monath, qui nunc Paschalis mensis interpretatur, quondam a Dea illorum quæ Eostre vocabatur, et cui in illo festa celebrabant nomen habuit: a cujus nomine nunc Paschale tempus cognominant, consueto antiquæ observationis vocabulo gaudia novæ solemnitatis vocantes. Giles (1843:179). Modern English translation: Eosturmonath has a name which is now translated "Paschal month", and which was once called after a goddess of theirs named Eostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month. Now they designate that Paschal season by her name, calling the joys of the new rite by the time-honoured name of the old observance." Wallis (1999:54). Writing in the late 20th century, Rudolf Simek comments that, despite doubts, Bede's account of Eostra should not be completely disregarded, and that a "Spring-like fertility goddess" must be assumed rather than a "goddess of sunrise" regardless of the name, reasoning that "otherwise the Germanic goddesses (and matrons) are mostly connected with prosperity and growth." Simek points to a comparison with the goddess Hretha, also attested by Bede. Simek (2007:74). Writing in the late 19th century, Charles J. Billson notes that scholars prior to his writing were divided about the existence of Bede's account of Ēostre, stating that "among authorities who have no doubt as to her existence are W. Grimm, Wackernagel, Sinrock [sic], and Wolf. On the other hand, Weinhold rejects the idea on philological grounds, and so do Heinrich Leo and Hermann Oesre. Kuhn says, 'The Anglo-Saxon Eostre looks like an invention of Bede;' and Mannhardt also dismisses her as an etymological dea ex machina." Billson says that "the whole question turns [...], upon Bede's credibility", and that "one is inclined to agree with Grimm, that it would be uncritical to saddle this eminent Father of the Church, who keeps Heathendom at arms' length and tells us less of than he knows, with the invention of this goddess." Billson points out that the Christianization of England started at the end of the sixth century CE, and, by the seventh, was completed. Billson argues that, as Bede was born in 672, Bede must have had opportunities to learn the names of the native goddesses of the Anglo-Saxons, "who were hardly extinct in his lifetime." Billson (1892:448). Jacob Grimm and Ostara In his 1882 Deutsche Mythologie, Jacob Grimm cites comparative evidence to reconstruct a potential continental Germanic goddess whose name would have been preserved in the Old High German name of Easter, Ôstarâ. Grimm is willing to take Bede's account at face value with the reasoning that "it would be uncritical to saddle this father of the church, who everywhere keeps heathenism at a distance, and tells us less of it than he knows, with the invention of these goddesses. There is nothing improbable in them, nay the first of them is justified by clear traces in the vocabularies of Germanic tribes." Grimm (1882:289). Specifically regarding Eostra, Grimm continues that: We Germans to this day call April ostermonat, and ôstarmânoth is found as early as Eginhart (temp. Car. Mag.). The great christian festival, which usually falls in April or the end of March, bears in the oldest of OHG. remains the name ôstarâ [...], it is mostly found in the plural, because two days [...] were kept at Easter. This Ostarâ, like the [Anglo-Saxon] Eástre, must in heathen religion have denoted a higher being, whose worship was so firmly rooted, that the christian teachers tolerated the name, and applied it to one of their own grandest anniversaries. Grimm (1882:290). Grimm notes that "all of the nations bordering on us have retained the Biblical 'pascha'; even Ulphilas writes paska, not áustrô, though he must have known the word [...]." Grimm details that the Old High German adverb ôstar "expresses movement towards the rising sun", as did the Old Norse term austr, and potentially also Anglo-Saxon eástor and Gothic áustr. Grimm compares these terms to the identical Latin term auster. Grimm says that the cult of the goddess may have worshiped an Old Norse form, Austra, or that her cult may have already been extinct by the time of Christianization. Grimm (1882:290—291). Grimm notes that in the Old Norse Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, a male being by the name of Austri is attested, who Grimm describes as a "spirit of light." Grimm comments that a female version would have been Austra, yet that the High German and Saxon tribes seem to have only formed Ostarâ and Eástre, feminine, and not Ostaro and Eástra, masculine. Grimm additionally speculates on the nature of the goddess and surviving folk customs that may have been associated with her in Germany: Ostara, Eástre seems therefore to have been the divinity of the radiant dawn, of upspringing light, a spectacle that brings joy and blessing, whose meaning could be easily adapted by the resurrection-day of the christian's God. Bonfires were lighted at Easter and according to popular belief of long standing, the moment the sun rises on Easter Sunday morning, he gives three joyful leaps, he dances for joy [...]. Water drawn on the Easter morning is, like that at Christmas, holy and healing [...]; here also heathen notions seems to have grafted themselves on great christian festivals. Maidens clothed in white, who at Easter, at the season of returning spring, show themselves in clefts of the rock and on mountains, are suggestive of the ancient goddess [...]. Grimm (1882:291). Hares and Freyja Citing folk Easter customs in Leicestershire, England where "the profits of the land called Harecrop Leys were applied to providing a meal which was thrown on the ground at the "Hare-pie Bank," late 19th century scholar Charles Isaac Elton says that these customs were likely connected with the worship of Ēostre. Elton (1882:408). In his late 19th century study of the Hare in folk custom and mythology, Charles J. Billson cites numerous incidents of folk custom involving the hare around the period of Easter in Northern Europe. Billson says that "whether there was a goddess named Eostre, or not, and whatever connection the hare may have had with the ritual of Saxon or British worship, there are good grounds for believing that the sacredness of this animal reaches back into an age still more remote, where it is probably a very important part of the great Spring Festival of the prehistoric inhabitants of this island." Billson (1892:448). Writing in 1972, John Andrew Boyle cites commentary contained within an etymology dictionary by A. Ernout and A. Meillet, where the authors write that "Little else [...] is known about [Ēostre], but it has been suggested that her lights, as goddess of the dawn, were carried by hares. And she certainly represented spring fecundity, and love and carnal pleasure that leads to fecundity." Boyle responds that nothing is known about Ēostre outside of Bede's single passage, and that the authors had seemingly accepted the identification of Ēostre with the Norse goddess Freyja, yet that the hare is not associated with Freyja either. Boyle writes that "her carriage, we are told by Snorri, was drawn by a pair of cats — animals, it is true, which like hares were the familiars of witches, with whom Freyja seems to have much in common." However, Boyle adds that "on the other hand, when the authors speak of the hare as the 'companion of Aphrodite and of satyrs and cupids' and point out that 'in the Middle Ages it appears beside the figure of Luxuria', they are on much surer ground and can adduce the evidence of their illustrations." Boyle (1972:323—324). Modern influence Jacob Grimm's reconstructed *Ostara has had some influence in popular culture since. The name has been adapted as an asteroid (343 Ostara, 1892 by Max Wolf) Schmadel (2003:44). , a Mödling, Austria-based German nationalist book series and publishing house (1905, Ostara), Simek (2007:255). a date on the Wiccan Wheel of the Year (Ostara, March 21), Hubbard (2007:175). a musical group (Ostara, 2000), Diesel, Gerten (2007:136). and an album by the The Wishing Tree (Ostara, 2009). See also Mōdraniht, the Anglo-Saxon "Mothers night," also attested by Bede Notes References Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270094-7 Billson, Charles J. (1892). "The Easter Hare" as published in Folklore, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December, 1892). Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Folklore Enterprises Ltd. Boyle, John Andrew (1974). "The Hare in Myth and Reality: A Review Article" as published in Folklore, Vol. 84, No. 4 (Winter, 1973). Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Folklore Enterprises Ltd. Diesel, Andreas. Gerten, Dieter (2007). Looking for Europe: Neofolk und Hintergründe. Index Verlag. ISBN 3936878021 Grimm, Jacob (James Steven Stallybrass Trans.) (1882). Teutonic Mythology: Translated from the Fourth Edition with Notes and Appendix Vol. I. London: George Bell and Sons. Hubbard, Benjamin Jerome. Hatfield, John T. Santucci, James A. (2007). An Educator's Classroom Guide to America's Religious Beliefs and Practices. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 1591584094 Giles, John Allen (1843). The Complete Works of the Venerable Bede, in the Original Latin, Collated with the Manuscripts, and Various Print Editions, Accompanied by a New English Translation of the Historical Works, and a Life of the Author. Vol. IV: Scientific Tracts and Appendix. London: Whittaker and Co., Ave Maria Lane. Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, fifth edition, illustrated. Springer. ISBN 3540002383 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-513-1 Wallis, Faith (Trans.) (1999). Bede: The Reckoning of Time. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0853236933 Watkins, Calvert (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0618082506 | Ä%92ostre |@lemmatized ostara:9 johannes:1 gehrts:2 goddess:25 fly:1 heaven:1 surround:1 roman:2 inspired:1 putti:1 beam:1 light:6 animal:3 germanic:11 people:2 look:3 realm:1 old:11 english:7 ēostre:10 also:7 ēastre:3 high:6 german:8 ôstarâ:3 name:23 putative:1 whose:6 anglo:8 saxon:11 month:8 ēostur:3 monath:4 give:2 christian:6 festival:4 easter:13 eostre:5 attest:5 bede:20 century:10 work:4 de:2 temporum:2 ratione:2 state:3 equivalent:2 april:4 feast:3 hold:1 honor:1 die:1 time:4 writing:4 replace:2 paschal:3 possibility:1 common:2 call:5 austrōn:1 reflect:1 proto:2 indo:2 european:2 dawn:4 examine:1 detail:2 philology:1 jacob:5 grimm:24 others:1 without:1 come:1 definite:1 conclusion:1 subsequently:1 scholar:2 discuss:1 whether:2 eostra:5 invention:4 produce:1 theory:1 connect:3 record:1 custom:6 include:1 hare:12 egg:1 etymology:3 derive:2 austrō:1 ultimately:1 pie:2 root:3 au:2 es:1 shine:1 closely:1 relate:2 whence:1 greek:1 eos:1 aurora:1 indian:1 ushas:1 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6,766 | Abzyme | An abzyme (from antibody and enzyme), also called catmab (from catalytic monoclonal antibody), is a monoclonal antibody with catalytic activity. Molecules which are modified to gain new catalytic activity are called synzymes. Abzymes are usually artificial constructs, but are also found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, where they can bind to and hydrolyze DNA. Abzymes are potential tools in biotechnology, e.g., to perform specific actions on DNA. Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the transition state, thereby catalyzing the formation of an otherwise less-favorable molecular intermediate between reactants and products. If an antibody is developed to a stable molecule that's similar to an unstable intermediate of another (potentially unrelated) reaction, the developed antibody will enzymatically bind to and stabilize the intermediate state, thus catalyzing the reaction. A new and unique type of enzymes are produced. HIV treatment In a June 2008 issue of the journal Autoimmunity Reviews, researchers S Planque, Sudhir Paul, Ph.D, and Yasuhiro Nishiyama, Ph.D of the University Of Texas Medical School at Houston announced that they have engineered an abzyme that degrades the superantigenic region of the gp120 CD4 binding site. This is the one part of the HIV virus outer coating that does not change, because it is the attachment point to T lymphocytes, the key cell in cell-mediated immunity. Once compromised, patients produce antibodies to the more changeable parts of the viral coat. The antibodies are ineffective given the virus' ability to change that coat rapidly. Because this protein, gp120, is necessary for the HIV virus to attach, it does not change, and is vulnerable across the entire range of the HIV variant population. The abzyme does more than bind to the site, rendering the HIV virus inert, it actually destroys the site, then can attach to other viruses. A single abzyme can destroy thousands of HIV viruses. Human clinical trials will be the next step in producing treatment and perhaps even preventative vaccines and microbicides. References | Abzyme |@lemmatized abzyme:4 antibody:7 enzyme:3 also:2 call:2 catmab:1 catalytic:3 monoclonal:2 activity:2 molecule:2 modify:1 gain:1 new:2 synzymes:1 abzymes:2 usually:1 artificial:1 construct:1 find:1 normal:1 human:2 anti:1 vasoactive:1 intestinal:1 peptide:1 autoantibody:1 patient:2 autoimmune:1 disease:1 systemic:1 lupus:1 erythematosus:1 bind:4 hydrolyze:1 dna:2 potential:1 tool:1 biotechnology:1 e:1 g:1 perform:1 specific:1 action:1 function:1 lower:1 activation:1 energy:1 transition:1 state:2 thereby:1 catalyze:2 formation:1 otherwise:1 less:1 favorable:1 molecular:1 intermediate:3 reactant:1 product:1 develop:2 stable:1 similar:1 unstable:1 another:1 potentially:1 unrelated:1 reaction:2 enzymatically:1 stabilize:1 thus:1 unique:1 type:1 produce:3 hiv:6 treatment:2 june:1 issue:1 journal:1 autoimmunity:1 review:1 researcher:1 planque:1 sudhir:1 paul:1 ph:2 yasuhiro:1 nishiyama:1 university:1 texas:1 medical:1 school:1 houston:1 announce:1 engineer:1 degrade:1 superantigenic:1 region:1 site:3 one:1 part:2 virus:6 outer:1 coat:3 change:3 attachment:1 point:1 lymphocyte:1 key:1 cell:2 mediate:1 immunity:1 compromise:1 changeable:1 viral:1 ineffective:1 give:1 ability:1 rapidly:1 protein:1 necessary:1 attach:2 vulnerable:1 across:1 entire:1 range:1 variant:1 population:1 render:1 inert:1 actually:1 destroy:2 single:1 thousand:1 clinical:1 trial:1 next:1 step:1 perhaps:1 even:1 preventative:1 vaccine:1 microbicides:1 reference:1 |@bigram monoclonal_antibody:2 vasoactive_intestinal:1 autoimmune_disease:1 systemic_lupus:1 lupus_erythematosus:1 catalyze_reaction:1 mediate_immunity:1 clinical_trial:1 |
6,767 | Malcolm_X | Malcolm X () (born Malcolm Little; May 19, 1925 February 21, 1965), also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz This name includes the honorific El-Hajj, which is given to a Muslim who has completed the Hajj to Mecca. (), was an African-American Muslim minister, public speaker, and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans. Cone, pp. 99–100, 251–252, 310–311. His detractors accused him of preaching racism and violence. He has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history. Malcolm X was born in Omaha, Nebraska. By the time he was 13, his father had died and his mother had been committed to a mental hospital. His childhood, including his father's lessons concerning black pride and self-reliance and his own experiences concerning race, played a significant role in Malcolm X's adult life. After living in a series of foster homes, Malcolm X became involved in the criminal underworld in Boston and New York. In 1945, Malcolm X was sentenced to eight to ten years in prison. While in prison, Malcolm X became a member of the Nation of Islam. After his parole in 1952, he became one of the Nation's leaders and chief spokesmen. For nearly a dozen years, he was the public face of the Nation of Islam. Tension between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad, head of the Nation of Islam, led to Malcolm X's departure from the organization in March 1964. After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X became a Sunni Muslim and made a pilgrimage to Mecca. He traveled extensively throughout Africa and the Middle East. He founded Muslim Mosque, Inc., a religious organization, and the secular, black nationalist Organization of Afro-American Unity. Less than a year after he left the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X was assassinated while giving a speech in New York. Early years Malcolm Little was born in 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska, to Earl and Louise Little (née Louisa Norton). Perry, p. 2. His father was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker; he supported Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey and was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Perry, p. 3. Malcolm never forgot the values of black pride and self-reliance that his father and other UNIA leaders preached. Natambu, p. 7. Malcolm X later said that three of Earl Little's brothers, one of whom was lynched, died violently at the hands of white men. Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 3–4. There have been many editions of The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Page numbers cited in the notes refer to the One World trade paperback edition (1992). Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan. Marcus Garvey, founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Earl Little was a local leader of the UNIA. Earl Little was dark-skinned and born in Georgia. Natambu, p. 6. Earl's second wife was Louise, with whom he had seven children, of whom Malcolm was the fourth. Earl and Louise Little's children's names were, in order: Wilfred, Hilda, Philbert, Malcolm, Reginald, Yvonne, and Wesley. He had three children (Ella, Mary, and Earl, Jr.) from his first marriage. Perry, pp. 3–4. Louise Little had been born in Grenada. Her father was Scottish and she was so light-skinned that she could have passed for white. Malcolm inherited his light complexion from his mother and grandfather. Perry, pp. 2–3. Initially he felt his light skin was a status symbol, but he later said he "hated every drop of that white rapist's blood that is in me." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 5. Malcolm X later remembered feeling that his father favored him because he was the lightest child in the family; however, he thought his mother treated him harshly for the same reason. Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 7, 10–11. One of Malcolm's nicknames, "Red", derived from the tinge of his hair. According to one biographer, at birth he had "ash-blonde hair ... tinged with cinnamon", and at four, "reddish-blonde hair". Perry, pp. 2, 4. His hair darkened as he aged, but he also resembled his paternal grandmother, whose hair "turned reddish in the summer sun." The issue of skin color and skin tone took on very significant implications later in Malcolm's life. In December 1924, Louise Little was threatened by Klansmen while she was pregnant with Malcolm. She recalled that the Klansmen warned the family to leave Omaha, because Earl Little's activities with UNIA were "spreading trouble". Natambu, p. 1. After they moved to Lansing, their house was burned in 1929, but the family escaped without physical injury. In 1931, Earl Little was run over by a streetcar in Lansing and died. Authorities ruled his death an accident. The police reported that Earl Little was conscious when they arrived on the scene, and he told them he had slipped and fallen under the streetcar's wheels. Perry, p. 12. Malcolm X later remembered that the black community disputed the cause of death, believing there was circumstantial evidence of assault. His family had frequently been harassed by the Black Legion, a white supremacist group that his father accused of burning down their home in 1929. Some blacks believed the Black Legion killed Earl Little. They doubted that he could "bash himself in the head, then get down across the streetcar tracks to be run over." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 14. Though Earl Little had two life insurance policies, his family received death benefits solely from the smaller policy. The insurance company of the larger policy claimed that his father had committed suicide and refused to issue the benefit. Natambu, p. 10. Several years after her husband's death, Louise had her youngest son, Robert Little, by an unnamed partner. Perry, p. 24. In December 1938 Louise Little had a nervous breakdown and was declared legally insane. The Little siblings were split up and sent to different foster homes. The state formally committed Louise Little to the state mental hospital at Kalamazoo, Michigan, where she remained until Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 26 years later. Perry, pp. 33–34, 331. Malcolm Little was one of the best students in his junior high school, but he dropped out after a white eighth-grade teacher told him that his aspirations of being a lawyer were "no realistic goal for a nigger." Perry, p. 42. Years later, Malcolm X would laugh about the incident, but at the time it was humiliating. It made him feel that there was no place in the white world for a career-oriented black man, no matter how smart he was. After enduring a series of white foster parents, Malcolm moved to Boston in February 1941 to live with his older half-sister, Ella Little Collins. Natambu, pp. 21–29. Perry, pp. 32–48. Young adult years Collins lived in Roxbury, a predominantly African-American middle-class neighborhood of Boston. It was the first time Little had seen so many black people. He was drawn to the cultural and social life of the neighborhood. Natambu, pp. 30–31. In Boston, Little held a variety of jobs and found intermittent employment with the New Haven Railroad. Between 1943 and 1946, Little drifted from city to city and job to job. He left Boston to live for a short time in Flint, Michigan. He moved to New York City in 1943. Living in Harlem, he became involved in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and steering prostitutes. Perry, pp. 58–81. When Little was examined in 1943 for the draft, military physicians classified him as "mentally disqualified for military service". Carson, p. 108. He later recalled that he put on a display to avoid the draft by telling the examining officer that he could not wait to "steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 124. His approach worked; his classification ensured he would not be drafted. In late 1945, Little returned to Boston. With a group of associates, he began a series of elaborate burglaries targeting the residences of wealthy white families. Helfer, p. 37. On January 12, 1946, Little was arrested for burglary while trying to pick up a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop. Perry, p. 99. The shop owner called the police because the watch seemed too expensive for the average Roxbury resident. Little told the police that he had a gun on his person and surrendered so the police would treat him more leniently. Helfer, p. 40. Two days later, Little was indicted for carrying firearms. On January 16, he was charged with larceny and breaking and entering, and eventually sentenced to eight to ten years in Massachusetts State Prison. Carson, p. 99. On February 27, Little began serving his sentence at the Massachusetts State Prison in Charlestown. While in prison, Little earned the nickname of "Satan" for his hostility toward religion. Perry, pp. 104–106. Little met a self-educated man in prison named John Elton Bembry (referred to as "Bimbi" in The Autobiography of Malcolm X). Natambu, p. 121. Bembry was a well-regarded prisoner at Charlestown, and Malcolm X would later describe him as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect ... with words." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 178; ellipsis in original. Gradually, the two men became friends and Bembry convinced Little to educate himself. Perry, pp. 108–110. Little developed a voracious appetite for reading, and he frequently read after the prison lights had been turned off. Perry, p. 118. In 1948, Little's brother Philbert wrote, telling him about the Nation of Islam. Like the UNIA, the Nation preached black self-reliance and, ultimately, the unification of members of the African diaspora, free from white American and European domination. Natambu, pp. 127–128. Little was not interested in joining until his brother Reginald wrote, saying, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison." Natambu, p. 128. Little quit smoking, and the next time pork was served in the prison dining hall, he refused to eat it. Perry, p. 113. When Reginald came to visit Little, he described the group's teachings, including the belief that white people are devils. Afterward, Little thought about all the white people he had known, and he realized that he'd never had a relationship with a white person or social institution that wasn't based on dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred. Little began to reconsider his dismissal of all religion and he became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam. Other family members who had joined the Nation wrote or visited and encouraged Little to join. Natambu, pp. 132–138. In February 1948, mostly through his sister's efforts, Little was transferred to an experimental prison in Norfolk, Massachusetts, a facility that had a much larger library. Perry, pp. 113–114. In late 1948, he wrote a letter to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to atone for his crimes by renouncing his past and by humbly bowing in prayer to Allah and promising never to engage in destructive behavior again. Little, who always had been rebellious and deeply skeptical, found it very difficult to bow in prayer. It took him a week to bend his knees. Finally he prayed, and he became a member of the Nation of Islam. Natambu, pp. 138–139. For the remainder of his incarceration, Little maintained regular correspondence with Muhammad. Perry, p. 116. On August 7, 1952, Little was paroled and was released from prison. He later reflected on the time he spent in prison after his conversion: "Months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 199. Nation of Islam In 1952, after his release from prison, Little visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago, Illinois. Perry, pp. 142, 144–145. Then, like many members of the Nation of Islam, he changed his surname to "X". In his autobiography, Malcolm X explained the "X": "The Muslim's 'X' symbolized the true African family name that he never could know. For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 229. The FBI opened a file on Malcolm X in March 1953 after hearing from an informant that Malcolm X described himself as a Communist. Soon the FBI turned its attention from concerns about possible Communist Party association to Malcolm X's rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam. Carson, p. 95. In June 1953, Malcolm X was named assistant minister of the Nation of Islam's Temple Number One The Nation of Islam numbered its Temples according to the order in which they were established. Perry, pp. 141–142. in Detroit. Natambu, p. 168. By late 1953, he established Boston's Temple Number Eleven. Perry, p. 147. In March 1954, Malcolm X expanded Temple Number Twelve in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Perry, p. 152. Two months later he was selected to lead the Nation of Islam's Temple Number Seven in Harlem. Perry, p. 153. He rapidly expanded its membership. Perry, pp. 161–164. After a 1959 television broadcast in New York City about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced, Malcolm X became known to a much wider audience. Representatives of the print media, radio, and television frequently asked him for comments on issues. He was also sought as a spokesman by reporters from other countries. Perry, pp. 174–179. From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he left the organization in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings. He taught that black people were the original people of the world, Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 55. and that white people were a race of devils. Perry, p. 115. In his speeches, Malcolm X said that black people were superior to white people, and that the demise of the white race was imminent. Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 57. While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. He proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 149–152. as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa. Malcolm X, End of White World Supremacy, p. 78. Malcolm X also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence and instead advocated that black people use any necessary means of self-defense to protect themselves. Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 173–174. Malcolm X's speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, generally African Americans who lived in the Northern and Western cities who were tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality, and respect. Natambu, p. 182. Many blacks felt that he articulated their complaints better than the civil rights movement did. Cone, pp. 99–100. Many white people, and some blacks, were alarmed by Malcolm X and the things he said. He and the Nation of Islam were described as hatemongers, black segregationists, violence-seekers, and a threat to improved race relations. Civil rights organizations denounced Malcolm X and the Nation as irresponsible extremists whose views were not representative of African Americans. Natambu, pp. 215–216. Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement. Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 79–80. He described its leaders as "stooges" for the white establishment and said that Martin Luther King, Jr. was a "chump". Perry, p. 203. King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. "He is very articulate, ... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views.... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous, ... or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer.... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice.... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief." He criticized the 1963 March on Washington, which he called "the farce on Washington". Cone, p. 113. He said he did not know why black people were excited over a demonstration "run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive". Malcolm X has been widely considered the second most influential leader of the movement after Elijah Muhammad. Cone, p. 91. He was largely credited with increasing membership in the Nation of Islam from 500 in 1952 to 25,000 in 1963. He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali) to join the Nation of Islam. Natambu, pp. 296–297. Ali later left the Nation of Islam and became a Sunni Muslim, as did Malcolm X. Marriage and family On January 14, 1958, Malcolm X married Betty X (née Sanders) in Lansing, Michigan. Rickford, pp. 73–74. The two had been friends for about a year and—although they had never discussed the subject—Betty X suspected that he was interested in marriage. One day, he called and asked her to marry him. Betty Shabazz, "Malcolm X as a Husband and Father", Clarke, pp. 132–134. The couple had six daughters. Their names were Attallah, born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun; Rickford, pp. 109–110. Qubilah, born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan; Rickford, p. 122. Ilyasah, born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad; Rickford, p. 123. Gamilah Lumumba, born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba; Rickford, p. 197. and twins, Malaak and Malikah, born in 1965 after their father's assassination and named for him. Rickford, p. 286. Meeting Castro and other world leaders In September 1960, Fidel Castro arrived in New York to attend the meeting of the United Nations General Assembly. He and his entourage stayed at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem. Malcolm X was a prominent member of a Harlem-based welcoming committee made up of community leaders who met with Castro. Natambu, pp. 230–232. Castro was so impressed by Malcolm X that he requested a private meeting with him. Carson, pp. 197–199. During the General Assembly meeting, Malcolm X was also invited to many official embassy functions sponsored by African nations, where he met heads of state and other leaders, including Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress. Natambu, pp. 231–233. Leaving the Nation of Islam In early 1963, Malcolm X started collaborating with Alex Haley on The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Perry, p. 214. The book was not finished when he was assassinated in 1965. Haley completed it and published it later that year. Perry, p. 375. In 1964, Malcolm told Haley, "If I'm alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle." Haley, "Epilogue", Autobiography, p. 471. On December 1, 1963, when he was asked for a comment about the assassination of President Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost". He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad." The New York Times wrote, "in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to roost'." The remarks prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had issued a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star. Natambu, pp. 288–290. Although Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister, he was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days. Perry, p. 242. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X, March 26, 1964 On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. He said that he was still a Muslim, but he felt the Nation of Islam had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid religious teachings. Malcolm X said he was going to organize a black nationalist organization that would try to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans. He also expressed his desire to work with other civil rights leaders and said that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past. One reason for the separation was growing tension between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad because of Malcolm X's dismay about rumors of Muhammad's extramarital affairs with young secretaries. Such actions were against the teachings of the Nation. Although at first Malcolm X ignored the rumors, he spoke with Muhammad's son and the women making the accusations. He came to believe that they were true, and Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963. Muhammad tried to justify his actions by referring to precedents by Biblical prophets. Perry, pp. 230–234 Another reason was resentment by people within the Nation. As Malcolm X had become a favorite of the media, and many in the Nation's Chicago headquarters felt that he was over-shadowing Muhammad. Louis Lomax's 1963 book about the Nation of Islam, When the Word Is Given, featured a picture of Malcolm X on its cover and included five of his speeches, but only one of Muhammad's, which greatly upset Muhammad. Muhammad was also envious that a publisher was interested in Malcolm X's autobiography. After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque, Inc., a religious organization, Perry, pp. 251–252. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 18–22. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity, a secular group that advocated black nationalism. Perry, pp. 294–296. Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 33–67. On March 26, 1964, he met Martin Luther King, Jr. in Washington, D.C., after a press conference which followed both men attending the Senate to hear the debate on the Civil Rights bill. This was the only time the two men ever met; their meeting lasted only one minute, just long enough for photographers to take a picture. In April, Malcolm X made a speech titled "The Ballot or the Bullet" in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely. Perry, pp. 257–259. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 23–44. Several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about Islam. Soon he converted to Sunni Islam, and decided to make his pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Perry, p. 261. International travel Pilgrimage to Mecca On April 13, 1964, Malcolm X departed JFK Airport in New York for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. His status as an authentic Muslim was questioned by Saudi authorities because of his United States passport and his inability to speak Arabic. Since only confessing Muslims are allowed into Mecca, he was separated from his group for about 20 hours. Perry, pp. 262–263. DeCaro, p. 204. According to his autobiography, Malcolm X saw a telephone and remembered the book The Eternal Message of Muhammad by Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam, which had been presented to him with his visa approval. He called Azzam's son, who arranged for his release. At the younger Azzam's home, he met Azzam Pasha, who gave Malcolm his suite at the Jeddah Palace Hotel. The next morning, Muhammad Faisal, the son of Prince Faisal, visited and informed Malcolm X that he was to be a state guest. The deputy chief of protocol accompanied Malcolm X to the Hajj Court, where he was allowed to make his pilgrimage. Perry, pp. 263–265. On April 19, Malcolm X completed the Hajj, making the seven circuits around the Kaaba, drinking from the Zamzam Well and running between the hills of Safah and Marwah seven times. Perry, pp. 265–266. Malcolm X said the trip allowed him to see Muslims of different races interacting as equals. He came to believe that Islam could be the means by which racial problems could be overcome. Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 388–393. Africa Malcolm X visited Africa on three separate occasions, once in 1959 and twice in 1964. During his visits, he met officials, gave interviews to newspapers, and spoke on television and radio in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika (now Tanzania), Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and Morocco. Natambu, pp. 304–305. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt ,and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments. Natambu, p. 308. In 1959, Malcolm X traveled to Egypt (then known as the United Arab Republic), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana to arrange a tour for Elijah Muhammad. Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 62. The first of the two trips Malcolm X made to Africa in 1964 lasted from April 13 until May 21, before and after his Hajj. Natambu, p. 303. On May 8, following his speech at the University of Ibadan, Malcolm X was made an honorary member of the Nigerian Muslim Students' Association. During this reception the students bestowed upon him the name "Omowale", which means "the son who has come home" in the Yoruba language. Perry, p. 269. Malcolm X wrote in his autobiography that he "had never received a more treasured honor." Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 403. On July 9, 1964, Malcolm X returned to Africa. Carson, p. 305. On July 17, he was welcomed to the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity in Cairo as a representative of the Organization of Afro-American Unity. By the time he returned to the United States on November 24, 1964, Malcolm had met with every prominent African leader and established an international connection between Africans on the continent and those in the diaspora. France and the United Kingdom On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke at the Salle de la Mutualité. Lebert Bethune, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 226–231. Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 113–126. A week later, on November 30, Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom, where he participated in a debate at the Oxford Union on December 3. The topic of the debate was "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue", and Malcolm X argued the affirmative. Interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC. Bethune, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 231–233. On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X went to Europe again. Carson, p. 349. On February 8, he spoke in London, before the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations. Perry, p. 351. Malcolm X tried to go to France on February 9 but he was refused entry. Natambu, p. 312. On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near Birmingham, which had become a byword for racial division after the 1964 general election, when the Conservative Party won the parliamentary seat after rumors that their candidate's supporters had used the slogan "If you want a nigger for your neighbour, vote Labour." In the United States After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X spoke before a wide variety of audiences in the United States. He spoke at regular meetings of Muslim Mosque, Inc., and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. He was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses, Terrill, p. 9. and one of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students." Karim, p. 128. Malcolm X also spoke before political groups such as the Militant Labor Forum. Perry, pp. 277–278. Tensions increased between Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. As early as February 1964, a member of Temple Number Seven was given orders by the Nation of Islam to wire explosives to Malcolm X's car. Karim, pp. 159–160. On March 20, 1964, Life published a photograph of Malcolm X holding an M1 Carbine and peering out a window. The photo was intended to illustrate his determination to defend himself and his family against the death threats he was receiving. Malcolm X in March 1964 The Nation of Islam and its leaders began making threats against Malcolm X both in private and in public. On March 23, 1964, Elijah Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that hypocrites like Malcolm should have "their heads cut off." Kondo, p. 170. The April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon in which his severed head was shown bouncing. On July 9, John Ali, a top aide to Muhammad, answered a question about Malcolm X by saying that "anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy." Evanzz, p. 248. The December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks included an article by Louis X that railed against Malcolm X and said that "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death." Evanzz, p. 264. Some threats were made anonymously. During the month of June 1964, FBI surveillance recorded two such threats. On June 8, a man called Malcolm X's home and told Betty Shabazz to "tell him he's as good as dead." Carson, p. 473. On June 12, an FBI informant reported getting an anonymous telephone call from somebody who said "Malcolm X is going to be bumped off." Carson, p. 324. In June 1964, the Nation of Islam sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in Queens, New York, which they claimed to own. The suit was successful, and Malcolm X was ordered to vacate. Perry, pp. 290–292. On February 14, 1965, the night before a scheduled hearing to postpone the eviction date, the house burned to the ground. Malcolm X and his family survived. No one was charged with any crime. Perry, pp. 352–356. Death Assassination On February 21, 1965, in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom, Malcolm X began to speak to a meeting of the Organization of Afro-American Unity when a disturbance broke out in the crowd of 400. A man yelled, "Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!" Karim, p. 191. Evanzz, p. 295. As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance, In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Alex Haley wrote that Malcolm said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it brothers." (p. 499.) According to a transcription of a recording of the shooting, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", which he repeated 10 times. (DeCaro, p. 274.) a man rushed forward and shot him in the chest with a sawed-off shotgun. Perry, p. 366. Two other men charged the stage and fired handguns, hitting him 16 times. Angry onlookers caught and beat one of the assassins as the others fled the ballroom. Perry, pp. 366–367. Malcolm X was pronounced dead shortly after he arrived at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital. Talmadge Hayer, a Black Muslim also known as Thomas Hagan, was arrested on the scene. Eyewitnesses identified two more suspects, Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson, also members of the Nation of Islam. All three were charged in the case. Kondo, p. 97. At first Hayer denied involvement, but during the trial he confessed to having fired shots into Malcolm X's body. He testified that Butler and Johnson were not present and were not involved in the assassination, but he declined to name the men who had joined him in the shooting. Kondo, p. 110. All three men were convicted. Rickford, p. 289. Butler, now known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985. He became the head of the Nation of Islam's Harlem mosque in New York in 1998. He continues to maintain his innocence. Johnson, now known as Khalil Islam, was released from prison in 1987. During his time in prison, he rejected the teachings of the Nation of Islam and converted to Sunni Islam. He, too, maintains his innocence. Hayer, now known as Mujahid Halim, was paroled in 1993. Rickford, p. 489 Funeral The number of mourners who came to the public viewing in Harlem's Unity Funeral Home from February 23 through February 26 was estimated to be between 14,000 and 30,000. Perry, p. 374. Alex Haley, in his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, says 22,000 (p. 519). The funeral of Malcolm X was held on February 27 at the Faith Temple, Church of God in Christ, in Harlem. The Church was filled to capacity with more than 1,000 people. Rickford, p. 252. Loudspeakers were set up outside the Temple so the overflow crowd could listen DeCaro, p. 291. and a local television station broadcast the funeral live. Among the civil rights leaders in attendance were John Lewis, Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse Gray, and Andrew Young. DeCaro, p. 290. Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X as "our shining black prince". There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain—and we will smile. Many will say turn away—away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the black man—and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate—a fanatic, a racist—who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him. Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. At the gravesite after the ceremony, friends took the shovels away from the waiting gravediggers and completed the burial themselves. Rickford, p. 255. Actor and activist Ruby Dee (wife of Ossie Davis) and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise funds to buy a house and pay educational expenses for Malcolm X's family. Rickford, pp. 261–262. Responses to assassination Reactions to Malcolm X's assassination were varied. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. sent a telegram to Betty Shabazz, expressing his sadness over "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband." While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and the root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems we face as a race. Martin Luther King, Jr., Telegram to Betty Shabazz, Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., February 26, 1965. Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February 26, "Malcolm X got just what he preached." Evanzz, p. 301. The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted". The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance—often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized." Rickford, p. 247. The international press, particularly that of Africa, was sympathetic. The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X "will have a place in the palace of martyrs." Evanzz, p. 305. The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown and Patrice Lumumba among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause". Guangming Daily, published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights." Evanzz, p. 306. In Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination". Rickford, p. 248. Allegations of conspiracy Within days of the assassination, questions were raised about who bore ultimate responsibility. On February 23, James Farmer, the leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Black Muslims, were to blame. Perry, p. 371. Others accused the New York Police Department, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection and the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom. Perry, p. 372. In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs directed towards infiltrating and disrupting civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s. Kondo, pp. 7–39. John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was identified as an FBI undercover agent. Lomax, To Kill a Black Man, p. 198. Malcolm X had confided in a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad. He considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership. On February 20, 1965, the night before the assassination, Ali met with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X. Evanzz, p. 294. In 1977 and 1978, Talmadge Hayer submitted two sworn affidavits re-asserting his claim that Butler and Johnson were not involved in the assassination. In his affidavits Hayer named four men, all members of the Nation of Islam's Newark Temple Number 25, as having participated with him in the crime. Hayer asserted that a man, later identified as Wilbur McKinley, shouted and threw a smoke bomb to create a diversion. Hayer said that another man, later identified as William Bradley, had a shotgun and was the first to fire on Malcolm X after the diversion. Hayer asserted that he and a man later identified as Leon David, both armed with pistols, fired on Malcolm X immediately after the shotgun blast. Hayer also said that a fifth man, later identified as Benjamin Thomas, was involved in the conspiracy. Hayer's statements failed to convince authorities to reopen their investigation of the murder. Some, including the Shabazz family, have accused Louis Farrakhan of being involved in the plot to assassinate Malcolm X. Rickford, pp. 439, 492–495. Evanzz, pp. 298–299. Kondo, pp. 182–183, 193–194. In a 1993 speech, Louis Farrakhan seemed to boast of the assassination: Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats. Rickford, p. 492. In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some of the things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke", he said. "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being." A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination." No consensus on who was responsible has been reached. Natambu, pp. 315–316. Philosophy Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the myriad speeches and interviews he gave between 1952 until his death in 1965. Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published. Terrill, pp. 15–16. Beliefs of the Nation of Islam Before he left the Nation of Islam in 1964, Malcolm X taught its beliefs in his speeches. His speeches were peppered with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that ...". Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 80–81. It is virtually impossible to discern whether Malcolm X's beliefs diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam. Terrill, p. 184. Malcolm X once compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him. Malcolm X taught that black people were the original people of the world, and that white people were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub. The Nation of Islam believed that black people were superior to white people, and that the demise of the white race was imminent. When he was questioned concerning his statements that white people were devils, Malcolm X said that "history proves the white man is a devil." Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 67. He enumerated some of the historical reasons that, he felt, supported his argument: "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil." Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 171. Malcolm X said that Islam was the "true religion of black mankind" and that Christianity was "the white man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters. Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 24, 137–138. He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of black people in America. Malcolm X, Speeches at Harvard, p. 119. He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was Allah, DeCaro, pp. 166–167. and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or prophet. Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah" (Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 80). On another occasion, he said "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet" (Malcolm X, Last Speeches, p. 46). While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in the Southern United States as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa. Malcolm X also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence and instead advocated that black people use any necessary means of self-defense to protect themselves. Independent views Malcolm X at a 1964 press conference After he left the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X began to articulate his own views. During the final year of his life, his philosophy was flexible, and it is difficult to categorize his views on some subjects. Some of the themes to which Malcolm X frequently returned in his speeches demonstrate a relative consistency of thought. Terrill, pp. 109–110. After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement. However, he felt that the civil rights movement should change its focus to human rights. So long as the movement remained a fight for civil rights, its struggle remained a domestic issue. By framing the African American struggle for equal rights as a fight for human rights, it would become an international issue and the movement could bring its complaint before the United Nations. Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support to the cause of African Americans. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 33–35. Malcolm X continued to hold the view that African Americans were right to defend themselves from aggressors, arguing that if the government was unwilling or unable to protect black people, they should protect themselves "by whatever means necessary". Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, p. 43. He also continued to reject nonviolence as the only means for securing equality, declaring that he and the other members of the Organization of Afro-American Unity were determined to win freedom, justice, and equality "by any means necessary". Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, p. 37. Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the liberation struggles of Third World nations. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 90. He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; in a global context, black people were a majority, not a minority. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 117. Although he no longer called for the separation of black people from white people, Malcolm X continued to advocate black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African-American community. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 38–41. In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support of black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were white. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 212–213. After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of white people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he articulated as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that the white people he met during his pilgrimage forced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions". Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 391. In a 1965 conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said: [L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a black and white problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another. Brother, remember the time that white college girl came into the restaurant—the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the whites get together—and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent I saw white students helping black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then—like all [Black] Muslims—I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years. That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days—I'm glad to be free of them. Gordon Parks, "Malcolm X: The Minutes of Our Last Meeting", Clarke, p. 122. Legacy Malcolm X in 1964 Malcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history. He is credited with raising the self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage. Cone, pp. 291–292. He is responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in the United States. Perry, p. 379. Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than the mainstream civil rights movement did. One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, Malcolm X "made clear the price that white America would have to pay if it did not accede to black America's legitimate demands." Perry, p. 380. In the late 1960s, as black activists became more radical, Malcolm X and his teachings were part of the foundation on which they built their movements. The Black Power movement, Sales, p. 187 the Black Arts Movement, and the widespread adoption of the slogan "Black is beautiful" Cone, p. 291. can all trace their roots to Malcolm X. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in Malcolm X among young people fueled, in part, by his use as an icon by hip hop groups such as Public Enemy. Sales, p. 5. Images of Malcolm X could be found on T-shirts and jackets. Sales, p. 3. This wave peaked in 1992 with the release of Malcolm X, a much-anticipated film adaptation of The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Sales, p. 4. Portrayals in film and on stage The 1992 film Malcolm X was directed by Spike Lee and based on The Autobiography of Malcolm X. It starred Denzel Washington, with Angela Bassett as Betty Shabazz and Al Freeman, Jr., as Elijah Muhammad. Critic Roger Ebert and director Martin Scorsese both named the film one of the ten best of the 1990s. Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 Off Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost. Other actors who have portrayed Malcolm X include: James Earl Jones, in the 1977 film The Greatest. Dick Anthony Williams, in the 1978 television miniseries King and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Jeff Stetson play The Meeting. Al Freeman, Jr., in the 1979 television miniseries Roots: The Next Generations. Morgan Freeman, in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet. Ben Holt, in the 1986 opera X (The Life and Times of Malcolm X). Gary Dourdan, in the 2000 television movie King of the World. Joe Morton, in the 2000 television movie Ali: An American Hero. Mario Van Peebles, in the 2001 film Ali. Memorials The Malcolm X House Site, at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, marks the place where Malcolm Little first lived with his family. The house where the Little family lived was torn down in 1965 by owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X. The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 and a historic marker identifies the site because of the importance of Malcolm X to American history and national culture. In 1987 the site was added to the Nebraska register of historic sites and marked with a state plaque. Malcolm X Boulevard in New York City There have been dozens of schools named after Malcolm X, including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark, New Jersey, Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison, Wisconsin, and Malcolm X College in Chicago, Illinois. Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X. In New York City, Lenox Avenue was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard in the late 1980s. The name of Reid Street in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985. Rickford, p. 419. In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard. In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated. See also Malcolm X: Make It Plain Malcolm X: Prince of Islam Message to the Grass Roots Published works The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1992. ISBN 0873487494 The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989. ISBN 0873485432 Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York: Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991. ISBN 0873486315 The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965. Notes References Further reading Alkalimat, Abdul. Malcolm X for Beginners. New York: Writers and Readers, 1990. Asante, Molefi K. Malcolm X as Cultural Hero: and Other Afrocentric Essays. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1993. Baldwin, James. One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based On Alex Haley's "The Autobiography Of Malcolm X". New York: Dell, 1992. Breitman, George. The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1967. Breitman, George, and Herman Porter. The Assassination of Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1976. Carew, Jan. Ghosts In Our Blood: With Malcolm X in Africa, England, and the Caribbean. Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 1994. Cleage, Albert B., and George Breitman. Myths About Malcolm X: Two Views. New York: Merit, 1968. Collins, Rodney P. The Seventh Child. New York: Dafina; London: Turnaround, 2002. Davis, Thulani. Malcolm X: The Great Photographs. New York: Stewart, Tabon and Chang, 1992. DeCaro, Louis A. Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity. New York: New York University, 1998. Doctor, Bernard Aquina. Malcolm X for Beginners. New York: Writers and Readers, 1992. Dyson, Michael Eric. Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Friedly, Michael. The Assassination of Malcolm X. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1992. Gallen, David, ed. Malcolm A to Z: The Man and His Ideas. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992. Gallen, David, ed. Malcolm X: As They Knew Him. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1992. Goldman, Peter. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979. Jamal, Hakim A. From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me. New York: Random House, 1972. Jenkins, Robert L. The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press, 1986. Leader, Edward Roland. Understanding Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy. New York: Vantage Press, 1993. Lee, Spike with Ralph Wiley. By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of The Making Of Malcolm X. New York, N.Y.: Hyperion, 1992. Lincoln, C. Eric. The Black Muslims in America. Boston, Beacon. 1961. Maglangbayan, Shawna. Garvey, Lumumba, and Malcolm: National-Separatists. Chicago, Third World Press 1972. Marable, Manning. On Malcolm X: His Message & Meaning. Westfield, N.J.: Open Media, 1992. Myers, Walter Dean. Malcolm X By Any Means Necessary. New York: Scholastic, 1993. Shabazz, Ilyasah. Growing Up X. New York: One World, 2002. Strickland, William, et al. Malcolm X: Make It Plain. Penguin Books, 1994. T'Shaka, Oba. The Political Legacy of Malcolm X. Richmond, California: Pan Afrikan Publications, 1983. Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor. The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution. London: Free Association Books, 1989. Wood, Joe, ed. Malcolm X: In Our Own Image. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. External links The Official Web Site of Malcolm X Malcolm X: Make It Plain malcolm-x.org Malcolm X: A Profile The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University Malcolm X Reference Archive Malcolm X: A Research Site Interviews Interview with Louis Lomax, from When the Word Is Given (1963) Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark, Spring 1963 Video interview with Herman Blake, October 1963 CBC television interview, January 1965 Other links Malcolm X's FBI file The Smoking Gun: The Malcolm X Files Malcolm X's gravesite | Malcolm_X |@lemmatized malcolm:272 x:249 bear:10 little:49 may:6 february:19 also:14 know:18 el:6 hajj:9 malik:2 shabazz:12 name:20 include:9 honorific:1 give:20 muslim:21 complete:6 mecca:6 african:34 american:35 minister:6 public:9 speaker:3 human:4 right:25 activist:5 admirer:1 courageous:1 advocate:7 man:22 indict:2 white:39 america:5 harshest:1 term:1 crime:5 black:52 cone:6 pp:69 detractor:1 accuse:4 preach:4 racism:4 violence:7 describe:9 one:25 great:7 influential:3 history:6 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6,768 | Animation | Image:Animexample3edit.png The bouncing ball animation (below) consists of these 6 frames. Image:Animexample.gif This animation moves at 10 frames per second. Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions in order to create an illusion of movement. It is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created and demonstrated in a number of ways. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although several other forms of presenting animation also exist. Early examples Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, where animals are depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion. A 5,200 year old earthen bowl found in Iran in Shahr-i Sokhta has five images of a goat painted along the sides. This has been claimed to be an example of early animation. CHTHO produces documentary on world’s oldest animation. Tehran Times. 04-03-2008. First Animation of the World Found In Burnt City, Iran, Persian Journal, 2004 Oldest Animation Discovered In Iran. Animation Magazine. 12-03-2008. However, since no equipment existed to show the images in motion, such a series of images cannot be called animation in a true sense of the word. http://www.emaki.net/blog/2006/02/burnt-city-animation-vl.html http://www.tommoody.us/archives/2008/12/09/burnt-city-goat/ The phenakistoscope, praxinoscope, as well as the common flip book were early popular animation devices invented during the 1800s, while a Chinese zoetrope-type device was invented already in 180 AD. History of Media, University of Minnesota, accessed May 13 2006 These devices produced movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not really develop much further until the advent of cinematography. There is no single person who can be considered the "creator" of the art of film animation, as there were several people doing several projects which could be considered various types of animation all around the same time. Georges Méliès was a creator of special-effect films; he was generally one of the first people to use animation with his technique. He discovered a technique by accident which was to stop the camera rolling to change something in the scene, and then continue rolling the film. This idea was later known as stop-motion animation. Méliès discovered this technique accidentally when his camera broke down while shooting a bus driving by. When he had fixed the camera, a hearse happened to be passing by just as Méliès restarted rolling the film, his end result was that he had managed to make a bus transform into a hearse. This was just one of the great contributors to animation in the early years. The earliest surviving stop-motion advertising film was an English short by Arthur Melbourne-Cooper called Matches: An Appeal (1899). Developed for the Bryant and May Matchsticks company, it involved stop-motion animation of wired-together matches writing a patriotic call to action on a blackboard. J. Stuart Blackton was possibly the first American filmmaker to use the techniques of stop-motion and hand-drawn animation. Introduced to filmmaking by Edison, he pioneered these concepts at the turn of the 20th century, with his first copyrighted work dated 1900. Several of his films, among them The Enchanted Drawing (1900) and Humorous Phases of Funny Faces (1906) were film versions of Blackton's "lightning artist" routine, and utilized modified versions of Méliès' early stop-motion techniques to make a series of blackboard drawings appear to move and reshape themselves. 'Humorous Phases of Funny Faces' is regularly cited as the first true animated film, and Blackton is considered the first true animator. Fantasmagorie by Emile Cohl, 1908 Another French artist, Émile Cohl, began drawing cartoon strips and created a film in 1908 called Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There were also sections of live action where the animator’s hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, which gave the picture a blackboard look. This makes Fantasmagorie the first animated film created using what came to be known as traditional (hand-drawn) animation. Following the successes of Blackton and Cohl, many other artists began experimenting with animation. One such artist was Winsor McCay, a successful newspaper cartoonist, who created detailed animations that required a team of artists and painstaking attention for detail. Each frame was drawn on paper; which invariably required backgrounds and characters to be redrawn and animated. Among McCay's most noted films are Little Nemo (1911), Gertie the Dinosaur (1914) and The Sinking of the Lusitania (1918). The production of animated short films, typically referred to as "cartoons", became an industry of its own during the 1910s, and cartoon shorts were produced to be shown in movie theaters. The most successful early animation producer was John Randolph Bray, who, along with animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process which dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade. Techniques Traditional animation An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by rotoscoping from Eadweard Muybridge's 19th century photos. (Also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) Traditional animation was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, which are first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one onto motion picture film against a painted background by a rostrum camera. The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery mediums, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media such as digital video. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" to describe cel animation which makes extensive use of computer technology. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include Pinocchio (United States, 1940), Animal Farm (United Kingdom, 1954), and Akira (Japan, 1988). Traditional animated films which were produced with the aid of computer technology include The Lion King (US, 1994) Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi (Spirited Away) (Japan, 2001), and Les Triplettes de Belleville (2003). Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films, which regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement. Fully animated films can be done in a variety of styles, from realistically designed works such as those produced by the Walt Disney studio, to the more "cartoony" styles of those produced by the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works such as The Secret of NIMH (US, 1982) and The Iron Giant (US, 1999) Limited animation involves the use of less detailed and/or more stylized drawings and methods of movement. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in Gerald McBoing Boing (US, 1951), Yellow Submarine (UK, 1968), and much of the anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media such as television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, Filmation, and other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons). Rotoscoping is a technique, patented by Max Fleischer in 1917, where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in The Lord of the Rings (US, 1978), used as a basis and inspiration for character animation, as in most Disney films, or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in Waking Life (US, 2001) and A Scanner Darkly (US, 2006). Stop motion Stop-motion animation, used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the type of media used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation. ZU3D Clay animation, or Plasticine animation often abbreviated as claymation, uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an armature or wire frame inside of them, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated in order to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, such as in the films of Bruce Bickford, where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include The Gumby Show (US, 1957–1967) Morph shorts (UK, 1977–2000), Wallace and Gromit shorts (UK, as of 1989), Jan Švankmajer's Dimensions of Dialogue (Czechoslovakia, 1982), The Amazing Mr. Bickford (US, 1987), The Trap Door (UK, 1984). Cutout animation is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving 2-dimensional pieces of material such as paper or cloth. Examples include Terry Gilliam's animated sequences from Monty Python's Flying Circus (UK, 1969-1974); Fantastic Planet (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; Tale of Tales (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the TV series (and sometimes in episodes) of South Park (US, 1997). Silhouette animation is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include The Adventures of Prince Achmed (Weimar Republic, 1926) and Princes et princesses (France, 2000). Graphic animation uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.) which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement. At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. Model animation refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, matte effects, and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. Examples include the work of Ray Harryhausen, as seen in films such Jason and the Argonauts (1961), and the work of Willis O'Brien on films such as King Kong (1933 film). Go motion is a variant of model animation which uses various techniques to create motion blur between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion. The technique was invented by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett to create special effects scenes for the film The Empire Strikes Back (1980). Object animation refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items. One example of object animation is the brickfilm, which incorporates the use of plastic toy construction blocks such as LEGO. Pixilation involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other such effects. Examples of pixilation include Norman McLaren's Neighbours (Canada, 1952), and a potion of the music video for "Weird" Al Yankovic's song UHF Puppet animation typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting with each other in a constructed environment, in contrast to the real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady as well as constraining them to move at particular joints. Examples include The Tale of the Fox (France, 1937), the films of Jiří Trnka, The Nightmare Before Christmas (US, 1993), and the TV series Robot Chicken (US, 2005–present). Puppetoon, created using techniques developed by George Pál, are puppet-animated films which typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet. Computer animation Like stop motion, computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying idea being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation 2D animation figures are created and/or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics or created and edited using 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques such as of tweening, morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping. Examples: Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, SpongeBob SquarePants(certain sequences only), Danny Phantom, The Fairly OddParents, El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera Analog computer animation Flash animation PowerPoint animation 3D animation 3D animation digital models manipulated by an animator. In order to manipulate a mesh, it is given a digital armature (sculpture). This process is called rigging. Various other techniques can be applied, such as mathematical functions (ex. gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, effects such as fire and water and the use of Motion capture to name but a few. Many 3D animations are very believable and are commonly used as special effects for recent movies. Examples: Toy Story, Shrek, Pocoyo Terms Cel-shaded animation Morph target animation Non-photorealistic rendering Skeletal animation Motion capture Crowd simulation 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer. Other animation techniques Drawn on film animation: a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock, for example by Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage. Paint-on-glass animation: a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass. Pinscreen animation: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins, which can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation. Sand animation: sand is moved around on a backlighted or frontlighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast. Flip book: A flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, but may also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, but may appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. Other techniques and approaches Character animation Chuckimation Multi-sketching Special effects animation See also 12 basic principles of animation Adult animation Animation software Anime Art Tradigital art Avar (animation variable) Computer generated imagery List of movie genres History of animation International Tournée of Animation List of animation studios List of animated shorts available on DVD List of motion picture topics Motion graphic design Slideshow animation Stick figure Wire frame model Motion Capture Model sheet References Ball, R., Beck, J., DeMott R., Deneroff, H., Gerstein, D., Gladstone, F., Knott, T., Leal, A., Maestri, G., Mallory, M., Mayerson, M., McCracken, H., McGuire, D., Nagel, J., Pattern, F., Pointer, R., Webb, P., Robinson, C., Ryan, W., Scott, K., Snyder, A. & Webb, G. (2004) Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI. Fulhamm London.: Flame Tree Publishing. ISBN 1-84451-140-5 Crafton, Donald (1982). Before Mickey. Cambridge, Massachusetts.: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-03083-7 Solomon, Charles (1989). Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation. New York.: Random House, Inc. ISBN 0-394-54684-9 Further reading Anderson, Joseph and Barbara, "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited", Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring 1993): 3-12 Culhane, Shamus, Animation Script to Screen Laybourne, Kit, The Animation Book Ledoux, Trish, Ranney, Doug, & Patten, Fred (Ed.), Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide, Tiger Mountain Press 1997 Lowe, Richard & Schnotz, Wolfgang (Eds) Learning with Animation. Research implications for design Cambridge University Press, 2008 Masson, Terrence, CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. ISBN 0-9778710-0-2 Thomas, Frank and Johnston, Ollie, Disney Animation: The Illusion Of Life, Abbeville 1981 Walters, Faber and Helen (Ed.), Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940, HarperCollins Publishers, 2004 Williams, Richard, The Animator's Survival Kit ISBN 0-5712-0228-4 Bob Godfrey and Anna Jackson, 'The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book' BBC Publications 1974 ISBN 0-563-10829-0 Now out of print but available s/hand through a range of sources such as Amazon Uk. External links Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal Experimental Animation Techniques Chronology of Animation How An Animated Cartoon is Made Focus on Animation - A National Film Board of Canada Web site that explains animation techniques discussed in this article and presents viewable animation classics as examples. 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6,769 | Casimir_effect | Casimir forces on parallel plates. Casimir forces on parallel plates. In physics, the Casimir effect and the Casimir-Polder force are physical forces arising from a quantized field. The typical example is of two uncharged metallic plates in a vacuum, placed a few micrometers apart, without any external electromagnetic field. In a classical description, the lack of an external field also means that there is no field between the plates, and no force would be measured between them. When this field is instead studied using quantum electrodynamics, it is seen that the plates do affect the virtual photons which constitute the field, and generate a net force The Force of Empty Space on Physical Review Focus —either an attraction or a repulsion depending on the specific arrangement of the two plates. This force has been measured, and is a striking example of an effect purely due to second quantization. A. Lambrecht, The Casimir effect: a force from nothing, Physics World, September 2002. American Institute of Physics News Note 1996 (However, the treatment of boundary conditions in these calculations has led to some controversy. RL Jaffe Casimir effect and the quantum vacuum ) Dutch physicists Hendrik B. G. Casimir and Dirk Polder first proposed the existence of the force and formulated an experiment to detect it in 1948 while participating in research at Philips Research Labs. The classic form of the experiment, described above, successfully demonstrated the force to within 15% of the value predicted by the theory. Photo of ball attracted to a plate by Casimir effect Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small. On a submicrometre scale, this force becomes so strong that it becomes the dominant force between uncharged conductors. In fact, at separations of 10 nm—about 100 times the typical size of an atom—the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of 1 atmosphere of pressure (101.3 kPa), the precise value depending on surface geometry and other factors . Although the Casimir effect can be expressed in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, it is best described and more easily calculated in terms of the zero-point energy of a quantized field in the intervening space between the objects. In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the nucleon; and in applied physics, it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and nanotechnologies. Overview The Casimir effect can be understood by the idea that the presence of conducting metals and dielectrics alters the vacuum expectation value of the energy of the second quantized electromagnetic field. Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and positions of the conductors and dielectrics, the Casimir effect makes itself manifest as a force between such objects. Vacuum energy The causes of the Casimir effect are described by quantum field theory, which states that all of the various fundamental fields, such as the electromagnetic field, must be quantized at each and every point in space. In a simplified view, a "field" in physics may be envisioned as if space were filled with interconnected vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field can be visualized as the displacement of a ball from its rest position. Vibrations in this field propagate and are governed by the appropriate wave equation for the particular field in question. The second quantization of quantum field theory requires that each such ball-spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. Canonically, the field at each point in space is a simple harmonic oscillator, and its quantization places a quantum harmonic oscillator at each point. Excitations of the field correspond to the elementary particles of particle physics. However, even the vacuum has a vastly complex structure, all calculations of quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum. The vacuum has, implicitly, all of the properties that a particle may have: spin, or polarization in the case of light, energy, and so on. On average, all of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is, after all, "empty" in this sense. One important exception is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or zero-point energy that such an oscillator may have is Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. To remove this infinity, one may argue that only differences in energy are physically measurable; this argument is the underpinning of the theory of renormalization. In all practical calculations, this is how the infinity is always handled. In a deeper sense, however, renormalization is unsatisfying, and the removal of this infinity presents a challenge in the search for a Theory of Everything. Currently there is no compelling explanation for how this infinity should be treated as essentially zero; a non-zero value is essentially the cosmological constant and any large value causes trouble in cosmology. The Casimir effect Casimir's observation was that the second-quantized quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk bodies such as metals or dielectrics, must obey the same boundary conditions that the classical electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the presence of a conductor or dielectric. Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a metal cavity, such as, for example, a radar cavity or a microwave waveguide. In this case, the correct way to find the zero point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the standing waves of the cavity. To each and every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the nth standing wave is . The vacuum expectation value of the energy of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then with the sum running over all possible values of n enumerating the standing waves. The factor of 1/2 corresponds to the fact that the zero-point energies are being summed (it is the same 1/2 as appears in the equation ). Written in this way, this sum is clearly divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions. In particular, one may ask how the zero point energy depends on the shape s of the cavity. Each energy level depends on the shape, and so one should write for the energy level, and for the vacuum expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: the force at point p on the wall of the cavity is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape s of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by , at point p. That is, one has This value is finite in many practical calculations. For a brief summary, see the introduction in R. Passante, S. Spagnolo: Casimir-Polder interatomic potential between two atoms at finite temperature and in the presence of boundary conditions Casimir's calculation In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal plates a distance a apart. In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, since the transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on the surface of a conductor. Assuming the parallel plates lie in the x-y plane, the standing waves are where stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the polarization and the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, and are the wave vectors in directions parallel to the plates, and is the wave-vector perpendicular to the plates. Here, n is an integer, resulting from the requirement that ψ vanish on the metal plates. The energy of this wave is where c is the speed of light. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes where A is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of the wave. This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce a regulator (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in the end will be removed. The zeta-regulated version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is In the end, the limit is to be taken. Here s is just a complex number, not to be confused with the shape discussed previously. This integral/sum is finite for s real and larger than 3. The sum has a pole at s=3, but may be analytically continued to s=0, where the expression is finite. Expanding this, one gets where polar coordinates were introduced to turn the double integral into a single integral. The in front is the Jacobian, and the comes from the angular integration. The integral is easily performed, resulting in The sum may be understood to be the Riemann zeta function, and so one has But and so one obtains The Casimir force per unit area for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them is where (hbar, ħ) is the reduced Planck constant, is the speed of light, is the distance between the two plates. The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the energy is lowered. The presence of shows that the Casimir force per unit area is very small, and that furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin. More recent theory A very complete analysis of the Casimir effect at short distances is based upon a detailed analysis of the van der Waals force by Lifshitz. IE Dzyaloshinskii, EM Lifshitz, LP Pitaevskii: General theory of van der Waals' forces Dzyaloshinskii IE & Kats EI Casimir forces in modulated systems Using this approach, complications of the bounding surfaces, such as the modifications to the Casimir force due to finite conductivity can be calculated numerically using the tabulated complex dielectric functions of the bounding materials. In addition to these factors, complications arise due to surface roughness of the boundary and to geometry effects such as degree of parallelism of bounding plates. For boundaries at large separations, retardation effects give rise to a long-range interaction. For the case of two parallel plates composed of ideal metals in vacuum, the results reduce to Casimir’s. F. Intravaia, C. Henkel & A. Lambrecht: The role of surface plasmons in the Casimir effect Measurement One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Sparnaay at Philips in Eindhoven, in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment with parallel plates, obtaining results not in contradiction with the Casimir theory M.J. Sparnaay, "Attractive forces between flat plates", Nature 180, 334 (1957) M.J. Sparnaay, "Measurement of attractive forces between flat plates", Physica 24, 751 (1958) , but with large experimental errors. The Casimir effect was measured more accurately in 1997 by Steve K. Lamoreaux of Los Alamos National Laboratory S. K. Lamoreaux, "Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 µm Range", Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 5–8 (1997) and by Umar Mohideen and Anushree Roy of the University of California at Riverside U. Mohideen and Anushree Roy, "Precision Measurement of the Casimir Force from 0.1 to 0.9 µm", Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 004549 (1998) . In practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a sphere with a large radius. In 2001, a group at the University of Padua finally succeeded in measuring the Casimir force between parallel plates using microresonators G. Bressi, G. Carugno, R. Onofrio, G. Ruoso, "Measurement of the Casimir force between Parallel Metallic Surfaces", Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 041804 (2002) . Regularisation In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a regulator in the summations. This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator. The heat kernel or exponentially regulated sum is where the limit is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant C which does not depend on the shape of the cavity. The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-dependent. The Gaussian regulator is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, but is more difficult to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well. The zeta function regulator is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular, divergences show up as poles in the complex s plane, with the bulk divergence at s=4. This sum may be analytically continued past this pole, to obtain a finite part at s=0. Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at s=0) or shape-independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the plasma frequency), metals become transparent to photons (such as x-rays), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in solid state physics, mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the cutoff frequency comes into explicit play to keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in Landau and Lifshitz, "Theory of Continuous Media".) Generalities The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of functional integrals of quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a certain sense summations over so-called "virtual particles". More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the eigenvalues of a Hamiltonian. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the van der Waals force, to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in configuration space. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can be understood to result in forces acting between the objects. In the chiral bag model of the nucleon, the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the spectral asymmetry is interpreted as a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the baryon number, cancelling the topological winding number of the pion field surrounding the nucleon. Casimir effect and wormholes Exotic matter with negative energy density is required to stabilize a wormhole. M. Visser (1995) Lorentzian Wormholes: from Einstein to Hawking, AIP Press, Woodbury NY, ISBN 1-56396-394-9 Morris, Thorne and Yurtsever M. Morris, K. Thorne, and U. Yurtsever, Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition, Physical Review, 61, 13, September 1988, pp. 1446 - 1449 pointed out that the quantum mechanics of the Casimir effect can be used to produce a locally mass-negative region of space-time, and suggested that negative effect could be used to stabilize a wormhole to allow faster than light travel. This concept has been used extensively in Science Fiction. Analogies A similar analysis can be used to explain Hawking radiation that causes the slow "evaporation" of black holes (although this is generally visualised as the escape of one particle from a virtual particle-antiparticle pair, the other particle having been captured by the black hole). Repulsive forces There are few instances wherein the Casimir effect can give rise to repulsive forces between uncharged objects. In a seminal paper, Evgeny Lifshitz showed (theoretically) that in certain circumstances (most commonly involving liquids), repulsive forces can arise. This has sparked interest in applications of the Casimir effect toward the development of levitating devices. Other scientists have also suggested the use of gain media to achieve a similar levitation effect http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1559579/Physicists-have-%27solved%27-mystery-of-levitation.html , though this is controversial because these materials seem to violate fundamental causality constraints and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium. An experimental demonstration of the Casimir-based levitation was recently demonstrated by the Capasso group at Harvard through experiments involving a gold-coated particle and silica thin film immersed in bromobenzene. http://www.seas.harvard.edu/capasso/publications/Munday_Nature_457_170_2009.pdf Applications It has been suggested that the Casimir forces have application in nanotechnology, in particular silicon integrated circuit technology based micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems, and so-called Casimir oscillators F.M. Serry, D. Walliser, and G.J. Maclay, The anharmonic Casimir oscillator (ACO) - the Casimir effect in a model microelectromechanical system, IEEE J. Microelectromech. Syst. 4, 193 (2005), http://www.quantumfields.com/IEEEJMEMSACO.pdf See also Van der Waals force Casimir pressure References Further reading Introductory Casimir effect description from University of California, Riverside's version of the Usenet physics FAQ. A. Lambrecht, The Casimir effect: a force from nothing, Physics World, September 2002. Casimir effect on Astronomy Picture of the Day Physicists have 'solved' mystery of levitation Telegraph interviews Prof. Ulf Leonhardt and Dr Thomas Philbin Papers, books and lectures H. B. G. Casimir, and D. Polder, "The Influence of Retardation on the London-van der Waals Forces", Phys. Rev. 73, 360-372 (1948). H. B. G. Casimir, "On the attraction between two perfectly conducting plates" Proc. Kon. Nederland. Akad. Wetensch. B51, 793 (1948) S. K. Lamoreaux, "Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 µm Range", Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 5–8 (1997) M. Bordag, U. Mohideen, V.M. Mostepanenko, "New Developments in the Casimir Effect", Phys. Rep. 353, 1–205 (2001), arXiv. (200+ page review paper.) Kimball A.Milton: "The Casimir effect", World Scientific, Singapore 2001,ISBN 981-02-4397-9 G. Bressi, G. Carugno, R. Onofrio, G. Ruoso, "Measurement of the Casimir force between Parallel Metallic Surfaces", Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 041804 (2002) O. Kenneth, I. Klich, A. Mann and M. Revzen, Repulsive Casimir forces, Department of Physics, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, February 2002 J. D. Barrow, "Much ado about nothing", (2005) Lecture at Gresham College. (Includes discussion of French naval analogy.) (Also includes discussion of French naval analogy.) Temperature dependence Measurements Recast Usual View of Elusive Force from NIST V.V. Nesterenko, G. Lambiase, G. Scarpetta, Calculation of the Casimir energy at zero and finite temperature: some recent results, arXiv:hep-th/0503100 v2 13 May 2005 External links Casimir effect article search on arxiv.org G. 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6,770 | Carbon_nanotube | 3D model of three types of single-walled carbon nanotubes. This animation of a rotating carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure. 10 grams of multiwalled nanotubes. Nanotubes clumped and smeared on paper. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter ratio of up to 28,000,000:1, which is significantly larger than any other material. These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties that make them potentially useful in many applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics and other fields of materials science, as well as potential uses in architectural fields. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat. Their final usage, however, may be limited by their potential toxicity. Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which also includes the spherical buckyballs. The ends of a nanotube might be capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several millimeters in length (as of 2008). Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). The nature of the bonding of a nanotube is described by applied quantum chemistry, specifically, orbital hybridization. The chemical bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp2 bonds, similar to those of graphite. This bonding structure, which is stronger than the sp<sup>3</sub> bonds found in diamonds, provides the molecules with their unique strength. Nanotubes naturally align themselves into "ropes" held together by Van der Waals forces. Under high pressure, nanotubes can merge together, trading some sp² bonds for sp³ bonds, giving the possibility of producing strong, unlimited-length wires through high-pressure nanotube linking. Types of carbon nanotubes and related structures Single-walled The (n,m) nanotube naming scheme can be thought of as a vector (Ch) in an infinite graphene sheet that describes how to "roll up" the graphene sheet to make the nanotube. T denotes the tube axis, and a1 and a2 are the unit vectors of graphene in real space. Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, with a tube length that can be many millions of times longer. The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m) called the chiral vector. The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m=0, the nanotubes are called "zigzag". If n=m, the nanotubes are called "armchair". Otherwise, they are called "chiral". Single-walled nanotubes are an important variety of carbon nanotube because they exhibit electric properties that are not shared by the multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) variants. Single-walled nanotubes are the most likely candidate for miniaturizing electronics beyond the micro electromechanical scale currently used in electronics. The most basic building block of these systems is the electric wire, and SWNTs can be excellent conductors. One useful application of SWNTs is in the development of the first intramolecular field effect transistors (FET). Production of the first intramolecular logic gate using SWNT FETs has recently become possible as well. To create a logic gate you must have both a p-FET and an n-FET. Because SWNTs are p-FETs when exposed to oxygen and n-FETs otherwise, it is possible to protect half of an SWNT from oxygen exposure, while exposing the other half to oxygen. This results in a single SWNT that acts as a NOT logic gate with both p and n-type FETs within the same molecule. Single-walled nanotubes are still very expensive to produce, around $1500 per gram as of 2000, and the development of more affordable synthesis techniques is vital to the future of carbon nanotechnology. If cheaper means of synthesis cannot be discovered, it would make it financially impossible to apply this technology to commercial-scale applications. Several suppliers offer as-produced arc discharge SWNTs for ~$50–100 per gram as of 2007. Multi-walled Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of graphite. There are two models which can be used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes. In the Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders, e.g. a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a larger (0,10) single-walled nanotube. In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite, approximately 3.3 Å (330 pm). The special place of double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT) must be emphasized here because their morphology and properties are similar to SWNT but their resistance to chemicals is significantly improved. This is especially important when functionalization is required (this means grafting of chemical functions at the surface of the nanotubes) to add new properties to the CNT. In the case of SWNT, covalent functionalization will break some C=C double bonds, leaving "holes" in the structure on the nanotube and thus modifying both its mechanical and electrical properties. In the case of DWNT, only the outer wall is modified. DWNT synthesis on the gram-scale was first proposed in 2003 by the CCVD technique, from the selective reduction of oxide solutions in methane and hydrogen. Torus A nanotorus is a theoretically described carbon nanotube bent into a torus (doughnut shape). Nanotori are predicted to have many unique properties, such as magnetic moments 1000 times larger than previously expected for certain specific radii. Properties such as magnetic moment, thermal stability etc. vary widely depending on radius of the torus and radius of the tube. Nanobud A stable nanobud structure Carbon nanobuds are a newly created material combining two previously discovered allotropes of carbon; carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. In this new material fullerene-like "buds" are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying carbon nanotube. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally good field emitters. In composite materials, the attached fullerene molecules may function as molecular anchors preventing slipping of the nanotubes, thus improving the composite’s mechanical properties. Properties Strength Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results from the covalent sp² bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals (GPa). (This, for illustration, translates into the ability to endure weight of 6300 kg on a cable with cross-section of 1 mm2.) Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3-1.4 g·cm−3, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kN·m·kg−1 is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel's 154 kN·m·kg−1. Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo before fracture by releasing strain energy. CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo buckling when placed under compressive, torsional or bending stress. + Comparison of Mechanical Properties http://www.weizmann.ac.il/wagner/COURSES/Reading%20material%20(papers)/Encyclopedy_of_polymer_science_2003.pdf Australian Stainless Steel Development Association (ASSDA) - Home Material Young's Modulus (TPa) Tensile Strength (GPa) Elongation at Break (%) SWNT ~1 (from 1 to 5) 13-53E 16 Armchair SWNT 0.94T 126.2T 23.1 Zigzag SWNT 0.94T 94.5T 15.6-17.5 Chiral SWNT 0.92 MWNT 0.8-0.9E 150 Stainless Steel ~0.2 ~0.65-1 15-50 Kevlar ~0.15 ~3.5 ~2 KevlarT 0.25 29.6 EExperimental observation TTheoretical prediction The above discussion referred to axial properties of the nanotube, whereas simple geometrical considerations suggest that carbon nanotubes should be much softer in the radial direction than along the tube axis. Indeed, TEM observation of radial elasticity suggested that even the van der Waals forces can deform two adjacent nanotubes R. S. Ruoff, et al., "Radial deformation of carbon nanotubes by van der Waals forces" Nature 364, 514 (1993) . Nanoindentation experiments, performed by several groups on multiwalled carbon nanotubes, I. Palaci, et al. "Radial Elasticity of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes" Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 175502 (2005) M.-F. Yu, et al. "Investigation of the Radial Deformability of Individual Carbon Nanotubes under Controlled Indentation Force" Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1456-1459 (2000) indicated Young's modulus of the order of several GPa confirming that CNTs are indeed rather soft in the radial direction. Kinetic Multi-walled nanotubes, multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested within one another, exhibit a striking telescoping property whereby an inner nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within its outer nanotube shell thus creating an atomically perfect linear or rotational bearing. This is one of the first true examples of molecular nanotechnology, the precise positioning of atoms to create useful machines. Already this property has been utilized to create the world's smallest rotational motor 07.23.2003 - Physicists build world's smallest motor using nanotubes and etched silicon . Future applications such as a gigahertz mechanical oscillator are also envisaged. Electrical Because of the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structure of a nanotube strongly affects its electrical properties. For a given (n,m) nanotube, if n = m, the nanotube is metallic; if n − m is a multiple of 3, then the nanotube is semiconducting with a very small band gap, otherwise the nanotube is a moderate semiconductor. Thus all armchair (n=m) nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (5,0), (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semiconducting. In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electrical current density of 4×109 A/cm2 which is more than 1,000 times greater than metals such as copper . Thermal All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube, exhibiting a property known as "ballistic conduction," but good insulators laterally to the tube axis. It is predicted that carbon nanotubes will be able to transmit up to 6000 watts per meter per Kelvin at room temperature; compare this to copper, a metal well-known for its good thermal conductivity, which transmits 385 watts per meter per K. The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800oC in vacuum and about 750oC in air. Defects As with any material, the existence of a crystallographic defect affects the material properties. Defects can occur in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85%. Another form of carbon nanotube defect is the Stone Wales defect, which creates a pentagon and heptagon pair by rearrangement of the bonds. Because of the very small structure of CNTs, the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on its weakest segment in a similar manner to a chain, where the strength of the weakest link becomes the maximum strength of the chain. Crystallographic defects also affect the tube's electrical properties. A common result is lowered conductivity through the defective region of the tube. A defect in armchair-type tubes (which can conduct electricity) can cause the surrounding region to become semiconducting, and single monoatomic vacancies induce magnetic properties Carbon Based Magnetism: An Overview of the Magnetism of Metal Free Carbon-based Compounds and Materials, edited by Tatiana Makarova and Fernando Palacio (Elsevier 2006) . Crystallographic defects strongly affect the tube's thermal properties. Such defects lead to phonon scattering, which in turn increases the relaxation rate of the phonons. This reduces the mean free path and reduces the thermal conductivity of nanotube structures. Phonon transport simulations indicate that substitutional defects such as nitrogen or boron will primarily lead to scattering of high-frequency optical phonons. However, larger-scale defects such as Stone Wales defects cause phonon scattering over a wide range of frequencies, leading to a greater reduction in thermal conductivity . One-dimensional transport Due to their nanoscale dimensions, electron transport in carbon nanotubes will take place through quantum effects and will only propagate along the axis of the tube. Because of this special transport property, carbon nanotubes are frequently referred to as “one-dimensional” in scientific articles. Toxicity Determining the toxicity of carbon nanotubes has been one of the most pressing questions in nanotechnology. Unfortunately such research has only just begun and the data is still fragmentary and subject to criticism. Preliminary results highlight the difficulties in evaluating the toxicity of this heterogeneous material. Parameters such as structure, size distribution, surface area, surface chemistry, surface charge, and agglomeration state as well as purity of the samples, have considerable impact on the reactivity of carbon nanotubes. However, available data clearly show that, under some conditions, nanotubes can cross membrane barriers, which suggests that if raw materials reach the organs they can induce harmful effects such as inflammatory and fibrotic reactions. A study led by Alexandra Porter from the University of Cambridge shows that CNTs can enter human cells and accumulate in the cytoplasm, causing cell death. Results of rodent studies collectively show that regardless of the process by which CNTs were synthesized and the types and amounts of metals they contained, CNTs were capable of producing inflammation, epithelioid granulomas (microscopic nodules), fibrosis, and biochemical/toxicological changes in the lungs. Comparative toxicity studies in which mice were given equal weights of test materials showed that SWCNTs were more toxic than quartz, which is considered a serious occupational health hazard when chronically inhaled. As a control, ultrafine carbon black was shown to produce minimal lung responses. The needle-like fiber shape of CNTs, similar to asbestos fibers, raises fears that widespread use of carbon nanotubes may lead to mesothelioma, cancer of the lining of the lungs often caused by exposure to asbestos. A recently-published pilot study http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/v3/n7/abs/nnano.2008.111.html supports this prediction. Scientists exposed the mesothelial lining of the body cavity of mice, as a surrogate for the mesothelial lining of the chest cavity, to long multiwalled carbon nanotubes and observed asbestos-like, length-dependent, pathogenic behavior which included inflammation and formation of lesions known as granulomas. Authors of the study conclude: "This is of considerable importance, because research and business communities continue to invest heavily in carbon nanotubes for a wide range of products under the assumption that they are no more hazardous than graphite. Our results suggest the need for further research and great caution before introducing such products into the market if long-term harm is to be avoided." According to co-author Dr. Andrew Maynard: "This study is exactly the kind of strategic, highly focused research needed to ensure the safe and responsible development of nanotechnology. It looks at a specific nanoscale material expected to have widespread commercial applications and asks specific questions about a specific health hazard. Even though scientists have been raising concerns about the safety of long, thin carbon nanotubes for over a decade, none of the research needs in the current U.S. federal nanotechnology environment, health and safety risk research strategy address this question." http://www.nanotechproject.org/news/archive/mwcnt/ Video commentary Although further research is required, results presented today clearly demonstrate that, under certain conditions, especially those involving chronic exposure, carbon nanotubes can pose a serious risk to human health. Synthesis Techniques have been developed to produce nanotubes in sizeable quantities, including arc discharge, laser ablation, high pressure carbon monoxide (HiPCO), and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Most of these processes take place in vacuum or with process gases. CVD growth of CNTs can occur in vacuum or at atmospheric pressure. Large quantities of nanotubes can be synthesized by these methods; advances in catalysis and continuous growth processes are making CNTs more commercially viable. Arc discharge Nanotubes were observed in 1991 in the carbon soot of graphite electrodes during an arc discharge, by using a current of 100 amps, that was intended to produce fullerenes. However the first macroscopic production of carbon nanotubes was made in 1992 by two researchers at NEC's Fundamental Research Laboratory. The method used was the same as in 1991. During this process, the carbon contained in the negative electrode sublimates because of the high discharge temperatures. Because nanotubes were initially discovered using this technique, it has been the most widely-used method of nanotube synthesis. The yield for this method is up to 30 percent by weight and it produces both single- and multi-walled nanotubes with lengths of up to 50 micrometers. Laser ablation In the laser ablation process, a pulsed laser vaporizes a graphite target in a high-temperature reactor while an inert gas is bled into the chamber. Nanotubes develop on the cooler surfaces of the reactor as the vaporized carbon condenses. A water-cooled surface may be included in the system to collect the nanotubes. This process was developed by Dr. Richard Smalley and co-workers at Rice University, who at the time of the discovery of carbon nanotubes, were blasting metals with a laser to produce various metal molecules. When they heard of the existence of nanotubes they replaced the metals with graphite to create multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Later that year the team used a composite of graphite and metal catalyst particles (the best yield was from a cobalt and nickel mixture) to synthesize single-walled carbon nanotubes. The laser ablation method yields around 70% and produces primarily single-walled carbon nanotubes with a controllable diameter determined by the reaction temperature. However, it is more expensive than either arc discharge or chemical vapor deposition. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Nanotubes being grown by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition The catalytic vapor phase deposition of carbon was first reported in 1959, but it was not until 1993 that carbon nanotubes were formed by this process. In 2007, researchers at the University of Cincinnati (UC) developed a process to grow aligned carbon nanotube arrays of 18 mm length on a FirstNano ET3000 carbon nanotube growth system. During CVD, a substrate is prepared with a layer of metal catalyst particles, most commonly nickel, cobalt N. Inami et al. "Synthesis-condition dependence of carbon nanotube growth by alcohol catalytic chemical vapor deposition method" Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 8 (2007) 292 free download , iron, or a combination . The metal nanoparticles can also be produced by other ways, including reduction of oxides or oxides solid solutions. The diameters of the nanotubes that are to be grown are related to the size of the metal particles. This can be controlled by patterned (or masked) deposition of the metal, annealing, or by plasma etching of a metal layer. The substrate is heated to approximately 700°C. To initiate the growth of nanotubes, two gases are bled into the reactor: a process gas (such as ammonia, nitrogen or hydrogen) and a carbon-containing gas (such as acetylene, ethylene, ethanol or methane). Nanotubes grow at the sites of the metal catalyst; the carbon-containing gas is broken apart at the surface of the catalyst particle, and the carbon is transported to the edges of the particle, where it forms the nanotubes. This mechanism is still being studied. The catalyst particles can stay at the tips of the growing nanotube during the growth process, or remain at the nanotube base, depending on the adhesion between the catalyst particle and the substrate. CVD is a common method for the commercial production of carbon nanotubes. For this purpose, the metal nanoparticles are mixed with a catalyst support such as MgO or Al2O3 to increase the surface area for higher yield of the catalytic reaction of the carbon feedstock with the metal particles. One issue in this synthesis route is the removal of the catalyst support via an acid treatment, which sometimes could destroy the original structure of the carbon nanotubes. However, alternative catalyst supports that are soluble in water have proven effective for nanotube growth. If a plasma is generated by the application of a strong electric field during the growth process (plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition*), then the nanotube growth will follow the direction of the electric field. By adjusting the geometry of the reactor it is possible to synthesize vertically aligned carbon nanotubes SEM images & TEM images of carbon nanotubes, aligned carbon nanotube arrays, and nanoparticles (i.e., perpendicular to the substrate), a morphology that has been of interest to researchers interested in the electron emission from nanotubes. Without the plasma, the resulting nanotubes are often randomly oriented. Under certain reaction conditions, even in the absence of a plasma, closely spaced nanotubes will maintain a vertical growth direction resulting in a dense array of tubes resembling a carpet or forest. Of the various means for nanotube synthesis, CVD shows the most promise for industrial-scale deposition, because of its price/unit ratio, and because CVD is capable of growing nanotubes directly on a desired substrate, whereas the nanotubes must be collected in the other growth techniques. The growth sites are controllable by careful deposition of the catalyst. In 2007, a team from Meijo University demonstrated a high-efficiency CVD technique for growing carbon nanotubes from camphor. Researchers at Rice University, until recently led by the late Dr. Richard Smalley, have concentrated upon finding methods to produce large, pure amounts of particular types of nanotubes. Their approach grows long fibers from many small seeds cut from a single nanotube; all of the resulting fibers were found to be of the same diameter as the original nanotube and are expected to be of the same type as the original nanotube. Further characterization of the resulting nanotubes and improvements in yield and length of grown tubes are needed. CVD growth of multi-walled nanotubes is used by several companies to produce materials on the ton scale, including NanoLab NanoLab multiwalled carbon nanotubes, aligned carbon nanotube arrays, nanoparticles, nanotube paper,dispersant, nanowires , Bayer, Arkema, Nanocyl, Nanothinx, Nanothinx: Nanotubes, Nanomaterials, and Nanotechnology R&D (Products) Hyperion Catalysis, Mitsui, and Showa Denko. Natural, incidental, and controlled flame environments Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes are not necessarily products of high-tech laboratories; they are commonly formed in such mundane places as ordinary flames, produced by burning methane, ethylene, and benzene, and they have been found in soot from both indoor and outdoor air. However, these naturally occurring varieties can be highly irregular in size and quality because the environment in which they are produced is often highly uncontrolled. Thus, although they can be used in some applications, they can lack in the high degree of uniformity necessary to meet many needs of both research and industry. Recent efforts have focused on producing more uniform carbon nanotubes in controlled flame environments. Nano-C, Inc of Westwood, Massachusetts, is producing flame synthesized single-walled carbon nanotubes. This method has promise for large-scale, low-cost nanotube synthesis, though it must compete with rapidly developing large scale CVD production. Potential and current applications See also, for last current applications: Timeline of carbon nanotubes |The joining of two carbon nanotubes with different electrical properties to form a diode has been proposed. The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controlling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in nanotechnology engineering. The highest tensile strength an individual multi-walled carbon nanotube has been tested to be is 63 GPa. Carbon nanotubes were found in Damascus steel, possibly helping to account for the legendary strength of the (almost ancient) swords made of it. Structural Because of the carbon nanotube's superior mechanical properties, many structures have been proposed ranging from everyday items like clothes and sports gear to combat jackets and space elevators. However, the space elevator will require further efforts in refining carbon nanotube technology, as the practical tensile strength of carbon nanotubes can still be greatly improved. For perspective, outstanding breakthroughs have already been made. Pioneering work led by Ray H. Baughman at the NanoTech Institute has shown that single and multi-walled nanotubes can produce materials with toughness unmatched in the man-made and natural worlds. Recent research by James D. Iverson and Brad C. Edwards has revealed the possibility of cross-linking CNT molecules prior to incorporation in a polymer matrix to form a super high strength composite material. This CNT composite could have a tensile strength on the order of 20 million psi (138 GPa, for 106 MN•m•kg−1), potentially revolutionizing many aspects of engineering design where low weight and high strength are required. In electrical circuits Carbon nanotubes have many properties—from their unique dimensions to an unusual current conduction mechanism—that make them ideal components of electrical circuits. For example, they have shown to exhibit strong electron-phonon resonances, which indicate that under certain direct current (DC) bias and doping conditions their current and the average electron velocity, as well as the electron concentration on the tube oscillate at terahertz frequencies . These resonances could potentially be used to make terahertz sources or sensors. Nanotube based transistors have been made that operate at room temperature and that are capable of digital switching using a single electron. One major obstacle to realization of nanotubes has been the lack of technology for mass production. However, in 2001 IBM researchers demonstrated how nanotube transistors can be grown in bulk, somewhat like silicon transistors. Their process is called "constructive destruction" which includes the automatic destruction of defective nanotubes on the wafer. The IBM process has been developed further and single-chip wafers with over ten billion correctly aligned nanotube junctions have been created. In addition it has been demonstrated that incorrectly aligned nanotubes can be removed automatically using standard photolithography equipment. The first nanotube integrated memory circuit was made in 2004. One of the main challenges has been regulating the conductivity of nanotubes. Depending on subtle surface features a nanotube may act as a plain conductor or as a semiconductor. A fully automated method has however been developed to remove non-semiconductor tubes. Most recently, collaborating American and Chinese researchers at Duke University and Peking University announced a new CVD recipe involving a combination of ethanol and methanol gases and quartz substrates resulting in horizontally aligned arrays of 95-98% semiconducting nanotubes. This is considered a large step towards the ultimate goal of producing perfectly aligned, 100% semiconducting carbon nanotubes for mass production of electronic devices. Lei Ding, Alexander Tselev, Jinyong Wang et al., Nano Letters, 1/20/2009, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl803496s Another way to make carbon nanotube transistors has been to use random networks of them. By doing so one averages all of their electrical differences and one can produce devices in large scale at the wafer level. This approach was first patented by Nanomix Inc. Nanōmix - Breakthrough Detection Solutions with the Nanoelectronic Sensation Technology (date of original application June 2002 ). It was first published in the academic literature by the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 2003 through independent research work. This approach also enabled Nanomix to make the first transistor on a flexible and transparent substrate. Nanotubes are usually grown on nanoparticles of magnetic metal (Fe, Co), which facilitates production of electronic (spintronic) devices. In particular control of current through a field-effect transistor by magnetic field has been demonstrated in such a single-tube nanostructure. M.A. Mohamed et al. "Fabrication of spintronics device by direct synthesis of single-walled carbon nanotubes from ferromagnetic electrodes" Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 8 (2007) 292 free download Large structures of carbon nanotubes can be used for thermal management of electronic circuits. An approximately 1 mm thick carbon nanotube layer was used as a special material to fabricate coolers, this materials has very low density, ~20 times lower weight than a similar copper structure, while the cooling properties are similar for the two materials. K. Kordas et al. "Chip cooling with integrated carbon nanotube microfin architectures" Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 123105 (2007); DOI:10.1063/1.2714281 free download As paper batteries A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paper-thin sheet of cellulose (which is the major constituent of regular paper, among other things) infused with aligned carbon nanotubes. The nanotubes act as electrodes; allowing the storage devices to conduct electricity. The battery, which functions as both a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor, can provide a long, steady power output comparable to a conventional battery, as well as a supercapacitor’s quick burst of high energy—and while a conventional battery contains a number of separate components, the paper battery integrates all of the battery components in a single structure, making it more energy efficient. As a vessel for drug delivery The nanotube’s versatile structure allows it to be used for a variety of tasks in and around the body. Although often seen especially in cancer-related incidents, the carbon nanotube is often used as a vessel for transporting drugs into the body. The nanotube application potentially allows for the drug dosage to be lowered by localizing its distribution. The nanotube commonly carries the drug one of two ways: the drug can be attached to the side or trailed behind, or the drug can actually be placed inside the nanotube. Both of these methods are effective for the delivery and distribution of drugs inside the body. Current applications Current use and application of nanotubes has mostly been limited to the use of bulk nanotubes, which is a mass of rather unorganized fragments of nanotubes. Bulk nanotube materials may never achieve a tensile strength similar to that of individual tubes, but such composites may nevertheless yield strengths sufficient for many applications. Bulk carbon nanotubes have already been used as composite fibers in polymers to improve the mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product. Easton-Bell Sports, Inc. have been in partnership with Zyvex, using CNT technology in a number of their bicycle components—including flat and riser handlebars, cranks, forks, seatposts, stems and aero bars. Solar cells Solar cells developed at the New Jersey Institute of Technology use a carbon nanotube complex, formed by a mixture of carbon nanotubes and carbon buckyballs (known as fullerenes) to form snake-like structures. Buckyballs trap electrons, although they can't make electrons flow. Add sunlight to excite the polymers, and the buckyballs will grab the electrons. Nanotubes, behaving like copper wires, will then be able to make the electrons or current flow. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070719011151.htm Ultracapacitors MIT Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems uses nanotubes to improve ultracapacitors. The activated charcoal used in conventional ultracapacitors has many small hollow spaces of various size, which create together a large surface to store electric charge. But as charge is quantized into elementary charges, i.e. electrons, and each such elementary charge needs a minimum space, a significant fraction of the electrode surface is not available for storage because the hollow spaces are not compatible with the charge's requirements. With a nanotube electrode the spaces may be tailored to size—few too large or too small—and consequently the capacity should be increased considerably. MIT LEES on Batteries. MIT press release, 2006. Other applications Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in nanoelectromechanical systems, including mechanical memory elements (NRAM being developed by Nantero Inc.) and nanoscale electric motors (see Nanomotor). Carbon nanotubes have been proposed as a possible gene delivery vehicle and for use in combination with radiofrequency fields to destroy cancer cells. In May 2005, Nanomix Inc placed on the market a hydrogen sensor which integrated carbon nanotubes on a silicon platform. Since then Nanomix has been patenting many such sensor applications such as in the field of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, glucose, DNA detection etc. Eikos Inc of Franklin, Massachusetts and Unidym Inc. of Silicon Valley, California are developing transparent, electrically conductive films of carbon nanotubes to replace indium tin oxide (ITO). Carbon nanotube films are substantially more mechanically robust than ITO films, making them ideal for high-reliability touchscreens and flexible displays. Printable water-based inks of carbon nanotubes are desired to enable the production of these films to replace ITO. Nanotube films show promise for use in displays for computers, cell phones, PDAs, and ATMs. A nanoradio, a radio receiver consisting of a single nanotube, was demonstrated in 2007. In 2008 it was shown that a sheet of nanotubes can operate as a loudspeaker if an alternating current is applied. The sound is not produced through vibration but thermoacoustically. Hot nanotube sheets produce music on demand, New Scientists News, 31 October 2008 Carbon nanotubes are said to have the strength of diamond, and research is being made into weaving them into clothes to create stab-proof and bulletproof clothing. The nanotubes would effectively stop the bullet from penetrating the body, although the bullet's kinetic energy would likely cause broken bones and internal bleeding. A flywheel made of carbon nanotubes could be spun at extremely high velocity on a floating magnetic axis, and potentially store energy at a density approaching that of conventional fossil fuels. Since energy can be added to and removed from flywheels very efficiently in the form of electricity, this might offer a way of storing electricity, making the electrical grid more efficient and variable power suppliers (like wind turbines) more useful in meeting energy needs. The practicality of this depends heavily upon the cost of making massive, unbroken nanotube structures, and their failure rate under stress. Rheological properties can also be shown very effectively by carbon nanotubes. Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes may replace platinum catalysts used to reduce oxygen in fuel cells. A forest of vertically-aligned nanotubes can reduce oxygen in alkaline solution more effectively than platinum, which has been used in such applications since the 1960s. The nanotubes have the added benefit of not being subject to carbon monoxide poisoning. Chemical & Engineering News, 9 February 2009, "Nanotube Catalysts", p. 7 Regulation In October 2008, the Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), within the California Environmental Protection Agency announced its intent to request information regarding analytical test methods, fate and transport in the environment, and other relevant information from manufacturers of carbon nanotubes. The term "manufacturers” includes persons and businesses that produce nanotubes in California, or import carbon nanotubes into California for sale. This information request is meant to identify information gaps and to develop information about carbon nanotubes. DTSC is exercising its authority under California Health and Safety Code, Chapter 699, sections 57018-57020. These sections were added as a result of the adoption of Assembly Bill AB 289 (2006). They are intended to make information on the fate and transport, detection and analysis, and other information on chemicals more available. The law places the responsibility to provide this information to the Department on those who manufacture or import the chemicals. DTSC anticipates issuing a formal information request letter in January 2009. Interested individuals are encouraged to visit their website for the latest up-to-date information at http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/TechnologyDevelopment/Nanotechnology/index.cfm. Discovery A 2006 editorial written by Marc Monthioux and Vladimir Kuznetsov in the journal Carbon described the interesting and often misstated origin of the carbon nanotube. A large percentage of academic and popular literature attributes the discovery of hollow, nanometer-size tubes composed of graphitic carbon to Sumio Iijima of NEC in 1991. In 1952 L. V. Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich published clear images of 50 nanometer diameter tubes made of carbon in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry. This discovery was largely unnoticed, as the article was published in the Russian language, and Western scientists' access to Soviet press was limited during the Cold War. It is likely that carbon nanotubes were produced before this date, but the invention of the transmission electron microscope (TEM) allowed direct visualization of these structures. Carbon nanotubes have been produced and observed under a variety of conditions prior to 1991. A paper by Oberlin, Endo, and Koyama published in 1976 clearly showed hollow carbon fibers with nanometer-scale diameters using a vapor-growth technique. Additionally, the authors show a TEM image of a nanotube consisting of a single wall of graphene. Later, Endo has referred to this image as a single-walled nanotube. In 1979 John Abrahamson presented evidence of carbon nanotubes at the 14th Biennial Conference of Carbon at Pennsylvania State University. The conference paper described carbon nanotubes as carbon fibers which were produced on carbon anodes during arc discharge. A characterization of these fibers was given as well as hypotheses for their growth in a nitrogen atmosphere at low pressures. In 1981 a group of Soviet scientists published the results of chemical and structural characterization of carbon nanoparticles produced by a thermocatalytical disproportionation of carbon monoxide. Using TEM images and XRD patterns, the authors suggested that their “carbon multi-layer tubular crystals” were formed by rolling graphene layers into cylinders. They speculated that by rolling graphene layers into a cylinder, many different arrangements of graphene hexagonal nets are possible. They suggested two possibilities of such arrangements: circular arrangement (armchair nanotube) and a spiral, helical arrangement (chiral tube). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Metals. 1982, #3, p.12-17 [in Russian] In 1987, Howard G. Tennent of Hyperion Catalysis was issued a U.S. patent for the production of "cylindrical discrete carbon fibrils" with a "constant diameter between about 3.5 and about 70 nanometers..., length 10² times the diameter, and an outer region of multiple essentially continuous layers of ordered carbon atoms and a distinct inner core...." Iijima's discovery of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in the insoluble material of arc-burned graphite rods in 1991 and Mintmire, Dunlap, and White's independent prediction that if single-walled carbon nanotubes could be made, then they would exhibit remarkable conducting properties in 1992 helped create the initial buzz that is now associated with carbon nanotubes. Nanotube research accelerated greatly following the independent discoveries by Bethune at IBM and Iijima at NEC of single-walled carbon nanotubes and methods to specifically produce them by adding transition-metal catalysts to the carbon in an arc discharge. The arc discharge technique was well-known to produce the famed Buckminster fullerene on a preparative scale, and these results appeared to extend the run of accidental discoveries relating to fullerenes. The original observation of fullerenes in mass spectrometry was not anticipated, and the first mass-production technique by Krätschmer and Huffman was used for several years before realizing that it produced fullerenes. The discovery of nanotubes remains a contentious issue, especially because several scientists involved in the research could be likely candidates for the Nobel Prize. Many believe that Iijima's report in 1991 is of particular importance because it brought carbon nanotubes into the awareness of the scientific community as a whole. See the reference for a review of the history of the discovery of carbon nanotubes. Similar to the matter of nanotube discovery is the question of what is the thinnest possible carbon nanotube. Possible candidates are: Nanotubes of about 0.40 nm diameter have been reported in 2000; however, they are not free standing, but enclosed in zeolite crystals N. Wang, Z. K. Tang, G. D. Li and J. S. Chen "Single-walled 4A carbon nanotube arrays" Nature 408 (2000) 50 or are innermost shells of the multi-wall nanotubes. N. Wang et al. "The smallest carbon nanotube" Nature 408 (2000) 50 Later, inner shells of MWNTs of only 0.3 nm in diameter have been reported. X. Zhao et al. "Smallest Carbon Nanotube is 3 A in diameter" Phys. Rev. Lett. 92 (2004) 125502 The thinnest free-standing nanotube, by September 2003, has diameter of 0.43 nm. T. Hayashi et al. "Smallest Freestanding Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube" Nano letters 3 (2003) 887 See also Allotropes of carbon Boron nitride nanotube Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics Nanoflower Graphene Buckypaper Graphene oxide paper Optical properties of carbon nanotubes Organic electronics Selective chemistry of single-walled nanotubes Potential applications of carbon nanotubes List of Carbon Nanotube Suppliers Colossal carbon tube Molecular modeling Free-download reviews NT06 - the major CNT event - click the speakers NT05 - click the "HERE"s Selection of free-download articles on carbon nanotubes Books Book : Carbon Nanotube - Multifunctional Material, Edited by Prakash R. Somani and M. Umeno, Applied Science Innovations Pvt. Ltd., India. References External links Nanohedron.com image gallery with carbon nanotubes New Scientist Special Report: a collection of nanotechnology articles, most on nanotubes Applications and Markets of Carbon Nanotubes: from issue 6 of Nano Magazine which focused solely on Carbon Nanotubes The stuff of dreams, CNET The Nanotube site. Last updated 2009.05.03 EU Marie Curie Network CARBIO: Multifunctional carbon nanotubes for biomedical applications Nanowire Computing Made Practical Medical applications of carbon nanotubes Carbon nanotube on arxiv.org Applications of Carbon Nanotubes C60 and Carbon Nanotubes a short video explaining how nanotubes can be made from modified graphite sheets and the three different types of nanotubes that are formed Carbon Nanotubes & Buckyballs. | Carbon_nanotube |@lemmatized model:4 three:2 type:8 single:31 walled:16 carbon:152 nanotubes:11 animation:1 rotate:1 nanotube:233 show:14 structure:24 gram:4 multiwalled:5 clump:1 smear:1 paper:11 cnts:10 allotrope:2 nanostructure:2 length:9 diameter:14 ratio:3 significantly:2 large:14 material:25 cylindrical:2 molecule:6 novel:1 property:30 make:28 potentially:5 useful:5 many:13 application:22 nanotechnology:10 electronics:4 optic:1 field:10 science:2 well:8 potential:5 us:1 architectural:1 exhibit:6 extraordinary:1 strength:21 unique:5 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6,771 | Austin,_Texas | Austin is the capital of the U.S. state of Texas and the county seat of Travis County. Located in Central Texas and the eastern edge of the American Southwest, http://www.texasarchitect.org/ta200811-book.php?sess_id=ece092634aaa35fbcdca2fc24573e106 it is the fourth-largest city in Texas and the 16th-largest in the United States of America. It was the third-fastest-growing large city in the nation from 2000 to 2006. According to the 2007 U.S. Census estimate, Austin had a population of 743,074. The city is the cultural and economic center of the , with a population of 1,652,602 as of the July 2008 U.S. Census estimate—making it the 36th-largest- and 2nd-fastest-growing metropolitan area in the nation. The area was settled in the 1830s on the banks of the Colorado River by pioneers who named the village Waterloo. In 1839, Waterloo was chosen to become the capital of the newly independent Republic of Texas. The city was renamed after Stephen F. Austin, known as the father of Texas. The city grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a major city and emerged as a center for technology and business. Today, Austin is home to many companies, high-tech and otherwise, including two Fortune 500 corporations. Austin was selected as the No. 2 Best Big City in "Best Places to Live" by Money magazine in 2006, and the "Greenest City in America" by MSN. Also, according to CNN Headline News and Travel & Leisure magazine, Austin ranks No. 2 on the list of cities with the best people, referring to the personalities and attributes of the citizens. Austin was also voted America's #1 College Town by the Travel Channel. Austin was ranked the fifth-safest city in part because there are fewer than 3 murders per 100,000 people annually. Residents of Austin are known as "Austinites" and include a diverse mix of university professors, students, politicians, musicians, state employees, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers, and white-collar workers. The main campus of the University of Texas is located in Austin. The city is home to enough large sites of major technology corporations to have earned it the nickname "Silicon Hills." Austin's official slogan promotes the city as "The Live Music Capital of the World," a reference to its status as home to many musicians and music venues. In recent years, many Austinites have also adopted the unofficial slogan "Keep Austin Weird"; this refers partly to the eclectic and progressive lifestyle of many Austin residents but is also the slogan for a campaign to preserve smaller local businesses and resist excessive commercialization. History Stephen F. Austin Prior to the arrival of settlers from the United States, the area that later became Austin was inhabited by a variety of nomadic Native American tribes, including the Tonkawa tribe, the Comanches, and the Lipan Apaches. When the Texas Congress formed a commission to seek a site for a new capital to be named Austin, Mirabeau Lamar advised the commissioners to investigate Waterloo, which was then indeed chosen. Edwin Waller was chosen by President Lamar to survey the village and draft a plan laying out the new capital city. The original site for the capital was narrowed to 640 acres (2.6 km²) that fronted the Colorado River between two creeks, Shoal Creek and Waller Creek, which was later named in honor. The fourteen-block grid plan was bisected by a broad north-south thoroughfare, Congress Avenue, running up from the river to Capital Square, where the new Texas State Capitol was to be constructed. A temporary one-story capitol was erected on the corner of Colorado and 8th streets. On August 1, the first auction of 306 lots was held. The grid plan that Waller designed and surveyed now forms the basis of the streets of downtown Austin. At first, the new capital thrived. But Lamar's political enemy Sam Houston used two Mexican army incursions to San Antonio as an excuse to move the government to Washington-on-the-Brazos. Remaining Austin residents responded to the threat by forcibly keeping the national archives in their city in defiance of President Houston's attempts to bring them to Washington (Texas Archive War). Once the annexation of the Republic of Texas by the United States became official in 1845, delegates wrote a new state constitution in which Austin was again named the seat of state. The Texas State Capitol was completed in 1888, and claimed as the 7th largest building in the world. In September 1881, Austin public schools held their first classes. The same year, Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute (now part of Huston-Tillotson University) opened its doors. The University of Texas at Austin held its first classes in 1883. The Austin music scene began attracting national attention in the 1970s with artists such as Willie Nelson and venues such as the Armadillo World Headquarters. Today, Austin is known as much for its cultural life as its high-tech innovations. Geography Austin is located at and is approximately above sea level. According to the 2000 census, the city has a total area of . of it is land and (2.67%) is water. Austin is situated on the Colorado River, with three man-made (artificial) lakes within the city limits: Lady Bird Lake, Lake Austin, and Lake Walter E. Long. Additionally, the foot of Lake Travis, including Mansfield Dam, is located within the city's limits. Lady Bird Lake, Lake Austin, and Lake Travis are each on the Colorado River. The city is also situated on the Balcones Fault, which, in much of Austin, runs roughly the same route as Loop 1 (Mopac Expressway). The eastern part of the city is flat, whereas the western part and western suburbs consist of scenic rolling hills on the edge of the Texas Hill Country. Because the hills to the west are primarily limestone rock with a thin covering of topsoil, portions of the city are frequently subjected to flash floods from the runoff caused by thunderstorms. To help control this runoff and to generate hydroelectric power, the Lower Colorado River Authority operates a series of dams that form the Texas Highland Lakes. The lakes also provide venues for boating, swimming, and other forms of recreation within several parks on the lake shores. The view from Mount Bonnell Austin is located at the intersection of four major ecological regions and is consequently a temperate-to-hot green oasis but has some characteristics of the desert, the tropics, and a wetter climate. It is very diverse ecologically/biologically and is home to a variety of beautiful animals and plants, notably the wildflowers that blossom throughout the year but especially in the spring, including the popular bluebonnets, some planted in an effort by Lady Bird Johnson. A popular point of prominence in Austin is Mount Bonnell. At about above sea level, it is a natural limestone formation overlooking Lake Austin on the Colorado River, with an observation deck about below its summit. From the observation deck, many homes are visible. The soils of Austin range from shallow, gravelly clay loams over limestone in the western outskirts to deep, fine sandy loams, silty clay loams, silty clays or clays in the city's eastern part. Some of the clays have pronounced shrink-swell properties and are difficult to work under most moisture conditions. Many of Austin's soils, especially the clay-rich types, are slightly to moderately alkaline and have free calcium carbonate. Climate Austin has a humid subtropical climate, characterized by hot summers and mild winters. On average, Austin receives of rain per year, with most of the precipitation in the spring, and a secondary maximum in the fall. During springtime, severe thunderstorms sometimes occur, though tornadoes are rare in the city. Austin is usually at least partially sunny. Austin summers are usually hot and humid, with average temperatures of approximately 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 Celsius) from June until September. Temperatures above are common. The highest recorded temperature was on September 5, 2000. For the entire year there is an average of 111 days above and 198 days above . Winters in Austin are mild and dry. For the entire year, Austin averages 88 days below and 24 days when the minimum temperature falls below freezing. The lowest recorded temperature was on January 31, 1949. Snowfall is rare in Austin, but approximately biannually Austin may suffer an ice storm that freezes roads over and affects much of the city for 24 to 48 hours. Monthly averages for Austin's weather data are shown in a graphical format to the right, and in a more detailed tabular format below. Table Note: Averages are from the 30 year average from 1971–2000 at Camp Mabry, and records are from Camp Mabry and from previous climate sites, spanning from 1897 to present. Government and politics Law and government Austin is administered by a city council of seven members, each of them elected by the entire city. The council is composed of six council members, and by an elected mayor, accompanied by a hired city manager under the manager-council system of municipal governance. Council and mayoral elections are non-partisan, with a runoff in case there is no majority winner. Austin remains an anomaly among large Texas cities in that council members are elected on an at-large basis by all voters, as opposed to elections by districts. Austin formerly operated its city hall at 128 West 8th Street. "Availability of FEIS." Fort Worth District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved on December 29, 2008. Antoine Predock and Cotera Kolar Negrete & Reed Architects designed a new city hall building, which was intended to reflect what The Dallas Morning News referred to as a "crazy-quilt vitality, that embraces everything from country music to environmental protests and high-tech swagger." "Austin City Hall." Hunter Douglas Contract. Retrieved on December 29, 2008. The new city hall, built from recycled materials, has solar panels in its garage. Witt, Howard. "In heart of Texas, drumbeat for green." Chicago Tribune. September 28, 2007. 1. The city hall, at 301 West Second Street, opened in November 2004. "Austin City Hall." City of Austin. Retrieved on December 29, 2008. The mayor of Austin is Will Wynn. His second term ends in 2009. Law enforcement in Austin is provided by the Austin Police Department, except for state government buildings, which are patrolled by the Texas Department of Public Safety. Fire protection is provided by the Austin Fire Department, and emergency medical services are provided by Austin-Travis County EMS. The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Austin. The main post office, the Austin Post Office, is located at 8225 Cross Park Drive. "Post Office™ Location - AUSTIN." United States Postal Service. Retrieved on April 16, 2009. Politics The controversy that dominated Austin politics during the 1990s was the conflict between environmentalists and advocates of urban growth. The city council has in the past tried to mitigate the controversy by advocating smart growth, but growth and environmental protection are still the most divisive issues in city politics. Austin is well known as a center for liberal politics in a generally conservative state, so much so that the city is sometimes sarcastically referred to as "The People's Republic of Austin" by residents of other parts of the state and by conservatives in the Texas Legislature. Suburban neighborhoods in Austin, especially to the west and north, and several satellite municipalities, however, tend toward political conservatism. As a result of the major party realignment that began in the 1970s, central Austin became a stronghold of the Democratic Party, while the suburbs tend to vote Republican. One consequence of this is that in the most recent redistricting plan, formulated by former U.S. Rep. Tom DeLay and enacted by the Republican-majority legislature, the central city has been split among multiple sprawling districts. Opponents characterized the resulting district layout as excessively partisan gerrymandering, and the plan was challenged in court on this basis by Democratic and minority activists; of note, the Supreme Court of the United States has never struck down a redistricting plan for being excessively partisan. The plan was subsequently upheld by a three-judge federal panel in late 2003, and on June 28, 2006, the matter was largely settled when the Supreme Court in a 7-2 decision upheld the entire congressional redistricting plan with the exception of a Hispanic-majority district in southwest Texas. This may later affect Austin's districting, as U.S. Rep. Lloyd Doggett's district was found not to be sufficiently compact to compensate for the reduced minority influence in the southwest district. Overall, the city is a blend of downtown liberalism and suburban conservatism but leans strongly to the political left. In 2003, the city adopted a resolution against the USA PATRIOT act that reaffirmed constitutionally guaranteed rights. In the 2004 presidential election, Senator John Kerry won a substantial majority of the votes in Travis County. Of Austin's six state legislative districts, three are strongly Democratic and three are swing districts all of which are held by Democrats. However, two of its three congressional districts are presently held by Republicans; this is largely due to the 2003 redistricting, which left downtown Austin without an exclusive congressional seat of its own. Travis County was also the only county in Texas to reject Texas Constitutional Amendment Proposition 2 effectively outlawing gay marriage and status equal or similar to it and did so by a wide margin (40% for, 60% against). Austin is also an active area for the Libertarian Party. Although the Libertarians remain a third party, they occasionally garner substantial votes, and one of the past Libertarian presidential candidates, Michael Badnarik, comes from Austin, while another, Ron Paul, who ran for the 1988 presidential election as the Libertarian nominee and for the Republican Party presidential nomination in 2008, represented a congressional district that includes part of the greater Austin area. Two of the candidates for president in the 2004 race call Austin home. Michael Badnarik, mentioned above as the Libertarian Party candidate, and David Cobb of the Green Party both have lived in Austin. During the run up to the election in November, a presidential debate was held at the University of Texas student union involving the two minor party candidates. While the Commission on Presidential Debates only invites Democrats and Republicans to participate in televised debates, the debate at UT was open to all presidential candidates. Austin also hosted one of the last presidential debates between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton during their heated race for the Democratic nomination in 2008. Sister cities List of sister cities of Austin, Texas, designated by Sister Cities International. Adelaide, Australia - since 1983 Koblenz, Germany- since 1991 Lima, Peru- since 1981 Maseru, Lesotho- since 1978 Ōita, Japan - since 1990 Saltillo, Mexico - since 1968 Taichung, Republic of China - since 1986 Old Orlu, Nigeria - since 2000 Gwangmyeong, South Korea Xishuangbanna, People's Republic of China - since 1997 Belo Horizonte, Brazil - since 1965 Economy Austin is considered to be a major center for high technology. The metro area is the headquarters of two Fortune 500 companies: Dell and Whole Foods Market. Thousands of graduates each year from the engineering and computer science programs at The University of Texas at Austin provide a steady source of employees that help to fuel Austin's technology and defense industry sectors. The metro Austin area has much lower housing costs than Silicon Valley, but much higher housing costs than many parts of rural Texas. As a result of the high concentration of high-tech companies in the region, Austin was strongly affected by the dot-com boom in the late 1990s and subsequent bust. Austin's largest employers include the Austin Independent School District, the City of Austin, Dell, the United States Federal Government, Freescale Semiconductor (spun off from Motorola in 2004), IBM, St. David's Healthcare Partnership, Seton Healthcare Network, the State of Texas, Texas State University-San Marcos, and the University of Texas at Austin, The University of Texas. Other high-tech companies with operations in Austin include 3M Company, Apple Inc., Hewlett-Packard, Google, AMD, Applied Materials, Cirrus Logic, Cisco, eBay/PayPal, Hoover's, Inc., Intel, National Instruments, Samsung, Silicon Laboratories, Sun Microsystems and United Devices. The proliferation of technology companies has led to the region's nickname, "the Silicon Hills," and spurred development that greatly expanded the city. Southward view of downtown Austin from The Capitol Grounds on 11th Street. Austin is also emerging as a hub for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. About 85 companies from this industry are based in Austin. The city was ranked by the Milken Institute as the #12 biotech and life science center in the United States. It is also home to advertising agencies including Omnicom owned GSD&M Idea City and LatinWorks, as well as Dell’s agency of record, WPP Group owned Enfatico. Whole Foods Market is a grocery store that specializes in organic, local, and natural foods and other goods. It was founded and based in Austin. As of August 25, 2008, Whole Foods has 271 stores in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. In addition to global companies, Austin features a strong network of independent, locally-owned firms and organizations, such as the Austin Independent Business Alliance. The success of these businesses reflects the high level of commitment by the citizens of Austin to preserving the unique spirit of the city and has been tied to the "Keep Austin Weird" campaign. Cityscape Buildings that make up most of Austin's skyline are modest in height and somewhat spread out. The latter characteristic is due to a restriction that preserves the view of the Texas State Capitol building from various locations around Austin (known as the Capitol View Corridor). However,many highrise towers have been constructed and the downtown area is looking more modern and dense. The city's tallest building, 360 Condominiums, was topped out in late 2007. Austin's second tallest building, the Frost Bank Tower, opened in 2004 and stands at and is located at the corner of Congress Avenue and 4th Street. Austin is currently undergoing a skyscraper boom, which includes recent construction on the now complete 360 Condominiums at , the Austonian at , the T. Stacy Towers at and tall and several others that are mainly for residential use. By 2015, the Frost Bank Tower could be the only skyscraper built before 2005 to remain in the top ten tallest buildings in the city. A moonlight tower. At night, parts of Austin are lighted with "artificial moonlight." Several moonlight towers, built in the late 19th century and recognized as historic landmarks, illuminate the central part of the city. Only 17 of the 31 original towers remain standing. The towers are featured in the film, Dazed and Confused. Downtown The central business district of the city is now home to some of the newest and tallest condo towers in the state. The 360 Tower, one of several new condo towers in Austin, opened in early 2008. The mayor strives to have up to 25,000 people living Downtown by 2015. Because of this, the city has been driven to increase density in Austin's urban core. The skyline has drastically changed from 5 years ago, and the residential real estate market has remained relatively strong while other parts of the city have seen a slowing along with the rest of the country. With Austin’s strong and growing economy, the market is there. Downtown growth has been aided by the presence of a popular live music and nightlife scene, Whole Foods Market flagship store and headquarters, museums, restaurants, and Lady Bird Lake, considered one of the city's best recreational spots. The 2nd Street District consists of several new residential projects, restaurants, coffee shops, record stores, upscale boutiques and museums, and the Austin City Hall. Under construction across 2nd Street from Austin City Hall is the new Austin City Limits location that will be housed beneath a new W Hotel and residential tower. Each year SXSW, the largest music conference in the world, is hosted in downtown Austin. Vista of Austin's riverfront as seen from Auditorium Shores. Demographics According to the 2007 American Community Survey, the city's population was 65.6% White (49.9% non-Hispanic-White alone), 9.1% Black or African American, 0.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 6.2% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 20.4% from some other race and 2.1% from two or more races. 34.2% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race (mostly Mexican). As of the census of 2000, there were 656,562 people, 265,649 households, and 141,590 families residing in the city (roughly comparable in size to San Francisco, Memphis, and Columbus). The population density was 2,610.4 people per square mile (1,007.9/km²). There were 276,842 housing units at an average density of 1,100.7/sq mi (425.0/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.36% White, 10.05% Black or African American, 4.72% Asian, 0.59% Native American, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 16.23% from other races. 2.99% were from two or more races. 30.55% of the population were Hispanic or Latino, who can be of any race. 52.94% of the population were Whites of non-Hispanic ancestry. There were 265,648 households out of which 26.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.1% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.7% were non-families. 32.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.14. In the city the population was spread out with 22.5% under the age of 18, 16.6% from 18 to 24, 37.1% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females there were 105.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was $42,689, and the median income for a family was $54,091. Males had a median income of $35,545 vs. $30,046 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,163. About 9.1% of families and 14.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.5% of those under age 18 and 8.7% of those age 65 or over. From the year 2000 to 2005, the median house price in Austin grew 34 percent. According to the US Census Bureau, as of July 2008 the Austin-Round Rock Metropolitan Area had 1,652,602 people. It is one of the top 5 fastest growing metro areas in the nation. If combined with the population of the adjacent San Antonio metropolitan statistical area (approximately to the southwest), the region is home to about 3.7 million people. Austin is consistently ranked among the three safest cities per capita of any size in many categories and for many reasons, especially because annually, per 100,000 people there are fewer than 5 people murdered. Arts and culture Austinites take pride in eccentricities and celebrate differences and being different (in lifestyle, character, beliefs, etc.). Austin is the only major Texas city that has no ordinance against women appearing topless in public. "Keep Austin Weird" has become a local motto in recent years, featured on innumerable bumper stickers and t-shirts. This motto has not only been used in promoting Austin's eccentricity and diversity, but is also meant to bolster support of local and independent businesses. According to the Nielsen Company, adults in Austin read and contribute to blogs more than those in any other U.S. metropolitan area. South Congress, called "Soco" by many, is a local cultural district stretching down Congress Avenue from Downtown that prides itself on being what some consider to be the real Austin or Austin like it used to be. This area is home to many coffee shops, eccentric stores, restaurants and festivals. Annual cultural events The O. Henry House Museum hosts the annual O. Henry Pun Off, which is a pun contest where the contestants exhibit amazing wit. Other annual events include Eeyore's Birthday Party, Spamarama, and the Austin Reggae Festival and Art City Austin in April and Carnaval in February. Sixth Street features annual festivals such as the Pecan Street Festival and Halloween night. The three-day Austin City Limits Music Festival has been held in Zilker Park every year since 2002. The sights of Austin's nightlife on 6th Street. Austin's Zilker Park Tree is a Christmas display made of lights strung from the top of a Moonlight tower in Zilker Park. The Zilker Tree is lit in December along with the "Trail of Lights," an Austin Christmas tradition. Music 2007 Austin City Limits Music Festival with view of stages and Austin skyline. As Austin's official slogan is The Live Music Capital of the World, the city has a vibrant live music scene with more music venues per capita than any other U.S. city. Austin's music revolves around the many nightclubs on 6th Street and an annual film/music/interactive festival known as South by Southwest (SXSW). The longest-running concert music program on American television, Austin City Limits, is videotaped on the University of Texas at Austin campus. Austin City Limits and C3 Presents produce the Austin City Limits Music Festival, an annual music and art festival held at Zilker Park in Austin based on the Austin City Limits television show. The festival and television show alike attract musical artists from around the world. The Urban Music Festival is held during the Texas Relays weekend every April. Film Austin hosts the annual Austin Film Festival, which draws films of many different types from all over the world. In 2004 the city was first in Moviemaker Magazine's annual top ten cities to live and make movies. The 2007 South by Southwest (SXSW) festival included Pete Townshend, Iggy Pop, Tom Morello, and Rickie Lee Jones. Austin has been the location for a number of motion pictures, partly due to the influence of The University of Texas at Austin Department of Radio-Television-Film. Films produced in Austin include Man of the House, Secondhand Lions, Waking Life, Spy Kids, Dazed and Confused, Office Space, The Life of David Gale, Miss Congeniality, Doubting Thomas, Slacker, Idiocracy, Road Trip, Blank Check, A Scanner Darkly, The Wendall Baker Story and most recently, Grindhouse, How To Eat Fried Worms and Bandslam. In order to draw future film projects to the area, the Austin Film Society has converted several airplane hangars from the former Mueller Airport into filmmaking center Austin Studios. Projects that have used facilities at Austin Studios include music videos by The Flaming Lips and feature films such as 25th Hour and Sin City. Austin also hosted the MTV series, The Real World: Austin in 2005. Media Austin's main daily newspaper is the Austin American-Statesman. The Austin Chronicle is Austin's alternative weekly, while The Daily Texan is the student newspaper of the University of Texas. Austin also has smaller newspapers such as the Oak Hill Gazette, and Austin Business Journal. Texas Monthly, a major regional magazine, is also headquartered in Austin. The Texas Observer, a muckraking biweekly magazine, has been based in Austin for over five decades.Community Impact Newspaper is a free monthly hyperlocal newspaper with separate editions for various regions of Austin. Newspapers are delivered to every house and business within certain zip codes and all of the news is specific to those zip codes. The local PBS station KLRU produces several award winning locally produced programs. KUT is the leading public radio station in Texas and produces the majority of its content locally. KOOP (FM) is a volunteer-run radio station with more than 60 locally produced programs. Network television stations (affiliations in parentheses) include KTBC (Fox), KVUE (ABC), KXAN (NBC) KAKW (Univision), and KEYE-TV (CBS). Also, subscribers to Time Warner Cable receive a 24-hour local news station, News 8 Austin. In some parts of Austin, Time Warner has cable competition from Grande Communications. Theater Austin also has a strong theater culture, with dozens of itinerant and resident companies producing a wide variety of work. The city also has a burgeoning circle of live performance theater venues such as the Zachary Scott Theatre Center (Scott was born in Austin and an alumnus of the University of Texas), Vortex Repertory Company, Salvage Vanguard Theater, Rude Mechanicals, Refraction Arts, Arts on Real, Scottish Rite Children's Theater, Hyde Park Theatre, The City Theatre, and Esther's Follies, a comedy and magic show. The Victory Grill was a renowned venue on the Chitlin' circuit. Public art and performances of many kinds in the parts and on bridges is popular and it is easy to find a myriad of diverse and creative free productions. Austin hosts the Fuse Box Festival each April featuring international, leading-edge theater artists. The Paramount Theatre opened in downtown Austin in 1915. Managing to escape destruction throughout the years, it contributes not only to Austin's theater culture, but also to its film culture, showing a variety of classic films throughout the summer. The summer program features a series of double features, often paired with vintage cartoons or serials to complete the retro feel. Gone With the Wind is always shown, usually at the end of the season or over the Labor Day weekend. The theater also hosts regional premieres for films such as Miss Congeniality. The long-running outdoor musical, the Zilker Park Summer Musical, expects to celebrate its 50th anniversary in 2008. Ballet Austin is the fourth largest ballet academy in the country. Each year Ballet Austin's twenty member professional company performs ballets from a wide variety of choreographers, including their international award winning artistic director, Stephen Mills. Ballet Austin has traveled around the world performing in Europe, the Kennedy Center (Washington D.C.), and New York City's Joyce Theatre. In January 2007, Austin Lyric Opera hosted the American Premiere of the Philip Glass opera, Waiting for the Barbarians, an allegory of oppressor and oppressed based on the novel by J. M. Coetzee of South Africa. Coetzee, the Nobel Prize Winner for Literature in 2003, is a University of Texas at Austin graduate and former UT professor. Austin is home to a growing improv comedy scene spread over several theaters: ColdTowne Theater, The Hideout Theater, and Salvage Vanguard Theater. Some of Austin's best known improv troupes include ColdTowne, The Frank Mills, Girls Girls Girls, Parallelogramophonograph, and Get Up. Austin also hosts the annual Out of Bounds Improv Festival and Miniature Golf Tournament. Out of Bounds has drawn nationally known sketch and improv artists. In 2008 Out of Bounds festival will host over 40 improv and sketch comedy troupes from 11 cities perform over 7 days. The 2008 festival has also been expanded to include stand-up and short films. Sports Darrell K Royal-Texas Memorial Stadium, home of Texas Longhorns football. Austin is the largest city in the United States without a franchise in a major professional sports league. Many Austinites support the University of Texas Longhorns' sports programs. The University of Texas football and baseball teams each won their respective national championships during the 2005–2006 seasons. Minor-league professional sports came to Austin in 1996, when the Austin Ice Bats began playing at the Travis County Expo Center. Since then, they have been joined by many other teams including the Austin Wranglers, an arena football team, and the Austin Aztex, an expansion team of the USL First Division. Austin is home to the state's largest sports stadium, Darrell K Royal-Texas Memorial Stadium, seating over 98,000 fans. + Austin Area Minor-League professional sports teams Club Sport Founded League Venue Round Rock Express Baseball 1999 Pacific Coast League Dell Diamond Austin Aztex U23 Soccer 2008 Premier Development League Dragon Stadium Austin Aztex Soccer 2009 United Soccer Leagues - First Division Nelson Field (2009) & House Park(2010+) Austin Outlaws Football 2003 National Women's Football Association House Park Austin Toros Basketball 2005 NBA D-League Austin Convention Center Texas Stars Ice hockey 2009 American Hockey League Cedar Park Event Center Austin Turfcats Indoor football 2009 Southern Indoor Football League Luedecke Arena Austin's Deep Eddy Pool is the oldest man-made pool in Texas In addition to team sports, Austin is generally known for its active outdoor culture. Austin is home to many runners, rock-climbers, swimmers, divers, snorkelers, mountain bikers, cyclists, and more. Natural features like the bicycle-friendly Texas Hill Country, limestone rock formations, and generally mild climate work with the centrally-located Lady Bird Lake Hike and Bike Trail, and local pools like Barton Springs to make Austin the home of several endurance and multi-sport races and communities. The Capitol 10,000 is the largest race in Texas, and approximately fifth largest in the nation. The Austin Marathon has been run in the city every year since 1992. The Austin-founded American Swimming Association hosts an open water swimming event, the Cap 2 K, and other closed-course, open water, and cable swim races around town. Austin is also the hometown of several cycling groups and the champion cyclist Lance Armstrong, as well as environmentally- and economically-minded bicycle commuters. Combining these three disciplines is a growing crop of triathlons, including the Capital of Texas Triathlon held every Memorial Day on and around Lady Bird Lake, Auditorium Shores, and Downtown Austin. Museums and other points of interest Bob Bullock Texas State History Museum Museums in Austin include the Texas Memorial Museum, the Blanton Museum of Art (opened in 2006), the galleries at the Harry Ransom Center, and the Bob Bullock Texas State History Museum across the street (which opened in 2000). The Texas State Capitol itself is also a major tourist attraction. The Driskill Hotel built in 1886, and located at 6th and Brazos, was finished just before the construction of the Capitol building. Sixth Street is a musical hub for the city. The Enchanted Forest, a multi-acre outdoor music, art, and performance art space in South Austin hosts events such as fire-dancing and circus-like-acts. The art that gave Austin its reputation for being weird is featured at the South Austin Museum of Popular Culture. The Mexic-Arte Museum is a Latin American art museum founded in 1983. Austin is also home to the O. Henry House Museum, which is where O. Henry lived in Austin in 1891. Farmers markets are popular attractions, providing a variety of locally grown and often organic goods. Austin is also "weird" for its many statues and landmarks, such as the Hyde Park Bar & Grill fork, the Mangia dinosaur, the Loca Maria lady at Taco Xpress on South Lamar, the pink flamingo lawn in front of the Pots and Plants Garden Center, the Hyde Park Gym's giant flexed arm, and Daniel Johnston's Hi, how are you? frog mural. Austin locals are proud of these landmarks and work to preserve them, even as the city grows. http://www.wildlyaustin.com/ The Ann W. Richards Congress Avenue Bridge houses the world's largest urban population of Mexican free-tailed bats. Starting in late February, up to 1.5 million bats take up residence inside the bridge's expansion and contraction zones as well as in long horizontal grooves running the length of the bridge's underside, an environment ideally suited for raising their young. Every evening around sunset, the bats emerge in search of insects, an exit visible on weather radar. Watching the bat emergence is an event that is popular with locals and tourists, with more than 100,000 viewers per year. The bats migrate to Mexico each winter. The Austin Zoo, located at 10807 Rawhide Trail in unincorporated western Travis County, west of Austin and north of U.S. Highway 290, "Contact Us." Austin Zoo. Retrieved on February 1, 2009. is a rescue zoo that provides sanctuary to displaced animals from a variety of situations, including those involving neglect. Parks and recreation The Austin Parks & Recreation Department received the Excellence in Aquatics award in 1999 and the Gold Medal Awards in 2004 from the National Recreation and Park Association. Home to over 50 public swimming pools, Austin has parks and pools all throughout the city. There are several well-known swimming locations. These include Deep Eddy Pool, Texas' oldest man-made swimming pool, and Barton Springs Pool, the nation's largest natural swimming pool in an urban area. Barton Springs Pool is spring-fed and ranges in temperature from about during the winter to about during the summer. Swimming in Barton Springs at Christmas is an annual tradition for many Austinites. Hippie Hollow, a county park situated along Lake Travis, is the only officially sanctioned clothing-optional public park in Texas. Activities include rockclimbing, kayaking, swimming, exploring, and hiking along the greenbelt, a green, lush, long-spanning area that runs through the city. Hamilton Pool is a gorgeous and chilly pool and wildlife park located about 30 minutes from the city and is strongly recommended by many locals. Transportation Highways Central Austin is bracketed by Interstate 35 to the east and the Mopac Expressway to the west. U.S. Highway 183 runs from northwest to southeast, and State Highway 71 crosses southern part of the city from east to west, completing a rough "box" around the central and north-central city. Austin is the largest city in the United States to be served by only one Interstate Highway. U.S. Highway 290 enters Austin from the east and merges into I-35. Its highway designation continues south on I-35 and then becomes part of Highway 71, continuing on to the west. Highway 290 becomes its own road again southwest of the city, when it splits from Highway 71 in a busy interchange in Oak Hill known as "The Y." Highway 71 continues as far west as Brady, TX, and Highway 290 continues west to intersect Interstate 10 near Junction. Interstate 35 continues south through San Antonio, TX, and continues to its culmination at Laredo, TX, which is on the Texas-Mexico border. Interstate 35 is the highway link to the Dallas-Ft. Worth metroplex in northern Texas. There are two links to Houston, TX (Highway 290 and State Highway 71/Interstate 10). Highway 183 leads northwest of Austin and is a route with other major highways to such cities as Abilene, San Angelo, Lubbock, Amarillo, Albuquerque and Denver. Night view of the Pennybacker Bridge on Loop 360 from a ledge on the side. In the mid-1980s, Austin completed construction on Loop 360, a scenic highway that curves through the hill country from near the 71/Mopac interchange in the south to near the 183/Mopac interchange in the north. The iconic Pennybacker Bridge, also known as the "360 Bridge", crosses Lake Austin to connect north and south Loop 360. Tollways Interchange of Interstate 35 and State Highway 45. In November 2006, Austin opened the first segments of its first-ever tollway system: State Highway 130 runs from Georgetown, Hutto, Round Rock, Pflugerville, where it connects with 45, passes US 290 just between the city limits of Austin and Manor, extending around the east side of the city and passing by Highway 71 just east of the airport. It then continues southward as it loops around the airport to the east, then meets with US 183 south of Creedmoor, where the southeastern leg of Highway 45 is under construction. The last two segments will continue southward until it reaches Interstate 10 in Seguin, east of San Antonio. State Highway 45 runs east-west from just west of Highway 183 in Cedar Park to 130 inside Pflugerville (just south of Round Rock). From there it becomes 45 North/South and is cosigned with 130, currently where 130 ends. The project also included a tolled extension to Mopac that allows direct access to I-35. A new southeast leg of Highway 45 is currently under construction. It will connect US 183 and the current south end of TX-130 to I-35 at the FM 1327/Creedmoor exit near the south end of Austin and close to the town of Buda's northernmost interchange. The 183A Toll Road opened March 2007, providing a tolled alternative to 183 through the cities of Leander and Cedar Park. Airports Main entrance to Austin-Bergstrom International Airport Austin's airport is Austin-Bergstrom International Airport (ABIA) (IATA code AUS), located southeast of the city. The airport is on the site of the former Bergstrom Air Force Base, which was closed in 1993 as part of the Base Realignment and Closure process. Intercity bus service Greyhound Lines operates the Austin Station at 916 East Koenig Lane. "Austin, Texas." Greyhound Lines. Retrieved on April 7, 2009. Public Transportation A Capital Metro bus designated as a shuttle bus for University of Texas at Austin students and staff. Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Capital Metro) provides public transportation to the city, primarily by bus. Capital Metro is planning to change some routes to "Rapid Lines". The lines will feature long, train-like high-tech buses. This addition is going to be implemented to help reduce congestion. Capital Metro is also testing a commuter rail system known as Capital MetroRail that was scheduled to open in March 2009. The system was built on existing freight rail lines and will serve downtown Austin, East Austin, North Central Austin, Northwest Austin, and Leander in its first phase. Future expansion could include a line to Manor and another to Round Rock. Capital Metro is also looking into a circulator system of streetcars to connect most of Downtown, the University of Texas, and the Mueller Airport Redevelopment. The streetcar system would help connect the new rail line to key destinations in Central Austin. An Amtrak Texas Eagle station is located west of downtown. Segments of the Amtrak route between Austin and San Antonio are under evaluation for a future passenger rail corridor as an alternative to the traffic congestion of Interstate 35. Education John Henry Faulk Library of the Austin Public Library Researchers at Central Connecticut State University ranked Austin the 23rd most literate city in the United States for 2007. The Austin Public Library operates the John Henry Faulk Library and various library branches. The Travel Channel gave Austin the title "America's #1 College Town." Higher education The University of Texas at Austin. Austin is home to The University of Texas at Austin, one of the largest and most prestigious universities in the country and the flagship institution of The University of Texas System. The university has numerous programs ranking in the top 10 in the nation including the McComb's School of Business, the school of Architecture, the school of Engineering, as well as its Computer Science Program. In addition to these renowned programs the University of Texas is also known for its highly regarded honors programs such as the Plan II Honors Program, Deans Scholars, and the Business Honors Program. Other institutions of higher learning include Austin Community College, Concordia University, Huston-Tillotson University, St. Edward's University, the Episcopal Theological Seminary of the Southwest, the Acton School of Business, Austin Graduate School of Theology, Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary, and a branch of Park University. Public primary and secondary education Most of the city is covered by the Austin Independent School District. The Liberal Arts and Science Academy of Austin at LBJ High School is a magnet school in AISD that is known for its achieved students from all around Austin. There are also three middle schools in the Austin Independent School District which have Magnet Programs: Kealing, Fulmore, and The Ann Richards School for Young Women Leaders. Parts of Austin are served by other districts, including Round Rock, Pflugerville, Leander, Manor, Del Valle, Lake Travis, and Eanes ISDs. Private and alternative education Private and alternative education institutions for children in preschool-12th grade include Regents School of Austin, Garza (public), the Waldorf schools, The Griffin School, The Khabele School, Concordia Academy, San Juan Diego Catholic High School, Brentwood Christian School, St. Austin Catholic School, St. Stephen's Episcopal School, St. Mary's, St. Michael's Catholic Academy, St. Gabriel's Catholic School, St. Andrew's Episcopal School, St. Francis School, Trinity Episcopal School, Huntington-Surrey, and many Montessori schools. Paragon Preparatory Middle School is a private school for grades 5-8, founded in 1997. Notes External links Austin Convention & Visitors Bureau Austin Chamber of Commerce Historic photographs from the Austin History Center, hosted by the Portal to Texas History | Austin,_Texas |@lemmatized austin:237 capital:17 u:16 state:37 texas:69 county:9 seat:4 travis:10 locate:13 central:11 eastern:3 edge:3 american:13 southwest:8 http:2 www:2 texasarchitect:1 org:1 book:1 php:1 fourth:2 large:19 city:101 united:15 america:4 third:2 fast:3 grow:10 nation:6 accord:6 census:5 estimate:2 population:11 cultural:4 economic:1 center:15 july:2 make:9 metropolitan:5 area:18 settle:2 bank:3 colorado:7 river:7 pioneer:1 name:4 village:2 waterloo:3 choose:3 become:9 newly:1 independent:7 republic:5 rename:1 stephen:4 f:2 know:15 father:1 throughout:5 century:2 government:6 education:6 construction:7 capitol:10 university:30 lull:1 growth:5 great:2 depression:1 resume:1 development:3 major:10 emerge:3 technology:5 business:11 today:2 home:18 many:22 company:13 high:16 tech:7 otherwise:1 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eanes:1 isds:1 private:3 preschool:1 grade:2 regent:1 garza:1 waldorf:1 griffin:1 khabele:1 juan:1 diego:1 catholic:4 brentwood:1 christian:1 mary:1 gabriel:1 andrew:1 francis:1 trinity:1 huntington:1 surrey:1 montessori:1 paragon:1 preparatory:1 external:1 visitor:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 photograph:1 portal:1 |@bigram http_www:2 collar_worker:2 san_antonio:5 texas_austin:10 willie_nelson:1 calcium_carbonate:1 humid_subtropical:1 subtropical_climate:1 severe_thunderstorm:1 hot_humid:1 degree_fahrenheit:1 mayoral_election:1 fort_worth:1 chicago_tribune:1 supreme_court:2 constitutionally_guarantee:1 presidential_election:2 congressional_district:2 constitutional_amendment:1 presidential_candidate:2 barack_obama:1 hillary_clinton:1 koblenz_germany:1 lima_peru:1 belo_horizonte:1 silicon_valley:1 freescale_semiconductor:1 san_marcos:1 hewlett_packard:1 sun_microsystems:1 pharmaceutical_biotechnology:1 grocery_store:1 owned_firm:1 tallest_building:2 historic_landmark:1 daze_confuse:2 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6,772 | Automatic_number_announcement_circuit | An automatic number announcement circuit (ANAC) is a special telephone number that is meant to be used by phone company technicians and other telecommunications technicians to determine the phone number of a particular line. The way an ANAC works is fairly simple: A technician will call a local ANAC's phone number. This number connects to a computer at a local central office which uses a voice synthesizer or digital samples to "speak" the phone number of the line calling in. The main purpose of this system is to allow phone company technicians to identify which telephone line they are connected to. Because this system is based on automatic number identification (not caller ID) and meant for phone company technicians, the ANAC system works with unlisted numbers and numbers with caller ID blocking. Some ANACs are very regional or local in scope, while others are state or area code-wide. There appears to be no national coherent system for them. Every telephone company (big or small) can determine its own ANAC for each individual central office, leading to a mish-mash of overlapping and/or spotty coverage. artofhacking.com List of local ANAC phone numbers] in United States, Canada, Australia and Britain In most North American area codes, 958-xxxx and 959-xxxx exchanges are reserved for various local and long-distance test purposes (a few may also reserve 999-xxxx); ANAC numbers sometimes appear in the 958-xxxx range but there is no requirement that they reside there. Other local test numbers may include ringback (to test the ringer when installing telephones) and loop lines (which connect a call to another inbound call to the same or another test number). Some carriers (such as Bell Canada) have been known to program payphones to disable calls to 958 or 959 test lines. Some large telephone companies have toll-free numbers set up, but these numbers remain undisclosed to prevent abuse. In early years some companies changed their ANAC number every month for secrecy. In one example of this concern, most payphones are assigned a telephone number and can ring if the number is called. The phone can then be used to make and receive calls by anyone, making it potentially useful for anonymous criminal activity such as drug dealing. Where a payphone does not have any number listed on the unit, the number could be discovered by calling an ANAC service. Late in the 20th century Caller-ID and prepaid cellphone service became commonplace. These services being more easily exploited for criminal purposes, this type of abuse of payphones faded from concern. There are some private national toll-free numbers that use ANI and then have a computer read back the number that is calling, but these are not intended for use in identifying your phone number, they are used in order for you to confirm the phone you are calling from so that a computer can automatically pull up your account for the next available customer service representative. However, if one were to call up one of these numbers, listen for the number confirmation and hang up, they would in effect be using this system as if it were an ANAC. One such toll-free ANAC service is one owned by MCI - 1800-444-4444. This number is easy to remember and, when called, will read back your number after a very short message. http://aplawrence.com/Unixart/dhanacsnumbers.html References | Automatic_number_announcement_circuit |@lemmatized automatic:2 number:27 announcement:1 circuit:1 anac:11 special:1 telephone:6 mean:1 use:7 phone:10 company:6 technician:3 telecommunication:1 determine:2 particular:1 line:5 way:1 work:2 fairly:1 simple:1 call:12 local:6 connect:3 computer:3 central:2 office:2 voice:1 synthesizer:1 digital:1 sample:1 speak:1 main:1 purpose:3 system:5 allow:1 technicians:2 identify:2 base:1 identification:1 caller:3 id:3 meant:1 unlisted:1 blocking:1 anacs:1 regional:1 scope:1 others:1 state:2 area:2 code:2 wide:1 appear:2 national:2 coherent:1 every:2 big:1 small:1 individual:1 lead:1 mish:1 mash:1 overlap:1 spotty:1 coverage:1 artofhacking:1 com:2 list:2 united:1 canada:2 australia:1 britain:1 north:1 american:1 xxxx:4 exchange:1 reserve:2 various:1 long:1 distance:1 test:5 may:2 also:1 sometimes:1 range:1 requirement:1 reside:1 include:1 ringback:1 ringer:1 instal:1 loop:1 another:2 inbound:1 carrier:1 bell:1 know:1 program:1 payphones:3 disable:1 large:1 toll:3 free:3 set:1 remain:1 undisclosed:1 prevent:1 abuse:2 early:1 year:1 change:1 month:1 secrecy:1 one:5 example:1 concern:2 assign:1 ring:1 make:2 receive:1 anyone:1 potentially:1 useful:1 anonymous:1 criminal:2 activity:1 drug:1 dealing:1 payphone:1 unit:1 could:1 discover:1 service:5 late:1 century:1 prepay:1 cellphone:1 become:1 commonplace:1 easily:1 exploit:1 type:1 fade:1 private:1 ani:1 read:2 back:2 intend:1 order:1 confirm:1 automatically:1 pull:1 account:1 next:1 available:1 customer:1 representative:1 however:1 listen:1 confirmation:1 hang:1 would:1 effect:1 mci:1 easy:1 remember:1 short:1 message:1 http:1 aplawrence:1 unixart:1 dhanacsnumbers:1 html:1 reference:1 |@bigram caller_id:3 |
6,773 | Kaolinite | Kaolinite is a clay mineral with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J. (1992) An introduction to the rock-forming minerals (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman ISBN 0-582-30094-0. Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as china clay or kaolin. The name is derived from Gaoling or Kao-Ling ("High Hill") in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, China. Kaolinite was first described as a mineral species in 1867 for an occurrence in the Jari River basin of Brazil. Morro do Felipe, Boca do Jari District, Mazagão, Amapá, North Region, Brazil Kaolinite is one of the most common minerals; it is mined, as kaolin, in Brazil, France, United Kingdom, Germany, India, Australia, Korea, the People's Republic of China, the Czech Republic, and the United States. Kaolinite has a low shrink-swell capacity and a low cation exchange capacity (1-15 meq/100g.) It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral (dioctahedral phyllosilicate clay), produced by the chemical weathering of aluminium silicate minerals like feldspar. In many parts of the world, it is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow or light orange colours. Alternating layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, USA. Predominance in tropical soils Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the chemical weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates - for example in tropical rainforest areas. Comparing soils along a gradient towards progressively cooler or drier climates, the proportion of kaolonite decreases, while the proportion of other clay minerals such as illite (in cooler climates) or smectite (in drier climates) increases. Such climatically-related differences in clay mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the geological past, where ancient soils have been buried and preserved. Structural transformations Kaolin-type clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. Endothermic dehydroxylation (or alternatively, dehydration) begins at 550-600 °C to produce disordered metakaolin, Al2Si2O7, but continuous hydroxyl loss (-OH) is observed up to 900 °C and has been attributed to gradual oxolation of the metakaolin (Bellotto et al., 1995). Due to historic disagreement concerning the nature of the metakaolin phase, extensive research has led to general consensus that metakaolin is not a simple mixture of amorphous silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), but rather a complex amorphous structure that retains some longer-range order (but not strictly crystalline) due to stacking of its hexagonal layers (Bellotto et al., 1995). 2 Al2Si2O5(OH)4 —> 2 Al2Si2O7 + 4 H2O Further heating to 925-950 °C converts metakaolin to a defect aluminuim-silicon spinel, Si3Al4O12, which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure: 2 Al2Si2O7 —> Si3Al4O12 + SiO2 Upon calcination to ~1050 °C, the spinel phase (Si3Al4O12) nucleates and transforms to mullite, 3 Al2O3 · 2 SiO2, and highly crystalline cristobalite, SiO2: 3 Si3Al4O12 —> 2 Si2Al6O13 + 5 SiO2 Uses A kaolin mine in Ruse Province, Bulgaria Kaolin is used in ceramics, medicine, coated paper, as a food additive, in toothpaste, as a light diffusing material in white incandescent light bulbs, and in cosmetics. It is generally the main component in porcelain. It is also used in paint to extend titanium dioxide (TiO2) and modify gloss levels; in rubber for semi-reinforcing properties and in adhesives to modify rheology. The largest use is in the production of paper, including ensuring the gloss on some grades of paper. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, semi-dry noodle or as liquid slurry. A more recent, and more limited, use is as a specially formulated spray applied to especially organic fruits, vegetables, and other vegetation to repel or deter insect damage, and at least in the case of apples, to prevent sun scald. A traditional use is to soothe an upset stomach, similar to the way parrots (and later, humans) in South America originally used it. http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Diamond_99.html Evolutionary biology: Dirty eating for healthy living by Jared M. Diamond Kaolin is or has been used as the active substance in liquid anti-diarrhea medicines such as Kaomagma and Kaopectate. Such medicines were changed away from aluminium substances due to a scare over Alzheimer's disease, but have since changed back to compounds containing aluminium as they are most effective. In April 2008, the Naval Medical Research Center announced the successful use of a Kaolinite-derived aluminosilicate nanoparticles infusion in traditional gauze known commercially as QuikClot Combat Gauze. Nanoparticles Help Gauze Stop Gushing Wounds Stucky Group Research Also see Medicinal clay. Miscellany The Eden Project, constructed in a used kaolin pit The crystallography of kaolinite played a role in Linus Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond. Kaolinite can contain very small traces of uranium and thorium, and is therefore useful in radiological dating. While a single magazine made using kaolin does not contain enough radioactive material to be detected by a security-oriented monitor, this does result in truckloads of high end glossy paper occasionally tripping an overly-sensitive radiation monitor. The Eden Project, a large environmental complex near St Austell, Cornwall, United Kingdom, is constructed in a disused kaolin pit. Sandersville, a small town in the state of Georgia in the United States holds an annual kaolin festival. Sandersville has huge kaolin deposits throughout the town and the surrounding areas, and the kaolin industry is the economic backbone of the region. When heated to between 650°C and 900°C kaolinite dehydroxylates to form Metakaolin. According to the American National Precast Concrete Association this is a supplementary cementitious material (SCM). When added to a concrete mix, Metakaolin affects the acceleration of Portland cement hydration when replacing Portland cement by 20 percent by weight. Ceramists, or more commonly potters, typically think of materials in terms of oxides, thus they write the formula for kaolinite as:<p>Al2O3 ▪ 2(SiO2) ▪ 2(H2O)<p>This format is also useful for describing the firing process of clay as the kaolin loses the 2 water molecules, termed the chemical water, when fired to a high enough temperature. This is different than clay's physical water which will be lost simply due to evaporation and is not a part of the chemical formula. See also Kaolin. (unknown scale) Silicate minerals Dickite Geology of Cornwall Halloysite Nacrite List of minerals Porcelain Clay pit Kaolin Deposits of Charentes Basin, France References Bibliography Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J. (1992) An introduction to the rock-forming minerals (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman ISBN 0-582-30094-0. Hurlbut, Cornelius S., Klein, Cornelis (1985) Manual of Mineralogy - after J. D. Dana, 20th ed., Wiley, pp. 428 - 429, ISBN 0-471-80580-7. Breck, D.W. (1984)Zeolite Molecular Sieves, Robert E. Brieger Publishing Company: Malabar, FL, pp. 314–315, ISBN 0-89874-648-5. Bellotto, M., Gualtieri, A., Artioli, G., and Clark, S.M. (1995) ''Kinetic study of the kaolinite-mullite reaction sequence. Part I: kaolinite dehydroxylation', Phys. Chem. Minerals, Vol 22, 207-214. The Mineral KAOLINITE - Mineral Galleries MSDS: Incandescent Light Bulb - GE Notes External links China Clay Museum | Kaolinite |@lemmatized kaolinite:14 clay:12 mineral:15 chemical:6 composition:1 oh:3 layered:1 silicate:3 one:3 tetrahedral:1 sheet:2 link:2 oxygen:1 atom:1 octahedral:1 alumina:3 octahedron:1 deer:2 w:3 howie:2 r:2 zussman:2 j:3 introduction:2 rock:4 forming:2 ed:3 harlow:2 longman:2 isbn:4 rich:1 know:2 china:4 kaolin:16 name:1 derive:2 gaol:1 kao:1 ling:1 high:3 hill:1 jingdezhen:1 jiangxi:1 province:2 first:1 describe:2 specie:1 occurrence:1 jari:2 river:1 basin:2 brazil:3 morro:1 felipe:1 boca:1 district:1 mazagão:1 amapá:1 north:1 region:2 common:1 mine:2 france:2 united:4 kingdom:2 germany:1 india:1 australia:1 korea:1 people:1 republic:2 czech:1 state:4 low:2 shrink:1 swell:1 capacity:2 cation:1 exchange:1 meq:1 soft:1 earthy:1 usually:1 white:3 dioctahedral:1 phyllosilicate:1 produce:2 weathering:2 aluminium:3 like:1 feldspar:1 many:1 part:3 world:1 color:1 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6,774 | Obituary_(band) | Obituary is one of the pioneering bands of the death metal genre. The band came from Tampa, Florida, and was founded as Xecutioner in 1985. Xecutioner made their vinyl debut in 1987 with two tracks (Find The Arise & Like The Dead) on the Raging Death compilation. Shortly before the release of its first album the following year, "Slowly We Rot", they changed their name to Obituary. It still remains an influential band of the Florida death metal movement that arose in the late 1980s. The 1990 release Cause of Death has been described as a seminal album in the genre, and vocalist John Tardy is recognized as one of the first vocalists to use an abnormally low growl (compared to the screechy growls used by predecessors Death and Possessed). Obituary is listed by Nielsen Soundscan as the fifth best-selling death metal band of all time and its albums have sold 368,184 copies ; their 1992 release The End Complete has sold more than 103,378 copies in the United States alone. After 1997's Back from the Dead album, the band had grown tired of touring, which led to the band disbanding. During the hiatus, Donald Tardy played in Andrew W.K.'s touring band (during W.K.'s appearance on Saturday Night Live Tardy wore an Obituary shirt). Allen West focused on his two projects, Lowbrow and Six Feet Under while not playing in Obituary. Trevor Peres formed Catastrophic in 2001, which released one album, The Cleansing, in that same year. Obituary reformed in 2003 and Catastrophic continued to exist alongside the reformed Obituary. A reunion album, Frozen in Time, was released in 2005. The band's first live DVD, Frozen Alive, was released in January 2007. Obituary is currently signed with Candlelight Records for its Xecutioner's Return (2007) and an EP, Left to Die (2008). The band has finished recording their next album, Darkest Day, which is due for release on June 30, 2009. A concert DVD release was also announced for June 2009. Obituary's guitarist, Allen West, was imprisoned for DUI (driving under the influence of alcohol) and released in January 2008. During his incarceration, Ralph Santolla served as West's replacement. It is uncertain whether or not West will be returning to the band. Line-up John Tardy - vocals (1985–1997, 2003–present) Ralph Santolla - lead guitar (2007–present) Trevor Peres - rhythm guitar (1985–1997, 2003–present) Frank Watkins - bass guitar (1989–1997, 2003–present) Donald Tardy - drums (1985–1997, 2003–present) Former members Allen West - lead guitar (1985–1989, 1992–1997, 2003–2006) (see also Six Feet Under) Jerome Grable - bass (1985-1987] James Murphy - lead guitar (1990–1992) (see also Death, Disincarnate, Cancer, Testament) Daniel Tucker - bass guitar (1988–1989) Peter Klavinger - lead guitar (1999 show) Jack Owen - lead guitar (one live show 2007) Discography Studio albums Slowly We Rot (1989) Cause of Death (1990) The End Complete (1992) World Demise (1994) Back from the Dead (1997) Frozen in Time (2005) Xecutioner's Return (2007) Darkest Day (2009) Live albums Dead (1998) Compilation albums Anthology (2001) The Best of Obituary (2008) EPs Don't Care (1994) Left to Die (2008) Video albums Frozen Alive (2006) Live Xecution in Bad Berka 2008 (2009) References Obituary at Allmusic Obituary at Rockdetector Notes External links Obituary.cc Obituary at Roadrunner Records 2009 SplatterTribe.tv interview with Vocalist John Tardy | Obituary_(band) |@lemmatized obituary:14 one:4 pioneering:1 band:10 death:8 metal:3 genre:2 come:1 tampa:1 florida:2 found:1 xecutioner:4 make:1 vinyl:1 debut:1 two:2 track:1 find:1 arise:2 like:1 dead:4 rag:1 compilation:2 shortly:1 release:9 first:3 album:11 following:1 year:2 slowly:2 rot:2 change:1 name:1 still:1 remain:1 influential:1 movement:1 late:1 cause:2 describe:1 seminal:1 vocalist:3 john:3 tardy:6 recognize:1 use:2 abnormally:1 low:1 growl:2 compare:1 screechy:1 predecessor:1 possess:1 list:1 nielsen:1 soundscan:1 fifth:1 best:2 sell:3 time:3 copy:2 end:2 complete:2 united:1 state:1 alone:1 back:2 grow:1 tire:1 touring:1 lead:6 disband:1 hiatus:1 donald:2 play:2 andrew:1 w:2 k:2 tour:1 appearance:1 saturday:1 night:1 live:5 wear:1 shirt:1 allen:3 west:5 focus:1 project:1 lowbrow:1 six:2 foot:2 trevor:2 peres:2 form:1 catastrophic:2 cleansing:1 reform:1 continue:1 exist:1 alongside:1 reformed:1 reunion:1 freeze:2 dvd:2 frozen:2 alive:2 january:2 currently:1 sign:1 candlelight:1 record:3 return:3 ep:1 leave:2 die:2 finish:1 next:1 dark:2 day:2 due:1 june:2 concert:1 also:3 announce:1 guitarist:1 imprison:1 duo:1 drive:1 influence:1 alcohol:1 incarceration:1 ralph:2 santolla:2 serve:1 replacement:1 uncertain:1 whether:1 line:1 vocal:1 present:5 guitar:8 rhythm:1 frank:1 watkins:1 bass:3 drum:1 former:1 member:1 see:2 jerome:1 grable:1 james:1 murphy:1 disincarnate:1 cancer:1 testament:1 daniel:1 tucker:1 peter:1 klavinger:1 show:2 jack:1 owen:1 discography:1 studio:1 world:1 demise:1 anthology:1 eps:1 care:1 video:1 xecution:1 bad:1 berka:1 reference:1 allmusic:1 rockdetector:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 cc:1 roadrunner:1 splattertribe:1 tv:1 interview:1 |@bigram tampa_florida:1 nielsen_soundscan:1 saturday_night:1 ralph_santolla:2 bass_guitar:2 discography_studio:1 external_link:1 |
6,775 | Bipolar_disorder | Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression, manic depressive disorder or bipolar affective disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood clinically referred to as mania or, if milder, hypomania. Individuals who experience manic episodes also commonly experience depressive episodes or symptoms, or mixed episodes in which features of both mania and depression are present at the same time. These episodes are usually separated by periods of "normal" mood, but in some individuals, depression and mania may rapidly alternate, known as rapid cycling. Extreme manic episodes can sometimes lead to psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. The disorder has been subdivided into bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia, and other types, based on the nature and severity of mood episodes experienced; the range is often described as the bipolar spectrum. Data from the United States on lifetime prevalence vary but indicate a rate of around 1 percent for Bipolar I, 0.5 to 1 percent for Bipolar II or cyclothymia, and between 2 and 5 percent for subthreshold cases meeting some but not all criteria. The onset of full symptoms generally occurs in late adolescence or young adulthood. Diagnosis is based on the person's self-reported experiences, as well as observed behavior. Episodes of abnormality are associated with distress and disruption, and an elevated risk of suicide, especially during depressive episodes. In some cases it can be a devastating long-lasting disorder; in others it has also been associated with creativity, goal striving and positive achievements. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032702004627 Genetic factors contribute substantially to the likelihood of developing bipolar disorder, and environmental factors are also implicated. Bipolar disorder is often treated with mood stabilizer medications, and sometimes other psychiatric drugs. Psychotherapy also has a role, often when there has been some recovery of stability. In serious cases in which there is a risk of harm to oneself or others involuntary commitment may be used; these cases generally involve severe manic episodes with dangerous behavior or depressive episodes with suicidal ideation. There are widespread problems with social stigma, stereotypes and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. http://www.mental-health-matters.com/articles/article.php?artID=1176 People with bipolar disorder exhibiting psychotic symptoms can sometimes be misdiagnosed as suffering from schizophrenia, another serious mental illness. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/what-are-the-symptoms-of-bipolar-disorder.shtml The current term "bipolar disorder" is of fairly recent origin and refers to the cycling between high and low episodes (poles). A relationship between mania and melancholia had long been observed, although the basis of the current conceptualisation can be traced back to French psychiatrists in the 1850s. The term "manic-depressive illness" or psychosis was coined by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin in the late nineteenth century, originally referring to all kinds of mood disorder. German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard split the classification again in 1957, employing the terms unipolar disorder (major depressive disorder) and bipolar disorder. Signs and symptoms Bipolar disorder is a condition in which people experience abnormally elevated (manic or hypomanic) and abnormally depressed states for a period of time in a way that interferes with functioning. Bipolar disorder has been estimated to affect more than 5 million Americans—about 1 out of every 45 adults. It is equally prevalent in men and women, and is found across all cultures and ethnic groups. Frederick K Goodwin and Kay R Jamison.Manic-Depressive Illness Chapter 7, "Epidemiology". Oxford University Press, 1990. ISBN 0195039343. Not everyone's symptoms are the same, and there is no blood test to confirm the disorder. Scientists believe that bipolar disorder may be caused by chemical imbalances in the brain. Bipolar disorder can appear to be unipolar depression. Diagnosing bipolar disorder is difficult, even for mental health professionals. What distinguishes bipolar disorder from unipolar depression is that the affected person jumps between states of mania and depression. Often bipolar is inconsistent among patients because some people feel depressed more often than not and experience little mania whereas others may predominantly experience manic symptom. Major depressive episode Signs and symptoms of the depressive phase of bipolar disorder include persistent feelings of sadness, anxiety, guilt, anger, isolation, or hopelessness; disturbances in sleep and appetite; fatigue and loss of interest in usually enjoyable activities; problems concentrating; loneliness, self-loathing, apathy or indifference; depersonalization; loss of interest in sexual activity; shyness or social anxiety; irritability, chronic pain (with or without a known cause); lack of motivation; and morbid suicidal ideation. In severe cases, the individual may become psychotic, a condition also known as severe bipolar depression with psychotic features. Manic episode Mania is generally characterized by a distinct period of an elevated, expansive, or irritable mood state. People commonly experience an increase in energy and a decreased need for sleep. A person's speech may be pressured, with thoughts experienced as racing. Attention span is low and a person in a manic state may be easily distracted. Judgment may become impaired; sufferers may go on spending sprees or engage in behavior that is quite abnormal for them. They may indulge in substance abuse, particularly alcohol or other depressants, cocaine or other stimulants, or sleeping pills. Their behavior may become aggressive, intolerant or intrusive. People may feel out of control or unstoppable. People may feel they have been "chosen", are "on a special mission", or other grandiose or delusional ideas. Sexual drive may increase. At more extreme phases of bipolar I, a person in a manic state can begin to experience psychosis, or a break with reality, where thinking is affected along with mood. NIMH · Bipolar Disorder · Complete Publication Many people in a manic state experience severe anxiety and are very irritable (to the point of rage), while others are euphoric and grandiose. In order to be diagnosed with mania according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (commonly referred to as the DSM) a person must experience this state of elevated or irritable mood, as well as other symptoms, for at least one week, less if hospitalization is required. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, "A manic episode is diagnosed if elevated mood occurs with three or more of the other symptoms most of the day, nearly every day, for 1 week or longer. If the mood is irritable, four additional symptoms must be present." NIMH · Bipolar Disorder · Complete Publication Hypomanic episode Hypomania is generally a mild to moderate level of mania, characterized by optimism, pressure of speech and activity, and decreased need for sleep. Some people have increased creativity while others demonstrate poor judgment and irritability. These persons generally have increased energy and tend to become more active than usual. They do not, however, have delusions or hallucinations. Hypomania can be difficult to diagnose because it may masquerade as mere happiness, though it carries the same risks as mania. Hypomania may feel good to the person who experiences it. Thus, even when family and friends learn to recognize the mood swings, the individual often will deny that anything is wrong. http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/health/bipolar/bipolar.htm Mixed affective episode In the context of bipolar disorder, a mixed state is a condition during which symptoms of mania and clinical depression occur simultaneously (for example, agitation, anxiety, aggressiveness or belligerence, confusion, fatigue, impulsiveness, insomnia, irritability, morbid and/or suicidal ideation, panic, paranoia, persecutory delusions, pressured speech, racing thoughts, restlessness, and rage). Diagnosis Manic and depressive episodes, hallmarks of Bipolar Disorder, have been compared to a roller coaster ride. Diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of an individual as well as abnormalities in behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, followed by secondary signs observed by a psychiatrist, nurse, social worker, clinical psychologist or other clinician in a clinical assessment. There are lists of criteria for someone to be so diagnosed. These depend on both the presence and duration of certain signs and symptoms. Assessment is usually done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to oneself or others. The most widely used criteria for diagnosing bipolar disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the current version being DSM-IV-TR, and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, currently the ICD-10. The latter criteria are typically used in Europe and other regions while the DSM criteria are used in the USA and other regions, as well as prevailing in research studies. An initial assessment may include a physical exam by a physician. Although there are no biological tests which confirm bipolar disorder, tests may be carried out to exclude medical illnesses such as hypo- or hyperthyroidism, metabolic disturbance, a systemic infection or chronic disease, and syphilis or HIV infection. An EEG may be used to exclude epilepsy, and a CT scan of the head to exclude brain lesions. Investigations are not generally repeated for relapse unless there is a specific medical indication. There are several other mental disorders which may involve similar symptoms to bipolar disorder. These include schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, drug intoxication, brief drug-induced psychosis, schizophreniform disorder and borderline personality disorder. Both borderline personality and bipolar disorder can involve what are referred to as "mood swings". In bipolar disorder, the term refers to the cyclic episodes of elevated and depressed mood which generally last weeks or months. The term in borderline personality refers to the marked lability and reactivity of mood, known as emotional dysregulation, due to response to external psychosocial and intrapsychic stressors; these may arise or subside suddenly and dramatically and last for seconds, minutes, hours or days. A bipolar depression is generally more pervasive with sleep, appetite disturbance and nonreactive mood, whereas the mood in dysthymia of borderline personality remains markedly reactive and sleep disturbance not acute. Goodwin & Jamison. pp. 108–110. Some hold that borderline personality disorder represents a subthreshold form of mood disorder, while others maintain the distinctness, though noting they often coexist. Clinical Scales The Bipolar Spectrum Diagnostic Scale (BSDS) Psychiatric Times. Clinically Useful Psychiatric Scales: Bipolar Spectrum Diagnostic Scale, Accessed on March 9, 2009. was developed by Ronald Pies, MD and was later refined and tested by S. Nassir Ghaemi, MD, MPH and colleagues. The BSDS arose from Pies's experience as a psychopharmacology consultant, where he was frequently called on to manage cases of "treatment-resistant depression." There are 19 question items and 2 sections on the English version of the BSDS. The scale was validated in its original version and demonstrated a high sensitivity. Ghaemi N. Sensitivity and specificity of a new bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale. J Affect Disord. 2005;84:273-277. Criteria and subtypes There is no clear consensus as to how many types of bipolar disorder exist. In DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10, bipolar disorder is conceptualized as a spectrum of disorders occurring on a continuum. The DSM-IV-TR lists four types of mood disorders which fit into the bipolar categories: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, Cyclothymia, and Bipolar Disorder NOS (Not Otherwise Specified). Bipolar I In Bipolar I disorder, an individual has experienced one or more manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes. For a diagnosis of Bipolar I disorder according to the DSM-IV-TR, one or more manic or mixed episodes are required. A depressive episode is not required for the diagnosis of Bipolar I disorder but it frequently occurs. Bipolar II Bipolar II disorder is characterized by hypomanic episodes rather than actual manic episodes, as well as at least one major depressive episode. Patients with a Bipolar II diagnosis under the DSM IV criteria cannot, by definition, ever have had a manic episode prior to their diagnosis. However, a Bipolar II diagnosis is not a guarantee that they will not eventually suffer from such an episode in the future. Hypomanic episodes do not go to the full extremes of mania (i.e. do not usually cause severe social or occupational impairment, and without psychosis), and this can make Bipolar II more difficult to diagnose, since the hypomanic episodes may simply appear as a period of successful high productivity and is reported less frequently than a distressing, crippling depression. For both Bipolar I and II, there are a number of specifiers that indicate the presentation and course of the disorder, including "chronic", "rapid cycling", "catatonic" and "melancholic". Cyclothymia Cyclothymia involves a presence or history of hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet criteria for major depressive episodes. A diagnosis of Cyclothymic Disorder requires the presence of numerous hypomanic episodes, intermingled with depressive episodes that do not meet full criteria for major depressive episodes. The main idea here is that there is a low-grade cycling of mood which appears to the observer as a personality trait, but interferes with functioning. Bipolar NOS Bipolar Disorder NOS, sometimes called "sub-threshold" Bipolar Disorder, is a "catch-all" diagnosis that is used to indicate bipolar illness that does not fit into any of the formal DSM-IV bipolar diagnostic categories (Bipolar I, Bipolar II, or cyclothymia). If an individual seems to be suffering from bipolar spectrum symptoms (e.g. some manic and depressive symptoms) but does not meet the criteria for one of the subtypes mentioned above, he or she receives a diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder NOS (Not Otherwise Specified). Despite not fully meeting one of the formal diagnostic categories, Bipolar NOS can still significantly impair and adversely affect the quality of life of the patient. Rapid cycling Most people who meet criteria for bipolar disorder experience a number of episodes, on average 0.4 to 0.7 per year, lasting three to six months. Rapid cycling, however, is a course specifier that may be applied to any of the above subtypes. It is defined as having four or more episodes per year and is found in a significant fraction of individuals with bipolar disorder. The definition of rapid cycling most frequently cited in the literature (including the DSM) is that of Dunner and Fieve: at least four major depressive, manic, hypomanic or mixed episodes are required to have occurred during a 12-month period. There are references that describe very rapid (ultra-rapid) or extremely rapid (ultra-ultra or ultradian) cycling. One definition of ultra-ultra rapid cycling is defining distinct shifts in mood within a 24–48-hour period. Challenges The experiences and behaviors involved in bipolar disorder are often not understood by individuals or recognized by mental health professionals, so diagnosis may sometimes be delayed for 10 years or more. That treatment lag is apparently not decreasing, even though there is now increased public awareness of this mental health condition in popular magazines and health websites. Despite this increased focus, individuals are still commonly misdiagnosed. An individual may appear simply depressed when they are seen by a health professional. This can result in misdiagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder and harmful treatments. Recent screening tools such as the Hypomanic Check List Questionnaire (HCL-32) Hypomanic Check List Questionnaire (HCL-32) have been developed to assist the quite often difficult detection of Bipolar II disorders. It has been noted that the bipolar disorder diagnosis is officially characterised in historical terms such that, technically, anyone with a history of (hypo)mania and depression has bipolar disorder whatever their current or future functioning and vulnerability. This has been described as "an ethical and methodological issue", as it means no one can be considered as being recovered from bipolar disorder according to the official criteria. This is considered especially problematic given that brief hypomanic episodes are widespread among people generally and not necessarily associated with dysfunction. Flux is the fundamental nature of bipolar disorder. Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance: About Mood Disorders Individuals with the illness have continual changes in energy, mood, thought, sleep, and activity. The diagnostic subtypes of bipolar disorder are thus static descriptions—snapshots, perhaps—of an illness in continual flux, with a great diversity of symptoms and varying degrees of severity. Individuals may stay in one subtype, or change into another, over the course of their illness. Goodwin & Jamison, 1990. The DSM V, to be published in 2012, will likely include further and more accurate sub-typing (Akiskal and Ghaemi, 2006). The diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children is particularly challenging, and controversial. Some who show some bipolar symptoms tend to have a rapid-cycling or mixed-cycling pattern that may not meet DSM-IV criteria. Kranowitz, C.S. & Post, R., (1996). Ultra-rapid and ultradian cycling in bipolar affective illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 314–323. In addition, it can be difficult to distinguish between age-appropriate restlessness, the fidgeting of children with ADHD, and the purposeful busy activity of mania. Naomi A. Schapiro Bipolar Disorders in Children and Adolescents J Pediatr Health Care. 2005;19(3):131-141. Further complicating the diagnosis, is that abused or traumatized children can seem to have bipolar disorder when they are actually reacting to horrors in their lives. Bipolar labels for children stir concern - The Boston Globe Associated features Associated features are clinical phenomenon that often accompany the disorder, but are not part of the diagnostic criteria for the disorder. Cognitive functioning Mild cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder is a controversial issue So called cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder are relatively mild and can only be detected by comparing performance in neuropsychological tests between groups of patients compared to those without the diagnosis. It should be stressed that although on average those with bipolar disorder perform worse in some tasks compared to controls, some patients will actually perform better than controls because of the large variation in test scores. It has been concluded from recent reviews that most individuals who were diagnosed with bipolar disorder but who are euthymic (have not experienced major depression or (hypo)mania for some time) do not show neuropsychological deficits on most tests. Meta-analyses have indicated, by averaging the variable findings of many studies, impaired performance on some measures of sustained attention, executive function and memory, in terms of group averages. The effects of subthreshold mood states and psychiatric medications appear to account for some of the association. Robinson LJ, Thompson JM, Gallagher P, Goswami U, Young AH, Ferrier IN, Moore PB. (2006) A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord. 2006 July;93(1-3):105-15. PMID 16677713 Torres IJ, Boudreau VG, Yatham LN. (2007) Neuropsychological functioning in euthymic bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2007;(434):17-26. PMID 17688459 (Note: The full text of this study discloses pharmaceutical company funding) It is not known whether specific cognitive deficits are disorder-specific features of bipolar disorder. Creativity and accomplishment Some historians believe Vincent van Gogh suffered from Bipolar Disorder While the disorder affects people differently, individuals with bipolar disorder during the manic phase tend to be much more outgoing and daring than individuals without bipolar disorder. In common with other major affective disorders such as unipolar depression, bipolar disorder is found in a large number of people involved in the arts. Jamison, K R, Touched with Fire, Free Press, 1993, pp 83 ff. Goodwin, F, and Jamison, K R, Manic-Depressive Illness, Oxford University Press, 1990, p 353 It is an ongoing question as to whether many creative geniuses had bipolar disorder. Some studies have found a significant correlation between creativity and bipolar disorder. Though studies consistently show a positive correlation between the two, it is unclear in which direction the cause lies, or whether both conditions are caused by a third unknown factor. Temperament has been hypothesized to be one such factor. Santosa et al. Enhanced creativity in bipolar disorder patients: A controlled study. J Affect Disord. 2006 November 23; PMID 17126406. Rihmer et al. Creativity and mental illness. Psychiatr Hung. 2006;21(4):288–94. PMID 17170470. Nowakowska et al. Temperamental commonalities and differences in euthymic mood disorder patients, creative controls, and healthy controls. J Affect Disord. 2005 March;85(1–2):207–15. PMID 15780691. A series of authors have described mania or hypomania as related to higher accomplishment, elevated achievement motivation and ambitious goal setting. One study indicated that greater-than-average striving for goals, and sometimes obtaining them, corresponded with mania. Epidemiology The lifetime prevalence of bipolar disorder type I, which includes at least a lifetime manic episode, has generally been estimated at 2%. A reanalysis of data from the National Epidemiological Catchment Area survey in the United States, however, suggested that 0.8 percent experience a manic episode at least once (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar I) and 0.5 a hypomanic episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II or cyclothymia). Including sub-threshold diagnostic criteria, such as one or two symptoms over a short time-period, an additional 5.1 percent of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4 percent, were classed as having a bipolar spectrum disorder. A more recent analysis of data from a second US National Comorbidity Survey found that 1% met lifetime prevalence criteria for bipolar 1, 1.1% for bipolar II, and 2.4% for subthreshold symptoms. Merikangas KR, Akiskal HS, Angst J, Greenberg PE, Hirschfeld RM, Petukhova M, Kessler RC. (2007) Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey replication Arch Gen Psychiatry. May;64(5):543-52. There are conceptual and methodological limitations and variations in the findings. Prevalence studies of bipolar disorder are typically carried out by lay interviewers who follow fully structured/fixed interview schemes; responses to single items from such interviews may suffer limited validity. In addition, diagnosis and prevalence rates are dependent on whether a categorical or spectrum approach is used. Concerns have arisen about the potential for both underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis. Phelps, J. (2006) Bipolar Disorder: Particle or Wave? DSM Categories or Spectrum Dimensions? Psychiatric Times Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of bipolar disorder. Goodwin & Jamison. p. 121. These are critical periods in a young adult's social and vocational development, and they can be severely disrupted. Major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are currently classified as separate disorders. Some researchers increasingly view them as part of an overlapping spectrum that also includes anxiety and psychosis. According to Hagop Akiskal, M.D., at the one end of the spectrum is bipolar type schizoaffective disorder, and at the other end is recurrent unipolar depression, with the anxiety disorders present across the spectrum. Also included in this view is premenstrual dysphoric disorder, postpartum depression, and postpartum psychosis. This view helps to explain why many people who have the illness do not have first-degree relatives with clear-cut "bipolar disorder", but who have family members with a history of these other disorders. Children In professional classifications such as the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Fourth Edition Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). 1-943 or the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD) World Health Organization (1979) International classification of diseases. 9th ed. bipolar disorder is classified with adult onset disorders. However, as far back as the 1920s, Kraepelin Kraepelin (1921) Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia. showed in a retrospective study of 900 manic-depressive adults that 0.4% had onset of symptoms before the age of ten. In a cohort of bipolar disordered adults, Loranger and Levine Loranger and Levine (1978) Age at onset of bipolar affective illness. Archives of General Psychiatry. 35 1345-1348 retrospectively evaluated 200 adult bipolar patients and found that 0.5% had onset between the ages of five and nine. In a study of 898 adults with bipolar disorder, Goodwin and Jamison Goodwin and Redfield Jamison (1990) Childhood and Adolescence. Manic-Depressive Illness. 186-209 found that 0.3% had onset before age 10. This literature supported the existence of childhood onset mania, but also indicated that it may be rare. This idea was supported by a review of 28 papers by Anthony and Scott Anthony and Scott (1960) Manic-depressive psychosis in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1 53-72 , which suggested that childhood bipolar disorder was uncommon. In these papers, only three of 60 cases (5%) of purported childhood bipolar disorder met their criteria for bipolar disorder. However, Anthony and Scott's criteria differed from those currently in use, so the applicability of this work to current views of bipolar disorder is uncertain. Population and community studies using DSM criteria show that about 1% of youth may have bipolar disorder Hudziak, Althoff, Rettew, Derks and Faraone (2005) The prevalence and genetic architecture of CBCL-juvenile bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry. 58 562-8 Lewinsohn, Klein and Seeley (1995) Bipolar disorders in a community sample of older adolescents: Prevalence, phenomenology, comorbidity, and course. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 454-463 . Studies in clinics using these criteria show that up to 20% of youth referred to psychiatric clinics have bipolar disorder Weller, Weller, Tucker and Fristad (1986) Mania in prepubertal children: Has it been underdiagnosed? Journal of Affective Disorders. 11 151-154 Wozniak, Biederman, Kiely, Ablon, Faraone, Mundy and Mennin (1995) Mania-like symptoms suggestive of childhood onset bipolar disorder in clinically referred children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 867-876 Wozniak, Biederman, Mundy, Mennin and Faraone (1995) A pilot family study of childhood-onset mania. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 1577-1583 . Many of these children required hospitalization due to the severity of their disorder Carlson, Bromet, Driessens, Mojtabai and Schwartz (2002) Age at onset, childhood psychopathology, and 2-year outcome in psychotic bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 159 307-9. Meyer, Carlson, Wiggs, Martinez, Ronsaville, Klimes-Dougan, Gold and Radke-Yarrow (2004) A prospective study of the association among impaired executive functioning, childhood attentional problems, and the development of bipolar disorder. Dev Psychopathol. 16 461-76 . Because of these dignostic uncertainties, the validity of an early-onset form of bipolar disorder had been debated in the late 20th century. However, since that time, systematic reviews of diagnostic, genetic, neurobiological, treatment and longitudinal research studies Biederman (2003) Pediatric bipolar disorder coming of age. Biological Psychiatry. 53 931-934 Biederman, Mick, Faraone, Spencer, Wilens and Wozniak (2003) Current concepts in the validity, diagnosis and treatment of paedatric bipolar disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 6 293-300 Geller and Luby (1997) Child and adolescent bipolar disorder: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36 1168-1176 Geller and Tillman (2005) Prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar I disorder: review of diagnostic validation by Robins and Guze criteria. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 66 Suppl 7 21-28 have concluded that this disorder can be validly diagnosed in children and adolescents. This consensus of the scientific community is also seen in the appearance of practice parameters for the disorder from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2007) Practice Parameter for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and Adolescents With Bipolar Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 46 107-125 Findings indicate that the number of American [children] and [adolescents] treated for bipolar disorder increased 40-fold from 1994 to 2003, and continues to increase. The data suggest that doctors had been more aggressively applying the diagnosis to children, rather than that the incidence of the disorder has increased. The study calculated the number of psychiatric visits increased from 20,000 in 1994 to 800,000 in 2003, or 1% of the [population] under age 20. Moreno C, Laje G, Blanco C, Jiang H, Schmidt AB, Olfson M. (September 2007) "National trends in the outpatient diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in youth," Archives of General Psychiatry. 64(9):1032–9. PMID 17768268 The reasons for this increase in diagnosis are unclear. On the one hand, the recent consensus from the scientific community (see above) will have educated clinicians about the nature of the disorder and the methods for diagnosis and treatment in children. That, in turn, should increase the rate of diagnosis. On the other hand, assumptions regarding behavior, particularly in regard to the differential diagnosis of bipolar disorder, ADHD, and conduct disorder in children and adolescents, may also play a role. Although accurately diagnosing all disorders in children is important, for bipolar disorder, it is critical. On the one hand, the antipsychotic drugs sometimes prescribed for the treatment of bipolar disorder may increase risk to health including heart problems, diabetes, liver failure, and death. USATODAY.com - New antipsychotic drugs carry risks for children On the other hand, bipolar disorder is a very disabling disorder which leads to many impairments in children, including cognitive impairment Glahn, Bearden, Caetano, Fonseca, Najt, Hunter, Pliszka, Olvera and Soares (2005) Declarative memory impairment in pediatric bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 7 546-54 McClure, Treland, Snow, Dickstein, Towbin, Charney, Pine and Leibenluft (2005) Memory and learning in pediatric bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 44 461-9 Pavuluri, Schenkel, Aryal, Harral, Hill, Herbener and Sweeney (2006) Neurocognitive function in unmedicated manic and medicated euthymic pediatric bipolar patients. Am J Psychiatry. 163 286-93 , psychiatric hospitalization Biederman, Kwon, Wozniak, Mick, Markowitz, Fazio and Faraone (2004) Absence of gender differences in pediatric bipolar disorder: Findings from a large sample of referred youth. Journal of Affective Disorders. 83 207-214 Caetano, Olvera, Hunter, Hatch, Najt, Bowden, Pliszka and Soares (2006) Association of psychosis with suicidality in pediatric bipolar I, II and bipolar NOS patients. J Affect Disord. 91 33-7 Wozniak, Biederman, Kiely, Ablon and Faraone (1993) Prepubertal mania revisited. Scientific Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Wozniak, Biederman, Kiely, Ablon, Faraone, Mundy and Mennin (1995) Mania-like symptoms suggestive of childhood onset bipolar disorder in clinically referred children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 867-876 Wozniak, Biederman, Mundy, Mennin and Faraone (1995) A pilot family study of childhood-onset mania. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 1577-1583 , psychosis Caetano, Olvera, Hunter, Hatch, Najt, Bowden, Pliszka and Soares (2006) Association of psychosis with suicidality in pediatric bipolar I, II and bipolar NOS patients. J Affect Disord. 91 33-7 Wozniak, Biederman, Kiely, Ablon and Faraone (1993) Prepubertal mania revisited. Scientific Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Wozniak, Biederman, Kiely, Ablon, Faraone, Mundy and Mennin (1995) Mania-like symptoms suggestive of childhood onset bipolar disorder in clinically referred children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 867-876 Wozniak, Biederman, Mundy, Mennin and Faraone (1995) A pilot family study of childhood-onset mania. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34 1577-1583 and suicide http://hbcg.vivadnn.com/Articles-Interviews/Bipolar-Phases.aspx Bipolar Phases in Children . Thus, physicians, parents and patients need to weight the potential risks and benefits when treating this disorder Goldstein, Birmaher, Axelson, Ryan, Strober, Gill, Valeri, Chiappetta, Leonard, Hunt, Bridge, Brent and Keller (2005) History of suicide attempts in pediatric bipolar disorder: factors associated with increased risk. Bipolar Disord. 7 525-35 . Older age There is a relative lack of knowledge about bipolar disorder in late life. There is evidence that it becomes less prevalent with age but nevertheless accounts for a similar percentage of psychiatric admissions; that older bipolar patients had first experienced symptoms at a later age; that later onset of mania is associated with more neurologic impairment; that substance abuse is considerably less common in older groups; and that there is probably a greater degree of variation in presentation and course, for instance individuals may develop new-onset mania associated with vascular changes, or become manic only after recurrent depressive episodes, or may have been diagnosed with bipolar disorder at an early age and still meet criteria. There is also some weak evidence that mania is less intense and there is a higher prevalence of mixed episodes, although there may be a reduced response to treatment. Overall there are likely more similarities than differences from younger adults. Depp CA, Jeste DV. (2004) Bipolar disorder in older adults: a critical review Bipolar Disord. 2004 October;6(5):343-67. Causes The causes of bipolar disorder likely vary between individuals. Twin studies have been limited by relatively small sample sizes but have indicated a substantial genetic contribution, as well as environmental influence. For Bipolar I, the (probandwise) concordance rates in modern studies have been consistently put at around 40% in monozygotic twins (same genes), compared to 0 to 10% in dizygotic twins. A combination of bipolar I, II and cyclothymia produced concordance rates of 42% vs 11%, with a relatively lower ratio for bipolar II that likely reflects heterogeneity. The overall heritability of the bipolar spectrum has been put at 0.71. Edvardsen J, Torgersen S, Røysamb E, Lygren S, Skre I, Onstad S, Oien PA. (2008) Heritability of bipolar spectrum disorders. Unity or heterogeneity? J Affect Disord. 2008 March;106(3):229-40. PMID 17692389 There is overlap with unipolar depression and if this is also counted in the co-twin the concordance with bipolar disorder rises to 67% (Mz) and 19% (Dz). The relatively low concordance between dizygotic twins brought up together suggests that shared family environmental effects are limited, although the ability to detect them has been limited by small sample sizes. Genetic Genetic influences are thought to be important in bipolar disorder Genetic studies have suggested many chromosomal regions and candidate genes appearing to relate to the development of bipolar disorder, but the results are not consistent and often not replicated. Kato, T. (2007). "Molecular genetics of bipolar disorder and depression." Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 61(1): 3-19. PMID 17239033 Although the first genetic linkage finding for mania was in 1969, Reich, T., P. J. Clayton and G. Winokur (1969). "Family history studies-V The genetics of Mania." American Journal of Psychiatry l25: l358-1369. the linkage studies have been inconsistent. (Genetic linkage studies may be followed by fine mapping searching for the phenomenon of linkage disequilibrium with a single gene, then DNA sequencing; using this approach causative DNA base pair changes have been reported for the genes P2RX7 Barden N., Harvey M., Gagne B., Shink E., Tremblay M., Raymond C., Labbe M., Villeneuve A., Rochette D., Bordeleau L., Stadler H., Holsboer F., and Muller-Myhsok B. (2006). "Analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms in genes in the chromosome 12Q24.31 region points to P2RX7 as a susceptibility gene to bipolar affective disorder." Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. and TPH1). Recent meta-analyses of linkage studies detected either no significant genome-wide findings or, using a different methodology, only two genome-wide significant peaks, on chromosome 6q and on 8q21. Genome-wide association studies have also not brought a consistent focus — each has identified new loci, while none of the previously identified loci were replicated. Margit Burmeister, Melvin G. McInnis, & Sebastian Zöllner Psychiatric genetics: progress amid controversy Nature Reviews Genetics 9, 527-540 (July 2008) | doi:10.1038/nrg2381 Findings did include a single nucleotide polymorphism in DGKH; Baum, A.E., et al. (2008). A genome-wide association study implicates diacylglycerol kinase eta (DGKH) and several other genes in the etiology of bipolar disorder Molecular Psychiatry, 13(2), 197-207. DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4002012 a locus in a gene-rich region of high linkage disequilibrium (LD) on chromosome 16p12; Burton, P.R., et al. (2007). Genome-wide association study of 14,000 cases of seven common diseases and 3,000 shared controls Nature, 447(7145), 661-678. DOI: 10.1038/nature05911 and a single nucleotide polymorphism in MYO5B. Sklar, P., J. W. Smoller, J. Fan, M. A. Ferreira, R. H. Perlis, K. Chambert et al. (2008). Whole-genome association study of bipolar disorder Molecular Psychiatry DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4002151 A comparison of these studies, combined with a new study, suggested an association with ANK3 and CACNA1C, thought to be related to calcium and sodium voltage-gated ion channels. Ferreira, M., M. O’Donovan, Y. A. Meng, A. Jones I, D. M. Ruderfer1, L. Jones et al. (2008) Collaborative genome-wide association analysis supports a role for ANK3 and CACNA1C in bipolar disorder Nature Genetics 40, 1056–1058 Diverse findings point strongly to heterogeneity, with different genes being implicated in different families. Segurado R, Detera-Wadleigh SD, Levinson DF, Lewis CM, Gill M, Nurnberger JI Jr, Craddock N, et al. (2003) Genome Scan Meta-Analysis of Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder, Part III: Bipolar Disorder. Am J Hum Genet. 73, 49-62. PMID 12802785 Numerous specific studies find various specific links. McQuillin, A., N. J. Bass, G. Kalsi, J. Lawrence, V. Puri, K. Choudhury, S. D. Detera-Wadleigh, D. Curtis and H. M. Gurling (2006). "Fine mapping of a susceptibility locus for bipolar and genetically related unipolar affective disorders, to a region containing the C21ORF29 and TRPM2 genes on chromosome 21q22.3." Mol Psychiatry 11(2): 134-142 Xu, C., F. Macciardi, P. P. Li, I. S. Yoon, R. G. Cooke, B. Hughes, S. V. Parikh, R. S. McIntyre, J. L. Kennedy and J. J. Warsh (2006). "Association of the putative susceptibility gene, transient receptor potential protein melastatin type 2, with bipolar disorder." Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 141(1): 36-43. Advanced parental age has been linked to a somewhat increased chance of bipolar disorder in offspring, consistent with a hypothesis of increased new genetic mutations. Frans, E., Sandin, S., Reichenberg, A., Lichtenstein, P., Langstrom, N., Hultman, C. (2008) Advancing Paternal Age and Bipolar Disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65(9):1034-1040. A review seeking to identify the more consistent findings suggested several genes related to serotonin (SLC6A4 and TPH2), dopamine (DRD4 and SLC6A3), glutamate (DAOA and DTNBP1), and cell growth and/or maintenance pathways (NRG1, DISC1 and BDNF), although noting a high risk of false positives in the published literature. It was also suggested that individual genes are likely to have only a small effect and to be involved in some aspect related to the disorder (and a broad range of "normal" human behavior) rather than the disorder per se. Childhood precursors Some limited long-term studies indicate that children who later receive a diagnosis of bipolar disorder may show subtle early traits such as subthreshold cyclical mood abnormalities, full major depressive episodes, and possibly ADHD with mood fluctuation. There may be hypersensitivity and irritability. There is some disagreement whether the experiences are necessarily fluctuating or may be chronic. David J. Miklowitz and Kiki D. Chan Prevention of Bipolar Disorder in At-Risk Children: Theoretical Assumptions and Empirical Foundations Dev Psychopathol. Dev Psychopathol. 2008; 20(3): 881–897. doi: 10.1017/S0954579408000424. A history of stimulant use in childhood is found in high numbers of bipolar patients and has been found to cause an earlier onset of bipolar disorder, worse clinical course, independent of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Life events and experiences Evidence suggest that environmental factors play a significant role in the development and course of bipolar disorder, and that individual psychosocial variables may interact with genetic dispositions. Serretti A & Mandelli L. (2008) The genetics of bipolar disorder: genome 'hot regions,' genes, new potential candidates and future directions. Mol Psychiatry. 2008 August;13(8):742-71. PMID 18332878 There is fairly consistent evidence from prospective studies that recent life events and interpersonal relationships contribute to the likelihood of onsets and recurrences of bipolar mood episodes, as they do for onsets and recurrences of unipolar depression. There have been repeated findings that between a third and a half of adults diagnosed with bipolar disorder report traumatic/abusive experiences in childhood, which is associated on average with earlier onset, a worse course, and more co-occurring disorders such as PTSD. Gabriele S Leverich a, Robert M Post Course of bipolar illness after history of childhood trauma The Lancet, Volume 367, Issue 9516, Pages 1040 - 1042, 1 April 2006 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68450-XCite The total number of reported stressful events in childhood is higher in those with an adult diagnosis of bipolar spectrum disorder compared to those without, particularly events stemming from a harsh environment rather than from the child's own behavior. Louisa D. Grandin, Lauren B. Alloy, Lyn Y. Abramson (2007) Childhood Stressful Life Events and Bipolar Spectrum Disorders Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26 (4) pp460-478 doi: 10.1521/jscp.2007.26.4.460 Early experiences of adversity and conflict are likely to make subsequent developmental challenges in adolescence more difficult, and are likely a potentiating factor in those at risk of developing bipolar disorder. Neural processes Hyperintensities (bright areas on MRI scans above) are 2.5 times more likely to occur in bipolar disorder Researchers hypothesize that abnormalities in the structure and/or function of certain brain circuits could underlie bipolar and other mood disorders. Some studies have found anatomical differences in areas such as the amygdala, Strakowski, S.M., DelBello, M.P, Sax, K.W. et al. (1999). "Brain magnetic resonance imaging of structural abnormalities in bipolar disorder," Archives of General Psychiatry, 56:254–60. prefrontal cortex Prefrontal Cortex in Bipolar Disorder Neurotransmitter.net. and hippocampus. However, despite 25 years of research involving more than 7000 MRI scans, studies continue to report conflicting findings and there remains considerable debate over the neuroscientific findings. Two fairly consistent abnormalities found in a meta-analysis of 98 MRI or CT neuroimaging studies were that groups with bipolar disorder had lateral ventricles which were on average 17% larger than control groups, and were 2.5 times more likely to have deep white matter hyperintensities. Given the size of the meta-analysis, it was concluded that the relatively small number of significant findings was perhaps surprising, and that there may be genuinely limited structural change in bipolar disorder, or perhaps heterogeneity has obscured other differences. In addition, it was noted that averaged associations found at the level of multiple studies may not exist for an individual. Kempton, M.J., Geddes, J.R, Ettinger, U. et al. (2008). "Meta-analysis, Database, and Meta-regression of 98 Structural Imaging Studies in Bipolar Disorder," Archives of General Psychiatry, 65:1017–1032 see also MRI database at www.bipolardatabase.org. The "kindling" theory asserts that people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder can experience a series of stressful events, Link and reference involving kindling theory each of which lowers the threshold at which mood changes occur. Eventually, a mood episode can start (and become recurrent) by itself. There is evidence of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) abnormalities in bipolar disorder due to stress. Brian Koehler, Ph.D., The International Society for the Psychological Treatment Of Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses, Bipolar Disorder, Stress, and the HPA Axis, 2005. Recent research in Japan hypothesizes that dysfunctional mitochondria in the brain may play a role Other recent research in implicates issues with a sodium ATPase pump, causing cyclical periods of poor neuron firing (depression) and hyper sensitive neuron firing (mania). This may only apply for type one, but type two apparently results from a large confluence of factors. Melatonin activity It has been suggested that a hypersensitivity of the melatonin receptors in the eye could be a reliable indicator of bipolar disorder, in studies called a trait marker, as it is not dependent on state (mood, time, etc). In small studies, patients diagnosed as bipolar reliably showed a melatonin-receptor hypersensitivity to light during sleep, causing a rapid drop in sleeptime melatonin levels compared to controls. Another study showed that drug-free, recovered, bipolar patients exhibited no hypersensitivity to light. It has also been shown in humans that valproic acid, a mood stabilizer, increases transcription of melatonin receptors and decreases eye melatonin-receptor sensitivity in healthy volunteers while low-dose lithium, another mood stabilizer, in healthy volunteers, decreases sensitivity to light when sleeping, but doesn't alter melatonin synthesis. The extent to which melatonin alterations may be a cause or effect of bipolar disorder are not fully known. Psychological processes Psychological studies of bipolar disorder have examined the development of a wide range of both the core symptoms of psychomotor activation and related clusterings of depression/anxiety, increased hedonic tone, irritability/aggression and sometimes psychosis. The existing evidence has been described as patchy in terms of quality but converging in a consistent manner. The findings suggest that the period leading up to mania is often characterized by depression and anxiety at first, with isolated sub-clinical symptoms of mania such as increased energy and racing thoughts. The latter increase and lead to increased activity levels, the more so if there is disruption in circadian rhythms or goal attainment events. There is some indication that once mania has begun to develop, social stressors, including criticism from significant others, can further contribute. There are also indications that individuals may hold certain beliefs about themselves, their internal states, and their social world (including striving to meet high standards despite it causing distress) that may make them vulnerable during changing mood states in the face of relevant life events. In addition, subtle frontal-temporal and subcortical difficulties in some individuals, related to planning, emotional regulation and attentional control, may play a role. Symptoms are often subthreshold and likely continuous with normal experience. Once (hypo)mania has developed, there is an overall increase in activation levels and impulsivity. Negative social reactions or advice may be taken less notice of, and a person may be more caught up in their own thoughts and interpretations, often along a theme of feeling criticised. There is some suggestion that the mood variation in bipolar disorder may not be cyclical as often assumed, nor completely random, but results from a complex interaction between internal and external variables unfolding over time; there is mixed evidence as to whether relevant life events are found more often in early than later episodes. Mansell, W. & Pedley, R. The ascent into mania: A review of psychological processes associated with the development of manic symptoms. Clinical Psychology Review, Volume 28, Issue 3, March 2008, Pages 494-520 PMID 17825463 Many sufferers report inexplicably varied cyclical patterns, however. Manic-depressive illness FK Goodwin, KR Jamison - 1990 - Oxford University Press New York Pharmaceutical Treatment There are a number of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic techniques used for Bipolar Disorder. Individuals may use self-help and pursue a personal recovery journey. Hospitalization may occur, especially with manic episodes. This can be voluntary or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntary (called civil or involuntary commitment). Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalization, although can still occur. Becker T, Kilian R. (2006) Psychiatric services for people with severe mental illness across western Europe: what can be generalized from current knowledge about differences in provision, costs and outcomes of mental health care? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplement, 429, 9–16. PMID 16445476 Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include drop-in centers, visits from members of a community mental health team or Assertive Community Treatment team, supported employment and patient-led support groups. McGurk, SR, Mueser KT, Feldman K, Wolfe R, Pascaris A (2007). Cognitive training for supported employment: 2–3 year outcomes of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. March;164(3):437–41. PMID 17329468 Medication Sodium valproate is a common mood stabilizer The mainstay of treatment is a mood stabilizer medication such as lithium carbonate or lamotrigine. There is an evidence based review Geddes JR, Burgess S, Hawton K, et al. Long-term lithium therapy for bipolar disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:217–22 Bauer, M.S. et al. 2006, What Is a “Mood Stabilizer”? An Evidence-Based Response, Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:3–18 which shows these two drugs are the most effective. Lamotrigine has been found to be best for preventing depressions, while lithium is the only drug proven to reduce suicide in bipolar patients.; these two drugs comprise several unrelated compounds which have been shown to be effective in preventing relapses of manic, or in the one case, depressive episodes. The first known and "gold standard" mood stabilizer is lithium, Poolsup N, Li Wan Po A, de Oliveira IR. (2000) Systematic overview of lithium treatment in acute mania. J Clin Pharm Ther 25: 139–156 PMID: 10849192 while almost as widely used is sodium valproate, also used as an anticonvulsant. Other anticonvulsants used in bipolar disorder include carbamazepine, reportedly more effective in rapid cycling bipolar disorder, and lamotrigine, which is the first anticonvulsant shown to be of benefit in bipolar depression. Treatment of the agitation in acute manic episodes has often required the use of antipsychotic medications, such as quetiapine, olanzapine and chlorpromazine. More recently, olanzapine and quetiapine have been approved as effective monotherapy for the maintenance of bipolar disorder. Now Approved: ZYPREXA for maintenance therapy for bipolar disorder. Official Zyprexa Website. A head-to-head randomized control trial in 2005 has also shown olanzapine monotherapy to be as effective and safe as lithium in prophylaxis. The use of antidepressants in bipolar disorder has been debated, with some studies reporting a worse outcome with their use triggering manic, hypomanic or mixed episodes, especially if no mood stabiliser is used. However, most mood stabilizers are of limited effectiveness in depressive episodes. Rapid cycling can be induced or made worse by antidepressants, unless there is adjunctive treatment with a mood stabilizer. Sachs, GS, MD, et al. (2007) Effectiveness of Adjunctive Antidepressant Treatment for Bipolar Depression New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 356:1711–1722 (Abstract). One large-scale study found that depression in bipolar disorder responds no better to an antidepressant with mood stabilizer than it does to a mood stabilizer alone. Bipolar surprise: mood disorder endures antidepressant setback. Science News, March 31, 2007, vol. 171, #13, p.196 Recent research indicates that triacetyluridine may help improve symptoms of bipolar disorder. http://www.epsychology.us/triacetyluridine-tau-decreases-depressive-symptoms-and-increases-brain-ph-in-bipolar-patients/ Also, topiramate is an anticonvulsant often prescribed as a mood stabilizer. It is an off-label use when used to treat bipolar disorder. Unfortunately, it's efficacy is likely minimal and side effects, such as significant cognitive impairment, limit its usefulness (Kushner, et al. 2006 Bipolar Disorders 8; Chengappa, et al. 2006 J Clin Psych; 6). Psychosocial Treatment Psychotherapy is aimed at alleviating core symptoms, recognizing episode triggers, reducing negative expressed emotion in relationships, recognizing prodromal symptoms before full-blown recurrence, and, practicing the factors that lead to maintenance of remission (Lam et al., 1999; Johnson & Leahy, 2004; Basco & Rush, 2005; Miklowitz & Goldstein, 1997; Frank, 2005. Cognitive behavioural therapy, family-focused therapy, and psychoeducation have the most evidence for efficacy in regard to relapse prevention, while interpersonal and social rhythm therapy and cognitive-behavioural therapy appear the most effective in regard to residual depressive symptoms. Most studies have been based only on bipolar I, however, and treatment during the acute phase can be a particular challenge. Zaretsky AE, Rizvi S, & Parikh SV. (2007). How well do psychosocial interventions work in bipolar disorder? Can J Psychiatry, January;52(1):14-21. Some clinicians emphasize the need to talk with individuals experiencing mania, to develop a therapeutic alliance in support of recovery. Havens LL, Ghaemi SN. (2005) Existential despair and bipolar disorder: the therapeutic alliance as a mood stabilizer. Am J Psychother. 59(2):137-47 PMID 16170918 Prognosis For many individuals with bipolar disorder a good prognosis results from good treatment, which, in turn, results from an accurate diagnosis. Because bipolar disorder can have a high rate of both under-diagnosis and misdiagnosis, it is often difficult for individuals with the condition to receive timely and competent treatment. Bipolar disorder can be a severely disabling medical condition. However, many individuals with bipolar disorder can live full and satisfying lives. Quite often, medication is needed to enable this. Persons with bipolar disorder are likely to have periods of normal or near normal functioning between episodes. Ultimately one's prognosis depends on many factors, several of which are within the control of the individual. Such factors may include: the right medicines, with the right dose of each; comprehensive knowledge of the disease and its effects; a positive relationship with a competent medical doctor and therapist; and good physical health, which includes exercise, nutrition, and a regulated stress level. There are obviously other factors that lead to a good prognosis as well, such as being very aware of small changes in one's energy, mood, sleep and eating behaviors, as well as having a plan in conjunction with one's doctor for how to manage subtle changes that might indicate the beginning of a mood swing. Some people find that keeping a log of their moods can assist them in predicting changes. Functioning A recent 20-year prospective study on bipolar I and II found that functioning varied over time along a spectrum from good to fair to poor. During periods of major depression or mania (in BPI), functioning was on average poor, with depression being more persistently associated with disability than mania. Functioning between episodes was on average good — more or less normal. Subthreshold symptoms were generally still substantially impairing, however, except for hypomania (below or above threshold) which was associated with improved functioning. Judd Lewis L.; Aksikal Hagop S.; Schettler Pamela J. ; Endicott Jean; Leon Andrew C.; Solomon David A.; Coryell William; Maser Jack D.; Keller Martin B. (2005) Psychosocial disability in the course of bipolar I and II disorders : A prospective, comparative, longitudinal study Archives of General Psychiatry, vol. 62, no12, pp. 1322–1330 Another study confirmed the seriousness of the disorder as "the standardized all-cause mortality ratio among patients with BD is increased approximately two-fold." Bipolar disorder is currently regarded "as possibly the most costly category of mental disorders in the United States." Episodes of abnormality are associated with distress and disruption, and an elevated risk of suicide, especially during depressive episodes. Recovery A naturalistic study from first admission for mania or mixed episode (representing the hospitalized and therefore most severe cases) found that 50% achieved syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks and 98% within two years. 72% achieved symptomatic recovery (no symptoms at all) and 43% achieved functional recovery (regaining of prior occupational and residential status). However, 40% went on to experience a new episode of mania or depression within 2 years of syndromal recovery, and 19% switched phases without recovery. Tohen M, Zarate CA Jr, Hennen J, Khalsa HM, Strakowski SM, Gebre-Medhin P, Salvatore P, Baldessarini RJ. (2003) The McLean-Harvard First-Episode Mania Study: prediction of recovery and first recurrence Am J Psychiatry. 2003 December;160(12):2099-107. Recurrence The following behaviors can lead to depressive or manic recurrence: Discontinuing or lowering one's dose of medication. Being under- or over-medicated. Generally, taking a lower dosage of a mood stabilizer can lead to relapse into mania. Taking a lower dosage of an antidepressant may cause the patient to relapse into depression, while higher doses can cause destabilization into mixed-states or mania. An inconsistent sleep schedule can destabilize the illness. Too much sleep (possibly caused by medication) can lead to depression, while too little sleep can lead to mixed states or mania. Caffeine can cause destabilization of mood toward irritability, dysphoria, and mania. Anecdotal evidence seems to suggest that lower dosages of caffeine can have effects ranging from anti-depressant to mania-inducing. Inadequate stress management and poor lifestyle choices. If unmedicated, excessive stress can cause the individual to relapse. Medication raises the stress threshold somewhat, but too much stress still causes relapse. Often bipolar individuals are subject to self-medication, the most common drugs being alcohol, and marijuana. Studies show that tobacco smoking induces a calming effect on most bipolar people, and a very high percentage suffering from the prolonged use. Bipolar Disorder webpage from ADAM Illustrated Health Encyclopedia at About.com Recurrence can be managed by the sufferer with the help of a close friend, based on the occurrence of idiosyncratic prodromal events. This theorizes that a close friend could notice which moods, activities, behaviours, thinking processes, or thoughts typically occur at the outset of bipolar episodes. They can then take planned steps to slow or reverse the onset of illness, or take action to prevent the episode from being damaging. Kelly, M., Bipolar and the Art of Roller-coaster Riding, Two Trees Media 2000, 2005 These sensitivity triggers show some similarity to traits of a highly sensitive person. Mortality According to an article in Psychiatric Times by McIntyre et. al., "Mortality studies have documented an increase in all-cause mortality in patients with BD. A newly established and rapidly growing database indicates that mortality due to chronic medical disorders (eg, cardiovascular disease) is the single largest cause of premature and excess deaths in BD. The standardized mortality ratio from suicide in BD is estimated to be approximately 18 to 25, further emphasizing the lethality of the disorder." Although many people with bipolar disorder who attempt suicide never actually complete it, the annual average suicide rate in males and females with diagnosed bipolar disorder (0.4%) is 10 to more than 20 times that in the general population. Individuals with bipolar disorder may become suicidal, especially during mixed states such as dysphoric mania and agitated depression. Psychopathologic Correlates of Suicidal Ideation in Major Depressive Outpatients: Is It All Due to Unrecognized (Bipolar) Depressive Mixed States? Persons suffering from Bipolar II have high rates of suicide compared to persons suffering from other mental health conditions, including Major Depression. Major Depressive episodes are part of the Bipolar II experience, and there is evidence that sufferers of this disorder spend proportionally much more of their life in the depressive phase of the illness than their counterparts with Bipolar I Disorder (Akiskal & Kessler, 2007). History Varying moods and energy levels have been a part of the human experience since time immemorial. The words "melancholia" (an old word for depression) and "mania" have their etymologies in Ancient Greek. The word melancholia is derived from melas/μελας, meaning "black", and chole/χολη, meaning "bile" or "gall", indicative of the term’s origins in pre-Hippocratic humoral theories. Within the humoral theories, mania was viewed as arising from an excess of yellow bile, or a mixture of black and yellow bile. The linguistic origins of mania, however, are not so clear-cut. Several etymologies are proposed by the Roman physician Caelius Aurelianus, including the Greek word ‘ania’, meaning to produce great mental anguish, and ‘manos’, meaning relaxed or loose, which would contextually approximate to an excessive relaxing of the mind or soul (Angst and Marneros 2001). There are at least five other candidates, and part of the confusion surrounding the exact etymology of the word mania is its varied usage in the pre-Hippocratic poetry and mythologies (Angst and Marneros 2001). The idea of a relationship between mania and melancholia can be traced back to at least the 2nd century AD. Soranus of Ephesus (98–177 AD) described mania and melancholia as distinct diseases with separate etiologies; however, he acknowledged that “many others consider melancholia a form of the disease of mania” (Cited in Mondimore 2005 p.49). A clear understanding of bipolar disorder as a mental illness was recognized by early Chinese authors. The encyclopedist Gao Lian (c. 1583) describes the malady in his Eight Treatises on the Nurturing of Life (Ts'un-sheng pa-chien). http://www.nmh.gov.tw/nmh_web/english_version/exhibition/exhibition_s0703.cfm The earliest written descriptions of a relationship between mania and melancholia are attributed to Aretaeus of Cappadocia. Aretaeus was an eclectic medical philosopher who lived in Alexandria somewhere between 30 and 150 AD (Roccatagliata 1986; Akiskal 1996). Aretaeus is recognized as having authored most of the surviving texts referring to a unified concept of manic-depressive illness, viewing both melancholia and mania as having a common origin in ‘black bile’ (Akiskal 1996; Marneros 2001). Avicenna, a Persian physician and psychological thinker who wrote The Canon of Medicine in 1025, identified bipolar disorder as a manic depressive psychosis, which he clearly distinguished from other forms of madness (Junun) such as mania, rabies, and schizophrenia (Junun Mufrit or severe madness). Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) refined the concept of psychosis. The basis of the current conceptualisation of manic-depressive illness can be traced back to the 1850s; on January 31, 1854, Jules Baillarger described to the French Imperial Academy of Medicine a biphasic mental illness causing recurrent oscillations between mania and depression, which he termed folie à double forme (‘dual-form insanity’). Two weeks later, on February 14, 1854, Jean-Pierre Falret presented a description to the Academy on what was essentially the same disorder, and designated folie circulaire (‘circular insanity’) by him.(Sedler 1983) The two bitterly disputed as to who had been the first to conceptualise the condition. These concepts were developed by the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926), who, using Kahlbaum's concept of cyclothymia, categorized and studied the natural course of untreated bipolar patients. He coined the term manic depressive psychosis, after noting that periods of acute illness, manic or depressive, were generally punctuated by relatively symptom-free intervals where the patient was able to function normally. Kraepelin, Emil (1921) Manic-depressive Insanity and Paranoia ISBN 0-405-07441-7 After World War II, Dr. John Cade, an Australian psychiatrist, was investigating the effects of various compounds on veteran patients with manic depressive psychosis. In 1949, Cade discovered that lithium carbonate could be used as a successful treatment of manic depressive psychosis. Because there was a fear that table salt substitutes could lead to toxicity or death, Cade's findings did not immediately lead to treatments. In the 1950s, U.S. hospitals began experimenting with lithium on their patients. By the mid-'60s, reports started appearing in the medical literature regarding lithium's effectiveness. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration did not approve of lithium's use until 1970. The term "manic-depressive reaction" appeared in the first American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic Manual in 1952, influenced by the legacy of Adolf Meyer who had introduced the paradigm illness as a reaction of biogenetic factors to psychological and social influences. Goodwin & Jamison. pp. 60–61. Subclassification of bipolar disorder was first proposed by German psychiatrist Karl Leonhard in 1957; he was also the first to introduce the terms bipolar (for those with mania) and unipolar (for those with depressive episodes only). Goodwin & Jamison. p62 In 1968, both the newly revised classification systems ICD-8 and DSM-II termed the condition "manic-depressive illness" as biological thinking came to the fore. Goodwin & Jamison. p88 The current nosology, bipolar disorder, became popular only recently, and some individuals prefer the older term because it provides a better description of a continually changing multi-dimensional illness. Empirical and theoretical work on bipolar disorder has throughout history "seesawed" between psychological and biological ways of understanding. Despite the work of Kraepelin (1921) emphasizing the psychosocial context, conceptions of bipolar disorder as a genetically based illness dominated the 20th century. Since the 1990s, however, there has been a resurgence of interest and research in to the role of psychosocial processes. Alloy LB, Abramson LY, Urosevic S, Walshaw PD, Nusslock R, Neeren AM. (2005) The psychosocial context of bipolar disorder: environmental, cognitive, and developmental risk factors. Clin Psychol Rev. 2005 December;25(8):1043-75. PMID 16140445 Sociological and cultural aspects Cultural references Kay Redfield Jamison is a clinical psychologist and Professor of Psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, who profiled her own bipolar disorder in her 1995 memoir An Unquiet Mind, and argued for a connection between bipolar disorder and artistic creativity in her 1993 book, Touched with Fire. Several films portrayed characters with traits suggestive of the diagnosis which have been the subject of discussion by psychiatrists and film experts alike. The 1993 film Mr. Jones is a notable example, with Richard Gere playing a person who swings from a manic episode into a depressive phase and back again, spending time in a psychiatric hospital and displaying many of the features of the syndrome. Allie Fox, the character played by Harrison Ford in the 1986 movie The Mosquito Coast, displays some features including recklessness, grandiosity, increased goal-directed activity and mood lability, as well as some paranoia. Robinson (Reel Psychiatry:Movie Portrayals of Psychiatric Conditions), p. 84-85 Tom Wilkinson portrayed a manic depressive lawyer in Tony Gilroy's film Michael Clayton. Next to Normal, a rock musical debuted off-Broadway in 2008 before going on to play in Arlington, VA and eventually, in April 2009, on Broadway. Its story concerns a mother who struggles with worsening bipolar disorder and the effect that her illness has on her family. In the Australian TV drama Stingers, Gary Sweet played the role of Detective Luke Harris from season six, portraying him as having bipolar and how the paranoia he feels as a result of it interferes with his work. As research for the role Sweet visited a psychiatrist to learn about manic depression. He said that he left the sessions convinced he was one. TV specials, for example the BBC's The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive, MTV's True Life: I'm Bipolar, talk shows, and public radio shows, and the greater willingness of public figures to discuss their own bipolar disorder, have focused on psychiatric conditions thereby raising public awareness. On April 7, 2009, the nighttime drama 90210 on the CW network, aired a special episode where one of the characters, Silver, was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. A PSA aired after the episode, directing teens and young adults with questions or concerns about mood disorders to the Child and Adolescent Bipolar Foundation website for information, and to chat with other teens . Recently Stacey Slater from the popular BBC soap EastEnders has begun to show signs of bipolar disorder; her mother Jean Slater also has bipolar disorder. See also Bipolar spectrum Bipolar disorders research Social Security Disability Insurance References Cited texts Further reading Other contemporary first-person accounts on this subject include Simon, Lizzie. 2002. Detour: My Bipolar Road Trip in 4-D. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-7434-4659-3. Behrman, Andy. 2002. Electroboy: A Memoir of Mania. New York: Random House, 2002. ISBN 0-375-50358-7. Lovelace, David. 2008. Scattershot: My Bipolar Family. New York: Dutton Adult, 2008. ISBN 0-525-95078-8. To find out more about how to deal with bipolar first-hand or how friends and family can deal with it, see: For readings regarding bipolar disorder in children, see: Raeburn, Paul. 2004. Acquainted with the Night: A Parent's Quest to Understand Depression and Bipolar Disorder in His Children. Earley, Pete. Crazy. 2006. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-15313-6. A father's account of his son's bipolar disorder. Classic works on this subject include Kraepelin, Emil. 1921. Manic-depressive Insanity and Paranoia ISBN 0-405-07441-7 (English translation of the original German from the earlier eighth edition of Kraepelin's textbook — now outdated, but a work of major historical importance). Mind Over Mood: Cognitive Treatment Therapy Manual for Clients by Christine Padesky, Dennis Greenberger. ISBN 0-89862-128-3 External links Bipolar Disorder overview from the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health website NICE Bipolar Disorder clinical guidelines from the U.K. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence website BP Magazine from the U.S. BP Hope website | Bipolar_disorder |@lemmatized bipolar:273 disorder:248 also:24 know:8 manic:53 depression:39 depressive:53 affective:9 psychiatric:20 diagnosis:32 describe:9 category:6 mood:58 define:3 presence:4 one:25 episode:68 abnormally:3 elevate:5 clinically:5 refer:6 mania:64 milder:1 hypomania:6 individual:34 experience:31 commonly:4 symptom:38 mixed:14 feature:7 present:4 time:16 usually:4 separate:3 period:14 normal:7 may:58 rapidly:2 alternate:1 rapid:14 cycling:11 extreme:3 sometimes:8 lead:13 psychotic:5 delusion:3 hallucination:2 subdivide:1 ii:23 cyclothymia:9 type:8 base:9 nature:6 severity:3 range:4 often:21 spectrum:19 data:4 united:3 state:19 lifetime:5 prevalence:9 vary:5 indicate:12 rate:8 around:2 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6,776 | Olive | 19th century illustration The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean Basin, from Lebanon, Syria and the maritime parts of Turkey and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. Its fruit, the olive, is of major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. Description The olive tree is an evergreen tree or shrub native to the Mediterranean, Asia and parts of Africa. It is short and squat, and rarely exceeds 8–15 meters in height. The silvery green leaves are oblong in shape, measuring 4–10 cm long and 1–3 cm wide. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted. The small white flowers, with ten-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens and bifid stigma, are borne generally on the last year's wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a small drupe 1–2.5 cm long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested at the green stage or left to ripen to a rich purple colour (black olive). Canned black olives may contain chemicals that turn them black artificially. History The olive is one of the plants most cited in recorded literature. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock. Homer, "Odyssey, book 5", ca 800BC The Roman poet, Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance." "Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, Odes 1.31.15, ca 30 BC Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods. Letter from Lord Monboddo to John Hope, 29 April, 1779; reprinted by William Knight 1900 ISBN 1855062070 The leafy branches of the olive tree - the olive leaf as a symbol of abundance, glory and peace - were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. As emblems of benediction and purification, they were also ritually offered to deities and powerful figures; some were even found in Tutankhamen's tomb. Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic Games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. Today, it is still used in many religious ceremonies. According to Greek mythology, the Olive tree, her gift to the people of Attica, won Athena the patronage of the city of Athens over Poseidon. Gooch, Ellen, "10+1 Things you may not know about olive oil", Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Spring (2005) As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan Civilization. The olive tree and olives are mentioned over 30 times in the Bible, in both the New and Old Testaments. It is one of the first plants mentioned in the Bible, and one of the most significant. For example, it was an olive branch that a dove brought back to Noah to demonstrate that the flood was over. The Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem is mentioned several times. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible. Balfour, John Hutton, "Plants of the Bible" 1885. Available through Google Books The olive tree made its appearance in the Mediterranean region thousands of years ago and spread to nearby countries from there. The ancient Greeks used to smear olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health. Over the years, the olive has been the symbol of peace, wisdom, glory, fertility, power and pureness. Many Greek and Roman writings refer to the olive and its beneficial role. References to the olive are found as much in the Bible as in the Qur'an. It is estimated the cultivation of the olive commenced more than 7000 years ago. The Russians also helped to spread the olive throughout its extensive empire. After the 16th century, the Europeans brought the olive to the New World, and its cultivation began in California, Mexico, Peru, Chile and Argentina. It is estimated that there are about 800 million olive trees in the world today, and the vast majority of these are found in Mediterranean countries. Old olive trees Olive tree on Ithaca, Greece that is claimed to be over 1500 years old Pliny the Elder told of a sacred Greek olive tree that was 1600 years old. Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words "gat shemanim" or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the time of Jesus. Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999) Ancient Trees., pp 110–113, London: Collins & Brown Ltd. ISBN 1-85585-704-9 Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to Roman times, although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult. One olive tree in Bar, Montenegro, is claimed to be over 2000 years old. The age of an olive tree in Crete, claimed to be over 2,000 years old, has been determined on the basis of tree ring analysis. O. Rackham, J. Moody, The Making of the Cretan Landscape, 1996, cited in F. R. Riley (2002). Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21 (1): 63–75 Another well-known olive tree on the island of Brijuni (Brioni), Istria in Croatia, has been calculated to be about 1,600 years old. It still gives fruit (about 30 kg per year), which is made into top quality olive oil. According to a recent scientific survey, there are tens of ancient olive trees throughout Israel and The Palestinian Territories, 1600-2000 years old. M. Kislew, Y. Tabak & O. Simhoni, Identifying the Names of Fruits in Ancient Rabbinic Literature, Leshonenu (Hebrew), vol. 69, p.279 Specifically, two giant olive trees in the Arab town of Arraba and five trees in Deir Hanna, both in Galilee region, have been determined to be over 3000 years old. All seven trees continue to produce olives. A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana in Sardinia, Italy, named with respect as the Ozzastru by the inhabitants of the region, is claimed to be 3000 to 4000 years old according to different studies. In the same natural garden, a few other millenary trees can be admired. Cultivation and uses An example of black olives A selection of olives in a market in Tel Aviv, Israel The olive tree has been cultivated since ancient times as a source of olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, and olives for consumption. The naturally bitter fruit is typically subjected to fermentation or cured with lye or brine to make it more palatable. Green olives and black olives are washed thoroughly in water to remove oleuropein, a bitter carbohydrate. Sometimes they are also soaked in a solution of food grade sodium hydroxide in order to accelerate the process. Green olives are allowed to ferment before being packed in a brine solution. American black ("California") olives are not fermented, which is why they taste milder than green olives. It is not known when olives were first cultivated for harvest. Among the earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic Period archaeological site of Teleilat Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan. Farmers in ancient times believed olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a short distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.6 km) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, it has long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are mild. Olive plantation in Andalucia, Spain Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Australia, the Mediterranean Basin, Israel, Palestinian Territories and California and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, under irrigation in the Cuyo region in Argentina which has a desert climate. They are also grown in the Córdoba Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters (Cwa). Enciclopedia Universal Europeo Americana. Volume 15. Madrid. 1981. Espasa-Calpe S.A. ISBN 84-239-4-500-6 (Complete Encyclopedia) and ISBN 84-239-4-515-4 (Volume 15 ) The climate in Argentina changes the external characteristics of the plant but the fruit keeps its original characteristics. Discriminación de variedades de olivo a través del uso de caracteres morfológigos y de marcadores moleculares. 2001. Cavagnaro P., J. Juárez, M Bauza & R.W. Masuelli. AGRISCIENTA. Volume 18:27-35 Considerable research supports the health-giving benefits of consuming olives, olive leaf and olive oil (see external links below for research results). The olive tree provides leaves, fruit and oil. Olive leaves are used in medicinal teas. Olives are now being looked at for use as a renewable energy source, using waste produced from the olive plants as an energy source that produces 2.5 times the energy generated by burning the same amount of wood. The smoke released has no negative impact on neighbors or the environment, and the ash left in the stove can be used for fertilizing gardens and plants. The process has been patented in the Middle East and the US. Subspecies There are at least five natural subspecies distributed over a wide range: Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Europe) Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (from Eritrea and Ethiopia south throughout East Africa, also in Iran to China) Olea europaea subsp. guanchica (Canaries) Olea europaea subsp. maroccana (Morocco) Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger, India) Cultivars Small olive tree Large olive tree Olive tree leaves Olive tree trunk Olive flowers A young olive plant, germinated from a seed Monumental tree in Apulia Region - Southern Italy There are thousands of cultivars of the olive. In Italy alone at least three hundred cultivars have been enumerated, but only a few are grown to a large extent. None of these can be accurately identified with ancient descriptions, though it is not unlikely that some of the narrow-leaved cultivars most esteemed may be descendants of the Licinian olive. The Iberian olives are usually cured and eaten, often after being pitted, stuffed (with pickled pimento, anchovies, or other fillings) and packed in brine in jars or tins. Since many cultivars are self sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities such as resistance to disease, quick growth and larger or more consistent crops. Some particularly important cultivars of olive include: 'Amfissa', excellent quality Greek table olive grown in Amfissa, Central Greece near the oracle of Delphi. Amfissa olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin) status and are equally good for olive oil extraction. The olive grove of Amfissa, which consists of 1,200,000 olive trees is a part of a protected natural landscape. 'Bosana', the most common olive grown on Sardinia. It is used mostly for oils. 'Manzanilla', a large, rounded-oval fruit, with purple-green skin, originating in Dos Hermanas, Seville, in southern Spain. Rich taste and thick pulp. A prolific bearer, grown around the world. 'Frantoio' and 'Leccino'. These cultivars are the principal participants in Italian olive oils from Tuscany. Leccino has a mild sweet flavour while Frantoio is fruity with a stronger aftertaste. Due to their highly valued flavour, these cultivars are now grown in other countries. 'Arbequina', a small, brown olive grown in Catalonia, Spain, good for eating and for oil. 'Cornicabra', originating in Toledo, Spain, comprises about 12% of Spain's production. It is mainly used for oil. 'Empeltre', a medium-sized black olive grown in Spain, good for eating and for oil. 'Hojiblanca', originating in the province of Córdoba, Spain, its oil is widely appreciated for its slightly bitter flavour. 'Kalamata', a large, black olive with a smooth and meatlike taste, named after the city of Kalamata, Greece, used as a table olive. These olives are usually preserved in vinegar or olive oil. Kalamata olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin) status. Fotiadi, Elena "Unusual Olives", Epikouria Magazine (Spring/Summer 2006) 'Koroneiki', originating from the southern Peloponese, around Kalamata and Mani in Greece. This small olive, though difficult to cultivate, has a high yield of olive oil of exceptional quality. 'Picholine' or 'pecholine', originating in the south of France. It is green, medium size, and elongated. The flavour is mild and nutty. 'Picual', originating in southern Spain (province of Jaén), it is the most widely cultivated olive in Spain, comprising about 50% of Spain's olive production and around 20% of world olive production. It has a strong but sweet flavour, because of which is widely used in Spain as a olive to eat. Moreover, its oil has some of the best chemical properties found in olive oil, being the richest in oleic acid and E vitamin. 'Lucques', originating in the south of France (Aude département). They are green, large, and elongated. The stone has an arcuated shape. Their flavour is mild and nutty. 'Souri', originating in Lebanon(the town of Sur (Tyre)) and widespread in the Levant. It has a high oil yield and exceptionally aromatic flavour. 'Nabali', a Palestinian cultivar also known locally as 'Baladi', which, along with 'Souri' and 'Malissi', is considered to produce among the highest quality olive oil in the world. 'Barnea', a modern cultivar bred in Israel to be disease-resistant and to produce a generous crop. It is used both for oil and for table olives. The oil has a strong flavour with a hint of green leaf. Barnea is widely grown in Israel and in the southern hemisphere, particularly in Australia and New Zealand. 'Maalot' (Hebrew for merits), another modern Israeli, disease-resistant, Eastern Mediterranean cultivar derived from the North African 'Chemlali' cultivar. The olive is medium sized, round, has a fruity flavour and is used almost exclusively for oil production. 'Mission' originated on the California Missions and is now grown throughout the state. They are black and generally used for table consumption. Growth and propagation Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They tolerate drought well, thanks to their sturdy and extensive root system. Olive trees can be exceptionally long-lived, up to several centuries, and can remain productive for as long, provided they are pruned correctly and regularly. The olive tree grows very slowly, but over many years the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m in height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning. The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers. The olive is propagated in various ways, but cuttings or layers are generally preferred; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; it must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to do well (Lewington and Parker, 114). Branches of various thickness cut into lengths of about 1 m and planted deeply in manured ground, soon vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild form is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted beneath the surface, where they grow readily, their buds soon forming a vigorous shoot. Occasionally the larger boughs are marched, and young trees thus soon obtained. The olive is also sometimes raised from seed, the oily pericarp being first softened by slight rotting, or soaking in hot water or in an alkaline solution, to facilitate germination. Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized. The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many instances a large harvest can only be reckoned upon every sixth or seventh season. A calcareous soil, however dry or poor, seems best adapted to its healthy development, though the tree will grow in any light soil, and even on clay if well drained; but, as remarked by Pliny, the plant is more liable to disease on rich soils, and the oil is inferior to the produce of the poorer and more rocky ground. In general, a temperature below 14 °F (-10 °C) may cause considerable injury to a mature tree, but (with the exception of juvenile trees) a temperature of 16 °F (-9 °C) will normally cause no harm. Fruit harvest and processing Olives are harvested in the fall. More specifically, green olives are picked at the end of September to about the middle of November. Blond olives are picked from the middle of October to the end of November and Black olives are collected from the middle of November to the end of January or early February. Some Italian and Greek olives are harvested by hand, as the terrain can be mountainous which inhibits harvesting by machine. As a result, the fruit is not bruised which leads to a superior finished product. Furthermore, the fact that branches are sawn off as part of the method of hand harvesting, ensures the health of the tree for future production. "Unusual Olives", Epikouria Magazine, Spring/Summer 2006 Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil. In southern Europe the olive harvest is in winter, continuing for several weeks, but the time varies in each country, and also with the season and the kinds cultivated. A device called the oli-net wraps around the trunk of the tree and opens to form an umbrella-like catcher; workers can then harvest the fruit without the weight of the load around their neck. Another device, the oliviera, is an electric tool that connects to a battery. The oliviera has large tongs that are spun around quickly, removing fruit from the tree. This method is used for olives used for oil. Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used. The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly in the various cultivars; the pericarp is usually 60–70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5-2.2 kg of oil per tree per year. Riley, op.cit. Traditional fermentation and curing With one exception (Thassos Olives), olives are inedible when picked from the tree. This is due to the glucoside in their flesh, which makes them taste extremely bitter. To remove this glucodise and render the olive edible, the fruit must be cured. Olives freshly picked from the tree contain phenolic compounds and oleuropein, a glycoside which makes the fruit unpalatable for immediate consumption. There are many ways of processing olives for table use. Traditional methods use the natural microflora on the fruit and procedures which select for those that bring about fermentation of the fruit. This fermentation leads to three important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and phenolic compounds; the creation of lactic acid, which is a natural preservative; and a complex of flavoursome fermentation products. The result is a product which will store with or without refrigeration. One basic fermentation method is to get food grade containers, which may include plastic containers from companies which trade in olives and preserved vine leaves. Many bakeries also recycle food grade plastic containers which are well sized for olive fermentation; they are 10 to 20 litres in capacity. Freshly picked olives are often sold at markets in 10 kg trays. Olives should be selected for their firmness if green and general good condition. Olives can be used green, ripe green (which is a yellower shade of green, or green with hints of colour), through to full purple black ripeness. The olives are soaked in water to wash them, and drained. 7 litres (which is 7 kg) of room temperature water is added to the fermentation container, and 800 g of sea salt, and one cup (300 g) of white vinegar (white wine or cider vinegar). The salt is dissolved to create a 10% solution (the 800 g of salt is in an 8 kg mixture of salt and water and vinegar). Each olive is given a single deep slit with a small knife (if small), or up to three slits per fruit (if large, e.g., 60 fruit per kg). If 10 kg of olives are added to the 10% salt solution, the ultimate salinity after some weeks will be around 5 to 6% once the water in the olives moves into solution and the salt moves into the olives. The olives are weighed down with an inert object such as a plate so they are fully immersed and lightly sealed in their container. The light sealing is to allow the gases of fermentation to escape. It is also possible to make a plastic bag partially filled with water, and lay this over the top as a venting lid which also provides a good seal. The exclusion of oxygen is useful but not as critical as when grapes are fermented to produce wine. The olives can be tasted at any time as the bitter compounds are not poisonous, and oleuropein is a useful antioxidant in the human diet. The olives are edible within 2 weeks to a month, but can be left to cure for up to three months. Green olives will usually be firmer in texture after curing than black olives. There are several methods via which olives can be cured: lye-curing, salt-curing, brine-curing and fresh water-curing. Lye-curing, an unnatural method, is the one resulting in the worst taste as it leeches much of the fruits' flavor. Salt-curing (also known as dry-curing) involves packing the olives in plain salt for minimum of a month, which produces a salty and wrinkled olive. Olives are placed in a water and salt solution for a few days or more as a part of the of brine-curing process. Fresh-water curing involves soaking the olives in a succession of baths, of which the water is changed daily. Olives can be flavoured by soaking them in various marinades, or removing the pit and stuffing them. Herbs, spices, olive oil, feta, capsicum (pimento), chili, lemon zest, lemon juice, garlic cloves, wine, vinegar, juniper berries, and anchovies are popular flavourings. Sometimes the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation. This method of curing adds a slightly bitter taste. Pests, diseases, and weather A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae Janse, J. D. 1982. Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi (ex Smith) subsp. nov., nom. rev., the bacterium causing excrescences on Oleaceae and Nerium oleander L. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 32:166–169. , induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers. More serious damage is caused by olive-fly attacks to the fruit. A pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black beetle that resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth damage. Burr, M. 1999. Australian Olives. A guide for growers and producers of virgin oils, 4th edition. Rabbits eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree it is likely to die. In France and north-central Italy olives suffer occasionally from frost. Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering season also cause damage. Production Olives are the most extensively cultivated fruit crop in the world. Cultivation area tripled from 2.6 to 8.5 million hectares between 1960 and 2004. The ten largest producing countries, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, are all located in the Mediterranean region and produce 95% of the world's olives. + Main countries of production (Year 2003) Rank Country/Region Production (in tons) Cultivated area (in hectares) Yield (q/Ha) —World 17,317,089 8,597,064 20.11Spain 6,160,100 2,400,000 25.72 Italy 3,149,830 1,140,685 27.63 Greece 2,300,000 765,000 31.44 Turkey 1,800,000 594,000 30.35 Syria 998,988 498,981 20.06 Tunisia 500,000 1,500,000 3.37 Morocco 470,000 550,000 8.58 Egypt 318,339 49,888 63.89 Algeria 300,000 178,000 16.910 Portugal 280,000 430,000 6.511 Lebanon 275,000 250,000 6.5 As an invasive species Since its first domestication, Olea europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral plants. Lumaret, R. & Ouazzani, N. (2001) Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests. Nature 413: 700 In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably South Australia, the olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia its seeds are spread by the introduced red fox and by many bird species including the European starling and the native emu into woodlands where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees. Dirk HR Spennemann & Allen, L.R. (2000) Feral olives (Olea europaea) as future woody weeds in Australia: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40: 889–901. See also Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros Candida tropicalis Oil-tree Phytochemical Polyphenol antioxidant Zeitoun (disambiguation) References External links | Olive |@lemmatized century:3 illustration:1 olive:159 olea:8 europaea:9 specie:4 small:12 tree:65 family:1 oleaceae:2 native:5 coastal:2 area:5 eastern:2 mediterranean:11 basin:2 lebanon:3 syria:2 maritime:1 part:6 turkey:2 northern:1 iran:2 south:7 end:4 caspian:1 sea:3 fruit:25 major:2 agricultural:1 importance:1 region:9 source:6 oil:36 description:2 evergreen:1 shrub:1 asia:1 africa:4 short:3 squat:1 rarely:2 exceed:3 meter:1 height:2 silvery:1 green:16 leaf:12 oblong:1 shape:2 measure:1 cm:3 long:7 wide:2 trunk:4 typically:2 gnarl:1 twist:1 white:3 flower:4 ten:3 cleft:1 calyx:1 corolla:1 two:4 stamen:1 bifid:1 stigma:1 borne:1 generally:5 last:1 year:18 wood:4 raceme:1 spring:4 axil:1 drupe:1 thin:1 flesh:2 wild:5 plant:15 orchard:1 cultivar:16 harvest:10 stage:1 leave:6 ripen:1 rich:4 purple:3 colour:2 black:15 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6,777 | Alphorn | D' Dieß'ner alphorn players The alphorn or alpenhorn or alpine horn is a labrophone, consisting of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a wooden cup-shaped mouthpiece, used by mountain dwellers in Switzerland and elsewhere. Similar wooden horns were used for communication in most mountainous regions of Europe, from French Switzerland to the Carpathians. Swiss farmer calling his cattle in the Bernese Oberland For a long time, scholars believed that the alphorn had been derived from the Roman-Etruscan lituus, because of their resemblance in shape, and because of the word liti, meaning Alphorn in the dialect of Obwalden. There is no documented evidence for this theory, however, and, the word liti was probably borrowed from 16th-18th century writings in Latin, where the word lituus could describe various wind instruments, such as the horn, the crumhorn, or the cornett. Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner used the words lituum alpinum for the first known detailed description of the alphorn in his De raris et admirandis herbis in 1555. The oldest known document using the German word Alphorn is a page from a 1527 account book from the former Cistercian abbey St. Urban near Pfaffnau mentioning the payment of two Batzen for an itinerant alphorn player from the Valais. 17th-19th century collections of alpine myths and legends suggest that alphorn-like instruments had frequently been used as signal instruments in village communities since medieval times or earlier, sometimes substituting for the lack of church bells. Surviving artefacts, dating back to as far as ca. AD 1400, include wooden labrophones in their stretched form, like the alphorn, or coiled versions, such as the '"Büchel" and the "Allgäuisches Waldhorn" or "Ackerhorn". The alphorn's exact origins remain indeterminate, and the ubiquity of horn-like signal instruments in valleys throughout Europe may indicate a long history of cross influences regarding their construction and usage. This instrument is also used on the Ricola commercials. Construction and Qualities A Swiss playing alphorn near a mountain lakeThe alphorn is carved from solid softwood, generally spruce but sometimes pine. In former times the alphorn maker would find a tree bent at the base in the shape of an alphorn, but modern makers piece the wood together at the base. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete. The alphorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the bore in relation to the length. An alphorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwyz, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, measures 8 ft. in length and has a straight tube. The Swiss alphorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. Michael Praetorius mentions an alphorn-like instrument under the name of Hölzern Trummet (wooden trumpet) in Syntagma Musicum (Wittenberg, 1615-1619; Pl. VIII). The notes of the natural harmonic series overlap, but do not exactly correspond, to notes found in the familiar chromatic scale in standard Western equal temperament. Most prominently within the alphorn's range,the 7th and 11th harmonics are particularly noticeable, because they fall between adjacent notes in the chromatic scale.(audio) In the hands of a skilled composer or arranger, the natural harmonics can be used to haunting melancholy effect or, by contrast, to create a charming pastoral flavor, as in the lilting Ranz des Vaches and works by Brahms, Rossini, and Britten cited below. Similar to the view of Leopold Kronecker that "God made the integers; all else is the work of man," musicians drawn to the alphorn and other instruments that sound the natural harmonics, such as the natural horn, consider the notes of the natural harmonic series] — particularly the 7th and 11th harmonics — to be God's Notes, the remainder of the chromatic scale enabled by keys, valves, slides and other methods of changing the qualities of the simple open pipe being an artifact of mere mortals. The well-known Ranz des Vaches (score ; audio) is a traditional Swiss melody often heard on the alphorn. The song describes the time of bringing the cows to the high country at cheese making time. Rossini introduced the Ranz des Vaches into his masterpiece William Tell, along with many other delightful melodies scattered throughout the opera in vocal and instrumental parts that are well-suited to the alphorn. Brahms was clear that the inspiration for the great melody that opens the last movement of his First Symphony (played in the orchestra by the horn) was an alphorn melody he heard in the Rigi area of Switzerland. Finally, the prologue to Britten's Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, played on horn without the use of valves but equally suited to the alphorn, is a beautiful, inspired example of the lyric possibilities of natural harmonics. Music for Alphorn Among music composed for the alphorn: Sinfonia Pastorella for Alphorn and String Orchestra by Leopold Mozart Concerto for alphorn and orchestra by Jean Daetwyler Concertino rustico by Ferenc Farkas Begegnung, for 3 alphorns and concert band, by Kurt Gable. Säumerweg-Blues (audio played by Kurt Ott) among many compositions by Hans-Jürg Sommer, Alphorn Musik Messe für Alphorn und Chor by Franz Schüssele Alphorn-Center Alphorn Virtuosi Eliana Burki, jazz and modern alphorn; Chillout (audio) William Hopson, traditional and modern alphorn; also horn player (Calgary Philharmonic) and alphorn builder Joszef Molnar and his Swiss Alphorn Quartet Kurt Ott, jazz and modern alphorn Arkady Shilkloper, jazz and modern alphorn Alphorn Groups and Performers "Alpentraum" Michigan, USA Alphorn Academy of Switzerland "Chrystal" (in German) Frances Jones UK alphornist Jacaranda Ensemble (World music, featuring alphorn) "Les Briançonneurs" Briançon, France Mike Cumberland Swiss Alphorn Players (in German) Alphorn Makers William Hopson, Rocky Mountain Alphorns Alain Prouvé, Briançon, France Roger Zenetti (maker of the "Alpflyinghorn," a tuneable, collapsable carbon-fiber alphorn) Alphornbau Josef Stocker Pete Wutherich, of Boise, Idaho, who with Josef Stocker competed to build the world's longest alphorn. While both eminent masters preliminarily tied in a photo finish at 154 feet, 8 inches long (the nose alone fitting into the frame), according to Wutherich, his stealthy work on the bell of his magnum opus resolved the friendly competition in his favor. At 89, Wutherich decided that the time had come to part with his champion. References Bachmann-Geiser, Brigitte, Das Alphorn: Vom Lock- zum Rockinstrument. Paul Haupt, Berne, 1999. ISBN 3-258-05640-4 Franz Schüssele, Alphorn und Hirtenhorn in Europa, book and CD with 63 sound samples available at Alphorn-Center,ISBN 3-927781-21-5 External links Alphorn in concert Concert and composition contest taking place annually in Oensingen, Canton Solothurn, Switzerland Hans-Jürg Sommer, links International Alphorn Festival in Nendaz, Canton Valais, Switzerland | Alphorn |@lemmatized dieß:1 ner:1 alphorn:50 player:4 alpenhorn:1 alpine:2 horn:10 labrophone:1 consist:1 natural:8 wooden:5 conical:1 bore:2 cup:2 shaped:2 mouthpiece:2 use:8 mountain:3 dweller:1 switzerland:6 elsewhere:1 similar:2 communication:1 mountainous:1 region:1 europe:2 french:1 carpathians:1 swiss:7 farmer:1 call:1 cattle:1 bernese:2 oberland:2 long:4 time:6 scholar:1 believe:1 derive:1 roman:1 etruscan:1 lituus:2 resemblance:1 shape:3 word:5 liti:2 mean:1 dialect:1 obwalden:1 documented:1 evidence:1 theory:1 however:1 probably:1 borrow:1 century:2 writing:1 latin:1 could:1 describe:2 various:1 wind:1 instrument:8 crumhorn:1 cornett:1 naturalist:1 conrad:1 gesner:1 lituum:1 alpinum:1 first:2 know:2 detailed:1 description:1 de:3 raris:1 et:1 admirandis:1 herbis:1 old:1 known:1 document:1 german:3 page:1 account:1 book:2 former:2 cistercian:1 abbey:1 st:1 urban:1 near:3 pfaffnau:1 mention:2 payment:1 two:1 batzen:1 itinerant:1 valais:2 collection:1 myth:1 legends:1 suggest:1 like:4 frequently:1 signal:2 village:1 community:1 since:1 medieval:1 early:1 sometimes:2 substitute:1 lack:1 church:1 bell:3 survive:1 artefact:1 date:1 back:1 far:1 ca:1 ad:1 include:1 labrophones:1 stretched:1 form:1 coil:1 version:1 büchel:1 allgäuisches:1 waldhorn:1 ackerhorn:1 exact:1 origin:1 remain:1 indeterminate:1 ubiquity:1 valley:1 throughout:2 may:1 indicate:1 history:1 cross:1 influence:1 regard:1 construction:2 usage:1 also:2 ricola:1 commercial:1 qualities:1 playing:1 lakethe:1 carve:2 solid:1 softwood:1 generally:1 spruce:1 pine:1 maker:4 would:1 find:2 tree:1 bent:1 base:2 modern:5 piece:1 wood:2 together:1 block:1 hard:1 add:1 complete:1 lateral:1 opening:1 therefore:1 give:1 pure:1 harmonic:9 series:3 open:3 pipe:2 readily:1 obtain:1 reason:1 small:1 diameter:1 relation:1 length:2 make:3 rigi:2 kulm:1 schwyz:1 victoria:1 albert:1 museum:1 measure:1 ft:1 straight:1 tube:1 varies:1 accord:2 locality:1 curve:1 michael:1 praetorius:1 name:1 hölzern:1 trummet:1 trumpet:1 syntagma:1 musicum:1 wittenberg:1 pl:1 viii:1 note:5 overlap:1 exactly:1 correspond:1 familiar:1 chromatic:3 scale:3 standard:1 western:1 equal:1 temperament:1 prominently:1 within:1 range:1 particularly:2 noticeable:1 fall:1 adjacent:1 audio:4 hand:1 skilled:1 composer:1 arranger:1 haunt:1 melancholy:1 effect:1 contrast:1 create:1 charming:1 pastoral:1 flavor:1 lilting:1 ranz:3 vaches:3 work:3 brahms:2 rossini:2 britten:2 cite:1 view:1 leopold:2 kronecker:1 god:2 integer:1 else:1 man:1 musician:1 draw:1 sound:2 consider:1 remainder:1 enable:1 key:1 valve:2 slide:1 method:1 change:1 quality:1 simple:1 artifact:1 mere:1 mortal:1 well:2 score:1 traditional:2 melody:4 often:1 hear:2 song:1 bring:1 cow:1 high:1 country:1 cheese:1 introduce:1 des:1 masterpiece:1 william:3 tell:1 along:1 many:2 delightful:1 scatter:1 opera:1 vocal:1 instrumental:1 part:2 suit:2 clear:1 inspiration:1 great:1 last:1 movement:1 symphony:1 play:3 orchestra:3 area:1 finally:1 prologue:1 serenade:1 tenor:1 string:2 without:1 equally:1 beautiful:1 inspired:1 example:1 lyric:1 possibility:1 music:3 among:2 compose:1 sinfonia:1 pastorella:1 mozart:1 concerto:1 jean:1 daetwyler:1 concertino:1 rustico:1 ferenc:1 farkas:1 begegnung:1 alphorns:2 concert:3 band:1 kurt:3 gable:1 säumerweg:1 blue:1 ott:2 composition:2 han:2 jürg:2 sommer:2 musik:1 messe:1 für:1 und:2 chor:1 franz:2 schüssele:2 center:2 virtuoso:1 eliana:1 burki:1 jazz:3 chillout:1 hopson:2 calgary:1 philharmonic:1 builder:1 joszef:1 molnar:1 quartet:1 arkady:1 shilkloper:1 group:1 performer:1 alpentraum:1 michigan:1 usa:1 academy:1 chrystal:1 frances:1 jones:1 uk:1 alphornist:1 jacaranda:1 ensemble:1 world:2 feature:1 les:1 briançonneurs:1 briançon:2 france:2 mike:1 cumberland:1 rocky:1 alain:1 prouvé:1 roger:1 zenetti:1 alpflyinghorn:1 tuneable:1 collapsable:1 carbon:1 fiber:1 alphornbau:1 josef:2 stocker:2 pete:1 wutherich:3 boise:1 idaho:1 compete:1 build:1 eminent:1 master:1 preliminarily:1 tie:1 photo:1 finish:1 foot:1 inch:1 nose:1 alone:1 fit:1 frame:1 stealthy:1 magnum:1 opus:1 resolve:1 friendly:1 competition:1 favor:1 decide:1 come:1 champion:1 reference:1 bachmann:1 geiser:1 brigitte:1 das:1 vom:1 lock:1 zum:1 rockinstrument:1 paul:1 haupt:1 berne:1 isbn:2 hirtenhorn:1 europa:1 cd:1 sample:1 available:1 external:1 link:2 contest:1 take:1 place:1 annually:1 oensingen:1 canton:2 solothurn:1 international:1 festival:1 nendaz:1 |@bigram conical_bore:1 cistercian_abbey:1 chromatic_scale:3 equal_temperament:1 composer_arranger:1 leopold_kronecker:1 valve_slide:1 leopold_mozart:1 rocky_mountain:1 boise_idaho:1 magnum_opus:1 external_link:1 |
6,778 | Barbagia | Barbagia (Sardinian: Barbàgia or Barbaza) is an mountain area of inner Sardinia, western Italy. It is mostly comprised in the province of Nuoro. The name comes from Cicero, who described it as a land of Barbarians. This word derives from the Greek Βάρβαρος-ου, which means stuttering. The inhabitants were also known as latrones mastrucati, which means "thieves with a rough garment in wool". The area is usually divided into four Barbagias: the Barbagia di Ollolai, the Barbagia di Seulo, the Barbagia di Belvì and the Mandrolisai. The latter is named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages. The area is full of hard hills, and there is little human presence. In fact, Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe. These facts have allowed Barbagia to preserve its cultural and natural treasures. The language spoken is Sardo logudorese. One of the most important towns is Gavoi. Orgosolo is famous for its bandits and kidnappers. Oliena is well known for its wines (especially the Nepente, a wine made with Cannonau grapes). Another well known town is Fonni, being the highest town in Sardinia, More than 1000 meters above sea level. Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system Economy: agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry. See also Tenores | Barbagia |@lemmatized barbagia:6 sardinian:1 barbàgia:1 barbaza:1 mountain:2 area:4 inner:1 sardinia:2 western:1 italy:1 mostly:1 comprise:1 province:1 nuoro:1 name:2 come:1 cicero:1 describe:1 land:1 barbarian:1 word:1 derive:1 greek:1 βάρβαρος:1 ου:1 mean:2 stuttering:1 inhabitant:1 also:3 know:3 latrones:1 mastrucati:1 thief:1 rough:1 garment:1 wool:1 usually:1 divide:1 four:1 barbagias:1 di:3 ollolai:1 seulo:1 belvì:1 mandrolisai:1 latter:1 sub:1 region:1 others:1 main:1 village:1 full:1 hard:1 hill:1 little:1 human:1 presence:1 fact:2 one:2 least:1 populated:1 europe:1 allow:1 preserve:1 cultural:1 natural:1 treasure:1 language:1 speak:1 sardo:1 logudorese:1 important:1 town:3 gavoi:1 orgosolo:1 famous:1 bandit:1 kidnapper:1 oliena:1 well:2 wine:2 especially:1 nepente:1 make:1 cannonau:1 grape:1 another:1 fonni:2 high:1 meter:1 sea:1 level:1 gateway:1 gennargentu:1 system:1 economy:1 agriculture:1 sheep:1 breeding:1 art:1 tradition:1 related:1 business:1 tourism:1 light:1 industry:1 see:1 tenores:1 |@bigram province_nuoro:1 |
6,779 | Jargon_File | The Jargon File is a glossary of hacker slang. The original Jargon File was a collection of hacker slang from technical cultures such as the MIT AI Lab, the Stanford AI Lab (SAIL), and others of the old ARPANET AI/LISP/PDP-10 communities, including Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Carnegie Mellon University, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 1975 to 1983 The Jargon File (hereinafter referred to as "jargon-1" or "the File") was made by Raphael Finkel at Stanford in 1975. From this time until the plug was finally pulled on the SAIL computer in 1991, the File was named "AIWORD.RFUP" or "AIWORD.RFDOC". Some terms, such as frob and some senses of moby, are believed to date back to the early 1960s from the Tech Model Railroad Club at MIT. The revisions of jargon-1 were all unnumbered and may be collectively considered "version 1". In 1976, Mark Crispin, having seen an announcement about the File on the SAIL computer, FTPed a copy of the File to MIT. He noticed that it was hardly restricted to "AI words" and so stored the file on his directory, named as "AI:MRC;SAIL JARGON". However, jargon is a misnomer; the editors of the file have always tried to avoid the inclusion of strict computer jargon (i.e., technical terms), favoring instead slang used by hackers. The file was quickly renamed "JARGON >" (the '>' suffix triggered versioning under ITS), because a flurry of enhancements were made by Mark Crispin and Guy Steele, who generated multiple revisions. In the late 1970s, definitions were added by members of the dynamic modeling group at MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science. Contributors included Marc Blank, Dave Lebling, and Tim Anderson (the original authors of Zork). Raphael Finkel dropped out of active participation shortly thereafter and Don Woods became the SAIL contact for the File (which was subsequently kept in duplicate at SAIL and MIT, with periodic resynchronizations). The File expanded by fits and starts until 1983. Richard Stallman was prominent among the contributors, adding many MIT and ITS-related coinages. In 1981, a hacker named Charles Spurgeon got a large chunk of the File published in Stewart Brand's CoEvolution Quarterly (issue 29, pages 26–35) with illustrations by Phil Wadler and Guy Steele (including a couple of the Crunchly cartoons). This appears to have been the File's first paper publication. A late version of jargon-1, expanded with commentary for the mass market, was edited by Guy Steele into a book published in 1983 as The Hacker's Dictionary (Harper & Row CN 1082, ISBN 0-06-091082-8). The other jargon-1 editors (Raphael Finkel, Don Woods, and Mark Crispin) contributed to this revision, as did Richard M. Stallman and Geoff Goodfellow. This book (now out of print) is hereafter referred to as "Steele-1983" and those six as the Steele-1983 coauthors. 1983 to 1990 Shortly after the publication of Steele-1983, the File effectively stopped growing and changing. Originally, this was due to a desire to freeze the file temporarily to ease the production of Steele-1983, but external conditions caused the "temporary" freeze to become permanent. The AI Lab culture had been hit hard in the late 1970s by funding cuts and the resulting administrative decision to use vendor-supported hardware and associated proprietary software instead of homebrew whenever possible. At MIT, most AI work had turned to dedicated Lisp machines. At the same time, the commercialization of AI technology lured some of the AI Lab's best and brightest away to startups along the Route 128 strip in Massachusetts and out West in Silicon Valley. The startups built LISP machines for MIT; the central MIT-AI computer became a TWENEX system rather than a host for the AI hackers' beloved ITS. The Stanford AI Lab had effectively ceased to exist by 1980, although the SAIL computer continued as a computer science department resource until 1991. Stanford became a major TWENEX site, at one point operating more than a dozen TOPS-20 systems, but by the mid-1980s most of the interesting software work was being done on the emerging BSD Unix standard. In May 1983, the PDP-10-centered cultures that had nourished the File were dealt a death-blow by the cancellation of the Jupiter project at DEC. The File's compilers, already dispersed, moved on to other things. Steele-1983 was partly a monument to what its authors thought was a dying tradition; no one involved realized at the time just how wide its influence was to be. As mentioned in some editions: THIS IS THE JARGON FILE, VERSION 2.6.2, 14 FEB 1991 By the mid-1980s the File's content was dated, but the legend that had grown up around it never quite died out. The book, and softcopies obtained off the ARPANET, circulated even in cultures far removed from MIT's; the content exerted a strong and continuing influence on hackish slang and humor. Even as the advent of the microcomputer and other trends fueled a tremendous expansion of hackerdom, the File (and related materials like the AI Koans in Appendix A) came to be seen as a sort of sacred epic, a hacker-culture Matter of Britain chronicling the heroic exploits of the Knights of the Lab. The pace of change in hackerdom at large accelerated tremendously, but the Jargon File passed from living document to icon and remained essentially untouched for seven years. 1990 and later A new revision was begun in 1990, which contained nearly the entire text of a late version of jargon-1 (a few obsolete PDP-10-related entries were dropped after consultation with the editors of Steele-1983). It merged in about 80% of the Steele-1983 text, omitting some framing material and a very few entries introduced in Steele-1983 that are now only of historical interest. The new version cast a wider net than the old Jargon File; its aim was to cover not just AI or PDP-10 hacker culture but all of the technical computing cultures in which the true hacker-nature is manifested. More than half of the entries now derive from Usenet and represent jargon now current in the C and Unix communities, but special efforts have been made to collect jargon from other cultures including IBM PC programmers, Amiga fans, Mac enthusiasts, and even the IBM mainframe world. Eric S. Raymond maintains the new File with assistance from Guy Steele, and is the credited editor of the print version, The New Hacker's Dictionary. Some of the changes made under his watch have been controversial; early critics accused Raymond of unfairly changing the file's focus to the Unix hacker culture instead of the older hacker cultures where the Jargon File originated. Raymond has responded by saying that the nature of hacking had changed and the Jargon File should report on hacker culture, and not attempt to enshrine it. More recently, Raymond has been accused of adding terms to the Jargon File that appear to have been used primarily by himself, and of altering the file to reflect his own political views. , the last revision is 4.4.7 of 29 December 2003. Notes References External links The original (unmaintained) Jargon File The current Jargon File and its revision history Archive of the file Jargon Database Random Jargon File quote "Hackers Can Sidejack Cookies" -(a poem in the New Yorker by Heather McHugh) | Jargon_File |@lemmatized jargon:24 file:33 glossary:1 hacker:14 slang:4 original:3 collection:1 technical:3 culture:11 mit:10 ai:14 lab:6 stanford:4 sail:7 others:1 old:3 arpanet:2 lisp:3 pdp:4 community:2 include:4 bolt:1 beranek:1 newman:1 carnegie:1 mellon:1 university:1 worcester:1 polytechnic:1 institute:1 hereinafter:1 refer:2 make:4 raphael:3 finkel:3 time:3 plug:1 finally:1 pull:1 computer:7 name:3 aiword:2 rfup:1 rfdoc:1 term:3 frob:1 sens:1 moby:1 believe:1 date:2 back:1 early:2 tech:1 model:1 railroad:1 club:1 revision:6 unnumbered:1 may:2 collectively:1 consider:1 version:6 mark:3 crispin:3 see:2 announcement:1 ftp:1 copy:1 notice:1 hardly:1 restrict:1 word:1 store:1 directory:1 mrc:1 however:1 misnomer:1 editor:4 always:1 try:1 avoid:1 inclusion:1 strict:1 e:1 favor:1 instead:3 use:3 quickly:1 rename:1 suffix:1 trigger:1 versioning:1 flurry:1 enhancement:1 guy:4 steele:12 generate:1 multiple:1 late:4 definition:1 add:3 member:1 dynamic:1 modeling:1 group:1 laboratory:1 science:2 contributor:2 marc:1 blank:1 dave:1 lebling:1 tim:1 anderson:1 author:2 zork:1 drop:2 active:1 participation:1 shortly:2 thereafter:1 wood:2 become:4 contact:1 subsequently:1 keep:1 duplicate:1 periodic:1 resynchronizations:1 expand:2 fit:1 start:1 richard:2 stallman:2 prominent:1 among:1 many:1 relate:2 coinage:1 charles:1 spurgeon:1 get:1 large:2 chunk:1 publish:2 stewart:1 brand:1 coevolution:1 quarterly:1 issue:1 page:1 illustration:1 phil:1 wadler:1 couple:1 crunchly:1 cartoon:1 appear:2 first:1 paper:1 publication:2 commentary:1 mass:1 market:1 edit:1 book:3 dictionary:2 harper:1 row:1 cn:1 isbn:1 contribute:1 geoff:1 goodfellow:1 print:2 hereafter:1 six:1 coauthor:1 effectively:2 stop:1 grow:2 change:5 originally:1 due:1 desire:1 freeze:2 temporarily:1 ease:1 production:1 external:2 condition:1 cause:1 temporary:1 permanent:1 hit:1 hard:1 funding:1 cut:1 result:1 administrative:1 decision:1 vendor:1 support:1 hardware:1 associate:1 proprietary:1 software:2 homebrew:1 whenever:1 possible:1 work:2 turn:1 dedicated:1 machine:2 commercialization:1 technology:1 lure:1 best:1 brightest:1 away:1 startups:1 along:1 route:1 strip:1 massachusetts:1 west:1 silicon:1 valley:1 startup:1 build:1 central:1 twenex:2 system:2 rather:1 host:1 beloved:1 cease:1 exist:1 although:1 continue:2 department:1 resource:1 major:1 site:1 one:2 point:1 operate:1 dozen:1 top:1 mid:2 interesting:1 emerge:1 bsd:1 unix:3 standard:1 center:1 nourish:1 deal:1 death:1 blow:1 cancellation:1 jupiter:1 project:1 dec:1 compiler:1 already:1 disperse:1 move:1 thing:1 partly:1 monument:1 think:1 dying:1 tradition:1 involve:1 realize:1 wide:1 influence:2 mention:1 edition:1 feb:1 content:2 legend:1 around:1 never:1 quite:1 die:1 softcopies:1 obtain:1 circulate:1 even:3 far:1 remove:1 exert:1 strong:1 hackish:1 humor:1 advent:1 microcomputer:1 trend:1 fuel:1 tremendous:1 expansion:1 hackerdom:2 material:2 like:1 koan:1 appendix:1 come:1 sort:1 sacred:1 epic:1 matter:1 britain:1 chronicle:1 heroic:1 exploit:1 knight:1 pace:1 accelerate:1 tremendously:1 pass:1 live:1 document:1 icon:1 remain:1 essentially:1 untouched:1 seven:1 year:1 later:1 new:5 begin:1 contain:1 nearly:1 entire:1 text:2 obsolete:1 related:1 entry:3 consultation:1 merge:1 omit:1 framing:1 introduce:1 historical:1 interest:1 cast:1 wider:1 net:1 aim:1 cover:1 computing:1 true:1 nature:2 manifest:1 half:1 derive:1 usenet:1 represent:1 current:2 c:1 special:1 effort:1 collect:1 ibm:2 pc:1 programmer:1 amiga:1 fan:1 mac:1 enthusiast:1 mainframe:1 world:1 eric:1 raymond:4 maintain:1 assistance:1 credited:1 watch:1 controversial:1 critic:1 accuse:2 unfairly:1 focus:1 originate:1 respond:1 say:1 hacking:1 report:1 attempt:1 enshrine:1 recently:1 primarily:1 alter:1 reflect:1 political:1 view:1 last:1 december:1 note:1 reference:1 link:1 unmaintained:1 history:1 archive:1 database:1 random:1 quote:1 sidejack:1 cooky:1 poem:1 yorker:1 heather:1 mchugh:1 |@bigram ai_lab:5 carnegie_mellon:1 worcester_polytechnic:1 polytechnic_institute:1 guy_steele:4 marc_blank:1 dave_lebling:1 shortly_thereafter:1 richard_stallman:2 charles_spurgeon:1 harper_row:1 silicon_valley:1 bsd_unix:1 ibm_pc:1 ibm_mainframe:1 eric_raymond:1 external_link:1 |
6,780 | Internet_Message_Access_Protocol | The Internet Message Access Protocol or IMAP is one of the two most prevalent Internet standard protocols for e-mail retrieval, the other being POP3. Virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers support both protocols as a means of transferring e-mail messages from a server, such as those used by Gmail, to a client, such as Mozilla Thunderbird, Apple Mail and Microsoft Outlook. Once configured, the client's use of such protocols remains transparent to the user. E-mail protocols Internet Message Access Protocol (commonly known as IMAP or IMAP4, and previously called Internet Mail Access Protocol, Interactive Mail Access Protocol (RFC 1064), and Interim Mail Access Protocol http://www.iana.org/assignments/service-names ) is an application layer Internet protocol operating on port 143 that allows a local client to access e-mail on a remote server. The current version, IMAP version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1), is defined by RFC 3501. IMAP supports both connected (online) and disconnected (offline) modes of operation. E-mail clients using IMAP generally leave messages on the server until the user explicitly deletes them. This and other facets of IMAP operation allow multiple clients to access the same mailbox. Most e-mail clients support either POP3 or IMAP to retrieve messages; however, fewer Internet Service Providers (ISPs) support IMAP. IMAP4 offers access to the mail store; the client may store local copies of the messages, but these are considered to be a temporary cache; the server's store is authoritative. E-mail messages are usually sent to an e-mail server that stores received messages in the recipient's e-mail mailbox. The user retrieves messages with either a web browser or an e-mail client that uses one of a number of e-mail retrieval protocols. Some clients and servers preferentially use vendor-specific, proprietary protocols, but most support the Internet standard protocols, SMTP for sending e-mail and POP3 and IMAP4 for retrieving e-mail, allowing interoperability with other servers and clients. SMTP can also be used for retrieving email; it is more suitable for permanent Internet connection than, say, a dialup connection, and is supported by most e-mail client software. For example, Microsoft's Outlook client uses a proprietary protocol to communicate with an Exchange server as does IBM's Notes client when communicating with a Domino server, but all of these products also support POP3, IMAP4, and outgoing SMTP. Support for the Internet standard protocols allows many e-mail clients such as Pegasus Mail or Mozilla Thunderbird (see comparison of e-mail clients) to access these servers, and allows the clients to be used with other servers (see list of mail servers). E-mail clients can usually be configured to use either POP3 or IMAP4 to retrieve e-mail and in both cases use SMTP for sending. Most e-mail programs can also use Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) for directory services. IMAP is often used in large networks, for example, a college campus mail system. IMAP allows users to access new messages as fast as the network can deliver them to their computers. With POP3, users either download the e-mail to their computer or access it via the web. Both methods take longer than IMAP over a local network, and the user must download any new mail (e.g. by "refreshing" the page) to see the new messages. History IMAP was designed by Mark Crispin in 1986 as a remote mailbox protocol, in contrast to the widely used POP, a protocol for retrieving the contents of a mailbox. The IMAP Connection - IMAP Status and History Original IMAP The original Interim Mail Access Protocol was implemented as a Xerox Lisp machine client and a TOPS-20 server. No copies of the original interim protocol or its software exist; all known installations of the original protocol were updated to IMAP2. Although some of its commands and responses were similar to IMAP2, the interim protocol lacked command/response tagging and thus its syntax was incompatible with all other versions of IMAP. IMAP2 The interim protocol was quickly replaced by the Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP2), defined in RFC 1064 and later updated by RFC 1176. IMAP2 introduced command/response tagging and was the first publicly distributed version. IMAP2bis With the advent of MIME, IMAP2 was extended to support MIME body structures and add mailbox management functionality (create, delete, rename, message upload) that was absent in IMAP2. This experimental revision was called IMAP2bis; its specification was never published in non-draft form. Early versions of Pine were widely distributed with IMAP2bis support (Pine 4.00 and later supports IMAP4rev1). IMAP4 An IMAP Working Group formed in the IETF in the early 1990s and took over responsibility for the IMAP2bis design. The IMAP WG decided to rename IMAP2bis to IMAP4 to avoid confusion with a competing IMAP3 proposal from another group that never got off the ground. The expansion of the IMAP acronym also changed to the Internet Message Access Protocol. Some design flaws in the original IMAP4 (defined by RFC 1730) that came out in implementation experience led to its revision and replacement by IMAP4rev1 two years later. There were very few IMAP4 client or server implementations due to its short lifetime. IMAP4rev1 The current version of IMAP since 1996, IMAP version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1), is defined by RFC 3501 which revised the earlier RFC 2060. IMAP4rev1 is backwards compatible with IMAP2 and IMAP2bis; and is largely backwards compatible with IMAP4. However, the older versions are either extinct or nearly so. Unlike many older Internet protocols, IMAP4 natively supports encrypted login mechanisms. Plain-text transmission of passwords in IMAP4 is also possible. Because the encryption mechanism to be used must be agreed between the server and client, plain-text passwords are used in some combinations of clients and servers (typically Microsoft Windows clients and non-Windows servers). It is also possible to encrypt IMAP4 traffic using SSL, either by tunneling IMAP4 communications over SSL on port 993, or by issuing STARTTLS within an established IMAP4 session (see RFC 2595). Advantages over POP3 Connected and disconnected modes of operation When using POP3, clients typically connect to the e-mail server briefly, only as long as it takes to download new messages. When using IMAP4, clients often stay connected as long as the user interface is active and download message content on demand. For users with many or large messages, this IMAP4 usage pattern can result in faster response times. Multiple clients simultaneously connected to the same mailbox The POP3 protocol requires the currently connected client to be the only client connected to the mailbox. In contrast, the IMAP protocol specifically allows simultaneous access by multiple clients and provides mechanisms for clients to detect changes made to the mailbox by other, concurrently connected, clients. Access to MIME message parts and partial fetch Nearly all internet e-mail is transmitted in MIME format, allowing messages to have a tree structure where the leaf nodes are any of a variety of single part content types and the non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of multipart types. The IMAP4 protocol allows clients to separately retrieve any of the individual MIME parts and also to retrieve portions of either individual parts or the entire message. These mechanisms allow clients to retrieve the text portion of a message without retrieving attached files or to stream content as it is being fetched. Message state information Through the use of flags defined in the IMAP4 protocol, clients can keep track of message state; for example, whether or not the message has been read, replied to, or deleted. These flags are stored on the server, so different clients accessing the same mailbox at different times can detect state changes made by other clients. POP3 provides no mechanism for clients to store such state information on the server so if a single user accesses a mailbox with two different POP3 clients, state information--such as whether a message has been accessed--cannot be synchronized between the clients. The IMAP4 protocol supports both pre-defined system flags and client defined keywords. System flags indicate state information such as whether a message has been read. Keywords, which are not supported by all IMAP servers, allow messages to be given one or more tags whose meaning is up to the client. Adding user created tags to messages is an operation supported by some web-based email services, such as Gmail. Multiple mailboxes on the server IMAP4 clients can create, rename, and/or delete mailboxes (usually presented to the user as folders) on the server, and move messages between mailboxes. Multiple mailbox support also allows servers to provide access to shared and public folders. Server-side searches IMAP4 provides a mechanism for a client to ask the server to search for messages meeting a variety of criteria. This mechanism avoids requiring clients to download every message in the mailbox in order to perform these searches. Built-in extension mechanism Reflecting the experience of earlier Internet protocols, IMAP4 defines an explicit mechanism by which it may be extended. Many extensions to the base protocol have been proposed and are in common use. IMAP2bis did not have an extension mechanism, and POP3 now has one defined by RFC 2449. Disadvantages of IMAP While IMAP remedies many of the shortcomings of POP, this inherently introduces additional complexity. Much of this complexity (e.g., multiple clients accessing the same mailbox at the same time) is compensated for by server-side workarounds such as maildir or database backends. Unless the mail store and searching algorithms on the server are carefully implemented, a client can potentially consume large amounts of server resources when searching massive mailboxes. IMAP4 clients need to explicitly request new email message content potentially causing additional delays on slow connections such as those commonly used by mobile devices. A private proposal, push IMAP, would extend IMAP to implement push e-mail by sending the entire message instead of just a notification. However, push IMAP has not been generally accepted and current IETF work has addressed the problem in other ways (see the Lemonade Profile for more information). Unlike some proprietary protocols which combine sending and retrieval operations, sending a message and saving a copy in a server-side folder with a base-level IMAP client requires transmitting the message content twice, once to SMTP for delivery and a second time to IMAP to store in a sent mail folder. This is remedied by a set of extensions defined by the IETF LEMONADE Working Group for mobile devices: URLAUTH (RFC 4467) and CATENATE (RFC 4469) in IMAP and BURL (RFC 4468) in SMTP-SUBMISSION. POP3 servers don't support server-side folders so clients have no choice but to store sent items on the client. Many IMAP clients can be configured to store sent mail in a client-side folder. In addition to the LEMONADE "trio", Courier Mail Server offers a non-standard method of sending using IMAP by copying an outgoing message to a dedicated outbox folder. Common server implementations The following IMAP-servers are common: Axigen Binc IMAP - uses Maildir format, designed to be familiar for users of qmail and qmail-pop3d Citadel CommuniGate Pro Courier Mail Server - uses Maildir format. Cyrus IMAP server - a "black box" server that provides access through POP3 and IMAP; uses a proprietary Maildir-esque scheme, and does indexing Dovecot - Secure IMAP server with Maildir and indexing Eudora Internet Mail Server FirstClass Server - FirstClass Server Gordano Messaging Suite hMailServer - Free email server for Microsoft Windows IBM Lotus Domino Server Ipswitch IMail Server IMail Server Kerio MailServer M-Box from Isode Limited Mailtraq Mercury Mail Transport System Mirapoint Email Appliance Microsoft Exchange Server Openwave Email MX Novell GroupWise Sun Java System Messaging Server Synchronica Mobile Gateway - an IMAP gateway server optimized for push email including support for Lemonade (IMAP idle and OMA EMN) UW IMAP - supports multiple formats including mbox, mbx, MMDF, tenex, mtx, MH, MIX, and Usenet news spools. Zimbra Common client implementations The following IMAP-clients are common (see also Comparison of e-mail clients): Text-based clients: Pine - one of the first IMAP clients Mutt - e-mail client found in many Linux distributions GUI clients: Apple Mail The Bat! Novell Evolution Claws Mail (formerly Sylpheed-Claws) Sylpheed Novell GroupWise Windows Client iPhone's mail client KMail Eudora Microsoft Outlook Express Microsoft Outlook Microsoft Entourage Windows Mail Windows Live Mail Mozilla Thunderbird Mulberry Pegasus Mail Opera Mail SeaMonkey Mail Becky! GNUMail Emacs-based clients: Gnus Web-based clients: IMP RoundCube SquirrelMail BlueMamba IlohaMail The following e-mail services support IMAP access: AOL Mail AOL Instant Messenger MobileMe (formerly known as .Mac) - paid subscription FastMail.FM Gmail GMX Mail Hushmail - paid subscription PolarisMail Runbox Rackspace Email The following clients support IMAP on a Treo ChatterEmail See also E-mail client List of mail servers Post Office Protocol (POP3) Push-IMAP Simple Mail Access Protocol Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Webmail IMAP IDLE Virtual Private Network References External links RFC 3501 - specification of IMAP version 4 revision 1 RFC 2683 - IMAP Implementation Suggestions RFC RFC 2177 - IMAP4 IDLE command The IMAP connection - resources for developers of programs using the IMAP protocol Unofficial IMAP protocol wiki - resources for IMAP client and server developers | Internet_Message_Access_Protocol |@lemmatized internet:14 message:37 access:25 protocol:39 imap:53 one:5 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6,781 | Kangol | Kangol is a clothing company famous for its headwear. Founded in Cleator, Cumbria, England in 1938 by Jaques Spreiregen, Kangol (the K from silk, the ANG from angora, the OL from wool) produced hats for workers, golfers, and especially soldiers. They were the major beret suppliers to the armed forces during World War II, including famously Field Marshal Montgomery. General Montgomery, wearing his iconic Kangol beret During and after the war, Kangol berets were the height of fashion. In the 1960s, designers Mary Quant and Pierre Cardin worked with the company, whose products graced the heads of the rich and famous, including the Beatles and Arnold Palmer, and later Princess Diana. The company also supplied uniformed organisations such as the Scout Association. In the 1980s Kangol berets entered a new phase of fashion history with their adoption by members of the hip-hop community, such as Grandmaster Flash, Run-DMC, LL Cool J, Slick Rick, and Kangol Kid of UTFO. The release of more consciously stylish products in the 1990s such as the furgora (angora-wool mix) Spitfire, was helped by its presence upon the head of Samuel L. Jackson in 1997. Kevin Eubanks, bandleader for The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, sports a Kangol beret on an almost nightly basis. Kangol has been owned by Sports World since 2006, when they acquired the brand from private equity fund, August Equity Trust. Licenses to manufacture and sell Kangol apparel have been sold to many different companies including D2 and Topshop. The global rights to Kangol hats have been held by American hatmakers Bollman Headwear since 2002. It was announced in February 2009 that Bollman were reviewing their worldwide operations, putting 33 jobs and the future of the Kangol head office in Cleator in doubt. On 6 April 2009, it was announced that the original factory would be converted to a warehouse with the loss of 25 jobs. Only 7 employees now remain employed at the company's original site. However, hats will continue made at their sites in Eastern Europe & the United States. References External links Kangol – official site Bollman Hats – official site | Kangol |@lemmatized kangol:12 clothing:1 company:5 famous:2 headwear:2 found:1 cleator:2 cumbria:1 england:1 jaques:1 spreiregen:1 k:1 silk:1 ang:1 angora:2 ol:1 wool:2 produce:1 hat:4 worker:1 golfer:1 especially:1 soldier:1 major:1 beret:5 supplier:1 armed:1 force:1 world:2 war:2 ii:1 include:3 famously:1 field:1 marshal:1 montgomery:2 general:1 wear:1 iconic:1 height:1 fashion:2 designer:1 mary:1 quant:1 pierre:1 cardin:1 work:1 whose:1 product:2 grace:1 head:3 rich:1 beatles:1 arnold:1 palmer:1 later:1 princess:1 diana:1 also:1 supply:1 uniformed:1 organisation:1 scout:1 association:1 enter:1 new:1 phase:1 history:1 adoption:1 member:1 hip:1 hop:1 community:1 grandmaster:1 flash:1 run:1 dmc:1 cool:1 j:1 slick:1 rick:1 kid:1 utfo:1 release:1 consciously:1 stylish:1 furgora:1 mix:1 spitfire:1 help:1 presence:1 upon:1 samuel:1 l:1 jackson:1 kevin:1 eubanks:1 bandleader:1 tonight:1 show:1 jay:1 leno:1 sport:2 almost:1 nightly:1 basis:1 since:2 acquire:1 brand:1 private:1 equity:2 fund:1 august:1 trust:1 license:1 manufacture:1 sell:2 apparel:1 many:1 different:1 topshop:1 global:1 right:1 hold:1 american:1 hatmaker:1 bollman:3 announce:2 february:1 review:1 worldwide:1 operation:1 put:1 job:2 future:1 office:1 doubt:1 april:1 original:2 factory:1 would:1 convert:1 warehouse:1 loss:1 employee:1 remain:1 employ:1 site:4 however:1 continue:1 make:1 eastern:1 europe:1 united:1 state:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 |@bigram fashion_designer:1 hip_hop:1 grandmaster_flash:1 run_dmc:1 jay_leno:1 private_equity:1 external_link:1 |
6,782 | Drag_racing | The "christmas tree counting down at SIR, Pro Camaro at launch, with Altered Vision in the right lane. Wheelstand indicates axle twist, rather than forward motion, meaning poor acceleration. Jody "The Kid" Beauchemin's modern long-wheelbase fuellie altered Altered Vision after a pass at SIR. Drag racing is a competition in which vehicles compete to be the first to cross a set finish line, usually from a standing start, and in a straight line. First gaining popularity in the USA after World War II (1945), the sport steadily grew in popularity and spread across the globe. By 2009, there were hundreds of drag strips in operation, mainly in developed countries. Most drag races begin with a standing (stationary) start and are just 1/4 mile long (1320 feet). Races last between 4.5 and 15 seconds, with finishing speeds ranging from 100 to over , depending upon the type of vehicle being used. The world record for a 1/4 mile standing start pass is 4.428 seconds with a terminal velocity of . Basics of drag racing Before each drag race (also known as a pass), each driver is allowed to perform a burnout (which heats the tires and lays rubber down at the beginning of the track, improving traction), then lines up (or stages) at the starting line. Informal drag races can be started by any means, including flag-waving and arm-dropping. Professional drag races are started electronically, with a series of vertically-arranged lights known as a "Christmas tree" or just "tree." A "Christmas tree" consists of a column of lights for each driver/lane. In each column, the top two lights are small amber lights connected to light beams on the track, which when broken by the vehicle's front tire(s) indicate that the driver has pre-staged (approximately from the starting line) and then staged (at the starting line). Drag racing made easy Below the staging lights are three large amber lights, a green light, and a red light. When both drivers are staged, the tree is activated to start the race, which causes the three large amber lights to illuminate, followed by the green light. There are two standard light sequences: Either the three amber lights flash simultaneously, followed .4 seconds later by the green light (a pro tree), or the amber lights light in sequence from top to bottom, .5 seconds apart, followed .5 seconds later by the green light (a sportsman tree, or full tree). If the driver leaves the starting line before the green light illuminates, the red light for that driver's lane illuminates instead, indicating disqualification should no further infractions occur. Several measurements are taken for each race: reaction time, elapsed time, and speed. Reaction time is the time from the green light illuminating to the vehicle leaving the starting line. Elapsed time is the time from the vehicle leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line. Speed is measured through a speed trap near the finish line, indicating the approximate maximum speed of the vehicle during the run. The Top Fuel Dragsters and nitro Funny Cars are now running in a quarter-mile [] race. The winner is the first vehicle to cross the finish line (and therefore the driver with the lowest total reaction time + elapsed time). The elapsed time is a measure of performance only; it does not, per se, determine the winner. Because elapsed time does not include reaction time, a car with a faster elapsed time can actually lose the race if the driver does not react to the green light fast enough. In practice, it is advantageous for the driver to "jump the gun" by a fraction of a second, starting the car during the split-second interval between when the yellow light goes out and the green light goes on. However, if the car leaves the front light beam before the green light comes on, the driver has "red-lighted" (because the red light is lit on the Christmas Tree) and should no further fouls happen during the race, is disqualified. Once a driver commits a red-light foul, the other driver can also commit a foul start by leaving the line too early but would win because he or she would leave the line slower. A driver who gets a substantial lead at the start is said to have gotten a "holeshot." A win where a driver wins a race with a higher elapsed time but lower reaction time is known as a "holeshot win." It is also possible for a driver to be disqualified for other infractions, depending on the rules of the race, including crossing the centerline between lanes, touching a wall, striking a track fixture, failing to stage, failing a tech inspection, or running faster than expected/allowed for the assigned class. In boundary line violations, if the offending driver have made a clean start, and the red-light driver does not commit the violation unless forced by the offending car for safety reasons, the driver who committed a red-light foul wins. In the common Eliminator racing format, the losing vehicle and driver are removed from the contest, while the winner goes on to race other winners, until only one is left. In cases where a driver has no opponent for a round, the driver makes a solo pass or "bye run" (in order to at least partially eliminate the advantage that would otherwise come from the engine having one less run on it) to advance to the next round. In most Eliminator formats, the bye runs take place only in the first round. On bye runs, some drivers may choose to drive slowly so as not to stress the car unduly, though choice of lane in the each round is often determined by time in the previous round, making this strategy possibly detrimental. Unlike the NHRA, many European events feature a consolation race where the losers of the semifinal rounds race for third place, the final spot on the podium, and standings points. During drag racing events, vehicles are classified by various criteria that take into account the extent of modifications to the car. These criteria include engine capacity, configuration of cylinders, frame type, vehicle construction materials, wheelbase, horsepower to weight ratio, number of cylinders, whether or not power adding devices such as turbochargers, superchargers or nitrous oxide are employed, vehicle type (such as car, truck, et cetera), or even make and model for limited entry fields. The aforementioned divisions are in place to ensure that the cars are evenly matched during the race. (not all of these can apply) Drag racing vehicles are special in that they are modified to be lighter and more powerful than in their standard form. A lighter vehicle means that the power-to-weight ratio is increased and hence a greater acceleration will be achieved. Power increases vary depending on the extent of the modifications to the engine. Flopper with body up. Note single-plug heads. Racing organization The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in North America. The next largest organization, Feld Entertainment's International Hot Rod Association (IHRA), is about one-third the size of NHRA. Nearly all drag strips are associated with one sanctioning body or the other. The NHRA is more popular with large, 1/4-mile nationally-recognized tracks (although the two fuel classes have races because of safety issues), while the IHRA is a favorite of smaller 1/8-mile [] local tracks (and offers selected races on their national tour under the 1/8-mile format. One reason for this (among others) is the IHRA is less restrictive in its rules, such as rules on nitrous oxide (legal in Pro Modified) and oversized engines (no 8.2 liter / 500cid engine restriction in the IHRA's Pro Stock category) and less expensive to be associated. Prior to the founding of the NHRA and IHRA, smaller organizations sanctioned drag racing in the early years. The first commercially sanctioned drag race on the East coast was reputed to have been held at Longview Speedway (now Old Dominion Speedway) in Manassas, VA. Old Dominion Speedway is currently sanctioned by the SBRA (Southern Bracket Racing Association). Caterpillar-sponsored dragster. Note wide slicks and high-mounted wing, to assist traction. There are literally hundreds of different classes in drag racing, each with different requirements and restrictions on things such as weight, engine size, body style, modifications, and many others. NHRA and IHRA share some of these classes, but many are solely used by one sanctioning body or the other. The NHRA boasts over 200 classes, while the IHRA has fewer. Some IHRA classes have multiple sub-classes in them to differentiate by engine components and other features. There is even a class for aspiring youngsters, Junior Dragster, which uses an eighth-mile, also favored by VW racers. In 1997, the FIA (cars) and UEM (bikes) began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation (and rules compliance) with NHRA. The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England; Alastaro Circuit, Finland; Mantorp Park, Sweden; Gardermoen Raceway, Norway and the Hockenheimring in Germany. The major difference is the nitro-class distance, which is 300 meters at some tracks, although the NHRA and FIA are likely to discuss the distance change in the future. Pain Killer J/D. Note the driver, helmet off, is still in the car, which is under tow on the return road, headed for the pits. However, there are only 5 pro classes in North America (4 NHRA, 4 IHRA), which are: Top Fuel Dragster (TF/D) (NHRA and IHRA). The rail dragsters, or "diggers," the fastest class—up to 90% nitromethane fuel is used. Top Fuel Funny Car (TF/FC) (NHRA and IHRA) Nearly as fast as the diggers, the "floppers" (marginally) resemble actual cars. IHRA will be bringing back Top Fuel Funny Car in 2006, and Top Alcohol Funny Car (A/FC) is already a pro category in IHRA. Pro Modified (Pro Mod) Some engine restrictions, very high power. Cars can run superchargers or nitrous oxide. Cars running blowers are limited to 8.6 L (527 cubic inches) while cars with nitrous oxide can run up to 12.1 L (740 cubic inches). Pro Stock (NHRA and IHRA) Must maintain stock appearance. NHRA cars can run no more than 8.2 L (500 cubic inches) while IHRA cars can run a maximum of 13.4 L (820 cubic inches) ("Mountain Motors"). Pro Stock Bike (NHRA only) Heavily modified motorcycles. In addition to the professional classes, these are some other popular classes: Top Alcohol Dragster Pro FWD Super Comp/Quick Rod Super Gas/Super Rod Super Street/Hot Rod Super Stock Stock Sport Compact Top Sportsman (NHRA and IHRA) Top Dragster (NHRA and IHRA) In NHRA, these two classes are sometimes run together as Top Comp Top Fuel Funny Bike (high performance 5 second bikes) NHRA= Summit Racing series Super Pro, Pro, and bike. Junior Dragster (racers between the ages of 8 and 18 may race a half scale version of the sport's fastest car, Top Fuel Dragster. Juniors run as following: 12.90-slower for 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds at 8.90, and 13-18 year olds 7.90 and slower at a top speed of 85 mph) NHRA new class for Juniors is JR COMP running 6.90s at a top speed of A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites (see external links). Note dual-plug heads, dual mags, and intake snorkel In the FIA European Drag Racing Championships a different structure of professional categories is used with Top Fuel Dragster (with a 90% nitromethane mix), Top Methanol (Alcohol) Dragster, Top Methanol (Alcohol) Funny Car, Pro Stock and Pro Modified running as professional championships as well as FIA specifications published for Fuel Funny Car although this does not run as a championship. The UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike , Super Twin Top Fuel Bike and Pro Stock Bike contested leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories. To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the start line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen "dial-in" in Bracket racing. Intake scoop strapped down tight in case of popping a blower. A "dial-in" is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the "Christmas tree" (commonly just "tree") accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so that if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out),it is disqualified regardless of who has the lowest elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. This eliminates any advantage from putting a slower time on the windshield to get a head start. The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on large infusions of money, and more dependent on skill. Therefore, bracket racing is popular with casual weekend racers. Many of these recreational racers will drive their vehicles to the track, race them, and then simply drive them home. Most tracks do not host national events every week, and on the interim weekends host local casual and weekend racers. Organizationally, however, the tracks are run according to the rules of either the NHRA or the IHRA (for the most part). Even street vehicles must pass a safety inspection prior to being allowed to race. Besides NHRA and IHRA, there are niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehicles. The National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA) races electric vehicles against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as Dodge Vipers or classic muscle cars in 1/4 and 1/8 mile races. The current electric drag racing record is 7.824s for a quarter mile. Another niche organisation is the VWDRC which run a VW-only championship with vehicles running under 7 seconds. A top fuel dragster produces and can go from 0 to in 5 seconds Drag racing performance facts The fastest top fuelers can attain terminal speeds of over 530 km/h (329 mph) while covering the quarter mile (402 m) distance in roughly 4.45 seconds. It is often related that Top Fuel dragsters are the fastest accelerating vehicles on Earth; quicker even than the space shuttle launch vehicle or catapult-assisted jet fighter (drag racing rules require a record run be backed up within one percent in the same meet in order to count as a record; hydrogen peroxide rocket dragsters such as Sammy Miller and Kitty O'Neil's 3.22 ET and 663 km/h (412 mph) quarter mile world records set in 1977 do not count because they failed to back up those runs within one percent, per NHRA and FIA rules.) In fact, a vehicle traveling at a steady 200 mph (322 km/h) as it crosses the starting line will be beaten to the finish line by a top fuel dragster starting from a dead stop at the same moment. Additionally, through the use of large multiple braking parachutes, the astounding performance of 0 to 531 km/h (0 to 330 mph) and then back to 0 in 20 seconds can be obtained. Using twin drag parachutes, deceleration of up to 5 G can be attained, enough to cause detached retinae The History of Fuel Dragsters . The legendary Don Garlits, holder of multiple records (first run, first run...) had to retire because of a detached retina. The faster categories of drag racing are an impressive spectacle, with engines of over five MW (6700 horsepower) and noise outputs to match, cars that look like bizarre parodies of standard street cars (funny cars), and the ritual of burnouts where, prior to the actual timed run, the competitors cause their car's driving wheels to spin while stationary or moving forward slowly, thus heating up the tires to proper working temperature and laying down a sticky coat of rubber on the track surface ( which may have been coated with VHT Trackbite or similar to increase traction) to get optimum grip on the all-important launch. The Blown Alcohol and nitrous oxide-injected Pro Modifieds with their 1500 kW (2012 hp) motors are capable of running in the low six second range at over 370 km/h (230 mph). The IHRA Pro Stocks are just behind, running in the 6.3 second range at over 346 km/h (215 mph), while the NHRA Pro Stocks run in the high sixes at over 322 km/h (200 mph). Top Sportsman and Top Dragster, the two fastest sportsman classes, run a bracket style race and can range from high sevens at over 274 km/h (170 mph) to 6.4s at 210 mph (340 km/h). Super Comp/Quick Rod are either dragsters or doorslammers, but run with a throttle stop. Some cars can run as low as a 7.50 at around 180 mph (290 km/h) without a throttle stop, but use it in order to hit an 8.900 index. Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod run with a 9.900 and 10.900 index respectfully, but both run with a throttle stop. Another class of car is the Sport Compact class that use their power to weight ratio to get performance. The FIAT Topolino was the first to be used this way, in the notorious AA/FA, or Fuel Altered, followed by the more conventional modified VW Beetle. A turbocharger or supercharger is very common, and often necessary to break the 12-second barrier. Cars have progressed rapidly though and can now even run seven second quarter miles. In 2001, the NHRA bought out NIRA and renamed it the Sport Compact category featuring such cars, and while Toyota, Honda, Nissan, and Subaru are very popular, the NHRA has also permitted General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler cars to participate in Sport Compact. With NHRA rule changes in recent years making Pro Stock cars more compact, a change from an 8.2 L (500 cubic inch) V-8 engine to a modified factory four or six cylinder double overhead camshaft engine can easily convert a Pro Stock car to Sport Compact Pro Rear Wheel Drive car. The cars are separated by performance, and since 2003 categories have been split based on the car's drive wheels. Ironically, almost all NHRA Sport Compact records for elapsed time and speed are held by General Motors and Ford cars, rather than the imports. With the decline in sport compact drag racing in the United States, and the demise of the NOPI-NHRA sport compact series in 2008, the NHRA reclassified sport compact racing by classifying the cars within the mainstream categories, allowing the cars to race against traditional domestic cars and street rods in traditional series. Effective July 17, 2008, the NHRA permitted the upper class of sport compact racing—Pro Rear Wheel Drive, Front Wheel Drive, Modified, and Hot Rod categories to participate in the Competition Eliminator class, while in 2009, "all motor" categories in Sport Compact will have their own class (EX) in Super Stock, allowing the cars to race against traditional drag racing cars. Drag racing strategies and methods The various strategies used in drag racing begin with the car itself. Performance enhancements must comply both with NHRA/IHRA rules and restrictions based on the class the car is running in. Some common enhancements include the use of slicks (smooth, soft tires that grip the track), methods for introducing more air into the motor such as turbochargers, superchargers, and nitrous oxide (N2O), specialized fuels (higher octane gas, methanol, etc...), improved suspensions, and a multitude of others. The burnout Example of a burn-out before staging at Hockenheimring, Germany. Note the amount of smoke When approaching the starting line (also known as the staging area), most racers will apply water (formerly thought to be bleach by spectators as it was dispensed from old bleach bottles) to the driven tires either by backing into a small puddle (the "bleach box" or "water box") or having it sprayed on. The car then exits the water and does a burnout to heat the tires, making them even stickier. Some cars have a mandatory "line-lock" which prevents the rear brakes from engaging when the brake pedal is depressed (which can be toggled on and off). This allows the car to remain stationary (with the brakes applied) without burning up the rear brake pads while doing a burnout. Cars in street classes (which must be street legal) are the only exception to this pre-race ritual, as the grooved tires tend to retain some of the water. Staging After the burnout comes staging, where the cars pull up to the starting line. Each lane has its own string of lights on the "Christmas tree," with two small orange lights on top. These are the prestaged and staged lights. The two cars will slowly creep forward until the first (pre-staged) orange light is lit. This means they are very close to the actual starting line (a mere 7 inches). Then the cars will nudge forward until the second (staged) light is lit. This indicates they are at the starting line, this is the point where the driver will apply the line-lock to prevent the car from rolling while he uses the clutch and gas pedals. When both cars have lit both bulbs, the starter will engage the Christmas tree. If the racer moves too far the top bulb will go out and the driver is said to have deep-staged. While some drivers prefer this technique, some tracks and classes prohibit it. An advantage can be had, by deepstaging, in gaining a quicker reaction time (RT) but at the expense of the elapsed time (ET) and MPH achieved at the top end of the track; there is also a higher risk of "red-lighting." A loose etiquette is followed when staging. The driver to illuminate the first light will wait for the second car to light both bulbs before advancing to the staged light. The tree Once the competitors have both staged, the starter presses a button to start the race. There are two types of tree used. A sportsman tree, used for bracket and handicap racing, consists of each yellow lighting 0.5 seconds after the one above it. The green comes on 0.5 seconds after the last yellow is lit. If the race is a handicap race each side of the tree will have its own timing. A pro tree consists of all three yellows being illuminated at the same time, followed by the green 0.4 seconds later. This type of tree is used for professional and heads-up racing. It should be noted that some tracks run a Pro-style tree for bracket racing during special "Street Racing" bracket events. Chief Timer delivering timeslips to competitors after their passes. The race Several things are important on the way down the track in drag racing. The first is not to cross into the opponent's lane, as this will result in disqualification. In case of a double disqualification in which one driver commits a foul start and the second driver crosses into his opponent's lane, the driver who committed the foul start wins. Another important consideration is when to shift gears. Most drag cars are shifted manually by the driver, and there are optimum times for shifting that vary with each car. Typically, power will increase as the engine RPMs (revolutions per minute) increase, but only up to a point before power begins to taper off. The ideal time to shift is when the descending power curve for the lower gear crosses the ascending power curve for the higher gear. Most drag racers use a tachometer to judge shift points. In Fuel classes especially, "pedalling" the car (adjusting the throttle) to prevent loss of traction is often important and one measure of how good a driver is. Strategies for crossing the finish line usually only involve bracket racing (see above). If one car has a huge lead, it may slow down before crossing the finish line to prevent a breakout. Especially in bracket racing, it is not uncommon to see the leading vehicle's brake lights come on briefly before the finish line. The term "sandbagging" is used in races where the driver in a bracket race puts a slower "dial in" (the predicted E.T.) that he/she could run and then at the finish line tap the brakes lightly or lift of the gas pedal (also known as pedalling) to reduce the E.T. to run as close as possible to the dial in. If both cars break out, the car closer to their dial-in wins. In NHRA Junior Dragster racing, however, there is a mimimum elapsed time, quicker than the official break-out elapsed time; a car which posts a lower time is ejected from the event. Rules require a radiator overflow tank. This type (using an old beer can) is illegal at many tracks where a factory-type stock overflow tank (usually plastic) is required. The wheelie bar (foreground) and parachute (gray) on Kenny Bernstein's Top Fuel dragster Glossary Beam—starting line electric eye controlling prestaged and staged lights Bottle- refers to the nitrous system Blow—supercharge; wreck. Said of an engine. Blower—supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and nitrous Blown—supercharged; wrecked. Said of an engine. Blowover—flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels. Commonly suffered by dragsters Breakout—running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out." Grounds for disqualification if opponent does not commit a foul start or cross boundary lines. Christmas tree (or tree) — The series of lights that signal the approach and start of a race in addition to showing starting violations Dial-in—when bracket racing, drivers must estimate or "dial in" the time in which they expect to run. Therefore two unmatched cars in weight and power can compete, by a handicap system. If one runs a faster time than dialed in, it is a breakout. Dope- a commonly used word in the southern states if the car is using nitrous or propane injection on diesels Digger—dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper) Emmons, Don, "R&C Modelrama" in Rod & Custom, 9/00, p.147. First or Worse-if both drivers commit a foul, the driver who commits the foul first loses, unless it is two separate fouls, where the loser is the driver who committed the worse foul (lane violation is worse than foul start, and failure to participate in a post-run inspection is worst). Flopper—Funny Car, short for "fender flopper." Coined by dragster crews in the late 1960s to separate Funny Cars, which had fiberglass bodies with fenders, from dragsters. Erroneously attributed to flip-top bodies of Funny Cars. Fuel—mix of methanol and nitromethane ("pop," nitro); race class using it Fueler—any car running fuel or in Fuel class (most often, TFD or TF/FC) Grenade—wreck an engine (the engine "grenaded") due to internal failure. Distinct from "popping a blower." Heads-up Racing—where both drivers leave at the same time and is used in all professional ("pro") classes. Holeshot—getting a significant advantage off the starting line. The other driver gets "holeshotted" or "left at the tree." A "holeshot win" is any win in a heads-up class where a slower car beats a faster car because of better reaction time. Hook up—Good traction between tires and track resulting in increased acceleration and reduced slipping or smoking of tires. James Bond - where a driver's reaction time (when he leaves the start line) is seven thousands of a second after the green light (.007). A "James Bond Red" is a reaction time of -.007 seconds (red light), which is disqualification unless the opponent commits a more serious violation. Kit-refers to a turbo kit or a nitrous kit Lit the tires—lost traction, causing smoke Nitro—nitromethane (sometimes incorrectly used to refer to nitrous oxide) Overdrive-The ratio between the revolutions of the supercharger to the revolutions of the engine, controlling amount of boost; see underdrive Oildown — When a car's engine or lubrication breaks during a run, leaving a streak of oil and other fluids on the track. This is punishable by fines, point penalties, and/or suspension. Pedalling—working the throttle to avoid lighting the tires, or as a way to sandbag; "pedalled" it, had to "pedal" it Pro tree—timing lights which flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turn green. Put on the trailer—lost (got "put on the trailer") or won (put the other driver on the trailer). From the obvious, losing drivers trailer their cars home. Quick 8 (Q8) Quickest eight cars in a defined race. Rules appear to can differ per location/race. Search for "Quick 8 rules" for more. Rail—dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars. Redlight(ed) a.k.a. bulb(ed)—jump(ed) the start, left before tree turned green. This is a loss unless a more serious (opponent crossing the center boundary line) foul occurs. Scattershield — metal sheet protecting driver in case of transmission failure Its invention is credited to Vic King and Pete Wolley for their X/Gas digger in 1959. Dain Gingerelli, "Midnight Oil!" in American Rodder, 6/94, p.81. Slapper bar — traction bar Slicks—rear tires with no tread pattern and softer rubber compound, for increased traction Slingshot—early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed) Standard tree—timing lights which flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green. Traditional form, before introduction of pro tree. Throw a belt-losing the drive belt connecting the engine's crankshaft to the supercharger Top end—finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band. Traction bars—rear struts fixed to rear axle to keep rear axle from twisting, causing wheel hop and loss of traction; also called slapper bars. Trap(s)—the 20 meter (66 ft) timing lights at top end of race track to measure speed & E.T. Wheel Hop—violent shaking of the car as the tires lose and regain traction in quick succession. Wheelie bars—rear struts fixed to rear axle, which protrude out to rear of car to help prevent car's front from raising too high or flipping over on launch. References Robert C. Post, High Performance: The Culture and Technology of Drag Racing, 1950 - 2000 (Johns Hopkins University Press, revised edition 2001) See also Jet dragster Rocket dragster Electric dragbike Electric dragster External links Drag Race Central | Drag_racing |@lemmatized christmas:8 tree:27 count:3 sir:2 pro:28 camaro:1 launch:5 altered:2 vision:2 right:1 lane:9 wheelstand:1 indicate:5 axle:4 twist:2 rather:3 forward:4 motion:1 mean:4 poor:1 acceleration:3 jody:1 kid:1 beauchemin:1 modern:1 long:2 wheelbase:2 fuellie:1 alter:2 pas:4 drag:34 racing:18 competition:3 vehicle:23 compete:3 first:13 cross:14 set:2 finish:13 line:36 usually:3 stand:2 start:34 straight:1 gain:2 popularity:2 usa:1 world:3 war:1 ii:1 sport:13 steadily:1 grow:1 spread:1 across:1 globe:1 hundred:2 strip:4 operation:1 mainly:1 developed:1 country:1 race:63 begin:4 standing:2 stationary:3 mile:12 foot:1 last:2 second:26 speed:12 range:4 depend:3 upon:1 type:7 use:24 record:7 terminal:2 velocity:1 basic:1 also:12 know:5 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6,783 | Czechoslovakia | Czechoslovakia (Československo; from 1990 in Slovak: Česko-Slovensko) was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945 the state did not have a de facto existence, due to its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, but the Czech government-in-exile nevertheless continued to exist during this time period. On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Basic characteristics Form of state: 1918–1938: a democratic republic 1938–1939: after annexation of Sudetenland by Germany in 1938 gradually turned into a state with loosened connections between Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Ruthenia was annexed by Hungary, and the Zaolzie region by Poland. 1939–1945: De-facto split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. De jure Czechoslovakia continued to exist, a government-in-exile supported by the Western Allies was based in London; after German invasion of Russia also recognised by the USSR. 1945–1948: a country governed by a coalition government with Communist ministers (including the prime minister and minister of interior) playing leading roles. Carpathian Ruthenia ceded to the USSR. 1948–1989: a Communist country with a centrally planned economy (from 1960 onwards officially a Socialist Republic): 1969–1990: a federal republic consisting of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic; 1990–1992: a federal democratic republic consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic Neighbours: Germany (1945–1990: BRD and DDR), Poland, from 1945 Soviet Union (1992: Ukraine), Romania (until 1939), Hungary, Austria Topography: Generally irregular terrain. Western area is part of north-central European uplands. Eastern region is composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube River Basin lands. Climate: Predominantly continental but varied from the moderate temperatures of Western Europe in the west to more severe weather systems affecting Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east. Official names 1918–1920: Republic of Czechoslovakia (abbreviated RČS)/Czecho-Slovak State; short form Czecho-Slovakia/Czechoslovakia 1920–1938: Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR); short form Czechoslovakia 1938–1939: Czecho-Slovak Republic; short form Czecho-Slovakia 1945–1960: Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR); short form Czechoslovakia 1960–1990: Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR); Czechoslovakia April 1990: Czechoslovak Federative Republic (Czech version) and Czecho-Slovak Federative Republic (Slovak version), afterwards: Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (ČSFR, with the short forms Československo in Czech and Česko-Slovensko in Slovak) History Foundation Czechoslovakia in 1928 Czechoslovakia was founded in October 1918 as one of the successor states of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I. It consisted of the present day territories of the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Its territory included some of the most industrialized regions of the former Austria-Hungary. It was a multiethnic state. The original ethnic composition of the new state was 51% Czechs, 16% Slovaks, 22% Germans, 5% Hungarians and 4% Rusyns or Ruthenians (trans-Carpathian Ukrainians). "The War of the World", Niall Ferguson Allen Lane 2006. Many of the Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians and Poles Playing the blame game, Prague Post, July 6th, 2005 and also some Slovaks, felt disadvantaged in Czechoslovakia, because the political elite of the country introduced a centralized state and most of the time did not allow political autonomy for the ethnic groups. This policy, combined with increasing Nazi propaganda especially in the industrialized German speaking Sudetenland, led to increasing unrest among the non-Czech population. The official ideology about constituent nations of the new state at the time was that there are no Czechs and Slovaks, but only one nation: Czechoslovaks (see Czechoslovakism). But not all people agreed with this ideology (mainly among Slovaks) and once a unified Czechoslovakia was restored after WWII (see dividing of the country during WWII) this idea was left behind and Czechoslovakia was a country of two nations - the Czechs and the Slovaks. Czechoslovakia 1930: linguistic Nationalities of Czechoslovakia 1921 Škorpila F. B.; Zeměpisný atlas pro měšťanské školy; Státní Nakladatelství; second edition; 1930; Czechoslovakia total population 13,607.385 Czechoslovaks 8,759.701 64.37 % Germans 3,123.305 22.95 % Hungarians 744.621 5.47 % Ruthenians 461.449 3.39 % Jews 180.534 1.33 % Poles 75.852 0.56 % Others 23.139 0.17 % Foreigners 238.784 1.75 % World War II During the Munich Agreement of 1938, the UK and France forced Czechoslovakia to cede the German-speaking borderland to Nazi Germany despite existing treaties in what is commonly known as part of the Western Betrayal. In 1939 the remainder ("rump") of Czechoslovakia was invaded by Nazi Germany and divided into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the puppet Slovak State. Much of Slovakia and all of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was annexed by Hungary. Communist Czechoslovakia After World War II, prewar Czechoslovakia was re-established, with the exception of Subcarpathian Ruthenia, which was annexed by the Soviet Union and incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Beneš decrees were promulgated concerning ethnic Germans (see Potsdam Agreement) and ethnic Hungarians. Under these decrees, citizenship was abrogated for people of German and Hungarian ethnic origin who had accepted German or Hungarian citizenship during the occupations. (In 1948 this provision was canceled for the Hungarians, but only partially for the Germans). This was then used to confiscate their property and expel around 90% of the ethnic German population of Czechoslovakia, over 2 million people. The people who remained were collectively accused of supporting the Nazis (after the Munich Agreement, in December 1938, 97.32% of adult Sudetengermans voted for NSDAP in elections). Almost every decree explicitly stated that the sanctions did not apply to antifascists although the term Antifascist was not explicitly defined. Some 250,000 Germans, many married to Czechs, some antifascists, but also people required for the post-war reconstruction of the country remained in Czechoslovakia. The Benes Decrees still cause controversy between nationalist groups in Czech Republic, Germany, Austria and Hungary. East European Constitutional Review Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied by (and in June 1945 formally ceded to) the Soviet Union. In 1946 parliamentary election the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia emerged as the winner in the Czech lands (the Democratic Party won in Slovakia). In February 1948 the Communists seized power. Although they would maintain the fiction of political pluralism through the existence of the National Front, except for a short period in the late 1960s (the Prague Spring) the country was characterised by the absence of liberal democracy. While its economy remained more advanced than those of its neighbours in Eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia grew increasingly economically weak relative to Western Europe. In 1968, in response to a brief period of liberalization, five Eastern Bloc countries invaded Czechoslovakia. Soviet Russia rolled tanks into Prague on August 21, 1968. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/N.-Korea-Seize-U.S.-Ship/12303153093431-9/#title "Russia Invades Czechoslovakia: 1968 Year in Review, UPI.com" Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev viewed this intervention as vital to the preservation of the Soviet, socialist system and vowed to intervene in any state that sought to replace Marxism-Leninism with capitalism. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: The Penguin Press),150. In 1969, Czechoslovakia was turned into a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic. Under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state were largely eliminated. A number of ministries, such as Education, were formally transferred to the two republics. However, the centralized political control by the Communist Party severely limited the effects of federalization. The 1970s saw the rise of the dissident movement in Czechoslovakia, represented (among others) by Václav Havel. The movement sought greater political participation and expression in the face of official disapproval, making itself felt by limits on work activities (up to a ban on any professional employment and refusal of higher education to the dissidents' children), police harassment and even prison time. After 1989 In 1989 the country became democratic again through the Velvet Revolution. This occurred at around the same time as the fall of communism in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland. Within three years communist rule had been totally eradicated from Europe. Unlike Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the end of communism in this country did not automatically mean the end of the "communist" name: the word "socialist" was removed from the name on March 29, 1990, and replaced by "federal". In 1992, because of growing nationalist tensions, Czechoslovakia was peacefully dissolved by parliament. Its territory became the Czech Republic and Slovakia, which were formally created on January 1, 1993. Heads of state and government List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia List of Prime Ministers of Czechoslovakia see also leaders of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia Foreign policy International agreements and membership After WWII, active participant in Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), Warsaw Pact, United Nations and its specialized agencies; signatory of conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe Administrative divisions 1918–1923: different systems on former Austrian territory (Bohemia, Moravia, small part of Silesia) and on former Hungarian territory (Slovakia and Ruthenia): three lands [země] (also called district units [obvody]) Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia plus 21 counties [župy] in today's Slovakia plus two(?) counties in today's Ruthenia; both lands and counties were divided in districts [okresy] 1923–1927: like above, except that the above counties were replaced by six (grand) counties [(veľ)župy] in today's Slovakia and one (grand) county in today's Ruthenia, and the number and frontiers of the okresy were changed on these two territories 1928–1938: four lands [in Czech: země / in Slovak: krajiny]: Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia; divided in districts [okresy] late 1938–March 1939: like above, but Slovakia and Ruthenia were promoted to "autonomous lands" 1945–1948: like 1928–1938, except that Ruthenia became part of the Soviet Union 1949–1960: 19 regions [kraje] divided in 270 districts [okresy] 1960–1992: 10 regions [kraje], Prague, and (since 1970) Bratislava (capital of Slovakia); divided in 109–114 districts (okresy); the kraje were abolished temporarily in Slovakia in 1969–1970 and for many functions since 1991 in Czechoslovakia; in addition, the two republics Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic were established in 1969 (without the word Socialist since 1990) Population and ethnic groups Politics After WWII, monopoly on politics held by Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Gustáv Husák elected first secretary of KSC in 1969 (changed to general secretary in 1971) and president of Czechoslovakia in 1975. Other parties and organizations existed but functioned in subordinate roles to KSC. All political parties, as well as numerous mass organizations, grouped under umbrella of the National Front. Human rights activists and religious activists severely repressed. Constitutional development Czechoslovakia had the following constitutions throughout its history (1918 – 1992): Temporary Constitution of November 14, 1918 [democratic], see: History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938) The 1920 Constitution (The Constitutional Document of the Czechoslovak Republic) [democratic, in force till 1948, several amendments] The Communist 1948 Ninth-of-May Constitution The Communist 1960 Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic with major amendments in 1968 (Constitutional Law of Federation), 1971, 1975, 1978, and in 1989 (at which point the leading role of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was abolished). It was amended several more times during 1990–1992 (e.g. 1990, name change to Czecho-Slovakia, 1991 incorporation of the human rights charter) Economy After WWII, economy centrally planned with command links controlled by communist party, similar to Soviet Union. Large metallurgical industry but dependent on imports for iron and nonferrous ores. Industry: Extractive and manufacturing industries dominated sector. Major branches included machinery, chemicals, food processing, metallurgy, and textiles. Industry wasteful of energy, materials, and labor and slow to upgrade technology, but country source of high-quality machinery, aircraft, aero engines and instruments, electronics and arms for other communist countries. Agriculture: Minor sector but supplied bulk of food needs, due to collectivised farms of large acreage and relatively effective way of operation. Dependent on imports of grains (mainly for livestock feed) in years of adverse weather. Meat production constrained by shortage of feed, but high per capita consumption of meat. Foreign Trade: Exports estimated at US$17.8 billion in 1985, of which 55% machinery, 14% fuels and materials, 16% manufactured consumer goods. Imports at estimated US$17.9 billion in 1985, of which 41% fuels and materials, 33% machinery, 12% agricultural and forestry products other. In 1986, about 80% of foreign trade with communist countries. Exchange Rate: Official, or commercial, rate Kcs 5.4 per US$1 in 1987; tourist, or noncommercial, rate Kcs 10.5 per US$1. Neither rate reflected purchasing power. The exchange rate on the black market was around Kcs 30 per US$1, and this rate became the official one once the currency became convertible in the early 1990s. Fiscal Year: Calendar year. Fiscal Policy: State almost exclusive owner of means of production. Revenues from state enterprises primary source of revenues followed by turnover tax. Large budget expenditures on social programs, subsidies, and investments. Budget usually balanced or small surplus. Resource base After WWII, country energy short, relying on imported crude oil and natural gas from Soviet Union, domestic brown coal, and nuclear and hydroelectric energy. Energy constraints a major factor in 1980s. Transportation and communications Society and social groups Education Education free at all levels and compulsory from age six to fifteen. Vast majority of population literate. Highly developed system of apprenticeship training and vocational schools supplemented general secondary schools and institutions of higher education. Religion In 1991: Roman Catholics 46.4%, Evangelic Lutheran 5.3%, Atheist 29.5%, n/a 16.7%, but there were huge differences between the 2 constituent republics – see Czech Republic and Slovakia Health, social welfare and housing After WWII, free health care was available to all citizens. National health planning emphasized preventive medicine; factory and local health-care centers supplemented hospitals and other inpatient institutions. There became substantial improvement in rural health care during the 1960s and 1970s. Mass media The mass media in Czechoslovakia was controlled by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ). Private ownership of any publication or agency of the mass media was generally forbidden, although churches and other organizations published small periodicals and newspapers. Even with this informational monopoly in the hands of organizations under KSČ control, all publications were reviewed by the government's Office for Press and Information. Sports The Czechoslovakia national football team was a consistent performer in the international scene, with 8 appearances in the FIFA World Cup Finals, finishing in second-place in 1934 and 1962. The team also won the European Football Championship in 1976 and came in third in 1980. The Czechoslovak national ice hockey team won many medals from the world championships and Olympic games. Emil Zátopek, winner of four Olympic gold medals in athletics, is considered one of the top athletes in history. Vera Caslavska olympic gold medalist in gymnastics,winner of seven gold medals and four silver medals, and represently Czechoslovakia in three consecutive olympics. The famous tennis players Ivan Lendl, Miloslav Mečíř, Daniela Hantuchová and Martina Navrátilová were born in Czechoslovakia. Culture Czech Republic, Slovakia List of Czechs, List of Slovaks MDŽ Jazz in dissident Czechoslovakia Postage stamps List of people on stamps of Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia's first issue Timeline: From creation to dissolution See also Former countries in Europe after 1815 Effects on the environment in Czechoslovakia from Soviet influence during the Cold War 1968 Red Square demonstration References Sources Czechoslovak Republic Notes External links Orders and Medals of Czechoslovakia including Order of the White Lion (in English and Czech) Czechoslovakia-The First Czechoslovak Republic Andropov to the Central Committee, about the Demonstration in Red Square Against the Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia, September 20, 1968. Andrei Sakharov KGB file, Archieve posted at the Yale University, http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/documents_frames/Sakharov_008.htm Hungarian Language Map, border changes after the creation of Czechoslovakia Map Map be-x-old:Чэхаславаччына | Czechoslovakia |@lemmatized czechoslovakia:51 československo:2 slovak:23 česko:2 slovensko:2 sovereign:1 state:17 central:3 europe:8 exist:5 october:2 declare:1 independence:1 austro:1 hungarian:9 empire:1 de:3 facto:2 existence:2 due:2 force:3 division:2 partial:1 incorporation:2 nazi:5 germany:6 czech:24 government:5 exile:2 nevertheless:1 continue:2 time:6 period:3 january:2 peacefully:2 split:2 republic:36 basic:1 characteristic:1 form:6 democratic:6 annexation:1 sudetenland:2 gradually:1 turn:2 loosened:1 connection:1 ruthenian:1 part:5 large:4 strip:1 southern:1 slovakia:17 ruthenia:12 annex:3 hungary:7 zaolzie:1 region:5 poland:3 protectorate:2 bohemia:5 moravia:5 jure:1 support:2 western:6 ally:1 base:2 london:1 german:12 invasion:2 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6,784 | Nicolas_Chauvin | Nicolas Chauvin is a legendary, possibly unhistorical French soldier and patriot who is supposed to have served in the First Army of the French Republic and subsequently in La Grande Armee of Napoleon. His name is the eponym of chauvinism, a term for excessive nationalistic fervor. According to the stories that developed about him, Chauvin was born in Rochefort, around 1780. He enlisted at age 18, and served honorably and well. He is said to have been wounded 17 times in his nation's service, resulting in his severe disfigurement and maiming. For his loyalty and dedication, Napoleon himself presented the soldier with a Sabre of Honor and a pension of 200 francs. Chauvin's distinguished record of service and his love and devotion for Napoleon, which endured despite the price he willingly paid for them, is said to have earned him only ridicule and derision in Restoration France, when Bonapartism became increasingly unpopular. Appearance in literature Chauvin appeared as a character in several plays produced for the original Vaudeville - but only to be mocked. Chauvin appears as a character in Eugene Scribe's The Peasant Soldier (1821) and Cogniard Brothers' The Tricolor Cockade (1831). As the figure of Chauvin developed in literature, he acquired numerous other feats. For example, in one representation, a stage play and an opera libretto, he was said to have been born on July 4, 1776 (a patriotic date in the U.S. suitable for a super-patriotic figure) and entered the Revolutionary Army as a conscript during the Reign of Terror. Historicity Historical research has not identified any biographical details of a real Nicolas Chauvin, leading to the claim that he may have been a wholly fictional figure. Researcher Gerard Puymège concludes that "Nicolas Chauvin did not exist. It is a legend, which crystallized under the Restoration and July Monarchy, from the pen of songwriters, vaudeville and historians.". He argues that the figure of Chauvin continues the long tradition of the mythological farmer-soldier from ancient times in Greek mythology. References Gérard de PUYMÈGE, Chauvin, le soldat-laboureur. Contribution à l'étude des nationalismes, Paris, Gallimard, 1993. | Nicolas_Chauvin |@lemmatized nicolas:3 chauvin:10 legendary:1 possibly:1 unhistorical:1 french:2 soldier:4 patriot:1 suppose:1 serve:2 first:1 army:2 republic:1 subsequently:1 la:1 grande:1 armee:1 napoleon:3 name:1 eponym:1 chauvinism:1 term:1 excessive:1 nationalistic:1 fervor:1 accord:1 story:1 develop:2 bear:2 rochefort:1 around:1 enlist:1 age:1 honorably:1 well:1 say:3 wound:1 time:2 nation:1 service:2 result:1 severe:1 disfigurement:1 maiming:1 loyalty:1 dedication:1 present:1 sabre:1 honor:1 pension:1 franc:1 distinguish:1 record:1 love:1 devotion:1 endure:1 despite:1 price:1 willingly:1 pay:1 earn:1 ridicule:1 derision:1 restoration:2 france:1 bonapartism:1 become:1 increasingly:1 unpopular:1 appearance:1 literature:2 appear:2 character:2 several:1 play:2 produce:1 original:1 vaudeville:2 mock:1 eugene:1 scribe:1 peasant:1 cogniard:1 brother:1 tricolor:1 cockade:1 figure:4 acquire:1 numerous:1 feat:1 example:1 one:1 representation:1 stage:1 opera:1 libretto:1 july:2 patriotic:2 date:1 u:1 suitable:1 super:1 enter:1 revolutionary:1 conscript:1 reign:1 terror:1 historicity:1 historical:1 research:1 identify:1 biographical:1 detail:1 real:1 lead:1 claim:1 may:1 wholly:1 fictional:1 researcher:1 gerard:1 puymège:2 conclude:1 exist:1 legend:1 crystallize:1 monarchy:1 pen:1 songwriter:1 historian:1 argue:1 continue:1 long:1 tradition:1 mythological:1 farmer:1 ancient:1 greek:1 mythology:1 reference:1 gérard:1 de:2 le:1 soldat:1 laboureur:1 contribution:1 à:1 l:1 étude:1 nationalismes:1 paris:1 gallimard:1 |@bigram opera_libretto:1 l_étude:1 paris_gallimard:1 |
6,785 | Albert_Alcibiades,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Kulmbach | Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Albert Alcibiades (; March 28 1522 – January 8 1557) was a Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, also known as Brandenburg-Bayreuth. Because of his bellicose nature Albert received the cognomen Alcibiades after his death; during his lifetime Albert was known as Bellator (the Warlike). He was a member of the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern. Biography Albert was born at Ansbach and, having lost his father Casimir in 1527, he came under the guardianship of his uncle George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, a strong adherent of Protestantism. In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, but, as the chief town of his principality was Kulmbach, he is sometimes referred to as the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. His restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted Emperor Charles V in his war with France in 1543. The Peace of Crépy in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the Schmalkaldic League, he took pains to win Albert's assistance. Sharing in the attack on the Electorate of Saxony, Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by Elector John Frederick of Saxony, but was released as a result of the Emperor's victory at the Battle of Mühlberg in the succeeding April. He then followed the fortunes of his friend Elector Maurice of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the Emperor by an alliance with King Henry II of France. He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the Peace of Passau was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Franconia. Having extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French King, and offered his services to the Emperor. Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of Würzburg and Bamberg; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the Emperor on the retreat from Metz in January 1553. When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade. The rival forces met at Sievershausen on July 9, 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight. Henry, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France. He there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on January 8, 1557. He is defined by Thomas Carlyle as "a failure of a Fritz," with "features" of a Frederick the Great in him, "but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent". References | Albert_Alcibiades,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Kulmbach |@lemmatized albert:11 alcibiades:4 margrave:4 brandenburg:5 kulmbach:4 march:2 january:3 also:1 know:2 bayreuth:2 bellicose:1 nature:2 receive:2 cognomen:1 death:1 lifetime:1 bellator:1 warlike:1 member:1 franconian:1 branch:1 house:1 hohenzollern:1 biography:1 bear:1 ansbach:2 lose:1 father:1 casimir:1 come:2 guardianship:1 uncle:1 george:1 strong:1 adherent:1 protestantism:1 share:2 family:1 land:3 chief:1 town:1 principality:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 restless:1 turbulent:1 mark:1 military:1 career:1 collect:1 small:1 band:1 soldier:1 assist:1 emperor:5 charles:5 v:1 war:1 france:4 peace:2 crépy:1 september:1 deprive:1 employment:1 win:2 considerable:1 reputation:1 prepare:1 attack:2 schmalkaldic:1 league:4 take:5 pain:1 assistance:1 electorate:1 saxony:4 prisoner:1 rochlitz:1 elector:2 john:1 frederick:2 release:1 result:1 victory:1 battle:1 mühlberg:1 succeeding:1 april:1 follow:1 fortune:2 friend:1 maurice:2 desert:1 join:1 propose:1 overthrow:1 alliance:1 king:2 henry:4 ii:2 part:1 subsequent:1 campaign:2 passau:1 sign:1 august:1 separate:1 ally:1 begin:1 crusade:1 plunder:1 franconia:2 extort:1 large:1 sum:1 money:1 citizen:1 nuremberg:1 quarrel:1 supporter:1 french:1 offer:1 service:2 anxious:1 secure:1 famous:1 fighter:1 gladly:1 assent:1 demand:1 give:1 imperial:2 sanction:1 possession:1 bishop:1 würzburg:1 bamberg:1 conspicuous:1 bravery:1 great:2 value:1 retreat:1 metz:1 leave:1 germany:1 week:1 later:1 renew:1 depredation:1 soon:1 become:1 serious:1 form:1 crush:1 lead:1 army:1 former:1 comrade:1 rival:1 force:1 meet:1 sievershausen:1 july:1 combat:1 unusual:1 ferocity:1 put:1 flight:1 duke:2 brunswick:1 wolfenbüttel:1 command:1 troop:1 place:1 ban:1 december:1 defeat:1 compel:1 flee:1 enter:1 undertake:1 regain:1 die:1 pforzheim:1 define:1 thomas:1 carlyle:1 failure:1 fritz:1 feature:1 burn:1 away:1 splendid:1 quality:1 mere:1 temporary:1 shine:1 able:1 editor:1 never:1 anything:1 full:1 fire:1 much:1 wildfire:1 least:1 like:1 except:1 change:1 underwent:1 reference:1 |@bigram margrave_brandenburg:4 brandenburg_kulmbach:3 brandenburg_bayreuth:1 franconian_branch:1 brandenburg_ansbach:1 schmalkaldic_league:1 bishop_würzburg:1 brunswick_wolfenbüttel:1 thomas_carlyle:1 |
6,786 | Global_Positioning_System | Artist's conception of GPS Block II-F satellite in orbitCivilian GPS receiver ("GPS navigation device") in a marine application.Automotive navigation system in a taxicab.GPS receivers are now integrated in many mobile phones. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) developed by the United States Department of Defense and managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. It is the only fully functional GNSS in the world, can be used freely by anyone, anywhere, and is often used by civilians for navigation purposes. It uses a constellation of between 24 and 32 medium Earth orbit satellites that transmit precise radiowave signals, which allow GPS receivers to determine their current location, the time, and their velocity. Its official name is NAVSTAR GPS. Although NAVSTAR is not an acronym, a few backronyms have been created for it. What does NAVSTAR stand for? Since it became fully operational on April 27, 1995, GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying, commerce, scientific uses, tracking and surveillance, and hobbies such as geocaching. Also, the precise time reference is used in many applications including the scientific study of earthquakes and as a required time synchronization method for cellular network protocols such as the IS-95 standard for CDMA. History The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. Using a constellation of five satellites, it could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite which proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology that GPS relies upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on signal phase comparison, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War II. Additional inspiration for the GPS came when the Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik in 1957. A team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions. They discovered that, because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of the signal being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion. After Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down in 1983 after straying into the USSR's prohibited airspace, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use as a common good. The satellites were launched between 1989 and 1993. Initially the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, while the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded ("Selective Availability", SA). Selective Availability was ended in 2000, improving the precision of civilian GPS from about 100m to about 20m. Of crucial importance for the function of GPS is the placement of atomic clocks in the satellites, first proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in 1955. Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956). Only then can the required position accuracy be reached. Timeline In 1972, the US Air Force Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB) conducted developmental flight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over White Sands Missile Range, using ground-based pseudo-satellites. + Satellite numbers GPS constellation status. Russian Space Agency. April 9, 2008 GPS Wing Reaches GPS III IBR Milestone in InsideGNSS November 10, 2008 Block Launch Period Satellites launched Currently in serviceI1978–198510+110II1985–199090IIA1990–19971913IIR1997–200412+1112IIR-M2005–20097+126IIF 2009–20110+1020IIIA 2014–?0+1230IIIB 0+830IIIC 0+1630Total59+21+122+363311Failed2In preparation3Planned.(Last update: 16 December 2008) In 1978 the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched. In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed into prohibited airspace due to navigational errors, killing all 269 people on board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that the GPS would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed. By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept. On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched. In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was de-activated and replaced by the 50th Space Wing. By December 1993 the GPS achieved initial operational capability. United States Department of Defense. Announcement of Initial Operational Capability . December 8, 1993. By January 17, 1994 a complete constellation of 24 satellites was in orbit. Full Operational Capability was declared by NAVSTAR in April 1995. In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive National Archives and Records Administration. U.S. Global Positioning System Policy. March 29, 1996. declaring GPS to be a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset. In 1998, U.S. Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety. On May 2, 2000 "Selective Availability" was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive order, allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally. In 2004, the United States Government signed an agreement with the European Community establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's planned Galileo system. In 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing. November 2004, QUALCOMM announced successful tests of Assisted-GPS for mobile phones. 3g.co.uk In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance. On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground Segment Control System was transitioned to the new Architecture Evolution Plan. losangeles.af.mil The most recent launch was on March 15, 2008. sidt.gpsworld.com The oldest GPS satellite still in operation was launched on November 26, 1990, and became operational on December 10, 1990. United States Naval Observatory. GPS Constellation Status. Retrieved December 20, 2008. On May 19, 2009, the U. S. Government Accountability Office issued a report warning that the some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010. (Guardian) On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS system failure saying "There's only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard" Basic concept of GPS A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by the GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages containing the time the message was sent, precise orbital information (the ephemeris), and the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac). The receiver measures the transit time of each message and computes the distance to each satellite. Geometric trilateration is used to combine these distances with the location of the satellites to determine the receiver's location. The position is displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units also show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes. It might seem three satellites are enough to solve for position, since space has three dimensions. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of light GPS signals travel at the speed of light, so computing the distance for a given elapsed time is almost a straightforward calculation. However, the speed of light varies slightly between the partial vacuum of space and the atmosphere. A receiver can approximate these effects and produce a reasonable estimate. Once a rough position is determined, some receivers carefully compute the amount of atmosphere the signal traveled through and adjust the distance accordingly. —the speed at which satellite signals propagate—results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for x, y, z, and t, which is used to correct the receiver's clock. While most GPS applications use the computed location only and effectively hide the very accurately computed time, it is used in a few specialized GPS applications such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations. Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known (for example, a ship or plane may have known elevation), a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a degraded position when fewer than four satellites are visible (see , Chapters 7 and 8 of , and ). Position calculation introduction To provide an introductory description of how a GPS receiver works, measurement errors will be ignored in this section. Using messages received from a minimum of four visible satellites, a GPS receiver is able to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the time sent are designated as where the subscript i is the satellite number and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the indicated transit time, . of the message. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled, can be computed as . Knowing the distance from GPS receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver is on the surface of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus we know that the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver will be at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. The surfaces of two spheres, if they intersect in more than one point, intersect in a circle. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a Circle, is shown below. Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle The article, trilateration, shows mathematically that the surfaces of two spheres, intersecting in more than one point, intersect in a circle. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest intersect at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect at zero points, one point, or in the very special case in which the centers of the three spheres are colinear (i.e. all three on the same straight line) the sphere surface could intersect the entire circumference of the circle. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, shows this intersection. The two intersections are marked with dots. Again trilateration clearly shows this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS receiver is the intersection that is closest to the surface of the earth for automobiles and other near-Earth vehicles. The correct position of the GPS receiver is also the intersection which is closest to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. (The two intersections are symmetrical with respect to the plane containing the three satellites. If the three satellites are not in the same orbital plane, the plane containing the three satellites will not be a vertical plane passing through the center of the Earth. In this case one of the intersections will be closer to the earth than the other. The near-Earth intersection will be the correct position for the case of a near-Earth vehicle. The intersection which is farthest from Earth may be the correct position for space vehicles.) Correcting a GPS receiver's clock The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been explained. One of the most significant error sources is the GPS receiver's clock. Because of the very large value of the speed of light, c, the estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudoranges, are very sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This suggests that an extremely accurate and expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to work. On the other hand, manufacturers prefer to build inexpensive GPS receivers for mass markets. The solution for this dilemma is based on the way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem. It is likely that the surfaces of the three spheres intersect, since the circle of intersection of the first two spheres is normally quite large, and thus the third sphere surface is likely to intersect this large circle. It is very unlikely that the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite will intersect either of the two points of intersection of the first three, since any clock error could cause it to miss intersecting a point. However, the distance from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite can be used to compute a clock correction. Let denote the distance from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the fourth satellite and let denote the pseudorange of the fourth satellite. Let . Note that is the distance from the computed GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. Thus the quotient, , provides an estimate of (correct time) - (time indicated by the receiver's on-board clock), and the GPS receiver clock can be advanced if is positive or delayed if is negative. System detail Unlaunched GPS satellite on display at the San Diego Aerospace museum System segmentation The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US). globalsecurity.org . Space segment A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N, changes with time. The space segment (SS) comprises the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three circular orbital planes, but this was modified to six planes with four satellites each. The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the distant stars. What the Global Positioning System Tells Us about Relativity. Retrieved January 2, 2007. The six planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office. Retrieved December 15, 2006. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on Earth's surface. Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers about 10 satellites are visible within line of sight (12,900 miles or 10,900 nautical miles; orbital radius of 26,600 km (16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day. This article from author's web site, with minor correction. The ground track of each satellite therefore repeats each (sidereal) day. This was very helpful during development, since even with just four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones. , there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation, and two older, retired from active service satellites kept in the constellation as orbital spares. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail. Control segment The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Colorado Springs, Colorado, along with monitor stations operated by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). The additional stations are: Washington, DC, England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain and Australia. Source: US Coast Guard General GPS News 9-9-05 The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command's master control station at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update (using the ground antennas at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs. USNO NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. Retrieved May 14, 2006. Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a satellite, the satellite must be marked 'unhealthy', so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again. User segment GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such as those shown here from manufacturers Trimble, Garmin and Leica (left to right). The user's GPS receiver is the user segment (US) of the GPS. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly-stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that, , receivers typically have between 12 and 20 channels. Note that though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets produced for this purpose. An example: A typical OEM GPS receiver module measuring 15×17 mm. GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format. This is typically in the form of a RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed. Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers. A typical GPS receiver with integrated antenna. Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183 protocol, or the newer and less widely used NMEA 2000. NMEA NMEA 2000 Although these protocols are officially defined by the NMEA, references to these protocols have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB or Bluetooth. Navigation signals GPS broadcast signal Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a Navigation Message at 50 bit/s giving the time-of-week, GPS week number and satellite health information (all transmitted in the first part of the message), an ephemeris (transmitted in the second part of the message) and an almanac (later part of the message). The messages are sent in frames, each taking 30 seconds to transmit 1500 bits. Transmission of each 30 second frame begins precisely on the minute and half minute as indicated by the satellite's atomic clock according to Satellite message format. Each frame contains 5 subframes of length 6 seconds and with 300 bits. Each subframe contains 10 words of 30 bits with length 0.6 seconds each. Words 1 and 2 of every subframe have the same type of data. The first word is the telemetry word which indicates the beginning of a subframe and is used by the receiver to synch with the navigation message. The second word is the HOW or handover word and it contains timing information which enables the receiver to identify the subframe and provides the time the next subframe was sent. Words 3 through 10 of subframe 1 contain data describing the satellite clock and its relationship to GPS time. Words 3 through 10 of subframes 2 and 3, contain the ephemeris data, giving the satellite's own precise orbit. The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because, as the hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks, but the ephemeris data requires 30 seconds (worst case) before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate. The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Words 3 through 10 of subframes 4 and 5 contain a new part of the almanac. Each frame contains 1/25th of the almanac, so 12.5 minutes are required to receive the entire almanac from a single satellite. Page 103. The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency GPS receiver. An important thing to note about navigation data is that each satellite transmits not only its own ephemeris, but transmits an almanac for all satellites. All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The receiver can distinguish the signals from different satellites because GPS uses a code division multiple access (CDMA) spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver knows the PRN codes for each satellite and can use this to reconstruct the actual message data. The message data is transmitted at 50 bits per second. Two distinct CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code (a so-called Gold code) at 1.023 million chips per second, and the precise (P) code at 10.23 million chips per second. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code. How GPS works. Konowa.de (2005). The C/A code is public and used by civilian GPS receivers, while the P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code which is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to the user. Satellite frequencies L1 (1575.42 MHz): Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A) code and encrypted precision P(Y) code, plus the new L1C on future Block III satellites. L2 (1227.60 MHz): P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M and newer satellites. L3 (1381.05 MHz): Used by the Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System Payload (NDS) to signal detection of nuclear detonations and other high-energy infrared events. Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties. L4 (1379.913 MHz): Being studied for additional ionospheric correction. L5 (1176.45 MHz): Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal (see GPS modernization). This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that would provide this signal is set to be launched in 2009. First GPS IIF Satellite Undergoes Environmental Testing. GPS World. November 5, 2007. C/A code Demodulation and decoding Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals|Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the Coarse/Acquisition Gold code. Since all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, there is a need to separate the signals after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique pseudorandom sequence known as a Gold code, and the signals are decoded, after demodulation, using modulo 2 addition of the Gold codes corresponding to satellites n1 through nk, where k is the number of channels in the GPS receiver and n1 through nk are the pseudorandom numbers associated with the satellites. The results of these modulo 2 additions are the 50 bit/s navigation messages from satellites n1 through nk. The Gold codes used in GPS are a sequence of 1023 bits with a period of one millisecond. These Gold codes are highly mutually orthogonal, so that it is unlikely that one satellite signal will be misinterpreted as another. As well, the Gold codes have good auto-correlation properties. "[George, M., Hamid, M., and Miller A. There are 1025 different Gold codes of length 1023 bits, but only 32 are used. These Gold codes are quite often referred to as pseudo random noise since they contain no data and are said to look like random sequences "GPS - explained (Signals)" . However, this may be misleading since they are actually deterministic sequences. If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks which satellites to listen for by their PRNs. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode and cycles through the PRN numbers until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/A code pattern. The receiver uses the C/A Gold code with the same PRN number as the satellite to compute an offset, O, that generates the best correlation. The offset, O, is computed in a trial and error manner. The 1023 bits of the satellite PRN signal are compared with the receiver PRN signal. If correlation is not achieved, the 1023 bits of the receiver's internally generated PRN code are shifted by one bit relative to the satellite's PRN code and the signals are again compared. This process is repeated until correlation is achieved or all 1023 possible cases have been tried (see "How a GPS Receiver Gets a Lock"). If all 1023 cases have been tried without achieving correlation, the frequency oscillator is offset to the next value and the process is repeated. Since the carrier frequency received can vary due to Doppler shift, the points where received PRN sequences begin may not differ from O by an exact integral number of milliseconds. Because of this, carrier frequency tracking along with PRN code tracking are used to determine when the received satellite's PRN code begins (see "How a GPS Receiver Gets a Lock"). Unlike the earlier computation of offset in which trials of all 1023 offsets could potentially be required, the tracking to maintain lock usually requires shifting of half a pulse width or less. To perform this tracking, the receiver observes two quantities, phase error and received frequency offset. The correlation of the received PRN code with respect to the receiver generated PRN code is computed to determine if the bits of the two signals are misaligned. Comparisons with correlation computed with receiver generated PRN code shifted half a pulse width early and half a pulse width late (see section 1.4.2.4 of ) are used to estimate adjustment required. The amount of adjustment required for maximum correlation is used in estimating phase error. Received frequency offset from the frequency generated by the receiver provides an estimate of phase rate error. The command for the frequency generator and any further PRN code shifting required are computed as a function of the phase error and the phase rate error in accordance with the control law used. The Doppler velocity is computed as a function of the frequency offset from the carrier nominal frequency. The Doppler velocity is the velocity component along the line of sight of the receiver relative to the satellite. As the receiver continues to read successive PRN sequences, it will encounter a sudden change in the phase of the 1023 bit received PRN signal. This indicates the beginning of a data bit of the navigation message (see section 1.4.2.5 of ). This enables the receiver to begin reading the 20 millisecond bits of the navigation message. Each subframe of the navigation frame begins with a Telemetry Word which enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. Also each subframe of the navigation frame is identified by bits in the handover word (HOW) thereby enabling the receiver to determine which subframe (see section 1.4.2.6 of and section 2.5.4 of "Essentials of Satellite Navigation Compendium"). There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data before computing the intersections of sphere surfaces. After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds. Then the orbital position data, or ephemeris, from the navigation message is used to calculate precisely where the satellite was at the start of the message. A more sensitive receiver will potentially acquire the ephemeris data more quickly than a less sensitive receiver, especially in a noisy environment. This process is repeated for each satellite to which the receiver is listening. Carrier phase tracking (surveying) Utilizing the navigation message to measure pseudorange has been discussed. Another method that is used in GPS surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier frequency times the speed of light gives the wave length, which is about 0.19 meters for the L1 carrier. With a 1% of wave length accuracy in detecting the leading edge, this component of pseudorange error might be as low as 2 millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the C/A code and 0.3 meters for the P code. However, this 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase, that is the total number of wave lengths plus the fractional wavelength. This requires specially equipped receivers. This method has many applications in the field of surveying. We now describe a method which could potentially be used to estimate the position of receiver 2 given the position of receiver 1 using triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called least squares. A detailed discussion of the errors is omitted in order to avoid detracting from the description of the methodology. In this description differences are taken in the order of differencing between satellites, differencing between receivers, and differencing between epochs. This should not be construed to mean that this is the only order which can be used. Indeed other orders of taking differences are equally valid. The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles as described in CARRIER PHASE MEASUREMENT and CARRIER BEAT PHASE. Let denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by receiver i at time . This notation has been chosen so as to make it clear what the subscripts i, j, and k mean. In view of the fact that the receiver, satellite, and time come in alphabetical order as arguments of and to strike a balance between readability and conciseness, let so as to have a concise abbreviation. Also we define three functions, : which perform differences between receivers, satellites, and time points respectively. Each of these functions has a linear combination of variables with three subscripts as its argument. These three functions are defined below. If is a function of the three integer arguments, i, j, and k then it is a valid argument for the functions, : , with the values defined as , , and . Also if are valid arguments for the three functions and a and b are constants then is a valid argument with values defined as , , and , Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by differencing the phases measured from satellite 1 with that from satellite 2 at the same epoch as shown in BETWEEN-SATELLITE DIFFERENCING. This difference is designated as Double differencing can be performed by taking the differences of the between satellite difference observed by receiver 1 with that observed by receiver 2. The satellite clock errors will be approximately eliminated by this between receiver differencing. This double difference is designated as . Triple differencing can be performed by taking the difference of double differencing performed at time with that performed at time . This will eliminate the ambiguity associated with the integral number of wave lengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not change with time. Thus the triple difference result has eliminated all or practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Also errors associated with atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is designated as . Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example if the position of receiver 1 is known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be possible to estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple difference results for three independent time pairs quite possibly will be sufficient to solve for the three components of position of receiver 2. This may require the use of a numerical procedure such as one of those found in the chapter on root finding and nonlinear sets of equations in Numerical Recipes . Also see Preview of Root Finding. To use such a numerical method, an initial approximation of the position of receiver 2 is required. This initial value could probably be provided by a position approximation based on the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces. Although multidimensional numerical root finding can have problems, this disadvantage may be overcome with this good initial estimate. This procedure using three time pairs and a fairly good initial value followed by iteration will result in one observed triple difference result for receiver 2 position. Greater accuracy may be obtained by processing triple difference results for additional sets of three independent time pairs. This will result in an over determined system with multiple solutons. To get estimates for an over determined system, least squares can be used. The least squares procedure determines the position of receiver 2 which best fits the observed triple difference results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the sum of the squares. Position calculation advanced Before providing a more mathematical description of position calculation, the introductory material on this topics is reviewed. To describe the basic concept of how a GPS receiver works, the errors are at first ignored. Using messages received from four satellites, the GPS receiver is able to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the time sent are designated as where the subscript i denotes which satellite and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the indicated transit time, . of the message. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled, can be computed as . Knowing the distance from GPS receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver is on the surface of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus we know that the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver will be at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. The surfaces of two spheres if they intersect in more than one point intersect in a circle. We are here excluding the unrealistic case for GPS purposes of two coincident spheres. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a Circle, is shown below depicting this which hopefully will aid the reader in visualizing this intersection. Two points at which the surfaces of the spheres intersect are clearly marked on the figure. The distance between these two points is the diameter of the circle of intersection. If you are not convinced of this, consider how a side view of the intersecting spheres would look. This view would look exactly the same as the figure because of the symmetry of the spheres. And in fact a view from any horizontal direction would look exactly the same. This should make it clear to the reader that the surfaces of the two spheres actually do intersect in a circle.Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle The article, trilateration, shows mathematically how the equation for a circle is determined. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest intersect at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect in 0 or 1 point. We are here excluding the unrealistic case for GPS purposes of three colinear (lying on same straight line) sphere centers. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, is shown below to aid in visualizing this intersection. Again trilateration clearly shows this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS receiver is the one that is closest to the fourth sphere. This paragraph has described the basic concept of GPS while ignoring errors. The next problem is how to process the messages when errors are present. Surface of a sphere intersecting a circle (i.e., the edge of a disk) at two pointsLet denote the clock error or bias, the amount by which the receiver's clock is slow. The GPS receiver has four unknowns, the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias . The equation of the sphere surfaces are given by , Another useful form of these equations is in terms of the pseudoranges, which are simply the ranges approximated based on GPS receiver clock's indicated (i.e. uncorrected) time so that . Then the equations becomes: . Two of the most important methods of computing GPS receiver position and clock bias are (1) trilateration followed by one dimensional numerical root finding and (2) multidimensional Newton-Raphson calculations. These two methods along with their advantages are discussed. The receiver can solve by trilateration followed by one dimensional numerical root finding. Press, Flannery, Tekolsky, and Vetterling 1986, Numerical Recipes, The Art of Scientific Computing (Cambridge University Press). This method involves using trilateration to determine the intersection of the surfaces of three spheres. It is clearly shown in trilateration that the surfaces of three spheres intersect in 0, 1, or 2 points. In the usual case of two intersections, the solution which is nearest the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite is chosen. The surface of the earth can also sometimes be used instead, especially in the case of civilian GPS receivers since it is illegal in the United States to track vehicles of more than in altitude. The bias, is then computed as a function of the distance from the solution to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. To determine what function to use for computing see the chapter on root finding in or the preview. Using an updated received time based on this bias, new spheres are computed and the process is repeated. This repetition is continued until the distance from the valid trilateration solution is sufficiently close to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. One advantage of this method is that it involves one dimensional as opposed to multidimensional numerical root finding. The receiver can utilize a multidimensional root finding method such as the Newton-Raphson method. Linearize around an approximate solution, say from iteration k, then solve four linear equations derived from the quadratic equations above to obtain . The radii are large and so the sphere surfaces are close to flat. This near flatness may cause the iterative procedure to converge rapidly in the case where is near the correct value and the primary change is in the values of , since in this case the problem is merely to find the intersection of nearly flat surfaces and thus close to a linear problem. However when is changing significantly, this near flatness does not appear to be advantageous in producing rapid convergence, since in this case these near flat surfaces will be moving as the spheres expand and contract. This possible fast convergence is an advantage of this method. Also it has been claimed that this method is the "typical" method used by GPS receivers. A disadvantage of this multidimensional root finding method as compared to single dimensional root findiing is that according to, "There are no good general methods for solving systems of more than one nonlinear equations." For a more detailed description of the mathematics see Multidimensional Newton Raphson. Other methods include: Solving for the intersection of the expanding signals form light cones in 4-space cones Solving for the intersection of hyperboloids determined by the time difference of signals received from satellites utilizing multilateration, Solving the equations in accordance with . When more than four satellites are available, a decision must be made on whether to use the four best or more than four taking into considerations such factors as number of channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision. Using more than four results in an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution, which must be solved by least-squares or a similar technique. If all visible satellites are used, the results are always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also the errors in results can be estimated through the residuals. With each combination of four or more satellites, a geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) vector can be calculated, based on the relative sky positions of the satellites used. As more satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from more combinations of four satellites can be processed to add more estimates to the location and clock offset. The receiver then determines which combinations to use and how to calculate the estimated position by determining the weighted average of these positions and clock offsets. After the final location and time are calculated, the location is expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a local system specific to a country. Finally, results from other positioning systems such as GLONASS or the upcoming Galileo can be used in the fit, or used to double check the result. (By design, these systems use the same bands, so much of the receiver circuitry can be shared, though the decoding is different.) P(Y) code Calculating a position with the P(Y) signal is generally similar in concept, assuming one can decrypt it. The encryption is essentially a safety mechanism: if a signal can be successfully decrypted, it is reasonable to assume it is a real signal being sent by a GPS satellite. In comparison, civil receivers are highly vulnerable to spoofing since correctly formatted C/A signals can be generated using readily available signal generators. RAIM features do not protect against spoofing, since RAIM only checks the signals from a navigational perspective. Error sources and analysis + Sources of User Equivalent Range Errors (UERE) Source Effect Signal Arrival C/A ± 3 m Signal Arrival P(Y) ± 0.3 m Ionospheric effects ± 5 m Ephemeris errors ± 2.5 m Satellite clock errors ± 2 m Multipath distortion ± 1 m Tropospheric effects ± 0.5 m C/A ± 6,7 m P(Y) ± 6,0 m User equivalent range errors (UERE) are shown in the table. There is also a numerical error with an estimated value, , of about 1 meter. The standard deviations, , for the coarse/acquisition and precise codes are also shown in the table. These standard deviations are computed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual components (i.e. RSS for root sum squares). To get the standard deviation of receiver position estimate, these range errors must be multiplied by the appropriate dilution of precision terms and then RSS'ed with the numerical error. Electronics errors are one of several accuracy-degrading effects outlined in the table above. When taken together, autonomous civilian GPS horizontal position fixes are typically accurate to about 15 meters (50 ft). These effects also reduce the more precise P(Y) code's accuracy. However, the advancement of technology means that today, civilian GPS fixes under a clear view of the sky are on average accurate to about 5 meters (16 ft) horizontally.(see summary table near end of "Sources of Errors in GPS") Error Diagram Showing Relation of Indicated Receiver Position, Intersection of Sphere Surfaces, and True Receiver Position in Terms of Pseudorange Errors, PDOP, and Numerical Errors The term user equivalent range error (UERE) refers to the standard deviation of a component of the error in the distance from receiver to a satellite. The standard deviation of the error in receiver position, , is computed by multiplying PDOP (Position Dilution Of Precision) by , the standard deviation of the user equivalent range errors. is computed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual component standard deviations. PDOP is computed as a function of receiver and satellite positions. Consider the unit vectors pointing from the receiver to the satellites. Connecting the tails of these unit vectors forms a tetrahedron. PDOP is sometimes approximated as being inversely proportional to the tetrahedron volume. Also a more detailed description of how to calculate PDOP is given in the section, Geometric dilution of precision computation (DOP). is given by = 6.7 meters for the C/A code. The standard deviation of the error in estimated receiver position, , is given by for the C/A code. The error diagram to the right shows the inter relationship of indicated receiver position, true receiver position, and the intersection of the four sphere surfaces. Signal arrival time measurement The position calculated by a GPS receiver requires the current time, the position of the satellite and the measured delay of the received signal. The position accuracy is primarily dependent on the satellite position and signal delay. To measure the delay, the receiver compares the bit sequence received from the satellite with an internally generated version. By comparing the rising and trailing edges of the bit transitions, modern electronics can measure signal offset to within about one percent of a bit pulse width, , or approximately 10 nanoseconds for the C/A code. Since GPS signals propagate at the speed of light, this represents an error of about 3 meters. This component of position accuracy can be improved by a factor of 10 using the higher-chiprate P(Y) signal. Assuming the same one percent of bit pulse width accuracy, the high-frequency P(Y) signal results in an accuracy of or about 30 centimeters. Atmospheric effects Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. Correcting these errors is a significant challenge to improving GPS position accuracy. These effects are smallest when the satellite is directly overhead and become greater for satellites nearer the horizon since the path through the atmosphere is longer (see airmass). Once the receiver's approximate location is known, a mathematical model can be used to estimate and compensate for these errors. Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of microwave signals differently depending on their frequency — a characteristic known as dispersion - delays measured on two or more frequency bands can be used to measure dispersion, and this measurement can then be used to estimate the delay at each frequency. The same principle, and the math behind it, can be found in descriptions of pulsar timing by astronomers. Some military and expensive survey-grade civilian receivers measure the different delays in the L1 and L2 frequencies to measure atmospheric dispersion, and apply a more precise correction. This can be done in civilian receivers without decrypting the P(Y) signal carried on L2, by tracking the carrier wave instead of the modulated code. To facilitate this on lower cost receivers, a new civilian code signal on L2, called L2C, was added to the Block IIR-M satellites, which was first launched in 2005. It allows a direct comparison of the L1 and L2 signals using the coded signal instead of the carrier wave. (see Atmospheric Effects in "Sources of Errors in GPS") The effects of the ionosphere generally change slowly, and can be averaged over time. The effects for any particular geographical area can be easily calculated by comparing the GPS-measured position to a known surveyed location. This correction is also valid for other receivers in the same general location. Several systems send this information over radio or other links to allow L1-only receivers to make ionospheric corrections. The ionospheric data are transmitted via satellite in Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as WAAS (available in North America and Hawaii), EGNOS (Europe and Asia) or MSAS (Japan), which transmits it on the GPS frequency using a special pseudo-random noise sequence (PRN), so only one receiver and antenna are required. Humidity also causes a variable delay, resulting in errors similar to ionospheric delay, but occurring in the troposphere. This effect both is more localized and changes more quickly than ionospheric effects, and is not frequency dependent. These traits make precise measurement and compensation of humidity errors more difficult than ionospheric effects. Changes in receiver altitude also change the amount of delay, due to the signal passing through less of the atmosphere at higher elevations. Since the GPS receiver computes its approximate altitude, this error is relatively simple to correct, either by applying a function regression or correlating margin of atmospheric error to ambient pressure using a barometric altimeter. Multipath effects GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals can cause inaccuracy. A variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator spacing, have been developed to mitigate multipath errors. For long delay multipath, the receiver itself can recognize the wayward signal and discard it. To address shorter delay multipath from the signal reflecting off the ground, specialized antennas (e.g. a choke ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal power as received by the antenna. Short delay reflections are harder to filter out because they interfere with the true signal, causing effects almost indistinguishable from routine fluctuations in atmospheric delay. Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is moving, the false solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result in stable solutions. Ephemeris and clock errors While the ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information itself may be up to two hours old. If a fast Time To First Fix (TTFF) is needed, it is possible to upload a valid ephemeris to a receiver, and in addition to setting the time, a position fix can be obtained in under ten seconds. It is feasible to put such ephemeris data on the web so it can be loaded into mobile GPS devices. Ephemeris Server Example See also Assisted GPS. The satellite's atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However, they are based on observations and may not indicate the clock's current state. These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (10s of feet) of inaccuracy. Geometric dilution of precision computation (DOP) As a first step in computing DOP, consider the unit vector from the receiver to satellite i with components, where the distance from receiver to the satellite, , is given by and where denote the position of the receiver and denote the position of satellite i. Formulate the matrix A as The first three elements of each row of A are the components of a unit vector from the receiver to the indicated satellite. The elements in the fourth column are c where c denotes the speed of light. Formulate the matrix, Q, as This computation is in accordance with "Section 1.4.2 of PRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE POSITIONING" where the weighting matrix, P, has been set to the identity matrix. The elements of the Q matrix are designated as The Greek letter is used quite often where we have used d. However the elements of the Q matrix do not represent variances and covariances as they are defined in probability and statistics. Instead they are strictly geometric terms. Therefore d as in dilution of precision is used. PDOP, TDOP and GDOP are given by , , and in agreement with "Section 1.4.9 of PRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE POSITIONING". The horizontal dilution of precision, , and the vertical dilution of precision, , are both dependent on the coordinate system used. To correspond to the local horizon plane and the local vertical, x, y, and z should denote positions in either a North, East, Down coordinate system or a South, East, Up coordinate system. Derivation of DOP equations The equations for computing the geometric dilution of precision terms have been described in the previous section. This section describes the derivation of these equations. The method used here is similar to that used in "Global Positioning System (preview) by Parkinson and Spiker" Consider the position error vector, e, defined as the vector from the intersection of the four sphere surfaces corresponding to the pseudoranges to the true position of the receiver. where bold denotes a vector and denote unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes respectively. Let denote the time error, the true time minus the receiver indicated time. Assume that the mean value of the three components of e and are zero. where are the errors in pseudoranges 1 through 4 respectively. This equation comes from linearizing the equation relating pseudoranges to receiver position, satellite positions, and receiver clock errors as shown in . Multiplying both sides by there results . Transposing both sides . Post multiplying the matrices on both sides of equation (2) by the corresponding matrices in equation (3), there results . Taking the expected value of both sides and taking the non-random matrices outside the expectation operator, E, there results . Assuming the pseudorange errors are uncorrelated and have the same variance, the covariance matrix on the right side can be expressed as a scalar times the identity matrix. Thus since Note: since Substituting for there follows From equation (7), it follows that the variances of indicated receiver position and time are and . The remaining position and time error variance terms follow in a straightforward manner. Selective availability GPS includes a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds intentional, time varying errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation signals. This was intended to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision weapon guidance. SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified seed key available only to authorized users (the US military, its allies and a few other users, mostly government) with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is insufficient; it still needs the tightly controlled daily key. Before it was turned off in 2000, typical SA errors were 10 meters (32 ft) horizontally and 30 meters (98 ft) vertically. Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a fixed station with an accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to the local GPS receivers so they may correct their position fixes. This is called Differential GPS or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric delay, so it continues to be widely used even though SA has been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in the face of widely available DGPS was a common argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done by order of President Clinton in 2000. Another restriction on GPS, antispoofing, remains on. This encrypts the P-code so that it cannot be mimicked by an enemy transmitter sending false information. Few civilian receivers have ever used the P-code, and the accuracy attainable with the public C/A code is so much better than originally expected (especially with DGPS) that the antispoof policy has relatively little effect on most civilian users. Turning off antispoof would primarily benefit surveyors and some scientists who need extremely precise positions for experiments such as tracking the motion of a tectonic plate. DGPS services are widely available from both commercial and government sources. The latter include WAAS and the US Coast Guard's network of LF marine navigation beacons. The accuracy of the corrections depends on the distance between the user and the DGPS receiver. As the distance increases, the errors at the two sites will not correlate as well, resulting in less precise differential corrections. During the 1990-91 Gulf War, the shortage of military GPS units caused many troops and their families to buy readily available civilian units. This significantly impeded the US military's own battlefield use of GPS, so the military made the decision to turn off SA for the duration of the war. In the 1990s, the FAA started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own radio navigation systems. The amount of error added was "set to zero" at midnight on May 1, 2000 following an announcement by U.S. President Bill Clinton, allowing users access to the error-free L1 signal. Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no error to the public signals (C/A code). Clinton's executive order required SA to be set to zero by 2006; it happened in 2000 once the US military developed a new system that provides the ability to deny GPS (and other navigation services) to hostile forces in a specific area of crisis without affecting the rest of the world or its own military systems. Selective Availability is still a system capability of GPS, and error could, in theory, be reintroduced at any time. In practice, in view of the hazards and costs this would induce for US and foreign shipping, it is unlikely to be reintroduced, and various government agencies, including the FAA, have stated that it is not intended to be reintroduced. One interesting side effect of the Selective Availability hardware is the capability to correct the frequency of the GPS cesium and rubidium atomic clocks to an accuracy of approximately 2 × 10-13 (one in five trillion). This represented a significant improvement over the raw accuracy of the clocks. On 19 September 2007, the United States Department of Defense announced that future GPS III satellites will not be capable of implementing SA, eventually making the policy permanent. Relativity Satellite clocks are slowed by their orbital speed but sped up by their distance out of the Earth's gravitational well. According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height relative to the Earth-centered, non-rotating approximately inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites are affected by their speed (special relativity) as well as their gravitational potential (general relativity). For the GPS satellites, general relativity predicts that the atomic clocks at GPS orbital altitudes will tick more rapidly, by about 45.9 microseconds (μs) per day, because they have a higher gravitational potential than atomic clocks on Earth's surface. Special relativity predicts that atomic clocks moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly than stationary ground clocks by about 7.2 μs per day. When combined, the discrepancy is about 38 microseconds per day; a difference of 4.465 parts in 1010. Rizos, Chris. University of New South Wales. GPS Satellite Signals. 1999. To account for this, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz. The Global Positioning System by Robert A. Nelson Via Satellite, November 1999 Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment. Placing atomic clocks on artificial satellites to test Einstein's general theory was first proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in 1955. Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956). Sagnac distortion GPS observation processing must also compensate for the Sagnac effect. The GPS time scale is defined in an inertial system but observations are processed in an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (co-rotating) system, a system in which simultaneity is not uniquely defined. A Lorentz transformation is thus applied to convert from the inertial system to the ECEF system. The resulting signal run time correction has opposite algebraic signs for satellites in the Eastern and Western celestial hemispheres. Ignoring this effect will produce an east-west error on the order of hundreds of nanoseconds, or tens of meters in position. Ashby, Neil Relativity and GPS. Physics Today, May 2002. Possible sources of interference Natural sources Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or scattering of the GPS signals can desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking the satellite signals difficult or impossible. Space weather degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise in the same frequency band Cerruti, A., P. M. Kintner, D. E. Gary, A. J. Mannucci, R. F. Meyer, P. H. Doherty, and A. J. Coster (2008), Effect of intense December 2006 solar radio bursts on GPS receivers, Space Weather, doi:10.1029/2007SW000375, October 19, 2008 or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric irregularities referred to as scintillation Aarons, Jules and Basu, Santimay, Ionospheric amplitude and phase fluctuations at the GPS frequencies, Proceedings of ION GPS, v 2, 1994, p 1569-1578 . Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year solar cycle and are a maximum at sunspot maximum although they can occur at anytime. Solar radio bursts are associated with solar flares and their impact can affect reception over the half of the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently at tropical latitudes where it is a night time phenomenon. It occurs less frequently at high latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to scintillation Ledvina, B. M., J. J. Makela, and P. M. Kintner (2002), First observations of intense GPS L1 amplitude scintillations at midlatitude, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14), 1659, doi:10.1029/2002GL014770 . In addition to producing scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric gradients that degrade the accuracy of SBAS systems Tom Diehl, Solar Flares Hit the Earth- WAAS Bends but Does Not Break, SatNav News, volume 23, June 2004 . Artificial sources In automotive GPS receivers, metallic features in windshields, such as defrosters, or car window tinting films . Note that the 'Color Stable' films are specifically described as not interfering with satellite signals. can act as a Faraday cage, degrading reception just inside the car. Man-made EMI (electromagnetic interference) can also disrupt, or jam, GPS signals. In one well documented case, the entire harbor of Moss Landing, California was unable to receive GPS signals due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers. The hunt for an unintentional GPS jammer. GPS World. 1 January 2003. EMC compliance club "banana skins" column 222 Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS receivers when they are within radio range, or line of sight. In 2002, a detailed description of how to build a short range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the online magazine Phrack. Low Cost and Portable GPS Jammer. Phrack issue 0x3c (60), article 13]. Published December 28, 2002. The U.S. government believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the 2001 war in Afghanistan and the U.S. military claimed to destroy six GPS jammers during the Iraq War, including one that was destroyed ironically with a GPS-guided bomb. American Forces Press Service. Centcom charts progress. March 25, 2003. Such a jammer is relatively easy to detect and locate, making it an attractive target for anti-radiation missiles. The UK Ministry of Defence tested a jamming system in the UK's West Country on 7 and 8 June 2007. Some countries allow the use of GPS repeaters to allow for the reception of GPS signals indoors and in obscured locations, however, under EU and UK laws, the use of these is prohibited as the signals can cause interference to other GPS receivers that may receive data from both GPS satellites and the repeater. Due to the potential for both natural and man-made noise, numerous techniques continue to be developed to deal with the interference. The first is to not rely on GPS as a sole source. According to John Ruley, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction". Ruley, John. AVweb. GPS jamming. February 12, 2003. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a feature now included in some receivers, which is designed to provide a warning to the user if jamming or another problem is detected. The U.S. military has also deployed their Selective Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) in the Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR). In demonstration videos, the DAGR is able to detect jamming and maintain its lock on the encrypted GPS signals during interference which causes civilian receivers to lose lock. Commercial GPS Receivers: Facts for the Warfighter. Hosted at the Joint Chiefs website, linked by the USAF's GPS Wing DAGR program website. Accessed on 10 April, 2007 Accuracy enhancement Augmentation Augmentation methods of improving accuracy rely on external information being integrated into the calculation process. There are many such systems in place and they are generally named or described based on how the GPS sensor receives the information. Some systems transmit additional information about sources of error (such as clock drift, ephemeris, or ionospheric delay), others provide direct measurements of how much the signal was off in the past, while a third group provide additional navigational or vehicle information to be integrated in the calculation process. Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System, Differential GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems and Assisted GPS. Precise monitoring The accuracy of a calculation can also be improved through precise monitoring and measuring of the existing GPS signals in additional or alternate ways. After SA, which has been turned off, the largest error in GPS is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but errors remain. This is one reason the GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency. Receivers with decryption keys can decode the P(Y)-code transmitted on both L1 and L2. However, these keys are reserved for the military and "authorized" agencies and are not available to the public. Without keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow, so it is currently limited to specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian codes are expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS modernization, below). Then all users will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and directly compute ionospheric delay errors. A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). The error, which this corrects, arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. The CPGPS approach utilizes the L1 carrier wave, which has a period one one-thousandth of the C/A bit period, to act as an additional clock signal and resolve the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to between 2 and 3 meters (6 to 10 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters (1 inch) of ambiguity. By eliminating this source of error, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes between 20 and 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) of absolute accuracy. Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests—possibly with processing in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning, RTK). Timekeeping While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections which are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset (TAI - GPS = 19 seconds) with International Atomic Time (TAI). Periodic corrections are performed on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic effects and keep them synchronized with ground clocks. The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC, which as of 2009 is 15 seconds due to the leap second added to UTC December 31 2008. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits) which, given the current rate of change of the Earth's rotation (with one leap second introduced approximately every 18 months), should be sufficient to last until approximately year 2300. As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a day-of-week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13-bit field, which only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until year 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero). Modernization Having reached the program's requirements for Full Operational Capability (FOC) on July 17, 1995, US Coast Guard news release. Global Positioning System Fully Operational the GPS completed its original design goals. However, additional advances in technology and new demands on the existing system led to the effort to modernize the GPS. Announcements from the U.S. Vice President and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, and in 2000 the U.S. Congress authorized the effort, referring to it as GPS III. The project aims to improve the accuracy and availability for all users and involves a new control segment (called GPS OCX), new ground stations, new satellites, and four additional navigation signals. New civilian signals are called L2C, L5 and L1C; the new military code is called M-Code. Initial Operational Capability (IOC) of the L2C code is expected in 2008. Hydrographic Society Journal. Developments in Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Issue #104, April 2002. Retrieved April 5, 2007. A goal of 2013 has been established for the entire program, with incentives offered to the contractors if they can complete it by 2011 (See GPS signals). Applications The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project, is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant applications for both the military and the civilian industry. Military The military applications of GPS span many purposes: Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops and supplies. The GPS-receivers that commanders and soldiers use are respectively called the Commanders Digital Assistant and the Soldier Digital Assistant. Commanders Digital Assistant explanation and photo Latest version Commanders Digital Assistant Soldier Digital Assistant explanation and photo Commanders and Soldiers' GPS-receivers Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air targets before they are flagged as hostile. These weapon systems pass GPS co-ordinates of targets to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage the targets accurately. Military aircraft, particularly those used in air-to-ground roles use GPS to find targets (for example, gun camera video from AH-1 Cobras in Iraq show GPS co-ordinates that can be looked up in Google Earth). Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. Artillery projectiles with embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000G have been developed for use in 155 mm howitzers. Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if they have a GPS receiver. Reconnaissance and Map Creation: The military use GPS extensively to aid mapping and reconnaissance. The GPS satellites also carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical sensor (Y-sensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an Electro-Magnetic Pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor) which form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System. Sandia National Laboratory's Nonproliferation programs and arms control technology. Civilian This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise timing. Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of three basic components of the GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer. The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location allows GPS receivers to perform as a surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to determine relative movement enables a receiver to calculate local velocity and orientation, useful in vessels or observations of the Earth. Being able to synchronize clocks to exacting standards enables time transfer, which is critical in large communication and observation systems. An example is CDMA digital cellular. Each base station has a GPS timing receiver to synchronize its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell hand off and support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobiles for emergency calls and other applications. Finally, GPS enables researchers to explore the Earth environment including the atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey equipment has revolutionized tectonics by directly measuring the motion of faults in earthquakes. The US Government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above 18 km (60,000 ft) altitude and 515 m/s (1,000 knots) Arms Control Association.Missile Technology Control Regime. Retrieved May 17, 2006. are classified as munitions (weapons) for which US State Department export licenses are required. These parameters are clearly chosen to prevent use of a receiver in a ballistic missile. It would not prevent use in a cruise missile since their altitudes and speeds are similar to those of ordinary aircraft. This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A code and cannot correct for SA, etc. Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition. Different vendors have interpreted these limitations differently. The rule specifies operation above 18 km and 515 m/s, but some receivers stop operating at 18 km even when stationary. This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches as they regularly reach 100,000 feet (30km). GPS tours are also an example of civilian use. The GPS is used to determine which content to display. For instance, when approaching a monument it would tell you about the monument. GPS functionality has now started to move into mobile phones en masse. The first handsets with integrated GPS were launched already in the late 1990’s, and were available for broader consumer availability on networks such as those run by Nextel, Sprint and Verizon in 2002 in response to US FCC mandates for handset positioning in emergency calls. Capabilities for access by third party software developers to these features were slower in coming, with Nextel opening up those APIs upon launch to any developer, Sprint following in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter. Awards Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003: Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid to Navigation). Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University, conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel. One GPS developer, Roger L. Easton, received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006 at the White House. United States Naval Research Laboratory. National Medal of Technology for GPS. November 21, 2005 On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the Global Positioning System Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the most prestigious aviation award in the United States. This team consists of researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the U.S. Air Force, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation accompanying the presentation of the trophy honors the GPS Team "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago." Other systems Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include: Beidou – China's regional system that China has proposed to expand into a global system named COMPASS. Galileo – a proposed global system being developed by the European Union, joined by China, Israel, India, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, and Ukraine, planned to be operational by 2013. GLONASS – Russia's global system which is being restored to full availability in partnership with India. Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) – India's proposed regional system. QZSS' – Japanese proposed regional system covering Japan only. Multidimensional Newton-Raphson for GPS This section provides a more detailed discussion of the equations used in the second method described in Position calculation advanced. The linearized equations are developed using the appropriate partial derivatives and the algorithm is described. In the same method is discussed but the equations are not shown. Let and denote the true coordinates of GPS receiver position at time, . Let denote the unknown clock error or bias, the amount by which the receiver's clock is slow. Let the coordinates of each satellite, and the time the message was sent, be , let the GPS clock's indicated received time be and c'' be the speed of light. The pseudorange is computed as . Assume the message travels at the speed of light, then the pseudorange satisfies the equation, When an approximate solution, rather than the exact solution, is used in equation 1, there is a residual, . Transforming to the right hand side of the equation there results, A solution will have been found when is zero or sufficiently close to zero for . In order to linearize equation 2, the partial derivatives are computed as where . Linearizing the right hand side of equation 2 about the approximate solution, there results where is the residual due to linearization which is in addition to the residual, , due to an approximate solution. In order to drive closer to zero choose the values such that That is choose the values such that the residual in equation 2 changes by approximately . Let Substituting and transposing to the left hand side of the equation, there results Equations 6 provide a set of four linear equations in four unknowns, the delta terms. They are in a form for solution. Using the values of and determined by this linear equation solution, is evaluated using Then set in equations 2 through 6, plug the terms from equations 7 into equations 2, set in equations 7, and reevaluate the residuals in equations 2. This procedure is repeated until the residuals are sufficiently small in magnitude. See also Assisted GPS (A-GPS) Automotive navigation system Bluetooth The American Practical Navigator - Chapter 11 Satellite Navigation Degree Confluence Project - use GPS to visit integral degrees of latitude and longitude Exif - GPS data transfer format Geodashing Geocaching Geotagging Geofence GPS drawing GPS navigation software GPS signals GPS tracking GPS/INS GPX (data transfer) - XML schema for interchange of waypoints GSM localization Height Modernization High Sensitivity GPS ID Sniper rifle List of inventions by the military that are now in mass use LORAN Next Generation Air Transportation System OpenStreetMap - free content maps and street pictures Plate Boundary Observatory Point of interest Radio navigation RAIM SIGI Skyhook Wireless - Wi-Fi Positioning System Telematics - many telematics devices use GPS to determine the location of mobile equipment Trilateration References External links Government links GPS.gov — General public education website created by the U.S. Government National Space-Based PNT Executive Committee—Established in 2004 to oversee management of GPS and GPS augmentations at a national level. USCG Navigation Center—Status of the GPS constellation, government policy, and links to other references. Also includes satellite almanac data. Air Force Space Command GPS Operations Center homepage The GPS Program Office (GPS Wing)—Responsible for designing and acquiring the system on behalf of the US Government. U.S. Naval Observatory's GPS constellation status U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual: NAVSTAR HTML and PDF (22.6 MB, 328 pages) PNT Selective Availability Announcements Global Positioning System Systems Engineering Case Study (A detailed history of GPS development) Federal Aviation Administration's GPS FAQ National Geodetic Survey Orbits for the Global Positioning System satellites in the Global Navigation Satellite System Introductory / tutorial links GPS Academy Garmin interactive video web site explaing what exactly GPS is and what it can do for you. Integraph's Geomedia GIS education, GPS dictionary GPS Basics / u-blox GPS basics tutorial Differences and Features of handheld GPSs GPS and GLONASS Simulation(Java applet) Simulation and graphical depiction of space vehicle motion including computation of dilution of precision (DOP) How does GPS work? TomTom explains GPS, navigation, and digital maps What is Vehicle Tracking? Chameleon explains GPS' relation to Vehicle Tracking and Vehicle Tracking Systems How does eGPS work? CSR's online tutorial introduces the concept and principles of enhanced GPS techniques to improve A-GPS performance and provide indoor positioning Trimble's Online GPS Tutorial Tutorial designed to introduce you to the principles behind GPS Ted Driver's The Nog Navigation Developer's information and resource site GPS Satellite Performance Technical, historical, and ancillary topics links The WhereAmI Project — The WhereAmI Project. Personal Location Tracking and Publishing Service. GPS SPS Performance Standard — The official Standard Positioning Service specification (2008 version). GPS SPS Performance Standard — The official Standard Positioning Service specification (2001 version). GPS PPS Performance Standard — The official Precise Positioning Service specification. Dana, Peter H. "Global Positioning System Overview" Satellite Navigation: GPS & Galileo (PDF)—16-page paper about the history and working of GPS, touching on the upcoming Galileo History of GPS, including information about each satellite's configuration and launch. Chadha, Kanwar. "The Global Positioning System: Challenges in Bringing GPS to Mainstream Consumers" Technical Article (1998) GPS Weapon Guidance Techniques RAND history of the GPS (PDF) GPS-guided educational experience based on the history of a location GPS Anti-Jam Protection Techniques Crosslink Summer 2002 issue by The Aerospace Corporation on satellite navigation. Improved weather predictions from COSMIC GPS satellite signal occultation data. David L. Wilson's GPS Accuracy Web Page A thorough analysis of the accuracy of GPS. Innovation: Spacecraft Navigator, Autonomous GPS Positioning at High Earth Orbits Example of GPS receiver designed for high altitude spaceflight. The Navigator GPS Receiver GSFC's Navigator spaceflight receiver. 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6,787 | David_Rice_Atchison | Portrait by George Caleb Bingham Statue at Clinton County Courthouse in Missouri David Rice Atchison (August 11, 1807 – January 26, 1886) was a mid-19th century Democratic United States Senator from Missouri. He served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate for six years. He is probably best known for the one day (March 4, 1849) that some have suggested he was President of the United States. Atchison was a prominent pro-slavery activist and Border Ruffian leader, deeply involved with violence against abolitionists and other free-staters during the "Bleeding Kansas" events McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom, Penguin Books, 1990, ISBN 9780140125184 p.145~148 Stampp, Kenneth, America in 1857: a nation on the brink, Oxford University Press US, 1992, ISBN 0195074815, p.145 Grimsted, David, American Mobbing, 1828-1861: Toward Civil War, Oxford University Press US, 2003, ISBN 0195172817, p.256 Freehling, William W., The Road to Disunion: Secessionists triumphant, 1854-1861, Oxford University Press US, 2007,ISBN 0195058151, p.72~73 . Early life Atchison was born to William Atchison in Frogtown (later Kirklevington), which is now part of Lexington, Kentucky. He was educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, where his classmates included five future Democratic Senators (Solomon Downs of Louisiana, Jesse Bright of Indiana, George W. Jones of Iowa, Edward Hannegan of Indiana, and Jefferson Davis of Mississippi). Atchison was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1829. Missouri lawyer and politician In 1830 he moved to Liberty in Clay County in western Missouri, and set up practice there, where he also farmed. Atchison's law practice flourished, and his best-known client was Mormon leader Joseph Smith, Jr.. Atchison represented Smith in land disputes with non-Mormon settlers in Caldwell County and Daviess County Alexander William Doniphan joined Atchison's law practice in Liberty in May, 1833. The two became fast friends and spend many leisure time hours playing cards, going the horse races, hunting, fishing, attending social functions and political events. Atchinson, already a member of the Liberty Blues, a volunteer militia in Missouri, got Doniphan to join. Muench, James F., (2006). - Five Stars: Missouri's Most Famous Generals. - Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press. - pp.7-8. ISBN 9780826216564. Atchison was elected to the Missouri General Assembly in 1834. He worked hard for the Platte Purchase, which extended the northwestern boundary of Missouri to the Missouri River in 1837. When the earlier disputes broke out into the so-called Mormon War of 1838, Atchison was appointed a general in the state militia and took part in suppression of the violence by both sides. In 1838 he was re-elected to the Assembly. Three years later, he appointed a circuit court judge for the six-county area of the Platte Purchase. In 1843 he was named a county commissioner in Platte County, where he then lived. Senate career In October 1843, Atchison was appointed to the U.S. Senate to fill the vacancy left by the death of Lewis F. Linn. He thus became the first senator from western Missouri. At age 36, he was the youngest senator from Missouri up to that time. Later in 1843, Atchison was elected to serve the remainder of Linn's term, and was re-elected in 1849. Atchison was very popular with his fellow Senate Democrats. When the Democrats took control of the Senate in December 1845, they chose Atchison as President pro tempore, placing him third in succession for the Presidency, and also giving him the duty of presiding over the Senate when the Vice President was absent. He was then only 38 years old and had served in the Senate just two years. In 1849 Atchison stepped down as President pro tempore in favor of William R. King. King in turn yielded the office back to Atchison in December 1852, since King had been elected Vice President of the United States. Atchison continued as President pro tempore until December 1854. As a Senator, Atchison was a fervent advocate of slavery and territorial expansion. He supported the annexation of Texas and the U.S.-Mexican War. Atchison and Missouri's other Senator, the venerable Thomas Hart Benton, became rivals and finally enemies, though both were Democrats. Benton declared himself to be against slavery in 1849, and in 1851 Atchison allied with the Whigs to defeat Benton for re-election. Benton, intending to challenge Atchison in 1854, began to agitate for territorial organization of the area west of Missouri (now the states of Kansas and Nebraska) so it could be opened to settlement. To counter this, Atchison proposed that the area be organized and that the section of the Missouri Compromise banning slavery there be repealed in favor of popular sovereignty, under which the settlers in each territory would decide themselves whether slavery would be allowed. At Atchison's request, Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which embodied this idea, in November 1853. The Act became law on in May 1854, establishing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Border Ruffians Douglas (and Atchison) had assumed that Nebraska would be settled by Free-State men from Iowa and Illinois, and Kansas by pro-slavery Missourians and other Southerners, thus preserving the numerical balance between free states and slave states. In 1854 Atchison helped found the town of Atchison, Kansas, as a pro-slavery settlement. The town (and county) were named for him. History of the State of Kansas by William G. Cutler - 1883 - Reprinted on kancoll.org In fact, while Southerners welcomed the opportunity to settle Kansas, very few actually chose to do so. Instead, most free-soilers preferred Kansas. Furthermore, anti-slavery activists throughout the North came to view Kansas as a battleground and formed societies to encourage free-soil settlers to go to Kansas and ensure that both Kansas and Nebraska would become free states. It appeared as if the Kansas Territorial legislature to be elected in March 1855 would be controlled by free-soilers and ban slavery. This was viewed as a breach of faith by Atchison and his supporters. An angry Atchison called on pro-slavery Missourians to uphold slavery by force and "to kill every God-damned abolitionist in the district" if necessary. David M. Potter, Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Impending Crisis 1848-1861 at 203 (Harper, 1976) He recruited an immense mob of heavily armed Missourians, the infamous "Border Ruffians". On the election day, March 30, 1855, Atchison led 5,000 Border Ruffians into Kansas. They seized control of all polling places at gunpoint, cast tens of thousands of fraudulent votes for pro-slavery candidates, and elected a pro-slavery legislature. The outrage was nonetheless accepted by the Federal government. When Territorial Governor Andrew Reeder objected, he was fired by President Pierce, a Doughface. Despite this show of force, far more free-soilers than pro-slavery settlers migrated to Kansas. There were continual raids and ambushes by both sides in "Bleeding Kansas." But in spite of the best efforts of Atchison and the Ruffians, Kansas did reject slavery and finally became a free state in 1861. Defeated for re-election Atchison's Senate term expired March 3, 1855. He sought election to another term, but the Democrats in the Missouri legislature were split between him and Benton, while the Whig minority put forward their own man. No Senator was elected until January 1857, when James S. Green was chosen. Railroad proposal When the First Transcontinental Railroad was proposed in the 1850s, Atchison called for it to be built along the central route (from St. Louis through Missouri, Kansas, and Utah), rather the southern route (from New Orleans through Texas and New Mexico). Naturally, his suggested route went through Atchison. Civil War soldier Atchison and A. W. Doniphan would fall out over the politics proceeding the Civil War and on which direction Missouri should proceed. Atchison favored seccession, while Doniphan was torn and would remain for the most part non-committal. Privately Doniphan favored the Union, but found it hard to go against his friends and associates. During the secession crisis in Missouri at the beginning of the American Civil War, Atchison sided with Missouri's pro-Confederate governor, Claiborne Jackson. He accepted an appointment as a general in the Missouri State Guard. Atchison actively recruited State Guardsmen in northern Missouri and served with Missouri State Guard commander General Sterling Price in the summer campaign of 1861. In September 1861, Atchison led 3,500 State Guard recruits across the Missouri River to reinforce Price, and defeated Union troops that tried to block his force in the Battle of Liberty. Atchison continued to serve through the end of 1861. In March 1862, Union forces in the Trans-Mississippi theater won a decisive victory at Pea Ridge in Arkansas and secured Union control of Missouri. Atchison then resigned from the army and retired to his farm near Plattsburg, Missouri. The President for One Day Atchison himself never claimed that he was technically President of the United States for one day—Sunday, March 4, 1849. Outgoing President James Polk resigned on March 4, a day before his presidency would have ended, so he could head home to Tennessee. His successor, Zachary Taylor, refused to be sworn into office on the sabbath (Sunday). Taylor's Vice Presidential running mate, Millard Fillmore, likewise was not inaugurated. As President pro tempore, and therefore Acting Vice President, under the presidential succession law in place at the time, Atchison was believed by some to be Acting President. However, while it is alleged that the offices of President and Vice President were vacant, Atchison in fact was not next in line. While the terms of President James K. Polk and Vice President George Mifflin Dallas had expired, Atchison's tenure as President pro tempore had already expired when the Thirtieth Congress adjourned sine die on March 3. He also never took the oath of office. No disability or lack of qualification prevented Taylor and Fillmore from taking office, and as they had been duly certified to take office that day as president-elect and vice president-elect, if Taylor was not president because he had not been sworn in as such, then Atchison, who had not been sworn in either, certainly was not President either. Atchison was sworn in for his new term as President pro tempore minutes before both Fillmore and Taylor, which might theoretically make him Acting President for at least that length of time; however, this also implies that many times when the Vice President is sworn in before the President, the Vice President is the de facto Acting President. Since this is a common occurrence, if Atchison is considered President, so must every Vice President whose inauguration preceded that of the President if the President was sworn in after noon on Inauguration Day. Therefore, while one could argue that Atchison was theoretically President for a few minutes (though even this much is highly debatable), claims that he should be considered an official President are surely disputable. He is not included in any official U.S. government list of Presidents. The highest-ranking official whose term unquestionably continued during the interim was Polk's Secretary of State, James Buchanan (later elected President himself in 1856), whose term did not formally expire until his successor, John M. Clayton, took office on March 7. Family lore suggests that Senator Atchison told his housekeeper on the evening of March 3 that he was going to his bed and under no circumstances was to be awoken before Monday, March 5. Despite an attempt to rouse the good Senator from Missouri by a delegation of Senators on Sunday March 4, Mr. Atchison slept through his 'one day presidency', hence the reason he never acknowledged it in the first place. Despite this, a museum exhibit opened in his honor, in which its owner claims it to be the country's smallest Presidential Library. Although it is not recognized as such by the U.S Government, it opened in February 2006 as the Atchison County Historical Museum in Atchison, Kansas. Atchison was 41 years and 6 months old at the alleged time of the One-Day Presidency, younger than any official President. Theodore Roosevelt, the youngest to serve, was 42 years and 11 months old when he was sworn in following the death of William McKinley in 1901, and John F. Kennedy, the youngest to be elected, was 43 years and 7 months old when he was inaugurated in 1961. However, in reality this also would not be true, because of the aforementioned standard of which the claim can be made, making every Vice President an Acting President. That would make the 14th Vice President John C. Breckinridge the youngest because he was 36 years old at the time of being sworn in. Memorials David Atchison's Tombstone|David Rice Atchison's tombstone Atchison died on January 26, 1886, at the age of 78. He was buried at his home in Plattsburg, Missouri, where a statue honors him in front of the Clinton County Courthouse. His grave marker reads "President of the United States for One Day," although it does not have a Presidential Seal. Atchison, Kansas, is named for him. The town subsequently gave its name to the famous Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad. In 1991, Atchison was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol. See also Places named for David Atchison Atchison, Kansas (city) Atchison County, Kansas Atchison County, Missouri USS Atchison County (LST-60) References External links Retrieved on 2008-02-13 Urban Legends: President for a Day Another view of the President for a Day claim Useless Information: David Rice Atchison U.S. Senate Historical Minute Essay Retrieved on 2008-02-13 | David_Rice_Atchison |@lemmatized portrait:1 george:3 caleb:1 bingham:1 statue:2 clinton:2 county:13 courthouse:2 missouri:31 david:7 rice:3 atchison:65 august:1 january:3 mid:1 century:1 democratic:2 united:6 state:20 senator:11 serve:6 president:44 pro:15 tempore:7 senate:9 six:2 year:8 probably:1 best:3 know:2 one:7 day:12 march:12 suggest:3 prominent:1 slavery:15 activist:2 border:4 ruffian:5 leader:2 deeply:1 involve:1 violence:2 abolitionist:2 free:9 stater:1 bleeding:2 kansa:20 event:2 mcpherson:1 james:6 battle:2 cry:1 freedom:1 penguin:1 book:1 isbn:5 p:4 stampp:1 kenneth:1 america:1 nation:1 brink:1 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6,788 | Harry_Secombe | Sir Harry Donald Secombe, CBE (8 September 1921–11 April 2001) was a Welsh entertainer with a noted fine tenor singing voice and a talent for comedy. He is best known for playing Neddie Seagoon, a major character on the Goon Show, a popular BBC radio comedy. He also appeared in musicals and as a prominent presenter of religious television shows. Biography Early life Born at St. Thomas, Swansea, he was the third of four children born to a grocer and a manageress. Secombe attended Dynevor School in the centre of Swansea. His family were regular church-goers, joining the congregation of St. Stephen's Church in Danygraig. A member of the choir, at church socials from aged 12 he would perform a sketch entitled The Welsh Courtship, acting as "feed" to his sister Carol. British Army After leaving school, in 1937 he became a pay clerk at Baldwins store. In 1938 he joined the Territorial Army, serving as a Lance Bombardier in the Royal Artillery. Secombe referred to his unit as "The Five-Mile Snipers" during World War II, serving in the North African Campaign, Sicily and Italy. He first met Spike Milligan in Tunisia. Milligan's artillery battery had a larger calibre artillery piece that was too big for the gun pits Secombe's unit's cannon had used. The rest of Secombe's battery had already moved and he was with the last elements in some tents at the foot of a cliff below their former position. The officers in Milligan's battery didn't bother to enlarge the pits. When Spike's cannon fired its first shell, the recoil drove the gun up out of the pit and over the cliff. Secombe recalled that when the weapon fell outside the tent, he and his mates thought, "My God! They're throwing cannons at us!" A moment later, the flap of the tent opened and Spike poked his head in and said in his Eccles' voice, "Has anyone seen a gun?" Secombe replied "What colour?" When he visited the Falkland Islands to entertain the troops after the 1982 war, he was promoted to the rank of Sergeant by his old regiment - 37 years after being demobbed. As an entertainer Secombe joined the cast of the Windmill Theatre in 1946, using a routine he made up in Italy about how people shaved. Secombe always claimed that his ability to sing could always be counted to save him when he bombed. Both Milligan and Sellers credited him with keeping the act on the bill when club owners had wanted to sack them. After a regional touring career, his first break came in radio when he was chosen as resident comedian for the Welsh series Welsh Rarebit, followed by appearances on Variety Bandbox and a regular role in Educating Archie. Secombe's met Michael Bentine at the Windmill Theatre, and was introduced to Peter Sellers by his agent Jimmy Grafton. The four with Spike Milligan wrote a script titled Crazy People, which produced by Peter Ross of the BBC became the radio comedy The Goon Show. First broadcast on 28 May 1951, he show remained on the radio until 1960. Secombe was notable for playing Neddie Seagoon, the focus of many of the show's absurd plots. While the success of The Goon Show meant he didn't need to do other work, he continued developing a dual career as a comedic actor and singer. At the beginning of his career as an entertainer, his act would end with a joke version of the duet Sweethearts, in which he sang both the baritone and falsetto parts. Trained under Italian maestro Manlio di Veroli, he emerged as one of the few bel canto tenors, and had a long list of best-selling record albums to his credit. In 1958 he appeared in the film Jet Storm, which starred Dame Sybil Thorndike and Sir Richard Attenborough in the title role of Davy - the last feature film made at Ealing Studios. The power of his voice allowed Secombe to appear in many stage musicals. This included 1963's Pickwick, based on Dickens's The Pickwick Papers, which gave him the number two hit single If I Ruled the World - his later signature tune. In 1965 the show was produced on tour in the United States, where on Broadway he garnered a nomination for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical. He also appeared in 1967's The Four Musketeers, Mr. Bumble in Carol Reed's 1968 film of Lionel Bart's Oliver!, and in the Envy segment of The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins. Later career Later in life, Secombe (whose brother Fred Secombe was a priest in the Church in Wales, part of the Anglican Communion) attracted new audiences as a presenter of religious programmes, such as the BBC's Songs of Praise and ITV's Highway. He was also a special programming consultant to Harlech Television. He was knighted in 1981, and jokingly referred to himself as Sir Cumference (in recognition of his rotund figure). In 1990, he was one of the few celebrities to be honoured by a second appearance on This Is Your Life, having had a first program produced in 1958. Comedian Vic Reeves mentioned Secombe in his 1991 song "Meals On Wheels" ("Harry Secombe wants his pie and peas"). Later life Secombe suffered a stroke in 1997, from which he made a slow recovery, only to be diagnosed with prostate cancer the following September. After suffering a second stroke in 1999, he was forced to abandon his television career, but made a documentary about his condition in the hope of giving encouragement to other sufferers. He died at the age of 79, from prostate cancer, at his home in Shamley Green, Surrey, England, in April 2001. His ashes are interred at the parish church of Shamley Green, and a later memorial service to celebrate his life was held at Westminster Abbey on October 26, 2001. As well as family members and friends, the service was also attended by Charles, Prince of Wales and representatives of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Anne, Princess Royal, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon and Prince Edward, Duke of Kent. On his tombstone is the inscription: "To know him was to love him." The Secombe Theatre at Sutton bears his name in memory of this former local personality. Sutton theatres . Family life Secombe met his wife, Myra Atherton, at the Mumbles dance hall. The couple married in 1948, and had four children: Jennifer Secombe, married to actor Alex Giannini. She was also her father's agent. Andy Secombe, a voice and film actor, as well as an author David Secombe, a writer and photographer Katy Secombe, an actress He was a member of the Savage Club, a London Gentlemen's Club in Whitehall Place. His niece, Joan Secombe, was a head of house at Bishop Luffa school, in Chichester. Selected works Singles "On with the Motley" (1955) UK #16 "Bless This House" (1960) UK "If I Ruled the World" (1963) UK #18 "This Is My Song" (1967) UK #2 Guinness Book of British Hit Singles, 7th ed., 1989 Albums Sacred Songs (1962) UK #16 Secombe's Personal Choice (1967) UK #6 If I Ruled the World (1971) UK #17 Bless This House: 20 Songs Of Joy (1978) UK #8 Guinness Book of British Hit Albums 1st ed., 1983 ISBN 0-85112-246-9 Captain Beaky and His Band BooksAn Entertaining Life. Foreword by HRH Charles, Prince of Wales. London: Robson Books (2004). Paperback: ISBN 1-861-05811-X, ISBN 978-1-86105-811-9. The Goon Omnibus (Goon For Lunch). London: The Companion Book Club (1978) Twice Brightly'' London: The Companion Book Club References External links | Harry_Secombe |@lemmatized sir:3 harry:2 donald:1 secombe:25 cbe:1 september:2 april:2 welsh:4 entertainer:3 noted:1 fine:1 tenor:2 singing:1 voice:4 talent:1 comedy:3 best:3 know:2 play:2 neddie:2 seagoon:2 major:1 character:1 goon:5 show:7 popular:1 bbc:3 radio:4 also:5 appear:4 musical:3 prominent:1 presenter:2 religious:2 television:3 biography:1 early:1 life:7 bear:3 st:2 thomas:1 swansea:2 third:1 four:4 child:2 grocer:1 manageress:1 attend:2 dynevor:1 school:3 centre:1 family:3 regular:2 church:5 goer:1 join:3 congregation:1 stephen:1 danygraig:1 member:3 choir:1 social:1 age:2 would:2 perform:1 sketch:1 entitle:1 courtship:1 act:3 fee:1 sister:1 carol:2 british:3 army:2 leave:1 become:2 pay:1 clerk:1 baldwin:1 store:1 territorial:1 serve:2 lance:1 bombardier:1 royal:2 artillery:3 refer:2 unit:2 five:1 mile:1 sniper:1 world:4 war:2 ii:1 north:1 african:1 campaign:1 sicily:1 italy:2 first:5 meet:3 spike:4 milligan:5 tunisia:1 battery:3 large:1 calibre:1 piece:1 big:1 gun:3 pit:3 cannon:3 use:2 rest:1 already:1 move:1 last:2 element:1 tent:3 foot:1 cliff:2 former:2 position:1 officer:1 bother:1 enlarge:1 fire:1 shell:1 recoil:1 drive:1 recall:1 weapon:1 fell:1 outside:1 mate:1 think:1 god:1 throw:1 u:1 moment:1 later:4 flap:1 open:1 poke:1 head:2 say:1 eccles:1 anyone:1 see:1 reply:1 colour:1 visit:1 falkland:1 islands:1 entertain:2 troop:1 promote:1 rank:1 sergeant:1 old:1 regiment:1 year:1 demob:1 cast:1 windmill:2 theatre:4 routine:1 make:4 people:2 shave:1 always:2 claim:1 ability:1 sing:2 could:1 count:1 save:1 bomb:1 seller:2 credit:2 keep:1 bill:1 club:5 owner:1 want:2 sack:1 regional:1 touring:1 career:5 break:1 come:1 choose:1 resident:1 comedian:2 series:1 rarebit:1 follow:1 appearance:2 variety:1 bandbox:1 role:2 educate:1 archie:1 michael:1 bentine:1 introduce:1 peter:2 agent:2 jimmy:1 grafton:1 write:1 script:1 title:2 crazy:1 produce:3 ross:1 broadcast:1 may:1 remain:1 notable:1 focus:1 many:2 absurd:1 plot:1 success:1 mean:1 need:1 work:2 continue:1 develop:1 dual:1 comedic:1 actor:4 singer:1 beginning:1 end:1 joke:1 version:1 duet:1 sweetheart:1 baritone:1 falsetto:1 part:2 train:1 italian:1 maestro:1 manlio:1 di:1 veroli:1 emerge:1 one:2 bel:1 canto:1 long:1 list:1 selling:1 record:1 album:3 film:4 jet:1 storm:1 star:1 dame:1 sybil:1 thorndike:1 richard:1 attenborough:1 davy:1 feature:1 ealing:1 studio:1 power:1 allow:1 stage:1 included:1 pickwick:2 base:1 dickens:1 paper:1 give:2 number:1 two:1 hit:3 single:3 rule:3 late:2 signature:1 tune:1 tour:1 united:1 state:1 broadway:1 garner:1 nomination:1 tony:1 award:1 musketeer:1 mr:1 bumble:1 reed:1 lionel:1 bart:1 oliver:1 envy:1 segment:1 magnificent:1 seven:1 deadly:1 sin:1 whose:1 brother:1 fred:1 priest:1 wale:3 anglican:1 communion:1 attract:1 new:1 audience:1 programme:1 song:5 praise:1 itv:1 highway:1 special:1 programming:1 consultant:1 harlech:1 knight:1 jokingly:1 cumference:1 recognition:1 rotund:1 figure:1 celebrity:1 honour:1 second:2 program:1 vic:1 reef:1 mention:1 meal:1 wheel:1 pie:1 pea:1 suffer:2 stroke:2 slow:1 recovery:1 diagnose:1 prostate:2 cancer:2 following:1 force:1 abandon:1 documentary:1 condition:1 hope:1 encouragement:1 sufferer:1 die:1 home:1 shamley:2 green:2 surrey:1 england:1 ash:1 inter:1 parish:1 memorial:1 service:2 celebrate:1 hold:1 westminster:1 abbey:1 october:1 well:2 friend:1 charles:2 prince:4 representative:1 philip:1 duke:2 edinburgh:1 anne:1 princess:2 margaret:1 countess:1 snowdon:1 edward:1 kent:1 tombstone:1 inscription:1 love:1 sutton:2 name:1 memory:1 local:1 personality:1 wife:1 myra:1 atherton:1 mumble:1 dance:1 hall:1 couple:1 marry:2 jennifer:1 alex:1 giannini:1 father:1 andy:1 author:1 david:1 writer:1 photographer:1 katy:1 actress:1 savage:1 london:4 gentleman:1 whitehall:1 place:1 niece:1 joan:1 house:3 bishop:1 luffa:1 chichester:1 select:1 motley:1 uk:8 bless:2 guinness:2 book:5 ed:2 sacred:1 personal:1 choice:1 joy:1 isbn:3 captain:1 beaky:1 band:1 booksan:1 foreword:1 hrh:1 robson:1 paperback:1 x:1 omnibus:1 lunch:1 companion:2 twice:1 brightly:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram spike_milligan:2 falkland_islands:1 best_selling:1 richard_attenborough:1 ealing_studio:1 pickwick_paper:1 carol_reed:1 deadly_sin:1 anglican_communion:1 diagnose_prostate:1 prostate_cancer:2 westminster_abbey:1 external_link:1 |
6,789 | Economy_of_Bhutan | The economy of Bhutan, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for more than 60% of the population. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Bhutan at market prices by the International Monetary Fund: Year GDP (millions of BTN) GDP (millions of USD) 1980 1,029 131 1985 2,166 175 1990 4,877 279 1995 9,531 294 2000 20,060 460 2005 36,915 828 Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. For example, the government, in its cautious expansion of the tourist sector, encourages visits by upscale, environmentally conscientious tourists. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in such areas as industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment. In 2004, Bhutan became the first country in the world to ban smoking and the selling of tobacco. Other statistics Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.) Electricity: production: 2 TWh (2005) consumption: 380 GWh (2005) exports: 1.5 TWh (2005) (exports electricity to India) imports: 20 GWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 0.39% hydro: 99.61% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Oil: production: 0 barrel/day (2005) consumption: 1,200 barrel/day (2005 est.) exports: 0 barrel/day (2004) imports: 1,138 barrel/day (2004) Agriculture - products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains, dairy products, eggs Currency: 1 ngultrum (BTN) = 100 chetrum; Indian rupee (INR) is also legal tender Historic exchange rates: {| class=wikitable |- ! !!2006 ||2005 ||2004 ||2003 ||2002 ||2001 ||1999 || 1998 ||1997 ||1996 ||1995 |- align="right" | align="left"|Ngultrum per US$1 || 45.279|| 44.101|| 45.317|| 46.583|| 48.61|| 47.186|| 43.055|| 41.259|| 36.313|| 35.433|| 32.427 |- | colspan="12"|Note: the ngultrum is pegged to the Indian rupee |} References External links Global Economic Prospects: Growth Prospects for South Asia The World Bank, December 13, 2006 | Economy_of_Bhutan |@lemmatized economy:2 bhutan:5 one:1 world:3 small:1 least:1 developed:1 base:2 agriculture:3 forestry:1 provide:1 main:1 livelihood:1 population:1 consist:1 largely:1 subsistence:1 farming:1 animal:1 husbandry:1 rugged:1 mountain:1 dominate:1 terrain:1 make:2 building:1 road:2 infrastructure:1 difficult:1 expensive:1 closely:1 align:3 india:2 strong:1 trade:2 monetary:2 link:2 industrial:3 sector:2 technologically:1 backward:1 production:5 cottage:1 industry:1 type:1 development:2 project:1 construction:1 rely:1 indian:3 migrant:1 labor:2 macro:1 economic:3 trend:2 chart:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:3 market:1 price:1 international:1 fund:1 year:1 gdp:2 million:2 btn:2 usd:1 hydropower:1 potential:1 attraction:1 tourist:3 key:1 resource:1 bhutanese:1 government:3 progress:1 expand:1 nation:1 productive:1 improve:1 social:2 welfare:1 model:1 education:1 environment:2 program:2 underway:1 support:1 multilateral:1 organization:1 take:1 account:1 desire:1 protect:1 country:2 cultural:1 tradition:1 example:1 cautious:1 expansion:1 encourage:1 visit:1 upscale:1 environmentally:1 conscientious:1 detail:1 control:1 uncertain:1 policy:1 area:1 licensing:1 finance:1 continue:1 hamper:1 foreign:1 investment:1 become:1 first:1 ban:1 smoking:1 selling:1 tobacco:1 statistic:1 growth:2 rate:2 est:2 electricity:3 twh:2 consumption:2 gwh:2 export:3 import:2 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 oil:1 barrel:4 day:4 rice:1 corn:1 root:1 crop:1 citrus:1 foodgrains:1 dairy:1 eggs:1 currency:1 ngultrum:3 chetrum:1 rupee:2 inr:1 also:1 legal:1 tender:1 historic:1 exchange:1 class:1 wikitable:1 right:1 leave:1 per:1 u:1 colspan:1 note:1 peg:1 reference:1 external:1 global:1 prospect:2 south:1 asia:1 bank:1 december:1 |@bigram agriculture_forestry:1 subsistence_farming:1 animal_husbandry:1 gross_domestic:1 monetary_fund:1 production_twh:1 consumption_gwh:1 import_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:1 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 dairy_product:1 indian_rupee:2 legal_tender:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_align:1 external_link:1 |
6,790 | Chaldea | Chaldea (from Greek , Chaldaia; Akkadian , Hebrew כשדים, Kaśdim; Arabic , Kāldān Ptolemy 5.19 ), "the Chaldees" of the KJV Old Testament, was a Hellenistic designation for a part of Babylonia, mainly around Sumerian , which became an independent kingdom under the Chaldees. It pursued military campaigns against the foreign ruling dynasties ruling southern Mesopotamia, mainly the Akkadians and the Babylonians. It became a Babylonian colony in the early days of Hammurabi, but retained special status in relation to other cities ruled by Babylon in the region. One early such reference is to the impending invasion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II (Habakkuk 1:6). The 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon (6th century BC) is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty. Their kingdom in the southern portion of Babylonia lay chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of Mesopotamia, Chaldea proper was the vast plain in the south formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width. The Land Chaldea as the name of a country is used in two different senses . In the early period it was the name of a small territory in southern Babylonia extending along the northern and probably also the western shores of the Persian gulf. It is called in Assyrian mat Kaldi—that is, "land of Chaldea"—but there is also used, apparently synonymously, the expression mât Bit Yakin. It would appear that Bit Yakin was of the land; and the king of Chaldea is also called the king of Bit Yakin, just as the kings of Bab the estuaries of the Tigris and Euphrates, which then discharged their waters through narrow bonds and obtained the ascendency over all Babylonia, they gave their name to the whole land of Babylonia, which under the Chaldean dynasty was called Chaldea. The People The Chaldeans were a Semitic people who appear in the country of the sea-lands around the head of the Persian Gulf at about the same time that the Arameans and the Shutu appeared in Babylonia. Though belonging to the same Semitic race, they are to be differentiated from the Aramean stock; and Sennacherib, for example, is careful in his inscriptions to distinguish them. When they came to possess the whole land their name became synonymous with Babylonian, and, though conquerors, they were speedily assimilated to Babylonian culture. The language of the Chaldeans after their settlement in Babylonia was Akkadian, the same, save slight peculiarities in sound and in characters, as the Assyrian language of Niniveh. In the late Assyrian Empire, Babylonian ceased to be spoken, and Aramaic took its place. One form of this widespread language is used in Daniel and Ezra. The Chaldeans were traditional allies of the Elamites and Persians in their struggle against the Assyrians. Chaldeans at Iranica, (Muhammad Dandamayev) History Important Kaldu cities were Bit-Yâkin (the original homeland at the Persian Gulf), Bit-Dakuri, Bit-Adini, Bit-Amukkani, and Bit-Shilani. King Ukinzir (Greek: Chinzeros) conquered Babylonia, ruling 731-729, but was again defeated by Tiglath-Pileser III. During the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727), Babylonia saw a significant influx of Kaldu settlers. Merodach-Baladan of Bit-Yâkin gained the support of the Elamites and was king of Babylonia several times between 721 and 710, being deposed by the Assyrians, but always succeeding in seizing the reins of power again. In 702, he once more campaigned against Sennacherib before being finally defeated at Kish. King Mushezib-Marduk was king just before Sennacherib's sack of Babylon in 689 BC. It was only under Nabopolassar in 625 that the Kaldu attained lasting control over Babylon, after having defeated Assyria and Egypt at Karchemish, founding the Chaldean dynasty, which lasted until 539 and the rise of the Achaemenid Empire. When the Chaldean empire was absorbed into the Achaemenid, the name Chaldean lost its meaning as the name of an ethnic group, and came to be applied to a class. The Persians found the Chaldeans masters of reading and writing, and especially versed in all forms of incantation, in sorcery, witchcraft, and the magical arts. Thus, in Greek, "Chaldean" came to acquire the meaning of "astrologer" (e.g. in Strabo). In this sense it is also used in the Book of Daniel (Dan. 1:4, 2:2ff.). Chaldean settlement ties the Middle East to early European history as Chaldean colonists led by Aschenez are thought to have been the founders “Ippolita: Sorella del Brigante Musolino,” By Pietro A. Romeo, published by Laruffa Editore, 2007, p20, http://www.laruffaeditore.it Excerpt translated by Nella Cotrupi. of the city now known as Reggio Calabria, on the east side of the straight between Sicily and Calabria, Italy. The city was founded at the end of the 8th century BCE, making it one of the oldest cities of Europe, according to local historians. References See also Chaldean Catholic Church External links Study Light: Kasidy Magic of the Egyptians and Chaldeans Chaldean and Assyrian Community Discussion | Chaldea |@lemmatized chaldea:6 greek:3 chaldaia:1 akkadian:3 hebrew:1 כשדים:1 kaśdim:1 arabic:1 kāldān:1 ptolemy:1 chaldee:2 kjv:1 old:2 testament:1 hellenistic:1 designation:1 part:1 babylonia:10 mainly:2 around:2 sumerian:1 become:3 independent:1 kingdom:2 pursue:1 military:1 campaign:1 foreign:1 ruling:1 dynasty:5 rule:3 southern:3 mesopotamia:2 babylonian:5 colony:1 early:4 day:1 hammurabi:1 retain:1 special:1 status:1 relation:1 city:5 babylon:4 region:1 one:3 reference:2 impending:1 invasion:1 jerusalem:1 nebuchadnezzar:1 ii:1 habakkuk:1 king:8 century:2 bc:2 conventionally:1 know:2 historian:2 chaldean:16 portion:1 lay:1 chiefly:1 right:1 bank:1 euphrates:3 though:3 name:7 come:4 commonly:1 use:5 refer:1 whole:3 proper:1 vast:1 plain:1 south:1 form:3 deposit:1 tigris:2 extend:2 four:1 hundred:2 mile:2 along:2 course:1 river:1 average:1 width:1 land:6 country:2 two:1 different:1 sens:1 period:1 small:1 territory:1 northern:1 probably:1 also:5 western:1 shore:1 persian:5 gulf:3 call:3 assyrian:6 mat:1 kaldi:1 apparently:1 synonymously:1 expression:1 mât:1 bit:9 yakin:3 would:1 appear:3 bab:1 estuary:1 discharge:1 water:1 narrow:1 bond:1 obtain:1 ascendency:1 give:1 people:2 semitic:2 sea:1 head:1 time:2 aramean:2 shutu:1 belong:1 race:1 differentiate:1 stock:1 sennacherib:3 example:1 careful:1 inscription:1 distinguish:1 possess:1 synonymous:1 conqueror:1 speedily:1 assimilate:1 culture:1 language:3 settlement:2 save:1 slight:1 peculiarity:1 sound:1 character:1 niniveh:1 late:1 empire:3 cease:1 speak:1 aramaic:1 take:1 place:1 widespread:1 daniel:2 ezra:1 traditional:1 ally:1 elamite:2 struggle:1 iranica:1 muhammad:1 dandamayev:1 history:2 important:1 kaldu:3 yâkin:2 original:1 homeland:1 dakuri:1 adini:1 amukkani:1 shilani:1 ukinzir:1 chinzeros:1 conquer:1 defeat:3 tiglath:2 pileser:2 iii:2 reign:1 saw:1 significant:1 influx:1 settler:1 merodach:1 baladan:1 gain:1 support:1 several:1 depose:1 always:1 succeed:1 seize:1 rein:1 power:1 campaigned:1 finally:1 kish:1 mushezib:1 marduk:1 sack:1 nabopolassar:1 attain:1 last:2 control:1 assyria:1 egypt:1 karchemish:1 found:2 rise:1 achaemenid:2 absorb:1 lose:1 meaning:2 ethnic:1 group:1 apply:1 class:1 find:1 master:1 reading:1 writing:1 especially:1 verse:1 incantation:1 sorcery:1 witchcraft:1 magical:1 art:1 thus:1 acquire:1 astrologer:1 e:1 g:1 strabo:1 sense:1 book:1 dan:1 tie:1 middle:1 east:2 european:1 colonist:1 lead:1 aschenez:1 think:1 founder:1 ippolita:1 sorella:1 del:1 brigante:1 musolino:1 pietro:1 romeo:1 publish:1 laruffa:1 editore:1 http:1 www:1 laruffaeditore:1 excerpt:1 translate:1 nella:1 cotrupi:1 reggio:1 calabria:2 side:1 straight:1 sicily:1 italy:1 end:1 bce:1 make:1 europe:1 accord:1 local:1 see:1 catholic:1 church:1 external:1 link:1 study:1 light:1 kasidy:1 magic:1 egyptian:1 community:1 discussion:1 |@bigram akkadian_babylonian:1 persian_gulf:3 tigris_euphrates:1 tiglath_pileser:2 pileser_iii:2 merodach_baladan:1 achaemenid_empire:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
6,791 | One_Foot_in_the_Grave | One Foot in the Grave is a BBC television situation comedy series written by David Renwick. The show ran for six series, with several specials over a ten year period, from 1990 to 2000. The series features the exploits of Victor Meldrew, played by Richard Wilson, and his long-suffering wife, Margaret, played by Annette Crosbie, in their battle against the trials of modern life. After being forced to take involuntary early retirement, the series followed the protagonist's various efforts to keep himself busy, whilst encountering various misfortunes and misunderstandings. The series was set in a typical suburban household in a suburb of London based on Luton (although was largely filmed on location in Dorset). One Foot in the Grave Series 6 DVD Commentary However, despite its traditional production, the series subverts its domestic sitcom setting with elements of black humour and surrealism. The series was occasionally the subject of controversy for some of its darker story elements. However, it was the recipient of a number of awards, including the 1992 BAFTA for Best Comedy. In 2004, the series came tenth in a 2004 BBC poll to find "Britain's Best Sitcom". The programme also came 80th in the British Film Institute's 100 Greatest British Television Programmes. BFI TV100, URL accessed June 8th, 2006 The series, originally shown on BBC1, is now available on DVD and is regularly repeated in the United Kingdom. Four episodes were remade for BBC Radio 2 and the series also inspired a novel. Plot The series features the exploits of irascible pensioner Victor Meldrew, who after being forced to retire from his job as a security guard, finds himself at war with the world and everything in it. Meldrew, cursed with misfortune and always complaining, is married to long-suffering wife Margaret, who is often left exasperated by his many misfortunes. Amongst other witnesses to Victor's wrath, is tactless family friend Jean Warboys, and next door couple Patrick (Victor's nemesis) and Pippa Trench. Patrick often discovers Victor in inexplicably bizarre or compromising situations, leading him to believe that he is insane. Meanwhile the overly cheery charity worker Nick Swainey, adds to Victor's frustration. Although set in a traditional suburban setting, the show subverts this genre with a strong overtone of black comedy. Episode three, series one is an episode which caused controversy, when Victor finds a frozen cat in his freezer. Writer David Renwick also combined farce with elements of tragedy. For example in the final episode, Victor is killed by a hit-and-run driver, and although there is no explicit reference that Victor and Margaret had children, the episode "Timeless Time" contained an ambiguous reference to someone called Stuart; the suggestion was that they once had a son who had died as a child. . A number of episodes were also experimental in that they took place entirely in one setting. Such episodes include Victor, Margaret and Mrs Warboys stuck in a traffic jam; Victor and Margaret in bed, "Timeless Time" and Victor being left alone in the house waiting to see if he has to take part in jury service. Characters Main characters Victor Meldrew (Richard Wilson) — Victor is the main protagonist of the sitcom and finds himself constantly battling against all that life throws at him as he becomes entangled, like the pawn he is, in the machiavellian plots. Renwick once pointed out in an interview that the name "Victor" was ironic, since he almost always ends up a loser. I Don't Believe It! The 'One Foot in the Grave' Story, BBC documentary, 2000 From being buried alive, to being legally prosecuted for attacking a feisty pit bull terrier with a collection of coconut meringues, Victor tries to adjust to life after his infamous replacement by a "box" at his place of employment, but to no avail. Victor is a tragic comedy character and sympathy is directed towards him as he becomes embroiled in complex misunderstandings, bureaucratic vanity and, at times, sheer bad luck. The audience sees a philosophical ebb to his character, however, along with a degree of optimism, yet his polite façade collapses when events get the better of him, and a full verbal onslaught is forthcoming. Margaret Meldrew (Annette Crosbie) — The long-suffering and kind-hearted wife of Victor, Margaret tries to maintain a degree of calmness and to rise above her husband's frustrations. However, she is too often engulfed in the same folly and often vents her anger, usually at Victor who bears the brunt of it all. In early episodes, her character acts more as a comic foil to Victor's misfortunes, for example asking if a cat found frozen in their freezer is definitely dead and mentioning a friend who died of a terminal illness. When Victor reminds her that the woman actually fell from a cliff, Margaret retorts she only did so because "she went to the seaside to convalesce". In later episodes, Margaret develops into a more complex character. She is shown to be fiercely protective of her marriage to Victor, becoming easily suspicious and jealous, for example, of a Dutch marionette that Victor becomes occupied with repairing in the episode "Hole in the Sky", eventually leading her to destroy it. In "The Affair of the Hollow Lady", a greengrocer develops a liking for Victor and wrongly attempts to convince Margaret that he has been unfaithful to her. In revenge, Margaret assaults the woman with a pair of boxing gloves. However, Margaret herself is shown to have contemplated infidelity with a man she met on holiday in the episode "Warm Champagne", eventually deciding against it. Patrick Trench (Angus Deayton) — Patrick, along with his wife Pippa, dwelt next door to Victor; he would almost certainly catch Victor engrossed in seemingly preposterous situations, all of which in context seemed perfectly acceptable. The couple's relationship with their neighbours begins badly after Victor mistakenly believes Patrick and Pippa are distant relations rather than the next-door neighbours who had been leaving for a lengthy holiday the day that Victor and Margaret moved in. This and later incidents cause Patrick to suspect that Victor is quite insane, possibly bordering on malicious, and he often responds to Victor in similarly vindictive ways as a means of "getting even" with Victor, for example by complaining via post-it notes. However, it is Patrick's rift with Victor which eventually transforms him into a rather cynical character, much like Victor. This aspect of the character came to a head in the episode "The Executioner's Song" where his face transforms into an apparition of Victor's as he gazes into a mirror. In another episode, his wife Pippa loses their baby in similar circumstances to Victor and Margaret. Pippa Trench (Janine Duvitski) — The wife of Patrick sought friendly relations with the Meldrews and, after a while, became good friends with Margaret. The two women usually attempt to get the two men to make peace with each other at least once per series. Eventually Patrick proposes that the Trenches move house, but they soon realise that the Meldrew curse has followed them: Victor sent workmen to their home next door, thinking they were removal men who had come to the wrong house. They were in fact from a house clearance firm Margaret had employed to clear her late cousin Ursula's country mansion. It turned out that the workmen had cleared Patrick and Pippa's house of their entire furniture and sold it for 475 pounds. New neighbours Derek and Betty McVitie replaced the Trenches for the 1997 special "Endgame", but series six saw the Trenches return as prominent characters, albeit living in a house away from the Meldrews. Jean Warboys (Doreen Mantle) — Mrs Warboys is a friend of Margaret (and a rather annoying one in Victor's eyes) who attached herself to the Meldrews, accompanying them on many of their exploits. In the early series she was married to Chris, but eventually he left her for the private detective whom she had hired when she suspected him of having an affair, and they divorced. She often bears the brunt of Victor's temper due to muddled misunderstandings and in part due to her aloof nature. One such occasion saw her goading Victor into taking a dog whose owner had just died. She had not told him that it was stuffed, much to the annoyance of Victor who had spent time constructing an expensive kennel for it. On another occasion she had a waxwork made of herself which had to be delivered to their house as she had been involved in a road accident. As it turned out, she hated it as much as Victor and Margaret did, and that particular episode finished with the waxwork standing in the dustbin. She would often bore the Meldrews by showing them her complete collection of holiday pictures at the most unwelcome times. Doreen Mantle described her character as "wanting to do the right thing but always finding out that it was the wrong thing". "I Don't Believe It!: The One Foot in the Grave story", documentary, BBC Worldwide 2005. Nick Swainey (Owen Brenman) — The excessively cheerful and often oblivious individual who resided on the other side of the Meldrews from the Trenches. He remains continuously optimistic; even his being told to 'piss off' by Victor is laughed off. However, despite this little run-in he later befriended Victor. A kind-natured individual, Mr Swainey cared for many years for his bedridden senile mother, whom the audience never actually saw. This is not to say that he doesn't drop his guard - for on one occasion we do observe his apparent depression. Following his mother's death, he moved house near the end of the series, but only went as far as the other side of Victor's house, into the Trenches' old house. Other recurring characters Ronnie and Mildred (Gordon Peters and Barbara Ashcroft) — Ronnie and Mildred were a constantly cheerful couple who provided yet another annoyance to the Meldrews, who dreaded any upcoming visits to them. They are referenced a number of times in the series for giving the Meldrews bizarre and always unwanted presents, usually involving a garish photograph. In the final series, however it was clear that their cheerfulness was a façade and, in a particularly dark scene, Mildred hanged herself "during a game of Happy Families". Cousin Wilfred (John Rutland) — Mrs. Warboys' cousin, Wilfred, appeared a number of times in the series, and was considered to be a fairly boring middle-aged man. In the final series, the effects of a stroke rendered him mute, and forced him to "speak" with the aid of an electonic voice generator. His poor typing on the generator led to several misunderstandings, such as asking Victor for a "bra of soup" (as opposed to a "bar of soap"). Production The production of the show was in a conventional sitcom format, with episodes being taped live in front of a studio audience, interposed with pre-filmed location material. Following a change of house, from series 2 onwards four main sets were used - the Meldrew's sitting room, kitchen, bedroom and hallway. Almost all of the exterior shots, were shot in and around Bournemouth, Dorset. The exterior shots of the Meldrews' house from the second series onwards were filmed in Tresillian Way, Walkford, Bournemouth. Location for series 2 to 6 These later series makes extensive use of specific street and garden locations in most episodes, particularly for scenes involving the Meldrew's neighbours. Did Victor put one foot in your garden? Bournemouth Echo, Wednesday 6th Jul 2005. accessed January 2009 Later episodes, such as the episode "Hearts of Darkness", were filmed entirely on location. Victor's death by a hit and run driver in the final episode was filmed at Shawford railway station, Hampshire. Fans left floral tributes at the site. Music The One Foot in the Grave theme song was written and sung by Eric Idle. A longer version was produced for the special "One Foot in the Algarve", with a remixed version released as a single in November 1994. Idle included a live version of the song on his album Sings Monty Python. Sings Monty Python: Live In Concert Soundtrack CD It is preluded by a similar adaptation of "Bread of Heaven" to that used in the episode "The Beast in the Cage" by disgruntled car mechanics. "The Beast in the Cage", One Foot in the Grave, Series 3, episode 4, wr. D. Renwick It is reprised in the fourth series episode "Warm Champagne" The series also made extensive use of incidental music, composed by Ed Welch, which often hinted at a particular genre to fit the mood of the scenes. The final episode ended with a montage of some of the mishaps Victor encountered, which were mentioned in the episode—backed by "End of the Line" by The Traveling Wilburys. Awards The programme was a recipient of a number of prestigious awards. In 1992, it won a BAFTA as Best Comedy (Programme or Series). During its ten year run, the series was nominated a further six times. Richard Wilson also won Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1992 and 1994, and Annette Crosbie was nominated for the same award in 1994. The series also won the Best Television Sitcom in 1992 from the Royal Television Society and the British Comedy Award for Best Sitcom in 1992, 1995 and 2001. List of Awards at IMDb, URL accessed June 8th, 2006 In 2004, One Foot in the Grave came tenth in a BBC poll to find "Britain's Best Sitcom" with 31,410 votes. Britain's Best Sitcom top ten, URL accessed June 8th, 2006 The programme also came 80th in the British Film Institute's 100 Greatest British Television Programmes Controversy A number of complaints were made during the series' run for its depiction of animal deaths. For example, in the episode "The Valley of Fear", a dead cat is found in the Meldrews' freezer; in another, a tortoise is roasted in a brazier. However, this was later cited as a positive feature of the programme's daring scripts in Britain's Best Sitcom by its advocate Rowland Rivron. Rowland Rivron's case at BBC Britain's Best Sitcom, URL accessed June 8th, 2006 The programme was censored, however, for a scene in the episode "Hearts of Darkness" in which an elderly resident is abused in an old people's home, and following complaints, the scene was slightly cut when the episode was repeated. One Foot in the Grave at the Museum of Broadcast article by Pam Logan, accessed June 8th, 2006 Another controversial scene in the episode "Tales of Terror" saw the Meldrews visit Ronnie and Mildred on the understanding that Mildred had gone upstairs during a game of Happy Families and not returned; Ronnie then shows her feet hanging outside of the window, implying that she has committed suicide. The Broadcasting Standards Commission received complaints about this scene. When the final episode, "Things Aren't Simple Anymore" originally aired on 20 November 2000 at 21:00, it coincided with the broadcast of the first jackpot winner in the UK version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, which had been filmed the Sunday prior to the broadcast. ITV was accused of engineering this in order to damage the final episode's expected high ratings, but was later cleared by the Independent Television Commission. Cultural impact Despite gaining initially low audience ratings, by the third series, One Foot in the Grave was making the Top 20 ratings, with some episodes seen by more than 16 million viewers. In particular, the Christmas 1993 edition topped 20 million viewers. Due to the series' popularity, people who constantly complain and are irritated by minor things are often compared to Victor Meldrew by the British media. Renwick disputes this usage however, claiming that Victor's reactions are entirely in proportion to the things that happen to him. Renwick integrated some of the plots and dialogue from the series into a novel, which was first published by BBC Books in 1992. Renwick also adapted four episodes for BBC Radio 2, which first aired between 21 January 1995 and 11 February 1995. The episodes are "Alive and Buried", "In Luton Airport, No One Can Hear You Scream", "Timeless Time" and "The Beast in the Cage". They are regularly repeated on the digital speech station BBC 7 and are available on audio CD. An American remake of the show, starring Bill Cosby and simply titled Cosby, ran from 1996 to 2000. David Renwick was listed as an executive producer on the series. Wilson dislikes saying his character's catchphrase ("I don't believe it!") and only performs the line for charity events. This became a joke in the actor's guest appearance as himself in the Father Ted episode "The Mainland", where Ted and Dougal annoy him by constantly repeating his catchphrase. The situation was conceived when Father Ted writers Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews sat behind Wilson at a performance of Le Cirque du Soleil at the Royal Albert Hall. They considered how "tasteless and wrong" it would be to lean forward to him every time that an acrobat did a stunt and yell the catchphrase, and then they realised that that's exactly what their fictional priests would do. This was also played upon when Wilson made a guest appearance on the comedy TV quiz show Shooting Stars, in which Vic Reeves and Bob Mortimer purposely misquoted his catchphrase by referring to him as "Richard 'I don't believe you' Wilson". Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0 Enterprise Edition contains a hidden Easter Egg, which is accessed using the words "Reggie" (a reference to The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin) and "Victor" (a reference to One Foot In The Grave). The Easter Egg contains the names of the entire Visual Studio development team, as well as confirmation of the meaning of "Reggie" and "Victor". VHS and DVD releases The early series were initially available on BBC Worldwide VHS tapes. The Comic Relief Shorts from 1993 and 2001 have not been released on DVD. One Foot in the Grave Best-of was also released in Region 4, 8 July 2004. DVD Name Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 NotesOne Foot in the Grave: The Complete Series 127 March 20072 August 20047 July 2005One Foot in the Grave: The Complete Series 227 March 20079 May 20054 May 2006Includes the 1990 Christmas specialOne Foot in the Grave: The Complete Series 311 March 20088 August 200517 August 2006Includes the 1991 Christmas specialOne Foot in the Grave: The Complete Series 411 March 200824 April 20067 March 2007Includes the 1993 Christmas specialOne Foot in the Grave: The Complete Series 510 February 200921 August 20061 August 2007Includes the 1995 Christmas special(Episode 1 is considered to be the 1994 Christmas special)One Foot in the Grave: The Complete Series 610 February 200916 October 20063 October 2007One Foot in the Grave: The Complete SeriesFall 200916 October 2006 Confirmation of release date at Play.com, URL accessed August 24th, 2006 6 March 2008A 12-disc box set that includes the Christmas specialsOne Foot in the Grave: The Christmas SpecialsFall 200913 November 20066 November 2008The 1996 and 1997 Christmas specials References Webber, Richard The Complete One Foot In The Grave (2006) Orion publishers, ISBN 0752873571 External links One Foot in the Grave at the former BBC Guide to Comedy (archive) One Foot in the Grave at bbc.co.uk Comedy subsite One Foot in the Grave at the British Film Institute One Foot in the Grave at the MBC's Encyclopedia of Television | One_Foot_in_the_Grave |@lemmatized one:25 foot:27 grave:24 bbc:13 television:7 situation:4 comedy:9 series:43 write:2 david:3 renwick:8 show:10 run:6 six:3 several:2 special:6 ten:3 year:3 period:1 feature:3 exploit:3 victor:52 meldrew:9 play:4 richard:5 wilson:7 long:4 suffering:2 wife:6 margaret:18 annette:3 crosbie:3 battle:2 trial:1 modern:1 life:3 force:3 take:4 involuntary:1 early:4 retirement:1 follow:5 protagonist:2 various:2 effort:1 keep:1 busy:1 whilst:1 encounter:2 misfortune:4 misunderstanding:4 set:5 typical:1 suburban:2 household:1 suburb:1 london:1 base:1 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6,792 | Gustave_de_Molinari | Gustave de Molinari (March 3, 1819 – January 28, 1912) was an economist born in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands associated with French laissez-faire liberal economists such as Frédéric Bastiat and Hippolyte Castille. Living in Paris, in the 1840s, he took part in the "Ligue pour la Liberté des Échanges" (Free Trade League), animated by Frédéric Bastiat. On his death bed in 1850, Bastiat described Molinari as the continuator of his works. In 1849, shortly after the revolutions of the previous year, Molinari published two works: an essay, The Production of Security, and a book, Les Soirées de la Rue Saint-Lazare, describing how a market in justice and protection could advantageously replace the state. In the 1850s, Molinari fled to Belgium to escape threats from France's Emperor Napoleon III. He returned to Paris in the 1860s to work on the influential newspaper, Le Journal des Debats, which he edited from 1871 to 1876. Molinari went on to edit the Journal des Économistes, the publication of the French Political Economy Society, from 1881 until 1909. In his 1899 book, The Society of Tomorrow, he proposed a federated system of collective security, and reiterated his support for private competing defense agencies. Molinari's grave is located at the Père Lachaise cemetery in Paris, France. Political philosophy Some anarcho-capitalists consider Molinari as the first proponent of anarcho-capitalism. In the preface to the 1977 English translation Murray Rothbard called The Production of Security the "first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called anarcho-capitalism" though admitting that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name." Austrian economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe says that "the 1849 article The Production of Security is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarcho-capitalism." Hoppe, Hans-Hermann. Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography In the past, Molinari influenced some of the political thoughts of market anarchist Benjamin Tucker and the Liberty circle. David Hart's Gustave De Molinari And The Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition References and notes External links The Society of Tomorrow by Molinari, published electronically by The Library of Economics and Liberty with annotations, biography, etc. Some works by Molinari available in original French from Hervé de Quengo's site. The original version of his article "The Production of Security" (1849), which was entitled in French: "De la production de la sécurité". Gustave de Molinari, De la production de la sécurité (1849) Gustave de Molinari, On the Production of Security (1849) | Gustave_de_Molinari |@lemmatized gustave:4 de:12 molinari:14 march:1 january:1 economist:3 bear:1 united:1 kingdom:1 netherlands:1 associate:1 french:4 laissez:1 faire:1 liberal:2 frédéric:2 bastiat:3 hippolyte:1 castille:1 living:1 paris:3 take:1 part:1 ligue:1 pour:1 la:6 liberté:1 échanges:1 free:1 trade:1 league:1 animate:1 death:1 bed:1 describe:2 continuator:1 work:4 shortly:1 revolution:1 previous:1 year:1 publish:2 two:1 essay:1 production:7 security:6 book:2 les:1 soirées:1 rue:1 saint:1 lazare:1 market:2 justice:1 protection:1 could:1 advantageously:1 replace:1 state:1 flee:1 belgium:1 escape:1 threat:1 france:2 emperor:1 napoleon:1 iii:1 return:1 influential:1 newspaper:1 le:1 journal:2 debats:1 edit:2 go:1 des:1 économistes:1 publication:1 political:3 economy:1 society:3 tomorrow:2 propose:1 federated:1 system:1 collective:1 reiterate:1 support:1 private:1 compete:1 defense:1 agency:1 grave:1 locate:1 père:1 lachaise:1 cemetery:1 philosophy:1 anarcho:5 capitalist:1 consider:1 first:2 proponent:1 capitalism:4 preface:1 english:1 translation:1 murray:1 rothbard:1 call:2 presentation:1 anywhere:1 human:1 history:1 though:1 admit:1 use:1 terminology:1 probably:2 would:1 balk:1 name:1 austrian:1 han:1 hermann:2 hoppe:2 say:1 article:2 single:1 important:1 contribution:1 modern:1 theory:1 hans:1 annotated:1 bibliography:1 past:1 influence:1 thought:1 anarchist:1 benjamin:1 tucker:1 liberty:2 circle:1 david:1 hart:1 anti:1 statist:1 tradition:1 reference:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 electronically:1 library:1 economics:1 annotation:1 biography:1 etc:1 available:1 original:2 hervé:1 quengo:1 site:1 version:1 entitle:1 sécurité:2 |@bigram laissez_faire:1 frédéric_bastiat:2 père_lachaise:1 lachaise_cemetery:1 anarcho_capitalist:1 anarcho_capitalism:4 murray_rothbard:1 austrian_economist:1 han_hermann:1 hermann_hoppe:1 hoppe_hans:1 hans_hermann:1 annotated_bibliography:1 benjamin_tucker:1 anti_statist:1 external_link:1 la_sécurité:2 |
6,793 | Computer_vision | Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory for building artificial systems that obtain information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as a video sequence, views from multiple cameras, or multi-dimensional data from a medical scanner. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply the theories and models of computer vision to the construction of computer vision systems. Examples of applications of computer vision systems include systems for: Controlling processes (e.g. an industrial robot or an autonomous vehicle). Detecting events (e.g. for visual surveillance or people counting). Organizing information (e.g. for indexing databases of images and image sequences). Modeling objects or environments (e.g. industrial inspection, medical image analysis or topographical modeling). Interaction (e.g. as the input to a device for computer-human interaction). Computer vision can also be described as a complement (but not necessarily the opposite) of biological vision. In biological vision, the visual perception of humans and various animals are studied, resulting in models of how these systems operate in terms of physiological processes. Computer vision, on the other hand, studies and describes artificial vision system that are implemented in software and/or hardware. Interdisciplinary exchange between biological and computer vision has proven increasingly fruitful for both fields. Sub-domains of computer vision include scene reconstruction, event detection, tracking, object recognition, learning, indexing, motion estimation, and image restoration. State of the art The field of computer vision can be characterized as immature and diverse. Even though earlier work exists, it was not until the late 1970s that a more focused study of the field started when computers could manage the processing of large data sets such as images. However, these studies usually originated from various other fields, and consequently there is no standard formulation of "the computer vision problem." Also, and to an even larger extent, there is no standard formulation of how computer vision problems should be solved. Instead, there exists an abundance of methods for solving various well-defined computer vision tasks, where the methods often are very task specific and seldom can be generalized over a wide range of applications. Many of the methods and applications are still in the state of basic research, but more and more methods have found their way into commercial products, where they often constitute a part of a larger system which can solve complex tasks (e.g., in the area of medical images, or quality control and measurements in industrial processes). In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common. Related fields Relation between computer vision and various other fields A significant part of artificial intelligence deals with autonomous planning or deliberation for systems which can perform mechanical actions such as moving a robot through some environment. This type of processing typically needs input data provided by a computer vision system, acting as a vision sensor and providing high-level information about the environment and the robot. Other parts which sometimes are described as belonging to artificial intelligence and which are used in relation to computer vision is pattern recognition and learning techniques. As a consequence, computer vision is sometimes seen as a part of the artificial intelligence field or the computer science field in general. Physics is another field that is strongly related to computer vision. A significant part of computer vision deals with methods which require a thorough understanding of the process in which electromagnetic radiation, typically in the visible or the infra-red range, is reflected by the surfaces of objects and finally is measured by the image sensor to produce the image data. This process is based on optics and solid-state physics. More sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete comprehension of the image formation process. Also, various measurement problems in physics can be addressed using computer vision, for example motion in fluids. Consequently, computer vision can also be seen as an extension of physics. A third field which plays an important role is neurobiology, specifically the study of the biological vision system. Over the last century, there has been an extensive study of eyes, neurons, and the brain structures devoted to processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals. This has led to a coarse, yet complicated, description of how "real" vision systems operate in order to solve certain vision related tasks. These results have led to a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behaviour of biological systems, at different levels of complexity. Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology. Yet another field related to computer vision is signal processing. Many methods for processing of one-variable signals, typically temporal signals, can be extended in a natural way to processing of two-variable signals or multi-variable signals in computer vision. However, because of the specific nature of images there are many methods developed within computer vision which have no counterpart in the processing of one-variable signals. A distinct character of these methods is the fact that they are non-linear which, together with the multi-dimensionality of the signal, defines a subfield in signal processing as a part of computer vision. Beside the above mentioned views on computer vision, many of the related research topics can also be studied from a purely mathematical point of view. For example, many methods in computer vision are based on statistics, optimization or geometry. Finally, a significant part of the field is devoted to the implementation aspect of computer vision; how existing methods can be realized in various combinations of software and hardware, or how these methods can be modified in order to gain processing speed without losing too much performance. The fields, most closely related to computer vision, are image processing, image analysis, robot vision and machine vision. There is a significant overlap in terms of what techniques and applications they cover. This implies that the basic techniques that are used and developed in these fields are more or less identical, something which can be interpreted as there is only one field with different names. On the other hand, it appears to be necessary for research groups, scientific journals, conferences and companies to present or market themselves as belonging specifically to one of these fields and, hence, various characterizations which distinguish each of the fields from the others have been presented. The following characterizations appear relevant but should not be taken as universally accepted: Image processing and image analysis tend to focus on 2D images, how to transform one image to another, e.g., by pixel-wise operations such as contrast enhancement, local operations such as edge extraction or noise removal, or geometrical transformations such as rotating the image. This characterization implies that image processing/analysis neither require assumptions nor produce interpretations about the image content. Computer vision tends to focus on the 3D scene projected onto one or several images, e.g., how to reconstruct structure or other information about the 3D scene from one or several images. Computer vision often relies on more or less complex assumptions about the scene depicted in an image. Machine vision tends to focus on applications, mainly in industry, e.g., vision based autonomous robots and systems for vision based inspection or measurement. This implies that image sensor technologies and control theory often are integrated with the processing of image data to control a robot and that real-time processing is emphasized by means of efficient implementations in hardware and software. It also implies that the external conditions such as lighting can be and are often more controlled in machine vision than they are in general computer vision, which can enable the use of different algorithms. There is also a field called imaging which primarily focus on the process of producing images, but sometimes also deals with processing and analysis of images. For example, medical imaging contains lots of work on the analysis of image data in medical applications. Finally, pattern recognition is a field which uses various methods to extract information from signals in general, mainly based on statistical approaches. A significant part of this field is devoted to applying these methods to image data. A consequence of this state of affairs is that you can be working in a lab related to one of these fields, apply methods from a second field to solve a problem in a third field and present the result at a conference related to a fourth field. Applications for computer vision One of the most prominent application fields is medical computer vision or medical image processing. This area is characterized by the extraction of information from image data for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis of a patient. Generally, image data is in the form of microscopy images, X-ray images, angiography images, ultrasonic images, and tomography images. An example of information which can be extracted from such image data is detection of tumours, arteriosclerosis or other malign changes. It can also be measurements of organ dimensions, blood flow, etc. This application area also supports medical research by providing new information, e.g., about the structure of the brain, or about the quality of medical treatments. A second application area in computer vision is in industry. Here, information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a manufacturing process. One example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects. Another example is measurement of position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm. Military applications are probably one of the largest areas for computer vision. The obvious examples are detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and missile guidance. More advanced systems for missile guidance send the missile to an area rather than a specific target, and target selection is made when the missile reaches the area based on locally acquired image data. Modern military concepts, such as "battlefield awareness", imply that various sensors, including image sensors, provide a rich set of information about a combat scene which can be used to support strategic decisions. In this case, automatic processing of the data is used to reduce complexity and to fuse information from multiple sensors to increase reliability. Artist's Concept of Rover on Mars, an example of an unmanned land-based vehicle. Notice the stereo cameras mounted on top of the Rover. (credit: Maas Digital LLC) One of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles, which include submersibles, land-based vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars or trucks), aerial vehicles, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous (unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer vision based systems support a driver or a pilot in various situations. Fully autonomous vehicles typically use computer vision for navigation, i.e. for knowing where it is, or for producing a map of its environment (SLAM) and for detecting obstacles. It can also be used for detecting certain task specific events, e. g., a UAV looking for forest fires. Examples of supporting systems are obstacle warning systems in cars, and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft. Several car manufacturers have demonstrated systems for autonomous driving of cars, but this technology has still not reached a level where it can be put on the market. There are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced missiles, to UAVs for recon missions or missile guidance. Space exploration is already being made with autonomous vehicles using computer vision, e. g., NASA's Mars Exploration Rover. Other application areas include: Support of visual effects creation for cinema and broadcast, e.g., camera tracking (matchmoving). Surveillance. Typical tasks of computer vision Each of the application areas described above employ a range of computer vision tasks; more or less well-defined measurement problems or processing problems, which can be solved using a variety of methods. Some examples of typical computer vision tasks are presented below. Recognition The classical problem in computer vision, image processing and machine vision is that of determining whether or not the image data contains some specific object, feature, or activity. This task can normally be solved robustly and without effort by a human, but is still not satisfactorily solved in computer vision for the general case: arbitrary objects in arbitrary situations. The existing methods for dealing with this problem can at best solve it only for specific objects, such as simple geometric objects (e.g., polyhedrons), human faces, printed or hand-written characters, or vehicles, and in specific situations, typically described in terms of well-defined illumination, background, and pose of the object relative to the camera. Different varieties of the recognition problem are described in the literature: Recognition: one or several pre-specified or learned objects or object classes can be recognized, usually together with their 2D positions in the image or 3D poses in the scene. Identification: An individual instance of an object is recognized. Examples: identification of a specific person's face or fingerprint, or identification of a specific vehicle. Detection: the image data is scanned for a specific condition. Examples: detection of possible abnormal cells or tissues in medical images or detection of a vehicle in an automatic road toll system. Detection based on relatively simple and fast computations is sometimes used for finding smaller regions of interesting image data which can be further analyzed by more computationally demanding techniques to produce a correct interpretation. Several specialized tasks based on recognition exist, such as: Content-based image retrieval: finding all images in a larger set of images which have a specific content. The content can be specified in different ways, for example in terms of similarity relative a target image (give me all images similar to image X), or in terms of high-level search criteria given as text input (give me all images which contains many houses, are taken during winter, and have no cars in them). Pose estimation: estimating the position or orientation of a specific object relative to the camera. An example application for this technique would be assisting a robot arm in retrieving objects from a conveyor belt in an assembly line situation. Optical character recognition (or OCR): identifying characters in images of printed or handwritten text, usually with a view to encoding the text in a format more amenable to editing or indexing (e.g. ASCII). Motion Several tasks relate to motion estimation, in which an image sequence is processed to produce an estimate of the velocity either at each points in the image or in the 3D scene. Examples of such tasks are: Egomotion: determining the 3D rigid motion of the camera. Tracking: following the movements of objects (e.g. vehicles or humans). Scene reconstruction Given one or (typically) more images of a scene, or a video, scene reconstruction aims at computing a 3D model of the scene. In the simplest case the model can be a set of 3D points. More sophisticated methods produce a complete 3D surface model. Image restoration The aim of image restoration is the removal of noise (sensor noise, motion blur, etc.) from images. The simplest possible approach for noise removal is various types of filters such as low-pass filters or median filters. More sophisticated methods assume a model of how the local image structures look like, a model which distinguishes them from the noise. By first analysing the image data in terms of the local image structures, such as lines or edges, and then controlling the filtering based on local information from the analysis step, a better level of noise removal is usually obtained compared to the simpler approaches. Computer vision systems The organization of a computer vision system is highly application dependent. Some systems are stand-alone applications which solve a specific measurement or detection problem, while other constitute a sub-system of a larger design which, for example, also contains sub-systems for control of mechanical actuators, planning, information databases, man-machine interfaces, etc. The specific implementation of a computer vision system also depends on if its functionality is pre-specified or if some part of it can be learned or modified during operation. There are, however, typical functions which are found in many computer vision systems. Image acquisition: A digital image is produced by one or several image sensor which, besides various types of light-sensitive cameras, includes range sensors, tomography devices, radar, ultra-sonic cameras, etc. Depending on the type of sensor, the resulting image data is an ordinary 2D image, a 3D volume, or an image sequence. The pixel values typically correspond to light intensity in one or several spectral bands (gray images or colour images), but can also be related to various physical measures, such as depth, absorption or reflectance of sonic or electromagnetic waves, or nuclear magnetic resonance. Pre-processing: Before a computer vision method can be applied to image data in order to extract some specific piece of information, it is usually necessary to process the data in order to assure that it satisfies certain assumptions implied by the method. Examples are Re-sampling in order to assure that the image coordinate system is correct. Noise reduction in order to assure that sensor noise does not introduce false information. Contrast enhancement to assure that relevant information can be detected. Scale-space representation to enhance image structures at locally appropriate scales. Feature extraction: Image features at various levels of complexity are extracted from the image data. Typical examples of such features are Lines, edges and ridges. Localized interest points such as corners, blobs or points. More complex features may be related to texture, shape or motion. Detection/Segmentation: At some point in the processing a decision is made about which image points or regions of the image are relevant for further processing. Examples are Selection of a specific set of interest points Segmentation of one or multiple image regions which contain a specific object of interest. High-level processing: At this step the input is typically a small set of data, for example a set of points or an image region which is assumed to contain a specific object. The remaining processing deals with, for example: Verification that the data satisfy model-based and application specific assumptions. Estimation of application specific parameters, such as object pose or object size. Classifying a detected object into different categories. See also Active vision Artificial intelligence Digital image processing Image processing List of computer vision topics Machine learning Machine vision Machine Vision Glossary Medical imaging Pattern recognition Topological data analysis Further reading Sorted alphabetically with respect to first author's family name External links General resources Keith Price's Annotated Computer Vision Bibliography and the Official Mirror Site Keith Price's Annotated Computer Vision Bibliography USC Iris computer vision conference list | Computer_vision |@lemmatized computer:61 vision:74 science:2 technology:3 machine:9 see:4 scientific:2 discipline:2 concern:1 theory:3 build:1 artificial:7 system:29 obtain:2 information:16 image:85 data:24 take:3 many:8 form:2 video:2 sequence:4 view:4 multiple:3 camera:8 multi:3 dimensional:1 medical:12 scanner:1 technological:1 seek:1 apply:4 model:9 construction:1 example:23 application:20 include:6 controlling:1 process:14 e:17 g:16 industrial:3 robot:9 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6,794 | Transport_in_Libya | Libyan Airlines, one of the country's two major air carriers. Railways Libya has had no railway in operation since 1965, all previous narrow gauge lines having been dismantled. Plans for a new network have been under development for some time (earthworks were begun between Sirt and Ras Ejder, Tunisia border, in 2001-5), and in 2008 and 2009 various contracts were placed and construction work started on a standard gauge railway parallel to the coast from the Tunisian frontier (Ras Ejder) to Tripoli, and on to Misratah, Sirt and Benghazi. Another railway line will run inland from Misratah to Sabha at the centre of a mineral-rich area. In the future the coastal line could be extended to As Sallum, Egypt. An even more ambitious plan is for a trans-Saharan line connecting to Central Africa including Niger and Nigeria. Railway links to adjacent countries Sudan - no - break-of-gauge - / Egypt - railways under construction - Same gauge - Tunisia - railways under construction - Same gauge - or break-of-gauge / Maps UN Map UNHCR Map Stations Highways A flyover on an urban highway in the capital Tripoli. Total: 83,200 km Paved: 47,590 km Unpaved: 35,610 km (1996 est.) There are about 83,200 km of roads in Libya, 47,590 km of which are surfaced. 234 out of 1000 Libyans have cars, which is the highest rate in Africa. The best roads run along the coast between Tripoli and Tunis in Tunisia; also between Benghazi and Tobruk, connecting with Alexandria in Egypt. A fairly efficient bus services operates along these routes, with two main bus transport companies. One covers long-distance, international routes, while the other is chiefly engaged in shorter trips between towns. Bus fares are low and the standard of comfort, particularly on international routes is good, with air-conditioned vehicles and good service. Taxis are available in the larger towns, and are usually hired on a shared basis, although individual hire can be negotiated. Driving skills of taxi drivers are extremely variable. Taxis may have meters, but these are rarely in use. Car hire for self-drive is not recommended in Libya, although it is possible to hire a vehicle from agents in larger hotels. Vehicles are often old and poorly-maintained, however, and are unequal to long-distance driving. Driving itself can be hazardous and there is a high rate of road accidents. Regional highways Libya has two routes in the Trans-African Highway network, but only one currently functions as such, the Cairo-Dakar Highway. Waterways There are no waterways in Libya. Pipelines condensate 225 km; gas 3,611 km; oil 7,252 km (2004) Ports and harbours Mediterranean Sea (west to east) Tripoli Al Khums Misratah Marsa al Burayqah Benghazi Darnah Tobruk (unsure) Ra's Lanuf Zuwarah Merchant marine Total: 17 ships (1000 GRT or over) 96,062 GRT/ By type: cargo 9, liquefied gas 3, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1, roll on/roll off 2 foreign-owned: 4 (Kuwait 1, Turkey 2, UAE 1) (2005) Airports 139 (2005) Most international flights arrive in and through Tripoli International Airport. Airports - with paved runways Total: 59 over 3,047 m: 23 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 23 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 2 (2005) Airports - with unpaved runways Total: 80 over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14 914 to 1,523 m: 41 under 914 m: 18 (2008) See also Libya References | Transport_in_Libya |@lemmatized libyan:2 airline:1 one:3 country:2 two:3 major:1 air:2 carrier:1 railway:7 libya:6 operation:1 since:1 previous:1 narrow:1 gauge:6 line:4 dismantle:1 plan:2 new:1 network:2 development:1 time:1 earthwork:1 begin:1 sirt:2 ras:2 ejder:2 tunisia:3 border:1 various:1 contract:1 place:1 construction:3 work:1 start:1 standard:2 parallel:1 coast:2 tunisian:1 frontier:1 tripoli:5 misratah:3 benghazi:3 another:1 run:2 inland:1 sabha:1 centre:1 mineral:1 rich:1 area:1 future:1 coastal:1 could:1 extend:1 sallum:1 egypt:3 even:1 ambitious:1 trans:2 saharan:1 connect:2 central:1 africa:2 include:1 niger:1 nigeria:1 link:1 adjacent:1 sudan:1 break:2 map:3 un:1 unhcr:1 station:1 highways:1 flyover:1 urban:1 highway:4 capital:1 total:4 km:8 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:1 road:3 surface:1 car:2 high:2 rate:2 best:1 along:2 tunis:1 also:2 tobruk:2 alexandria:1 fairly:1 efficient:1 bus:3 service:2 operate:1 route:4 main:1 transport:1 company:1 cover:1 long:2 distance:2 international:4 chiefly:1 engage:1 short:1 trip:1 town:2 fare:1 low:1 comfort:1 particularly:1 good:2 condition:1 vehicle:3 taxi:3 available:1 large:2 usually:1 hire:4 share:1 basis:1 although:2 individual:1 negotiate:1 drive:3 skill:1 driver:1 extremely:1 variable:1 may:1 meter:1 rarely:1 use:1 self:1 recommend:1 possible:1 agent:1 hotel:1 often:1 old:1 poorly:1 maintain:1 however:1 unequal:1 driving:1 hazardous:1 accident:1 regional:1 african:1 currently:1 function:1 cairo:1 dakar:1 waterway:2 pipeline:1 condensate:1 gas:2 oil:1 port:1 harbour:1 mediterranean:1 sea:1 west:1 east:1 al:2 khums:1 marsa:1 burayqah:1 darnah:1 unsure:1 ra:1 lanuf:1 zuwarah:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:1 grt:2 type:1 cargo:2 liquefy:1 passenger:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 roll:2 foreign:1 kuwait:1 turkey:1 uae:1 airports:2 flight:1 arrive:1 airport:2 runway:2 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram narrow_gauge:1 gauge_railway:1 trans_saharan:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 tunis_tunisia:1 taxi_driver:1 merchant_marine:1 ship_grt:1 liquefy_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 pave_runway:1 airports_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
6,795 | Emperor_Suinin | Tomb (misasagi) of Emperor Suinin, Nara Prefecture ; also known as Ikumeiribikoisachi no Mikoto; was the 11th Emperor of Japan to appear on the traditional list of emperors. Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 253-254 ; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 95-96; Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 9-10. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Suinin is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" because of the paucity of information about him, which does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. Legend says that about two thousand years ago, Emperor Suinin ordered his daughter, Princess Yamatohime-no-mikoto, to set out and find a suitable permanent location from which to hold ceremonies for Amaterasu Omikami, the Sun Goddess. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 32. After twenty years of searching, she is said to have settled on the area of Ise, establishing the Ise Shrine. Brown, p. 253. According to Asama Shrine tradition, the earliest veneration of Konohanasakuya-hime at the base of Mount Fuji was in the 8th month of the 3rd year of the reign of Emperor Suinin. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1962. Studies in Shinto and Shrines, p.458. Nihonshoki records the wrestling match in which Nomi no Sukune and Taima no Kehaya held during his era, as the origin of Sumai (Sumo wrestling). In the context of events like this, the Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered which confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 167-187. Later generations may have included this name to the list of emperors of Japan, thus making him posthumously an emperor and assigning him as one of the early sovereigns and ancestors of the dynasty that has reigned unbroken since time immemorial. If he lived, at his time the title tenno was not yet used, and the polity he possibly ruled did certainly not contain all or even the most of Japan. In the chronicle which encompasses his alleged successors in beginnings of historical time, it becomes reasonable to conclude that Suinin, if he existed, might have been a chieftain or a regional king in early Yamato tribal society. Jien records that Suinin was the third son of Emperor Sujin, and that he ruled from the palace of Tamaki-no-miya at Makimuku in what will come to be known as Yamato province. Jien also explains that during the reign of Emperor Suinin, the first High Priestess (Saiō, also known as saigū) was appointed for Ise Shrine in what would become known as Ise province. [see above] Suinin is a posthumous name. It is undisputed that this identification is Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, which suggests that the name must have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Suinin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Although the final resting place of this legendary sovereign is said to remain unknown, Suinin's officially designated Imperial misasagi or tomb can be visited today in Nishi-machi, Amagatsuji, Nara City. Suinin's misasagi -- image Suinin's misasagi -- map (mis-labelled as "Enperor Nonin s Tomb") This kofun-type Imperial tomb is characterized by a keyhole-shaped island located within a wide, water-filled moat. Suinin-type kofun -- see illustration #3, bottom of web page Suinin's misasagi -- aerial photo (also known as Hōraisan kofun) Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 ____________. (1962). Studies in Shinto and Shrines. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 3994492 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult External links Ise Shrine - Naiku, official website | Emperor_Suinin |@lemmatized tomb:4 misasagi:5 emperor:13 suinin:14 nara:2 prefecture:1 also:5 know:6 ikumeiribikoisachi:1 mikoto:2 japan:9 appear:1 traditional:1 list:3 brown:3 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 pp:4 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 firm:1 date:1 assign:2 life:1 reign:5 regard:1 historian:1 legendary:2 paucity:1 information:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 person:1 ever:1 exist:2 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:4 legend:1 say:3 two:1 thousand:1 year:3 ago:1 order:1 daughter:1 princess:1 yamatohime:1 set:1 find:1 suitable:1 permanent:1 location:1 hold:1 ceremony:1 amaterasu:1 omikami:1 sun:1 goddess:1 ponsonby:5 fane:3 richard:3 imperial:5 house:2 p:3 twenty:1 searching:1 settle:1 area:1 ise:5 establish:1 shrine:6 accord:1 asama:1 tradition:1 early:4 veneration:1 konohanasakuya:1 hime:1 base:1 mount:1 fuji:1 month:1 shinto:2 nihonshoki:1 record:3 wrestling:2 match:1 nomi:1 sukune:1 taima:1 kehaya:1 held:1 era:1 origin:2 sumai:1 sumo:1 context:1 event:1 like:1 japanese:1 traditionally:1 accept:1 sovereign:4 historical:3 existence:1 however:1 extant:1 contemporary:1 discover:1 confirm:1 view:1 figure:1 actually:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 late:1 generation:1 may:1 include:1 name:3 thus:1 make:1 posthumously:1 one:1 ancestor:1 dynasty:2 unbroken:1 since:1 time:5 immemorial:1 live:1 title:1 tenno:1 yet:1 use:1 polity:1 possibly:2 rule:2 certainly:1 contain:1 even:1 chronicle:4 encompass:1 alleged:1 successor:1 beginning:1 become:2 reasonable:1 conclude:1 might:1 chieftain:1 regional:1 king:1 yamato:3 tribal:1 society:3 jien:3 third:1 son:1 sujin:1 palace:1 tamaki:1 miya:1 makimuku:1 come:1 province:2 explain:1 first:1 high:1 priestess:1 saiō:1 saigū:1 appoint:1 would:1 see:3 posthumous:1 undisputed:1 identification:1 chinese:1 form:1 buddhist:1 implication:1 suggest:1 must:1 regularize:1 century:1 lifetime:1 ascribe:1 legends:1 compile:1 today:2 kojiki:1 although:1 final:1 resting:1 place:1 remain:1 unknown:1 officially:1 designate:1 visit:1 nishi:1 machi:1 amagatsuji:1 city:1 image:1 map:1 mi:1 label:1 enperor:1 nonin:1 kofun:3 type:2 characterize:1 keyhole:1 shaped:1 island:1 locate:1 within:1 wide:1 water:1 fill:1 moat:1 illustration:1 bottom:1 web:1 page:1 aerial:1 photo:1 hōraisan:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 arthur:1 brabazon:1 kyoto:2 memorial:2 oclc:2 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 cult:1 external:1 link:1 naiku:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 emperor_paucity:1 paucity_information:1 ponsonby_fane:3 fane_richard:3 ise_shrine:3 mount_fuji:1 shinto_shrine:2 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 title_tenno:1 tenno_yet:1 yamato_tribal:1 yamato_province:1 undisputed_identification:1 must_regularize:1 yamato_dynasty:1 final_resting:1 resting_place:1 imperial_misasagi:1 misasagi_tomb:1 aerial_photo:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:2 ponsonby_memorial:2 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 external_link:1 |
6,796 | Compaq | Compaq Computer Corporation was an American personal computer company founded in 1982, and is now a brand name of Hewlett-Packard. The company was formed by Rod Canion, Jim Harris and Bill Murto — former Texas Instruments senior managers. The name "COMPAQ" was derived from "Compatibility and Quality", as at its formation Compaq produced some of the first IBM PC compatible computers. Once the largest supplier of personal computing systems in the world Rivkin, Jan W. and Porter, Michael E. Matching Dell, Harvard Business School Case 9-799-158, June 6, 1999. , Compaq existed as an independent corporation until 2002, when it merged with Hewlett-Packard. Prior to its takeover the company was headquartered in northwest unincorporated Harris County, Texas, United States. "Compaq Offices Worldwide." (December 25, 1996) Compaq. Accessed September 6, 2008. History 1980s Early Compaq logo, used on the Compaq Portable. Compaq was founded in February 1982 by Rod Canion, Jim Harris and Bill Murto, three senior managers from semiconductor manufacturer Texas Instruments. Each invested $1,000 to form the company. Their first venture capital came from Ben Rosen and Sevin Rosen Funds. Like many small startups with unique beginnings, the original Compaq PC was first sketched out on a placemat by the founders while dining in a local Houston restaurant, House of Pies. Two key marketing executives in Compaq's early years, Jim D'Arezzo and Sparky Sparks, had come from IBM's PC Group. Other key executives responsible for the company's meteoric growth in the late 80s and early 90s were Ross A. Cooley, another former IBMer, who served for many years as SVP and GM North America; Michael Swavely, who was the company's chief marketing officer in the early years, and eventually ran the North America organization, later passing along that responsibility to Mr. Cooley, when Swavely retired. In the United States, Brendan A. "Mac" McLoughlin (another long time IBM executive) lead the company's field sales organization after starting up the Western U.S. Area of Operations. These gifted executives, along with other key contributors, including Kevin Ellington, Douglas Johns, Steven Flannigan, and Gary Stimac, helped the company surpass the IBM Corporation in all personal computer sales categories, after many predicted that none could compete with the behemoth. Compaq Portable Compaq PortableIn November 1982 Compaq announced their first product, the Compaq Portable, a portable IBM PC compatible personal computer. It was released in March 1983 at $2995, considerably more affordable than the Canadian Hyperion. The Compaq Portable was one of the progenitors of today's laptop; some called it a "suitcase computer" for its size and the look of its case. It was the second IBM PC compatible, being capable of running all software that would run on an IBM PC. It was a commercial success, selling 53,000 units in its first year. The Compaq Portable was the first in the range of the Compaq Portable series. Compaq was able to market a legal IBM clone because IBM mostly used "off the shelf" parts for their PC. Furthermore, Microsoft had kept the right to license the operating system to other computer manufacturers. The only part which had to be duplicated was the BIOS, which Compaq did legally by using clean room reverse engineering for $1 million. Phoenix Technologies were the first to follow their lead, but soon "clone BIOSes" were available from several vendors. Deskpro On June 28th 1984 Compaq Released the Compaq Deskpro, a 16-bit desktop computer using an Intel 8086 microprocessor running at 7.14 MHz. It was considerably faster than an IBM PC and was, like the Compaq Portable, also capable of running IBM software. This was the first of the Compaq Deskpro line of computers. Deskpro 386 When in 1986 Compaq introduced the first PC based on Intel's new 80386 microprocessor, the Compaq Deskpro 386, they began a period of increasing performance leadership over IBM, who were not yet using this processor. An IBM machine eventually reached the market seven months later, but by that time Compaq was the 386 supplier of choice and IBM had lost its image of technical leadership. Systempro This technical leadership and the rivalry with IBM was emphasised when the Systempro server was launched in late 1989 - this was a true server product with standard support for a second CPU and RAID, but also the first product to feature the EISA bus which was designed in reaction to IBM's MCA (MicroChannel Architecture). 1990s At the same time as they began to dominate the server market, in the early 1990s Compaq entered the retail computer market with the Presario, and was one of the first manufacturers in the mid-1990s to market a sub-$1000 PC. In order to maintain the prices it wanted, Compaq became the first first-tier computer manufacturer to utilize CPUs from AMD and Cyrix. The price war resulting from Compaq's actions ultimately drove numerous competitors, most notably IBM and Packard Bell, from this market. In 1997, Compaq bought Tandem Computers, known for their NonStop server line. This acquisition instantly gave Compaq a presence in the higher end business computing market. In 1998, Compaq acquired Digital Equipment Corporation, the leading company in the previous generation of minicomputers during the 1970s and early 1980s. This acquisition made Compaq, at the time, the second largest computer maker in the world in terms of revenue. Unfortunately for the company, CEO Eckhard Pfeiffer, who engineered both mergers, had little vision for what the combined companies should do, or indeed how the three dramatically different cultures could work as a single entity, and Compaq struggled as a result. Pfeiffer was forced out as CEO in 1999 in a coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen and was succeeded by Michael Capellas, who had been serving as Compaq's CIO. Capellas was able to restore some of the lustre lost in the latter part of the Pfeiffer era, but the company still struggled against lower-cost competitors such as Dell. During November 1999, Compaq began to work with Microsoft to create the first in a line of small-scale, web-based computer systems called MSN Companions. In 1998, Compaq also signed new sales and equipment alliance with NaviSite. Under the pact, Compaq agreed to promote and sell NaviSite Web hosting services. In return, NaviSite took Compaq as a preferred provider for its storage and Intel-based servers. Merger with HP A HP Compaq computer and a HP Deskjet 5740 printer owned by the Houston Independent School District; HP gained Compaq's contract with Houston ISD and took over Compaq's role in the contract. In 2001, Compaq engaged in a merger with Hewlett-Packard. Numerous large HP shareholders, including William Hewlett, publicly opposed the deal, which resulted in an impassioned public proxy battle between those for and against the deal. The merger was approved only after the narrowest of margins, and allegations of vote buying (primarily involving an alleged last-second back-room deal with Deutsche Bank) haunted the new company. It was subsequently disclosed that HP had retained Deutsche Bank's investment banking division in January 2002 to assist in the merger. HP had agreed to pay Deutsche Bank $1 million guaranteed, and another $1 million contingent upon approval of the merger. On August 19, 2003, the United States Securities and Exchange Commission charged Deutsche Bank with failing to disclose a material conflict of interest in its voting of client proxies for the merger and imposed a civil penalty of $750,000. Deutsche Bank consented without admitting or denying the findings. SEC Press Release: "SEC Brings Settled Enforcement Action Against Deutsche Bank Investment Advisory Unit in Connection with Its Voting of Client Proxies for Merger Transaction; Imposes $750,000 Penalty" Before the merger, Compaq's ticker symbol was CPQ. This was melded with Hewlett-Packard's previous symbol (HWP) to create the current symbol of HPQ. Post merger Capellas left the company after serving less than a year as President of HP to become CEO of MCI Worldcom, leading it to be purchased by Verizon. Carly Fiorina, the Chairman and CEO of HP, added Capellas's responsibilities to her own. Fiorina helmed HP for nearly three years after Capellas left. HP laid off thousands of former Compaq, DEC, HP, and Tandem employees, "HP hires workers as it lets others go" "What's 150,000 minus 45,--~~~~000? In Hewlett-Packard's world, the answer is still roughly 150,000." its stock price generally declined and profits did not perk up. Though the merger initially made it the number one PC maker, it soon lost the lead and further market share to Dell. In addition, the merging of stagnant Compaq with HP's lucrative printing and imaging division was criticized as that overshadowed the latter's profitability. In February 2005, the Board of Directors ousted Fiorina. Former Compaq CEO Capellas was mentioned by some as a potential successor, but several months afterwards, Mark Hurd was hired as CEO. In late 2005, HPQ seemed to find its feet under the new leadership of Mark Hurd. At this same time Dell seemed to be faltering and HPQ took back the #1 sales position. Hurd separated the PC division from the imaging and printing division. HP's PC segment has since been reinvigorated and now generates more revenue than the traditionally more profitable printers. Most Compaq products have been re-branded with the HP nameplate, such as the company's market leading ProLiant server line, while the Compaq brand remains on only some consumer-orientated products, notably Compaq Presario PCs. HP's business computers line was discontinued in favour of the Compaq Evo line, which was rebranded HP Compaq. HP's Jornada PDAs were replaced by Compaq iPAQ PDAs, which were renamed HP iPAQ. In May 2007, HP in a press release announced a new logo for their Compaq Division to be placed on the new model Compaq Presarios. In 2008, HP dropped the "Compaq" name from its "HP Compaq" business notebooks and is now marketing them as the "HP EliteBook" and as of early 2009, the "HP ProBook", leaving the Compaq name for HP's entry-level consumer platforms. Sponsorship Compaq sponsored Queens Park Rangers Football Club from 1994 to 1996, during their most recent two seasons as a Premier League club. Compaq sponsored Bradford Bulls Rugby League club from 1996 to 1998. Compaq also sponsored the Williams team in Formula One. Two sports stadiums were named after the company: The Compaq Center, of Houston, Texas, formerly The Summit, until its sports teams moved to the Toyota Center. The building became the new home of Lakewood Church, one of the largest Protestant congregations in the United States. The Compaq Center at San Jose, later renamed the HP Pavilion when HP purchased Compaq. Compaq was the original sponsor for Walt Disney World's Mission: SPACE attraction before they were purchased by HP. Competitors HP competes against other computer manufacturers including Dell, Acer, Lenovo and Toshiba among others. Originally the company competed against IBM, making affordable IBM PC compatibles often cheaper and faster than the IBM alternative. Lenovo, which purchased IBM's personal computer business in 2005, is a new competitor, especially in China where it was founded. See also Compaq Portable series List of computer system manufacturers References External links Compaq official website Compaq company history (hp.com via archive.org) HP-Compaq merger (washingtontechnology.com) | Compaq |@lemmatized compaq:70 computer:19 corporation:4 american:1 personal:5 company:18 found:3 brand:3 name:5 hewlett:6 packard:6 form:2 rod:2 canion:2 jim:3 harris:3 bill:2 murto:2 former:4 texas:4 instrument:2 senior:2 manager:2 derive:1 compatibility:1 quality:1 formation:1 produce:1 first:14 ibm:21 pc:15 compatible:3 large:4 supplier:2 compute:2 system:4 world:4 rivkin:1 jan:1 w:1 porter:1 michael:3 e:1 match:1 dell:5 harvard:1 business:5 school:2 case:2 june:2 exist:1 independent:2 merge:1 prior:1 takeover:1 headquarter:1 northwest:1 unincorporated:1 county:1 united:4 state:4 office:1 worldwide:1 december:1 access:1 september:1 history:2 early:7 logo:2 use:5 portable:9 february:2 three:3 semiconductor:1 manufacturer:6 invest:1 venture:1 capital:1 come:2 ben:2 rosen:3 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6,797 | BBC_Radio_1 | BBC Radio 1 (commonly referred to as Radio 1) is a British radio station which broadcasts internationally operated by the BBC, specialising in current popular music and chart hits throughout the day. Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7:00pm including electronic dance, Hip Hop, rock or interviews. It is aimed primarily at the 15-29 age group. Radio 1 was launched at 7:00am on 30 September 1967 as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline, which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament. www.radiorewind.co.uk - Radio 1 History First broadcast The first DJ to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn, whose cheery style, first heard on Radio Caroline and 'Wonderful Radio London', won him the prime slot on what became known as the "Radio 1 Breakfast Show" (although its original formal title, as shown in the Radio Times was Daily Disc Delivery, while Blackburn himself referred to it eponymously as the Tony Blackburn Show). The first words on Radio 1 - after a "countdown" by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2, Robin Scott, and a jingle, recorded at PAMS in Dallas, Texas, beginning "The voice of Radio 1" - were "... And, good morning everyone. Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1". This was the first use of US-style jingles on BBC radio, but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio. The first complete record played on Radio 1 was "Flowers in the Rain" by The Move (although technically the first music played was "Theme One" by George Martin leading into part of "Beefeaters (On Parade)" by Johnny Dankworth, Blackburn's signature tune carried over from pirate radio). The second single was "Massachusetts" by The Bee Gees. There has been some speculation that the inclusion of "Flowers in the Rain" was intended to signal the end of the "flower power" "Summer of Love" of 1967. The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule, with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest. Radio 1 Launch Day from Radio Rewind. Retrieved 13 November 2008. The initial rota of staff included John Peel (who remained with the station until his death in October 2004) and a gaggle of others, some hired from pirates, such as Ed Stewart, Terry Wogan, Jimmy Young, Dave Cash, Kenny Everett, Simon Dee, Pete Murray, and Bob Holness. Radio 1 Original Presenter List from Radio Rewind. Retrieved 13 November 2008. Annie Nightingale who joined just after the launch in 1970, was effectively Britain's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times. Annie Nightingale from Radio Rewind. Retrieved 13 November 2008. Seventies peak Initially, the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who, it is claimed, disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations, with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s. The very fact that it was part of an "establishment" institution such as the BBC was a turn-off for some, and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had. It also had limited finances (partially because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station) and often, as in January 1975, suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks, strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives. Despite this, it gained massive audiences, becoming the most listened to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows (up to 20 million for Blackburn's Breakfast Show). In the early-mid 1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids. The popularity of its touring summer live broadcasts the Radio 1 Roadshow drew some of the largest crowds of the decade and the station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition. (Independent Local Radio did not begin until 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK). Nineties changes In his last few months as controller, Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister. One of these "Loud'n'proud" was the UK's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience (made in Manchester and aired from August 1993). Far from being a parting quirk, the show was a surprise hit and led to the network's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994. Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993. His aim was to rid the station of its 'Smashie and Nicey' image and make it appeal to the under 25s. Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25 year history. Many long-standing DJs, such as Simon Bates, Dave Lee Travis, Alan Freeman, Bob Harris, Gary Davies, and later Steve Wright, Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked, and in January 1995 old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) was banned from the daytime playlist. Many listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC (notably Bannister and Trevor Dann's former colleagues at the BBC's London station, GLR) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker. Another problem was that, at the time, Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme, and commercial radio, which was targeting the "Radio 1 and a half" audience, consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio One. After the departure of Steve Wright, who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long-running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994, Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995. Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week. Evans was replaced from February 17, 1997 by Mark and Lard - Mark Radcliffe (along with his sidekick Marc Riley), who found the slick, mass-audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them. They were replaced by Zoe Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997, with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter. The re-invention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s - bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station's popularity rose with them. Documentaries like John Peel's "Lost In Music" which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House. Later in the 90s the Britpop boom declined, and manufactured chart pop (boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts. New-genre music occupied the evenings (indie on weekdays and dance at weekends), with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights. The rise of rave culture through the late 80s and early 90s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth-orientated movement by bringing in a club DJ, Pete Tong. This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mixed rave and club based music in a two hour slot. Listening figures continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age-group. Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day. Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as The Sunday Surgery, Bobby Friction and Nihal, The Evening Session with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe. Its website has also been well received. A new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006, dividing the week by genre. Monday is mainly pop-funkrock-oriented, Tuesday is R&B and hip-hop, Thursday and Friday are primarily dance, with specialist R&B and reggae shows. However, the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle. In 2000, Zoe Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox, but, despite heavy promotion, listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall. In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles. The newly rebranded breakfast show is known as The Chris Moyles Show and has increased its audience, now ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show (after 'Wake up with Wogan' hosted by Terry Wogan), Moyles though continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the 'Wake up with Wogan' show by, in 2006, creating a 'SAY NO TO WOGAN' campaign live on-air, this angered the BBC hierarchy though the row simmered down when it was clear that the 'campaign' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time - Wogan still increases figures at a faster rate than Moyles. The chart show's ratings fell after the departure of long-time host Mark Goodier, amid falling single sales in the UK. Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show, meaning that commercial radio's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time. However, the BBC denied he was being sacked. The BBC show now competes with networked commercial radio's hit40uk which is broadcast at the same time. Many DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as Johnnie Walker, Bob Harris and Steve Wright) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s. The success of Moyles' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general. In 2006, DJs Chris Moyles, Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards, while the station itself came away with the best station award. Following the death of John Peel in October 2004, Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter, having worked there since 1970. 40th birthday On 30 September 2007, Radio 1 celebrated its 40th birthday. To mark this anniversary Radio 1 hosted special features, including: Special shows hosted by music legends at 9:00pm each weekday. Between 9:00am and 10:00am on the Chris Moyles show, the best music from the last 40 years (a re-creation of Simon Bates' Golden Hour). Playing Radio 1's old jingles, which were created by JAM productions of Dallas. 40 different artists performed 40 different covers, one from each year since Radio 1 was established. All 40 songs were played in the weeks leading up to the release of the compilation album Radio 1 Established 1967. Broadcast Studios BBC Radio 1 originally used Studio D, on the first floor of Broadcasting House when it came on air in 1967. The current studios are located in the basement of Yalding House (near to BBC Broadcasting House) which is on Great Portland Street in central London. The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House, which was demolished in 2003 to make way for the extensions to Broadcasting House. Radio 1 also uses the BBC Maida Vale Studios in West London, where artists record music sessions for various shows, including the popular Live Lounge for the The Jo Whiley Show. There are also live performances held there in front of Radio 1 competition winners. Programmes have also regularly been broadcast from the regions, notably the Mark and Lard show, broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House, Oxford Road, Manchester for over a decade (October 1993-March 2004) - the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital. UK analogue frequencies Radio 1 initially broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave (or 247 metres as it was referred to at the time) and moved to 1053/1089 kHz (275/285 m) on 23 November 1978. (It was the only BBC National station without a dedicated FM frequency.) In the 1970s and early 1980s it was allowed to take over Radio 2's FM transmitters for a few hours per week - Saturday afternoons, Sunday teatime and evening - most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons - and 10:00 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975, and thereafter the John Peel show. In 1988 the 97–99 MHz frequencies became available when the existing police communication allocation changed, and Radio 1 acquired them for its own national FM network. This was rolled out as of 1 September 1988, starting with the Central Scotland, Midlands & Yorkshire areas (FM broadcasts were available in London as of 31 October 1987, but this was at low power on 104.8 MHz FM - see here). Its old medium wave frequencies were reallocated to commercial stations in 1994 (Radio 1's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July that year, with Stephen Duffy's "Kiss Me" being the last record played on MW just before 9:00am). In the 1990s it also began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television's analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on UK Gold) and later in stereo (on UK Living). Digital distribution Today it can be heard on DAB, Freeview, Virgin Media, Sky Digital and the Internet as well as FM. In July 2005, Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV. Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when they launched on 1 December 2005 (also on channel 11). The Sirius simulcasts are time shifted five hours to allow U.S. and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners. On November 12, 2008, Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29. Radio 1 will now reach approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone. Regionalisation Since 1999, Radio 1 has split the home nations on a Thursday night with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland broadcasting their own shows showcasing regional talent with Zane Lowe still being heard in England (this applies to the FM broadcast only). Scotland's show is presented by Vic Galloway (who also has a position on BBC Radio Scotland) who has presented the show on his own since 2004 after original co-host Gill Mills departed. Wales's show is hosted by One Music's Huw Stephens and Bethan Elfyn, whilst Rory McConnell presents the Northern Irish programme. They originally went out from 8:00pm to 10:00pm on the Evening Session's time slot and then moved to 7:30pm to 9:00pm with the first half hour of Zane Lowe going out across the whole of the UK. Since the early hours of 18 October 2007 the regional programmes have aired Wednesday night/Thursday mornings from 12:00am to 2:00am under the BBC Introducing banner. This practice has also been used in Radio 1's T in the Park coverage where broadcasts to Scotland provide extended coverage of the festival which the rest of the United Kingdom does not receive (it instead has the normal Radio 1 schedule). This Scotland-only coverage has been presented by Vic Galloway in recent years. Controllers Years served Controller1967–1968 Robin Scott1968–1976 Douglas Muggeridge1976–1978 Charles McLelland1978–1985 Derek Chinnery1985–1993 Johnny Beerling1993–1998 Matthew Bannister1998–present Andy Parfitt Music While most commercial stations concentrate on a theme, such as 1980s music or classic rock, Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs, including independent/alternative, Hip Hop, Rock, House Music, Electronica, Dance Music, Drum N' Bass and Pop Music Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the "needle time" limitation) the station has recorded many live performances and studio sessions, many of which have found their way to commercially-available LPs and CDs. The station also broadcasts documentaries and interviews. Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station diversity. The needletime restrictions meant the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJs. While the station is often criticised for "waffling" by presenters, an experimental "more music day" in 1988 was declared a failure after only a third of callers favoured it. Playlist News and current affairs Radio 1 has a public service broadcasting obligation to provide news, which it fulfills through Newsbeat bulletins throughout the day. Short news summaries are provided roughly hourly on the half hour during daytime hours with two 15-minute bulletins at 12:45pm and 5:45pm. The main presenter is Georgina Bowman, Georgina Bowman profile, BBC Radio 1 website, accessed 1 December 2008 with sports news read by David Garrido. However, there are other presenters, such as Dominic Byrne and Carrie Davies who read the news and sport (respectively) on the Chris Moyles Show and Mark Chapman who reads the sports news in the afternoon on the Scott Mills show. Notable programming The Radio 1 Chart Show Radio 1's long-running chart show broadcasts on Sunday afternoons between 4:00pm and 7:00pm, and has always ended at 7:00pm since the station's inception, although the format, length and starting time have varied. From 15 March 1992 up to and including 2 February 2003, the format was a countdown of all the top 40 selling singles in the UK for that week, from 40 to 1. Since that date, the show has taken on new presenter (DJ Talent) and a more chat-oriented format. The show no longer plays all the top 40 singles; instead, the entire top 20 is played along with a selection of tracks between 21 and 40, interviews and other features. The chart is compiled by The Official UK Charts Company; Radio 1 is the only station to broadcast the "official" UK singles chart. On 14 October 2007, Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates replaced JK & Joel as hosts of the Chart Show. Fearne Cotton will become the first regular female presenter of the UK Top 40. Jo Whiley was the first female presenter of the UK Top 40 on 24 November 2002 (a week after Mark Goodier's departure from the show) as a string of one-off presenters each week until Scott Mills presented the UK Top 40 each week from 5 January 2003 until 2 February 2003. Wes Butters launched the Chart Show on 9 February 2003. Before this date the Chart Show was known as "The Official UK Top 40" Show history From To Presenter Format 1 October 1967 24 September 1972 Alan Freeman Known as Pick of the Pops and featured new entries between numbers 21 and 30 and the complete Top 20. 1 October 1972 17 March 1974 Tom Browne A three-hour show called Solid Gold Sixty featuring new releases, climbers and chart entries below the Top 20 from 4:00pm to 6:00pm, followed by the Top 20 itself from 6:00pm to 7:00pm 24 March 1974 26 March 1978 Reduced to just the Top 20, running from 6:00pm to 7:00pm 2 April 1978 5 November 1978 Simon Bates 12 November 1978 26 August 1979 Extended to a two-hour Top 40 from 5:00pm to 7:00pm 2 September 1979 3 January 1982 Tony Blackburn 10 January 1982 1 January 1984 Tommy Vance 8 January 1984 23 September 1984 Simon Bates 30 September 1984 around March/April 1986 Richard Skinner around March/April 1986 23 September 1990 Bruno Brookes 30 September 1990 30 December 1990 Mark Goodier 6 January 1991 1 March 1992 Extended to a two-and-a-half-hour Top 40 from 4:30pm to 7:00pm 8 March 1992 Tommy Vance 15 March 1992 16 April 1995 Bruno Brookes Extended to a three-hour Top 40 from 4:00pm to 7:00pm 23 April 1995 17 November 2002 Mark Goodier 24 November 2002 2 February 2003 Various 9 February 2003 30 January 2005 Wes Butters 6 February 2005 27 February 2005 Scott Mills, Edith Bowman, Nemone, DJ Spoony, Vernon Kay, Colin Murray, Jo Whiley 6 March 2005 30 September 2007 JK and Joel 14 October 2007 Present Fearne Cotton, Reggie Yates Weekday Breakfast Show The breakfast show has been presented by many famous names over the years (see Radio 1 Breakfast Show presenters for more details). Currently this slot is broadcast between 6:30am and 10:00am, Monday to Friday and has been hosted since January 2004 by Chris Moyles and his team under the alternative title The Chris Moyles Show. Radio 1 Online - Chris Moyles Show Weekday Drivetime Show The current weekday Drivetime show is hosted by Scott Mills, under the title The Scott Mills Show. Notable former presenters include Sara Cox, Chris Moyles and Dave Pearce. The show currently broadcasts from 4:00pm until 7:00pm every weekday, with a 15 minute break at 5:45pm for Newsbeat. Scott Mills is usually joined by Newsbeat journalist Andrew Mark Chapman and Becky. Radio 1 Switch Live The first ever BBC Switch Live was held on 12 October, 2008 at the Hammersmith Apollo. With performances from McFLY, Fall out Boy, Ne-Yo, Miley Cyrus, Mcfly, Basshunter, N-Dubz with a special guest performances from George Sampson. The event was hosted by Annie Mac, Nick Grimshaw, Kelly Osbourne, Fearne Cotton, Greg James and Tom Deacon. The event was strictly for 14 to 17 years only and was recorded for BBC Switch's show Sound which is shown on BBC Two and is presented by Annie Mac and Nick Grimshaw. Public events The Radio 1 roadshows began in 1973, the first hosted by Alan Freeman in Newquay, Cornwall and the final one was held in 1999. Roadshows usually involved Radio 1 DJs and pop stars travelling around popular seaside destinations. Although the style changed with the style of the station itself, for example with the introduction in 1994 of whistlestop audio postcards of each location ("2minuteTour"), they were still considered rooted in the "cheesy" old style of the station, and in the 1980s they sometimes featured elements which would be seen as highly politically incorrect today, such as wet T-shirt contests. In March 2000, Radio 1 decided to change the format and renamed it One Big Sunday. Several of these Sundays were in city-centre parks around the country. In 2003, the event changed again, and was renamed One Big Weekend. The event now lasted two days and occurred twice a year. Under this name, it visited Derry in Northern Ireland as part of the Music Lives campaign and Perry Park in Birmingham. The most recent change occurred in 2005 when the event was again renamed and the decision taken to hold only one a year, this time as Radio 1's Big Weekend. Venues under the new name include Sunderland and Dundee. Moor Park in Preston was the venue for Radio 1's Big Weekend 2007, and had a first for the event: a third stage. The line-up included Scissor Sisters, Razorlight, Kasabian, Rihanna, Kaiser Chiefs, The Fratellis, Stereophonics and Natasha Bedingfield amongst others. Tickets for Radio 1's big weekend are free, making it the largest free music festival in Europe. In 2008, the venue was Mote Park, Maidstone, Kent. On July 18, 2008, Radio 1 broadcast live from BCM Square, Magaluf, Mallorca as part of their Summer Season 2008. The broadcast started at 4:00pm with Greg James and Judge Jules presenting. Then from 7:00pm to 9:00pm it was back to the London Studio with Pete Tong, and from 9:00pm to 11:00pm it was Kissy Sell Out standing in for Annie Mac with Annie Mac's Mash Up. Then at 11:00pm it was back to Mallorca for Dave Pearce's Dance Anthems. At 1:00am Judge Jules was back to end the night in the BCM Night Club. BBC - Radio 1 - Summer 2008 - Mallorca The BBC have announced that 2009's Big Weekend will be held on the 9th and 10th May and will be held in Swindon. See also List of BBC radio stations List of Sirius Satellite Radio stations List of Dish Network channels Radio 1 Podcasts BBC 6 Music Musicube References Further reading External links BBC Radio Rewind's BBC Radio 1 historic website BBC Radio 1 Movies BBC Radio 1's Dance Anthems (Unofficial website) BBC Radio 1's page at last.fm | BBC_Radio_1 |@lemmatized bbc:31 radio:93 commonly:1 refer:3 british:2 station:39 broadcast:26 internationally:1 operate:1 specialise:1 current:5 popular:8 music:20 chart:15 hit:2 throughout:2 day:10 provide:4 alternative:3 genre:3 include:10 electronic:1 dance:6 hip:3 hop:3 rock:3 interview:3 aim:5 primarily:2 age:3 group:2 launch:6 september:11 direct:1 response:1 popularity:3 offshore:3 pirate:4 caroline:2 outlaw:1 act:2 parliament:1 www:1 radiorewind:1 co:2 uk:19 history:3 first:19 dj:15 new:12 tony:3 blackburn:7 whose:1 cheery:1 style:8 hear:4 wonderful:1 london:6 win:2 prime:2 slot:6 become:4 know:4 breakfast:14 show:60 although:7 original:3 formal:1 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basshunter:1 dubz:1 guest:1 sampson:1 mac:4 nick:2 grimshaw:2 kelly:1 osbourne:1 greg:2 james:2 deacon:1 strictly:1 roadshows:2 newquay:1 cornwall:1 final:1 involve:1 star:1 travel:1 seaside:1 destination:1 example:1 introduction:1 whistlestop:1 postcard:1 location:1 consider:1 root:1 cheesy:1 sometimes:1 element:1 would:1 highly:1 politically:1 incorrect:1 wet:1 shirt:1 contest:1 decide:1 rename:3 big:6 several:1 city:1 centre:1 country:1 occur:2 twice:1 visit:1 derry:1 perry:1 birmingham:1 decision:1 venue:3 sunderland:1 dundee:1 moor:1 preston:1 stage:1 line:1 scissor:1 sister:1 razorlight:1 kasabian:1 rihanna:1 kaiser:1 chief:1 fratellis:1 stereophonics:1 natasha:1 bedingfield:1 amongst:1 ticket:1 free:2 europe:1 mote:1 maidstone:1 kent:1 bcm:2 square:1 magaluf:1 mallorca:3 season:1 judge:2 jules:2 back:3 kissy:1 sell:1 stand:1 mash:1 anthem:2 announce:1 may:1 swindon:1 podcasts:1 musicube:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 historic:1 movie:1 unofficial:1 page:1 |@bigram hip_hop:3 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6,798 | Alypius_of_Antioch | Alypius of Antioch was a geographer and a vicarius of Roman Britain, probably in the late 350s AD. He replaced Flavius Martinus after that vicarius' suicide. His rule is recorded is Ammianus XXIII 1, 3. He came from Antioch and served under Constantius II and was probably appointed to ensure that nobody with western associations was serving in Britain during a time of mistrust, rebellion and suppression symbolised by the brutal acts of the imperial notary Paulus Catena. He may have had to deal with the insurrection of the usurper named Carausius II. Alypius was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem as part of Julian's systematic attempt to reverse the Christianization of the Roman Empire by restoring pagan and, in this case, Jewish practices. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists. References Todd, M., Roman Britain, Fontana, London 1985 Salway, P., Roman Britain, Oxford, 1986 | Alypius_of_Antioch |@lemmatized alypius:3 antioch:2 geographer:1 vicarius:2 roman:4 britain:4 probably:2 late:1 ad:1 replace:1 flavius:1 martinus:1 suicide:1 rule:1 record:1 ammianus:1 xxiii:1 come:1 serve:2 constantius:1 ii:2 appoint:1 ensure:1 nobody:1 western:1 association:1 time:1 mistrust:1 rebellion:1 suppression:1 symbolise:1 brutal:1 act:1 imperial:1 notary:1 paulus:1 catena:1 may:1 deal:1 insurrection:1 usurper:1 name:1 carausius:1 afterwards:1 commission:1 rebuild:1 temple:1 jerusalem:1 part:1 julian:2 systematic:1 attempt:1 reverse:1 christianization:1 empire:1 restore:1 pagan:1 case:1 jewish:1 practice:1 among:1 letter:1 two:1 address:1 one:1 invite:1 rome:1 thank:1 geographical:1 treatise:1 long:1 exist:1 reference:1 todd:1 fontana:1 london:1 salway:1 p:1 oxford:1 |@bigram |
6,799 | DALnet | DALnet is a large Internet Relay Chat (IRC) network. DALnet is accessible by connecting with an IRC client to an active DALnet server on ports 6660 through 6669 and 7000. The generic round-robin address is irc.dal.net. The network is currently populated by a stable population of around 30,000 users (neither growing nor shrinking appreciably) in about 18,000 channels, with 40 servers making up the network. History DALnet was founded in July 1994 by members of the EFnet #startrek channel. This new network was known as "dal's net", after the nickname used by the administrator of the first IRC server on the network, "dalvenjah", taken from the dragon "Dalvenjah Foxfire", in a fantasy novel by Thorarinn Gunnarsson. The network was soon renamed from dal's net to DALnet. In contrast to other IRC networks of the time, in 1995 DALnet implemented "services", a system that enforced IRC nickname and channel registrations. Traditionally, on IRC, anybody can own a channel or a nickname; if no one is using it, it can be used by anyone who chooses to do so. On DALnet, however, this was no longer the case. This service—which many users saw as a way of firmly establishing their online identities—was a significant factor in DALnet's popularity and afforded the network a distinctive reputation among IRCers. While attempts to implement a similar system had been made before and other networks have since developed registration services of their own, at the time DALnet's successful decision to allow and enforce nickname and channel registration was considered to be unique and even controversial, as it went against established practice. From 25 users in July 1994, the number of users grew to 1,000 by November 1995, 5000 by June 1996, 10,000 by December 1996, 50,000 by October 1999, 100,000 in November 2001, and peaked around 142,000 in April 2002. At that point DALnet was one of the four biggest IRC networks. The user count then slowly reduced again until the DDoS attack (see below) at which point it plummeted and never really recovered. The number of servers grew from 2–4 when started, peaking at 44 in April 2002. The network operation was severely disrupted in late 2002 and early 2003 due to distributed denial of service attacks. Added to the DDoS issues was the fact that the owner of twisted.dal.net (the world's largest single IRC server, hosting more than 50,000 clients most of the time) delinked his servers (for personal reasons). The other servers on the network could not absorb the extra client load, leading to users' complete inability to connect to DALnet. The network was first crushed by attacks, and then by its own userbase. About 60% of DALnet's population moved to other IRC networks due to these extended connectivity issues. It was around this time that DALnet closed many of their channels that were dedicated to serving content such as mp3 files and movies. File transfers were still allowed but not on a large scale. This raised suspicion as to whether DALnet was being targeted by the RIAA, although this was never confirmed. In 2003, DALnet put up their first anycast servers under the name "The IX Concept", and made irc.dal.net resolve to the anycast IP. Since then, most new client servers linked are anycast. DALnet has since recovered and remains functional, though it no longer tops the list of the most populated IRC networks. Since then DALnet has remained the fifth largest publicly monitored IRC network by average monthly user count. External links DALnet web site DALnet Helpsite DALnet History Turkish DALnet portal Impact of the DDoS attacks on DALnet | DALnet |@lemmatized dalnet:22 large:4 internet:1 relay:1 chat:1 irc:13 network:16 accessible:1 connect:2 client:4 active:1 server:9 port:1 generic:1 round:1 robin:1 address:1 dal:5 net:5 currently:1 populate:1 stable:1 population:2 around:3 user:7 neither:1 grow:3 shrink:1 appreciably:1 channel:6 make:3 history:2 found:1 july:2 member:1 efnet:1 startrek:1 new:2 know:1 nickname:4 use:3 administrator:1 first:3 dalvenjah:2 take:1 dragon:1 foxfire:1 fantasy:1 novel:1 thorarinn:1 gunnarsson:1 soon:1 rename:1 contrast:1 time:4 implement:2 service:4 system:2 enforce:2 registration:3 traditionally:1 anybody:1 one:2 anyone:1 choose:1 however:1 longer:2 case:1 many:2 saw:1 way:1 firmly:1 establish:2 online:1 identity:1 significant:1 factor:1 popularity:1 afford:1 distinctive:1 reputation:1 among:1 ircers:1 attempt:1 similar:1 since:4 develop:1 successful:1 decision:1 allow:2 consider:1 unique:1 even:1 controversial:1 go:1 practice:1 number:2 november:2 june:1 december:1 october:1 peak:2 april:2 point:2 four:1 big:1 count:2 slowly:1 reduce:1 ddos:3 attack:4 see:1 plummet:1 never:2 really:1 recover:2 start:1 operation:1 severely:1 disrupt:1 late:1 early:1 due:2 distributed:1 denial:1 add:1 issue:2 fact:1 owner:1 twisted:1 world:1 single:1 host:1 delinked:1 personal:1 reason:1 could:1 absorb:1 extra:1 load:1 lead:1 complete:1 inability:1 crush:1 userbase:1 move:1 extended:1 connectivity:1 close:1 dedicate:1 serve:1 content:1 file:2 movie:1 transfer:1 still:1 scale:1 raised:1 suspicion:1 whether:1 target:1 riaa:1 although:1 confirm:1 put:1 anycast:3 name:1 ix:1 concept:1 resolve:1 ip:1 link:2 remain:2 functional:1 though:1 top:1 list:1 populated:1 fifth:1 publicly:1 monitor:1 average:1 monthly:1 external:1 web:1 site:1 helpsite:1 turkish:1 portal:1 impact:1 |@bigram relay_chat:1 chat_irc:1 irc_client:1 dal_net:5 irc_server:2 severely_disrupt:1 client_server:1 external_link:1 |
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