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7,300 | Kulak | Kulaks (Russian: кула́к, kulak, "fist", by extension "tight-fisted") were a category of relatively affluent and well-endowed peasants in the later Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, and early Soviet Union. The word kulak originally referred to independent farmers in the Russian Empire who emerged as a result of the Stolypin reform which began in 1906. The Stolypin reform created a new class of landowners who were allowed to acquire for credit a plot of land from the large estate owners, and the credit (a kind of mortgage loan) was to be repaid from farm work. In 1912, 16% of peasants (up from 11% in 1903) had relatively large endowments of over 8 acres (3.2 hectares) per male family member (a threshold used in statistics to distinguish between middle-class and prosperous farmers, i.e., kulaks). At that time an average farmer's family had 6 to 10 children. According to Marxism-Leninism, the kulaks were a class enemy of the poorer peasants. From this theory's point of view, poor peasants and farm laborers had to be liberated by the revolution alongside the proletariat (the urban workers). In addition, the planned economy required the collectivization of farms and land to allow industrialization of large-scale agricultural production. The "state of workers and farmers" desired to remove the kulaks as a class and presented them with the option of integrating into the new classless system with equal rights. However, many resisted these changes and organized subversive activities against the new collectives with the help of former tsarist military. Many peasants and communists were killed, fields were burned, and many machine tractor stations were destroyed. This often caused pronounced hunger and created large problems in agriculture and the economy of the Soviet Union. The view of many kulaks was different, as told by Mikhail Gorbachev whose family were "kulaks." The kulaks stated they had suffered from political repression under the rule of Joseph Stalin in the 1930s. Mikhail Gorbachev. Memoirs. 769 pages. Publisher: Doubleday; 1st ed edition (September 1, 1996) ISBN 0385480199 Definitions According to the Soviet terminology, the peasantry was divided into three broad categories: bednyaks, or poor peasants, seredniaks, or mid-income peasants, and kulaks, the higher-income well-endowed farmers who were presumably more successful, efficient farmers and had larger farms than most Russians peasants. In addition, there was a category of batraks, or landless seasonal agriculture workers for hire. After the Russian Revolution, Bolsheviks considered only batraks and bednyaks as true allies of the Soviets and proletariat. Serednyaks were considered unreliable, "hesitating" allies, and kulaks were seen as class enemies because they owned land and were independent economically. However, often those declared to be kulaks were not especially prosperous. The average value of goods confiscated from kulaks during the policy of "dekulakization" (раскулачивание) at the beginning of the 1930s was only $90-$210 (170-400 rubles) per household. Both peasants and Soviet officials were often uncertain as to what constituted a kulak, and the term was often used to label anyone who had more property than was considered "normal" according to subjective criteria. At first, being a kulak carried no penalty other than mistrust from the Soviet authorities. During the height of collectivization, however, people identified as kulaks were subjected to deportation and extrajudicial punishment, and those people were often killed. Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers (2 vol., tr. 1970–74) Dmitri Volkogonov. Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, 1996, ISBN 0761507183 In May 1929 the Sovnarkom issued a decree that formalised the notion of "kulak household" (кулацкое хозяйство). Any of the following characteristics defined a kulak: Robert Conquest (1986) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505180-7. "On the characteristics of kulak farms subject to the Labor Code", Sovnarkom resolution, May 21, 1929, in: Collectivization of Agriculture: Main Resolutions of the Communist Party and Soviet Government 1927-1935, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of History, Moscow, 1957, p. 163 (Russian). use of hired labour; ownership of a mill, a creamery (маслобойня, butter-making rig), other processing equipment, or a complex machine with a mechanical motor; systematic renting out of agricultural equipment or facilities; involvement in trade, money-lending, commercial brokerage, or "other sources of non-labour income". By the last item, any peasant who sold his surplus on the market could be automatically classified as a kulak. In 1930 this list was extended to include those who were renting industrial plants, e.g., sawmills, or who rented land to other farmers. Grigory Zinoviev, a well-known Soviet politician, said in 1924, "We are fond of describing any peasant who has enough to eat as a kulak." At the same time, ispolkoms (executive committees of local Soviets) of republics, oblasts, and krais were given rights to add other criteria, depending on local conditions. Dekulakization In 1928, there was a food shortage in the cities and in the army. The Soviet government encouraged the formation of collective farms and, in 1929, introduced a policy of collectivization. Some peasants were attracted to collectivization by the idea that they would be in a position to afford tractors and would enjoy increased production. Whether peasants were resisting expropriation and exile or collectivization and servitude, they often retaliated against the state by smashing implements and killing animals. Live animals would have to be handed over to the collectives, but meat could be eaten; meat and hides could be concealed and/or sold. Many peasants chose to slaughter livestock, even horses, rather than being obliged to let their personal assets become common property. In the first two months of 1930 millions of cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, and goats were slaughtered. Through this and bad weather a quarter of the entire nation’s livestock perished: a greater loss than had been sustained during the Civil War and a loss that was not recovered until the 1950s. This widespread slaughter caused Sovnarkom to issue a series of decrees to prosecute "the malicious slaughtering of livestock" (хищнический убой скота). "On measures against malicious slaughter of livestock", Central Executive Committee and Sovnarkom resolutions, January 16, 1930; November 1, 1930, in: Collectivization of Agriculture: Main Resolutions of the Communist Party and Soviet Government 1927-1935, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of History, Moscow, 1957, pp. 260, 336 (Russian). Many peasants also attempted to sabotage the collectives by attacking members and government officials. Stalin requested severe measures to put an end to the kulak resistance. In a speech given at a Marxist agrarian conference, he stated that, "From a policy of limiting the exploitative tendencies of the kulaks, we have gone over to a policy of liquidating the kulaks as a class." The party agreed to the use of force in the collectivization and dekulakization efforts. The kulaks were to be liquidated as a class and subject to one of three fates: death sentence, labour settlements (not to be confused with labor camps, although the former were also managed by the GULAG), or deportation "out of regions of total collectivization of the agriculture". Tens of thousands of kulaks were executed, property was expropriated to form collective farms, and many families were deported to unpopulated areas of Siberia and Soviet Central Asia. Often local officials were assigned minimum quotas of kulaks to identify, and were forced to use their discretionary powers to "find" kulaks wherever they could. This led to many cases where a farmer who only employed his sons, or any family with a metal roof on their house, was labelled as kulaks and deported. The same happened to those labeled as podkulachniks (подкулачник), so-called "kulak helpers". A new wave of persecution, this time against "ex-kulaks," was started in 1937. It was part of the Great Purge, after the NKVD Order no. 00447. Those deemed ex-kulaks had only two options: death sentence or labour camps. After being resettled to Siberia and Kazakhstan, many "kulaks" gained prosperity again. This fact served as a base of recriminations against some sections of NKVD that were in charge of the "labour settlements" (трудовые поселения) in 1938-1939, which permitted "kulakization" (окулачивание) of the "labour settlers" (трудопоселенцев). The fact that new settlers became more prosperous than the neighbouring kolkhozes was explained by "wrecking" and "criminal negligence". Numbers executed According to data from Soviet archives, which were published in 1990, 1,803,392 people were sent to labor colonies and camps in 1930 and 1931. Books say that 1,317,022 reached the destination. The remaining 486,370 may have died or escaped. Deportations on a smaller scale continued after 1931. The reported number of kulaks and their relatives who had died in labour colonies from 1932 to 1940 was 389,521. It is difficult to determine how many people died because of the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class." The data from the Soviet archives do not tell us exactly how many people escaped and survived, or what number of deaths would have occurred if there had been no deportation. These data do not include people who were executed or died in prisons and gulags rather than dying in labour colonies. Many historians consider the great famine a result of the "liquidation of the kulaks as a class," which complicates the estimation of death tolls. A wide range of death tolls has been suggested, from as many as 60 million suggested by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn to as few as 700 thousand by Soviet news sources. A collection of estimates is maintained by Matthew White. See also Dekulakization Lenin's Hanging Order Enemy of the people Collectivization in the USSR Yeoman Earth (1930), Ukrainian film by Alexander Dovzhenko, concerning a community of farmers and their resistance to Kulaks. Ural-Siberian Method References External links The kulak, chapter: The first wave of collectivization of the book "Another view of Stalin" by Ludo Martens 1995 | Kulak |@lemmatized kulaks:26 russian:6 кула:1 к:1 kulak:12 fist:1 extension:1 tight:1 fisted:1 category:3 relatively:2 affluent:1 well:3 endow:2 peasant:15 late:1 empire:2 soviet:17 russia:1 early:1 union:2 word:1 originally:1 refer:1 independent:2 farmer:9 emerge:1 result:2 stolypin:2 reform:2 begin:1 create:2 new:5 class:9 landowner:1 allow:2 acquire:1 credit:2 plot:1 land:4 large:5 estate:1 owner:1 kind:1 mortgage:1 loan:1 repay:1 farm:7 work:1 endowment:1 acre:1 hectare:1 per:2 male:1 family:5 member:2 threshold:1 use:5 statistic:1 distinguish:1 middle:1 prosperous:3 e:2 time:3 average:2 child:1 accord:4 marxism:1 leninism:1 enemy:3 poorer:1 theory:1 point:1 view:3 poor:2 laborer:1 liberate:1 revolution:2 alongside:1 proletariat:2 urban:1 worker:3 addition:2 planned:1 economy:2 require:1 collectivization:12 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7,301 | New_Left | The New Left were the left-wing movements in different countries in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union activism, instead adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly called social activism. The U.S. "New Left" is associated with the Hippie movement, college campus mass protest movements and a broadening of focus from protesting class-based oppression to include issues such as gender, race, and sexual orientation. The British "New Left" was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of "Old Left" parties in the post-World War II period. The movements began to wind down in the 1970s, when activists either committed themselves to party projects, developed social justice organizations, moved into identity politics or alternative lifestyles or became politically inactive. Origins The confused response of the Communist Party of the USA and the Communist Party of Great Britain to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 created a crisis of confidence in party decision making. Independent Marxist intellectuals began to develop a more individualistic approach to leftist politics, which was opposed to the perceived bureaucratic and inflexible politics of the pre-war leftist parties. In Western Europe, these new developments occurred both inside and outside social democratic and Communist parties, contributing toward the development of eurocommunism. The New Left in the U.S. was primarily a continuation of the progressive movement and fueled by grass roots movements on college campuses. The New Left in the United Kingdom emerged through the links between dissenting Communist Party intellectuals and campus groups. In Britain As a result of Khrushchev's Secret Speech denouncing Stalin and the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956, many left the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) for various Trotskyist groupings or the Labour Party. The British New Left concentrated on the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and global justice. Some within the British New Left joined the International Socialists, which later became Socialist Workers Party while others became involved with groups such as the International Marxist Group. Trotskyist Tariq Ali, who played a role in some of the New Left protests of this era, documents his involvement in his book Street Fighting Years. The Marxist historian E. P. Thompson established a dissenting journal within the CPGB called Reasoner. Once expelled from the party, he began publishing the New Reasoner from 1957. In 1960, this journal merged with the Universities and Left Review to form the New Left Review. These journals attempted to synthesise a theoretical position of a revisionist, humanist, socialist marxism, departing from orthodox Marxist theory. This publishing effort made the ideas of culturally oriented theorists available to an undergraduate reading audience. Under the long-standing editorial leadership of Perry Anderson, the New Left Review popularised the Frankfurt School, Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser and other forms of Marxism. Other periodicals like Socialist Register, started in 1964, and Radical Philosophy, started in 1972, have also been associated with New Left theory and published a range of important writings in this field. As the campus orientation of the American New Left became clear in the mid to late 1960s, the student sections of the British New Left began taking action in these areas. The London School of Economics became a key site of British student militancy (Hoch and Schoenbach, 1969). The influence of the May 1968 events in France were also felt strongly throughout the British New Left. The politics of the British New Left can be contrasted with Solidarity, UK, which continued to focus primarily on industrial issues. 1960s in the United States In the United States, the "New Left" was the name loosely associated with liberal, sometimes radical, political movements that took place during the 1960s, primarily among college students. The origin of the movement is largely based on the original progressive movement . The term "New Left" can be traced to an open letter written in 1960 by sociologist C. Wright Mills entitled Letter to the New Left. Mills argued for a new leftist ideology, moving away from the traditional ("Old Left") focus on labor issues, towards more personalized issues such as opposing alienation, anomie, and authoritarianism. Put differently, Mills argued for a shift from traditional leftism, toward the values of the Counterculture. The New Left opposed the prevailing authority structures in society, which it termed "The Establishment", and those who rejected this authority became known as "anti-Establishment." The New Left did not seek to recruit industrial workers, but rather concentrated on a social activist approach to organization. Many in the New Left were convinced that they could be the source for a better kind of social revolution. Most New Left thinkers in the U.S., to varying degrees, were influenced by the Vietnam War and the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Like the British New Left, they also believed that the Secret Speech drew attention to problems with the Soviet Union, but unlike the British New Left, they did not turn to Trotskyism or social democracy as a result. Some in the U.S. New Left argued that since the Soviet Union could no longer be considered the world center for proletarian revolution, new revolutionary Communist thinkers had to be substituted in its place — Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh and Fidel Castro were identified as key contributors to this new framework. Other elements of the U.S. New Left were anarchist and looked to libertarian socialist traditions of American radicalism, and investigated the Industrial Workers of the World and previous union militancy. This group coalesced around the historical journal Radical America and in grouplets. American Autonomist Marxism was also a child of this stream the U.S. New Left, for instance in the thought of Harry Cleaver. Murray Bookchin and Noam Chomsky were also part of the anarchist stream of the New Left, as were the Yippies. The U.S. New Left both influenced and drew inspiration from black radicalism, particularly the Black Power movement and the more explicitly left-wing Black Panther Party. The Panthers in turn influenced other similar militant groups, like the Young Lords, the Brown Berets and the American Indian Movement. Students for a Democratic Society The organization that really came to symbolize the core of the New Left was the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). In 1962, Tom Hayden wrote its founding document, the Port Huron Statement, which issued a call for "participatory democracy" based on nonviolent civil disobedience. The SDS marshalled anti-war, pro-civil rights and free speech concerns on campuses, and managed to bring together liberals and more revolutionary leftists. The SDS became the leading organization of the antiwar movement on college campuses during the Vietnam War, and during the course of the war became increasingly militant. As opposition to the war grew stronger, the SDS became a nationally prominent political organization, but opposing the war became an overriding concern that overshadowed many of the original issues that had inspired SDS. In 1968 and 1969, as its radicalism reached a fever pitch, the SDS began to split under the strain of internal dissension and increasing turns toward Maoism. Along with adherents known as the New Communist Movement, some extremist illegal factions also emerged, such as the Weather Underground Organization. Left Libertarianism, Murray Rothbard, and the New Left Several libertarian theorists, like Murray Rothbard and Karl Hess attempted to bridge the gap between libertarianism, anarcho-capitalism, and the New Left. http://mises.org/journals/jls/19_1/19_1_2.pdf Rothbard's main reason for allying himself with the New Left was their opposition to the Vietnam War. http://mises.org/story/2762 Another reason to ally libertarianism and the New Left was their opposition to big business and how it benefited from government intervention. http://mises.org/story/2099 International movements The Prague Spring was legitimised by the Czech government as a reformist movement to mitigate Czechoslovak socialism. The 1968 events in the Czech Republic were driven forward by industrial workers, and were explicitly theorized by active Czech unionists as a revolution for workers' control. The driving force of near-revolution in France in May 1968 were students inspired by the ideas of the Situationist International, which in turn had been inspired by Socialisme ou Barbarie. Both of these French groups placed an emphasis on cultural production as a form of production. Unlike the New Left, the sphere of culture was not unrelated to productivity. While the Autonomia in Italy have been called New Left, it is more appropriate to see them as a unique response to the failure of the Italian PCI and PSI to deal with the new Italian industrial working class in the 1950s. The Autonomia was a result of traditional, industrially oriented, communism retheorising its ideology and methods. Unlike most of the New Left, Autonomia had a strong blue-collar arm, active in regularly occupying factories. The Provos were a Dutch counter-cultural movement of mostly young people with anarchist influences. Criticism of the legacy As many of those who supported the New Left in the 1960s are now in charge of the kinds of institutions they once opposed, conservative opponents argue that their assumptions - which are sometimes described as politically correct multiculturalism - are now the establishment orthodoxy. In what has been described as the culture wars, conservative critics of this orthodoxy such as Allan Bloom and Roger Scruton assert that New Left radical egalitarianism is motivated by anti-Western nihilism. Inspirations and influences Otto Bauer Leon Trotsky Albert Camus Guy Debord Frantz Fanon Allen Ginsberg Antonio Gramsci Mao Zedong Che Guevara Ho Chi Minh R.D. Laing Henri Lefebvre Vladimir Lenin Rosa Luxemburg Herbert Marcuse in particular and the Frankfurt School in general Non-conformists of the 1930s C. Wright Mills George Orwell Jean-Paul Sartre Malcolm X Key figures Tariq Ali Perry Anderson Rudolf Bahro Noam Chomsky Daniel Cohn-Bendit Angela Davis Mike Davis (scholar) Régis Debray Rudi Dutschke André Gorz Tom Hayden Abbie Hoffman David Horowitz Tom Nairn Carl Oglesby Ronald Radosh Jerry Rubin Mark Rudd E.P. Thompson Raymond Williams Mario Savio Deniz Gezmiş Other associated people Salvador Allende Louis Althusser Murray Bookchin César Chávez David Dellinger Michel Foucault Alain Geismar Karl Hess John Lennon Ben Morea Jacques Sauvageot Charles Taylor William Mandel A. J. Muste Norman Fruchter See also Austromarxism Chinese New Left Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought New Communist Movement Civil rights movement Drug, Hospital, and Health Care Employees Union Free Speech Movement Lithuanian New Left (New Left 95) New social movements New Left Review New Right The Sixties Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers Yippies Young Lords origins External links British New Left periodicals British New Left articles Further reading General Interview with André Gorz, about The New Left Teodori, Massimo, ed., The New Left: A documentary History. London: Jonathan Cape (1970). Oglesby, Carl (ed.) The New Left Reader Grove Press (1969). ISBN 83-456-1536-8. Influential collection of texts by Mills, Marcuse, Fanon, Cohn-Bendit, Castro, Hall, Althusser, Kolakowski, Malcolm X, Gorz & others. Michael R. Krätke,Otto Bauer and the early "Third Way" to Socialism Detlev Albers u.a. (Hg.), Otto Bauer und der "dritte" Weg. Die Wiederentdeckung des Austromarxismus durch Linkssozialisten und Eurokommunisten, Frankfurt/M 1979 UK Ali, Tariq. Street fighting years: a autobiography of the sixties London: Collins, 1987. ISBN 0-00-217779-X Hock, Paul and Vic Schoenbach. LSE: the natives are restless, a report on student power in action London: Sheed and Ward, 1969. ISBN 0-7220-0596-2 Scruton, Roger Thinkers of the New Left (Claridge Press, 1985). The New Left's renewal of Marxism an account by Paul Blackledge from International Socialism journal U.S. Archives New Left Movement: 1964-1973. Archive # 88-020. Title: New Left Movement fonds. 1964-1973. 51 cm of textual records. Trent University Archives. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. Online guide retrieved April 12, 2005. Russ Gilbert "New Left" Pamphlet Collection: An inventory of the collection at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Online guide retrieved October 8, 2005 Reference Ayn Rand - The New Left, "The Anti-Industrial Revolution". ISBN:0452011256 Albert, Judith Clavir, and Albert, Stewart Edward. The Sixties Papers: Documents of a Rebellious Decade (New York: Praeger, 1984). ISBN 0-275-91781-9 Breines, Wini. Community Organization in the New Left, 1962-1968: The Great Refusal, reissue edition (Rutgers University Press, 1989). ISBN 0-8135-1403-7. Cohen, Mitchell, and Hale, Dennis, eds. The New Student Left (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966). Evans, Sara. Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement & the New Left (Vintage, 1980). ISBN 0-394-74228-1. Frost, Jennifer. "An Interracial Movement of the Poor": Community Organizing & the New Left in the 1960s (New York University Press, 2001). ISBN 0-8147-2697-6. Gosse, Van. The Movements of the New Left, 1950-1975: A Brief History with Documents (Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004). ISBN 0-312-13397-9. Isserman, Maurice. If I had a Hammer: the Death of the Old Left and the Birth of the New Left, reprint edition (University of Illinois Press, 1993). ISBN 0-252-06338-4. Long, Priscilla, ed. The New Left: A Collection of Essays (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1969). Mattson, Kevin, Intellectuals in Action: The Origins of the New Left and Radical Liberalism, 1945-1970 (Penn State Press, 2002). ISBN 0-271-02206-X McMillian, John and Buhle, Paul (eds.). The New Left Revisited (Temple University Press, 2003). ISBN 1-56639-976-9. Rossinow, Doug. The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (Columbia University Press, 1998). ISBN 0-231-11057-x Rubenstein, Richard E. Left Turn: Origins of the Next American Revolution (Boston: Little Brown, (1973). Young, C. A. Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a US Third Wold Left (Duke University Press, 2006). Publications Munk, Michael. The New Left: What It Is ... Where It's Going ... What Makes it Move. 22pp A National Guardian Pamphlet. New York. n.d. [1965]. Stapled softcover. Photos. Canada For a discussion on the rise and fall of the 60s movement in Canada, USA and Germany see: Levitt. C (1984) Children of Privilege. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario. 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7,302 | Logic_gate | A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. The logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. In electronic logic, a logic level is represented by a voltage or current, (which depends on the type of electronic logic in use). Each logic gate requires power so that it can source and sink currents to achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit diagrams the power is not shown, but in a full electronic schematic, power connections are required. Truth table A truth table is a table that describes the behaviour of a logic gate. It lists the value of the output for every possible combination of the inputs and can be used to simplify the number of logic gates and level of nesting in an electronic circuit. In general the truth table does not lead to an efficient implementation; a minimization procedure, using Karnaugh maps, the Quine–McCluskey algorithm or a heuristic algorithm is required for reducing the circuit complexity. Background The simplest form of electronic logic is diode logic. This allows AND and OR gates to be built, but not inverters, and so is an incomplete form of logic. Further, without some kind of amplification it is not possible to have such basic logic operations cascaded as required for more complex logic functions. To build a functionally complete logic system, relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors can be used. The simplest family of logic gates using bipolar transistors is called resistor-transistor logic, or RTL. Unlike diode logic gates, RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions. These gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher speed, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes, leading to diode-transistor logic, or DTL. It was then discovered that one transistor could do the job of two diodes in the space of one diode even better, by more quickly switching off the following stage, so transistor-transistor logic, or TTL, was created. In virtually every type of contemporary chip implementation of digital systems, the bipolar transistors have been replaced by complementary field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to reduce size and power consumption still further, thereby resulting in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) logic. For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic gates from families of devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments and the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their more recent descendants. Increasingly, these fixed-function logic gates are being replaced by programmable logic devices, which allow designers to pack a large number of mixed logic gates into a single integrated circuit. The field-programmable nature of programmable logic devices such as FPGAs has removed the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the logic design of a hardware system by reprogramming some of its components, thus allowing the features or function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to be changed. Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents. They are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases). Also, there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its input and its output. The semiconductor logic gate, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gate. Another important advantage of standardised integrated circuit logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are considered. The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number called the 'fanout limit'. Also, there is always a delay, called the 'propagation delay', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an effect which can become a problem in high-speed circuits. Additional delay can be caused when a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide. Logic gates NAND and NOR logic gates are the two pillars of logic, in that all other types of Boolean logic gates (i.e., AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR) can be created from a suitable network of just NAND or just NOR gate(s). They can be built from relays or transistors, or any other technology that can create an inverter and a two-input AND or OR gate. Hence the NAND and NOR gates are called the universal gates. For an input of 2 variables, there are 16 possible boolean algebraic functions. These 16 functions are enumerated below, together with their outputs for each combination of inputs variables. The four functions denoted by arrows are the logical implication functions. These functions are generally less common, and are usually not implemented directly as logic gates, but rather built out of gates like AND and OR. Symbols A synchronous 4-bit up/down decade counter symbol (74LS192) in accordance with ANSI/IEEE Std. 91-1984 and IEC Publication 60617-12. There are two sets of symbols in common use, both now defined by ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991. The "distinctive shape" set, based on traditional schematics, is used for simple drawings and is quicker to draw by hand. It is sometimes unofficially described as "military", reflecting its origin if not its modern usage. The "rectangular shape" set, based on IEC 60617-12, has rectangular outlines for all types of gate, and allows representation of a much wider range of devices than is possible with the traditional symbols. The IEC's system has been adopted by other standards, such as EN 60617-12:1999 in Europe and BS EN 60617-12:1999 in the United Kingdom. The goal of IEEE Std 91-1984 was to provide a uniform method of describing the complex logic functions of digital circuits with schematic symbols. These functions were more complex than simple AND and OR gates. They could be medium scale circuits such as a 4-bit counter to a large scale circuits such as a microprocessor. The 1984 version did not include the "distinctive shape" symbols. These were added to the 1991 supplement with this note: "The distinctive-shape symbol is, according to IEC Publication 617, Part 12, not preferred, but is not considered to be in contradiction to that standard." In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to design both circuit boards and custom ICs known as gate arrays. Today custom ICs and the field-programmable gate array are typically designed with Hardware Description Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL. The need for complex logic symbols has diminished and distinctive shape symbols are still the predominate style. Type Distinctive shape Rectangular shape Boolean algebra between A & B Truth table AND AND symbol AND symbol INPUT OUTPUT A B A AND B0 0 00 1 01 0 01 1 1 OR OR symbol OR symbol INPUT OUTPUT A B A OR B0 0 00 1 11 0 11 1 1 NOT NOT symbol NOT symbol INPUT OUTPUT A NOT A0 11 0In electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called a bubble, and is generally used in circuit diagrams to indicate an inverted (active-low) input or output. NAND NAND symbol NAND symbol INPUT OUTPUT A B A NAND B0 0 10 1 11 0 11 1 0 NOR NOR symbol NOR symbol INPUT OUTPUT A B A NOR B0 0 10 1 01 0 01 1 0 XOR XOR symbol XOR symbol INPUT OUTPUT A B A XOR B0 0 00 1 11 0 11 1 0 XNOR XNOR symbol XNOR symbol INPUT OUTPUT A B A XNOR B0 0 10 1 01 0 01 1 1 In practice, the cheapest gate to manufacture is usually the NAND gate. Additionally, Charles Sanders Peirce (1880) showed that NAND gates alone (as well as NOR gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until 1935. The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913. The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two additional pins supply power (+5 V) and connect the ground. Two more gates are the exclusive-OR or XOR function and its inverse, exclusive-NOR or XNOR. The two input Exclusive-OR is true only when the two input values are different, false if they are equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the gate generates a true at its output if the number of trues at its input is odd (). In practice, these gates are built from combinations of simpler logic gates. De Morgan equivalent symbols By use of De Morgan's theorem, an AND gate can be turned into an OR gate by inverting the sense of the logic at its inputs and outputs. This leads to a separate set of symbols with inverted inputs and the opposite core symbol. These symbols can make circuit diagrams for circuits using active low signals much clearer and help to show accidental connection of an active high output to an active low input or vice-versa. Symbolically, a NAND gate can also be shown using the OR shape with bubbles on its inputs, and a NOR gate can be shown as an AND gate with bubbles on its inputs. The bubble signifies a logic inversion. This reflects the equivalency due to De Morgans law, but it also allows a diagram to be read more easily, or a circuit to be mapped onto available physical gates in packages easily, since any circuit node that has bubbles at both ends can be replaced by a simple bubble-less connection and a suitable change of gate. If the NAND is drawn as OR with input bubbles, and a NOR as AND with input bubbles, this gate substitution occurs automatically in the diagram (effectively, bubbles "cancel"). This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams - thus the reader must not get into the habit of associating the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs in order to determine the "true" logic function indicated. All logic relations can be realized by using NAND gates. (This can also be done using NOR gates). De Morgan's theorem is most commonly used to transform all logic gates to NAND gates or NOR gates. This is done mainly since it is easy to buy logic gates in bulk and because many electronics labs stock only NAND and NOR gates. Storage of bits Related to the concept of logic gates (and also built from them) is the idea of storing a bit of information. None of the gates discussed up to here can store a value by itself: when the inputs change, the outputs immediately react. It is possible to make a storage element either through a capacitor (which stores charge due to its physical properties) or by feedback. Connecting the output of a gate to the input causes it to be put through the logic again, and choosing the feedback correctly allows it to be preserved or modified through the use of other inputs. A set of gates arranged in this fashion is known as a "latch", and more complicated designs that utilize clock signals and change only on the rising edge are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s). These registers or capacitor-based circuits are known as computer memory. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application. Three-state logic gates A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If B is on, the switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open. Three-state, or 3-state, logic gates have three states of the output: high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the logic, which remains strictly binary. These devices are used on buses to allow multiple chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer, which may be physically distributed over separate devices or plug-in cards. In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit. 'Tri-state', a widely-used synonym of 'three-state', is a trademark of the National Semiconductor Corporation. Miscellaneous Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors which can contain more than a 100 million gates. In practice, the gates are made from field-effect transistors (FETs), particularly MOSFETs. Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFET's is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates. In reversible logic, Toffoli gates are used. History and development The earliest logic gates were made mechanically. Charles Babbage, around 1837, devised the Analytical Engine. His logic gates relied on mechanical gearing to perform operations. Electromagnetic relays were later used for logic gates. In 1891, Almon Strowger patented a device containing a logic gate switch circuit (). Strowger's patent was not in widespread use until the 1920s. Starting in 1898, Nikola Tesla filed for patents of devices containing logic gate circuits (see List of Tesla patents). Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as AND logic gate. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table, which is shown above, as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Claude E. Shannon introduced the use of Boolean algebra in the analysis and design of switching circuits in 1937. Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Active research is taking place in molecular logic gates. Implementations As of 2008, most logic gates are made of CMOS transistors. Often millions of logic gates are packaged in a single integrated circuit. The most common implementations of logic gates are based on electronics using resistors, transistors and diodes. There are several logic gate design paradigms based on these components. Each paradigm leads to a logic family with different advantages (efficiency, speed, cost, size, reliability...): RDL (resistor-diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor logic), DTL (diode-transistor logic), TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor). Most of the earliest digital computing devices, from 1890 to 1948, such as the Harvard Mark I, were built from relay logic gates, using electro-mechanical relays. Relay logic is still used in certain scenarios for increased robustness; it was used in pinball machines through the mid 1970s, then was replaced by programmed electronic logic (microprocessors). It is also possible to make logic gates out of pneumatic devices, such as the Sorteberg relay. It is also possible to create mechanical logic gates, including on a molecular scale. Mechanical Logic gates (focused on molecular scale) Logic gates have been made out of DNA (see DNA nanotechnology) DNA Logic gates and used to create a computer called MAYA (see MAYA II). Additionally, logic gates can be made from quantum mechanical effects (though quantum computing usually diverges from boolean design). It is also possible to make photonic logic gates using non-linear optical effects. See also And-inverter graph Boolean algebra topics Boolean function Digital circuit Espresso heuristic logic minimizer Fanout Flip-flop (electronics) Karnaugh map Logic family Logical graph NMOS logic Propositional calculus Race hazard Reversible computing Truth table References Symbols for logic gates. Twenty First Century Books, Breckenridge, CO. Wireless Remote Control and the Electronic Computer Logic logic elements "LEGO Logic Gates". goldfish.org.uk, 2005. Further Reading Awschalom, D., D. Loss, and N. Samarth, Semiconductor Spintronics and Quantum Computation (2002), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Bostock, Geoff, Programmable Logic Devices. Technology and Applications (1988), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Brown, Stephen D. et al., Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (1992), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA. 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7,303 | Arthur_Laurents | Arthur Laurents (born July 14, 1918) is an award-winning American playwright, librettist, stage director, and screenwriter. His credits include the stage musicals West Side Story and Gypsy and the film The Way We Were. Early life Laurents, the son of a lawyer and a former schoolteacher who gave up her career when she married, was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School. His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child, and as a result Laurents always felt protective towards her. His paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews and his mother's parents, though born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a Kosher home for her husband's sake, but was lax about attending temple and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents' religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions, Laurents, Arthur, Original Story By. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2000. ISBN 0-375-40055-9, pp. 6-7 although he continued to identify himself as Jewish. Laurents, p. 133 After graduating from Cornell University, Laurents took an evening class in radio writing at New York University. His instructor, a CBS Radio director/producer, submitted his script Now Playing Tomorrow, a comedic fantasy about clairvoyance, to the network, and it was produced with Shirley Booth in the lead role. It was Laurents' first professional credit. The show's success led to his being hired to write scripts for various radio shows, among them Lux Radio Theater. Laurents, pp. 12-13 Military career Laurents' career came to a halt when he was drafted into the United States Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to a base located in a former film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for Armed Service Force Presents, a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces. Laurents, pp. 22-28 Theatrical career Soon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on-again, off-again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with Fancy Free, Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. At the urging of Martin Gabel, he spent nine consecutive nights writing a play inspired by a photograph of GIs in a South Pacific jungle. Laurents, pp. 41-49 The result was Home of the Brave, a drama about anti-semitism in the military, which opened on Broadway on December 27, 1945 and ran for 69 performances. Five years later, his second Broadway production, The Bird Cage, was even less successful, running for only 21 performances. In 1952, The Time of the Cuckoo reunited him with Shirley Booth and ran for 263 performances. (Laurents later would adapt it for the 1965 musical Do I Hear a Waltz?) Other successes in the 1950s included the books for West Side Story and Gypsy. In 1962, Laurents directed I Can Get It for You Wholesale, which turned then-unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was Anyone Can Whistle, which he directed and for which he wrote the book. It proved to be an infamous flop. He later redeemed himself with Hallelujah, Baby! (written for Lena Horne Laurents, p. 93 but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and La Cage Aux Folles, but stumbled again with Nick & Nora. In 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of Gypsy starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of West Side Story, with Spanish translations to some dialogue and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda. While preparing the show, he noted, "The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity." Playbill.com, July 16, 2008 Following the production's March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of the New York Times called the translations "an only partly successful experiment" and added, "Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses." New York Times, March 20, 2009 Film career Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Unhappy with the script for The Snake Pit submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand, director Anatole Litvak hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was ineligible for WGA health benefits because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for The Snake Pit. Laurents, pp. 106-120 Upon hearing 20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on The Snake Pit, Alfred Hitchcock hired him to Americanize the British play Rope for the screen. With his then-lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that co-star James Stewart never realized his character was gay, much to Laurents' amusement. Laurents, pp. 115-116, 124-131 In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both Torn Curtain and Topaz but, unenthused by the material, Laurents declined the offers. Laurents, p. 136 Laurents also scripted Anastasia and Bonjour Tristesse. The Way We Were, in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and The Turning Point, inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. Blacklist Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, DC to account for his political views. Laurents, p. 29 He explained himself to the House Un-American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about eighteen months. Laurents, pp. 165-190 Years earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed Look Ma, I'm Dancing!, a stage musical about the world of ballet that never was produced. Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, and the studio agreed as long as Laurents wasn't part of the package. It wasn't until then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of Home of the Brave had been published in the Daily Worker. He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he couldn't have been a member of any subversive groups. Within a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the Ile de France. While on board, he received a cable from MGM offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklist had ended. Laurents, p. 286-289 Memoirs In 2000, Laurents published Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long-term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher, an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the men's clothing store in Beverly Hills Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher's death on October 26, 2006. Backstage.com obituary, November 1, 2006 In 2009, Laurents published Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals, in which he discusses musicals he directed and the works of other directors he admires. Additional credits Anna Lucasta (screenwriter) A Clearing in the Woods (playwright) Invitation to a March (playwright, director) The Madwoman of Central Park West (playwright, director) My Good Name (playwright) Jolson Sings Again (playwright) The Enclave (playwright, director) Radical Mystique (playwright, director) Big Potato (playwright) Two Lives (playwright) My Good Name (playwright) Claudia Lazlo (playwright) Attacks on the Heart (playwright) 2 Lives (playwright) New Year's Eve (playwright) Theatre awards and nominations 1958 Tony Award for Best Musical (West Side Story, nominee) 1960 Tony Award for Best Musical (Gypsy, nominee) 1968 Tony Award for Best Musical (Hallelujah, Baby!, winner) 1975 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical (Gypsy, winner) 1975 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical (Gypsy, nominee) 1984 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical (La Cage aux Folles, winner) 2008 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical (Gypsy, nominee) Film awards and nominations Academy Award for Best Picture (The Turning Point, nominee) Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay (The Turning Point, nominee) Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay (Rope, nominee) Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay (The Turning Point, nominee) Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay (The Way We Were, nominee; The Turning Point, winner) National Board of Review Award for Career Achievement (winner) Further Reading Laurents, Arthur, Original Story by Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood. New York: Knopf 2000. ISBN 0-375-40055-9 Laurents, Arthur, Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story, and Other Musicals''. New York: Knopf 2009. ISBN 0-307-27088-2 References External links Arthur Laurents at the Internet Off-Broadway Database American Theatre Wing biography | Arthur_Laurents |@lemmatized arthur:7 laurents:51 bear:2 july:2 award:16 win:1 american:3 playwright:15 librettist:1 stage:3 director:9 screenwriter:2 credit:5 include:3 musical:14 west:7 side:6 story:9 gypsy:9 film:5 way:4 early:1 life:3 son:1 lawyer:1 former:2 schoolteacher:1 give:1 career:8 marry:1 raise:1 flatbush:1 section:1 brooklyn:1 elder:1 two:3 child:2 attend:2 erasmus:1 hall:1 high:1 school:1 sister:1 edith:1 suffer:1 chorea:1 result:2 always:1 felt:1 protective:1 towards:1 paternal:1 grandparent:1 orthodox:1 jew:1 mother:2 parent:1 though:1 born:1 jewish:3 atheist:1 keep:2 kosher:1 home:3 husband:2 sake:1 lax:1 temple:1 observe:1 holiday:1 bar:1 mitzvah:1 mark:1 end:2 religious:1 education:1 beginning:1 rejection:1 fundamentalist:1 religion:1 original:6 new:7 york:6 alfred:2 knopf:3 isbn:3 pp:7 although:1 continue:2 identify:1 p:5 graduate:1 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7,304 | Cogito_ergo_sum | "" (Usually translated in English as: "I think, therefore I am", but can be less ambiguously translated as "I am thinking, therefore I exist"), sometimes misquoted as (English: "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am"), The extension "Dubito, ergo... " was never used by Descartes himself. It appears in an anonymous introduction from 1765, signed by "Thomas", which was included in the Descartes edition by Victor Cousin and is accessible together with Descartes works at the Gutenberg Project.. It is misleading as if Descrates argument would be based on doubt, whereas it is inherent in any mental activity whatsoever. is a philosophical statement in Latin used by René Descartes, which became a foundational element of Western philosophy. The simple meaning of the phrase is that if someone is wondering whether or not he exists, that is in and of itself proof that he does exist (because, at the very least, there is an "I" who is doing the thinking). Descartes's original statement was "Je pense donc je suis," from his Discourse on Method (1637). He wrote it in French, not in Latin, thus reaching a wider audience in his country than that of scholars. He uses the Latin "Cogito ergo sum" in the later Principles of Philosophy (1644), Part 1, article 7: "Ac proinde hæc cognitio, ego cogito, ergo sum, est omnium prima & certissima, quæ cuilibet ordine philosophanti occurrat.", by which time it had become popularly known in the English speaking world as 'the "Cogito Ergo Sum" argument', which is usually shortened to "Cogito" when referring to the principle virtually everywhere else. Introduction The phrase Cogito ergo sum is not used in Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy, but the term "the cogito" is (often confusingly) used to refer to an argument from it. Descartes felt that this phrase, which he had used in his earlier Discourse, had been misleading in its implication that he was appealing to an inference, so he avoided the word ergo and wrote "that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind." (Meditation II.) At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt — his argument from the existence of a deceiving god — Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence he finds it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon, the tool he uses to stop himself sliding back into ungrounded beliefs), his belief in his own existence would be secure, for how could he be deceived unless he existed in order to be deceived? But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Does it now follow that I too do not exist? No. If I convinced myself of something [or thought anything at all] then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who is deliberately and constantly deceiving me. In that case I too undoubtedly exist, if he is deceiving me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think that I am something. So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind. (AT VII 25; CSM II 16–17) There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he only claims the certainty of his own existence from the first-person point of view — he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he is not saying that his existence is necessary; he is saying that if he's thinking, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition "I am, I exist" is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) nor on empirical induction, but on the clarity and self-evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to restore his beliefs. As he puts it: Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakable. (AT VII 24; CSM II 16) According to many of Descartes' specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion — the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similar immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that present itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes' thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito — a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we have seen — but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence. Criticism There have been a number of criticisms of the argument. The first of the two under scrutiny here concerns the nature of the step from "I am thinking" to "I exist." The contention is that this is a syllogistic inference, for it appears to require the extra premise: "Whatever has the property of thinking, exists," and that extra premise must surely have been rejected at an earlier stage of the doubt. It could be argued that "Whatever has the property of thinking, exists" is self-evident, and thus not subject to the method of doubt. This is because the instantiation principle states that: "Whatever has the property F, exists," but within the method of doubt, only the property of thinking is indubitably a property of the meditator. Descartes does not make use of this defense, however; as we have already seen, he responds to the criticism by conceding that there would indeed be an extra premise needed, but denying that the cogito is a syllogism. Jaakko Hintikka offered a non-syllogistic interpretation. "I exist" is immune to Descartes' method of doubt because it is impossible to be mistaken about one's own existence. If we do not exist then we cannot be mistaken, so we do. Perhaps a more relevant contention is whether the "I" to which Descartes refers is justified. In Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry, Bernard Williams provides a history and full evaluation of this issue. The main objection, as presented by Georg Lichtenberg, is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have said: "thinking is occurring." That is, whatever the force of the cogito, Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the "I," is more than the cogito can justify. Friedrich Nietzsche put forward a similar form of criticism, suggesting a more appropriate phrase would be "it thinks." In other words the "I" in "I think" could be similar to the "It" in "It is raining" Williams provides a meticulous and exhaustive examination of this objection. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of "there is thinking" without relativising it to something. However, this something cannot be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness. Williams' argument in detail In addition to the preceding two arguments against the cogito, other arguments have been advanced by Bernard Williams. He claims, for example, that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say "I am thinking," is something conceivable from a third-person perspective; namely objective "thought-events" in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter. The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind. Søren Kierkegaard's critique The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard provided a critical response to the cogito. Kierkegaard, Søren. Philosophical Fragments. Trans. Hong, Princeton, 1985. p. 38-42. Kierkegaard argues that the cogito already pre-supposes the existence of "I", and therefore concluding with existence is logically trivial. Kierkegaard's argument can be made clearer if one extracts the premise "I think" into two further premises: "x" thinks I am that "x" Therefore I think Therefore I am Where "x" is used as a placeholder in order to disambiguate the "I" from the thinking thing. Schönbaumsfeld, Genia. A Confusion of the Spheres. Oxford, 2007. p.168-170. Here, the cogito has already assumed the "I"'s existence as that which thinks. For Kierkegaard, Descartes is merely "developing the content of a concept", namely that the "I", which already exists, thinks. Kierkegaard, Søren. Philosophical Fragments. Trans. Hong, Princeton, 1985. p. 40. Kierkegaard argues that the value of the cogito is not its logical argument, but its psychological appeal: a thinking thing must have something that exists to think it. It is psychologically difficult to think "I do not exist". But as Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or pre-supposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking. Archie, Lee C, "Søren Kierkegaard, God's Existence Cannot Be Proved". Philosophy of Religion. Lander Philosophy, 2006. Notes Further reading W.E. Abraham, "Disentangling the Cogito", Mind 83:329 (1974) Z. Boufoy-Bastick, Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge , Sophia Journal of Philosophy, VIII (2005), pp 39–52. R. Descartes (translated by John Cottingham), Meditations on First Philosophy, in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes vol. II (edited Cottingham, Stoothoff, and Murdoch; Cambridge University Press, 1984) ISBN 0-521-28808-8 G. Hatfield, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Descartes and the Meditations (Routledge, 2003) ISBN 0-415-11192-7 S. Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript (Princeton, 1985) ISBN 978-0-691-02081-5 S. Kierkegaard, Philosophical Fragments (Princeton, 1985) ISBN 978-0-69-102036-5 B. Williams, Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry (Penguin, 1978) External links Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Descartes — The Cogito Argument | Cogito_ergo_sum |@lemmatized usually:2 translate:3 english:3 think:25 therefore:8 less:1 ambiguously:1 exist:21 sometimes:1 misquote:1 doubt:10 extension:1 dubito:1 ergo:6 never:2 use:12 descartes:25 appear:2 anonymous:1 introduction:2 sign:1 thomas:1 include:2 edition:1 victor:1 cousin:1 accessible:1 together:1 work:2 gutenberg:1 project:3 mislead:2 descrates:1 argument:12 would:5 base:2 whereas:1 inherent:1 mental:1 activity:1 whatsoever:1 philosophical:5 statement:2 latin:3 rené:1 become:2 foundational:1 element:1 western:1 philosophy:9 simple:1 meaning:1 phrase:4 someone:1 wonder:1 whether:2 proof:1 least:1 original:1 je:2 pense:1 donc:1 suis:1 discourse:2 method:5 write:2 french:1 thus:2 reach:2 wider:1 audience:1 country:1 scholar:1 cogito:19 sum:4 late:1 principle:5 part:1 article:1 ac:1 proinde:1 hæc:1 cognitio:1 ego:2 est:1 omnium:1 prima:1 certissima:1 quæ:1 cuilibet:1 ordine:1 philosophanti:1 occurrat:1 time:1 popularly:1 know:1 speaking:1 world:2 shorten:1 refer:2 virtually:1 everywhere:1 else:1 meditation:6 first:8 term:1 often:1 confusingly:1 felt:1 early:2 implication:1 appeal:2 inference:2 avoid:1 word:2 proposition:6 necessarily:3 true:4 whenever:2 put:4 forward:3 conceive:3 mind:8 ii:4 beginning:1 second:2 consider:2 ultimate:1 level:1 existence:15 deceiving:2 god:3 examine:1 belief:5 see:4 survive:1 find:2 impossible:4 even:1 evil:1 demon:1 tool:1 stop:1 slide:1 back:1 ungrounded:1 secure:1 could:3 deceive:5 unless:1 order:4 convince:2 absolutely:1 nothing:2 sky:1 earth:2 body:1 follow:2 something:8 anything:1 certainly:1 deceiver:1 supreme:1 power:1 cunning:1 deliberately:1 constantly:1 case:2 undoubtedly:1 let:1 much:3 bring:1 long:1 everything:1 thoroughly:1 must:3 finally:1 conclude:5 vii:2 csm:2 three:1 important:1 note:2 keep:1 claim:2 certainty:2 person:2 point:3 view:1 prove:2 u:1 course:1 say:4 necessary:1 thinking:7 instantiation:2 third:3 hold:1 deduction:1 mention:1 empirical:1 induction:1 clarity:4 self:5 evidence:3 foundation:1 upon:2 build:1 knowledge:3 rather:2 firm:2 ground:1 stand:1 restore:1 archimedes:1 demand:1 one:4 immovable:1 shift:1 entire:1 hope:1 great:1 thing:6 manage:1 however:3 slight:1 certain:1 unshakable:1 accord:1 many:1 specialist:1 étienne:1 gilson:1 goal:1 establish:3 truth:1 demonstrate:2 capacity:1 criterion:1 immediate:2 distinctiveness:3 evident:2 justified:2 despite:1 adopt:1 generalized:1 consequence:1 demonstration:1 considers:1 science:2 mathematics:2 justify:3 extent:1 proposal:1 similar:3 present:2 originality:1 express:1 feat:1 accomplish:1 predecessor:1 fundamental:1 epistemological:1 rely:1 criticism:4 number:1 two:3 scrutiny:1 concern:1 nature:1 step:1 contention:2 syllogistic:2 require:2 extra:3 premise:5 whatever:4 property:5 surely:1 reject:1 stage:1 argue:5 subject:1 state:1 f:1 within:1 indubitably:1 meditator:1 make:3 defense:1 already:5 respond:1 concede:1 indeed:1 need:1 deny:1 syllogism:1 jaakko:1 hintikka:1 offer:1 non:1 interpretation:1 immune:1 mistake:2 cannot:3 perhaps:1 relevant:1 refers:1 pure:3 enquiry:2 bernard:2 williams:5 provide:3 history:1 full:1 evaluation:1 issue:1 main:1 objection:2 georg:1 lichtenberg:1 suppose:3 entity:1 occur:2 force:1 draw:1 reference:1 friedrich:1 nietzsche:1 form:1 suggest:1 appropriate:1 rain:1 meticulous:1 exhaustive:1 examination:1 sense:1 without:1 relativise:1 cartesian:1 differentiate:1 objectively:1 basis:1 content:3 consciousness:2 detail:1 addition:1 precede:1 advance:1 example:1 deal:1 talk:1 thought:1 conceivable:1 perspective:1 namely:2 objective:2 event:1 former:1 thinker:1 latter:1 obvious:1 problem:1 introspection:1 experience:1 way:1 move:1 personal:1 fact:1 beyond:1 purely:1 subjective:1 søren:5 kierkegaard:12 critique:1 danish:1 philosopher:1 critical:1 response:1 fragment:3 trans:2 hong:2 princeton:4 p:3 pre:2 logically:1 trivial:1 clear:1 extract:1 x:3 placeholder:1 disambiguate:1 schönbaumsfeld:1 genia:1 confusion:1 sphere:1 oxford:1 assume:2 merely:1 develop:1 concept:1 value:1 logical:2 psychological:1 psychologically:1 difficult:1 proper:1 flow:1 archie:1 lee:1 c:1 religion:1 lander:1 far:1 reading:1 w:1 e:1 abraham:1 disentangle:1 z:1 boufoy:1 bastick:1 introduce:1 applicable:1 challenge:1 attainment:1 absolute:1 sophia:1 journal:1 viii:1 pp:1 r:1 john:1 cottingham:2 writing:1 vol:1 edited:1 stoothoff:1 murdoch:1 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:4 g:1 hatfield:1 routledge:3 guidebook:1 unscientific:1 postscript:1 b:1 penguin:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram rené_descartes:1 je_suis:1 cogito_ergo:4 ergo_sum:4 everywhere_else:1 friedrich_nietzsche:1 søren_kierkegaard:3 philosopher_søren:1 kierkegaard_søren:2 external_link:1 descartes_cogito:1 |
7,305 | Oceania | Oceania World map exhibiting a common interpretation of Oceania; other interpretations may vary. Area Population 32,000,000 (6th) Countries Dependencies Languages Time Zones UTC+8 (Australian Western Standard Time) to UTC-6 (Easter Island) (West to East) Map of Oceania Regions of Oceania Political map of Oceania Oceania (sometimes Oceanica ) is a geographical, often geopolitical, region consisting of numerous lands—mostly islands in the Pacific Ocean and vicinity. The term "Oceania" was coined in 1831 by French explorer Dumont d'Urville. The term is used today in many languages to define one of the continents List of IOC members (122) by continent. International Olympic Committee: 112th session, Moscow 2001 and is one of eight terrestrial ecozones. The boundaries of Oceania are defined in a number of ways. Most definitions recognize parts of Australasia such as Australia, New Zealand, and New Guinea, and all or part of the Malay Archipelago as being parts of Oceania. Merriam Webster's Online Dictionary (based on Collegiate vol., 11th ed.) 2006. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. See, e.g., The Atlas of Canada - The World - Continents Ethnologically, the islands that are included in Oceania are divided into the subregions of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. "Oceania". 2005. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Columbia University Press. Extent Oceania is traditionally understood as being composed of three regions: Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. As with any region, however, interpretations vary; increasingly, geographers and scientists divide Oceania into Near Oceania and Remote Oceania. Ben Finney, The Other One-Third of the Globe, Journal of World History, Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall, 1994. Most of Oceania consists of island nations comprising thousands of coral atolls and volcanic islands, with small human populations. Australia is the only continental country but Indonesia has land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. If the Australia-New Guinea continent is included then the highest point is Puncak Jaya in Papua at and the lowest point is Lake Eyre, Australia at below sea level. Regions Descriptions of the regions and constituents of Oceania vary according to source. The table below shows the subregions and countries of Oceania as broadly categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, of course, depending on the source and purpose of each description. Name of region, followed by countriesand their flags Regions and constituents as per UN categorisations/map except notes 2-3, 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 3, 5-7, 9) may be in one or both of Oceania and Asia or North America. Area(km²) Population(1 July 2002 estimate) Population density(per km²) CapitalAustralasia The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand." 7,686,850 21,050,000 2.7 Canberra New Zealand is often considered part of Polynesia rather than Australasia. 268,680 4,108,037 14.5 WellingtonDependencies/Territories of Australia: Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands are Australian external territories in the Indian Ocean southwest of Indonesia. 135 1,493 3.5 Flying Fish Cove 14 632 45.1 West Island 35 1,866 53.3 Kingston Melanesia Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in Southeast Asia (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region. 18,270 856,346 46.9 Suva (Oceanian part only) Indonesia is generally considered a territory of Southeastern Asia (UN region); wholly or partially, it is also frequently included in Australasia or Melanesia. Figures include Indonesian portion of New Guinea (Irian Jaya) and Maluku Islands. 499,852 4,211,532 8.4 Jakarta (France) 19,060 240,390 12.6 Nouméa Papua New Guinea is often considered part of Australasia as well as Melanesia. 462,840 5,172,033 11.2 Port Moresby 28,450 494,786 17.4 Honiara 12,200 196,178 16.1 Port Vila Micronesia 702 135,869 193.5 Palikir (USA) 549 160,796 292.9 Hagåtña 811 96,335 118.8 South Tarawa 181 73,630 406.8 Majuro 21 12,329 587.1 Yaren (de facto) (USA) 477 77,311 162.1 Saipan 458 19,409 42.4 Melekeok On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of Koror to Melekeok, located 20 km northeast of Koror on Babelthuap Island. Wake Island (USA) 2 Wake Island Polynesia (USA) 199 68,688 345.2 Pago Pago, Fagatogo Fagatogo is the seat of government of American Samoa. Chatham Islands (NZ) 966 609 0.6 Waitangi (NZ) 240 20,811 86.7 Avarua Easter Island (Chile) 163.6 3,791 23.1 Hanga Roa (France) 3,961 257,847 61.9 Papeete Hawaii (USA) 28,311 1,283,388 72.8 Honolulu (NZ) 260 2,134 8.2 Alofi (UK) 5 47 10 Adamstown 2,944 214,265 60.7 Apia (NZ) 10 1,431 143.1 — Tokelau, a domain of New Zealand, has no capital: each atoll has its own administrative centre. 748 106,137 141.9 Nukualofa 26 11,146 428.7 Funafuti (France) 274 15,585 56.9 Mata-Utu Total 9,039,675 35,834,670 4.0 Total minus mainland Australia 1,352,825 14,784,670 11.2 See also: List of Oceanian countries by population Interpretative details and controversies New Zealand is the western corner of the Polynesian Triangle. Its indigenous Māori constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. It is also, however, considered part of Australasia. More restricted definitions of the region may exclude New Zealand. Max Cryer, Curious Kiwi Words, 2002, p153 - "A larger portion of the rest of the world calmly refers to this geographic area as Oceania, a term many New Zealanders have never heard, let alone used." Hawaii is the northern corner of the Polynesian Triangle and is generally included in Oceania, though politically it is part of the United States. The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian member of the Oceanic language family, and Hawaiian culture is one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The U.S. territories in the North Pacific are generally considered part of Oceania. Rapa Nui, or Easter Island, is the eastern corner of the Polynesian triangle. A Polynesian island in the eastern Pacific Ocean and part of the territory of Chile, it is generally included in Oceania, in which case the most easterly place in Polynesia and Oceania is its dependency Isla Salas y Gómez 415 km to the East. The line in Indonesia dividing Oceania from Asia varies in location and is sometimes considered to be the Wallace Line. See the transcontinental country article. East Timor is often reckoned as a part of Oceania due to its location to the east of the Wallace Line and its cultural ties to Pacific peoples. http://www.world-gazetteer.com/ (See transcontinental country) Biogeographically, East Timor lies within Wallacea, an ecological transition zone between Asia and Australasia. This transition is less known and less favoured these days as a continental boundary. Australia is sometimes not included in Oceania. Terms such as Pacific Islands or South Sea Islands might be used to describe Oceania without Australia (and New Zealand). The term "Australasia" invariably includes Australia, and usually includes New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and some other parts of Oceania. This term is sometimes controversial, though, as it may may be interpreted as implying an association with Asia — a separate continent — or too great an association with Australia. The term is actually derived from the word "Austral", meaning "of, relating to, or coming from the south". This word represents the common root of both names: Australia and Australasia. Although Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands belong to the Commonwealth of Australia, they are west of Sumatra and are commonly associated with Asia, and not with Oceania. In its widest sense, the term may embrace the entire insular region between Asia and the Americas, thereby including other islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Ryukyu, Kuril and Aleutian islands, the Japanese Archipelago and Taiwan. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056698/Oceania Ecogeography Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ecozones, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. The Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. New Zealand, New Guinea and nearby islands, Australia, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia constitute the separate Australasia ecozone. Sport Pacific Games The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics, (albeit on a much smaller scale), with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963. Rugby codes Rugby League and Rugby Union are two of the regions most popular sports. Rugby union being the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. Rugby League is the national sport in Papua New Guinea (the second most populous country in Oceania after Australia) and is very popular in Australia and has a significant following in New Zealand. Australia has won the Rugby League World Cup a record 9 times. New Zealand won their first World Cup in 2008. Australia hosted the second tournament in 1957. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted it in 1968 and 1977. New Zealand hosted the final for the first time during the worldwide 1985-1988 tournament and Australia hosted the most recent one in 2008. Australia has won the Rugby World Cup a record 2 times. New Zealand won the inaugural World Cup in 1987. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the World Cup in 1987. Australia hosted it in 2003 and New Zealand is to host it in 2011. Cricket Fans' welcome to the Australian team after winning 2007 world cup Cricket is a popular summer sport in Australia and New Zealand. Australia has ruled the cricket world as the number one team for more than a decade. Australia have won the last three Cricket World Cups. New Zealand is one the strong teams in Cricket and has produced many famous cricketers. New Zealand Cricket Team are also called Black Caps. Both Australia and New Zealand are the Full members of ICC. Fiji, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea are some of the Assosciate/Affiliate members of ICC from Oceania that are governed by East Asia-Pacific Cricket Council. Beach Cricket is also a popular recreational sport in Australia. Cricket is culturally a significant sport for summer in Oceania. Boxing Day Test is very popular in Australia which is conducted every year on December, 26th at Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne. Australian rules football Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru and is most popular in Australia. It is also very popular in Papua New Guinea. Association Football The Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) is one of six football (soccer) confederations under the auspices of FIFA, the international governing body of the sport. The OFC is the only confederation without an automatic qualification to the World Cup Finals. Currently the winner of the OFC qualification tournament must play off against an Asian confederation side to qualify for the World Cup. FIFA world cup 2010 - Oceania preliminary competition Currently, Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call soccer its national sport. Oceania has only been represented at three World Cup Finals — Australia in 1974 and 2006 and New Zealand in 1982. However, Australia is now no longer a member of the Oceania Football Confederation, having joined the Asian Football Confederation in 2006. See also Art of Oceania Economy of Oceania Europeans in Oceania Festival of Pacific Arts Flags of Oceania Geography of Oceania History of Oceania Military history of Oceania Oceania (journal) Pacific Games Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat of the Pacific Community United Nations geoscheme for Oceania Notes External links Oceania at the Open Directory Project be-x-old:Акіянія | Oceania |@lemmatized oceania:51 world:17 map:4 exhibit:1 common:2 interpretation:3 may:6 vary:4 area:3 population:5 country:9 dependencies:1 language:4 time:5 zone:2 utc:2 australian:5 western:2 standard:1 easter:3 island:24 west:3 east:7 region:16 political:1 sometimes:4 oceanica:1 geographical:1 often:4 geopolitical:1 consisting:1 numerous:1 land:2 mostly:1 islands:2 pacific:15 ocean:3 vicinity:1 term:9 coin:1 french:1 explorer:1 dumont:1 urville:1 use:5 today:1 many:3 define:2 one:11 continent:5 list:2 ioc:1 member:5 international:2 olympic:1 committee:1 session:1 moscow:1 eight:2 terrestrial:2 ecozones:2 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7,306 | John_Steinbeck | John Ernst Steinbeck, Jr. (February 27, 1902 – December 20, 1968) was an American writer. He wrote the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Grapes of Wrath, published in 1939, and the novella Of Mice and Men, published in 1937. In all, he wrote twenty-seven books, including sixteen novels, six non-fiction books and several collections of short stories. In 1962 Steinbeck received the Nobel Prize for Literature. Biography 132 Central Avenue, Salinas, where Steinbeck lived until he was 17 John Ernst Steinbeck was born on February 27, 1902, in Salinas, California. He was of German and Irish descent. Johann Adolf Großsteinbeck (i.e., Grosssteinbeck), Steinbeck's grandfather, had shortened the family name from Großsteinbeck to Steinbeck when he migrated to the United States. The family farm in Heiligenhaus, Germany, is still today named "Großsteinbeck". His father, John Steinbeck Sr., served as Monterey County Treasurer. John's mother, Olive Hamilton Steinbeck, a former school teacher, fostered Steinbeck's love of reading and writing. National Steinbeck Centre, Biography Page, 2007 Steinbeck lived in a small rural town that was essentially a rough-and-tumble frontier place, set amid some of the world's most fertile land. He spent his summers working on nearby ranches and later with migrants on the huge Spreckels ranch. He became aware of the harsher aspects of migrant life and the darker side of human nature – material exploited in such works as Of Mice and Men. He also explored his surroundings, walking across local forests, fields and farms. Introduction to John Steinbeck, The Long Valley, pages 9 - 10, John Timmerman, Penguin Publishing, 1995 In 1919, Steinbeck graduated from Salinas High School and attended Stanford University intermittently until 1925, eventually leaving without a degree. He traveled to New York City and did odd jobs while pursuing his dream of becoming a writer. When he failed to get his work published, he returned to California and worked as a handyman at Lake Tahoe. http://www.steinbeck.org/Bio.html National Steinbeck Centre, Biography Page, 2007 Introduction to 'The Grapes of Wrath' Penguin edition (1192) by Rober DeMott For many years, Steinbeck lived in a cottage in Pacific Grove on the Monterey Peninsula that was owned by his father, who supplied him with paper for his manuscripts. Jackson J. Benson, John Steinbeck, writer (New York: The Viking Press, 1984), pgs. 147, 651) In 1940, Steinbeck went on a voyage around the Gulf of California with his friend Ed Ricketts, collecting biological specimens. The Log from the Sea of Cortez describes his experiences on this trip. In 1943, after thirteen years of marriage, Steinbeck divorced Carol Henning and married Gwyn Conger with whom he had two children - Thomas ("Thom") Myles Steinbeck in 1944 and John Steinbeck IV (Catbird), in 1946. They divorced in 1948. Two years later, Steinbeck married Elaine (Anderson) Scott, the ex-wife of actor Zachary Scott, with whom he remained until his death in 1968. In 1948, Steinbeck toured the Soviet Union with renowned photographer Robert Capa. They visited Moscow, Kiev, Tbilisi, Batumi and Stalingrad. His book about their experiences, A Russian Journal, was illustrated with Capa's photos. That year, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Steinbeck's gravestone at Salinas cemetery In 1966, Steinbbeck traveled to Tel Aviv to visit the site of Mount Hope, a farm community established in Palestine by his grandfather, Friedrich Grosssteinbeck, who was murdered by Arab marauders on January 11, 1858. The mountain of despair John Steinbeck died in New York City on December 20, 1968 of heart disease or heart attack. An autopsy showed nearly complete occlusion of the main coronary arteries. In accordance with his wishes, his body was cremated and an urn containing his ashes was interred at his family gravesite at Garden of Memories Memorial Park in Salinas. His ashes were placed with those of the Hamiltons (grandparents). His third wife, Elaine, was buried with him in 2004. He had earlier written to his doctor that he felt deeply "in his bones" that he would not survive his physical death, and that the biological end of his life was the final end to it. Literary career Steinbeck's first novel, Cup of Gold, published in 1929, is based on the life and death of privateer Henry Morgan. It centers on Morgan's assault and sacking of the city of Panama, sometimes referred to as the 'Cup of Gold', and on the woman, fairer than the sun, who was said to be found there. After Cup of Gold, between 1931 and 1933 Steinbeck produced three shorter works. The Pastures of Heaven, published in 1932, comprised twelve interconnected stories about a valley near Monterey, that was discovered by a Spanish corporal while chasing runaway American Indian slaves. In 1933 Steinbeck published The Red Pony, a 100-page, four-chapter story weaving in memories of Steinbeck's childhood. To a God Unknown follows the life of a homesteader and his family in California, depicting a character with a primal and pagan worship of the land he works. Steinbeck achieved his first critical success with the novel Tortilla Flat (1935), which won the California Commonwealth Club's Gold Medal. The book portrays the adventures of a group of classless and usually homeless young men in Monterey after World War I, just before U.S. prohibition. The characters, who are portrayed in ironic comparison to mythic knights on a quest, reject nearly all the standard mores of American society in enjoyment of a dissolute life centered around wine, lust, camaraderie and petty theft. The book was made into the 1942 film Tortilla Flat, starring Spencer Tracy, Hedy Lamarr and John Garfield, a friend of Steinbeck's. Steinbeck began to write a series of "California novels" and Dust Bowl fiction, set among common people during the Great Depression. These included In Dubious Battle, Of Mice and Men and The Grapes of Wrath. Of Mice and Men, about the dreams of a pair of migrant laborers working the California soil, was critically acclaimed. The stage adaptation of Of Mice and Men was a hit, starring Broderick Crawford as the mentally child-like but physically powerful itinerant farmhand "Lennie," and Wallace Ford as Lennie's companion, "George." However, Steinbeck refused to travel from his home in California to attend any performance of the play during its New York run, telling Kaufman that the play as it existed in his own mind was "perfect" and that anything presented on stage would only be a disappointment. Steinbeck would write two more stage plays (The Moon Is Down and Burning Bright). Of Mice and Men was rapidly adapted into a 1939 Hollywood film, in which Lon Chaney, Jr. (who had portrayed the role in the Los Angeles production of the play) was cast as Lennie and Burgess Meredith as "George." Steinbeck followed this wave of success with The Grapes of Wrath (1939), based on newspaper articles he had written in San Francisco. The novel would be considered by many to be his finest work. It won the Pulitzer Prize in 1940, even as it was made into a notable film directed by John Ford, starring Henry Fonda as Tom Joad, who was nominated for an Academy Award for the part. The success of The Grapes of Wrath was not free of controversy, as Steinbeck's liberal political views, portrayal of the negative side of capitalism, and mythical reinterpretation of the historical events of the Dust Bowl migrations led to backlash against the author, especially close to home. Steibeck backlash of his portrayal of the depression, New Criterion, Accessed 2007 In fact, claiming the book was both obscene and misrepresented conditions in the county, the Kern County Board of Supervisors banned the book from the county's public schools and libraries in August 1939. This ban lasted until January 1941. Steinbecks works banned, Accessed 2007 Of the controversy, Steinbeck wrote, "The vilification of me out here from the large landowners and bankers is pretty bad. The latest is a rumor started by them that the Okies hate me and have threatened to kill me for lying about them. I'm frightened at the rolling might of this damned thing. It is completely out of hand; I mean a kind of hysteria about the book is growing that is not healthy." The film versions of The Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men (by two different movie studios) were in production simultaneously, allowing Steinbeck to spend a full day on the set of The Grapes of Wrath and the next day on the set of Of Mice and Men. Ed Ricketts Ed Ricketts' lab at 800 Cannery Row In the 1930s and 1940s, Ed Ricketts strongly influenced Steinbeck's writing. Steinbeck frequently took small trips with Ricketts along the California coast to collect biological specimens which Ricketts sold for a living and give Steinbeck time off from his writing. His book about the journey did not sell well. Ricketts was Steinbeck's model for the character of "Doc" in Cannery Row (1945) and Sweet Thursday (1954), as well as characters in In Dubious Battle (1936) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939). Ecological themes recur in Steinbeck's novels of the period. Bruce Robison, "Mavericks on Cannery Row," American Scientist, vol. 92, no. 6 (November–December 2004, p. 1: a review of Eric Enno Tamm, Beyond the Outer Shores: The Untold Odyssey of Ed Ricketts, the Pioneering Ecologist who Inspired John Steinbeck and Joseph Campbell, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2004. Steinbeck's close relations with Ricketts ended when Steinbeck moved away from Salinas and split with his wife Carol. Ricketts' biographer Eric Enno Tamm notes that, except for East of Eden (1952), Steinbeck's writing declined after Ricketts' untimely death in 1948. Bruce Robison, "Mavericks on Cannery Row," American Scientist, vol. 92, no. 6 (November–December 2004, p. 1. World War II During World War II, Steinbeck served as a war correspondent for the New York Herald Tribune. It was at that time he became friends with Will Lang Jr. of Time/Life magazine. During the war, Steinbeck accompanied the commando raids of Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.'s Beach Jumpers program, which launched small-unit diversion operations against German-held islands in the Mediterranean. Some of his writings from this period were incorporated in the documentary Once There Was A War (1958). During the war, he wrote Alfred Hitchcock's Lifeboat (1944), and the film A Medal for Benny (1945), about paisanos from Tortilla Flat going to war. He later requested that his name be removed from the credits of Lifeboat because he believed the final version of the film had racist undertones. His novel The Moon is Down (1942), about the Socrates-inspired spirit of resistance in a Nazi-occupied village in northern Europe, was made into a film almost immediately. It was presumed that the unnamed country of the novel was Norway, and in 1945 Steinbeck received the Haakon VII Medal of freedom for his literary contributions to the Norwegian resistance movement. After the war, he wrote The Pearl (1947), already knowing it would be filmed. The story first appeared in the December 1945 issue of Woman's Home Companion magazine as "The Pearl of the World." It was illustrated by John Alan Maxwell. The novel is an imaginative telling of a story which Steinbeck had heard in La Paz, as related in The Log From the Sea of Cortez, which he described in Chapter 11 as being "so much like a parable that it almost can't be". Steinbeck traveled to Mexico for the filming; on this trip he would be inspired by the story of Emiliano Zapata, and subsequently wrote a film script (Viva Zapata!) directed by Elia Kazan and starring Marlon Brando and Anthony Quinn. After his divorce from Gwyndolyn Conger and the tragic death of Ed Ricketts when his car was hit by a train), Steinbeck wrote East of Eden (1952), which he considered his best work. In 1952, Steinbeck appeared as the on-screen narrator of 20th Century Fox's film, O. Henry's Full House. Although Steinbeck later admitted he was uncomfortable before the camera, he provided interesting introductions to several filmed adaptations of short stories by the legendary writer O. Henry. About the same time, Steinbeck recorded readings of several of his short stories for Columbia Records; despite some stiffness, the recordings provide a record of Steinbeck's deep, resonant voice. Rocinante, camper truck in which Steinbeck traveled across the United States in 1960 Following the success of Viva Zapata!, Steinbeck collaborated with Kazan on East of Eden, James Dean's film debut. Travels with Charley (subtitle: In Search of America) is a travelogue of his 1960 road trip with his poodle Charley. Steinbeck bemoans his lost youth and roots, while dispensing both criticism and praise for America. According to Steinbeck's son Thom, Steinbeck went on the trip because he knew he was dying and wanted to see the country one last time. Steinbeck knew he was dying," September 13, 2006. Audio interview with Thom Steinbeck Steinbeck's last novel, The Winter of Our Discontent (1961), examines moral decline in America. The protagonist Ethan grows discontented with his own moral decline and that of those around him. The book is very different in tone from Steinbeck's amoral and ecological stance in earlier works like Tortilla Flat and Cannery Row. It was not a critical success. Many reviewers recognized the importance of the novel but were disappointed that it was not another Grapes of Wrath. The students companion to John Steinbeck, page 24, Cynthia Burkhead, Greenwood Press, 2002 Nobel Prize Steinbeck (center), with son John (left), visits President Johnson In 1962, Steinbeck won the Nobel Prize for literature for his “realistic and imaginative writing, combining as it does sympathetic humor and keen social perception.” Privately, he felt he did not deserve the honor. In his acceptance speech, he said: In 1979 on the occasion of the 77th anniversary of his birth, Steinbeck was honored with a United States postage stamp. In September 1964, Steinbeck was awarded the United States Medal of Freedom by President Lyndon B. Johnson. John Steinbeck, Recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, Medal of Freedom Recipients, Accessed 2007 In 1967, at the behest of Newsday magazine, Steinbeck went to Vietnam to report on the war there. Thinking of the Vietnam War as a heroic venture, he was considered a hawk for his position on that war. His sons both served in Vietnam prior to his death, and Steinbeck visited one son in the battlefield (at one point being allowed to man a machine-gun watch position at night at a firebase, while his son and other members of his platoon slept). See Steinbeck, A Life in Letters. After Steinbeck's death, his incomplete novel based on the King Arthur legends, The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights, was finally published in 1976. On Feb. 27, 1979, on what would have been his 77th birthday, he was honored by being placed on a U.S. postage stamp. Legacy National Steinbeck Center in Salinas, California The day after Steinbeck's death in New York City, reviewer Charles Poore wrote in the New York Times: "John Steinbeck's first great book was his last great book. But Good Lord, what a book that was and is: The Grapes of Wrath." Poore noted a "preachiness" in Steinbeck's work, "as if half his literary inheritance came from the best of Mark Twain— and the other half from the worst of Cotton Mather." But he asserted that "Steinbeck didn't need the Nobel Prize— the Nobel judges needed him." Many of Steinbeck's works are on required reading lists in American high schools. In the United Kingdom, Of Mice and Men is one of the key texts used by the examining body AQA for its English Literature GCSE. A study by the Center for the Learning and Teaching of Literature in the United States found that Of Mice and Men was one of the ten most frequently read books in public high schools. Books taught in Schools, Center for the Learning and Teaching of Literature. Accessed 2007 At the same time, The Grapes of Wrath has been banned by school boards: In August 1939, Kern County Board of Supervisors banned the book from the county's public schools and libraries. Steinbeck Book Ban, Accessed 2007 It was burned in Salinas on two different occasions. The Grapes of Wrath Burnt in Salinas, National Steinbeck Centre, Accessed 2007 In 2003, a school board in Mississippi banned it on the grounds of profanity. Steinbecks work banned in Mississippi 2003, American Library Association, Accessed 2007 According to the American Library Association Steinbeck was one of the ten most frequently banned authors from 1990 to 2004, with Of Mice and Men ranking sixth out of 100 such books in the United States. Steinbeck 10 most most banned list, American Library Association, Accessed 2007 100 Most Frequently banned books in the U.S., American Library Association, Accessed 2007 Literary influences Steinbeck grew up in California's Salinas Valley, a culturally diverse place with a rich migratory and immigrant history. This upbringing imparted a regionalistic flavor to his writing, giving many of his works a distinct sense of place. Salinas, Monterey and parts of the San Joaquin Valley were the setting for many of his stories. The area is now sometimes referred to as "Steinbeck Country". Most of his early work dealt with subjects familiar to him from his formative years. An exception was his first novel, Cup of Gold, which concerns the pirate Henry Morgan, whose adventures had captured Steinbeck's imagination as a child. In his subsequent novels, Steinbeck found a more authentic voice by drawing upon direct memories of his life in California. Later he used real American historical conditions and events in the first half of the 20th century, which he had experienced first-hand as a reporter. Steinbeck often populated his stories with struggling characters; his works examined the lives of the working class and migrant workers during the Dust Bowl and the Great Depression. His later work reflected his wide range of interests, including marine biology, politics, religion, history, and mythology. One of his last published works was Travels with Charley, a travelogue of a road trip he took in 1960 to rediscover America. Steinbeck's boyhood home, a turreted Victorian building in downtown Salinas, has been preserved and restored by the Valley Guild, a nonprofit organization. Fixed menu lunches are served Monday through Saturday, and the house is open for tours during the summer on Sunday afternoons. John Steinbeck's Home and Birthplace, Information Point, Accessed 2007 Cannery Row in Monterey The National Steinbeck Center, two blocks away at One Main Street is the only museum in the U.S. dedicated to a single author. Dana Gioia (chair of the National Endowment for the Arts) told an audience at the Center, "This is really the best modern literary shrine in the country, and I've seen them all." Its Steinbeckiana includes Rocinante, the camper truck in which Steinbeck made the cross-country trip described in "Travels with Charley." His father's cottage on Eleventh Street in Pacific Grove, where Steinbeck wrote some of his earliest books, also survives. In Monterey, Ed Ricketts' laboratory survives (though it is not yet open to the public) and at the corner which Steinbeck describes in Cannery Row, also the store which once belonged to Lee Chong, and the adjacent vacant lot frequented by the hobos of Cannery Row. The sardine cannery next to Doc's lab closed down long ago and is now the Monterey Bay Aquarium. The town has commemorated Steinbeck's work with an avenue of flags depicting characters from Cannery Row and historical plaques. Commemoration In 1979, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp featuring Steinbeck, starting the Postal Service’s Literary Arts series honoring American writers. On December 5, 2007 California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Steinbeck into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. Steinbeck inducted into California Hall of Fame, California Museum, Accessed 2007 His son, author Thomas Steinbeck, accepted the award on his behalf. Political views Steinbeck's contacts with leftist authors, journalists, and labor union figures may have influenced his writing. Steinbeck was mentored by radical writers Lincoln Steffens and his wife Ella Winter. Through Francis Whitaker, a member of the United States Communist Party’s John Reed Club for writers, Steinbeck met with strike organizers from the Cannery and Agricultural Workers' Industrial Union. Steinbeck and radicalism New Criterion, Accessed 2007 Steinbeck complained publicly about government harassment. In a 1942 letter to United States Attorney General Francis Biddle, he wrote: "Do you suppose you could ask Edgar's boys to stop stepping on my heels? They think I am an enemy alien. It is getting tiresome." Steinbeck Political Beliefs, Smoking Gun Part 1, Accessed 2007 The FBI denied that Steinbeck was under investigation. Steinbeck was screened by Army Intelligence which found him unsuitable for an officer's commission. In later years, the left claimed he was not sufficiently committed to socialism. In 1955, his portrayal of the American left was criticized in the Daily Worker. Steinbeck Political Beliefs, Smoking Gun Part 2, Accessed 2007 In 1967, when he was sent to Vietnam to report on the war, his sympathetic portrayal of the United States Army led the New York Post to denounce him for betraying his liberal past. Steinbeck's biographer, Jay Parini, says Steinbeck's friendship with President Lyndon B. Johnson influenced his views on Vietnam. John Steinbeck: A Biography, Jay Parini, Holt Publishing, 1996 Steinbeck may also have been concerned about the safety of his son serving in Vietnam. Steinbeck was a close associate of playwright Arthur Miller. In June 1959, Steinbeck took a personal and professional risk by standing up for him when Miller refused to name names in the House Un-American Activities Committee trials. Steinbeck called the period one of the "strangest and most frightening times a government and people have ever faced." John Steinbeck, Writer: A Biography, Jackson J. Benson , Penguin, 1990 Movies 1939—Of Mice and Men—directed by Lewis Milestone, featuring Burgess Meredith, Lon Chaney, Jr., and Betty Field 1940—The Grapes of Wrath—directed by John Ford, featuring Henry Fonda, Jane Darwell and John Carradine 1941—The Forgotten Village—directed by Herbert Kline, narrated by Burgess Meredith 1942—Tortilla Flat—directed by Victor Fleming, featuring Spencer Tracy, Hedy Lamarr and John Garfield 1943—The Moon is Down—directed by Irving Pichel, featuring Lee J. Cobb and Sir Cedric Hardwicke 1944—Lifeboat—directed by Alfred Hitchcock, featuring Tallulah Bankhead, Hume Cronyn, and John Hodiak 1944—A Medal for Benny—directed by Irving Pichel, featuring Dorothy Lamour and Arturo de Cordova 1947—La Perla (The Pearl, Mexico)—directed by Emilio Fernández, featuring Pedro Armendáriz and María Elena Marqués 1949—The Red Pony—directed by Lewis Milestone, featuring Myrna Loy, Robert Mitchum, and Louis Calhern 1952—Viva Zapata!—directed by Elia Kazan, featuring Marlon Brando, Anthony Quinn and Jean Peters 1955—East of Eden—directed by Elia Kazan, featuring James Dean, Julie Harris, Jo Van Fleet, and Raymond Massey 1956—The Wayward Bus—directed by Victor Vicas, featuring Rick Jason, Jayne Mansfield, and Joan Collins 1961—Flight—featuring Efrain Ramírez and Arnelia Cortez 1962—Ikimize bir dünya (Of Mice and Men, Turkey) 1972—Topoli (Of Mice and Men, Iran) 1982—Cannery Row—directed by David S. Ward, featuring Nick Nolte and Debra Winger 1992—Of Mice and Men—directed by Gary Sinise and starring John Malkovich and Gary Sinise Major Works Of Mice and Men Of Mice and Men is a tragedy that was written in the form of a play in 1937. The story is about two traveling ranch workers, George and Lennie, trying to work up enough money to buy their own farm/ranch. It encompasses themes of racism, loneliness, prejudice against the mentally ill, and the struggle for personal independence. Along with Grapes of Wrath, East of Eden, and The Pearl, Of Mice and Men is one of Steinbeck's best known works. It was made into a movie three times, in 1939 starring Burgess Meredith, Lon Chaney Jr., and Betty Field, in 1982 starring Randy Quaid, Robert Blake and Ted Neeley, and in 1992 starring Gary Sinise and John Malkovich. The Grapes of Wrath The Grapes of Wrath was written in 1939 and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1940. The book is set in the Great Depression and describes a family of sharecroppers, the Joads, who were driven from their land due to the dust storms of the Dust Bowl. The title is a reference to the Battle Hymn of the Republic. The book was made into a film in 1940 starring Henry Fonda and directed by John Ford. East of Eden Steinbeck deals with the nature of good and evil in this Salinas Valley saga. The story follows two families: the Hamiltons - based on Steinbeck's own maternal ancestry - and the Trasks, reprising stories about the Biblical Adam and his progeny. The book was published in 1952. Travels With Charley In 1960, Steinbeck bought a pickup truck and had it modified with a custom-built camper top - rare for that day - and drove across the United States with his faithful poodle, Charley. In this sometimes comical, sometimes melancholic book, Steinbeck describes what he sees from Maine to Montana to California, and from there to Texas and Louisiana and back to his home in Long Island. The restored camper truck is on exhibit in the National Steinbeck Center in Salinas. Works Cup of Gold (1929) The Pastures of Heaven (1932) The Red Pony (1933) To a God Unknown (1933) Tortilla Flat (1935) The Harvest Gypsies: On the Road to the Grapes of Wrath (1936) In Dubious Battle (1936) Of Mice and Men (1937) The Long Valley (1938) The Grapes of Wrath (1939) Forgotten Village (1941) Sea of Cortez: A Leisurely Journal of Travel and Research (1941) The Moon Is Down (1942) Bombs Away: The Story of a Bomber Team (1942) Cannery Row (1945) The Wayward Bus (1947) The Pearl (1947) A Russian Journal (1948) Burning Bright (1950) The Log from the Sea of Cortez (1951) East of Eden (1952) Sweet Thursday (1954) The Short Reign of Pippin IV: A Fabrication (1957) Once There Was A War (1958) The Winter of Our Discontent (1961) Travels with Charley: In Search of America (1962) America and Americans (1966) Posthumous: Journal of a Novel: The East of Eden Letters (1969) Viva Zapata! (1975) The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights (1976) Workings Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath (1989) Gallery Notes References DeMott, Robert and Steinbeck, Elaine A., eds. John Steinbeck, Novels and Stories 1932-1937 (Library of America, 1994) ISBN 978-1-88301101-7 DeMott, Robert and Steinbeck, Elaine A., eds. John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath and Other Writings 1936-1941 (Library of America, 1996) ISBN 978-1-88301115-4 DeMott, Robert, ed. John Steinbeck, Novels 1942-1952 (Library of America, 2002) ISBN 978-1-93108207-5 DeMott, Robert and Railsback, Brian, eds. John Steinbeck, Travels With Charlie and later novels, 1947-1962 (Library of America, 2007) ISBN 978-1-59853-004-9 Benson, Jackson J., ed. The Short Novels Of John Steinbeck: Critical Essays with a Checklist to Steinbeck Criticism. Durham: Duke UP, 1990. PS3537 .T3234 Z8666 Davis, Robert C. The Grapes of Wrath: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982. PS3537 .T3234 G734 French, Warren. John Steinbeck's Fiction Revisited. NY: Twayne, 1994. Hughes, R. S. John Steinbeck: A Study of the Short Fiction. R.S. Hughes. Boston : Twayne, 1989. PS3537 .T3234 Z7147 Meyer, Michael J. The Hayashi Steinbeck Bibliography, 1982-1996. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 1998. Benson, Jackson J. Looking for Steinbeck's Ghost. Reno: U of Nevada P, 2002. Ditsky, John. John Steinbeck and the Critics. Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2000. Heavilin, Barbara A. John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath: A Reference Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002. Li, Luchen. ed. John Steinbeck: A Documentary Volume. Detroit: Gale, 2005. Parini, Jay,. John Steinbeck: A Biography, , Holt Publishing, 1996. Robison, Bruce, "Mavericks on Cannery Row," American Scientist, vol. 92, no. 6 (November–December 2004, p. 1: a review of Eric Enno Tamm, Beyond the Outer Shores: The Untold Odyssey of Ed Ricketts, the Pioneering Ecologist who Inspired John Steinbeck and Joseph Campbell, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2004. Tamm, Eric Enno (2005) Beyond the Outer Shores: The Untold Odyssey of Ed Ricketts, the Pioneering Ecologist who Inspired John Steinbeck and Joseph Campbell Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 9781560256892. External links Educational John Steinbeck Collection, 1902-1979(call number M0863; 7.5 linear ft.) is housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries Wells Fargo John Steinbeck Collection, 1870-1981(call number M1063; 5 linear ft.) is housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries National Steinbeck Center in Salinas, CA John Steinbeck Collection at Ball State University Archives and Special Collections Research Center The Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies at the San José State University searchable database of secondary Steinbeck materials C-Span American Writers Series Steinbeck's fiction on IBList John Steinbeck Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin Primary sources FBI file at The Smoking Gun John Steinbeck at Oprah's Book Club Life-related Nobel Laureate page Homepage for the Steinbeck House John Steinbeck's gravesite 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7,307 | False_cognate | False cognates are pairs of words in the same or different languages that are similar in form and meaning but have different roots. That is, they appear to be or are sometimes considered cognates when in fact they are not. Note that even false cognates may have an indirect connection between them, even if they lack a common root. As an example of false cognates, the word for "dog" in the Australian Aboriginal language Mbabaram happens to be dog, although there is no common ancestor or other connection between that language and English (the Mbabaram word evolved regularly from a protolinguistic form *gudaga). Similarly, in the Japanese language the word 'to occur' happens to be okoru. The basic kinship terms mama and papa comprise a special case of false cognates (cf. !Kung ba, Chinese bàba, Persian baba, and French papa (all "dad"); or Navajo má, Chinese māma, Swahili mama, Quechua mama, and English "mama"). The striking cross-linguistical similarities between these terms are thought to result from the nature of language acquisition (Jakobson 1962). According to Jakobson, these words are the first word-like sounds made by babbling babies; and parents tend to associate the first sound babies make with themselves. Thus, there is no need to ascribe the similarities to common ancestry. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that these terms are built up from speech sounds that are easiest to produce (bilabial stops like m and b and the basic vowel a). However, variants do occur; for example, in Fijian, the word for "mother" is nana, and in proto-Old Japanese, the word for "mother" was *papa. Furthermore, the modern Japanese word for "father," chichi, is from older titi. In fact, in Japanese the child's initial mamma is interpreted to mean "food". Similarly, in some Indian languages, such as Marathi, a child's articulation of "mum-mum" is interpreted to mean "food". The term "false cognate" is sometimes misused to describe false friends. One difference between false cognates and false friends is that while false cognates mean roughly the same thing in two languages, false friends bear two distinct (sometimes even opposite) meanings. In fact, a pair of false friends may be true cognates (see false friends: causes). A related phenomenon is the expressive loan, which looks like a native construction, but is not. Some historical linguists presume that all languages go back to a single common ancestor. Therefore, a pair of words whose earlier forms are distinct, yet similar, as far back as they've been traced, could in theory have come from a common root in an even earlier language, making them real cognates. The further back in time language reconstruction efforts go, however, the less confidence there can be in the outcome. Attempts at such reconstructions typically rely on just such pairings of superficially similar words, but the connections proposed by these theories tend to be conjectural, failing to document significant patterns of linguistic change. Under the disputed Nostratic theory and similar theories, some of these examples would indeed be distantly related cognates, but the evidence for reclassifying them as such is insufficient. The Nostratic hypothesis is however based on the comparative method, unlike some other superfamily hypotheses. Examples Arabic/Hebrew akh (brother) and Mongolian akh (brother) Arabic ana (I) and Gondi ana (I) Arabic anta (you, masculine singular) and Japanese anata / anta (you, singular) and Malay "anda" (you) Arabic ard (earth) and Dutch aard (earth) Arabic mawt (death) and Latin mors (death) Arabic sharif and English sheriff Bangla fela (Throw Away/Put down) and English fell (to make something fall) Bangla kaata (To cut) and English cut (to sever) Bikol aki (child) and Korean agi (child) Blackfoot aki (woman) and Even akhi (woman) Coptic per (house) and Etruscan pera (house) Egyptian kns (vagina) and Latin cunnus (vagina) Egyptian mennu (food) and French menu Egyptian *maRaR (to see, to look) and Japanese miru (to look) and Spanish mirar (to look at, to watch)/Portuguese mirar (to stare) English able and Turkish -abil/-ebil (ability infix) English "among" and Bisayan "among" (accidentally included) English am (first person present tense of to be), Etruscan am (to be), and Sumerian am (to be) English and and Indonesian dan English aye (yes, affirmative vote) and Japanese hai (yes) and Cantonese "hai" (yes) English boy and Japanese bōya (young male child) English bullshit and Mandarin búshì (不是; is not, not true) English can and Japanese kan (cylindrical metal container) English cheek and Russian shcheka (щека; cheek) English chop and Uzbek chop English cut and Vietnamese cắt (to cut) English dairy and Russian doyar (дояр; milker), doyarka (milkmaid) English day, daily and Spanish día (day) (or Latin dies (day) or even English diary) Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition. English delete and Russian udalit (удалить; to delete, remove) [?] English dog and Mbabaram dog English dork and Russian durak English dung and Korean ttong (excrement) English earth and Hebrew erets (land) English egg and Luganda eggi English evaporate and Russian ispar'at' (испарять); English eye and Hebrew ayin (eye) English great and English grand English to have and Portuguese haver (to exist) English house and Hungarian ház (house, block of flats) (the Hungarian word has corresponding counterparts in other Uralic languages, like Finnish koti or kota) English hut and Russian hata (хата) English Indian (native American) and Mescalero Inde (Apache, person) English island and isle English it, Russian eto(это) and Tagalog eto/ito (it, this) English laser and Scottish Gaelic lasair (light beam, flame) English man and Latin humanus (people, mankind) English mount (short form of "mountain"), and Hawaiian mauna (mountain) English much and Spanish mucho English neck/German Nacken and Spanish nuca and Hungarian nyak English pan and Mandarin pan (pan, shallow plate) English pen and pencil English pear and Korean pay, bae (Korean pear) English persecution and Russian presechenie (persecution, suppression, injunction) English reason and Russian razum English river and Spanish rio English seed and Korean ssi (pip) English stone and Mandarin shítou (traditional 石頭, simplified 石头) English strange and Russian stranno(странно) English stranger and Russian strannik(странник) English trawl (to fish by dragging a net) and English troll (to fish by trailing a line) English villain and English vile English viscosity and Russian v'azkost''' English why and Korean wae (what for) English yea and Korean ye (yes) Estonian/Finnish ei (no, not), Etruscan ei (no, not), and Norwegian ei/Swedish ej (not) Estonian mina/Finnish minä (I), and Zulu mina (I) Estonian ta (short form of tema) (he/she) and Mandarin tā (他) (he/she) Etruscan ac (to make, act) and Sumerian ak (to make,act) Etruscan an (he/she/it) and Sumerian ane (he/she/it) Etruscan ipa (who, which) and Sumerian aba (who) Etruscan mi (I/me) and Sumerian ma (I/me) and Korean na (I) Finnish ja (and) and Japanese ya (and) Finnish sinä (singular you) and Turkish sen (singular you) (see also: Ural-Altaic languages) French garou (wolf) and Japanese garō (hungry wolf) French le (the) and Samoan le (the) French lien (link) and Mandarin lián/ Vietnamese liên (link) French rue (road) and Mandarin lù (road) French papillon (butterfly) and Nahuatl papalotl (butterfly) Ga ba (come) and Hebrew ba (come) German Ach, so! and Japanese A‘, soo (I see) German haben (to have) and Latin habere (to have) Online Etymology Dictionary German Kreuz (cross) and Russian krest (крест; cross) Greek thesato and Russian sosat (сосать; to suck) Greek theos (god) and Latin deus (god) Greek theos (god) and Greek Zeus (the king of all gods) Greek root -lab- and Sanskrit root -labh- (take) Hawaiian kahuna (priest) and Hebrew kehunah (priesthood) Hawaiian/Maori wahine (woman) and Latin vagina Hebrew ari (lion) and Tamil ari (lion) Hebrew dereh (road) and Russian doroga (дорога; road) Hebrew "ferot" and English "fruit" Hebrew shesh (six) and Persian shesh (six) Indonesian dua (two) and Pashto dwa (two) and Korean dul (two) and Mandarin dui/ Vietnamese đôi (pair) Inuktitut kayak and Turkish kayık and Choco language group cayuca (rowing boat) Italian ma (but) and Vietnamese mà (but) Italian micio (small cat) and Quechua michi (cat) Japanese arigatō and Portuguese obrigado (thank you) Japanese babā (disrespectful term meaning "old hag") and Russian baba (grandmother) Japanese shiru (know) and Latin scire (know) Kyrgyz ayal (woman) and Parji ayal (woman) Korean doki (axe) and Mapuche natives and Easter Island Polynesian toki (axe) Luganda na ('and') and Dutch en (and) Spanish y [i] ('and') and Serbian и/i [i] (and) English "name" and Malay "nama" (name) and Japanese "namae" (name) English "canteen" and Chinese "cāntīng" (餐厅) (dining room, cafeteria) English "nerdy" and Chuvash "nĕrtte" (awkward, inept) References Jakobson, R. (1962) ‘Why “mama” and “papa”?’ In Jakobson, R. Selected Writings, Vol. I: Phonological Studies'', pp. 538–545. The Hague: Mouton. Geoff Parkes and Alan Cornell (1992), 'NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates', National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group. External links A list of false cognates | False_cognate |@lemmatized false:14 cognate:13 pair:4 word:12 different:2 language:13 similar:4 form:5 meaning:3 root:5 appear:1 sometimes:3 consider:1 fact:4 note:1 even:6 may:2 indirect:1 connection:3 lack:1 common:5 example:4 dog:4 australian:1 aboriginal:1 mbabaram:3 happen:1 although:1 ancestor:2 english:62 evolve:1 regularly:1 protolinguistic:1 gudaga:1 similarly:2 japanese:16 occur:2 happens:1 okoru:1 basic:2 kinship:1 term:5 mama:5 papa:4 comprise:1 special:1 case:1 cf:1 kung:1 ba:3 chinese:3 bàba:1 persian:2 baba:2 french:7 dad:1 navajo:1 má:1 māma:1 swahili:1 quechua:2 striking:1 cross:3 linguistical:1 similarity:2 think:1 result:1 nature:1 acquisition:1 jakobson:4 accord:1 first:3 like:4 sound:3 make:6 babble:1 baby:2 parent:1 tend:2 associate:1 thus:1 need:1 ascribe:1 ancestry:1 hypothesis:3 support:1 build:1 speech:1 easy:1 produce:1 bilabial:1 stop:1 b:1 vowel:1 however:3 variant:1 fijian:1 mother:2 nana:1 proto:1 old:3 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ntc:2 national:1 textbook:1 company:1 publishing:1 external:1 list:1 |@bigram false_cognate:9 australian_aboriginal:1 mama_papa:2 distantly_relate:1 scottish_gaelic:1 pen_pencil:1 ural_altaic:1 hague_mouton:1 external_link:1 |
7,308 | Jan_Berglin | Jan Berglin in 2007 Jan Berglin (born March 24 1960) is a Swedish cartoonist who made his debut in the Uppsala student newspaper Ergo in 1985. After completing his studies, Berglin has been living in Gävle where he works as a teacher of Swedish and religion. He published his early strips in the local social democratic newspaper Arbetarbladet, but became known to a wider audience in 1995, when he started to draw for the Stockholm-based but nationally distributed conservative newspaper Svenska Dagbladet. His strips have been collected and republished in several albums. Berglin's strips, usually in four panels, tend to find their humour in a sometimes absurd mix of everyday situations and literary and philosophical references or reflections. When he was awarded the Alf Henrikson Prize in 2004, the jury's motivation spoke of his renditions of the "existence of the everyday human between ideals and matter". In later years Berglin has acknowledged the input of his wife Maria Berglin, an artist and literary critic, within his strips by signing them "Berglins". Albums Samlade serier ("Collected comics") (1992) Avanti! - Serier för förryckta (1995) Mitt i currykrysset - serier mot sekelslutsleda (1997) Andra bullar! (1998) Knektöppning - Ess i topp (1999) Magnum Berglin: Samlade teckningar 1989-1999 ("Collected drawings 1989-1999") (2001) Lagom Berglin (2002) Pytte Berglin (2003) Berglinska Tider (2004) Alla dessa månader med Jan Berglin 2005 (2004) Berglin nästa (2006) Berglins Tolva ("Berglin's Twelfth") (2007) External links Berglin, comic strip, dynamic page on the website of Swedish daily paper Svenska Dagbladet Jan Berglin, some comic strips by berglin | Jan_Berglin |@lemmatized jan:4 berglin:15 bear:1 march:1 swedish:3 cartoonist:1 make:1 debut:1 uppsala:1 student:1 newspaper:3 ergo:1 complete:1 study:1 live:1 gävle:1 work:1 teacher:1 religion:1 publish:1 early:1 strip:6 local:1 social:1 democratic:1 arbetarbladet:1 become:1 know:1 wider:1 audience:1 start:1 draw:1 stockholm:1 base:1 nationally:1 distribute:1 conservative:1 svenska:2 dagbladet:2 collect:3 republish:1 several:1 album:2 usually:1 four:1 panel:1 tend:1 find:1 humour:1 sometimes:1 absurd:1 mix:1 everyday:2 situation:1 literary:2 philosophical:1 reference:1 reflection:1 award:1 alf:1 henrikson:1 prize:1 jury:1 motivation:1 spoke:1 rendition:1 existence:1 human:1 ideal:1 matter:1 late:1 year:1 acknowledge:1 input:1 wife:1 maria:1 artist:1 critic:1 within:1 sign:1 berglins:2 samlade:2 serier:3 comic:3 avanti:1 för:1 förryckta:1 mitt:1 currykrysset:1 mot:1 sekelslutsleda:1 andra:1 bullar:1 knektöppning:1 es:1 topp:1 magnum:1 teckningar:1 drawing:1 lagom:1 pytte:1 berglinska:1 tider:1 alla:1 dessa:1 månader:1 med:1 nästa:1 tolva:1 twelfth:1 external:1 link:1 dynamic:1 page:1 website:1 daily:1 paper:1 |@bigram external_link:1 comic_strip:2 |
7,309 | Macaroni | Penne, a very common kind of maccheroni in Italy. Macaroni Macaroni and cheese Macaroni is a kind of moderately-extended, machine-made dry pasta. Much shorter than spaghetti, and hollow, macaroni does not contain eggs. Though home machines exist that can make macaroni noodles, macaroni is usually made commercially. Macaroni is a perversion of the Italian word maccherone and its plural maccheroni. Its etymology is debatable. Some scholars consider it related to Greek μακαρία (makaria), a kind of barley broth Macaroni, at Compact Oxford English Dictionary Macaroni, at Online Etymology Dictionary . Others think it comes from Italian ammaccare, "to bruise or crush" (referring to the crushing of the wheat to make the pasta), which comes, in turn, from Latin macerare , meaning 1) to soak in liquid, to soften, or 2) to torment, to mortify, to distress (the term also giving us the English macerate). In English-speaking countries, the name macaroni is customarily given to a specific shape of pasta (i.e. small pasta tubes cut into short pieces). In the U.S. and the United Kingdom, this pasta is often prepared by baking it with a sauce made from cheddar cheese; the resulting dish is called macaroni and cheese. In Hong Kong, the local Chinese have adopted macaroni as an ingredient in the Hong Kong-style Western cuisine. In the territory's Cha chaan tengs, macaroni is cooked in water and then washed of starch, and served in clear broth with ham or frankfurter sausages, peas, black mushrooms, and optionally eggs reminiscent of noodle soup dishes. This is often a course for breakfast or light lunch fare. AP, Explore the world of Canto-Western cuisine, January 8, 2007 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16440507/ References | Macaroni |@lemmatized penne:1 common:1 kind:3 maccheroni:2 italy:1 macaroni:13 cheese:3 moderately:1 extend:1 machine:2 make:5 dry:1 pasta:5 much:1 short:2 spaghetti:1 hollow:1 contain:1 egg:1 though:1 home:1 exist:1 noodle:2 usually:1 commercially:1 perversion:1 italian:2 word:1 maccherone:1 plural:1 etymology:2 debatable:1 scholar:1 consider:1 relate:1 greek:1 μακαρία:1 makaria:1 barley:1 broth:2 compact:1 oxford:1 english:3 dictionary:2 online:1 others:1 think:1 come:2 ammaccare:1 bruise:1 crush:1 refer:1 crushing:1 wheat:1 turn:1 latin:1 macerare:1 mean:1 soak:1 liquid:1 soften:1 torment:1 mortify:1 distress:1 term:1 also:1 give:2 u:2 macerate:1 speaking:1 country:1 name:1 customarily:1 specific:1 shape:1 e:1 small:1 tubes:1 cut:1 piece:1 united:1 kingdom:1 often:2 prepare:1 bake:1 sauce:1 cheddar:1 result:1 dish:2 call:1 hong:2 kong:2 local:1 chinese:1 adopt:1 ingredient:1 style:1 western:2 cuisine:2 territory:1 cha:1 chaan:1 tengs:1 cook:1 water:1 wash:1 starch:1 serve:1 clear:1 ham:1 frankfurter:1 sausage:1 pea:1 black:1 mushroom:1 optionally:1 eggs:1 reminiscent:1 soup:1 course:1 breakfast:1 light:1 lunch:1 fare:1 ap:1 explore:1 world:1 canto:1 january:1 http:1 www:1 msnbc:1 msn:1 com:1 id:1 reference:1 |@bigram cheddar_cheese:1 hong_kong:2 noodle_soup:1 http_www:1 msnbc_msn:1 |
7,310 | Dominatrix | A dominatrix (plural dominatrices or dominatrixes) or mistress is a woman who takes the dominant role in bondage and discipline, dominance and submission or BDSM. The counterpart term for a male dominant is "Master". A common form of address for a submissive to a dominatrix is "mistress", "ma'am", "domina" or "maîtresse"--although some prefer to be addressed in the masculine as "Master". Note that a dominatrix does not necessarily dominate a male partner; a dominatrix may well have female submissives. The term "domme" () is a coined pseudo-French female variation of the slang dom (short for dominant). It stems from the Latin words "dominus" = master, "domina" = mistress. The pronunciation is identical to the term "dom", by analogy to one-syllable French-derived words like femme or blonde. Word history Dominatrix is the feminine form of the Latin dominator, a ruler or lord, and was originally used in a non-sexual sense. Its use in English dates back to at least 1561. Its earliest recorded use in the prevalent modern sense, as a female dominant in S&M, dates to 1967. OED, "Dominatrix." http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50068518?query_type=word&queryword=dominatrix&first=1&max_to_show=10&single=1&sort_type=alpha Professional versus lifestyle dominatrices French dominatrix Maîtresse Françoise.' The term dominatrix is often used to describe a professional dominant woman (or pro-domme) who charges money to engage in fantasy play with submissive clients by visiting their homes in person or via chat. In reality most dominatrices are not professionals, but lifestyle dominants. A lifestyle dominant is a person who is assertive and in control of their relationships both inside and outside the bedroom. Women who engage in female domination recreationally are known as dommes, dominatrices, mistresses, or simply dominants. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dominatrix A high percentage of dominants are lifestyle dominants, but some simply play the dominatrix role because it is a high-paying profession. It is common for professional dominatrices who are also lifestyle dommes to have both paying clients and a "personal slave or sub" or slaves or subs, who are not paying clients. A personal slave will typically perform a domme's housework and run errands for her. A personal slave may or may not live with his or her domme. Professional dominants most frequently do not engage in sexual contact with their paying customers, as this can be construed as prostitution in some places. Outside of their life as a pro-domme, they may or may not engage in sexual behavior with a devoted slave or sub. A common form of domination involves chastity where a dominant controls her slaves' sexual access, sometimes keeping them locked in a chastity device except for rare occasions. The stereotypical image of a dominatrix is of a woman wearing a rubber or leather catsuit and thigh-length boots with high heels or, in a more elegant and teasing mode, black lingerie, stockings and high heels, or some combination of these two alternatives. Many professional dominatrices do indeed wear similar outfits for their work in order to meet client expectations. Dominatrices in popular culture As fetish culture is increasingly becoming more prevalent in Western media, depictions of dominatrices in film and television have become more common. Depictions of dominatrices in modern film YearCountryTitle Notes 1976 France Maîtresse Gérard Depardieu becomes involved with dominatrix Bulle Ogier. 1992 Japan Tokyo Decadence Miho Nikaido portrays a timid call girl who does a kinky session with a male client and female dominatrix. 1994 United States Exit to Eden Comedy with Dana Delany as the dominatrix owner of an S&M resort. 1997 United Kingdom Preaching to the Perverted Comedy with Guinevere Turner as the dominatrix owner of a notorious English S&M club. 1999 United States Body Shots Emily Procter plays a dominatrix who binds and paddles Ron Livingston. 1999 United States Payback Lucy Liu portrays a sadistic dominatrix who is the leader of a gang of Chinese Triads1999 United States The General's Daughter Leslie Stefanson's character is shown on a tape watched by John Travolta's character as acting the role of a dominatrix with a male partner 2004 United States Bettie Page: Dark Angel Biopic recreates many of her sub/dom fetish films for Irving Klaw. 2004 United Kingdom The Dominatrix Drama about the life of a career Dom. 2004 United States EuroTrip Comedy with Lucy Lawless as a German dominatrix in an Amsterdam S&M club. 2005 United States Mr. & Mrs. Smith Angelina Jolie's character poses as a dominatrix as a plot to assassinate a target 2005 United States Bettie Page: Bondage Queen Cult Epics DVD compilation of Irving Klaw's 1950s BDSM fetish films featuring Bettie Page as both dominatrix and damsel-in-distress. 2007 Canada Walk All Over Me Comedy-drama with Tricia Helfer as a professional dominatrix. 2007 Japan New Tokyo Decadence - The Slave Dominatrix turned secretary is blackmailed into being an S&M slave by her boss. 2009 United States Modern Love is Automatic A bored nurse moonlights as a dominatrix for hire. Depictions of dominatrices in modern television Year SeasonShowEpisode(s) Notes 2000 Two Family Guy Let's Go to the Hop Gag depicts main characters Lois and Peter suiting up for a sadomasochistic session (Lois as a dominatrix) while carrying on mundane conversation. 2000 One Jack of All Trades (TV series) X Marquis the Spot Angela Dotchin pretends to be a dominatrix at the S&M island resort of the Marquis de Sade. 2003 Two Alias Second Double Jennifer Garner goes undercover as a German dominatrix in a Berlin leather bar. 2004-2005 One Desperate Housewives Come Back to Me In one scene, Sharon Lawrence plays a dominatrix who walks across Rex Van de Kamp's back in stiletto heels 2001-2008 Several CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Slaves of Las Vegas, Lady Heather's Box, Pirates of the Third Reich, The Good, the Bad, and the Dominatrix, Leave Out All the Rest Several stories with BDSM themes plus five episodes featuring Melinda Clarke as Lady Heather, a dominatrix who owns a fetish club. 2007 One Secret Diary of a Call Girl 1.4 (no title) In the 4th episode, "Belle" (Billie Piper) takes BDSM lessons from a professional dominatrix to please a submissive client. 2009 One Dollhouse Spy in the House of Love Echo (Eliza Dushku), is seen as a leather-clad whip-wielding dominatrix. ? ? Jackass ? Preston gets his ass whipped by two dominatrixes. See also BDSM Female dominance Dominance and submission Fetishes (documentary) Fetish fashion Session wrestler Feminization Sadism and masochism in fiction BDSM in culture and media Books Tomi Ungerer: Schutzengel der Hölle, Diogenes 1986, ISBN 3257020163 Annick Foucault, Françoise maîtresse, Gallimard 1994, ISBN 2070738345 Shawna Kenney, I Was a Teenage Dominatrix: A Memoir, Last Gasp 2002, ISBN 0867195304 References External links Two professional dominatrices interviewed. Go here for the full transcript. The Dominatrix in Print and Other Media — detailed bibliography It's a living: Dominatrix — professional domme article Internet Movie DataBase — dominatrix-appearances in films How to Be a Dominatrix — basic lessons and instructions http://www.smithmag.net/diaries/2007/01/13/the-dominatrix-next-door/ Diary of a lifestyle dominatrix and her journey into the profession | Dominatrix |@lemmatized dominatrix:43 plural:1 dominatrices:11 mistress:4 woman:4 take:2 dominant:12 role:3 bondage:2 discipline:1 dominance:3 submission:2 bdsm:6 counterpart:1 term:4 male:4 master:3 common:4 form:3 address:2 submissive:3 domina:2 maîtresse:4 although:1 prefer:1 masculine:1 note:3 necessarily:1 dominate:1 partner:2 may:5 well:1 female:6 submissives:1 domme:6 coined:1 pseudo:1 french:3 variation:1 slang:1 dom:4 short:1 stem:1 latin:2 word:4 dominus:1 pronunciation:1 identical:1 analogy:1 one:6 syllable:1 derive:1 like:1 femme:1 blonde:1 history:1 feminine:1 dominator:1 ruler:1 lord:1 originally:1 use:4 non:1 sexual:4 sense:2 english:2 date:2 back:3 least:1 early:1 record:1 prevalent:2 modern:4 oed:2 http:3 dictionary:2 com:2 cgi:1 entry:1 queryword:1 first:1 single:1 alpha:1 professional:10 versus:1 lifestyle:6 françoise:2 often:1 describe:1 pro:2 charge:1 money:1 engage:4 fantasy:1 play:4 client:6 visit:1 home:1 person:2 via:1 chat:1 reality:1 assertive:1 control:2 relationship:1 inside:1 outside:2 bedroom:1 domination:2 recreationally:1 know:1 dommes:2 simply:2 reference:2 browse:1 high:4 percentage:1 pay:4 profession:2 also:2 personal:3 slave:9 sub:4 typically:1 perform:1 housework:1 run:1 errand:1 live:1 frequently:1 contact:1 customer:1 construe:1 prostitution:1 place:1 life:2 behavior:1 devote:1 involve:2 chastity:2 access:1 sometimes:1 keep:1 lock:1 device:1 except:1 rare:1 occasion:1 stereotypical:1 image:1 wear:2 rubber:1 leather:3 catsuit:1 thigh:1 length:1 boot:1 heel:3 elegant:1 tease:1 mode:1 black:1 lingerie:1 stocking:1 combination:1 two:5 alternative:1 many:2 indeed:1 similar:1 outfit:1 work:1 order:1 meet:1 expectation:1 popular:1 culture:3 fetish:6 increasingly:1 become:3 western:1 medium:3 depiction:3 film:5 television:2 yearcountrytitle:1 france:1 gérard:1 depardieu:1 bulle:1 ogier:1 japan:2 tokyo:2 decadence:2 miho:1 nikaido:1 portray:2 timid:1 call:2 girl:2 kinky:1 session:3 united:11 state:9 exit:1 eden:1 comedy:4 dana:1 delany:1 owner:2 resort:2 kingdom:2 preach:1 perverted:1 guinevere:1 turner:1 notorious:1 club:3 body:1 shot:1 emily:1 procter:1 bind:1 paddle:1 ron:1 livingston:1 payback:1 lucy:2 liu:1 sadistic:1 leader:1 gang:1 chinese:1 general:1 daughter:1 leslie:1 stefanson:1 character:4 show:1 tape:1 watch:1 john:1 travolta:1 act:1 bettie:3 page:3 dark:1 angel:1 biopic:1 recreate:1 irving:2 klaw:2 drama:2 career:1 eurotrip:1 lawless:1 german:2 amsterdam:1 mr:2 smith:1 angelina:1 jolie:1 pose:1 plot:1 assassinate:1 target:1 queen:1 cult:1 epic:1 dvd:1 compilation:1 feature:2 damsel:1 distress:1 canada:1 walk:2 tricia:1 helfer:1 new:1 turn:1 secretary:1 blackmail:1 bos:1 love:2 automatic:1 bored:1 nurse:1 moonlight:1 hire:1 year:1 seasonshowepisode:1 family:1 guy:1 let:1 go:3 hop:1 gag:1 depict:1 main:1 lois:2 peter:1 suit:1 sadomasochistic:1 carry:1 mundane:1 conversation:1 jack:1 trade:1 tv:1 series:1 x:1 marquis:2 spot:1 angela:1 dotchin:1 pretend:1 island:1 de:2 sade:1 alias:1 second:1 double:1 jennifer:1 garner:1 undercover:1 berlin:1 bar:1 desperate:1 housewives:1 come:1 scene:2 sharon:1 lawrence:1 across:1 rex:1 van:1 kamp:1 stiletto:1 several:2 csi:1 crime:1 investigation:1 la:1 vega:1 lady:2 heather:2 box:1 pirate:1 third:1 reich:1 good:1 bad:1 leave:1 rest:1 story:1 theme:1 plus:1 five:1 episode:2 melinda:1 clarke:1 secret:1 diary:3 title:1 belle:1 billie:1 piper:1 lesson:2 please:1 dollhouse:1 spy:1 house:1 echo:1 eliza:1 dushku:1 see:2 clad:1 whip:2 wield:1 jackass:1 preston:1 get:1 documentary:1 fashion:1 wrestler:1 feminization:1 sadism:1 masochism:1 fiction:1 book:1 tomi:1 ungerer:1 schutzengel:1 der:1 hölle:1 diogenes:1 isbn:3 annick:1 foucault:1 gallimard:1 shawna:1 kenney:1 teenage:1 memoir:1 last:1 gasp:1 external:1 link:1 interview:1 full:1 transcript:1 print:1 detailed:1 bibliography:1 living:1 article:1 internet:1 movie:1 database:1 appearance:1 basic:1 instruction:1 www:1 smithmag:1 net:1 next:1 door:1 journey:1 |@bigram lucy_liu:1 john_travolta:1 angelina_jolie:1 damsel_distress:1 la_vega:1 third_reich:1 billie_piper:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
7,311 | Giovanni_d'Andrea | Giovanni d'Andrea or Johannes Andreæ, (c. 1270-1275 – 1348) was an Italian expert in canon law, the most renowned and successful canonist of the later Middle Ages. His contemporaries referred to him as iuris canonici fons et tuba ("the fount and trumpet of canon law"). Most important among his works were extensive commentaries on all of the official collections of papal decretals, papal judgments in the form of letters to delegated judges that were at the core of canon law. Life Giovanni d'Andrea was born at Rifredo, near Florence, and studied Roman law and canon law at the University of Bologna, the great law school of the age, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much that he was made professor at Padua, and then at Pisa before returning to Bologna, where he remained from the season of 1301-02 until his death, save for brief seasons at Padua 1307-09 and 1319. He wrote the statutes by which the University was governed, in 1317 . The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica related curious stories of him, that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a covering— yet it is known that he remained a layman, was married and had children— that in an audience he had with Pope Boniface VIII his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense merriment of the cardinals; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures in his absence, and so beautiful, that she had to read behind a curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students. He is reported to have died at Bologna of the Black Death in 1348, and an epitaph in the church of the Dominicans in which he was buried, calling him Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum testifies to the public estimation of his character. Johannes Calderinus was his student and later his adoptive son. Paulus de Liazariis and Johannes de Sancto Georgio were among his students, and he counted the humanists Cino da Pistoia and Petrarch among his friends. Giovanni d'Andrea's output was voluminous: a gloss called (Novella sive commentarius in decretales epistolas Gregorii IX) on the Liber Extra (1234) , compiled under the direction of Pope Gregory IX (see Decretals) an encomium of Saint Jerome, the Hierominianum glosses on the Constitutiones Clementinae or Clementines of 1317 which became the standard gloss for this text a commentary alled the Mercuriales on the Regula iuris in the Liber Sextus (1298) of Boniface VIII. Among lesser works, his additions to the Speculum of Durandus are simply an adaptation from the Consilia of Oldradus de Ponte, as is also his De Sponsalibus et Matrimonio, from Johannes Anguisciola. External links New Catholic Dictionary: Giovanni d'Andrea Ken Pennington, "Medieval Canonists ; A Bio-Bibliographical Listing compiled for the History of Medieval Canon Law References Catholic Encyclopedia article | Giovanni_d'Andrea |@lemmatized giovanni:4 andrea:4 johannes:4 andreæ:1 c:1 italian:1 expert:1 canon:5 law:8 renowned:1 successful:1 canonist:2 late:1 middle:1 age:2 contemporary:1 refer:1 iuris:2 canonici:1 fons:1 et:2 tuba:1 fount:1 trumpet:1 important:1 among:4 work:2 extensive:1 commentary:2 official:1 collection:1 papal:2 decretals:2 judgment:1 form:1 letter:1 delegate:1 judge:1 core:1 life:1 bear:2 rifredo:1 near:1 florence:1 study:1 roman:1 university:2 bologna:3 great:1 school:1 distinguish:1 subject:1 much:1 make:1 professor:1 padua:2 pisa:1 return:1 remain:2 season:2 death:2 save:1 brief:1 write:1 statute:1 govern:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 relate:1 curious:1 story:1 way:1 self:1 mortification:1 lay:1 every:1 night:1 twenty:1 year:1 bare:1 ground:1 skin:1 covering:1 yet:1 know:1 layman:1 marry:1 child:1 audience:1 pope:3 boniface:2 viii:2 extraordinary:1 shortness:1 stature:1 lead:1 believe:1 kneel:1 ask:1 three:1 time:1 rise:1 immense:1 merriment:1 cardinal:1 daughter:1 novella:2 accomplish:1 able:1 read:2 father:1 lecture:1 absence:1 beautiful:1 behind:1 curtain:1 lest:1 face:1 distract:1 attention:1 student:3 report:1 die:1 black:1 epitaph:1 church:1 dominican:1 bury:1 call:2 rabbi:1 doctorum:1 lux:1 censor:1 normaque:1 morum:1 testifies:1 public:1 estimation:1 character:1 calderinus:1 later:1 adoptive:1 son:1 paulus:1 de:4 liazariis:1 sancto:1 georgio:1 count:1 humanist:1 cino:1 da:1 pistoia:1 petrarch:1 friend:1 output:1 voluminous:1 gloss:3 sive:1 commentarius:1 decretales:1 epistolas:1 gregorii:1 ix:2 liber:2 extra:1 compile:2 direction:1 gregory:1 see:1 encomium:1 saint:1 jerome:1 hierominianum:1 constitutiones:1 clementinae:1 clementine:1 become:1 standard:1 text:1 alled:1 mercuriales:1 regula:1 sextus:1 less:1 addition:1 speculum:1 durandus:1 simply:1 adaptation:1 consilia:1 oldradus:1 ponte:1 also:1 sponsalibus:1 matrimonio:1 anguisciola:1 external:1 link:1 new:1 catholic:2 dictionary:1 ken:1 pennington:1 medieval:2 bio:1 bibliographical:1 listing:1 history:1 reference:1 encyclopedia:1 article:1 |@bigram encyclopaedia_britannica:1 self_mortification:1 pope_boniface:1 boniface_viii:2 pope_gregory:1 gregory_ix:1 external_link:1 |
7,312 | Live_action_role-playing_game | Players dressed in character at a LARP event A live action role-playing game (LARP) is a form of role-playing game where the participants physically act out their characters' actions. The players pursue goals within a fictional setting represented by the real world, while interacting with each other in character. The outcome of player actions may be mediated by game rules, or determined by consensus among players. The first LARPs were run in the late 1970s, inspired by role-playing games and genre fiction. The activity gained international popularity during the 1980s, and has diversified into a wide variety of styles. Play may be very game-like, or may be more concerned with dramatic or artistic expression. Events can also be designed to achieve educational or political goals. The fictional genres used vary greatly, from realistic modern or historical settings to fantastic or futuristic eras. Production values are sometimes minimal, but can involve elaborate venues and costumes. LARPs range in size from small private events lasting a few hours to huge public events with thousands of players lasting for days. Terminology LARP has also been referred to as live role-playing (LRP), interactive literature, and freeform role-playing. Some of these terms are still in common use, however LARP has become the most commonly accepted term. (Tychsen et al. 2006:255) "LARP ... is the commonly accepted term in the gaming community." It is sometimes written in lowercase, as larp. (Fatland 2005:1) "The non-Nordic reader should, however, keep in mind that there are some differences between the Nordic and Anglo-American uses of English when talking about larp. Most importantly, we treat 'larp' as a word in its own right, not an acronym (L.A.R.P.), and it is spelt lower-case." The live action in LARP is analogous to the term live action used in film and video to differentiate works with human actors from animation. Playing a LARP is often called larping, and one who does it is a larper. History LARP does not have a single point of origin, but was invented independently by separate groups in the late 1970s and early 1980s. (Tychsen et al. 2006:256) "LARPs ... appear to have developed based on inspiration from tabletop RPGs such as Dungeons & Dragons, more or less simultaneously in North America, Europe, and Australia sometime during the early 80s. Players from all of these continents claim to have hosted the oldest LARP, however, it appears that LARPs developed independently and with marked cultural differences." These groups shared an experience with genre fiction or tabletop role-playing games, and a desire to physically experience such settings. In addition to tabletop role-playing, LARP was preceded and possibly influenced by childhood games of pretend, play fighting, costume parties, roleplay simulations, Commedia dell’arte, improvisational theatre, psychodrama, military simulations, and historical reenactment groups. The earliest recorded LARP group is Dagorhir, which was founded in 1977 in Washington, DC, USA. Soon after the release of the movie Logan's Run in 1976, rudimentary live role-playing games based on the movie were run at US science fiction conventions. In 1981 the International Fantasy Games Society (IFGS) started, with rules influenced by Dungeons & Dragons. IFGS was named after a fictional group in the 1981 novel Dream Park, which described futuristic LARPs. In 1982 the Society for Interactive Literature, a predecessor of LARPA, formed as the first recorded theatre-style LARP group in the US. LARP quickly spread internationally following the growing popularity of role-playing games in the 1980s. Treasure Trap, formed in 1982 at Peckforton Castle, was the first recorded LARP game in the and influenced the fantasy LARPs that followed there. The first recorded LARP in Australia was run in 1983, using the science fiction Traveller setting. In 1993 White Wolf, Inc released Mind's Eye Theatre which is still played internationally and is probably the most commercially successful published LARP. Today LARP is a popular activity in North America, Europe, Russia and Australasia. Large games with thousands of participants are run by for-profit companies, various LARP books are published and an increasingly professional industry sells costume, armour, and foam weapons intended primarily for LARP. (Tychsen et al. 2006:258) "Today, LARPing is a widespread hobby, especially within the United States and Europe, and caters to at least 100,000 players worldwide ... Professional, full-time LARP sites also exist ... a small industry has grown-up supplying latex weapons, costumes, theater props, and special effects, and numerous special effects and make-up artists work in the LARP environment for training purposes." Play overview Players physically portray characters in a fictional setting, improvising their characters' speech and movements somewhat like actors in improvisational theatre. (Kilgallon et al. 2001:1) "A live action roleplaying game is a cross between a traditional 'tabletop' roleplaying game and improvisational theatre." This is distinct from tabletop role-playing games, where character actions are described verbally. (Tychsen et al. 2006:255) "LARPs can be viewed as forming a distinct category of RPG because of two unique features: (a) The players physically embody their characters, and (b) the game takes place in a physical frame. Embodiment means that the physical actions of the player are regarded as those of the character. Whereas in a RPG played by a group sitting around a table, players describe the actions of their characters (e.g., “I run to stand beside my friend”); in an equivalent situation in a LARP, a player would physically run to the appropriate point within the game space." The setting, characters, and rules may be defined in a publication or created by the arrangers or players. (Tychsen et al. 2005:218) "In PnP RPGs and LARPs, the GMs can be responsible for creating the rules, if an existing RPG rules system is not used." LARPs may be played in a public or private area, and may last for hours or days. There is usually no audience, and bystanders are typically either ignored or treated as part of the fictional setting. (Falk & Davenport 2004:128) "...live role-playing games are devoid of the audience concept." Players may dress as their character and carry appropriate equipment, and the environment is sometimes decorated to resemble the setting. (Falk & Davenport 2004:131) "The LRP player, like a stage actor, is a person who under-goes a transformation into a character. The character’s costume and accessories, or kit, aids this transformation ... Physical structures may be used as game locations, and sometimes even purposely constructed to enhance the game world ... Players frequently use physical artifacts as props and tools in their role-play, primarily to back up their character roles." LARPs can be one-off events or a series of events in the same setting, and events can vary in size from a handful of players to several thousand. (Tychsen et al. 2006:259) "Most LARPs are either scenarios (or single-shots) or campaigns (also known as chronicles)" (Tychsen et al. 2006:258) "Games range in size from a handful to more than 4,000 players" Fiction and reality alt=A small town constructed in a medieval style, surrounded by forest|A medieval LARP venue Player actions in the real world represent character actions in an imaginary setting. Game rules, physical symbols and theatrical improvisation are used to bridge differences between the real world and the setting. For example, a rope could signify an imaginary wall. Realistic-looking weapon props and risky physical activity are sometimes discouraged or forbidden for safety reasons. For example, the Mind's Eye Theatre system forbids realistic looking weapons and contact. From the "Basic Rules" section: "#1 - No Touching. This means none whatsoever, even with consent ... #2 - No weapons as props ... real weapons or anything that even looks like a real weapon ... are a definite no-no." (Dansky 1996:136). Similarly, the Rules to Live By system forbids certain sorts of physical action, and recommends against realistic-looking weapons: "A participant should never have to run, climb, or jump over anything... Participants should never, ever use real weapons, even as props. They should be extremely cautious about anything that looks like a real weapon - police get nervous." (Kilgallon et al. 2001:2) There is a distinction between when a player is in character, meaning they are actively representing their character, and when the player is out of character, meaning they are being themselves. Some LARPs encourage players to stay consistently in character except in emergencies, while others accept players being out of character at times. Character knowledge is usually considered to be separate from player knowledge, and acting upon information a character would not know may be viewed as cheating. While most LARPs maintain a clear distinction between the real world and the fictional setting, pervasive LARPs mingle fiction with modern reality in a fashion similar to alternate reality games. Bystanders who are unaware that a game is taking place may be treated as part of the fictional setting, and in-character materials may be incorporated into the real world. Types of participation Participants can be involved in a LARP in a number of ways. Events are put on for the benefit of the players, who play characters within the setting. Arrangers called gamemasters (GMs) decide the rules of play and the details of the setting before an event takes place, and facilitate the LARP while it is being played. The GMs may also do the logistical work, or there may be other arrangers who handle details such as advertising the event, booking a venue, and financial management. Participants called the crew may assist the GMs during play. The players take on roles called player characters (PCs), that they may create themselves or be given by the gamemasters. Players sometimes play the same character repeatedly at separate events, progressively developing the character and its relations with other characters and the setting. The GMs determine the fictional framework of a LARP, and may also influence an event and act as referees while it is taking place. (Tychsen et al. 2005:216) "In order to play, the players must have a fictional setting... In essence, the GM creates the magical circle around the game." (Montola, Stenros & Waern 2009) "Runtime game mastering is the process of influencing the flow of a game in real time." (Tychsen et al. 2005:218) "The GM may or may not be responsible for enforcing the rules between players... The GM can also be responsible of hunting down cheaters or other rule breakers." Unlike the GM in a tabletop role-playing game, a LARP GM seldom has an overview of everything that is happening during play because numerous players may be interacting in separate physical spaces, especially at larger LARP events. For this reason a LARP GM's role is often less concerned with tightly maintaining a narrative or directly entertaining the players, and more with arranging the structure of the LARP before play begins and facilitating the players and crew to maintain the fictional environment during play. (Tychsen et al. 2005:218) "[The GM is] forced to let go of the game and let it take on a life of its own outside his or her control. While based on similar principles, the requirements [are] therefore very different in practice from GMs in PnP RPGs... The GM is generally, unless the LARP is small in terms of number of participants, not responsible for keeping the narrative flow. The GM can however oversee the progress of the game and help or influence where needed... Establishing a hierarchy of GMs and NPCs to monitor the game and ensure everyone is entertained and activated within the shared game space is a typical way of controlling large fantasy LARPS. This structure is usually established before the game commences." Crew members assist the gamemasters in setting up and maintaining the environment of the LARP during play, which sometimes involves playing non-player characters (NPCs). (Tychsen et al. 2005:216) "The environment needs to be filled out with non-player controlled characters (NPCs) NPCs exist to make the LARP more satisfying for the players, and typically receive more direction from the GMs than PCs do. In a tabletop role-playing game a GM usually plays all the NPCs, whereas in a LARP each NPC is typically played by a separate crew member. Sometimes players are asked to play NPCs for periods of an event. Much of play consists of interactions between characters. Some LARP scenarios primarily feature interaction between PCs, who may be written with connections that encourage interesting interactions. Other scenarios focus on interaction between PCs and aspects of the setting, including NPCs, that are under the direction of the GMs. (Young 2003:11) The Interaction Axis (Tychsen et al. 2005:216) "LARP scenarios can likewise vary from detailed scripts of each participating character, to a loose association of GM-controlled NPCs in a fictional world setting." Rules Foam weapons are sometimes used for combat Many LARPs have game rules that determine how characters can affect each other and the setting. (Tychsen et al. 2005:216) "Rules in RPGs ... focus on 1) How the fictional world operates; 2) How the players interact with the fictional world and its inhabitants and; 3) How the players interact with each other and the GM." These rules may define characters' capabilities, what can be done with various items, and what characters can do during the downtime between LARP events. Because referees are often not available to mediate all character actions, players are relied upon to be honest in their application of the rules. Some LARP rules call for the use of simulated weapons such as foam weapons or airsoft guns to determine whether characters succeed in hitting each another in combat situations. The alternative is to pause role-play and determine the outcome of an action symbolically, for example by rolling dice, playing rock-paper-scissors or comparing character attributes. (Young 2003:8) The Mechanics Axis There are also LARPs that do without rules, instead relying on players to use their common sense or feel for dramatic appropriateness to cooperatively decide what the outcome of their actions will be. (Tychsen et al. 2006:255) "...a LARP can be very similar to improvisational theater, with only a few guidelines for rules and a very low-powered GM." Genre LARPs can have any genre, although many use themes and settings derived from genre fiction. (Falk & Davenport 2004:129) "All LRP games of our definition take place within an agreed upon theme or narrative setting that provides the context for players’ actions and character roles. This theme can be pretty much anything you can imagine; the possibilities are inexhaustible. To give some obvious and common examples, it may be fantasy and involve magic, heroes, and fantastic creatures, much like the game world settings of the classic tabletop role-playing games. Or, it may be realistic, based on historic events or contemporary life. Or it can be futuristic post apocalyptic environments, involving mutants and cyborgian characters dwelling in deserted cities. Or, it can be any combination of these" Some LARPs borrow a setting from an established work in another medium (e.g. The Lord of the Rings or the World of Darkness), while others use settings based on the real world or designed specifically for the LARP. (Tychsen et al. 2006:261) "The world setting or framework for the fictional world in which the game takes place varies greatly in LARPs. Generally, these can be divided into either real-world settings or fictional settings." Proprietary campaign settings, together with rulesets, are often the principal creative asset of LARP groups and LARP publishers. LARP with a Victorian setting LARPs set in the modern day may explore everyday concerns, or special interests such as espionage or military activity. Such LARPs may resemble an Alternate Reality Game, an Assassin game, or a military simulation using live combat with airsoft, laser tag, or paintball markers. LARPs can also be set in historical eras, or have semi-historical settings with mythological or fantastical aspects incorporated. Fantasy is one of the most common LARP genres internationally, and is the genre that the largest events use. (Tychsen et al. 2006:258) "Exclusively, the large LARPs with hundreds or more players are set in fantasy/medieval world settings, which is the historic genre for LARPs." Fantasy genre LARPs are set in pseudo-historical worlds inspired by fantasy literature and fantasy role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons. These settings typically have magic, fantasy races, and limited technology. Many fantasy LARPs focus on adventure or on competition between character factions. In contrast, science fiction LARPs take place in futuristic settings with high technology and possibly extraterrestrial life. This describes a broad array of LARPs, including politically themed LARPs depicting dystopian or utopian societies and settings inspired by cyberpunk, space opera and post-apocalyptic fiction. While many of these science fiction LARPs use rules created by the event arrangers, official LARP rules have been published for the popular space opera Star Wars, see (Russo & Heinig 1996) Horror LARPs are inspired by horror fiction. Popular sub-genres include zombie apocalypse and Cthulhu Mythos, sometimes using the published Cthulhu Live rules. The World of Darkness, published by White Wolf, Inc., is a widely-used goth-punk horror setting in which players usually portray secretive supernatural creatures such as vampires and werewolves. This setting can be played using Mind's Eye Theatre, which is a set of LARP rules also published by White Wolf. World of Darkness LARPs are usually played in a chronicle, a series of short events held at regular intervals, and are also popular at conventions. An international chronicle is run by White Wolf's official fan club the Camarilla. Styles A theatre-style LARP in a decorated room LARP events have a wide variety of styles that often overlap. As described above, simple distinctions can be made regarding the genre used, the presence of simulated weapons or abstract rules, and whether players create their own characters or have them assigned by gamemasters. There is also a distinction between scenarios that are only run once, and those that are designed to be repeatable. A number of other common classifications follow. LARPs may place a lesser or greater emphasis on artistic considerations such as creating a compelling narrative, encouraging dramatic interaction, or broaching challenging subject matter. Many events focus on more game-like considerations in which players attempt to achieve their characters' goals within a framework of game rules, and entertainment is considered more important than artistic merit. At the other end of the spectrum, some events are considered to be avant-garde or arthaus, these being eclectic events using experimental themes and techniques. Avante-garde LARPs have high culture aspirations, and are occasionally held in fine art contexts such as festivals, art museums or theatres. The themes of avante-garde events are usually relevant to real-world issues of politics, culture, religion, sexuality and the human condition. Such LARPs are common in the Nordic countries but also present elsewhere. (Fatland 2005:5) In addition to entertainment and artistic merit, LARP events may be designed for educational or political purposes. For example, the Danish secondary school Østerskov Efterskole uses LARP to teach most of its classes. A subject such as chemistry may be taught by framing it as the creation of potions within the Harry Potter setting. Politically-themed LARP events may attempt to awaken or shape political thinking within a culture. (Montola, Stenros & Waern 2009) "Some pervasive larps seek to engage in active dialogue with their social environment. The purpose of such dialogue can be politically or artistically motivated. These games have a message that is aimed either at the players, at bystanders, or society as a whole." An example is a World War II-themed LARP event that was run in Belarus with the intention of providing Belarusian youth with new perspectives on the place of civic courage in their modern society. A battle at a fest event Theatre-style or freeform LARP is characterised by a focus on interaction between characters that are written by the gamemasters, not using simulated weapons for combat, and an eclectic approach to genre and setting. Events in this style are sometimes played at gaming conventions, which they suit well as they typically only last a few hours and require relatively little preparation by players. Some murder mystery games where players are assigned characters and encouraged to roleplay freely also resemble theatre-style LARP. Some very large events known as fests (short for festival) have hundreds or thousands of participants who are usually split into competing character factions camped separately around a large venue. There are relatively few fests in the world, all based in the UK, Europe, and Canada, however their size means that they have a significant influence on local LARP culture and design. At the other end of the size scale, some small events known as linear or line-course LARPs feature a small group of PCs facing a series of challenges from NPCs, and are often more tightly planned and controlled by GMs than other styles of LARP. While some LARPs are open to participants of all ages, others have a minimum age requirement. There are also youth LARPs, specifically intended for children and young people. Some are run through institutions such as schools, churches, or the Scouts. Denmark has an especially high number of youth LARPs. "According to the survey, 8% of children had participated in role-playing events in nature during the last month" Cultural significance Roleplaying may be seen as part of a movement in Western culture towards participatory arts, as opposed to traditional spectator arts. Participants in a LARP cast off the role of passive observer, and take on new roles that are often outside of their daily life and contrary to their culture. The collaborative process of LARP creation is typically egalitarian, enabled by developed societies with improved freedom of communication, increased disposable income and free time, and an increasing focus on collaborative and distributed creativity. LARP is not well known in most countries and is sometimes confused with other role-playing, reenactment, costuming, or dramatic activities. While fan and gamer culture in general has become increasingly mainstream in developed countries, LARP has often not achieved the same degree of cultural acceptability. This may be due to intolerance of the resemblance to childhood games of pretend, a perceived risk of over-identification with the characters, and the absence of mass marketing. In recent US films such as the 2006 documentary Darkon and the 2008 comedy Role Models, fantasy LARP is depicted as somewhat ridiculous and escapist, but also treated affectionately as a "constructive social outlet". In the Nordic countries, LARP has achieved a high level of public recognition and popularity. It is often shown in a positive light in mainstream media, with an emphasis on the dramatic and creative aspects. (Fatland 2005) "The popularity of larp [in the Nordic countries] has recently made it a feature of 'common knowledge', so that a Swedish journalist may refer to something unrelated as 'larp-like', Finnish TV produces a teen soap opera about fantasy larpers, and a Norwegian professor of theatre history routinely ends his course by mentioning larp as the 'new theatre'." However, even in Norway where LARP has greater recognition than in most other countries, it has still not achieved full recognition as a cultural activity by government bodies. Communities have formed around the creation, play and discussion of LARP. These communities have developed a subculture that crosses over with role-playing, fan, reenactment, and drama subcultures. Early LARP subculture focused on Tolkien-like fantasy, but it later broadened to include appreciation of other genres, especially the horror genre with the rapid uptake of the World of Darkness setting in the 1990s. Like many subcultures, LARP groups often have a common context of shared experience, language, humour, and clothing and can be regarded by some as a lifestyle. LARP is increasingly the subject of academic research and theory. Much of this research originates from role-players, especially from the publications of the Nordic Knutepunkt role-playing conventions. However the broader academic community has recently begun to study LARP as well, both to compare it to other media and other varieties of interactive gaming, and also to evaluate it in its own right. See also Lists List of live action role-playing groups LARP conventions Intercon - several conventions regularly held on the East Coast of the United States. Knutepunkt - convention regularly held in several Nordic countries. 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7,313 | Aluminium | Aluminium () or aluminum (, see spelling below) is a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, and the third most abundant element therein, after oxygen and silicon. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminium is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as a free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief source of aluminium is bauxite ore. Aluminium is remarkable for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation and the metal's low density. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and very important in other areas of transportation and building. Its reactive nature makes it useful as a catalyst or additive in chemical mixtures, including being used in ammonium nitrate explosives to enhance blast power. Characteristics Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, malleable metal with appearance ranging from silvery to dull grey, depending on the surface roughness. Aluminium is nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is also insoluble in alcohol, though it can be soluble in water in certain forms. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is ductile, and easily machined, cast, and extruded. Corrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide that forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced when many aqueous salts are present however, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m². G. E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 1988 Aluminium is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3000–10000 nm (far IR) regions, while in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper. Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, by weight better than copper. Aluminium is capable of being a superconductor, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss. Isotopes Aluminium has nine isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only 27Al (stable isotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope, t1/2 = 7.2 × 105 y) occur naturally; however, 27Al has a natural abundance of 99.9+ %. 26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time scales. Cosmogenic Isotopes and Aluminum Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteoriticists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago. Robert T. Dodd, Thunderstones and Shooting Stars, pp. 89-90. ISBN 0-674-89137-6. Natural occurrence In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic element and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, however, it is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium or cobalt yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively. Pure Al2O3, known as Corundum, is one of the hardest materials known. Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminium minerals are not economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3-2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. Guilbert, John M. and Carles F. Park, The Geology of Ore Deposits, Freeman, 1986, pp. 774-795 ISBN 0-7167-1456-6 Large deposits of bauxite occur in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica but the primary mining areas for the ore are in Ghana, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Surinam. Smelting of the ore mainly occurs in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Norway, Russia and the United States. Because smelting is an energy-intensive process, regions with excess natural gas supplies (such as the United Arab Emirates) are becoming aluminium refiners. Production and refinement Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5 to 8.1 percent), it is rare in its free form, occurring in oxygen-deficient environments such as volcanic mud, and it was once considered a precious metal more valuable than gold. Napoleon III, emperor of France, is reputed to have given a banquet where the most honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the other guests had to make do with gold. ChemMatters October 1990 Page 14 The Washington Monument was completed, with the 100 ounce (2.8 kg) aluminium capstone being put in place on December 6, 1884, in an elaborate dedication ceremony. It was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time. At that time, aluminium was as expensive as silver. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years. Bauxite Aluminium is a strongly reactive metal that forms a high-energy chemical bond with oxygen. Compared to most other metals, it is difficult to extract from ore, such as bauxite, due to the energy required to reduce aluminium oxide (Al2O3). For example, direct reduction with carbon, as is used to produce iron, is not chemically possible, since aluminium is a stronger reducing agent than carbon. Aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2,000 °C. Therefore, it must be extracted by electrolysis. In this process, the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then reduced to the pure metal. The operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite is found as a mineral in Greenland, but in industrial use it has been replaced by a synthetic substance. Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium, sodium, and calcium fluorides: (Na3AlF6). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite in the Bayer process of Karl Bayer. (Previously, the Deville process was the predominant refining technology.) The electrolytic process replaced the Wöhler process, which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. Both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the refined alumina is dissolved in the electrolyte, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the cathode (negative electrode) is Al3+ + 3 e− → Al Here the aluminium ion is being reduced (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off, usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing. At the anode (positive electrode), oxygen is formed: 2 O2− → O2 + 4 e− This carbon anode is then oxidized by the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide. O2 + C → CO2 The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process. Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not oxidized because there is no oxygen present, as the carbon cathodes are protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Nevertheless, cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metal movement. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt because of cathode wear. World production trend of aluminium Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The worldwide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). The most modern smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA; state-of-the-art smelters operate at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells. Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive, such as South Africa, Ghana, the South Island of New Zealand, Australia, the People's Republic of China, the Middle East, Russia, Quebec and British Columbia in Canada, and Iceland. Aluminium output in 2005 In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost a one-fifth world share, followed by Russia, Canada, and the USA, reports the British Geological Survey. Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina. Australia produced 62 million tonnes of bauxite in 2005. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine. Recycling Aluminium is 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural qualities. Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an important facet of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only five percent of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore. However, a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to the public awareness. In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling, ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% of construction materials and 95% of transport vehicles. Reciclado del aluminio. Confemetal.es ASERAL Technical article. Last visit 11/14/2007 Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties as primary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in 80% of the alloy injections. Another important use is for extrusion. White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium which can be extracted industrially. Hwang, J.Y., Huang, X., Xu, Z. (2006), Recovery of Metals from Aluminium Dross and Salt cake, Journal of Minerals & Materials Characterization & Engineering. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp 47-62 The process produces aluminium billets together with a highly intractable and complex waste material that is difficult to manage because of its reaction with water which releases a mixture of gases which spontaneously ignite in contact with air. The gases include hydrogen, acetylene and ammonia together with a number of other minor components. Why are dross & saltcake a concern? In contact with damp air the waste material emits copious quantities of ammonia gas. Because disposal of this waste material is difficult, it is now used as a filler in asphalt and concrete. Dunster, A.M., Moulinier, F., Abbott, B., Conroy, A., Adams, K., Widyatmoko, D.(2005). Added value of using new industrial waste streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt. DTI/WRAP Aggregates Research Programme STBF 13/15C. The Waste and Resources Action Programme Chemistry Oxidation state one AlH is produced when aluminium is heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Al2O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1800 °C in a vacuum. Al2S can be made by heating Al2S3 with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It quickly disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner. AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium. Aluminium halides usually exist in the form AlX3. e.g. AlF3, AlCl3, AlBr3, AlI3 etc. Oxidation state two Aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. Oxidation state three Fajans' rules show that the simple trivalent cation Al3+ is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al2O3. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak acids, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of water of crystallization. Aluminium hydride, (AlH3)n, can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an excess of hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent. Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being lithium aluminium hydride, Li[AlH4]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure. Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is amphoteric, being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with alkalis. It exists in various crystalline forms. Aluminium carbide, Al4C3 is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium. Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water to form ammonia and aluminium hydroxide. Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine. Aluminium oxide, Al2O3, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a gemstone, its hardness is only exceeded by diamond, boron nitride, and carborundum. It is almost insoluble in water. Aluminium sulfide, Al2S3, may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide over aluminium powder. It is polymorphic. Aluminium iodide, AlI3, is a dimer with applications in organic synthesis. Aluminium fluoride, AlF3, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure. Aluminium fluoride/water complexes: When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as AlF(H2O)5+2, AlF3(H2O)30, AlF6-3. Of these, AlF6-3 is the most stable. This is explained by the fact that aluminium and fluoride, which are both very compact ions, fit together just right to form the octahedral aluminium hexafluoride complex. When aluminium and fluoride are together in water in a 1:6 molar ratio, AlF6-3 is the most common form, even in rather low concentrations. Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR3 exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least dimers or trimers. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance trimethylaluminium. Analysis The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon. Applications General use A piece of aluminium metal. Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes). Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapor deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapor deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors. When so deposited, a fresh, pure aluminium film serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared. Pure aluminium has a low tensile strength, but when combined with thermo-mechanical processing, aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties, especially when tempered. Aluminium alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets as a result of their high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium readily forms alloys with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g., duralumin). Today, almost all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as "aluminium," are actually alloys. For example, the common aluminium foils are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:household aluminium foil thumb | Aluminum slab being transported from the smelters Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles etc.) as sheet, tube, castings etc Packaging (cans, foil, etc.) Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.) Cooking utensils Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, Walking poles etc Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment eg photographic equipment. Electrical transmission lines for power distribution MKM steel and Alnico magnets Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs. Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs. Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED lighting. Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and thermite. In the blades of prop swords and knives used in stage combat. Aluminium is widely used in watch production as it provides durability and resists tarnishing and corrosion. Aluminum in Watchmaking Baseball bats Aluminium compounds Aluminium ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH4)](SO4)2), ammonium alum is used as a mordant, in water purification and sewage treatment, in paper production, as a food additive, and in leather tanning. Aluminium acetate is a salt used in solution as an astringent. Aluminium borate (Al2O3 B2O3) is used in the production of glass and ceramic. Aluminium borohydride (Al(BH4)3) is used as an additive to jet fuel. Aluminium bronze (CuAl5) Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used: in paint manufacturing, in antiperspirants, in petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber. Aluminium chlorohydrate is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of hyperhidrosis. Aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of synthetic gemstones, glass and ceramic. Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used: as an antacid, as a mordant, in water purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), alumina, is found naturally as corundum (rubies and sapphires), emery, and is used in glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in lasers for the production of coherent light. Used as a refractory, essential for the production of high pressure sodium lamps. Aluminium phosphate (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints and varnishes and in making dental cement. Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3) is used: in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a fire extinguisher, in water purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in fireproofing, and in leather tanning. Aqueous Aluminium ions (such as found in aqueous Aluminium Sulfate) are use to treat against fish parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris. In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant. Aluminium alloys in structural applications Aluminium foam Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ( and ISO). The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation. (See main article) One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue failure will eventually occur under even very small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these loads and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life. Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore requires some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as welding and casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low melting point, which make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the stresses. The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region. Household wiring Compared to copper, aluminium has about 65% of the electrical conductivity by volume, although 200% by weight. Traditionally copper is used as household wiring material. In the 1960s aluminium was considerably cheaper than copper, and so was introduced for household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures had not been designed to accept aluminium wire. However, in some cases the greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal screw connection, eventually loosening the connection. Also, pure aluminium has a tendency to creep under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again loosening the connection. Finally, Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increased the electrical resistance of the connection. All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in fires. Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes in new construction. Eventually, newer fixtures were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. The first generation fixtures were marked "Al/Cu" and were ultimately found suitable only for copper-clad aluminium wire, but the second generation fixtures, which bear a "CO/ALR" coding, are rated for unclad aluminium wire. To adapt older assemblies, workers forestall the heating problem using a properly-done crimp of the aluminium wire to a short "pigtail" of copper wire. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium terminations. History The statue of the Anteros as the Angel of Christian Charity (commonly mistaken for Eros) in Piccadilly Circus London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium. Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761 Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alum alumine. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed alumium and later aluminum (see Etymology section, below). The metal was first produced in 1825 (in an impure form) by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam and yielded a lump of metal looking similar to tin. Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but after redoing the experiments of Ørsted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and yielded aluminium. Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum), but also Ørsted can be listed as its discoverer. Further, Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. Frenchman Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium. (Note: The title of Deville's book is De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication (Paris, 1859). Deville likely also conceived the idea of the electrolysis of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; however, Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult might have developed the more practical process after Deville.) Before the Hall-Héroult process was developed, aluminium was exceedingly difficult to extract from its various ores. This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold. Bars of aluminium were exhibited alongside the French crown jewels at the Exposition Universelle of 1855, and Napoleon III was said to have reserved a set of aluminium dinner plates for his most honoured guests. Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the Washington Monument in 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project; aluminium was about the same value as silver. The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England using smelters like the furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886. and and Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Héroult of France independently developed the Hall-Héroult electrolytic process that made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper and is now the principal method used worldwide. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity Aluminium directly. Hall's process, in 1888 with the financial backing of Alfred E. Hunt, started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company today known as Alcoa. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland. By 1895 the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building. Many navies use an aluminium superstructure for their vessels, however, the 1975 fire aboard USS Belknap that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the Falklands War, led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures. The Arleigh Burke class was the first such U.S. ship, being constructed entirely of steel. In 2008 the price of aluminium peaked at $1.45/lb in July but dropped to $0.7/lb by December. Aluminum prices Etymology Nomenclature history The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for this element is alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation is from his journal Philosophical Transactions: "Had I been so fortunate as..to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium." "alumium", Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online Oxford University Press. Accessed 29 October 2006. Citation is listed as "1808 SIR H. DAVY in Phil. Trans. XCVIII. 353". The ellipsis in the quotation is as it appears in the OED citation. By 1812, Davy had settled on aluminum. He wrote in the journal Chemical Philosophy: "As yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state." "aluminum", Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online Oxford University Press. Accessed 29 October 2006. Citation is listed as "1812 SIR H. DAVY Chem. Philos. I. 355" But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound." "aluminium", Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online Oxford University Press. Accessed 29 October 2006. Citation is listed as "1812 Q. Rev. VIII. 72" The -ium suffix had the advantage of conforming to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as for example platinum, known to Europeans since the sixteenth century, molybdenum, discovered in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in 1802. The -um suffix on the other hand, has the advantage of being more consistent with the universal spelling alumina for the oxide, as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively. Americans adopted -ium to fit the standard form of the periodic table of elements, for most of the nineteenth century, with aluminium appearing in Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In 1892, however, Charles Martin Hall used the -um spelling in an advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It has consequently been suggested that the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on the flier was a mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in North America; the Webster Unabridged Dictionary of 1913, though, continued to use the -ium version. In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a British variant. Present-day spelling Most countries spell aluminium with an i before -um. In the United States, the spelling aluminium is largely unknown, and the spelling aluminum predominates. John Bremner, Words on Words: A Dictionary for Writers and Others Who Care about Words, page 22–23. ISBN 0-231-04493-3 The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the Australian Macquarie Dictionary prefers aluminium. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both. IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements IUPAC officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling aluminum. IUPAC Web site publication search for 'aluminum' Health concerns Despite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in living cells and presents some toxic effects in elevated concentrations. Its toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is particularly increased in patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. In very high doses, aluminium can cause neurotoxicity, and is associated with altered function of the blood-brain barrier. A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as deodorants or antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts. Although the use of aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Studies have shown that consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium significantly increases aluminium absorption, and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue. van Ginkel MF, van der Voet GB, D'Haese PC, De Broe ME, de Wolff FA, Effect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminum in rat brain and bone, J Lab Clin Med. 1993 Mar;121: 453-60, PMID 8445293 Furthermore, aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory. Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast J Appl Toxicol. 2006 May-Jun;26(3):191-7 These salts' estrogen-like effects have led to their classification as a metalloestrogen. Because of its potentially toxic effects, aluminium's use in some antiperspirants and food additives is controversial. Although there is little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults H. J. Gitelman, "Physiology of Aluminum in Man," in Aluminum and Health, CRC Press, 1988, ISBN 0824780264 , several studies point to risks associated with increased exposure to the metal. Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water. Some researchers have expressed concerns that the aluminium in antiperspirants may increase the risk of breast cancer, and aluminium has controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease. According to The Alzheimer's Society, the overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease. Aluminium and Alzheimer's disease, The Alzheimer's Society, accessed 30 January 2009. Nevertheless, some studies cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease, as some brain plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium, it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime. Scientific consensus does not yet exist about whether aluminium exposure could directly increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease. Effect on plants Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function. Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds. This concept of "corrected lime potential" to define the degree of base saturation in soils became the basis for procedures now used in soil testing laboratories to determine the "lime requirement" of soils. Applying lime to soils reduces the Aluminum toxicity to plants. Note this link loads slowly Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of organic compounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat. This is not the case in all plants. See also Aluminium battery Aluminium foil Beverage can Institute for the History of Aluminium (IHA) List of countries by aluminium production Aluminium industry in Russia References External links WebElements.com – Aluminium Electrolytic production World production of primary aluminium, by country Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF History of Aluminium (from the website of the International Aluminium Institute) Emedicine - Aluminium | Aluminium |@lemmatized aluminium:228 aluminum:23 see:4 spell:7 silvery:3 white:3 ductile:2 member:1 boron:2 group:3 chemical:8 element:18 symbol:1 al:7 atomic:1 number:4 soluble:3 water:15 normal:3 circumstance:1 abundant:6 metal:37 earth:6 crust:4 third:3 therein:1 oxygen:10 silicon:4 make:20 weight:5 solid:2 surface:4 reactive:3 chemically:2 occur:10 nature:2 free:6 instead:2 find:12 combine:2 different:1 mineral:8 chief:3 source:2 bauxite:10 ore:10 remarkable:1 ability:1 resist:1 corrosion:7 due:5 phenomenon:1 passivation:1 low:8 density:2 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7,314 | Mail_(armour) | Mail hauberk from the Museum of Bayeux Mail (also maille, often given as chain mail or chain maille or chainmaille) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. The word chainmail is of relatively recent coinage, having been in use only since the 1700s; prior to this it was referred to simply as mail. The word itself refers to the armour material, not the garment made from it. A shirt made from mail is a hauberk if knee-length, haubergeon if mid-thigh length, and byrnie if waist-length. Mail leggings are called chausses, mail hoods coif and mail mittens mitons. A mail collar hanging from a helmet is camail or aventail. A mail collar worn strapped around the neck was called a pixane or standard. Mail is now often used for decorative use and in jewellery. History Statue of a Gallic warrior. This armour uses a highly unusual vertical orientation of the rings. Mail was invented some time in the mid 1st millennium BC. It may have been invented independently in East Asia and in Europe. The earliest finds are from a 4th century BC (Rusu, M., “Das Keltische Fürstengrab von Ciumeşti in Rumänien”, Germania 50, 1969, pp.267-269) Celtic chieftain's burial located in Ciumeşti, Romania. It is believed that the Roman Republic first came into contact with mail fighting the Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul, now Northern Italy. The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the lorica hamata which was used as a primary form of armour through the Imperial period. "David rejects the unaccustomed armour" (detail of fol. 28r of the 13th century Morgan Bible). The image depicts realistically the method of removing a hauberk. The use of mail was prominent throughout the Dark Ages, High Middle Ages and Renaissance, and reached its apex in Europe, in terms of coverage, during the 13th century, when mail covered the whole body. In the 14th century, plate armour began to supplement mail. Eventually mail was supplemented by plate for the most part. However, mail was still widely used by many soldiers as well as brigandines and padded jacks. These three types of armour made up the bulk of the equipment used by soldiers with mail being the most expensive. It was quite often more expensive than plate armour. "Armour Purchases and Lists from the Howard Household Books", The Journal of the Mail Research Society, Vol. 1. No. 1, July 2003 A mail shirt interwoven between two layers of fabric is called jazzeraint, and can be worn as protective clothing. Extant mail is common, but it is not proportionately represented in museum collections. The Japanese used mail (kusari) in a limited fashion in armour beginning during the Nambokucho period (1336-1392). Two primary weave methods were used: a square 4-in-1 pattern (so gusari) and a hexagonal 6-in-1 pattern (hana gusari). Kusari was typically made with rings that were much smaller than their European counterparts, and on a much smaller scale - rather than creating full garments of mail, small sections were used to link together plates and to drape over vulnerable areas such as the underarm. The rings were not welded shut, though some pieces were constructed of rings that consisted of two or more turns, similar to the modern split ring commonly used on keychains. The rings were lacquered to prevent rusting, and was always stitched onto a backing of cloth or leather. The kusari was sometimes concealed entirely between layers of cloth or leather. Effectiveness Mail armour provided an effective defence against slashing blows by an edged weapon and penetration by thrusting and piercing weapons; in fact The Royal Armoury at Leeds concluded that, "...it is almost impossible to penetrate using any conventional medieval weapon..." "Medieval Military Surgery", Medieval History Magazine, Vol 1 is 4, December 2003 A good sword blow, arriving in exactly perpendicular angle to surface, could cut through the links, and a poleaxe or halberd blow could break through the armour, but generally mail provided excellent protection to the soldier. According to a study of skeletons found in Visby, Sweden, a majority of the skeletons showed wounds on less well protected legs. The flexibility of mail meant that a blow would often injure the wearer, potentially causing serious bruising or fractures, and it was a poor defence against head trauma. Mail-clad warriors typically wore separate rigid, helms over their mail coifs for head protection. Likewise, blunt weapons such as maces could harm the wearer by their impact without penetrating the armour; usually a soft armour, such as gambeson, was worn under the hauberk. Etymology The word chainmail is a pleonasm and a neologism: in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, "mail", "mayle" or chain was the English name for it, while maille was the common French name for it. This—and the alternative spellings "maile" and "maille"—derive through the Italian maglia, from the Latin macula, meaning "mesh of a net". Spanish corresponding word is malla and Portuguese malha. Cymric term lluric refers to Latin lorica. Many modern armorers prefer the French spelling "Maille" in order to avoid confusion with the term chain letter for "chainmail" or postal delivery for "mail". Manufacture A style of modern riveted mail made of alternating rows of riveted and solid links. Several patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 4-to-1 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others). In Europe, the 4-to-1 pattern was completely dominant. Mail was also common in East Asia, primarily Japan, with several more patterns being utilised and an entire nomenclature developing around them. Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be riveted closed to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow. Up until the 14th century European mail was made of alternating rows of both riveted rings and solid rings. After that it was almost all made from riveted rings only. Both would have been made using wrought iron. Some later pieces were made of wrought steel with an appreciable carbon content that allowed the piece to be heat treated. Wire for the riveted rings was formed by either of two methods. One was to hammer out wrought iron into plates and cut or slit the plates. These thin pieces were then pulled through a draw-plate repeatedly until the desired diameter was achieved. Waterwheel powered drawing mills are pictured in several period manuscripts. Another method was to simply forge down an iron billet into a rod and then proceed to draw it out into wire. The solid links would have been made by punching from a sheet. Forge welding was also used to create solid links, but the only known example from Europe is that of the 7th century Coppergate mail drape. Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as the well known "theta" links from India. Modern uses Practical uses Splatter mask used by tank crews in World War One. Mail is now used in protective clothing for butchers (against meat-packing equipment); workers may wear up to 8 lb of mail under their white coats. Scuba divers use mail (against shark teeth) as do animal control officers (against animal teeth). Shark expert and underwater filmmaker Valerie Taylor was among the first to develop and test the mail suit in 1979 while diving with sharks. The British police use mail gloves for dealing with knife-armed aggressors. During World War I, mail was evaluated as a material for bullet proof vests, but results were unsatisfactory as the rings would fragment and further aggravate the damage. A mail fringe, designed by Captain Cruise of the British Infantry, was added to helmets to protect the face but this proved unpopular with soldiers, in spite of being proven to defend against a three-ounce shrapnel round fired at a distance of one hundred yards (92.3m). Stab Proof Vests After an intensive period of study and analysis of stab vests starting in the 1980s revealed that vests capable of providing ballistic protection were insufficient to protect against "ice-picks" or knife thrusts. The highest threat-level of modern stab-proof vests are now being made which incorporate mail armour. There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that mail is a viable alternative to heavy leather for protecting motorcyclists from injury should they be thrown from their motorcycles. M.A.I.L. - Maille Artisans International League - Life Changing, Life Saving - Submitted by shinyrock Historical re-enactment A woman models a haubergeon and coif of modern make. Many historical reenactment groups, especially those whose focus is Antiquity or the Middle Ages, commonly use mail both as practical armour and for costuming. Mail is especially popular amongst those groups which use steel weapons. A fighter wearing hauberk and chausses can run, lie, stand up, jump, do somersaults (or even cartwheels), and even swim wearing full armour, depending on the fitness of the wearer. A modern hauberk made from 1.5 mm diameter wire with 10 mm inner diameter rings weighs roughly 10 kg and contains 15,000–45,000 rings. Mail can be used under everyday clothes and many reenactors wear a hauberk under their regular clothes to accustom themselves to it. One of the two real drawbacks of mail is the uneven weight distribution; the stress falls mainly on shoulders. Weight can be better distributed by wearing a belt over the mail, which provides another point of support. A reenactment of a long-distance march conforming to service conditions in the Imperial Western Roman army has recently revealed that mail which is worn daily is effectively rustproof and self-polishing; the motion of the rings against each other keeps them scoured. Decorative uses Major's shoulder chainsMail remained in use as a decorative and possibly high-status symbol with military overtones long after its practical usefulness had passed. It was frequently used for the epaulettes of military uniforms. It is still used in this form by the British Territorial Army, and the Royal Canadian Armour Corps of the Canadian Army. Mail also has applications in sculpture and jewelry, especially when made out of precious metals or colorful anodized metals. Recent trends in mail artwork include headdresses, Christmas ornaments, chess sets, and all manner of jewelry. For these non-traditional applications , hundreds of new weaves or patterns have been invented. In film 8-in-2 mail, commonly referred to as Kings Mail. In some films, knitted string spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual mail in order to cut down on cost (a notable example being Monty Python and the Holy Grail, which was filmed on a very small budget). Films more dedicated to costume accuracy often use ABS plastic rings, for the lower cost and weight. Thousands of such ABS mail coats were made for the Lord of the Rings film trilogy, in addition to many metal coats. The metal coats were used rarely because of their weight, except in close-up filming where the appearance of ABS rings would have been clearly distinguishable. References See also Scale armour Ring mail Banded mail Plated mail Mirror armour (supplementary oriental plates worn with mail) Proofing of armour Dragon Skin (body armour) External links Erik D. Schmid/The Mail Research Society The Treatment of Mail on an Arm Guard from the Armoury of the Shah Shuja: Ethical Repair and in situ Documentation in Miniature Excavated lorica hamata The Maille Artisans International League (MAIL) - Hundreds of weaves/tutorials/articles, and gallery pictures History Channel: Coat of Mail Construction tips Butted mail: A Mailmaker's Guide The Apprentice Armorer's Illustrated Handbook For Making Mail The Ring Lord Chainmail Discussion Forum Phong's Chainmaille Tutorials Metal & Maille Forum - With Articles & Tutorials How To Open Chainmaille Jump Rings Ancient Roman originals can be seen on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web museum (www.romancoins.info) | Mail_(armour) |@lemmatized mail:67 hauberk:7 museum:3 bayeux:1 also:5 maille:8 often:5 give:1 chain:4 chainmaille:3 type:2 armour:22 consisting:1 small:5 metal:6 ring:25 link:10 together:3 pattern:8 form:5 mesh:2 word:4 chainmail:4 relatively:1 recent:2 coinage:1 use:28 since:2 prior:1 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7,315 | Los_Angeles-class_submarine | The Los Angeles class, sometimes called the LA-class or the 688-class, is a class of nuclear-powered fast attack submarines (SSN) that forms the backbone of the United States submarine fleet. With 46 submarines, this class has more boats than any other nuclear powered submarine class in the world. The class was preceded by the and followed by the and . Submarines of this class are usually named after U.S. cities, breaking a long-standing Navy tradition of naming attack submarines after sea creatures. The final 23 boats in the series, referred to as "688i" boats, are quieter than their predecessors and incorporate a more advanced combat system. These 688i boats are also designed for under-ice operations: their diving planes are on the bow rather than on the sail, and they have reinforced sails. Characteristics Capabilities According to the U.S. government, the top speed of Los Angeles-class submarines is over 25 knots (46 km/h, 29 mph) and the precise speed is classified. Some estimates put the top speed at 3033 knots. Similarly, government sources give the maximum operating depth as , while Patrick Tyler, in his book Running Critical, suggests a maximum operating depth of . Tyler, (1986). pp. 66-67, 156 Although Tyler cites the 688-class design committee for this figure, "Notes in pp. 64-67: Deliberations of ad-hoc committee on SSN 688 design taken from confidential sources and from interviews with Admiral [Ret] Rickover...." From Tyler, p. 365 the government has not commented on it. Weapons and fire control systems Los Angeles class submarines carry about 25 torpedo-tube launched weapons, and all boats of the class are capable of launching Tomahawk cruise missiles horizontally (from the torpedo tubes). The last 31 boats of this class also have 12 dedicated vertical launch (VLS) tubes for launching Tomahawks. Engineering and auxiliary systems with Advanced SEAL Delivery System (ASDS) attached. There are two watertight compartments in the Los Angeles class of submarines. The forward compartment contains crew living spaces, weapons handling spaces and control spaces not critical to recovering propulsion. The aft compartment contains the bulk of the ship's engineering systems, power generation turbines and water making equipment. SSN-688 Los Angeles Class Design. Los Angeles Class at Globalsecurity.org. Accessed on 07 January 2009 Some submarines in the class are capable of delivering SEALs through either the Dry Deck Shelter (DDS) system or the Advanced SEAL Delivery System (ASDS). Polmar & Moore, (2003). pp. 263 A variety of atmospheric control devices are used to remain submerged for long periods of time without ventilating, including an Electrolytic Oxygen Generator (EOG) nicknamed "the bomb". Treadwell Supplies Oxygen Generator Components for Nuclear Subs Defense Industry Daily 28-Jan-2008 SSN-688 Los Angeles class from Federation of American Scientists While on the surface or at snorkel depth the submarine may use the ship's auxiliary or emergency diesel generator for power or ventilation Fairbanks Morse Engines Marine Installations Accessed on 29 April 2008 Auxiliary Division on USS Cheyenne USS CHEYENNE SSN-773 Department & Divisions from Federation of American Scientists. Accessed on 29 April 2008 (eg. following a fire). Firefighting and Damage Control Update 181044Z JUN 98 (SUBS) Message COMSUBLANT (1998) Accessed on 29 April 2008 The diesel engine in a 688 class can be quickly started by compressed air during emergencies or to evacuate noxious (non-volatile) gases from the boat, although 'ventilation' requires raising of a snorkel mast. During non-emergency situations, design constraints require operators to allow the engine to reach normal operating temperatures before it is capable of producing full power, a process that may take from 20 to 30 minutes. However, it should be noted that the diesel generator can be immediately loaded to 100% power output, despite design criteria cautions, at the discretion of the submarine commander via the recommendation of the ship's Engineer, if necessity dictates such actions to a) restore electrical power to the ship, b) prevent a reactor incident from occurring or escalating, or c) to protect the lives of the crew or others as determined necessary by the commanding officer. Normally, steam power is generated by the ship's nuclear reactor delivering steam to the steam driven turbines generators. While the emergency diesel generator is starting up, power can be provided from the ship's battery through the Ship Service Motor Generators (SSMGs). Likewise, propulsion is normally delivered through the ship's steam driven main turbines that drive the ship's propeller through a reduction gear system. The ship has no main shaft conventional engines. Nuclear Propulsion Pressurized water Naval nuclear propulsion system at Federation of American Scientists Accessed on 30 April 2008 In the media Los Angeles-class submarines have been involved in a number of major submarine incidents. Los Angeles-class submarines have also been featured prominently in numerous Tom Clancy novels and film adaptations, most notably in The Hunt for Red October. According to the novelization and several behind the scenes books for Terminator Salvation Resistance Headquarters is located aboard a Los Angeles class submarine. Los Angeles class submarines have been the subject of video games and simulations such as 688i. Notes References Clancy, T. (1984). The Hunt for Red October. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-285-0 DiMercurio, M. & Benson, M. (2003), The complete idiot's guide to submarines, New York, NY: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-0-02-864471-4 Hutchinson, R. (2002), Submarines, War Beneath The Waves, From 1776 To The Present Day. ISBN 978-0-00-710558-8 Polmar, N. & Moore, K. J. (2003), Cold War Submarines:The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines. Brassey's. ISBN 1574885944 Tyler, P. (1986). Running Critical. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 978-0-06-091441-7. Waddle, S. (2003). The Right Thing. Integrity Publishers. ISBN 1591450365. See also External links Role of the Modern Submarine at Submarine History. | Los_Angeles-class_submarine |@lemmatized los:11 angeles:11 class:23 sometimes:1 call:1 la:1 nuclear:6 power:9 fast:1 attack:2 submarine:23 ssn:5 form:1 backbone:1 united:1 state:1 fleet:1 boat:7 world:1 precede:1 follow:2 usually:1 name:2 u:3 city:1 break:1 long:2 stand:1 navy:1 tradition:1 sea:1 creature:1 final:1 series:1 refer:1 quieter:1 predecessor:1 incorporate:1 advanced:3 combat:1 system:9 also:4 design:7 ice:1 operation:1 diving:1 plane:1 bow:1 rather:1 sail:2 reinforce:1 characteristic:1 capability:1 accord:2 government:3 top:2 speed:3 knot:2 km:1 h:1 mph:1 precise:1 classify:1 estimate:1 put:1 similarly:1 source:2 give:1 maximum:2 operate:2 depth:3 patrick:1 tyler:5 book:3 run:2 critical:3 suggest:1 operating:1 pp:3 although:2 cite:1 committee:2 figure:1 note:3 deliberation:1 ad:1 hoc:1 take:2 confidential:1 interview:1 admiral:1 ret:1 rickover:1 p:2 comment:1 weapon:3 fire:2 control:4 carry:1 torpedo:2 tube:3 launch:4 capable:3 tomahawk:2 cruise:1 missile:1 horizontally:1 last:1 dedicate:1 vertical:1 vls:1 engineering:2 auxiliary:3 seal:3 delivery:2 asds:2 attach:1 two:1 watertight:1 compartment:3 forward:1 contains:1 crew:2 live:1 space:3 handle:1 recover:1 propulsion:4 aft:1 contain:1 bulk:1 ship:10 generation:1 turbine:3 water:2 making:1 equipment:1 globalsecurity:1 org:1 access:5 january:1 deliver:3 either:1 dry:1 deck:1 shelter:1 dd:1 polmar:2 moore:2 variety:1 atmospheric:1 device:1 use:2 remain:1 submerged:1 period:1 time:1 without:1 ventilate:1 include:1 electrolytic:1 oxygen:2 generator:7 eog:1 nickname:1 bomb:1 treadwell:1 supply:1 component:1 sub:2 defense:1 industry:1 daily:1 jan:1 federation:3 american:3 scientist:3 surface:1 snorkel:2 may:2 emergency:4 diesel:4 ventilation:2 fairbanks:1 morse:1 engine:4 marine:1 installation:1 april:4 division:2 uss:2 cheyenne:2 department:1 eg:1 firefighting:1 damage:1 update:1 jun:1 message:1 comsublant:1 quickly:1 start:2 compressed:1 air:1 evacuate:1 noxious:1 non:2 volatile:1 gas:1 require:2 raise:1 mast:1 situation:1 constraint:1 operator:1 allow:1 reach:1 normal:1 temperature:1 produce:1 full:1 process:1 minute:1 however:1 immediately:1 load:1 output:1 despite:1 criterion:1 caution:1 discretion:1 commander:1 via:1 recommendation:1 engineer:1 necessity:1 dictate:1 action:1 restore:1 electrical:1 b:1 prevent:1 reactor:2 incident:2 occur:1 escalate:1 c:1 protect:1 life:1 others:1 determine:1 necessary:1 commanding:1 officer:1 normally:2 steam:4 generate:1 drive:2 provide:1 battery:1 service:1 motor:1 ssmgs:1 likewise:1 driven:1 main:2 propeller:1 reduction:1 gear:1 shaft:1 conventional:1 pressurize:1 naval:2 medium:1 involve:1 number:1 major:1 feature:1 prominently:1 numerous:1 tom:1 clancy:2 novel:1 film:1 adaptation:1 notably:1 hunt:2 red:2 october:2 novelization:1 several:1 behind:1 scene:1 terminator:1 salvation:1 resistance:1 headquarters:1 locate:1 aboard:1 subject:1 video:1 game:1 simulation:1 reference:1 institute:1 press:1 isbn:6 dimercurio:1 benson:1 complete:1 idiot:1 guide:1 new:2 york:2 ny:1 alpha:1 hutchinson:1 r:1 war:2 beneath:1 wave:1 present:1 day:1 n:1 k:1 j:1 cold:1 construction:1 soviet:1 brassey:1 harper:1 row:1 waddle:1 right:1 thing:1 integrity:1 publisher:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 role:1 modern:1 history:1 |@bigram los_angeles:11 h_mph:1 ad_hoc:1 torpedo_tube:2 tomahawk_cruise:1 cruise_missile:1 globalsecurity_org:1 diesel_engine:1 commanding_officer:1 nuclear_reactor:1 tom_clancy:1 terminator_salvation:1 harper_row:1 external_link:1 |
7,316 | Differential_topology | In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential geometry and together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds. Description Differential topology considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to be defined. Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology. For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold—that is, one can smoothly "flatten out" certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume. Conversely, smooth manifolds are more rigid than the topological manifolds. John Milnor discovered that some spheres have more than one smooth structure -- see exotic sphere and Donaldson's theorem. Kervaire exhibited topological manifolds with no smooth structure at all. Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot. One of the main topics in differential topology is the study of special kinds of smooth mappings between manifolds, namely immersions and submersions, and the intersections of submanifolds via transversality. More generally one is interested in properties and invariants of smooth manifolds which are carried over by diffeomorphisms, another special kind of smooth mapping. Morse theory is another branch of differential topology, in which topological information about a manifold is deduced from changes in the rank of the Jacobian of a function. For a list of differential topology topics, see the following reference: List of differential geometry topics. Differential topology versus differential geometry Differential topology and differential geometry are first characterized by their similarity. They both study primarily the properties of differentiable manifolds, sometimes with a variety of structures imposed on them. One major difference lies in the nature of the problems that each subject tries to address. In one view, Hirsch (1997) differential topology distinguishes itself from differential geometry by studying primarily those problems which are inherently global. Consider the example of a coffee cup and a donut (see this example). From the point of view of differential topology, the donut and the coffee cup are the same (in a sense). A differential topologist imagines that the donut is made out of a rubber sheet, and that the rubber sheet can be smoothly reshaped from its original configuration as a donut into a new configuration in the shape of a coffee cup without tearing the sheet or gluing bits of it together. This is an inherently global view, though, because there is no way for the differential topologist to tell whether the two objects are the same (in this sense) by looking at just a tiny (local) piece of either of them. She must have access to each entire (global) object. From the point of view of differential geometry, the coffee cup and the donut are different because it is impossible to rotate the coffee cup in such a way that its configuration matches that of the donut. This is also a global way of thinking about the problem. But an important distinction is that the geometer doesn't need the entire object to decide this. By looking, for instance, at just a tiny piece of the handle, she can decide that the coffee cup is different from the donut because the handle is thinner (or more curved) than any piece of the donut. To put it succinctly, differential topology studies structures on manifolds which, in a sense, have no interesting local structure. Differential geometry studies structures on manifolds which do have an interesting local (or sometimes even infinitesimal) structure. More mathematically, for example, the problem of constructing a diffeomorphism between two manifolds of the same dimension is inherently global since locally two such manifolds are always diffeomorphic. Likewise, the problem of computing a quantity on a manifold which is invariant under differentiable mappings is inherently global, since any local invariant will be trivial in the sense that it is already exhibited in the topology of Rn. Moreover, differential topology does not restrict itself necessarily to the study of diffeomorphism. For example, symplectic topology — a subbranch of differential topology — studies global properties of symplectic manifolds. Differential geometry concerns itself with problems — which may be local or global — that always have some non-trivial local properties. Thus differential geometry may study differentiable manifolds equipped with a connection, a metric (which may be Riemannian, pseudo-Riemannian, or Finsler), a special sort of distribution (such as a CR structure), and so on. This distinction between differential geometry and differential topology is blurred, however, in questions specifically pertaining to local diffeomorphism invariants such as the tangent space at a point. Differential topology also deals with questions like these, which specifically pertain to the properties of differentiable mappings on Rn (for example the tangent bundle, jet bundles, the Whitney extension theorem, and so forth). Nevertheless, the distinction becomes clearer in abstract terms. Differential topology is the study of the (infinitesimal, local, and global) properties of structures on manifolds having no non-trivial local moduli, whereas differential geometry is the study of the (infinitesimal, local, and global) properties of structures on manifolds having non-trivial local moduli. See also List of differential geometry topics Glossary of differential geometry and topology Important publications in differential geometry Important publications in differential topology Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Transversality Notes References | Differential_topology |@lemmatized mathematics:2 differential:33 topology:20 field:1 deal:2 differentiable:7 function:2 manifold:24 closely:1 relate:1 geometry:14 together:2 make:2 geometric:3 theory:3 description:1 consider:2 property:8 structure:14 require:2 smooth:10 define:1 soft:1 extra:1 act:1 obstruction:1 certain:2 type:1 equivalence:1 deformation:1 exist:1 instance:2 volume:2 riemannian:3 curvature:2 invariant:5 distinguish:1 different:3 one:6 smoothly:2 flatten:1 might:1 distort:1 space:2 affect:1 conversely:1 rigid:1 topological:4 john:1 milnor:1 discover:1 sphere:2 see:4 exotic:1 donaldson:1 theorem:2 kervaire:1 exhibit:2 construction:1 existence:1 tangent:3 bundle:3 setting:1 much:1 work:1 others:1 cannot:1 main:1 topic:4 study:10 special:3 kind:2 mapping:4 namely:1 immersion:1 submersion:1 intersection:1 submanifolds:1 via:1 transversality:2 generally:1 interested:1 carry:1 diffeomorphisms:1 another:2 morse:1 branch:1 information:1 deduce:1 change:1 rank:1 jacobian:1 list:3 following:1 reference:2 versus:1 first:1 characterize:1 similarity:1 primarily:2 sometimes:2 variety:1 impose:1 major:1 difference:1 lie:1 nature:1 problem:6 subject:1 try:1 address:1 view:4 hirsch:1 distinguishes:1 inherently:4 global:10 example:5 coffee:6 cup:6 donut:8 point:3 sense:4 topologist:2 imago:1 rubber:2 sheet:3 reshape:1 original:1 configuration:3 new:1 shape:1 without:1 tear:1 glue:1 bit:1 though:1 way:3 tell:1 whether:1 two:3 object:3 look:2 tiny:2 local:11 piece:3 either:1 must:1 access:1 entire:2 impossible:1 rotate:1 match:1 also:3 think:1 important:3 distinction:3 geometer:1 need:1 decide:2 handle:2 thin:1 curved:2 put:1 succinctly:1 interesting:2 even:1 infinitesimal:3 mathematically:1 construct:1 diffeomorphism:3 dimension:1 since:2 locally:1 always:2 diffeomorphic:1 likewise:1 compute:1 quantity:1 trivial:4 already:1 rn:2 moreover:1 restrict:1 necessarily:1 symplectic:2 subbranch:1 concern:1 may:3 non:3 thus:1 equip:1 connection:1 metric:1 pseudo:1 finsler:1 sort:1 distribution:1 cr:1 blur:1 however:1 question:2 specifically:2 pertain:2 like:1 jet:1 whitney:1 extension:1 forth:1 nevertheless:1 become:1 clear:1 abstract:1 term:1 modulus:2 whereas:1 glossary:1 publication:2 basic:1 introduction:1 spacetime:1 note:1 |@bigram differential_topology:17 differentiable_manifold:4 closely_relate:1 differential_geometry:14 smooth_manifold:5 topological_manifold:2 tangent_bundle:2 immersion_submersion:1 symplectic_manifold:1 pseudo_riemannian:1 curved_spacetime:1 |
7,317 | Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames | Henry Home, Lord Kames. Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696 27 December 1782) was a Scottish philosopher of the 18th century. Born at Kames House, between Eccles and Birgham, Berwickshire, he became an advocate and was one of the leaders of the Scottish Enlightenment. In 1752, he was "raised to the bench", thus acquiring the title of Lord Kames. Home wrote much about the importance of property to society. In his Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities, written just after the Jacobite revolt of 1745 he described how the politics of Scotland were not based on loyalty to Kings or Queens as Jacobites had said but on royal land grants given in return for loyalty. In Historical Law Tracts and later in Sketches on the History of Man he described human history as having four distinct stages. The first was as a hunter-gatherer where people avoided each other out of competition. The second stage he described was a herder of domestic animals which required forming larger societies. No laws were needed at these stages except those given by the head of the family or society. Agriculture was the third stage requiring greater cooperation and new relationships to allow for trade or employment (or slavery). He argued that 'the intimate union among a multitude of individuals, occasioned by agriculture' required a new set of rights and obligations in society. This requires laws and law enforcers. A fourth stage moves from villages and farms to seaports and market towns requiring yet more laws and complexity but also much to benefit from. Kames could see these stages within Scotland itself "How the Scots Invented the Modern World", by Arthur Hermann, ISBN0-609-60635-2 , with the pastoral/agricultural highlands, the agricultural/industrial lowlands and the growing commercial ("polite") towns of Glasgow and Edinburgh. The above studies created the genre of the story of civilisation and defined the fields of anthropology and sociology and therefore the modern study of history for two hundred years. Home was also on the panel of judges in the Joseph Knight case which ruled that there could be no slavery in Scotland. He enjoyed intelligent conversation and cultivated a large number of intellectual associates, among them John Home, David Hume and James Boswell.. Lord Monboddo was also a frequent debater of Kames, although these two usually had a fiercely competitive and adversarial relationship. Major works Essays upon Several Subjects in Law (1732) Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion (1751) Principles of Equity (1760) Introduction to the Art of Thinking (1761) Elements of Criticism (1762) Sketches of the History of Man (1776). Notes External links Henry Home, Lord Kames at James Boswell - a Guide Henry Home (Lord Kames) at The Online Library of Liberty | Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames |@lemmatized henry:4 home:7 lord:6 kames:8 december:1 scottish:2 philosopher:1 century:1 bear:1 house:1 eccles:1 birgham:1 berwickshire:1 become:1 advocate:1 one:1 leader:1 enlightenment:1 raise:1 bench:1 thus:1 acquire:1 title:1 write:2 much:2 importance:1 property:1 society:4 essay:3 upon:2 several:2 subject:2 concern:1 british:1 antiquity:1 jacobite:2 revolt:1 describe:3 politics:1 scotland:3 base:1 loyalty:2 king:1 queen:1 say:1 royal:1 land:1 grant:1 give:2 return:1 historical:1 law:6 tract:1 later:1 sketch:2 history:4 man:2 human:1 four:1 distinct:1 stage:6 first:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 people:1 avoid:1 competition:1 second:1 herder:1 domestic:1 animal:1 require:5 forming:1 large:2 need:1 except:1 head:1 family:1 agriculture:2 third:1 great:1 cooperation:1 new:2 relationship:2 allow:1 trade:1 employment:1 slavery:2 argue:1 intimate:1 union:1 among:2 multitude:1 individual:1 occasion:1 set:1 right:1 obligation:1 enforcer:1 fourth:1 move:1 village:1 farm:1 seaport:1 market:1 town:2 yet:1 complexity:1 also:3 benefit:1 could:2 see:1 within:1 scot:1 invent:1 modern:2 world:1 arthur:1 hermann:1 pastoral:1 agricultural:2 highland:1 industrial:1 lowland:1 grow:1 commercial:1 polite:1 glasgow:1 edinburgh:1 study:2 create:1 genre:1 story:1 civilisation:1 define:1 field:1 anthropology:1 sociology:1 therefore:1 two:2 hundred:1 year:1 panel:1 judge:1 joseph:1 knight:1 case:1 rule:1 enjoy:1 intelligent:1 conversation:1 cultivate:1 number:1 intellectual:1 associate:1 john:1 david:1 hume:1 james:2 boswell:2 monboddo:1 frequent:1 debater:1 although:1 usually:1 fiercely:1 competitive:1 adversarial:1 major:1 work:1 principle:2 morality:1 natural:1 religion:1 equity:1 introduction:1 art:1 thinking:1 element:1 criticism:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 guide:1 online:1 library:1 liberty:1 |@bigram lord_kames:5 hunter_gatherer:1 glasgow_edinburgh:1 david_hume:1 james_boswell:2 lord_monboddo:1 external_link:1 |
7,318 | May_31 | Events 1279 BC – Rameses II (The Great) (19th dynasty) becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. 526 AD – A devastating earthquake strikes Antioch, Turkey, killing 250,000. 1223 – Mongol invasion of the Cumans: Battle of the Kalka River – Mongol armies of Genghis Khan led by Subutai defeat Kievan Rus and Cumans. 1578 – Martin Frobisher sails from Harwich, England to Frobisher Bay, Canada, eventually to mine fool's gold, used to pave streets in London. 1669 – Citing poor eyesight, Samuel Pepys records the last event in his diary. 1678 – The Godiva procession through Coventry begins. 1759 – The Province of Pennsylvania bans all theater productions. 1775 – American Revolution: The Mecklenburg Resolutions adopted in the Province of North Carolina 1790 – Alferez Manuel Quimper explores the Strait of Juan de Fuca. 1790 – The United States enacts its first copyright statute, the Copyright Act of 1790. 1813 – In Australia, Lawson, Blaxland and Wentworth, reached Mount Blaxland, effectively marking the end of a route across the Blue Mountains. 1859 – Big Ben Starts keeping time. 1862 – American Civil War Peninsula Campaign: Battle of Seven Pines or (Battle of Fair Oaks) – Confederate forces under Joseph E. Johnston & G. W. Smith engage Union forces under George B. McClellan outside Richmond, Virginia. 1864 – American Civil War Overland Campaign: Battle of Cold Harbor – The Army of Northern Virginia under Robert E. Lee engages the Army of the Potomac under Ulysses S. Grant & George G. Meade. 1866 – In the Fenian Invasion of Canada, John O'Neill leads 850 Fenian raiders across the Niagara River at Buffalo, New York/Fort Erie, Ontario, as part of an effort to free Ireland from the English. Canadian militia and British regulars repulse the invaders in over the next three days, at a cost of 9 dead and 38 wounded to the Fenian's 19 dead and about 17 wounded. 1884 –Arrival at Plymouth of Tawhiao, King of Maoris, to claim protection of Queen Victoria 1889 – Johnstown Flood: Over 2,200 people die after a dam break sends a 60-foot (18-meter) wall of water over the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. 1902 – Second Boer War: The Treaty of Vereeniging ends the war and ensures British control of South Africa. 1910 – Creation of the Union of South Africa. 1911 – R.M.S. Titanic launched. 1916 – World War I: Battle of Jutland – The British Grand Fleet under the command of Sir John Jellicoe & Sir David Beatty engage the Kaiserliche Marine under the command of Reinhard Scheer & Franz von Hipper in the largest naval battle of the war, which proves indecisive. 1921 – Tulsa Race Riot: A civil unrest in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States, the official death toll is 39, but recent investigations suggest the actual toll may be much higher. 1924 – The Soviet Union signs an agreement with the Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China", whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect. 1927 – The last Ford Model T rolls off the assembly line after a production run of 15,007,003 vehicles. 1931 – 7.1 magnitude Earthquake destroys Quetta in modern-day Pakistan: 40,000 dead. 1941 – A Luftwaffe air raid in Dublin, Ireland claims 38 lives. 1942 – World War II: Imperial Japanese Navy midget submarines begin a series of attacks on Sydney, Australia. 1943 – Zoot Suit Riots begin 1961 – Republic of South Africa created. 1962 – The West Indies Federation dissolves. 1970 – The Ancash earthquake causes a landslide that buries the town of Yungay, Peru; more than 47,000 people are killed. 1971 – In accordance with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act passed by the U.S. Congress in 1968, observation of Memorial Day occurs on the last Monday in May for the first time, rather than on the traditional Memorial Day of May 30. 1973 – The United States Senate votes to cut off funding for the bombing of Khmer Rouge targets within Cambodia, hastening the end of the Cambodian Civil War. 1977 – The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System completed. 1981 – Burning of Jaffna library, Sri Lanka, It was one of the violent examples of ethnic biblioclasm of the twentieth century. 1985 – 1985 United States-Canadian tornado outbreak: Forty-one tornadoes hit Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, leaving 76 dead. 1985 – Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) became a Schedule I drug in the United States. 1987 – Athena 98.4 FM, the first legal private radio station starts broadcasting in Greece. 2009 – Rafael Nadal loses for the first time ever at the 2009 French Open against Robin Soderling. The final score was 6-2, 6-7 (2), 6-4, 7-6 (2) to Soderling. Births 1443 – Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII of England (d. 1509) 1469 – Manuel I of Portugal (d. 1521) 1535 – Alessandro Allori, Italian painter (d. 1607) 1557 – Feodor I of Russia (d. 1598) 1613 – John George II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1680) 1640 – Michał Wiśniowiecki, King of Poland (d. 1673) 1656 – Marin Marais, French composer (d. 1728) 1732 – Count Hieronymus von Colloredo, Archbishop of Salzburg (d. 1812) 1753 – Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud, French revolutionary (d. 1793) 1754 – Andrea Appiani, Italian painter (d. 1817) 1773 – Ludwig Tieck, German writer (d. 1853) 1801 – Johann Georg Baiter, Swiss philologist (d. 1887) 1818 – John Albion Andrew, 25th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1867) 1819 – Walt Whitman, American poet (d. 1892) 1835 – Hijikata Toshizō, Japanese military leader (d. 1869) 1838 – Henry Sidgwick, English philosopher (d. 1900) 1852 – Francisco Moreno, Argentine explorer (d. 1919) 1857 – Pope Pius XI (d. 1939) 1860 – Walter Sickert, English painter (d. 1942) 1863 – Francis Younghusband, British explorer (d. 1942) 1872 – Heath Robinson, English cartoonist (d. 1944) 1882 – Sándor Graf Festetics, Hungarian politician (d. 1956) 1883 – Lauri Kristian Relander, 2nd President of Finland (d. 1942) 1885 – Alois Hudal, bishop, helped Nazis escape trial (d. 1963) 1887 – Saint-John Perse, French diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975) 1892 – Michel Kikoine, Belarus painter (d. 1968) 1892 – Konstantin Georgiyevich Paustovsky, Russian writer (d. 1968) 1892 – Gregor Strasser, German Nazi politician (d. 1934) 1894 – Fred Allen, American comedian (d. 1956) 1898 – Dr. Norman Vincent Peale, American clergyman (d. 1993) 1901 – Alfredo Antonini, American conductor and composer (d. 1983) 1905 – Florence Desmond, English actress and comedian (d. 1993) 1908 – Don Ameche, American actor (d. 1993) 1908 – Nils Poppe, Swedish actor (d. 2000) 1909 – Aurore Gagnon, French Canadian victim of child abuse (d. 1920) 1911 – Maurice Allais, French economist, Nobel Prize laureate 1912 – Alfred Deller, English countertenor (d. 1979) 1914 – Akira Ifukube, Japanese composer (d. 2006) 1916 – Bert Haanstra, Dutch filmmaker (d. 1997) 1921 – Alida Valli, Italian actress (d. 2006) 1921 – Howard Reig, American radio and television announcer (d. 2008) 1922 – Denholm Elliott, English actor (d. 1992) 1923 – Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (d. 2005) 1930 – Clint Eastwood, American film director and actor 1931 – John Robert Schrieffer, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1931 – Shirley Verrett, American soprano 1932 – Ed Lincoln, Brazilian musician, producer 1932 – Jay Miner, American microchip designer (d. 1994) 1933 – Henry B. Eyring, LDS apostle, son of award-winning chemist Henry Eyring 1935 – Jim Bolger, 35th Prime Minister of New Zealand 1938 – Johnny Paycheck, American singer (d. 2003) 1938 – John Prescott, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1938 – Peter Yarrow, American folk singer (Peter, Paul and Mary) 1939 – Terry Waite, British humanitarian 1940 – Gilbert Shelton, American underground comics illustrator 1941 – Louis J. Ignarro, American pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate 1943 – Sharon Gless, American actress 1943 – Joe Namath, American football player 1945 – Rainer Werner Fassbinder, German film director (d. 1982) 1945 – Bernard Goldberg, American journalist 1946 – Ted Baehr, American media critic 1946 – Steve Bucknor, West Indian Cricket Umpire 1947 – Junior Campbell, British musician and songwriter (The Marmalade) 1948 – John Bonham, British musician (Led Zeppelin) (d. 1980) 1948 – Duncan Hunter, American politician, 2008 presidential candidate 1949 – Tom Berenger, American actor 1949 – Nancy Shade, American soprano 1950 – Gregory Harrison, American actor 1952 – Karl Bartos, German musician (Kraftwerk, Electronic) 1953 – Pirkka-Pekka Petelius, Finnish actor 1954 – Vicki Sue Robinson, American singer (d. 2000) 1954 – Thomas Mavros, Greek footballer 1955 – Tommy Emmanuel, Australian Guitarist CGP 1956 – Fritz Hilpert, German musician and sound engineer (Kraftwerk) 1957 – Jim Craig, American hockey player 1959 – Andrea de Cesaris, Italian racing driver 1960 – Greg C. Adams, Canadian ice hockey player 1960 – Chris Elliott, American comedian 1961 – Ray Cote, Canadian ice hockey player 1961 – Lea Thompson, American actress 1962 – Corey Hart, Canadian musician 1962 – Sebastian Koch, German actor 1963 – Hugh Dillon, Canadian musician and actor 1963 – Viktor Orbán, Hungarian politician 1963 – Wesley Willis, American musician (d. 2003) 1964 – Leonard Asper, Canadian businessman 1964 – Scotti Hill, American rock guitarist 1964 – Darryl McDaniels, American musician (Run-D.M.C.) 1965 – Brooke Shields, American actress and supermodel 1966 – Jeremy Hotz, Canadian stand-up comedian 1966 – Nick Scotti, American actor and singer 1967 – Sandrine Bonnaire, French actress 1967 – Phil Keoghan, New Zealand television personality 1967 – Kenny Lofton, American baseball player 1967 – Vampiro, Canadian professional wrestler 1972 – Frode Estil, Norwegian cross-country skier 1972 – Sarah Murdoch, Australian model 1972 – Karl Geary, Irish actor 1972 – Dave Roberts, American baseball player 1973 – Dominique Van Roost, Belgian tennis player 1974 – Chad Campbell, American golfer 1974 – Zsolt Erdei, Hungarian light heavyweight boxer 1974 – Adrian Tomine, American cartoonist 1974 – Sean Kent, American stand-up comedian, actor and writer 1976 – Colin Farrell, Irish actor 1976 – Matt Harpring, American basketball player 1977 – Eric Christian Olsen, American actor 1977 – Theodoros Baev, Bulgarian-born Greek volleyball player 1977 – Debbie King, English TV presenter 1977 – Scott Klopfenstein, American musician (Reel Big Fish) 1977 – Phil Devey, Canadian baseball player 1977 – Domenico Fioravanti, Italian swimmer 1977 – Greg Leeb, Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Joachim Olsen, Danish athlete 1977 – Joel Ross, British disc jockey 1977 – June Sarpong, British television presenter 1977 – Moses Sichone, Zambian footballer 1977 – Petr Tenkrát, Czech ice hockey player 1980 – Craig Bolton, Australian rules footballer 1980 – Andy Hurley, American musician (Fall Out Boy) 1981 – Jake Peavy, American baseball player 1982 – Jonathan Tucker, American actor 1983 – David Hernandez, American singer 1983 – Dustin Wells, New Zealand footballer 1983 – Reggie Yates, English television presenter 1984 – Nate Robinson, American basketball player 1984 – Jason Smith, Australian actor 1985 – Ian Vouyoukas, Greek basketball player 1986 – Robert Gesink, Dutch cyclist 1986 – Sopho Khalvashi, Georgian musical artist 1986 – Melissa McIntyre, Canadian actress 1988 – Hope Partlow, American singer 1990 – Erik Karlsson, Swedish Ice Hockey Player 1994 – Shim Eun-kyung, South Korean child actress Deaths 1246 – Isabella of Angouleme, queen of John of England 1349 – Thomas Wake, English politician (b. 1297) 1408 – Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shogun (b. 1358) 1410 – King Martin I of Aragon (b. 1356) 1495 – Cecily Neville, mother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England, (b. 1415) 1558 – Philip Hoby, English politician (b. 1505) 1567 – Guido de Bres, Belgian theologian (b. 1522) 1594 – Tintoretto, Italian painter (b. 1518) 1680 – Joachim Neander, German clergyman (b. 1650) 1740 – King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia (b. 1688) 1747 – Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (b. 1686) 1799 – Pierre Lemonnier, French astronomer (b. 1715) 1809 – Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer (b. 1732) 1809 – Jean Lannes, French marshal (b. 1769) 1831 – Samuel Bentham, British mechanical engineer (b. 1757) 1832 – Évariste Galois, French mathematician (b. 1811) 1837 – Joseph Grimaldi, British clown (b. 1779) 1846 – Philip Marheineke, German clergyman (b. 1780) 1847 – Thomas Chalmers, Scottish pastor (b. 1780) 1848 – Eugénie de Guérin, French writer (b. 1805) 1908 – Louis-Honoré Fréchette, French Canadian poet (b. 1839) 1910 – Elizabeth Blackwell, American physician (b. 1821) 1931 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, French Canadian cardinal, archbishop of Quebec (b. 1866) 1945 – Odilo Globocnik, Austrian nazi (b. 1904) 1957 – Leopold Staff, Polish poet (b. 1878) 1960 – Willem 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1920) 1997 – James Bennett Griffin, American archaeologist (b. 1905) 1998 – Charles Van Acker, Belgian racing driver (b. 1912) 2000 – Tito Puente, American musician (b. 1923) 2000 – Johnnie Taylor, American singer (b. 1938) 2001 – Arlene Francis, American television personality (d. 1907) 2004 – Robert Quine, American guitarist (b. 1941) 2004 – Étienne Roda-Gil, French songwriter and screenwriter (b. 1941) 2006 – Ryan Bennett, broadcast commentator (b. 1970) 2006 – Miguel Berrocal, sculptor (b. 1933) 2006 – Raymond Davis Jr., American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1914) 2006 – Lula Mae Hardaway, American songwriter, mother of singer Stevie Wonder (b. 1930) 2009 – Millvina Dean, last living survivor of the RMS Titanic disaster died. (b. 1912) 2009 – George Tiller, American abortion doctor (b. 1941) Holidays and observances 2009: Christian festival of Pentecost. World No Tobacco Day Brunei: Royal Brunei Armed Forces Day Castile-La Mancha: Castile-La Mancha Day Labuan, Sabah: Second day of Kaamatan harvest festival. Discordianism: Syaday (5th day of the season of Confusion, honors Apostle Sri Syadasti). 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7,319 | Douglas_Engelbart | Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart (born January 30, 1925) is an American inventor and early computer pioneer of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent.<ref>Lowood, Henry (Dec. 19, 1986): Douglas Engelbart Interview 1, Stanford and the Silicon Valley. Oral History Interviews.</ref> He is best known for inventing the computer mouse, BBC News Online: The Man behind the Mouse as a pioneer of human-computer interaction whose team developed hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to GUIs; and as a committed and vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and networks to help cope with the world’s increasingly urgent and complex problems. The Unfinished Revolution II: Strategy and Means for Coping with Complex Problems, Colloquium at Stanford University, Jan–Mar 2000. His lab at SRI was responsible for more breakthrough innovation than possibly any other lab before or since. Engelbart had embedded in his lab a set of organizing principles, which he termed his "bootstrapping strategy", which he specifically designed to bootstrap and accelerate the rate of innovation achievable About a Bootstrapping Strategy - an introduction with links to source materials . Early life and education Engelbart was born in the U.S. state of Oregon on January 30, 1925 to Carl Louis Engelbart and Gladys Charlotte Amelia Munson Engelbart. He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne (3 years older), and a brother David (14 months younger). They lived in Portland in his early years, and moved to the countryside to a place called Johnson Creek when he was 9 or 10, after the death of his father. He graduated from Portland's Franklin High School in 1942. Midway through his college studies at Oregon State University (then called Oregon State College), just at the end of World War II, he was drafted into the Navy, serving two years as a radar technician in the Philippines. It was there on a small island in a tiny hut up on stilts that he first read Vannevar Bush's article "As We May Think", which greatly inspired him. He returned to Oregon State and completed his Bachelor's degree in Electrical Engineering in 1948, a B.Eng. from UC Berkeley in 1952, http://dougengelbart.org/about/cv.html and a Ph.D. in EECS from UC Berkeley in 1955. While at Oregon State, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity. As a graduate student at Berkeley he assisted in the construction of the California Digital Computer project CALDIC. His graduate work led to several patents Engelbart Patents . After completing his PhD he stayed on at Berkeley to teach for a year, and left when it was clear he could not pursue his vision there. He then formed a startup, Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctorate research on storage devices, but after a year decided instead to find a venue where he could pursue the research he had been dreaming of since 1951 (see Epiphany). Career and accomplishments The first computer mouse held by Engelbart showing the wheels that directly contact the working surface. Epiphany Doug Engelbart's career was inspired in 1951 when he got engaged and suddenly realized he had no career goals beyond getting a good education and a decent job. Over several months he reasoned that (1) he would focus his career on making the world a better place, (2) any serious effort to make the world better requires some kind of organized effort, (3) harnessing the collective human intellect of all the people contributing to the solution was the key, (4) if you could dramatically improve how we do that you'd be boosting every effort on the planet to solve important problems, and the sooner the better (5) computers could be the vehicle for doing all this. Several years prior, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bush's article "As We May Think", a call to arms for making knowledge widely available as a national peacetime grand challenge. Doug had also read something about computers (a relatively recent phenomenon), and from his experience as a radar technician he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen. He suddenly envisioned intellectual workers sitting at display 'working stations', flying through information space, harnessing their collective intellectual capacity to solve important problems together in much more powerful ways. Harnessing collective intellect, facilitated by interactive computers, became his life's mission at a time when computers were viewed as number crunching tools. He went to UC Berkeley to learn everything he could about computers, got his PhD, was told to be very careful about who he talked to about his "wild" ideas. After a year of teaching at Berkeley as Acting Assistant Professor, he took a position at Stanford Research Institute (SRI), in Menlo Park hoping one day to pursue his vision there. He initially worked for Hewitt Crane on devices. He and Hew became lifelong friends. SRI and ARC At SRI, Engelbart gradually proved himself with over a dozen patents to his name (some resulting from his graduate work), and within a few years was funded to produce a report about his vision and proposed research agenda titled Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework. This led to funding from ARPA to launch his work. Engelbart recruited a research team in his new Augmentation Research Center (ARC, the lab he founded at SRI), and became the driving force behind the design and development of the On-Line System, or NLS. He and his team developed computer-interface elements such as bit-mapped screens, the mouse, hypertext, collaborative tools, and precursors to the graphical user interface. He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas back in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most individuals were kept away from computers, and could only use computers through intermediaries (see batch processing), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems. Two Apple Macintosh Plus mice, 1986 In 1967, Engelbart applied for, and in 1970 he received a patent for the wooden shell with two metal wheels (computer mouse ), which he had developed with Bill English, his lead engineer, a few years earlier. In the patent application it is described as an "X-Y position indicator for a display system". Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the "mouse" because the tail came out the end. His group also called the on-screen cursor a "bug," but this term was not widely adopted. He never received any royalties for his mouse invention. During an interview, he says "SRI patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later it was learned that they had licensed it to Apple for something like $40,000." Engelbart showcased many of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at the so-called mother of all demos. Engelbart, Douglas C., et al. (1968), "SRI-ARC. A technical session presentation at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco, Dec. 9, 1968" (NLS demo ’68: The computer mouse debut), 11 film reels and 6 video tapes (100 min.), Engelbart Collection, Stanford University Library, Menlo Park (CA). ARPANET Because Engelbart's research and tool-development for online collaboration and interactive human-computer interfaces was partially funded by ARPA, SRI's ARC became involved with the ARPANET (the precursor of the Internet). On October 29, 1969, the world's first electronic computer network, the ARPANET, was established between nodes at Leonard Kleinrock's lab at UCLA and Engelbart's lab at SRI. Interface Message Processors at both sites served as the backbone of the first Internet . In addition to SRI and UCLA, UCSB, and the University of Utah were part of the original four network nodes. By December 5, 1969, the entire 4-node network was connected. ARC soon became the first Network Information Center and thus managed the directory for connections among all ARPANET nodes. ARC also published a large percentage of the early Request For Comments, an ongoing series of publications that document the evolution of ARPANET/Internet. Anecdotal Notes Historian of science Thierry Bardini has argued that Engelbart's complex personal philosophy (which drove all his research endeavors) foreshadowed the modern application of the concept of coevolution to the philosophy and use of technology. Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the principle of linguistic relativity developed by Benjamin Lee Whorf. Thierry Bardini & Michael Friedewald, Chronicle of the Death of a Laboratory: Douglas Engelbart and the Failure of the Knowledge Workshop, History of Technology 23, 2002, p193. Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved technologies. He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work. Engelbart's philosophy and research agenda is most clearly and directly expressed in the 1962 research report which Engelbart refers to as his 'bible': Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework. The concept of network-augmented intelligence is attributed to Engelbart based on this pioneering work. End of research career and subsequent developments Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity after 1976 due to various misfortunes and misunderstandings. Several of Engelbart's best researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for Xerox PARC, in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing. Engelbart saw the future in collaborative, networked, timeshare (client-server) computers, which younger programmers rejected in favor of the personal computer. The conflict was both technical and social: the younger programmers came from an era where centralized power was highly suspect, and personal computing was just barely on the horizon. In his book about Engelbart, Bardini points out that in the early 1970s, several key ARC personnel were briefly involved in Erhard Seminars Training. Although EST seemed like a good idea at first, the controversial nature of EST reduced the morale and social cohesion of the ARC community. The Mansfield Amendment, the end of the Vietnam War, and the end of the Apollo program reduced ARC's funding from ARPA and NASA. SRI's management, which disapproved of Engelbart's approach to running the center, placed the remains of ARC under the control of artificial intelligence researcher Bertram Raphael, who negotiated the transfer of the laboratory to a company called Tymshare. Engelbart's house in Atherton burned down during this period, causing him and his family even further problems. Tymshare took over NLS and the lab that Engelbart had founded, hired most of the lab's staff including its creator as a Senior Scientist, renamed the software Augment, and offered it as a commercial service via its new Office Automation Division. Tymshare was already somewhat familiar with NLS; back when ARC was still operational, it had experimented with its own local copy of the NLS software on a minicomputer called OFFICE-1, as part of a joint project with ARC. At Tymshare, Engelbart soon found himself marginalized and relegated to obscurity—operational concerns at Tymshare overrode Engelbart's desire to do further research. Various executives, first at Tymshare and later at McDonnell Douglas (which took over Tymshare in 1982), expressed interest in his ideas, but never committed the funds or the people to further develop them. His interest inside of McDonnell Douglas was focused on the enormous knowledge management and IT requirements involved in the lifecycle of an aerospace program, which served to strengthen Doug's resolve to motivate the IT arena toward global interoperability and an open hyperdocument system About an Open Hyperdocument System an introduction with links to Doug's key writings on the subject . Engelbart retired from McDonnell Douglas in 1986, determined to raise a flag on neutral ground where he could pursue his work in earnest. Teaming with his daughter, Christina Engelbart, in 1988 he founded the Bootstrap Institute with modest funding to coalesce his ideas into a series of three-day and half-day management seminars offered at Stanford University 1989 - 2000, which served to refine his ideas while inspiring candidate participants. By the early 1990s there was sufficient interest among his seminar graduates to launch a collaborative implementation of his work, and the Bootstrap Alliance was formed as a non-profit home base for this effort. Although the invasion of Iraq and subsequent recession spawned a rash of belt-tightening reorgs which drastically redirected the efforts of their alliance partners, they continued with the management seminars, consulting, and small-scale collaborations. In the mid-1990s they were awarded some DARPA funding to develop a modern user interface to Augment, called Visual AugTerm (VAT), while participating in a larger program addressing the IT requirements of the Joint Task Force. Honors Since the late 1980s, prominent individuals and organizations have recognized the seminal importance of Engelbart's contributions Honors Awarded to Doug Engelbart : In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award. In 1997 he was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the Turing Award. In 1998 the Stanford Silicon Valley Archives and the Institute for the Future hosted Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution, a large symposium at Stanford University's Memorial Auditorium, to honor Engelbart and his ideas, and ACM SIGCHI awarded him the CHI Lifetime Achievement Award (and inducted him into the CHI Academy in 2002). In early 2000 Engelbart produced, with a dedicated team of volunteers and financial supporters, what was called the Engelbart Colloquium or The Unfinished Revolution - II, at Stanford University. The Colloquium was meant to document and publicize his work and ideas to a large audience (live, and online). The archives of this Engelbart UnRev-II Colloquium at Stanford, as well as the video on the 8-Dec-1998 "Doug Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution" Symposium, are still available online as of this writing (December 2008). In December 2000, US President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the United States' highest technology award. In 2001 Engelbart was awarded a British Computer Society's Lovelace Medal, and in 2005 he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum and honored with the Norbert Wiener Award, which is given annually by Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility. Robert X. Cringely did an hour long interview with Mr. Engelbart on 9 Dec 2005 in his NerdTV video podcast series. At present The most complete coverage of Engelbart's bootstrapping ideas can be found in Boosting Our Collective IQ Engelbart Books , by Douglas C. Engelbart, 1995. This is a special keepsake including three of Engelbart's key papers, artfully edited and produced into book form by Yuri Rubinsky and Christina Engelbart to commemorate the presentation of the 1995 SoftQuad Web Award to Doug Engelbart at the World Wide Web conference in Boston that December, honoring his early and seminal contribution to the hypertext systems. Only 2,000 softcover copies were printed, and 100 hardcover, numbered and signed by Doug Engelbart and Tim Berners-Lee. 30 pages, 5.5″×9″ includes Epilogue and details of the Award. Engelbart's book is now being republished by the Doug Engelbart Institute. Two comprehensive histories of Engelbart's laboratory and work are in What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry by John Markoff and A Heritage of Innovation: SRI's First Half Century by Donald Neilson. Other books on Engelbart and his laboratory include Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing by Thierry Bardini and a yet unpublished book, Evolving Collective Intelligence, by Valerie Landau and Eileen Clegg. All four of these books are based on interviews with Engelbart as well as other contributors in his laboratory. He is now Founder Emeritus of the Doug Engelbart Institute, which he founded in 1988 with his daughter Christina Engelbart, who is now Executive Director. The Institute promotes Engelbart's philosophy for boosting Collective IQ—the concept of dramatically improving how we can solve important problems together—using a strategic bootstrapping'' approach for accelerating our progress toward that goal. Doug's Vision Highlights: Augmenting Society's Collective IQ In 2005 Engelbart received a National Science Foundation grant to fund the open source HyperScope project. The Hyperscope team built a browser component using Ajax and DHTML designed to replicate Augment's multiple viewing and jumping capabilities (linking within and across various documents). HyperScope is perceived as the first step of a process designed to engage a wider community in a dialogue, on development of collaborative software and services, based on Engelbart's goals and research. The Doug Engelbart Institute is now based at SRI International. Doug Engelbart has been serving on the board of advisors of The Hyperwords Company Ltd of the UK since its inception in 2006. The company works to make the web more usefully interactive and which has produced the free Firefox Add-On called 'Hyperwords'. http://www.hyperwords.net/about_us_adv.html On December 9, 2008, Engelbart was honored at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 "Mother of All Demos". Engelbart and the Dawn of Interactive Computing This event, produced by SRI International, was held at Memorial Auditorium at Stanford University. Speakers included several members of Engelbart's original Augmentation Research Center (ARC) team including Don Andrews, Bill Paxton, Bill English, and Jeff Rulifson, Engelbart's chief government sponsor Bob Taylor, and other pioneers of interactive computing, including Andy van Dam and Alan Kay. In addition, Christina Engelbart spoke about her father's early influences and the ongoing work of the Doug Engelbart Institute. Family Dr. Engelbart has four children, Gerda, Diana, Christina and Norman with his late wife of 47 years, Ballard who died in 1997. He has nine grandchildren. Douglas Engelbart married Karen O'Leary in 2008. References Further reading External links http://dougengelbart.org - Doug Engelbart's official website and home of the Doug Engelbart Institute(formerly Bootstrap) Engelbart's Bio, Patents, Awards, Curriculum Vitae A Lifetime Pursuit - a short chronicle of his work by Christina Engelbart Engelbart's Vision and Mission Statements; Dec. 1999 Engelbart cousre facilitated by Valerie Landau at CSU Monterey Bay U.C. Berkeley Lecture in IEOR 190C Feb. 2008 Douglas C. Engelbart Papers, 1953-2005(call number M0638; 464 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution; December 1998 at Stanford University Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution II Colloquium; Jan. ~ Mar. 2000 at Stanford University (view the sessions) [ Engelbart and the Dawn of Interactive Computing] - Dec 9, 2008 - 40th anniversary commemorative event Interview with Doug Engelbart on 40th Anniversary of the Mouse "Program for the Future" The History of Doug Engelbart and Interactive Computing Sloan Project MouseSite - Tim Lenoir, Stanford University The Study of Engelbart: An Educational Networked Improvement Community California State University Student Wiki studying Engelbart, Directed by Valerie Landau As We May Work - the Pursuit of Collective IQ, from IBM Symposium site Out of School: Doug Engelbart's Experience Shows That Even the Best Technology Can Be Ignored If It Is Difficult to Classify, column by Robert X. Cringely, 2004 Wired article: The Click Heard Round The World Transcript of 2003 visit to San Jose State University Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality, by Randall Packer Doug Engelbart: Father of the Mouse Doug Engelbart 1968 Demo Original 90-minute video from MouseSite Doug Engelbart 1968 Demo on Google Video OpenAugment Consortium, dedicated to the preservation of the Augment system SRI mouse Nerd TV, Inventor of the mouse hour long video interview by Robert X. Cringely Channel9 @MSDN Interview with Douglas Engelbart. "A Manifesto for Collaborative Tools", by Eugene Eric Kim "Douglas Engelbart interview" Interview with Douglas Engelbart, December 19, 1986. "Collective IQ and Human Augmentation", Interview with Douglas Engelbart, April 4, 2007. Douglas Engelbart and Valerie Landau January 2008 interview by Robert Scoble CNET's Photo Gallery about Douglas Engelbart's demo. | Douglas_Engelbart |@lemmatized dr:2 douglas:17 c:5 engelbart:100 born:1 january:3 american:1 inventor:2 early:9 computer:28 pioneer:3 german:1 swedish:1 norwegian:1 descent:1 ref:2 lowood:1 henry:1 dec:6 interview:12 stanford:14 silicon:2 valley:2 oral:1 history:5 best:3 know:2 invent:1 mouse:14 bbc:1 news:1 online:4 man:1 behind:2 human:6 interaction:1 whose:1 team:7 develop:9 hypertext:3 networked:3 precursor:3 guis:1 committed:1 vocal:1 proponent:1 development:5 use:5 network:6 help:1 cope:1 world:8 increasingly:1 urgent:1 complex:3 problem:6 unfinished:6 revolution:7 ii:5 strategy:3 mean:2 cop:1 colloquium:5 university:15 jan:2 mar:2 lab:8 sri:15 responsible:1 breakthrough:1 innovation:4 possibly:1 since:4 embed:1 set:2 organize:1 principle:2 term:2 bootstrapping:5 specifically:1 design:4 bootstrap:4 accelerate:2 rate:1 achievable:1 introduction:2 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|@bigram douglas_engelbart:10 silicon_valley:2 bbc_news:1 vannevar_bush:2 bachelor_degree:1 uc_berkeley:3 sigma_phi:1 phi_epsilon:1 doug_engelbart:18 menlo_park:2 conceptual_framework:2 graphical_user:1 user_interface:3 apple_macintosh:1 et_al:1 san_francisco:1 lee_whorf:1 xerox_parc:1 client_server:1 artificial_intelligence:1 mcdonnell_douglas:3 christina_engelbart:5 memorial_auditorium:2 lifetime_achievement:1 bill_clinton:1 norbert_wiener:1 tim_berners:1 berners_lee:1 http_www:1 bill_paxton:1 alan_kay:1 external_link:1 curriculum_vitae:1 monterey_bay:1 san_jose:1 photo_gallery:1 |
7,320 | Morphogenesis | Morphogenesis (from the Greek morphê shape and genesis creation, literally, "beginning of the shape"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape. It is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation. The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by environmental chemicals ranging from substances produced by other organisms to toxic chemicals or radionuclides released as pollutants, and other plants, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses. Morphogenesis also describes the development of unicellular life forms that do not have an embryonic stage in their life cycle, or describes the evolution of a body structure within a taxonomic group. History Some of the earliest ideas on how physical and mathematical processes and constraints affect biological growth were written by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson and Alan Turing. These works postulated the presence of chemical signals and physico-chemical processes such as diffusion, activation, and deactivation in cellular and organismic growth. The fuller understanding of the mechanisms involved in actual organisms required the discovery of DNA and the development of molecular biology and biochemistry. Molecular basis Several types of molecules are particularly important during morphogenesis. Morphogens are soluble molecules that can diffuse and carry signals that control cell differentiation decisions in a concentration-dependent fashion. Morphogens typically act through binding to specific protein receptors. An important class of molecules involved in morphogenesis are transcription factor proteins that determine the fate of cells by interacting with DNA. These can be coded for by master regulatory genes and either activate or deactivate the transcription of other genes; in turn, these secondary gene products can regulate the expression of still other genes in a regulatory cascade. Another class of molecules involved in morphogenesis are molecules that control cell adhesion. For example, during gastrulation, clumps of stem cells switch off their cell-to-cell adhesion, become migratory, and take up new positions within an embryo where they again activate specific cell adhesion proteins and form new tissues and organs. Several examples that illustrate the roles of morphogens, transcription factors and cell adhesion molecules in morphogenesis are discussed below. Cellular basis Example of cell sorting out with cultured P19 embryonal carcinoma cells. Live cells were stained with either DiI (red) or DiO (green). The red cells were genetically altered and express higher levels of E-cadherin than the green cells. After labeling, the two populations of cells were mixed and cultured together allowing the cells to form large multi-cellular mixed aggregates. Individual cells are less than 10 micrometres in diameter. The image was captured by scanning confocal microscopy. Morphogenesis arises because of changes in the cellular structure or how cells interact in tissues . Certain cell types "sort out". Cell "sorting out" means that when the cells physically interact they move so as to sort into clusters that maximize contact between cells of the same type. The ability of cells to do this comes from differential cell adhesion. Two well-studied types of cells that sort out are epithelial cells and mesenchymal cells. During embryonic development there are some cellular differentiation events during which mesenchymal cells become epithelial cells and at other times epithelial cells differentiate into mesenchymal cells (see Epithelial-mesenchymal transition). Following epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cells can migrate away from an epithelium and then associate with other similar cells in a new location. Adhesion During embryonic development, cells sort out in different layers due to differential adhesion. Cells that share the same cell-to-cell adhesion molecules separate from cells that have different adhesion molecules. Cells sort based upon differences in adhesion between the cells, so even two populations of cells with different levels of the same adhesion molecule can sort out. In cell culture cells that have the strongest adhesion move to the center of a mixed aggregates of cells. The molecules responsible for adhesion are called cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). Several types of cell adhesion molecules are known and one major class of these molecules are cadherins. There are dozens of different cadherins that are expressed on different cell types. Cadherins bind to other cadherins in a like-to-like manner: E-cadherin (found on many epithelial cells) binds preferentially to other E-cadherin molecules. Mesenchymal cells usually express other cadherin types such as N-cadherin. Extracellular Matrix The extracellular matrix (ECM) is involved with separating tissues, providing structural support or providing a structure for cells to migrate on. Collagen, laminin, and fibronectin are major ECM molecules that are secreted and assembled into sheets, fibers, and gels. Multisubunit transmembrane receptors called integrins are used to bind to the ECM. Integrins bind extracellularly to fibronectin, laminin, or other ECM components, and intracellularly to microfilament-binding proteins α-actinin and talin to link the cytoskeleton with the outside. Integrins also serve as receptors to trigger signal transduction cascades when binding to the ECM. A well-studied example of morphogenesis that involves ECM is mammary gland ductal branching , . See also Embryogenesis Pattern formation French flag model Reaction-diffusion Neurulation Gastrulation Axon guidance Eye development Polycystic kidney disease 2 Drosophila embryogenesis Manuel DeLanda References External links Artificial Life model of multicellular morphogenesis with autonomously generated gradients for positional information | Morphogenesis |@lemmatized morphogenesis:10 greek:1 morphê:1 shape:3 genesis:1 creation:1 literally:1 beginning:1 biological:2 process:4 cause:1 organism:6 develop:1 one:2 three:1 fundamental:1 aspect:1 developmental:1 biology:2 along:1 control:4 cell:54 growth:3 cellular:6 differentiation:3 organize:1 spatial:2 distribution:1 embryonic:4 development:6 morphogenetic:1 response:1 may:1 induce:2 hormone:1 environmental:1 chemical:4 range:1 substance:1 produce:1 toxic:1 radionuclides:1 release:1 pollutant:1 plant:1 mechanical:1 stress:1 patterning:1 take:2 place:1 embyro:1 mature:1 culture:3 inside:1 tumor:1 mass:1 also:3 describe:2 unicellular:1 life:3 form:3 stage:1 cycle:1 evolution:1 body:1 structure:3 within:2 taxonomic:1 group:1 history:1 early:1 idea:1 physical:1 mathematical:1 constraint:1 affect:1 write:1 arcy:1 wentworth:1 thompson:1 alan:1 turing:1 work:1 postulate:1 presence:1 signal:3 physico:1 diffusion:2 activation:1 deactivation:1 organismic:1 fuller:1 understanding:1 mechanism:1 involve:5 actual:1 require:1 discovery:1 dna:2 molecular:2 biochemistry:1 basis:2 several:3 type:7 molecule:15 particularly:1 important:2 morphogens:3 soluble:1 diffuse:1 carry:1 decision:1 concentration:1 dependent:1 fashion:1 typically:1 act:1 binding:2 specific:2 protein:4 receptor:3 class:3 transcription:3 factor:2 determine:1 fate:1 interact:3 cod:1 master:1 regulatory:2 gene:4 either:2 activate:2 deactivate:1 turn:1 secondary:1 product:1 regulate:1 expression:1 still:1 cascade:2 another:1 adhesion:15 example:4 gastrulation:2 clump:1 stem:1 switch:1 become:2 migratory:1 new:3 position:1 embryo:1 tissue:3 organ:1 illustrate:1 role:1 discuss:1 sort:8 cultured:1 embryonal:1 carcinoma:1 live:1 stain:1 dii:1 red:2 dio:1 green:2 genetically:1 alter:1 express:3 high:1 level:2 e:3 cadherin:5 label:1 two:3 population:2 mixed:3 together:1 allow:1 large:1 multi:1 aggregate:2 individual:1 less:1 micrometres:1 diameter:1 image:1 capture:1 scan:1 confocal:1 microscopy:1 arise:1 change:1 certain:1 mean:1 physically:1 move:2 cluster:1 maximize:1 contact:1 ability:1 come:1 differential:2 well:2 study:1 epithelial:6 mesenchymal:6 event:1 time:1 differentiate:1 see:2 transition:2 follow:1 migrate:2 away:1 epithelium:1 associate:1 similar:1 location:1 different:5 layer:1 due:1 share:1 separate:2 base:1 upon:1 difference:1 even:1 strong:1 center:1 responsible:1 call:2 cam:1 know:1 major:2 cadherins:4 dozen:1 bind:5 like:2 manner:1 find:1 many:1 preferentially:1 usually:1 n:1 extracellular:2 matrix:2 ecm:6 provide:2 structural:1 support:1 collagen:1 laminin:2 fibronectin:2 secrete:1 assemble:1 sheet:1 fiber:1 gel:1 multisubunit:1 transmembrane:1 integrins:3 use:1 extracellularly:1 component:1 intracellularly:1 microfilament:1 α:1 actinin:1 talin:1 link:2 cytoskeleton:1 outside:1 serve:1 trigger:1 transduction:1 studied:1 mammary:1 gland:1 ductal:1 branching:1 embryogenesis:2 pattern:1 formation:1 french:1 flag:1 model:2 reaction:1 neurulation:1 axon:1 guidance:1 eye:1 polycystic:1 kidney:1 disease:1 drosophila:1 manuel:1 delanda:1 reference:1 external:1 artificial:1 multicellular:1 autonomously:1 generate:1 gradient:1 positional:1 information:1 |@bigram developmental_biology:1 cellular_differentiation:2 alan_turing:1 physico_chemical:1 molecular_biology:1 biology_biochemistry:1 cell_adhesion:8 adhesion_molecule:6 confocal_microscopy:1 epithelial_cell:4 extracellular_matrix:2 transmembrane_receptor:1 signal_transduction:1 mammary_gland:1 polycystic_kidney:1 kidney_disease:1 external_link:1 |
7,321 | Herat | Herāt (), classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. It is situated in the valley of the Hari River, which flows from the mountains of central Afghanistan to the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan. Situated in a fertile area, Herāt was traditionally known for its wine. It is the second largest city in Afghanistan, with a population of 349,000 (2006 official estimate). Persian-speaking Tajiks (or Fārsīwān) are the main inhabitants of the city and the province, and are roughly the same as the Persians of Eastern Iran. Center Of Afghanistan Studies, University of Nebraska: "Ethnic composition of Afghanistan" in National Geographic Magazine, 2003 H. F. Schurmann, The Mongols of Afghanistan: an Ethnography of the Moghols and Related Peoples of Afghanistan. The Hague: Mouton, 1962: ; p. 75: "... the Tajiks of Western Afghanistan [are] roughly the same as the Khûrâsânî Persians on the other side of the line ..." Herat is an ancient city with many historic buildings, although these have suffered damage in various military conflicts during the last few decades. The city is dominated by the remains of a citadel constructed by Alexander the Great. During the Middle Ages Herat became one of the important cities of Khorasan, and it was known as the Pearl of Khorasan. Herāt is situated favorably on the ancient and historic trade routes of the Middle East, South Asia, Pakistan,China, India and Europe. The roads from Herāt to Iran, Turkmenistan, Mazar-e Sharif and Kandahar are still strategically important. History Herat dates back to ancient times, but its exact age remains unknown. In Achaemenid times (ca. 550-330 BC), the surrounding district was known as Haraiva (in Old Persian), and in classical sources the region was correspondingly known as Aria (Areia). In the Zoroastrian Avesta, the district is mentioned as Haroiva. The name of the district and its main town is derived from that of the chief river of the region, the Hari River (Old Iranian Harayu "with velocity"), which traverses the district and passes just south (5 km) of modern Herat. The naming of a region and its principal town after the main river is a common feature in this part of the world. (Compare the adjoining districts/rivers/towns of Arachosia and Bactria.) The Persian Achaemenid district of Aria is mentioned in the provincial lists that are included in various royal inscriptions, for instance, in the Behistun inscription of Darius I (ca. 520 BC). Representatives from the district are depicted in reliefs, e.g., at the royal Achaemenid tombs of Naqsh-e Rustam and Persepolis. Herodotus described Herat as the bread-basket of Central Asia. At the time of Alexander the Great, Aria was obviously an important district. It was administered by a satrap, called Satibarzanes, who was one of the three main Persian officials in the East of the Empire, together with the satrap Bessus of Bactria and Barsaentes of Arachosia. In late 330 BC Alexander the Great captured the Arian capital that was called Artacoana. The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed. It became part of the Seleucid Empire but was captured by others on various occasions and became part of the Parthian Empire in 167 BC. In the Sasanian period (226-652), "Harēv" is listed in an inscription on the Ka'ba-i Zartosht at Naqsh-e Rustam; and "Hariy" is mentioned in the Pahlavi catalogue of the provincial capitals of the empire. In around 430, the town is also listed as having a Christian community, with a Nestorian bishop. In the last two centuries of Sasanian rule, Aria (Herat) had great strategic importance in the endless wars between the Sasanians, the Chionites and the Hephthalites who had been settled in modern northern Afghanistan since the late fourth century. Islamic conquest The city of Herat became well known with the advent of the Arabs in the middle of the seventh century. When the Arab armies appeared in Khorasan in the 650s, Herat was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian Empire. Herat was taken in CE 652 by General Abdul Rehman ibn Samrah. Around 786-809 Herāt was part of the Abbasid caliphate, later, it was ruled by the Tahirid dynasty, and after 867-869, the Saffarid dynasty took control. Mahmud Ghazni captures Herat Herat was under the rule of King Nuh III at the time of Mahmud Ghazni. The governor of Herat at the time of Sebük Tigin and his son Mahmud Ghazni was a powerful noble by the name of Faik who governed on behalf of King Nuh III Samanid the seventh of the Samanid line .Faik was a powerful but insubordinate governor of Nuh111 and had been punished by Nuh III. Faik made overtures to Bogra Khan an Ughar Khan of Turkistan . Bogra Khan entered Herat and became its master , as the Samanids fled, betrayed at the hands of Faik who had been entrusted Herat by Nuh 111 for its defence. In 994 Nuh III invited Alptagin to come to his aid . Alptagin along with Mohmud Ghazni defeated Faik and annexed Herat , Nishapur and Tus . The heart of Asia: a history of Russian Turkestan and the Central Asian Khanates from the earliest times By Francis Henry Skrine, Edward Denison RossEdition: illustrated Published by Routledge, 2004 Page 117 ISBN 0700710175, 9780700710171 Before 1040 it was ruled by the Ghaznavids. In 1040 it was captured by the Seljuk Empire. In 1175 it was captured by the Ghorids and then came under the Khawarazm Empire. In this period Herāt became an important center for the production of metal goods, especially in bronze, often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals. In 1221 it was captured by the Mongols and later destroyed by Genghis Khan. In 1245 it was given to the Kart Maliks. Around 1381 it was destroyed again by Timur. Under his son Shah Rukh it was rebuilt and became an important center under the Timurid Empire. In the late 1400s the Musalla complex (with many minarets) was built under the rule of Queen Gawharshad. Her tomb complex is considered one of the great monuments of Timurid architectural carving. The Black Sheep Turkomans (Qara Qoyunlu) at one point established their capital in Herat during the fifteenth century, and Patrick Clawson. Eternal Iran. Palgrave Macmillan. 2005 ISBN 1-4039-6276-6 p.23 in 1506 it was captured by the Uzbeks and a few years later was taken back by Shah Ismail Safavi, to become part of a new Safavid Persian Empire. Modern history From 1718 until 1863, there were various battles fought between the natives of the city and the Afghans until the city became part of present-day Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah Durrani took possession of Herat in 1750, which became part of the Durrani Empire after almost a year of siege and bloody conflict. In 1824, the city became effectively independent when the country was split in three to resolve a succession struggle. The city was taken back by the Persians in 1852 and again in 1856; both times the British helped to reverse the attempt, the second time through the Anglo-Persian War. The city was taken by Dost Mohammed Khan in 1863, making it part of a broader "Afghan state". Most of the Musallah complex in Herat was cleared in 1885 by the British army to get a good line of sight for their artillery against Russian invaders who never came. During the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Herat was used by the Soviets. Even before the Soviet invasion at the end of 1979, there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in the city with their families. From 10 to 20 March 1979 the army in Herat under the control of Ismail Khan mutinied and some 35 Soviet citizens were killed. The Afghan Air Force, aided by the Red Army, bombed the city, causing massive destruction and some 24,000 civilian deaths and it was recaptured with tanks and paratroopers. Ismail Khan became the leading Mujahedin commander in Herat and after the departure of the Soviets he became governor of Herāt. In September 1995 the city was captured by the Taliban and Ismail Khan fled. However, after the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, on November 12, 2001, it was liberated from the Taliban by the Northern Alliance and Ismail Khan returned to power (see Battle of Herat). In 2004, Mirwais Sadeq Khan, who was Aviation Minister of Afghanistan and the son of Ismail Khan, was ambushed and killed in Herat. More than 200 people were arrested on suspicion of involvement. Herat is presently a part of Afghanistan's new central government, led by Hamid Karzai, who was initially backed by the U.S.A. There are also NATO peacekeeping forces present in and around the city providing security led by Italy. By 2009 Iran invested funds into Herat. As a result, Herat had 24-hour electricity, well-paved roads, and a higher sense of security than other Afghan cities. Some locals jokingly called Herat the "Dubai of Afghanistan." Motlagh, Jason. "Iran's Spending Spree in Afghanistan." TIME. Wednesday May 20, 2009. Retrieved on May 24, 2009. Transport Air Herat Airport Rail In 2007, Iran and Afghanistan finalized an agreement for the establishment of a rail service between the two countries. Construction of the 191 km railway, from Khaf in Iran to Herat, is in progress on the Iranian side of the border Railway Gazette: Opening up Afghan trade route to Iran . There is also the prospect of an extension across Afghanistan to Sher Khan Bandar. See railway stations in Afghanistan. Tourism and sightseeing City Districts Shahr-e New (Downtown) Welayat (Office of the governor) Qol-ordue (Army's HQ) Farqa (Army's HQ) Darwaze Khosh Chaharsu Pul-e rangine Sufi-abad New-abad Pul-e malaan Thakhte Safar Howz-e-Karbas Baramaan Darwaze-ye Qandahar Darwaze-ye Iraq Darwaze Az Kordestan Hotels Serena Hotel (coming soon) Diamond Hotel Marcopolo Hotel Monuments Citadel of Alexander Mosallah Complex Herat Old Fort Museums Herat National Museum (currently closed, relocating to the Citadel) Jihad Museum Shrines Tomb of Queen Goharshad Tomb of Mirwais Sadiq Tomb of Jami Tomb of khaje Qaltan Mosques Masjid-e Jame (Friday Mosque) Gazargah Sharif Khalghe Sharif Shah Zahdahe Parks Park-e Taraki Park-e Millat Khane-ye Jihad Park Stadiums Herat Stadium Universities Herat University Famous people from Herat Khwājah Abdullāh Ānsārī, a famous Persian poet of the 11th century Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī, a famous Persian Sufi poet of the 15th century Nizām ud-Din ʿAlī Shīr Navā'ī, famous poet and politician of the Timurid era Ustād Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, the greatest of the medieval Persian painters Gowharšād, wife of Shāhrūkh Mīrzā Mīrzā Shāhrūkh bin Tīmur Barlas, Emperor of the Timurid Dynasty of Herat Mīrzā Husseyn Bāyqarāh, Emperor of the Timurid Dynasty of Herat Shāh Abbās The Great, Emperor of Safavid Persia Abbās Qullī Khān Shāmlū, Safavid Governor of Herat (1812) Latīf Nazemī, famous poet of modern times. Mowlānā Fayzānī, famous reformer and philosopher of the 20th century Amīr Jān Ṣabūrī - famous composer and singer from Adraskan District Gallery Herat in fiction The beginning of Khaled Hosseini's 2007 novel A Thousand Splendid Suns is set in and around Herat. Salman Rushdie's novel "The Enchantress of Florence" makes frequent reference to events in Herat in the middle ages. References See also Aria (satrapy) Greater Khorasan Herat Province History of Afghanistan External links Heratonline.com: Information and news about Herat Herat.co.uk Detailed map of Herat city A satellite view map of Herat. 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7,322 | Anthropology | Anthropology (, from the Greek , anthrōpos, "human", and -λογία, -logia, "discourse", first use in English: 1593) Nunes, Rossano Carvalho (2007) "Anthopology" Veritas Group of Research in History and Anthropology is the study of human beings, everywhere and throughout time. Modern human beings are defined as members of the species Homo sapiens, which arose in Africa around 200,000BP (Before Present) (see Omo remains). Anthropology has its intellectual origins in both the natural sciences, and the humanities. Wolf, Eric (1994) Perilous Ideas: Race, Culture, People. Current Anthropology 35: 1-7. p.227 Its basic questions concern, "What defines Homo sapiens?" "Who are the ancestors of modern Homo sapiens?" "What are our physical traits?" "How do we behave?" "Why are there variations and differences among different groups of humans?" "How has the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens influenced its social organization and culture?" and so forth. While specific modern anthropologists have a tendency to specialize in technical subfields, their data and ideas are routinely synthesized into larger works about the scope and progress of our species. Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs and Steel. W.W. Norton. 2005; Johanson, Donald, Blake Edgar and David Brill. From Lucy to Language. Weidenfeld Nicolson 2001; Harris, Marvin. Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology. Allyn & Bacon. 1997 A brief overview of the discipline One traditional approach to simplifying such a vast enterprise has been to divide anthropology into four fields, each with its own further branches: Biological anthropology, Cultural anthropology, Archaeology and Anthropological linguistics. Note how these fields are not strictly divided from each other in scope. Briefly put, biological anthropology includes the study of human evolution, human evolutionary biology, Population Genetics, our nearest biological relatives, classification of ancient hominids, paleontology of humans, distribution human alleles, blood types and the human genome project. Primatology studies our nearest non-human relatives (human beings are primates), and some primatologists use field observation methods, written up in a manner quite similar to ethnography. Power, Margaret (1991). The Egalitarians - Human and Chimpanzee An Anthropological: View of Social Organization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521400163 Biological anthropology is used by other fields to shed light on how a particular folk got to where they are, how frequently they've encountered and married outsiders, whether a particular group is protein-deprived, and to understand the brain processes involved in the production of language. Other related fields or subfields include paleoanthropology, anthropometrics, nutritional anthropology, and forensic anthropology. Cultural anthropology is often based on ethnography, a kind of writing used throughout anthropology to present data on a particular people or folk (from the Greek, ethnos/Έθνος), often based on participant observation research. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. Cultural anthropology is also called socio-cultural anthropology or social anthropology (especially in Great Britain). In some European countries, cultural anthropology is known as ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in 1783) Han F. Vermeulen, "The German Invention of Völkerkunde: Ethnological Discourse in Europe and Asia, 1740-1798." In: Sara Eigen and Mark Larrimore, eds. The German Invention of Race. 2006. . The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of cultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Cultural anthropology also covers: economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language, which is also the object of study in linguistics. Note the way in which some of these topics overlap with topics in the other subfields. Archaeology is the study of human material culture, including both artifacts (older pieces of human culture) carefully gathered in situ, museum pieces and modern garbage. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,913924,00.html Archaeologists work closely with biological anthropologists, art historians, physics laboratories (for dating), and museums. They are charged with preserving the results of their excavations and are often found in museums. Typically, archaeologists are associated with "digs," or excavation of layers of ancient sites. Archaeologists subdivide time into cultural periods based on long-lasting artifacts: for example the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, the Bronze Age, which are further subdivided according to artifact traditions and culture region, such as the Oldowan or the Gravettian. In this way, archaeologists provide a vast reference of the places human beings have traveled over the past 200,000 years, their ways of making a living, and their demographics. Archaeologists also investigate nutrition, symbolization, art, systems of writing, and other physical remnants of human cultural activity. Linguistics is the study of language. Linguistic anthropology (also called anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including anthropological linguistics, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. This field is divided into its own subfields: descriptive linguistics the construction of grammars and lexicons for unstudied languages; historical linguistics, including the reconstruction of past languages, from which our current languages have descended; ethnolinguistics, the stuy of the relationship between language and culture, and sociolinguistics, the study of the social functions of language. Anthropological linguistics is also concerned with the evolution of the parts of the brain that deal with language. http://anthropology.net/2007/08/15/new-york-times-reviews-kenneallys-the-first-word/ Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of Anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history,philosophy and religious studies, Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy. A History of Anthropological Theory. Broadview Press. 2003. p. 11-12 George Stocking, “Paradigmatic Traditions in the History of Anthropology.” In George Stocking, The Ethnographer’s Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992):342-361.[ it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made Leaf, Murray. Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology. Columbia University Press. 1979 . Anthropology has also been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive neuroscience, global studies, and various ethnic studies. Basic trends in anthropology The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior." Lowie, Robert. Primitive Religion. Routledge and Sons. 1924; Tylor,Edward. 1920 [1871]. Primitive Culture. New York: J.P. Putnam’s Sons. Today, most anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of subsistence or production, such as "hunter-gatherer" or "forager" or "simple farmer" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (ethnos) remaining of great interest within anthropology. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular folk or people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs. Nanda, Serena and Richard Warms. Culture Counts. Wadsworth. 2008. Chapter One In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. Rosaldo, Renato. Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. The Anthropology of Globalization. Wiley-Blackwell. 2007 Anthropologists are interested in both human variation Robert Jurmain, Lynn Kilgore, Wenda Trevathan, and Russell L. Ciochon. Introduction to Physical Anthropology. 11th Edition. Wadsworth. 2007, chapters I, III and IV.; Womack, Mari. Being Human. Prentice Hall. 2001, pp. 11-20. and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures) Brown, Donald. Human Universals. McGraw Hill. 1991; Roughley, Neil. Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives. Walter de Gruyter Publishing. 2000 They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field" which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Due to the interest in variation, anthropologists are drawn to the study of human extremes, aberrations and other unusual circumstances, such as headhunting, whirling dervishes, whether there were real Hobbit people, snake handling, and glossolalia (speaking in tongues), just to list a few. At the same time, anthropologists urge, as part of their quest for scientific objectivity, cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the subfields of anthropology. This is the notion that particular cultures should not be judged by one culture's values or viewpoints, but that all cultures should be viewed as relative to each other. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture. Levi-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind. 1962; Womack, Mari. Being Human. 2001 Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, mutilation including especially circumcision and subincision, and torture. Topics like racism, slavery or human sacrifice, therefore, attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches. to genes http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=209831§ioncode=26 to acculturation have been proposed, not to mention theories of acculturation, colonialism and many others as root causes of man's inhumanity to man. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the subfields (and subfields of subfields). http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm; http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/282/5389/654?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&titleabstract=DNA+challenges+race&searchid=QID_NOT_SET&FIRSTINDEX=; Shanklin, Eugenia. 1994. Anthropology & Race; Faye V. Harrison. 1995. "The Persistent Power of 'Race' in the Cultural and Political Economy of Racism." Annual Review of Anthropology. 24:47-74. Allan Goodman. 1995. "The Problematics of "Race" in Contemporary Biological Anthropology." In Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science.; Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 1945-. "Melanin, Afrocentricity...," 36(1993):33-58.; see Stanford's recent collection of overarching bibliographies on race and racism here: http://library.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/misc/race.html In addition to dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levallois help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to Culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science. Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association, which was founded in 1903 http://www.aaanet.org/about/ . Membership is made up of Anthropologists from around the globe. http://www.aaanet.org/membership/upload/MAY-08-AAA.pdf Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various subfields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well. Johanson, Donald and Kate Wong. Lucy's Legacy. Kindle Books. 2007; Netti, Bruno. The study of ethnomusicology. University of Illinois Press. 2005. Chapter One History of anthropology The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humankind was apparently in 1593, the first of the "logies" to be coined. Urbanowicz, Charles. In the Newsletter of the American Anthropological Association, reprinted online: http://www.csuchico.edu/~curbanowicz/Pub_Papers/4field.html It took Immanuel Kant 25 years to write one of the first major treatises on anthropology, his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. Foucault, Michel. "Introduction" to his 1961 translation of Kant's work, reprinted: http://www.generation-online.org/p/fpfoucault1.htm Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, however, as he never left his region of Germany nor did he study any cultures besides his own. acobs, Brian, and Kain, Patrick (eds.), Essays on Kant's Anthropology, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 278pp., ISBN 0521790387. He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772. Anthropology is thus primarily an Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment endeavor. Historians of anthropology, like Marvin Harris Harris, Marvin. The Rise of Anthropological Theory. Alta Mira Press. 2000 (revised from 1968); Harris, Marvin. Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times. Altamira. 1998 indicate two major frameworks within which empirical anthropology has arisen: interest in comparisons of people over space and interest in longterm human processes or humans as viewed through time. Harris dates both to Classical Greece and Classical Rome, specifically Herodotus, often called the "father of history" and the Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote many of our only surviving contemporary accounts of several ancient Celtic and Germanic peoples. Herodotus first formulated some of the persisting problems of anthropology. Harris, 1968, op cit. pp. 8-52; Leaf 1970, op cit. pp. 1-13; Erickson and Murph, 2003, pp. 21-25 Medieval scholars may be considered forerunners of modern anthropology as well, insofar as they conducted or wrote detailed studies of the customs of peoples considered "different" from themselves in terms of geography. John of Plano Carpini reported of his stay among the Mongols. His report was unusual in its detailed depiction of a non-European culture. Resources for a History of Anthropology Marco Polo's systematic observations of nature, anthropology, and geography are another example of studying human variation across space. Marco Polo's Asia Polo's travels took him across such a diverse human landscape and his accounts of the peoples he encountered as he he journeyed were so detailed that they earned for Polo the name "the father of modern anthropology." The Renaissance Foundations of Anthropology Another candidate for one of the first scholars to carry out comparative ethnographic-type studies in person was the medieval Persian scholar Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī in the 11th century, who wrote about the peoples, customs, and religions of the Indian subcontinent. Like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive participant observation with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, and presented his findings with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons. Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. He wrote detailed comparative studies on the religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and especially South Asia. J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", Journal of the History of Ideas 59 (3), p. 389-403. Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", Anthropological Quarterly 68 (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193. Biruni's tradition of comparative cross-cultural study continued in the Muslim world through to Ibn Khaldun's work in the 14th century. West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era Most scholars consider modern anthropology as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment, a period when Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior, the known varieties of which had been increasing since the 15th century as a result of the first European colonization wave. The traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology, and sociology then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the social sciences, of which anthropology was a part. Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of Classics and Egyptology informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures. At the same time, the Romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept," which is central to the discipline. Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of natural history (expounded by authors such as Buffon) that occurred during the European colonization of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations. There was a tendency in late 18th century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved in accordance with certain principles and that could be observed empirically. In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places. Early anthropology was divided between proponents of unilinealism, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced, and various forms of non-lineal theorists, who tended to subscribe to ideas such as diffusionism. Stocking, George W. (1968) Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. London: The Free Press. Most 19th-century social theorists, including anthropologists, viewed non-European societies as windows onto the pre-industrial human past. As academic disciplines began to differentiate over the course of the 19th century, anthropology grew increasingly distinct from the biological approach of natural history, on the one hand, and from purely historical or literary fields such as Classics, on the other. A common criticism has been that many social science scholars (such as economists, sociologists, and psychologists) in Western countries focus disproportionately on Western subjects, while anthropology focuses disproportionately on the "Other" Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; this has changed over the last part of the 20th century as anthropologists increasingly also study Western subjects, particularly variation across class, region, or ethnicity within Western societies, and other social scientists increasingly take a global view of their fields. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. The natural and biological sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. The social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences. In particular, social sciences often develop statistical descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Wallerstein, Immanuel. (2003) "Anthropology, sociology, and other dubious disciplines." Current Anthropology 44:453-466. Anthropology as it emerged among the colonial powers (mentioned above) has generally taken a different path than that in the countries of southern and central Europe (Italy, Greece, and the successors to the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires). In the former, the encounter with multiple, distinct cultures, often very different in organization and language from those of Europe, has led to a continuing emphasis on cross-cultural comparison and a receptiveness to certain kinds of cultural relativism. On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in Culture and Human Nature: theoretical papers of Melford E. Spiro. Edited by B. Kilborne and L. L. Langness, pp. 32-58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. In the successor states of continental Europe, on the other hand, anthropologists often joined with folklorists and linguists in the nationalist/nation-building enterprise. Ethnologists in these countries tended to focus on differentiating among local ethnolinguistic groups, documenting local folk culture, and representing the prehistory of the nation through museums and other forms of public education. Gellner, Ernest. (1998) Language and solitude: Wittgenstein, Malinowski, and the Habsburg dilemma. New York: Cambridge University Press. In this scheme, Russia occupied a middle position. On the one hand, it had a large Asian region of highly distinct, pre-industrial, often non-literate peoples, similar to the situation in the Americas; on the other hand, Russia also participated to some degree in the nationalist discourses of Central and Eastern Europe. After the Revolution of 1917, anthropology in the USSR and later the Soviet Bloc countries were highly shaped by the need to conform to Marxist theories of social evolution. Gellner, Ernest, ed. (1980) Soviet and Western anthropology. New York: Columbia University Press. Anthropology by nation Anthropology in Britain E. B. Tylor, 19th-century British anthropologist. E. B. Tylor ( 2 October 1832 – 2 January 1917) and James George Frazer ( 1 January 1854 – 7 May 1941) are generally considered the antecedents to modern social anthropology in Britain. Though Tylor undertook a field trip to Mexico, both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive reading, not fieldwork, mainly the Classics (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists. Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind". Stocking, George Jr. (1963) "Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention," American Anthropologist, 65:783-799, 1963 Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of cultural diffusionism, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [sic] to another." Tylor, E. B. (1865) Researches into the early history of mankind the development of civilization. London: John Murray. Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." Tylor, E. B. (1871) Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. 2 vols. London, John Murray. However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists. Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious feelings in human beings, proposing a theory of animism as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally. Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, were particularly interested in fieldwork, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements and institutions fit together. Toward the turn of the twentieth century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative. Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (synchronic analysis, rather than diachronic or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork. Cambridge University financed a multidisciplinary expedition to the Torres Strait Islands in 1898, organized by Alfred Court Haddon and including a physician-anthropologist, W. H. R. Rivers, as well as a linguist, a botanist, other specialists. The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description. A decade and a half later, Polish-born anthropology student Bronisław Malinowski (1884-1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of fieldwork in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in New Guinea. As a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire resident on a British colonial possession, he was effectively confined to New Guinea for several years. Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) A diary in the strict sense of the term. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World [1967] He made use of the time by undertaking far more intensive fieldwork than had been done by British anthropologists, and his classic ethnography, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) advocated an approach to fieldwork that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through participant observation. Theoretically, he advocated a functionalist interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to meet individual needs. British social anthropology had an expansive moment in the Interwar period, with key contributors as Bronisław Malinowski and Meyer Fortes Jack Goody (1995) The Expansive Moment: The Rise of Social Anthropology in Britain and Africa, 1918-1970 review: A. R. Radcliffe-Brown also published a seminal work in 1922. He had carried out his initial fieldwork in the Andaman Islands in the old style of historical reconstruction. However, after reading the work of French sociologists Émile Durkheim and Marcel Mauss, Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply The Andaman Islanders) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. (This contrasted with Malinowski's functionalism, and was quite different from the later French structuralism, which examined the conceptual structures in language and symbolism.) Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the British Commonwealth. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology (BSA). Famous ethnographies include The Nuer, by Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, and The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi, by Meyer Fortes; well-known edited volumes include African Systems of Kinship and Marriage and African Political Systems. Max Gluckman, together with many of his colleagues at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and students at Manchester University, collectively known as the Manchester School, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of Christianity, the growth of cultural relativism, an awareness of the survival of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of diachronic modes of analysis with synchronic, all of which are central to modern culture." Thomas William Heyck The American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 5 (Dec., 1997), pp. 1486-1488 doi:10.2307/2171126 Later in the 1960s and 1970s, Edmund Leach and his students Mary Douglas and Nur Yalman, among others, introduced French structuralism in the style of Lévi-Strauss; while British anthropology has continued to emphasize social organization and economics over purely symbolic or literary topics, differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue and borrowing of both theory and methods. Today, social anthropology in Britain engages internationally with many other social theories and has branched in many directions. In countries of the British Commonwealth, social anthropology has often been institutionally separate from physical anthropology and primatology, which may be connected with departments of biology or zoology; and from archaeology, which may be connected with departments of Classics, Egyptology, and the like. In other countries (and in some, particularly smaller, British and North American universities), anthropologists have also found themselves institutionally linked with scholars of folklore, museum studies, human geography, sociology, social relations, ethnic studies, cultural studies, and social work. Anthropology in the United States 19th Century to 1940s From its beginnings in the early 19th century through the early 20th century, anthropology in the United States was influenced by the presence of Native American societies. Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology" Cultural anthropology in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, men such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing. Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881), a lawyer from Rochester, New York, became an advocate for an ethnological scholar of the Iroquois. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as Edward Tylor), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from savagery, to barbarism, to civilization. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. This would be influential on the ideas of Karl Marx, who dedicated Das Kapital to Morgan. Boasian anthropology Franz Boas established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature. Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct cultures, rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible. In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Stocking, George W. (1968) Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. London: The Free Press. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and prehistoric anthropology (i.e., archaeology). Anthropology in the U.S. continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture. Ruth Benedict in 1937 Boas used his positions at Columbia University and the American Museum of Natural History to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Sapir and Ruth Benedict, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish linguistics as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on Indo-European languages. The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook, Anthropology, marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. Though such works as Coming of Age in Samoa and The Chrysanthemum and the Sword remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by Ralph Linton, and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH. Anthropology in Canada Canadian anthropology began, as in other parts of the Colonial world, as ethnological data in the records of travellers and missionaries. In Canada, Jesuit missionaries such as Fathers LeClercq, Le Jeune and Sagard, in the 1600s, provide the oldest ethnographic records of native tribes in what was then the Domain of Canada. True anthropology began with a Government department: the Geological Survey of Canada, and George Mercer Dawson (director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who established a Division of Anthropology within the Geological Survey in 1910. Anthropologists were recruited from England and the USA, setting the foundation for the unique Canadian style of anthropology. Scholars include the linguist and Boasian Edward Sapir. Anthropology in France Émile Durkheim Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology. Most commentators consider Marcel Mauss (1872-1950), nephew of the influential sociologist Émile Durkheim to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's Année Sociologique group; and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as Henri Hubert and Robert Hertz) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: Essay on the Gift a seminal analysis of exchange and reciprocity, and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally. Mauss, Marcel (1938) "A category of the human mind: the notion of person; the notion of self.," in M. Carrithers, S. Collins, and S. Lukes, eds. The Category of the Person: anthropology, philosophy, history. Pp. 1-25. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press. Originally given as “Une categorie de l’Esprit Humain: La Notion de Personne, Celle de ‘Moi’,” for the Huxley Memorial Lecture and appeared in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 68. Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as surrealism and primitivism which drew on ethnography for inspiration. Marcel Griaule and Michel Leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ethnologie was restricted to museums, such as the Musée de l'Homme founded by Paul Rivet, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore. Above all, however, it was Claude Lévi-Strauss who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his structuralism exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as Maurice Godelier and Françoise Héritier who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories (CNRS) rather than academic departments in universities. Other influential writers in the 1970s include Pierre Clastres, who explains in his books on the Guayaki tribe in Paraguay that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the state. Therefore, these stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but took the active choice of conjuring the institution of authority as a separate function from society. The leader is only a spokesperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position. The most important French social theorist since Foucault and Lévi-Strauss is Pierre Bourdieu, who trained formally in philosophy and sociology and eventually held the Chair of Sociology at the Collège de France. Like Mauss and others before him, however, he worked on topics both in sociology and anthropology. His fieldwork among the Kabyles of Algeria places him solidly in anthropology, while his analysis of the function and reproduction of fashion and cultural capital in European societies places him as solidly in sociology. Other countries Anthropology in Greece and Portugal is much influenced by British anthropology. In Greece, there was since the 19th century a science of the folklore called laographia (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside". Geneviève Zoïa, « L'anthropologie en Grèce », Terrain, Numéro 14—L'incroyable et ses preuves (mars 1990) , [En ligne], mis en ligne le 7 octobre 2005. URL: http://terrain.revues.org/document3641.html. Consulté le 15 juin 2007. In Italy, the development of ethnology and related studies did not receive as much attention as other branches of learning. Grottanelli, Vinigi Ethnology and/or Cultural Anthropology in Italy: Traditions and Developments (and Comments and Reply). Other authors: Giorgio Ausenda, Bernardo Bernardi, Ugo Bianchi, Y. Michal Bodemann, Jack Goody, Allison Jablonko, David I. Kertzer, Vittorio Lanternari, Antonio Marazzi, Roy A. Miller, Jr., Laura Laurencich Minelli, David M. Moss, Leonard W. Moss, H. R. H. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark, Diana Pinto, Pietro Scotti, Tullio Tentori. Current Anthropology, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 593-614 Praveen Attri, an Indian sociologist, emphasised wide research in Indian anthropology. Germany and Norway are the countries that showed the most division and conflict between scholars focusing on domestic socio-cultural issues and scholars focusing on "other" societies. Anthropology after World War II: Increasing dialogue in Anglophone anthropology Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the natural sciences. Some anthropologists, such as Lloyd Fallers and Clifford Geertz, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as Julian Steward and Leslie White, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche—an approach popularized by Marvin Harris. Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and also employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as Max Gluckman and Peter Worsley experimented with Marxism and authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in 1960s and 1970s, including cognitive anthropology and componential analysis. Authors such as David Schneider, Clifford Geertz, and Marshall Sahlins developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War; Fanon, Frantz. (1963) The Wretched of the Earth, transl. Constance Farrington. New York, Grove Weidenfeld. Marxism became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. Nugent, Stephen Some reflections on anthropological structural Marxism The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Volume 13, Number 2, June 2007, pp. 419-431(13) By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as Reinventing Anthropology worried about anthropology's relevance. Since the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in Eric Wolf's Europe and the People Without History, have been central to the discipline. In the 80s books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became popular topics, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by Marshall Sahlins (again), who drew on Lévi-Strauss and Fernand Braudel to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. Also influential in these issues were Nietzsche, Heidegger, the critical theory of the Frankfurt School, Derrida and Lacan. Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences American Anthropologist 100:" 716-731 In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as George Marcus and James Clifford pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. They were reflecting trends in research and discourse initiated by Feminists in the academy, although they excused themselves from commenting specifically on those pioneering critics. Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Nevertheless, key aspects of feminist theorizing and methods became de rigueur as part of the 'post-modern moment' in anthropology: Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology, cultural, gender and racial positioning, and their influence on his or her ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of postmodernism that was popular contemporaneously. Gellner, Ernest (1992) Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion. London/New York: Routledge. Pp: 26-50 Currently anthropologists pay attention to a wide variety of issues pertaining to the contemporary world, including globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, virtual communities, and the anthropology of industrialized societies. Controversies about the history of anthropology Anthropologists, like other researchers (esp. historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism. Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. van Breman, Jan, and Akitoshi Shimizu (1999) Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. Some commentators have contended: That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). Gellner, Ernest (1992) Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion. London/New York: Routledge. Pp: 26-29. That anthropologists typically have more power than the people they study and hence their knowledge-making is a form of theft in which the anthropologist gains something for him or herself at the expense of informants. That ethnographic work was often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, Time and Its Other). Anthropology and the military Anthropologists’ involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces but others worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and the Office of War Information). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little (although anthropologist Hugo Nutini was active in the stillborn Project Camelot). Horowitz, Lewis ed.(1967) The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement and a great many resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA). In the decades since the Vietnam war the tone of cultural and social anthropology, at least, has been increasingly politicized, with the dominant liberal tone of earlier generations replaced with one more radical, a mix of, and varying degrees of, Marxist, feminist, anarchist, post-colonial, post-modern, Saidian, Foucauldian, identity-based, and more. D'Andrade, Roy (1995) "Moral Models in Anthropology." Current Anthropology 36: 399-408. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA ) has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments … no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." However, anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are once again being used in warfare as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. The Christian Science Monitor reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in Afghanistan, under the rubric of Human Terrain Team (HTT). Major discussions about anthropology Focus on other cultures Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology mentions that the "Third World" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s. Ulf Hannerz (1980) "Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology", ISBN 0231083769, p. 1 Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West. Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521870690 In France, the study of existing contemporary society has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing,<ref>*Marc Abélès, How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field Cultural Anthropology 1999 p. 407</ref> starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like Terrain ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by Marc Augé (Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). The same approach of focusing on "modern world" topics by Terrain, was also present in the British Manchester School of the 1950s. See also Anthropological Index Online (AIO) Anthrozoology Ethnology Folklore Human evolution Intangible Cultural Heritage Legal anthropology Madison Grant Memetics Philosophical anthropology Prehistoric medicine Sociology Systems theory in anthropology Theological anthropology, which is not part of anthropology but a subfield of theology Periodic Table of Human Sciences / Anthropology in Tinbergen's four questions References Further reading Dictionaries and encyclopedias of anthropology Barfield, Thomas (1997). The dictionary of anthropology. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing. Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists Barley, Nigel (1983) The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut. London: British Museum Publications. Geertz, Clifford (1995) After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967) Tristes tropiques. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum. Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) A diary in the strict sense of the term. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World. Rabinow, Paul. (1977) Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. History of anthropology Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. Barth, Fredrik, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin, One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. D'Andrade, R. "The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950-1999." In E. L. Cerroni-Long, ed. Anthropological Theory in North America. Westport: Berin & Garvey 1999. download Darnell, Regna. (2001) Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Deeb, Benjamin. (2007) Anthropology and Social Problems: A Manual of Change. Harris, Marvin. (2001[1968]) The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture. AltaMira Press. Walnut Creek, CA. Kehoe, Alice B. (1998) The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology. Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences." American Anthropologist, 100: 716-731. Lewis, Herbert S. (2004) "Imagining Anthropology's History." Reviews in Anthropology, v. 33. Lewis, Herbert S. (2005) "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History. In R. Darnell & F.W. Gleach, eds. Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I. Pels, Peter & Oscar Salemink, eds. (2000) Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology. Price, David. (2004) Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists. Stocking, George, Jr. (1968) Race, Culture and Evolution. New York: Free Press. Trencher, Susan. (2000) Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960-1980. Textbooks and key theoretical works Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press. Geertz, Clifford (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books. Harris, Marvin (1997) Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology (7th Edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Shweder, Richard A., and Robert A. LeVine, eds. (1984) Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. External links Organizations American Anthropological Association Homepage Home page of largest professional organization of anthropologists American Association of Physical Anthropologists European Association of Social Anthropologists International Association of Anthropology Students National Association for the Practice of Anthropology The Royal Anthropological Institute Homepage—The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI) The Society for Applied Anthropology Resources Annual Review of Anthropology Anthropology departments around the world AnthroSource Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History Online collections database with detailed description and digital images for over 160,000 ethnographic artifacts. National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution Collects and preserves historical and contemporary anthropological materials that document the world's cultures and the history of anthropology Online Dictionary of Anthropology The Anthropological Index Online Online biblographic database. 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7,323 | Germany | Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The territory of Germany covers 357,021 square kilometers and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 82 million inhabitants, it accounts for the largest population among the member states of the European Union and is home to the third-largest number of international migrants worldwide. Germany: Inflow of foreign population by country of nationality, 1994 to 2003 A region named Germania inhabited by several Germanic peoples has been known and documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire that lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern Germany became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. As a modern nation-state, the country was first unified amidst the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. In 1949, after World War II, Germany was divided into two separate states—East Germany and West Germany—along the lines of Allied occupation. Federal Constitutional Court of Germany (2 BvF 1/73; BVerfGE 36, 1): The German Reich as the German state is identically the very same to the Federal Republic of Germany [because it exists as a nation-state and international legal personality (public international law) since 1871]. In 1949, at East – West Germany division there was no foundation of a new West German state and no successor of the German Reich, instead of that a part of Germany was reorganised. The two states were unified in 1990. West Germany was a founding member of the European Community (EC) in 1957, which became the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen zone and adopted the European currency, the euro, in 1999. Germany is a federal parliamentary republic of sixteen states (). The capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, G8 and the OECD. It is a major economic power with the world's fourth largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth largest in purchasing power parity. It is the largest exporter and second largest importer of goods. In absolute terms, Germany allocates the second biggest annual budget of development aid in the world, Germany world's second biggest aid donor after US TopNews, India, Retrieved 2008, 04-10. while its military expenditure ranked sixth. The country has developed a high standard of living and established a comprehensive system of social security. It holds a key position in European affairs and maintains a multitude of close partnerships on a global level. The leader of Europe? Answers an ocean apart International Herald Tribune. April 4, 2008. Retrieved 2008, 04-04. Germany is recognised as a scientific and technological leader in several fields. Confidently into the Future with Reliable Technology www.innovations-report.de. May 7, 2008. Retrieved 2008, 04-04. History The English word "Germany" derives from Latin name Germania. The name "Germania" came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it from a Gallic term for the peoples east of the Rhine that probably meant "neighbour". "German", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Ed. T. F. Hoad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed March 4, 2008. Germanic tribes Expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BC – AD 1. The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes is assumed to have occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest, during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, the tribes began expanding south, east and west in the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe. Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their recorded interactions with the Roman Empire, etymological research and archaeological finds. Jill N. Claster: Medieval Experience: 300–1400. NYU Press 1982, p. 35. ISBN 0814713815. Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (a term used by the Romans to define a territory running roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains), and it was in this period that the Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare while maintaining their tribal identity. In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Modern Germany, as far as the Rhine and the Danube, thus remained outside the Roman Empire. By AD 100, the time of Tacitus' Germania, Germanic tribes settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus) , occupying most of the area of modern Germany. The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier into Roman-controlled lands. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 12, p. 442. ISBN 0521301998. Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire (Created around AD 1000). On 25 December 800, Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire, which was divided in 843. The medieval empire resulted from the eastern portion of this division and existed in varying forms from 962 until 1806. Its territory stretched from the Eider River in the north to the Mediterranean coast in the south. Often referred to as the Holy Roman Empire (or the Old Empire), it was officially called the Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicæ (Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation) starting in 1448, to adjust the title to its then reduced territory. Martin Luther, (1483–1546) initiated the Protestant Reformation. Under the reign of the Ottonian emperors (919–1024), the duchies of Lorraine, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia, and Bavaria were consolidated, and the German king was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. Under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), the Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy, although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy. Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), the German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs, preceding German settlement in these areas and further east (Ostsiedlung). Northern German towns grew prosperous as members of the Hanseatic League. Starting with the Great Famine in 1315, then the Black Death of 1348-50, the population of Germany plummeted. The Great Famine (1315-1317) and the Black Death (1346-1351). Lynn Harry Nelson. The University of Kansas. The edict of the Golden Bull in 1356 provided the basic constitution of the empire that lasted until its dissolution. It codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics. Beginning in the 15th century, the emperors were elected nearly exclusively from the Habsburg dynasty of Austria. The monk Martin Luther publicised his 95 Theses in 1517, challenging practices of the Roman Catholic Church, initiating the Protestant Reformation. A separate Lutheran church became the official religion in many German states after 1530. Religious conflict led to the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) , which devastated German lands. The Thirty-Years-War, Gerhard Rempel, Western New England College. The population of the German states was reduced by about 30%. The Thirty Years War (1618–48), Alan McFarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap (2003) The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended religious warfare among the German states, but the empire was de facto divided into numerous independent principalities. From 1740 onwards, the dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated German history. In 1806, the Imperium was overrun and dissolved as a result of the Napoleonic Wars. Fulbrook, Mary: A Concise History of Germany, Cambridge University Press 1991, p. 97. ISBN 0521540712 Restoration and revolution (1814–1871) Frankfurt Parliament in 1848. Following the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Congress of Vienna convened in 1814 and founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. Disagreement with restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, demanding unity and freedom. These, however, were followed by new measures of repression on the part of the Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, profoundly furthered economic unity in the German states. During this era many Germans had been stirred by the ideals of the French Revolution, and nationalism became a more significant force, especially among young intellectuals. For the first time, the colours of black, red and gold were chosen to represent the movement, which later became the national colours. Martin, Norman. German Confederation 1815–1866 (Germany) Flags of the World. October 5, 2000. Retrieved 2006, 12-07. In light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which successfully established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. The monarchs initially yielded to the revolutionaries' liberal demands. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement. Conflict between King William I of Prussia and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over military reforms in 1862, and the king appointed Otto von Bismarck the new Prime Minister of Prussia. Bismarck successfully waged war on Denmark in 1864. Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Federation (Norddeutscher Bund) and to exclude Austria, formerly the leading German state, from the affairs of the remaining German states. German Empire (1871–1918) Foundation of modern Germany in Versailles-France, 1871. Bismarck is at the centre in a white uniform. The state known as Germany was unified as a modern nation-state in 1871, when the German Empire was forged, with the Kingdom of Prussia as its largest constituent. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire was proclaimed in Versailles on 18 January 1871. The Hohenzollern dynasty of Prussia ruled the new empire, whose capital was Berlin. The empire was a unification of all the scattered parts of Germany except Austria (, or "Lesser Germany"). Beginning in 1884, Germany began establishing several colonies outside of Europe. In the period following the unification of Germany, Emperor William I's foreign policy secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under William II, however, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course leading to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had been previously involved were not renewed, and new alliances excluded the country. Specifically, France established new relationships by signing the Entente Cordiale with the United Kingdom and securing ties with the Russian Empire. Aside from its contacts with Austria-Hungary, Germany became increasingly isolated. Imperial Germany (1871–1918), with the dominant Kingdom of Prussia in blue. Germany's imperialism reached outside of its own country and joined many other powers in Europe in claiming their share of Africa. The Berlin Conference divided Africa between the European powers. Germany owned several pieces of land in Africa including German East Africa, South-West Africa, Togo, and Cameroon. The Scramble for Africa caused tension between the great powers that may have contributed to the conditions that led to World War I. The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 triggered World War I. Germany, as part of the unsuccessful Central Powers, suffered defeat against the Allied Powers in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. The German Revolution broke out in November 1918, and Emperor William II and all German ruling princes abdicated. An armistice putting an end to the war was signed on 11 November and Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. Its negotiation, contrary to traditional post-war diplomacy, excluded the defeated Central Powers. The treaty was perceived in Germany as a humiliating continuation of the war by other means and its harshness is often cited as having facilitated the later rise of Nazism in the country. Stephen J. Lee: Europe, 1890–1945. Routledge 2003, p. 131. ISBN 0415254558. Weimar Republic (1919–1933) Billboard advertising Die Dreigroschenoper by Bertolt Brecht. The Weimar era was dominated by political unrest. At the beginning of the German Revolution, Germany was declared a republic and the monarchy collapsed. However, the struggle for power continued, with radical-left communists seizing power in Bavaria, but failing to take control of all of Germany. The revolution came to an end in August 1919, when the Weimar Republic was formally established. The Weimar Constitution came into effect with its signing by President Friedrich Ebert on 11 August 1919. Suffering from the Great Depression, the harsh peace conditions dictated by the Treaty of Versailles, and a long succession of more or less unstable governments, the people of Germany increasingly lacked identification with their political system and the "Establishment Parties" in their parliamentary democracy. This was exacerbated by a widespread right-wing (monarchist, völkisch, and Nazi) , which promoted the view that Germany had lost World War I because of the efforts and influence of those who wanted to overthrow the government. The top brass of the Weimar government was accused of betraying the German Nation by signing the Versailles Treaty, while the radical left-wing communists, such as the Spartacist League, had wanted a revolution to abolish "capitalist rule" in favour of a , and were also targeted. Nevertheless, discontentment with the new Weimar government helped fuel the growth of the German Communist Party. Many conservatives were drawn towards the reactionary/revolutionary right, particularly the National Socialist German Workers Party—the Nazi Party. By 1932, these two parties controlled the majority of parliament (296 total parliamentary seats by July 1932). After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, President Paul von Hindenburg made a crucial decision: on 30 January 1933, seeing little alternative and pushed by right-wing advisors, von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany, honoring Hitler's request. Third Reich (1933–1945) Adolf Hitler, chancellor of the Großdeutsches Reich. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag went up in flames. Afterwards an emergency decree was made and some basic democratic rights were quickly abrogated. An Enabling Act gave the Hitler-led government full legislative power. Only the Social Democratic Party of Germany voted against the measure and the Communists, who were thought to be behind the fire, were not able to present opposition due to the Reichstag Fire Decree. Roderick Stackelberg, Hitler's Germany: origins, interpretations, legacies. Routledge 1999, p. 103. ISBN 0415201144. Scheck, Raffael. Establishing a Dictatorship: The Stabilization of Nazi Power Colby College. Retrieved 2006, 07-12. A centralised totalitarian state was established by a series of moves and decrees making Germany a single-party state. Industry was revitalised, with a focus on military rearmament. In 1936, Germany reacquired control of the Rhineland, the first of several expansionist moves to establish Greater Germany. In 1939, growing tensions from nationalism, militarism, and territorial issues and a pact promising support from the Soviet Union led the Germans to launch a blitzkrieg ("lightning war") against Poland, which was followed by declarations of war from Britain and France. This marked the beginning of World War II in Europe. As the war continued, Germany and its allies quickly gained direct or indirect control of the majority of Europe. Berlin in ruins after World War II, Potsdamer Platz 1945. On 22 June 1941, Germany broke the pact with the Soviets and invaded the Soviet Union. The same year, Japan attacked the American base at Pearl Harbor, and Germany declared war on the United States. Although the German army advanced into the Soviet Union quite rapidly, the Battle of Stalingrad marked a major turning point in the war. Subsequently, the German army started to retreat on the Eastern front. D-Day marked another major turning point in the war, opening up a Western front; the Allied forces landed on the beaches of Normandy and made advances towards German territory. Germany's defeat soon followed. On 8 May 1945, the German armed forces surrendered after the Red Army occupied Berlin. In what later became known as The Holocaust, the Third Reich regime enacted governmental policies directly subjugating many dissidents and minorities. About eleven million people were murdered during the Holocaust, including six million Jews and sizable number of gypsies and homosexuals. World War II and the actions of the German Nazi regime resulted in 35 million premature deaths in Europe. Division and reunification (1945–1990) After 1949 two German states and a divided city of Berlin evolved alongside the allied administration of the allied occupation zones. West Germany was formed by the American, British and French zones while East Germany was formed by the Soviet Zone. The war resulted in the death of nearly ten million German soldiers and civilians; large territorial losses; the expulsion of about 15 million Germans from the former eastern territories and other countries; and the destruction of multiple major cities. The remaining national territory and Berlin were partitioned by the Allies into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949, to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, or BRD); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, or DDR). They were informally known as "West Germany" and "East Germany", and the two parts of Berlin as "West Berlin" and "East Berlin". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn. However, West Germany declared the status of its capital Bonn as provisional, Britannica http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9080620/Bonn in order to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial status quo that was to be overcome one day. West Germany, established as a federal parliamentary republic with a "social market economy", was allied with the United States, the UK and France. The country came to enjoy prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (). West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958. The Berlin Wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate shortly after the opening in 1989. East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via the latter's occupation forces and the Warsaw Treaty. While claiming to be a democracy, political power was solely executed by leading members (Politburo) of the communist-controlled SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany). Their power was ensured by the Stasi, a secret service of immense size, and a variety of SED suborganizations controlling every aspect of society. In return, the basic needs of the population were satisfied at low cost by the state. A Soviet-style command economy was set up; later, the GDR became a Comecon state. While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programs and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of her citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. Colchester, Nico. D-mark day dawns Financial Times. January 1, 2001. Retrieved 2006, 12-07 The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War. Tensions between East and West Germany were somewhat reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's , which included the de facto acceptance of Germany's territorial losses in World War II. In the summer of 1989, Hungary decided (May 2) to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders (August 23), causing an exodus of thousands of East Germans (September 11) going to West Germany via Hungary. The effects of the Hungarian events had devastating effects on the GDR, with mass demonstrations. The East German authorities unexpectedly eased the border restrictions in November, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West. Originally intended as a pressure valve to retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process in East Germany, which finally concluded with the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established East German states (New Länder or "new federal states"). Berlin Republic and EU integration (1990-) Based on the Bonn-Berlin Act, adopted by the parliament on 10 March 1994, Berlin was chosen to be the capital of the unified state, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries. WDR http://www.wdr.de/themen/kultur/stichtag/2004/03/10.jhtml Eine "faire Arbeitsteilung" Vor 10 Jahren: Bundestag beschließt Bonn-Berlin-Gesetz . 10 March 04. The relocation of the government was completed in 1999. Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union and NATO. Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban. Dempsey, Judy. Germany is planning a Bosnia withdrawal International Herald Tribune. October 31, 2006. Retrieved 2006, 11-30 These deployments were controversial, since after the war, Germany was bound by law only to deploy troops for defence roles. Deployments to foreign territories were understood not to be covered by the defence provision; however, the parliamentary vote on the issue effectively legalised the participation in a peacekeeping context. Geography Topographic map The territory of Germany covers , consisting of of land and of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 63rd largest in the world. Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at ) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the north-west and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the north-east. Between lie the forested uplands of central Germany and the low-lying lands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at below sea level), traversed by some of Europe's major rivers such as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Germany CIA Factbook. November 14, 2006. Retrieved 2006, 11-29. Germany shares borders with more European countries than any other country on the continent. Its neighbours are Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, Austria and Switzerland in the south, France and Luxembourg in the south-west and Belgium and the Netherlands in the north-west. State division Germany comprises 16 states (Bundesländer), which are further subdivided into 439 districts (Kreise) and cities (kreisfreie Städte). State Capital Area (km²) Population </tr> Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,75210,717,000 Bavaria Munich 70,54912,444,000 Berlin Berlin 8923,400,000 Brandenburg Potsdam 29,4772,568,000 Bremen Bremen 404663,000 Hamburg Hamburg 7551,735,000 Hesse Wiesbaden 21,1156,098,000 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,1741,720,000 Lower Saxony Hanover 47,6188,001,000 North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,04318,075,000 Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,8474,061,000 Saarland Saarbrücken 2,5691,056,000 Saxony Dresden 18,4164,296,000 Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,4452,494,000 Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,7632,829,000 Thuringia Erfurt 16,1722,355,000 Climate Alpine scenery in Bavaria. Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate in which humid westerly winds predominate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, which is the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea including the peninsula of Jutland and the area along the Rhine, which flows into the North Sea. Consequently in the north-west and the north, the climate is oceanic; rainfall occurs year round with a maximum during summer. Winters are mild and summers tend to be cool, though temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) for prolonged periods. In the east, the climate is more continental; winters can be very cold, summers can be very warm, and long dry periods are often recorded. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. Again, the maximum temperature can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. German Climate and Weather World Travels. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. Biodiversity Deer is a widespread species to be found in the wild. Phytogeographically, Germany is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The territory of Germany can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Atlantic mixed forests, Baltic mixed forests, Central European mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests. The Ecoregions WWF, Retrieved 2008, 12-28. The majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (33%) or forestry and woodland (31%). Only 15% is covered by permanent pastures. Around one third of the country´s area is covered with forests. (Thuringian Forest) Plants and animals are those generally common to middle Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one-third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Fish abound in the rivers and the North Sea. Wild animals include deer, wild boar, mouflon, fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of beaver. Various migratory birds cross Germany in the spring and autumn. The national parks in Germany include the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Lower Oder Valley National Park, the Harz National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park and the Bavarian Forest National Park. Germany is known for its many zoological gardens, wildlife parks, aquaria, and bird parks. List of famous Zoological gardens in European countries www.eupedia.com, Retrieved 2008, 10-17. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any single country of the world. Some interesting zoo facts www.americanzoos.info/, Retrieved 2008, 10-17. The Zoologischer Garten Berlin is the oldest zoo in Germany and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world. Tierstatistik 2007(German), Zoo Berlin, Accessed August 5, 2008 Environment The largest wind farm and solar power capacity in the world is installed in Germany. German lessons, The Economist, Retrieved 2008, 11-29. Germany is known for its environmental consciousness. Starting points and focus of environmental communication German Federal Environmental Foundation, Retrieved 2007, 12-28. Most Germans consider anthropogenic causes to be a significant factor in global warming. The state is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, recycling, and the use of renewable energy, and supports sustainable development at a global level. Reinforcing Germany's environmental protection industry Umweltbundesamt, Retrieved 2007, 11-25. The eagle is a protected bird of prey and the national heraldic animal The German government has initiated wide ranging emission reduction activities and the country´s overall emissions are falling. Germany greenest country in the world Times of India, Retrieved 2008, 11-25 Nevertheless Germany's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the EU, although they are significantly lower than those of Australia, Canada, Saudi Arabia and the United States. Emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution. Acid rain, resulting from sulphur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests. Pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in former East Germany have been reduced. The government under Chancellor Schröder announced the intention to end the use of nuclear power for producing electricity. Germany is working to meet EU commitments to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive. Germany's last glaciers in the Alpine region are experiencing deglaciation. Natural hazards are river flooding in spring and stormy winds occurring in all regions. Government The Reichstag in Berlin is the site of the German parliament. Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). By calling the document Grundgesetz, rather than Verfassung (constitution), the authors expressed the intention that it would be replaced by a proper constitution once Germany was reunited as one state. Amendments to the Grundgesetz generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of the parliament; the articles guaranteeing fundamental rights, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the right to resist attempts to overthrow the constitution are valid in perpetuity and cannot be amended. [www.gesetze-im-internet.de/gg/art_79.html Article 79 of the Grundgesetz] (German) Bundesministerium der Justiz. Retrieved 2008, 12-07. Despite the initial intention, the Grundgesetz remained in effect after the German reunification in 1990, with only minor amendments. President Horst Köhler. The Bundeskanzler (Federal Chancellor)—currently Angela Merkel—is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form a unique type of legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, yet abiding proportional representation. The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federal states and are members of the state cabinets. The respective state governments have the right to appoint and remove their envoys at any time. The Bundespräsident (Federal President)—currently Horst Köhler—is the head of state, invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is nominated by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag. The Chancellor can be removed by a constructive motion of no confidence by the Bundestag, where constructive implies that the Bundestag simultaneously elects a successor. Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany with all chancellors hitherto being member of either party. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (which has had members in the Bundestag since 1949) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (which has controlled seats in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles, Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2006, 12-07. as they are regularly the smaller partner of a coalition government. Law The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany in Karlsruhe. The Judiciary of Germany is independent of the executive and the legislative branches. Germany has a civil or statute law system that is based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), located in Karlsruhe, is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review. Federal Constitutional Court, Bundesverfassungsgericht.de, Accessed April 13, 2007 It acts as the highest legal authority and ensures that legislative and judicial practice conforms to the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Basic Law). It acts independently of the other state bodies, but cannot act on its own behalf. Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949. Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised. For civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Federal Court of Justice, located in Karlsruhe and Leipzig. The courtroom style is inquisitorial. Other Federal Courts are the Federal Labour Court in Erfurt, the Federal Social Court in Kassel, the Federal Finance Court in Munich and the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig. Criminal law and private law are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system is aimed towards rehabilitation of the criminal; its secondary goal is the protection of the general public. § 2, StVllzg, gesetze-im-internet.de, Accessed April 13, 2007 To achieve the latter, a convicted criminal can be put in preventive detention (Sicherungsverwahrung) in addition to the regular sentence if he is considered to be a threat to the general public. The Völkerstrafgesetzbuch regulates the consequences of crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes. It gives German courts universal jurisdiction if prosecution by a court of the country where the crime was committed, or by an international court, is not possible. State legislation German state police officer in Hamburg. Legislative power is divided between the federation and the state level. The Basic Law presumes that all legislative power remains at the state level unless otherwise designated by the Basic Law itself. Any federal law overrides state law if the legislative power lies at the federal level. A famous example is the purported Hessian provision for the death penalty, which goes against the ban on capital punishment under the Basic Law, rendering the Hessian provision invalid. The Bundesrat is the federal organ through which the states participate in national legislation. State participation in federal legislation is necessary if the law falls within the area of concurrent legislative power, requires states to administer federal regulations, or is so designated by the Basic Law. Every state has its own constitutional court. The Amtsgerichte, Landgerichte and Oberlandesgerichte are state courts of general jurisdiction. They are competent whether the action is based on federal or state law. Many of the fundamental matters of administrative law remain in the jurisdiction of the states, though most states base their own laws in that area on the 1976 Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz (Administrative Proceedings Act) covering important points of administrative law. The Oberverwaltungsgerichte are the highest level of administrative jurisdiction concerning the state administrations, unless the question of law concerns federal law or state law identical to federal law. In such cases, final appeal to the Federal Administrative Court is possible. Foreign relations Chancellor Angela Merkel hosting the G8 summit in Heiligendamm. Germany has played a leading role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France since the end of World War II. The alliance was especially close in the late 1980s and early 1990s under the leadership of Christian Democrat Helmut Kohl and Socialist François Mitterrand. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. Declaration by the Franco-German Defence and Security Council Elysee.fr May 13, 3004. Retrieved 2006, 12-03. Since its establishment on 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany has kept a notably low profile in international relations, because of both its recent history and its occupation by foreign powers. Glaab, Manuela. German Foreign Policy: Book Review Internationale Politik. Spring 2003. Retrieved 2007, 01-03. Germany is a founding member of the EEC in 1957, which became the European Union in 1993. It maintains close relations with its neighbours to coordinate EU politics. During the Cold War, Germany's partition by the Iron Curtain made it a symbol of East-West tensions and a political battleground in Europe. However, Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik was a key factor in the détente of the 1970s. Harrison, Hope. {{PDFlink|[http://web.archive.org/web/20070605010113/http://www.ghi-dc.org/bulletinS04_supp/34s.5.pdf The Berlin Wall, Ostpolitik and Détente]|91.1 KB}} German historical institute, Washington, DC, Bulletin supplement 1, 2004, American détente and German ostpolitik, 1969–1972". In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking a full part in the decisions surrounding the NATO war against Yugoslavia and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since World War II. Germany's New Face Abroad Deutsche Welle. October 14, 2005. Retrieved 2006, 12-03. The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies. Background Note: Germany U.S. Department of State. July 6, 2006. Retrieved 2006, 12-03. The 1948 Marshall Plan, U.S. support (JCS 1067) during the rebuilding process (Industrial plans for Germany) after World War II, as well as fraternisation (War children), and strong cultural ties have crafted a strong bond between the two countries, although Schröder's very vocal opposition to the Iraq War suggested the end of Atlanticism and a relative cooling of German-American relations. Ready for a Bush hug?, The Economist, July 6 2006. Retrieved 2006, 12-31. The two countries are also economically interdependent: 8.8% of German exports are U.S.-bound and 6.6% of German imports originate from the U.S. U.S. Embassy in Berlin. May 2006. Retrieved 2006, 12-03. The other way around, 8.8% of U.S. exports ship to Germany and 9.8% of U.S. imports come from Germany. Other signs of the close ties include the continuing position of German-Americans as the largest ethnic group in the U.S. German Still Most Frequently Reported Ancestry U.S. Census Bureau June 30, 2004. Retrieved 2006, 12-03 and the status of Ramstein Air Base (near Kaiserslautern) as the largest U.S. military community outside the U.S. Kaiserslautern, Germany Overview U.S. Military. Retrieved 2006, 12-03. Development aid The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community. Aims of German development policy Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development April 10, 2008. Retrieved 2008, 12-07. Germany's official development aid and humanitarian aid for 2007 amounted to 8.96 billion euros (12.26 billion dollars), an increase of 5.9 per cent from 2006. It has become the world's second biggest aid donor after the United States. Germany is a leader in development funding www.young-germany.de April 17, 2008. Retrieved 2008, 12-07. Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010. The international target of 0.7% of GNP would have not been reached either. Military The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is participating in a UNIFIL II operation off the coast of Lebanon. Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is a military force with Heer (Army), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Zentraler Sanitätsdienst (Central Medical Services) and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. Military Service is compulsory for men at the age of 18, and conscripts serve nine-month tours of duty. Conscientious objectors may instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (roughly translated as civilian service), or a six year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department, the Red Cross or the THW. In 2003, military spending constituted 1.5% of the country's GDP. In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence, currently Franz Josef Jung. If Germany went to war, which according to the constitution is allowed only for defensive purposes, the Chancellor would become commander in chief of the Bundeswehr. Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland Bundestag.de Retrieved 2006, 11-30. A Eurofighter flight demonstration The Bundeswehr employs 200,500 professional soldiers, 55,000 18-25 year-old conscripts who serve for at least nine months under current rules, and 2,500 active reservists at any given time. Roughly 300,000 reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defense exercises as well as deployments abroad. Since 2001 women can serve in all functions of service without restriction, but they are not subject to conscription. There are presently around 14,500 women on active duty and a number of female reservists who take part in all duties including peacekeeping missions and other operations. Two female medical officers have been promoted to a General rank so far. As of October 2006, the German military had almost 9,000 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of various international peacekeeping forces, including 1,180 troops stationed in Bosnia-Herzegovina; 2,844 Bundeswehr soldiers in Kosovo; 750 soldiers stationed as a part of EUFOR in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and 2,800 German troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan. As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 ISAF troops in Afghanistan, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200). Germany shares nuclear weapons with NATO, in the form of US nuclear weapons stationed at Büchel airbase. Demographics Population of German territories 1800 - 2000 and immigrant population from 1975 - 2000. With 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous country in the European Union. However, its fertility rate of 1.39 children per mother is one of the lowest in the world, and the federal statistics office estimates the population will shrink to between 69 and 74 million by 2050 (69 million assuming a net migration of +100,000 per year; 74 million assuming a net migration of +200,000 per year). Germany has a number of large cities, the most populous being Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt and Stuttgart. By far the largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region, including Düsseldorf (the capital of NRW) and the cities of Cologne, Essen, Dortmund, Duisburg, and Bochum. Berlin is the largest city with a population of 3.4 million people. As of December 2004, about seven million foreign citizens were registered in Germany, and 19% of the country's residents were of foreign or partially foreign descent. The young are more likely to be of foreign descent than the old. 30% of Germans aged 15 years and younger have at least one parent born abroad. In the big cities 60% of children aged 5 years and younger have at least one parent born abroad. BiBB: Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund - neue Definition, alte Probleme retrieved 25 of May 2008 The largest group (2.7 million) is from Turkey, and a majority of the rest are from European states such as Italy, Serbia, Greece, Poland, and Croatia. Foreign population on 31 December 2004 by country of origin Federal Statistical Office Germany January 24, 2006. Retrieved 2007, 01-01. The United Nations Population Fund lists Germany as host to the third-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 10 million of all 191 million migrants, or about 12% of the population of Germany. State of World Population 2006 United Nations Population Fund. 2006. Retrieved 2007, 01-01. As a consequence of restrictions to Germany's formerly rather unrestricted laws on asylum and immigration, the number of immigrants seeking asylum or claiming German ethnicity (mostly from the former Soviet Union) has been declining steadily since 2000. Erstmals seit 1990 weniger als 600 000 Ausländer zugezogen, German Federal Statistics Bureau (Statistiches Bundesamt Deutschland) , July 6 2006. Retrieved on 2007, 01-01. Large numbers of people with full or significant German ancestry are found in the United States (50 million), . The 1990 census gives 57.9 million, or 23.3% of the U.S. population. Brazil (5 million) A Imigração Alemã no Brasil | Brasil | Deutsche Welle | 25.07.2004 and Canada (3 million). 2001 Canadian Census gives 2,742,765 total respondents stating their ethnic origin as partly German, with 705,600 stating "single-ancestry". About 3 million "Aussiedler" — ethnic Germans, mainly from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union — have resettled in Germany since 1987. "Fewer Ethnic Germans Immigrating to Ancestral Homeland". Migration Information Source. February 2004 Religion Christianity is the largest religious denomination in Germany, with 52 million adherents (64%). Christen in Deutschland 2005(German), EKD, Retrieved 2007, November 11-25. 26.5 million are Protestants (32.3%) and 25.5 million are Catholics (31.9%). Religionen in Deutschland: Mitgliederzahlen(German), Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst, Retrieved 2009, May 05-30. The second largest religion is Islam with 3.3 million adherents (4%) followed by Buddhism and Judaism, both with around 200,000 adherents (c. 0.25%). Hinduism has some 90,000 adherents (0.1%). All other religious communities in Germany have fewer than 50,000 (or less than 0.05%) adherents. About 24.4 million Germans (29.6%) have no registered religious denomination. Roman Catholics, Protestants and Non-denominationals each account for around 30% of the population. (Inside the Frauenkirche in Dresden.) Protestantism is concentrated in the north and east and Roman Catholicism is concentrated in the south and west. The current Pope, Benedict XVI, was born in Bavaria. Non-religious people, including atheists and agnostics, make up 29.6% of the population, and are especially numerous in the former East Germany and major metropolitan areas. Religionen in Deutschland: Mitgliederzahlen Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst. November 4, 2006. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. Of the 3.3 million Muslims, most are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites. Germany Euro-Islam.info. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. 1.7% of the country's overall population declare themselves Orthodox Christians, Serbs and Greeks being the most numerous. Germany has Europe's third-largest Jewish population (after Russia and the United Kingdom). Blake, Mariah. In Nazi cradle, Germany marks Jewish renaissance Christian Science Monitor. November 10,2006. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. In 2004, twice as many Jews from former Soviet republics settled in Germany as in Israel, bringing the total Jewish population to more than 200,000, compared to 30,000 prior to German reunification. Large cities with significant Jewish populations include Berlin, Frankfurt and Munich. The Jewish Community of Germany European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. Around 250,000 active Buddhists live in Germany; 50% of them are Asian immigrants. Die Zeit 12/07, page 13 According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 47% of German citizens agreed with the statement "I believe there is a God", whereas 25% agreed with "I believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 25% said "I do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". Languages Knowledge of German in European countries. German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany. It is one of 23 official languages in the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European Commission, along with English and French. Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Sorbian, Romany, and Frisian. They are officially protected by the ECRML. Most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Polish, the Balkan languages, and Russian. The standard German is a West Germanic language and is closely related to and classified alongside English, Dutch, and the Frisian languages. To a lesser extent, it is also related to the East (extinct) and North Germanic languages. Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. Significant minorities of words are derived from Latin and Greek, with a smaller amount from French and most recently English (known as Denglisch). German is written using the Latin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with Umlauts, namely ä, ö, and ü, as well as the Eszett or scharfes S (sharp s) which is written "ß". German dialects are distinguished from varieties of standard German. The German dialects are the traditional local varieties and are traced back to the different German tribes. Many of them are not easily understandable to someone who knows only standard German, since they often differ from standard German in lexicon, phonology, and syntax. Around the world, German is spoken by approximately 100 million native speakers and also about 80 million non-native speakers. German is the main language of about 90 million people (18%) in the EU. 67% of the German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language, 27% in at least two languages other than their own. Economy Germany was the world's leading exporter of goods in 2007. Germany is the largest national economy in Europe, the fourth largest by nominal GDP in the world, and ranked fifth by GDP (PPP) in 2008. Rank Order - GDP (purchasing power parity) CIA Factbook 2005. Retrieved 31 December 2006. Since the age of industrialisation, the country has been a driver, innovator, and beneficiary of an ever more globalised economy. Germany is the world's top exporter with $1.133 trillion exported in 2006 (Eurozone countries are included) and generates a trade surplus of €165 billion. German trade surplus hits record, BBC, 8 February 2006, Retrieved 3 January 2007. The service sector contributes around 70% of the total GDP, industry 29.1%, and agriculture 0.9%. Most of the country's products are in engineering, especially in automobiles, machinery, metals, and chemical goods. Germany is the leading producer of wind turbines and solar power technology in the world. The largest annual international trade fairs and congresses are held in several German cities such as Hanover, Frankfurt, and Berlin. Wind Power Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (Germany) Retrieved 30 November 2006. Of the world's 500 largest stock market listed companies measured by revenue, the Fortune Global 500, 37 companies are headquartered in Germany. In 2007 the ten biggest were Daimler, Volkswagen, Allianz (the most profitable company), Siemens, Deutsche Bank (2nd most profitable company), E.ON, Deutsche Post, Deutsche Telekom, Metro, and BASF. Global 500 Germany, CNN Money, Retrieved 26 November 2007. Among the largest employers are also Deutsche Post, Robert Bosch GmbH, and Edeka. Global 500 Biggest Employers, CNN Money, Retrieved 26 November 2007. Well known global brands are Mercedes Benz, SAP, BMW, Adidas, Audi, Porsche, Volkswagen, and Nivea. The 100 Top Brands 2006, Businessweek, Retrieved 26 November 2007. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic and political integration, and its commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and EU single market legislation. Germany uses the common European currency, the euro, and its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt. Even after the German reunification in 1990, the standard of living and annual income remains significantly higher in the former West German states. Berg, S., Winter, S., Wassermann, A. The Price of a Failed Reunification Spiegel Online International. 5 September 2005. Retrieved 28 November 2006. The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy continues to be a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion. The overall unemployment rate has consistently fallen since 2005 and reached a 15-year low in June 2008 with 7.5%. Arbeitslosenzahl unter 3,2 Millionen gesunken(German) Tagesschau, Retrieved 1 July 2008. The percentage ranges from 6.2% in former West Germany to 12.7% in former East Germany. The former government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder launched a comprehensive set of reforms of labour market and welfare-related institutions while the current government runs a restrictive fiscal policy and has cut regular jobs in the public sector. Infrastructure Hamburg harbour is the second-largest port in Europe. With its central position in Europe, Germany is an important transportation hub. This is reflected in its dense and modern transportation networks. The extensive motorway (Autobahn) network that ranks worldwide third largest in its total length and features a lack of blanket speed limits on the majority of routes. Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE is the most advanced service category of the Deutsche Bahn and serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries. The train maximum speed varies between 160 km/h and 300 km/h. Connections are offered at either 30-minute, hourly, or two-hourly intervals. Geschäftsbericht 2006 der Deutschen Bahn AG, Deutsche Bahn, Retrieved 19 October 2007. Germany is the world's fifth largest consumer of energy, and two-thirds of its primary energy was imported in 2002. In the same year, Germany was Europe's largest consumer of electricity, totaling 512.9 terawatt-hours. Government policy promotes energy conservation and the development of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, biomass, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy. As a result of energy-saving measures, energy efficiency has been improving since the beginning of the 1970s. The government has set the goal of meeting half the country's energy demands from renewable sources by 2050. In 2000, the government and the German nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021. Germany split over green energy, BBC, Accessed 13 April 2007 However, renewable energy still plays a more modest role in energy consumption. In 2006, energy consumption was met by the following sources: oil (35.7%); coal, including lignite (23.9%); natural gas (22.8%); nuclear (12.6%); hydro and wind power (1.3%); and other (3.7%). Science Max Planck presents Albert Einstein with the Max-Planck medal in 1929. Germany has been the home of some of the most prominent researchers in various scientific fields. Back to the Future: Germany - A Country of Research German Academic Exchange Service (2005, 02-23). Retrieved 2006, 12-08. The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 102 German laureates. Nobel Prize, nobelprize.org, Retrieved 2009, February 23. The work of Albert Einstein and Max Planck was crucial to the foundation of modern physics, which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born developed further. Roberts, J. M. The New Penguin History of the World, Penguin History, 2002. Pg. 1014. ISBN 0141007230. They were preceded by physicists such as Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer, and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays, which are called Röntgenstrahlen (Röntgen-rays) in German and many other languages. This accomplishment made him the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. The Alfred B. Nobel Prize Winners, 1901–2003 History Channel from The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2006. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket, which paved the way for the success of the US Apollo program. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication. Historical figures in telecommunications. International Telecommunication Union. January 14, 2004. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. Through his construction of the first laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, Wilhelm Wundt is credited with the establishment of psychology as an independent empirical science. Kim, Alan. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. June 16, 2006. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. Alexander von Humboldt's work as a natural scientist and explorer was foundational to biogeography. The Natural History Legacy of Alexander von Humboldt (1769 to 1859), Humboldt Field Research Institute and Eagle Hill Foundation. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. Extensive Cleanroom complex for Microelectronic Manufacturing in Stuttgart Numerous significant mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass and Hermann Weyl. Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, who is credited with the invention of movable type printing in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer. Horst, Zuse. The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse Everyday Practical Electronics (EPE) Online. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology. Automobile. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. The Zeppelin U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. Important research institutions in Germany are the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft and the Fraunhofer Society. They are independently or externally connected to the university system and contribute to a considerable extent to the scientific output. The prestigious Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize, DFG, Accessed March 12, 2007 Education Kindergarten in Hesse Responsibility for educational oversight in Germany lies primarily with the federal states individually, whilst the federal government only has a minor role. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years. Primary education usually lasts for four years and public schools are not stratified at this stage. U.S. Library of Congress. December 2005. Retrieved 2006, 12-04. In contrast, secondary education includes four types of schools based on a pupil's ability as determined by teacher recommendations: the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies, and attendance lasts eight or nine years depending on the state; the Realschule has a broader range of emphasis for intermediate students and lasts six years; the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education, and the Gesamtschule or comprehensive school combines the three approaches. |The University of Heidelberg was established in 1386. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, assesses the skills of 15-year-olds in OECD countries and a number of partner countries. In 2006, German schoolchildren improved their position compared to previous years, being ranked (statistically) significantly above average (rank 13) in science skills and statistically not significantly above or below average in mathematical skills (rank 20) and reading skills (rank 18). The socio-economic gradient was very high in Germany, the pupils' performance in Germany being more dependent on socio-economic factors than in most other countries. A special system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung ("dual education") allows pupils in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run vocational school. To enter a university in Germany, high school students are generally required to take the Abitur examination, which is similar to A-levels in the UK and typically done in the Gymnasium at the age of 18 or 19. However, students possessing a diploma from a vocational school may also apply for matriculation in certain subjects. Germany's universities are recognised internationally, indicating the high education standards in the country. In the ARWU ranking for 2008, six of the top 100 universities in the world are in Germany, and 18 in the top 200. Nearly all German universities are public (i.e. non-private) institutions, charging tuition fees ranging from €50–500 per semester for each student. Tuition Fees in Germany German Academic Exchange Service. Retrieved 2006, 11-30. Culture Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) , composer. Germany is historically called Das Land der Dichter und Denker (the land of poets and thinkers). Wasser, Jeremy. Spätzle Westerns Spiegel Online International. April 6, 2006. Retrieved 2006, 12-06. German culture began long before the rise of Germany as a nation-state and spanned the entire German-speaking world. From its roots, culture in Germany has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular. As a result, it is difficult to identify a specific German tradition separated from the larger framework of European high culture. Federal Republic of Germany: Culture. Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Retrieved 2007, 01-02. Another consequence of these circumstances is the fact that some historical figures, such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Kafka and Paul Celan, though not citizens of Germany in the modern sense, must be considered in the context of the German cultural sphere in order to understand their historical situation, work and social relations. Blaues Pferd I, 1911 by Franz Marc (1880–1916). In Germany, the Federal States are in charge of the cultural institutions. There are 240 subsidised theatres, hundreds of symphonic orchestras, thousands of museums and over 25,000 libraries spread over the 16 states. These cultural opportunities are enjoyed by many millions: there are over 91 million German museum visits every year; annually, 20 million go to theatres and operas; while 3.6 million listen to the great symphonic orchestras. Unbelievable Multitude www.study-in-germany.de Retrieved 2008, 10-17. Germany claims some of the world's most renowned classical music composers, including Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Brahms and Richard Wagner. As of 2006, Germany is the fifth largest music market in the world and has influenced pop and rock music through artists such as Kraftwerk, Scorpions and Rammstein. Music market worth US$ 32 billion P2pnet.net April 7, 2004. Retrieved 2006, 12-07. Numerous German painters have enjoyed international prestige through their work in diverse artistic styles. Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald, and Albrecht Dürer were important artists of the Renaissance, Caspar David Friedrich of Romanticism, and Max Ernst of Surrealism. Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were important precursors of Romanesque. The region later became the site of significant works in styles such as Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque. Germany was particularly important in the early modern movement, especially through the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, also from Germany, became one of world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century. The glass façade skyscraper was his idea. 2006 A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (Paperback) , Second (in English) , Oxford University Press, 880. ISBN 0198606788 Philosophy Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), philosopher. Germany's influence on philosophy is historically significant and many notable German philosophers have helped shape western philosophy since the Middle Ages. Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the establishment of classical German idealism by Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Johann Gottlieb Fichte; Karl Marx's and Friedrich Engels' formulation of Communist theory; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of Perspectivism; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; and the social theories of Jürgen Habermas were especially influential. German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Various German authors and poets have won great renown, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level. Influential authors of the 20th century include Thomas Mann, Berthold Brecht, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll, and Günter Grass. Media The German book market produces annually around 18% of all books published worldwide (Frankfurt Book Fair in 2008). Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 34 million TV households. The many regional and national public broadcasters are organised in line with the federal political structure. Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, and viewers can choose from a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels. Pay-TV services have not become popular or successful while public TV broadcasters ZDF and ARD offer a range of digital-only channels. Country profile: Germany, BBC News, Retrieved 2007, 12-07. Germany is home to some of the world's largest media conglomerates, including Bertelsmann and the Axel Springer AG. Some of Germany's top free-to-air commercial TV networks are owned by ProSiebenSat1. The German book market produces around 60,000 new publications every year. It represents 18% of all the books published worldwide and puts Germany in third place among the world’s book producers. German literature German Embassy London, Retrieved 2008, 10-22. The Frankfurt Book Fair is considered to be the most important book fair in the world for international deals and trading and has a tradition that spans over 500 years. The country's news is provided in English by news magazine Der Spiegel, state broadcaster Deutsche Welle and news site The Local. In December 2008 the top visited websites by German internet users were Google.de, Google.com, YouTube, eBay, Wikipedia, Yahoo, Amazon.de and gmx.net. Top Sites Germany Alexa, Retrieved 2008, 12-31. Cinema Marlene Dietrich in The Blue Angel in 1930, Germany's first major film with sound. German cinema dates back to the very early years of the medium with the work of Max Skladanowsky. It was particularly influential during the years of the Weimar Republic with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Austrian-based director Fritz Lang, who became a German citizen in 1926 and whose career flourished in the pre-war German film industry, is said to have been a major influence on Hollywood cinema. His silent movie Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the birth of modern Science Fiction movies. In 1930 Austrian-American Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel, which was the first major German sound film and it brought world fame to actress Marlene Dietrich. Impressionist documentary Berlin: Symphony of a Great City, directed by Walter Ruttmann, is a prominent example of the city symphony genre. The Nazi era produced mostly propaganda films although the work of Leni Riefenstahl still introduced new aesthetics to film. Leni Riefenstahl, FILMBUG, Accessed April 13, 2007 The Berlinale Palast during the Berlin Film Festival in February. During the 1970s and 80s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder put West German cinema back on the international stage with their often provocative films. Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Fassbinder Foundation, Accessed April 13, 2007 More recently, films such as Good Bye Lenin! (2003), Gegen die Wand (Head-on) (2004), Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004), and Der Baader Meinhof Komplex (2008) have enjoyed international success. The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film went to the German production Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in 1979, to Nowhere in Africa in 2002, and to Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others) in 2007. Awards:Das Leben der Anderen, IMDb, Accessed April 13, 2007 Among the most famous German actors are Marlene Dietrich, Klaus Kinski, Hanna Schygulla, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Jürgen Prochnow, and Thomas Kretschmann. The Berlin Film Festival, held annually since 1951, is one of the world's foremost film festivals. An international jury places emphasis on representing films from all over the world and awards the winners with the Golden and Silver Bears. 2006 FIAPF accredited Festivals Directory, International Federation of Film Producers Associations, retrieved on December 11, 2006. The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every second year in the city of Berlin, where the European Film Academy (EFA) is located. The Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam are the oldest large-scale film studios in the world and a centre for international film production. Sports Michael Schumacher has won seven Formula One championships. Sport forms an integral part of German life. Twenty-seven million Germans are members of a sports club and an additional twelve million pursue such an activity individually. Germany Info: Culture & Life: Sports Germany Embassy in Washington, D.C. Retrieved 2006, 12-28. Association football is the most popular sport. With more than 6.3 million official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest sports organisation of its kind worldwide. The Bundesliga attracts the second highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the world. The German national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974 and 1990 and the European Football Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996. Germany has hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Football Championship in 1988. Among the most successful and renowned footballers are Franz Beckenbauer, Gerd Müller, Jürgen Klinsmann, Lothar Matthäus, and Oliver Kahn. Other popular spectator sports include handball, volleyball, basketball, ice hockey, and tennis. The Allianz Arena is host to the football club Bayern Munich and was a venue for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Germany is one of the leading motorsports countries in the world. Race winning cars, teams and drivers have come from Germany. The most successful Formula One driver in history, Michael Schumacher, has set the most significant motorsport records during his career and won more Formula One championships and races than any other driver since Formula One's debut season in 1946. He is one of the highest paid sportsmen in history and became a billionaire athlete. What we will miss about Michael Schumacher, Guardian Unlimited, Retrieved 2007, October 19 Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are among the leading teams in motorsport sponsorship. Porsche has won the 24 hours of Le Mans, a prestigious annual race held in France, 16 times. The Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters is a popular series in Germany. Historically, German sportsmen have been some of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count, combining East and West German medals. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, Germany finished fifth in the medal count, Beijing 2008 Medal Table The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Retrieved 2008, 9-8. while in the 2006 Winter Olympics they finished first. Turin 2006 Medal Table International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2006, 12-28. Germany has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in Berlin in 1936 and in Munich in 1972. The Winter Olympic Games took place in Germany once in 1936 when they were staged in the Bavarian twin towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen. Cuisine A Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte (Black Forest gateau). German cuisine varies from region to region. The southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia, for instance, share a culinary culture with Switzerland and Austria. Pork, beef, and poultry are the main varieties of meat consumed in Germany, with pork being the most popular. German food stats, www.nationmaster.com, Retrieved 2007, November 26 Throughout all regions, meat is often eaten in sausage form. More than 1500 different types of sausage are produced in Germany. The most popular vegetables are potatoes, cabbage, carrots, turnips, spinach, and beans. German cuisine, www.cuisineeurope.com, Retrieved 2007, November 26 Organic food has gained a market share of around 3.0%, and is predicted to increase further. Organic Agriculture in Germany, organic-Europe, Retrieved 2007, November 26 A popular German saying has the meaning: "Breakfast like an emperor, lunch like a king, and dine like a beggar." Breakfast is usually a selection of breads and rolls with jam and honey or cold meats and cheese, sometimes accompanied by a boiled egg. Cereals or muesli with milk or joghurt is less common but widespread. Eating the German way, Cultural Profiles Project, Retrieved 2007, November 26 More than 300 types of bread are sold in bakery shops across the country. 300 Types of Bread, /www.germany-tourism.de, Retrieved 2007, November 26 A typical cheese and cold meat buffet served at private festivities. As a country with many immigrants, Germany has adopted many international dishes into its cuisine and daily eating habits. Italian dishes like Pizza and Pasta, Turkish and Arab dishes like Döner Kebab and Falafel are well established, especially in bigger cities. International burger chains, as well as Chinese and Greek restaurants, are widespread. Indian, Thai, Japanese, and other Asian cuisines have gained popularity in recent decades. Among nine high-profile restaurants in Germany, the Michelin guide has awarded three stars, the highest designation, while 15 more received two stars. Schnitzel Outcooks Spaghetti in Michelin Guide, Deutsche Welle, Retrieved 2007, November 26 German restaurants have become the world's second most decorated after eateries in France. German cuisine beats Italy, Spain in gourmet stars, Reuters India, Retrieved 2007, November 26 Although wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany, the national alcoholic drink is beer. German beer consumption per person is declining but—at 116 litres annually—it is still among the highest in the world. Europe's largest beer market, royalunibrew.com, Retrieved 2007, November 26 Beer varieties include Alt, Bock, Dunkel, Kölsch, Lager, Malzbier, Pils, and Weizenbier. Among 18 surveyed western countries, Germany ranked 14th in the list of per capita consumption of soft drinks in general, while it ranked third in the consumption of fruit juices. Soft drink consumption, www.nationmaster.com, Retrieved 2007, November 26 Furthermore, carbonated mineral water and Schorle (its mixture with fruit juice) are very popular in Germany. Society Claudia Schiffer, German model Since the 2006 World Cup celebrations the internal and external perception of Germany's national image has changed. How Germany won the World Cup of Nation Branding BrandOvation, Retrieved 2007, 11-25. In annually conducted global surveys known as Nation Brands Index, Germany became significantly and repeatedly higher ranked after the tournament. People in 20 different states were asked to assess the country's reputation in terms of culture, politics, exports, its people and its attractiveness to tourists, immigrants and investments. Germany has been named the world's most valued nation among 50 countries in 2008. Another global opinion poll based on 13,575 responses in 21 countries for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for the most positive influence in the world in 2009, leading 16 investigated countries. A majority of 61% have a positive view of the country, while 15% have a negative view. Russia and China 'approval down' BBC NEWS, Retrieved 2008, 04-02 Germans invest a large amount of money in international travel and domestic vacation trips (seaside resort in Sellin on the island of Rügen). Germany is a legally and socially tolerant country towards homosexuals. Civil unions have been permitted since 2001. Germany extends gay rights News24.com, Retrieved 2007, 11-25. Gays and lesbians can legally adopt their partner's biological children (stepchild adoption). The mayors of the two largest German cities, Berlin and Hamburg, are openly gay. During the last decade of the 20th century Germany has transformed its attitude towards immigrants considerably. Until the mid-nineties the opinion was widespread that Germany is not a country of immigration, even though about 10% of the population were of non-German origin. After the end of the influx of so-called Gastarbeiter (blue-collar guest-workers), refugees were a tolerated exception to this point of view. Today the government and German society are acknowledging the opinion that controlled immigration should be allowed based on the qualification of immigrants. From ethnic nation to universalistic immigrant integration: Germany The Integration of Immigrants in European Societies, Retrieved 2008, 11-25. With an expenditure of €67 billion on international travel in 2008, Germans invested more money in travel than any other country. The most travelled foreign destinations were Spain, Italy and Austria. Germans spend most on foreign trips: Industry group The Economic Times, Retrieved 2009, 03-15. See also Index of Germany-related articles Outline of Germany References External links General Deutschland.de — Official Germany portal (non-profit) Official site of German Chancellor (German and English) Deutsche Welle — Germany's international broadcaster Chief of State and Cabinet Members Germany at UCB Libraries GovPubs Facts and figures Facts about Germany — by the German Federal Foreign Office Destatis.de — Federal Statistical Office Germany Travel Germany Travel Info — Official Germany tourism portal (non-profit) be-x-old:Нямеччына | Germany |@lemmatized germany:236 officially:3 federal:54 republic:22 country:53 central:11 europe:25 border:6 north:18 sea:10 denmark:3 baltic:5 east:34 poland:4 czech:2 south:9 austria:9 switzerland:4 west:33 france:12 luxembourg:2 belgium:2 netherlands:2 territory:13 cover:7 square:1 kilometer:1 influence:7 temperate:2 seasonal:2 climate:7 million:38 inhabitant:2 account:2 large:44 population:23 among:14 member:17 state:79 european:36 union:19 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7,324 | Telecommunications_in_Finland | Finland has excellent communications, and is considered one of the most advanced information societies in the world. Communications superpower — Virtual Finland Telephones Telephones - main lines in use: 2.368 million (2004) Telephones - mobile cellular: 4.988 million (2004) Telephone system: General Assessment: Modern system with excellent service. Domestic: Digital fiber-optic fixed-line network and an extensive cellular network provide domestic needs. There are two major cellular network providers with independent networks (Elisa and Sonera). There are several smaller providers such as DNA, which may have independent networks in smaller areas, but are generally dependent on rented networks. There is a great variety of cellular providers and contracts, and competition is particularly fierce. International: Country code - 358; 1 submarine cable (Finland Estonia Connection); satellite earth stations - access to Intelsat transmission service via a Swedish satellite earth station, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - Finland shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden). Radio and Television There is a national public radio and television company Yleisradio (Yle), which is funded by television license fees, and two major private media companies, Alma Media and SanomaWSOY, with national TV channels. Yle maintains four TV channels YLE1, YLE2, Teema and FST5. There are four advertising-funded, national channels: Alma Media has MTV3 and SubTV, and SanomaWSOY has Nelonen and JIM. There are also a lot of pay-TV channels. Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 186, shortwave 1 (1998) Television broadcast stations: 120 (plus 431 repeaters) (1999) Television is broadcasted as digital (DVB-T) only since August 2007. On cable, only digital (DVB-C) will be broadcasted from 2008 on. Internet Internet country code: .fi Internet hosts: 1,503,976 (2005) Internet users: 3.286 million (2005) See also Finland References External links Virtual Finland - Communications superpower (including statistics) | Telecommunications_in_Finland |@lemmatized finland:6 excellent:2 communication:3 consider:1 one:1 advanced:1 information:1 society:1 world:1 superpower:2 virtual:2 telephone:4 main:1 line:2 use:1 million:3 mobile:1 cellular:4 system:2 general:1 assessment:1 modern:1 service:2 domestic:2 digital:3 fiber:1 optic:1 fix:1 network:6 extensive:1 provide:1 need:1 two:2 major:2 provider:3 independent:2 elisa:1 sonera:1 several:1 small:2 dna:1 may:1 area:1 generally:1 dependent:1 rented:1 great:1 variety:1 contract:1 competition:1 particularly:1 fierce:1 international:1 country:3 code:2 submarine:1 cable:2 estonia:1 connection:1 satellite:2 earth:3 station:5 access:1 intelsat:1 transmission:1 via:1 swedish:1 inmarsat:2 atlantic:1 indian:1 ocean:1 region:1 note:1 share:1 nordic:1 denmark:1 iceland:1 norway:1 sweden:1 radio:3 television:5 national:3 public:1 company:2 yleisradio:1 yle:2 fund:2 license:1 fee:1 private:1 medium:3 alma:2 sanomawsoy:2 tv:3 channel:4 maintain:1 four:2 teema:1 advertise:1 subtv:1 nelonen:1 jim:1 also:2 lot:1 pay:1 broadcast:4 fm:1 shortwave:1 plus:1 repeater:1 dvb:2 since:1 august:1 c:1 internet:4 fi:1 host:1 user:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 include:1 statistic:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:1 fiber_optic:1 inmarsat_atlantic:1 fm_shortwave:1 plus_repeater:1 repeater_television:1 external_link:1 |
7,325 | Economy_of_Cuba | The economy of Cuba is a largely state-controlled, centrally planned economy overseen by the Cuban government, though there remains significant foreign investment and enterprise in Cuba. Most of the means of production are owned and run by the government and most of the labor force is employed by the state. In the year 2000, the public sector employment was 76% and the private sector at 23% compared to the 1981 ratio of 91% to 8%. Social Policy at the Crossroads Oxfam America Report Capital investment is restricted and requires approval by the government. The Cuban government sets most prices and rations goods to citizens. The present Cuban Minister of Economy and Planning is Marino Murillo. In the 1950s, Cuba's economic development was on the top of Latin America and advanced even by European standards. The economy has deteriorated, and incomes have fallen dramatically behind European countries. Starvation was observed after the loss of Soviet subsidies. Shortages and queues are rife. Wages are 17-30 U.S. dollars per month on top of overcrowded housing (three quarters built before 1957) and some subsidized food. Paramount issues have been state salaries failing to meet personal needs under the state rationing system chronically plagued with shortages. As the variety and quantity of available rationed goods declined, Cubans increasingly turned to the black market to obtain basic food, clothing, household, and health amenities. The informal sector is characterized by what many Cubans call sociolismo. Corruption is common. Preferential treatment exists for those who are members of the Communist Party or who hold positions of power within the government. http://ctp.iccas.miami.edu/Research_Studies/BLatell.pdf Access to transportation, work, housing, university education and better health care are a function of status within the government or the Communist Party. Cuba's Repressive Machinery History Cuba's wages used to be among the world's highest. According to International Labor Organization, the average industrial salary in Cuba was the world's 8th highest - $6 US dollars per 8-hour work day in 1958. 62% of those employed lived on less than $75 a month, whereas today almost everyone lives on about $20 a month.. The purchasing power adjusted average agricultural salary was $3 US dollars, higher than in Denmark, West Germany, Belgium, or France. "Socialism and Development" by an unknown author says that peasents were unemployed 138 days out of the year (agriculture had seasonal variations) and 250,000 were unemployed during the harvest season. Even Castro has admitted that there was no economic crisis or hunger in Cuba. Although a third of the population lived in poverty, Cuba was one of the five most developed countries in Latin America. Cuba's large income disparities were a result of the fact that Cuba's unionized workers enjoyed perhaps the largest privileges in Latin America, "obtained in large measure at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants". Gross domestic product per capita was about 90% that of Italy and significantly higher than that of Japan, although 1/6 of the US. United Nations described the pre-Communist economy with "one feature of the Cuban social structure is a large middle class". Eight-hour day had been established in 1933, long before many other countries. Cuba had a months's paid holiday, nine days' sick leave with pay, six weeks' holiday before and after childbirth. Cuba labour movement had established limitations on mechanization and the bans on dismissals. Cuba had the Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios. Televisions per capita was the fifth highest in the world. Despite small size, it had the world's 8th highest number of radio stations (160). According to the United Nations, Cubans read 58 daily newspapers during the late 1950s, only behind three much more populous countries: Brazil, Argentina and Mexico. Before the Communist regime, Cuba had one of the highest numbers of doctors per capita. The mortality rate was the third lowest in the world. According to the World Health Organization, the island had the lowest infant mortality rate of Latin America and the 13th lowest in the world (Cuba's ranking has since worsened to 27th United Nations World Population Prospects: 2006 revision – Table A.18, A.19 ). Communist regime Since 1959 Cuba has experienced slow growth in its Gross Domestic Product relative to other countries that were in a similar situation in the 1950s, La Nueva Cuba stagnant trade. Cuba Facts and amassed a significant debt amounting to some 16.62 billion in convertible currency and 15 to 20 billion dollars with Russia. Welcome to the Cuba Transition Project at the University of Miami Cuba's Foreign Debt CIA - The World Factbook - Cuba Cuban citizens themselves have experienced a decrease in their caloric intake and a shortage of housing. From the late 1980s, Soviet subsidies for Cuba's state-run economy started to dry up. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba depended on Moscow for sheltered markets for its exports and substantial aid. The Soviet Union had been paying above-market prices for Cuban sugar, while providing Cuba with petroleum at below-market prices. At one point, Cuba received subsidies amounting to six billion dollars. Special Period The Cuban economy is still recovering from a decline in gross domestic product of at least 35 percent between 1989 and 1993 due to the loss of 80 percent of its trading partners and Soviet subsidies. This era was referred to as the "Special Period in Peacetime" later shortened to "Special Period". A Canadian Medical Association Journal paper states that "The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mid-1990s. Both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food to which they were entitled when the public food distribution collapsed; priority was given to the elite classes and the military." Cubans had to resort to eating anything they could find, from Havana Zoo animals to domestic cats. Nutrition fell from 3,052 calories per day in 1989 to 2,099 calories per day in 1993. Other reports indicate even lower figures, 1,863 calories per day. Some estimated that the very old and children received only 1,450 calories per day. The recommended minimum is 2,100–2,300 calories. The government has undertaken several reforms in recent years to stem excess liquidity, increase labour incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, consumer goods, and services. To alleviate the economic crisis, the government introduced a few market-oriented reforms including opening to tourism, allowing foreign investment, legalizing the U.S. dollar (although later partially reverted so that the US dollar is no longer accepted in businesses, it remains legal for Cubans to hold the currency), and authorizing self-employment for some 150 occupations. These measures resulted in modest economic growth. The liberalized agricultural markets introduced in October 1994, at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at free market prices, have broadened legal consumption alternatives and reduced black market prices. Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official exchange rate for the Cuban peso to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 21 to the dollar by yearend 1999. Living conditions in 1999 remained well below the 1989 level. New taxes introduced in 1996 have helped drive down the number of self-employed workers from 208,000 in January 1996. Havana announced in 1995 that GDP declined by 35% during 1989-93, the result of lost Soviet aid and domestic inefficiencies. The drop in GDP apparently halted in 1994, when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in 1995 and 7.8% in 1996. Growth slowed again in 1997 and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively. One of the key reasons given was the failure to notice that sugar production had become dramatically uneconomic. Reflecting on the Special period Cuban president Fidel Castro later admitted that many mistakes had been made, “The country had many economists and it is not my intention to criticize them, but I would like to ask why we hadn’t discovered earlier that maintaining our levels of sugar production would be impossible. The Soviet Union had collapsed, oil was costing $40 a barrel, sugar prices were at basement levels, so why did we not rationalize the industry?" Castro's new soldiers - Mail & Guardian Online: The smart news source Recovery Historical evolution of GDP per capita of Cuba and some other Caribbean countries, from World Population, GDP and Per Capita GDP, 1-2003 AD. Due to the continued growth of tourism, growth began in 1999 with a 6.2% increase in GDP . Growth in recent years has picked up significantly, with a growth in GDP of 11.8% in 2005 according to official Cuban information . In 2007 the Cuban economy grew by 7.5 %, below the expected 10 %, but higher than the Latin American average rate of growth. Accordingly, the cumulative growth in GDP since 2004 stood at 42.5 %. granma.cu - Cuban Economy Grows 7.5 Per Cent CHALLENGES 2007-2008: Cuban Economy in Need of Nourishment Post-Castro reforms In 2007, Raúl Castro's administration hinted that the purchase of computers, DVD players and microwaves would become legal. However, monthly wages remain less than 20 U.S. dollars. Mobile phones, which have been restricted to Cubans working for foreign companies and government officials, have become legalized. The new program could put phones in the hands of hundreds of thousands of Cubans. Energy production Due to the reliance on declining Soviet era electricity generators, many areas of Cuba suffered frequent blackouts and brownouts for extended periods, creating additional pressure on society. To counter these problems, the government has put Cuba through "Energy Revolution", which has placed increased emphasis on the efficient use of electrical energy and more efficient, small-power generators linked in a synchronized network. The country has increased the number of solar- and wind-powered generators. Though development was hampered by large-scale damage created by Hurricane Dennis and Hurricane Wilma, which cut Cuba's electricity generation capacity by half in the areas most affected, Cuba now exceeds the government set demand in electricity production. http://www.granma.cu/INGLES/2007/octubre/juev4/41demanda-i.html Raul Castro reminded Cubans, in his July 26 speech in 2007, that the Special Period is not yet over. http://www.granma.cu/INGLES/2007/julio/vier27/raul26.html Government policies Rationing in Cuba refers to the system of food distribution known in Cuba as the Libreta de Abastecimiento ("Supplies booklet"). The system establishes the rations each person is allowed to buy through that system, and the frequency of supplies. On top of rationing, the average wage at the end of 2005 was 334 regular pesos per month ($16.70 per month) and average monthly pension was $9. Cubans can not change jobs, change residence inside Cuba, or leave the country without government permission. In communications and publishing sector, Cubans can not access the Internet without government permission. Cubans can not watch or listen to independent, private, or foreign broadcasts. Cubans can not read books, magazines or newspapers, unless approved/published by the government. Cubans can not receive publications from abroad or from visitors. Until a 2009 announcement, Cubans were prohibited from using hotels or restaurants meant for tourists. A person can get more jail time for killing a cow (10 years in prison) than killing a human. Those who sell beef without government permission can get three to eight years in prison. Eaters of illegal beef can get three months to one year in prison. After the 1959 Cuban Revolution, citizens were not required to pay a personal income tax (their salaries being regarded as net of any taxes). However, from 1996, the State started to impose income taxes on Cubans earning hard currency, primarily the self-employed. In their book, Corruption in Cuba, Sergio Diaz-Briquets and Jorge F. Pérez-López state that the Communist regime institutionalized corruption; "Castro's state-run monopolies, cronyism, and lack of accountability turned Cuba into one of the world's most corrupt states". As in other former socialist countries, few citizens hesitate to steal from the government when given opportunity. Since the vast majority of people are in state jobs and the state makes up much of the economy, petty crime is widespread. Sociolismo also known as amiguismo meaning "friend-ism" or "partner-ism" is the informal term used in Cuba to describe the reciprocal exchange of favors by individuals, usually relating to circumventing bureaucratic restrictions or obtaining hard-to-find goods. It comes from the Spanish word socio which means business partner or buddy, and is a pun on socialismo, the Spanish term for socialism. It is analogous to the blat of the Soviet Union. The term is particularly associated with the black market economy, and perceived cronyism in Cuba’s state controlled command economy. Socios can be black market operators who "facilitate" (steal) goods that are officially reserved for the state. They can also get someone a job or obtain paperwork. Agriculture As a result of inefficient state-run agriculture, Cuba imports up to 80% of its food. After coming to power, Raúl Castro, Fidel Castro's brother, has ridiculed the bureaucracy that shackles the agriculture sector. Before 1959, Cuba boasted as many cattle as people. Today meat is so scarce that it is a crime to kill and eat a cow. Cuban people even suffered from starvation during the Special Period. Industry Oil pumps in Cuba In total, industrial production accounted for almost 37 percent of the Cuban GDP, or US$6.9 billion, and employs 24 percent of the population, or 2,671,440 people, in 1996. Cuba had 156 sugar mills in 1985, and at that time, about 10% of exports from the then-USSR to Cuba consisted of machinery for the sugar industry. Other food processing plants produced cheese, butter, yogurt, ice cream, wheat flour, pasta, preserved fruits and vegetables, alcoholic beverages, and soft drinks. Light industry comprises textiles, shoes, soap, toothpaste, and corrugated cardboard boxes. Other industries are petroleum products (Cuba has four oil refineries with a total production capacity of 301,000 barrels per day), tobacco, chemicals, construction, cement, agricultural machinery, nickel, and steel production. In the mid-1990s, tourism surpassed sugar processing as the main source of foreign exchange, although the government in 2002 announced plans to implement a "comprehensive transformation" of the sugar industry, including the closing of almost half the existing sugar mills. Although 1.7 million tourists visited the country in 2000, bringing in $1.9 billion, the global economic slowdown in 2001 and the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US negatively impacted Cuba's tourism industry. Cuba - Industry More recently Cuba's world-class biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry is gaining in its importance to the economy. It has been claimed that soon it will become Cuba's main source of foreign exchange. Among the products sold internationally are vaccines against various viral and bacterial pathogens, and promising anti-cancer vaccines are undergoing exhaustive clinical trials. Some Cuban scientists, like V. Verez-Bencomo, have been awarded international prizes for their contributions in biotechnology and Sugar Cane. Cuban vaccines are sold, among other countries, in Russia, China, India, Pakistan, and several Latin American countries. Tertiary industries Tourism White sand beach in Varadero In the mid 1990s tourism surpassed sugar, long the mainstay of the Cuban economy, as the primary source of foreign exchange. Tourism figures prominently in the Cuban Government's plans for development, and a top official cast it as the "heart of the economy". Havana devotes significant resources to building new tourist facilities and renovating historic structures for use in the tourism sector. Cuban officials estimate roughly 1.6 million tourists visited Cuba in 1999 with about $1.9 billion in gross revenues. In 2000, 1,773,986 foreign visitors arrived in Cuba. Revenue from tourism reached US $1.7 billion. Cuba - Tourism, travel, and recreation The rapid growth of tourism has had widespread social and economic repercussions in Cuba. This has led to speculation of the emergence of a two-tier economy Tourism in Cuba during the Special Period and the fostering of a state of tourist apartheid on the island. This situation was exacerbated by the influx of dollars into the Cuban economy during the 1990s, potentially creating a dual economy based on the dollar (the currency of tourists) on the one hand, and the peso on the other. Scarce imported goods - and even some of local manufacture, such as rum and coffee- could be had at dollars-only stores, but were hard to find or unavailable at peso prices. As a result, Cubans who earned only in the peso economy, outside the tourist sector, were at an economic disadvantage. Those with dollar incomes based upon the service industry began to live more comfortably. This widened the gulf between Cubans' material standards of living, in conflict with the Cuban Government's long term socialist policies. Lessons From Cuba Travel Outward Retail Cuba has a very poorly developed retail sector. There are no large shopping centers and the commercial districts that existed before the revolution are largely shut down. Those that remain carry few and poorly made products that are priced in dollars and are too expensive for the average Cuban to purchase. The majority of the stores are small dollar stores, bodegas, agro-mercados (farmers' markets), and street stands. Cuba - Monetary unit:, Chief exports:, Chief imports:, Gross domestic product:, Balance of trade: Poverty Typical wages range from factory worker's 400 non-convertible Cuban pesos a month to doctor's 700.That is only around 17-30 U.S. dollars a month. After Cuba lost subsidies in 1991, malnutrition resulted in an outbreak of diseases. Cuba's poverty level is one of the lowest in the developing world, ranking 6 out of 108 countries, 4 in Latin America, and 48 among all countries. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index#Complete_list_of_countries . Pensions are among the smallest in the Western hemisphere at $9.50. In 2009, Raul Castro increased minimum pensions by 2 dollars, which he said was to recompense for those who have "dedicated a great part of their lives to working... and who remain firm in defence of socialism". International trade The Netherlands receive the largest share of Cuban exports (24%), 70 to 80% of which through Fondel Finance, a company owned by the Van 't Wout family who have close personal ties with Fidel Castro. Currently, this trend can be seen in other colonial Caribbean communities who have direct political ties with the global economy. (e.g. British West Indies, United States Virgin Islands, French outer-territories, etc.) The second largest trade partner is Canada, with a 22% share of the Cuban export market. FAQs on Canada-Cuba trade CBC Foreign investment Since the Special Period, Cuba has actively courted foreign investment. All would be foreign investors are required to form joint ventures with the Cuban government. The sole exception to this rule are Venezuelans, who are allowed to hold 100% ownership in businesses due to an economic agreement between Cuba and Venezuela. Cuban officials said in early 1998 that there were a total of 332 joint ventures. Many of these are loans or contracts for management, supplies, or services normally not considered equity investment in Western economies. Investors are constrained by the U.S.-Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act which provides sanctions for those who "traffic" in property expropriated from U.S. citizens. As of March 1998, 15 executives of three foreign companies have been excluded from entry into the United States. Over a dozen companies have pulled out of Cuba or altered their plans to invest there due to the threat of action under the Libertad Act. Tobacco plantation, Pinar del Río. US Dollar In 1993 the Cuban Government made it legal for its people to possess and use the U.S. dollar. From then until 2004, the dollar became a major currency. To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and remittances - estimated at $500–800 million annually - the government set up state-run "dollar stores" throughout Cuba that sold 'luxury' food, household, and clothing items, compared with basic necessities, which were bought using the Cuban peso. As such, a gap in the standard of living developed between those with access to dollars and those without. Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable. It was common to meet doctors, engineers, scientists, and other professionals working in restaurants or as taxicab drivers. However, in response to stricter economic sanctions by the US, and because the authorities were pleased with Cuba's economic recovery, the Cuban government decided in October 2004 to remove the American dollar from circulation. In its place, the Cuban convertible peso is now used, which although not internationally traded, has a value pegged to that of the dollar. As a source of additional revenue, a 10% surcharge is levied for conversions from US dollars to the convertible peso; this surcharge does not apply to other currencies, so it acts as an encouragement to tourists to bring currencies like Euros, pounds sterling or Canadian dollars into Cuba. Indeed, an increasing number of areas rich in tourism now also accept Euros directly for many transactions. Biotechnology and informatics Since the very beginning of revolution, the idea of a more diversified and more sophisticated production of wealth in the island was present. In an early speech Fidel Castro announced that "the future of Cuba ought necessarily to be a future of men doing science". In the mid 1980s and during all the '90s this dream grew as a set of Biotechnology I+D institutions at the west of Havana. The so called polo cientifico del oeste is a biotechnological park, located at the west of Havana, and with some tens of institutions devoted to the development of human, animal and agricultural biotechnology. This park is claimed to be a successful experiment of Cuba’s economy, as it was able to create first world standard biotechnology institutions, with several patented drugs and a net annual income of some hundred million US dollars. Although most of the small institutions have a negative net balance and rely on government subsides, successful vaccines and drugs from bigger institutions, like Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology|CIGB Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (CIGB) and CIM greatly overcome the deficit, and put this sector as one of the most important in Cuban economy. In recent years, the Cuban government decided to make a big investment in a similar experiment, this time creating a technological park and a nearby Computer Science University intended to be an Informatics analogue of the successful Biotechnology adventure. Although in both cases market is a big issue, Cuba is relying in its world recognized high educational level for the fast developing of these new knowledge based economy. Self-employment To provide jobs for workers laid off due to the economic crisis, the government was having difficulty providing, and to try to bring some forms of black market activity into legal - and therefore controllable - channels, Havana in 1993 legalized self-employment for some 150 occupations. The government tightly controls the small private sector, which has fluctuated in size from 150,000 to 209,000, by regulating and taxing it. For example, owners of small private restaurants (paladares) can seat no more than 12 people and can only employ family members to help with the work. Set monthly fees must be paid regardless of income earned and frequent inspections yield stiff fines when any of the many self-employment regulations are violated. Rather than expanding private sector opportunities, in recent years, the government has been attempting to squeeze more of these private sector entrepreneurs out of business and back to the public sector. Many have opted to enter the informal economy or black market. In recent years there has developed what is called "urban agriculture", production which takes place on small parcels of land in the cities. Growing organopónicos (organic gardens) in the private sector has been attractive to city dwelling small producers who get to sell their products in the same place where they produce them, avoiding taxes and enjoying a measure of government help from the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) in the form of seed houses and advisors. Connection with Venezuela The relationship cultivated between Cuba and Venezuela in recent years has resulted in agreements that Venezuela provide cheap oil in exchange for Cuban "missions" of doctors which aid and help to improve the Venezuelan health care system. Cuba, with the second-highest per capita number of physicians in the world (behind Italy), sends tens of thousands of doctors to other countries as aid, as well as for obtaining favorable economic terms of trade. While Venezuela says that Cuba is paying part of the bill with the professionals, medicines, books and other items that Cuba sends, some independent analysts say the numbers don't add up. Havana would have to be collecting about $80,000 per year per Cuban worker in Venezuela to cover the costs of its oil imports, the analysts say. Instead, Cuban doctors in Venezuela receive about $3,000 per year, according to three Cuban doctors who defected from the program (see also Mission Barrio Adentro). The White House's point man on plans for a post-Castro transition, Caleb McCarry, recently told The Miami Herald that U.S. estimates of total Venezuelan subsidies to Cuba per year "are up to the $2 billion figure." This can be compared to the $4 billion to $6 billion that Moscow once pumped into Cuba per year. http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/15395148.htm Economic freedom The 2008 Index of Economic Freedom Report ranks Cuba 156 out of 157 nations surveyed. The report states typical imports are food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. Exports include nickel, cigars, and state-sponsored labor, for which the government charges many times what it pays in state salaries. Lacking investment, Cuba's sugar industry is no longer viable: The island has become a net importer. Venezuela now supplies up to 80,000 barrels of oil per day on generous credit terms, although Cuba produces small amounts of poor-quality sulfurous crude on its own. Venezuelan assistance has also enabled Cuba to retreat on limited liberal reforms such as allowing self-employment in careers like snack vending and bicycle repair. Index of Economic Freedom On the other hand that report is in conflict with the socialist agenda of the Cuban government, which states in theory, that economic freedom results from the negative freedom of not having to deal with private owners of the means of production - freedom would be the freedom to control the means of production despite of capitalist laws of private ownership, which exist in the USA. Other statistics Electricity - production: 15,650 GWh (2004) Electricity - production by source:fossil fuel:89.52%hydro:0.65%nuclear:0%other:'' 9.83% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 14.62 GWh (2003) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2003) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2003) Agriculture - products: sugarcane, tobacco, citrus, coffee, rice, potatoes, beans; livestock Exports - commodities: sugar, medical products, nickel, tobacco, shellfish, citrus, coffee Imports: $6.916 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.) Imports - commodities: petroleum, food, machinery, chemicals Imports - partners: Spain 14.7%, Venezuela 13.5%, US 11%, China 8.9%, Canada 6.4%, Italy 6.2%, Mexico 4.9% (2004) Current account balance: $-14748 million (2005 est.) Debt - external: $13.1 billion (convertible currency); another $15–20 billion owed to Russia (2005 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $68.2 million (1997 est.) Exchange rates: Cuban pesos (CUP) per US$1 – 25 (2005) (nonconvertible, official rate, linked to the US dollar) See also Agriculture in Cuba Banking in Cuba United States embargo against Cuba Dollar store (Cuba) Sociolismo Rationing in Cuba Special Period Ubre Blanca the Cuban cow used by Fidel Castro in the 1980s to symbolise Cuba's economy Notes External links Economic Illegalities and the Underground Economy in Cuba by Archibald Ritter, Professor of Economics, Carleton University Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (ASCE) What Castro wants- Time Story about the U.S. embargo. Cuba Comes in from the Cold- Council on Hemispheric Affairs Cuba: An economic tiger in the Caribbean? 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7,326 | Cottingley_Fairies | Frances Griffiths with the alleged fairies, taken by Elsie Wright in July 1917. One of the five photographs. The Cottingley Fairies are a series of five photographs taken by Elsie Wright and Frances Griffiths, two young cousins living in Cottingley, near Bradford in England, depicting the two in various activities with supposed fairies. In 1917, when the first two photos were taken, Elsie was 16 years old and Frances was 10. In 1981 the two women admitted to faking all but one of the photographs, but insisted that they really had seen fairies. Biographies of the girls Elsie Wright Elsie was born in 1901 to Arthur Wright and Polly Wright. Elsie was an extremely gifted and accomplished artist who painted landscapes and portraits, mainly in watercolour. She had attended Bradford Art College since the age of 13 and also found work in a photographic lab and a greeting card factory during World War I. In the darkroom her job was to create composite photos of fallen soldiers with pictures of loved ones and during this time she had the opportunity to work with plate cameras. She later emigrated to America. After marrying an engineer, Elsie emigrated again, this time to India. For the duration of the Second World War she was a captain in the WRVS working in military hospitals in Calcutta. She returned to England after the 1947 declaration of independence. She died in 1988 aged 87. She had one son. Frances Griffiths Frances Mary Griffiths was born in Shoeburyness, Essex on 4 September 1907 to Sergeant Major Arthur Griffiths and Annie Griffiths. The family were stationed in South Africa before returning to England in 1917 when Frances went to live with her cousin in Cottingley. Frances married Sydney Way, a soldier, in 1928 and finally settled in Ramsgate. She died on 11 July 1986 at the age of 78. She had two children, a son and a daughter. The story The beginning Elsie was the daughter of Arthur Wright, one of the earliest qualified electrical engineers. She borrowed her father's camera (a Butcher Midg No. 1 Magazine Type Falling Plate 1/4-plate camera) and took photos in the beck behind the family house. When Mr. Wright, upon developing the plates, saw fairies in the pictures, he considered them fake. After he saw the second picture, he banned Elsie from using the camera again. Her mother, Polly, however was convinced of their authenticity. The first picture was taken by the girls at Cottingley Beck and shows Frances looking into the camera as a troop of fairies dances on the branches in the foreground. Some photographers of the day examined the photo and declared them to be genuine but the Kodak laboratories refused to authenticate them, stating that there were many ways to get such faked results. The photo had been received in its original form in a letter to Edward L. Gardner along with the second photo in the series. However, as the images were relatively faded and ill defined, Gardner tasked Harold Snelling to produce some better reprints that were then made in enough numbers to satisfy the public as interest in the photographs accelerated. In 1918 in the week before the end of the First World War, Frances sent a letter to a Johanna Parvin, a friend in Cape Town, South Africa, where she had lived most of her life. Dated November 9 1918: "Dear Joe [Johanna], I hope you are quite well. I wrote a letter before, only I lost it or it got mislaid. Do you play with Elsie and Nora Biddles? I am learning French, Geometry, Cookery and Algebra at school now. Dad came home from France the other week after being there ten months, and we all think the war will be over in a few days. We are going to get our flags to hang upstairs in our bedroom. I am sending two photos, both of me, one of me in a bathing costume in our back yard, Uncle Arthur took that, while the other is me with some fairies up the beck, Elsie took that one. Rosebud is as fat as ever and I have made her some new clothes. How are Teddy and dolly? Elsie and I are very friendly with the beck Fairies." On the back of the photograph Frances wrote "It is funny I never used to see them in Africa. It must be too hot for them there." The matter first became public in the summer of 1919 when Polly Wright went to a meeting at the Theosophical Society in Bradford. She was interested in the occult, and had some experiences of astral projection and memories of past lives herself. The lecture that night was on 'fairy life' and Polly mentioned to the person sitting next to her that fairy prints had been taken by her daughter and niece. The result of this conversation was that two rough prints came to the notice of Theosophists at the Harrogate conference in the autumn and then to a leading Theosophist, Edward Gardner, in early 1920. Gardner's immediate impulse after seeing the fairy pictures was to believe the prints were genuine. Four years later, on 25 November 1922, the letter from Frances to Johanna Parvin was rediscovered and later published in the Cape Town Argus in an article called "Cape Town Link In World Controversy", once more reigniting public curiosity. Conan Doyle's involvement Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, a prominent Spiritualist, had been commissioned by the Strand Magazine to write an article on fairies for their Christmas issue, to be published at the end of November 1920. He was preparing this in June when he heard of the two prints of fairies, made contact with Gardner and borrowed copies of the prints. He showed the prints to Sir Oliver Lodge, a pioneer psychical researcher, who thought them to be fakes, perhaps involving a troupe of dancers masquerading as fairies. One fairy authority told him that the hairstyles of the sprites were too 'Parisienne' for his liking. Lodge also passed them on to a clairvoyant for psychometric impressions. Conan Doyle dispatched Gardner to Cottingley in July. Gardner reported that the whole Wright family seemed honest and totally respectable. Conan Doyle and Gardner decided that if further fairy photographs were taken then the matter would be firmly put beyond question. Gardner journeyed north in August with cameras and 20 photographic plates to leave with Elsie and Frances hoping to persuade them to take more photographs. Only in this way, he felt, could it be proved that the fairies were genuine. Meanwhile, the Strand article was completed, featuring the two reprinted, better defined prints. Conan Doyle sailed for Australia, and a lecture tour designed to spread the gospel of Spiritualism. He left his colleagues to face public reactions to the fairy controversy. That issue of the Strand sold out within days of publication at the end of November. Reaction was vigorous, especially from critics. The leading voice among them was that of Major Hall-Edwards, a radium expert. He declared: "On the evidence I have no hesitation in saying that these photographs could have been 'faked'. I criticize the attitude of those who declared there is something supernatural in the circumstances attending to the taking of these pictures because, as a medical man, I believe that the inculcation of such absurd ideas into the minds of children will result in later life in manifestations and nervous disorder and mental disturbances…" Newspaper comments were varied. On 5 January 1921, Truth declared: "For the true explanation of these fairy photographs what is wanted is not a knowledge of occult phenomena but a knowledge of children." On the other hand the South Wales Argus of November 27 1920 took a more tolerant view: "The day we kill our Santa Claus with our statistics we shall have plunged a glorious world into deepest darkness". City News, on 29 January, stated: "It seems at this point that we must either believe in the almost incredible mystery of the fairy or in the almost incredible wonders of faked photographs." The Westminster Gazette broke the aliases used by Conan Doyle to protect Frances and Elsie and a reporter went north. However, nothing new was added to the story by the reporter's investigation. He found out that Elsie had borrowed her father's camera to take the first picture, and that Frances had taken a picture of Elsie and a gnome. In fact there was nothing he could add to the facts listed by Conan Doyle in his article "Fairies photographed–an epoch making event". The reporter considered Polly and Arthur Wright to be honest enough folk and he returned a verdict of 'unexplained' to his paper in London. Extra photographs The Cottingley fairy photographs provoked heated arguments. To Sir Arthur Conan Doyle they were the long-awaited proof of the existence of spirits–but to many people they were just clever fakes. In the school holidays of August 1920, Frances Griffiths was asked to come by train to Cottingley from Scarborough, where she had gone to live with her mother and father after the First World War. Aunt Polly had written to say that Edward Gardner would be travelling up from London with new cameras so that the cousins might have further opportunities of taking fairy photographs to add to the two they took in 1917. Edward Gardner came from London to Bradford by train and took the tram out to Cottingley Bar, three miles away. He had brought with him two cameras and two dozen secretly marked photographic plates. He described the briefing of the girls thus in his book Fairies: a book of real fairies published in 1945: "I went off, too, to Cottingley again, taking the two cameras and plates from London, and met the family and explained to the two girls the simple working of the cameras, giving one each to keep. The cameras were loaded, and my final advice was that they need go up to the glen only on fine days as they had been accustomed to do before and tice the fairies, as they called their way of attracting them, and see what they could get. I suggested only the most obvious and easy precautions about lighting and distance, for I knew it was essential they should feel free and unhampered and have no burden of responsibility. If nothing came of it all, I told them, they were not to mind a bit." In a letter to Gardner from Polly, she wrote about the events of Thursday, 19 August 1920: "The morning was dull and misty so they did not take any photos until after dinner when the mist had cleared away and it was sunny. I went to my sister's for tea and left them to it. When I got back they had only managed two with fairies, I was disappointed." Two days later... "They went up again on Saturday afternoon and took several photos but there was only one with anything on and it's a queer one, we can't make it out. Elsie put the plates in this time and Arthur developed them next day. P.S. She did not take one flying after all." So the plates were returned to London. Elsie remembers the care with which they were packed in cotton wool by her father, who was puzzled about the whole affair. He never understood it until the end of his days and Conan Doyle went down in his estimation. Before the man had shown an interest in fairies, Arthur held him in high regard; afterwards he found it hard to believe that so intelligent a man could be bamboozled "by our Elsie, and her at the bottom of the class!" But whereas Arthur could not bring himself to believe in fairies, Polly, as the tone of her letter suggests, supported her daughter and professed belief in the existence of nature spirits. Gardner was elated to receive the secretly marked plates which bore the fairy photographs and telegrams were sent off to Conan Doyle who was on his Australian lecture tour, currently in Melbourne. Conan Doyle wrote back: "My heart was gladdened when out here in far Australia I had your note and the three wonderful pictures which are confirmatory of our published results. When our fairies are admitted other psychic phenomena will find a more ready acceptance … we have had continued messages at seances for some time that a visible sign was coming through...." Both Conan Doyle and Edward Gardner were primarily interested in spreading their own ideas of the infinite to what they considered to be a far from receptive public. Conan Doyle saw the Cottingley fairies incident as (perhaps literally) a gift from the gods, paving the way for more profound truths that may gradually become acceptable to a materialistic world. He used the last three photographs to illustrate a second article in the Strand Magazine in 1921. It described other accounts of alleged fairy sightings and served as the foundation for his later book entitled The Coming of the Fairies, published in 1922. Reactions to the new fairy photographs were, as before, varied. The most common criticism was that the fairies looked suspiciously like the traditional fairies of nursery tales and that they had very fashionable hairstyles. It was also pointed out that the pictures were particularly sharply-defined as if some improvement had been made by an expert photographer. However, some public figures were sympathetic. Margaret McMillan, the educational and social reformer: "How wonderful that to these dear children such a wonderful gift has been vouchsafed." The novelist Henry de Vere Stacpoole, decided to take the fairy photographs and the girls at face value. He accepted that both girls and pictures were genuine. In a letter to Gardner he said: "Look at Alice's face. Look at Iris's face. There is an extraordinary thing called TRUTH which has 10 million faces and forms–it is God's currency and the cleverest coiner or forger can't imitate it… " The aliases 'Alice' and 'Iris' first used by Conan Doyle to protect the anonymity of the girls were deliberately preserved by Stacpoole. The fifth photo The Fifth Photo The fifth and last fairy photograph is often believed to be the most striking. Conan Doyle in his The Coming of the Fairies advances a detailed view of the pictured proceedings: "Seated on the upper left hand edge with wing well displayed is an undraped fairy apparently considering whether it is time to get up. An earlier riser of more mature age is seen on the right possessing abundant hair and wonderful wings. Her slightly denser body can be glimpsed within her fairy dress." However, he was by no means the only believer in elemental spirits. In August 1921, a last expedition was made to Cottingley. This time the clairvoyant, Geoffrey Hodson, was brought along to verify any fairy sightings. The feeling was that if anyone apart from the girls could see the fairies, Hodson could. The fairies were not photographed although they were reported to have been seen both by Hodson and by Elsie. But by then both Elsie and Frances were tired of the whole fairy business. Many years later, Elsie looked at a photograph of herself and Frances taken with Hodson and said: "Look at that, fed up with fairies!" Both Elsie and Frances have since agreed that they humoured Hodson to a sometimes ludicrous extent. Elsie and Frances interviewed For fifty years Elsie managed to avoid publicity, then in 1971, BBC TV's Nationwide programme took up the case. For 10 days she was interviewed, and visited Cottingley. Elsie: I didn't want to upset Mr. Gardner. I don't mind talking now. (Mr. Gardner had died the year before) Elsie: I would swear on the Bible father didn't know what was going on. Interviewer: Could you equally swear on the Bible you didn't play any tricks? Elsie (after a pause): I took the photographs. I took two of them... no, three. Frances took two. Interviewer: Are they trick photographs? Could you swear on the Bible about that? Elsie (after a pause): I'd rather leave that open if you don't mind... but my father had nothing to do with it I can promise you that. Interviewer: Have you had your fun with the world for 50 years? Have you been kidding us for 10 days? (Elsie laughs.) Elsie (gently): I think we'll close on that if you don't mind. More objective was Austin Mitchell's interview for Yorkshire Television in September 1976. On the spot where the photographs had allegedly been taken, the following dialogue took place: Mitchell: A rational person doesn't see fairies. If people say they see fairies, then one's bound to be critical. Frances: Yes. Mitchell: Now, if you say you saw them, at the time the photograph was taken, that means that if there's a confidence trick, then you're both part of it. Frances: Yes–that's fair enough–yes. Mitchell: So are you? Frances: No. Elsie: No. Frances: Of course not. Mitchell: Did you, in any way, fabricate those photographs? Frances: Of course not. You tell us how she could do it, remember she was 16 and I was 10. So, then, as a child of 10, can you go through life and keep a secret? The Yorkshire Television team, however, believed the cardboard cutout theory. Austin Mitchell with a row of fairy figures before him set against a background of greenery. He flicked them around a little. "Simple cardboard cutouts" he commented on the live magazine programme. "Done by our photographic department and mounted on wire frames. They discovered that you really need wire to make them stand up–paper figures droop, of course. That's how it could have been done." The critics were Lewis of Nationwide, Austin Mitchell of Yorkshire TV, James Randi, and Stewart Sanderson and Katherine Briggs of the Folklore Society. F. W. Holiday in his book The Dragon and the Disc likens the appearance of the Cottingley gnome to that of Icelandic Bronze Age figures, and William Riley, the Yorkshire author, puts the five fairy pictures into perhaps the most relevant context: "I have many times come across several people who have seen pixies at certain favoured spots in Upper Airedale and Wharfedale." Confession by the girls In 1981, in an interview by Joe Cooper for the magazine The Unexplained, The Unexplained, Volume 10, Issue 117, page 2338-2340 the cousins stated that the photos were fake; they had held up cut-outs with hatpins. Frances Way (née Griffiths), however, continued to maintain until her death in July, 1986 (Elsie died in April, 1988) that they did see fairies and that the fifth photograph, which showed fairies in a sunbath, was genuine. The Unexplained, Volume 10, Issue 117, page 2339. In a 1985 TV interview on Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers Elsie Wright stated that they were too embarrassed to admit the truth after fooling the author of Sherlock Holmes. "Two village kids and a brilliant man like Conan Doyle, well, we could only keep quiet." In the same interview they also stated: "I never even thought of it as being a fraud — it was just Elsie and I having a bit of fun and I can't understand to this day why they were taken in — they wanted to be taken in." In this interview, neither woman said any photograph was genuine, however Frances maintained that there had been fairies in the garden. Antiques Roadshow Frances's daughter and granddaughter appeared on an episode of Antiques Roadshow in Belfast, aired on BBC One on January 4 2009, with all five original photographs and the camera given to the girls by Conan Doyle. The set was valued at £40,000 or more. When asked, both women agreed that they believed the fairies in the fifth photograph to be genuine. Analysis of the pictures In the pictures and prints available today, the fairies look flat, with lighting that does not match the rest of the photograph, as if they were paper cut-outs. It has been claimed that this is because the originals were of poor quality and needed retouching and that this is the reason the originals were first seen as convincing. Harold Snelling, a man considered an expert in fake photography in the early 1900s, said "these dancing figures are not made of paper nor any fabric; they are not painted on a photographic background—but what gets me most is that all these figures have moved during the exposure." However in the long exposure, wind could have moved the fairies' wings or bodies if they were made of paper or fabric, which Frances admitted to in her TV interview. Doyle also dismissed the idea the photographs could have been faked. In 1978, it was found some of the fairies resemble drawings in the 1914 book Princess Mary's Gift Book by Claude A. Shepperson. The Unexplained, Volume 10, Issue 117, page 2338. The Unexplained, Volume 10, Issue 116, page 2319. In popular culture The novel Little, Big, or The Fairies' Parliament by John Crowley (1981) has a photographer as a character who studies his young female cousins' photographs of fairies. Terry Jones and Brian Froud have collaborated on several fanciful works based on the photos. First is Lady Cottington's Pressed Fairy Book published in 1994, followed by Quentin Cottington's Journal of Faery Research: Strange Stains and Mysterious Smells published in 1996. In 2002 the published Lady Cottington's Fairy Album. The 1997 film, Fairy Tale: A True Story, starring Peter O'Toole and Harvey Keitel was based on these events. The film Photographing Fairies, also released in 1997 used the photographs in the early part of its storyline. The Cottingley Fairies are recurring characters in the comic book series Proof. A 2006 episode of Torchwood, "Small Worlds", features the photographs. In the novel The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time, the protagonist references the incident and features one photograph as an example of "people [wanting] to be stupid and [not wanting] to know the truth." References Notes Further reading The Coming of the Fairies by Arthur Conan Doyle, Hodder & Stoughton, hardback, 1922. The Unexplained, Mysteries of Mind, Space & Time. Edited by Brian Innes and Peter Brookesmith, a weekly part work published by Orbis Publishing Ltd. Republished as ISBN 0-87475-575-1. The Cottingley articles occur in volume 5, pp. 584 - 601. External links The Coming of the Fairies: An alternative view of the episode of The Cottingley Fairies, essay by Barbara Roden The Case of the Cottingley Fairies at The James Randi Educational Foundation Cottingley Fairies at Cottingley.Net - The Cottingley Network Cottingley Fairies at Cottingley Connect Cottingley Fairies at Anomalies | Cottingley_Fairies |@lemmatized france:29 griffith:7 alleged:2 fairy:72 take:31 elsie:35 wright:11 july:4 one:15 five:4 photograph:37 cottingley:23 series:3 two:19 young:2 cousin:5 live:5 near:1 bradford:4 england:3 depict:1 various:1 activity:1 supposed:1 first:9 photo:13 year:6 old:1 woman:3 admit:4 fake:7 insist:1 really:2 see:12 biography:1 girl:10 bear:2 arthur:12 polly:8 extremely:1 gifted:1 accomplished:1 artist:1 paint:2 landscape:1 portrait:1 mainly:1 watercolour:1 attend:2 art:1 college:1 since:2 age:5 also:6 find:5 work:5 photographic:5 lab:1 greet:1 card:1 factory:1 world:10 war:5 darkroom:1 job:1 create:1 composite:1 fall:2 soldier:2 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7,327 | Consequentialism | Consequentialism refers to those moral theories which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action (but see rule consequentialism). Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence. Consequentialism is usually understood as distinct from deontology, in that deontology derives the rightness or wrongness of an act from the character of the act itself rather than the outcomes of the action, and from virtue ethics, which focuses on the character of the agent rather than on the nature or consequences of the action itself. The difference between these three approaches to morality tends to lie more in the way moral dilemmas are approached than in the moral conclusions reached. For example, a consequentialist may argue that lying is wrong because of the negative consequences produced by lying — though a consequentialist may allow that certain foreseeable consequences might make lying acceptable. A deontologist might argue that lying is always wrong, regardless of any potential "good" that might come from lying. A virtue ethicist, however, would focus less on lying in any particular instance and instead consider what a decision to tell a lie or not tell a lie said about one's character and moral behavior. Definition The term "consequentialism" was coined by G.E.M. Anscombe in her essay "Modern Moral Philosophy" in 1958, to describe what she saw as the central error of certain moral theories, such as those propounded by Mill and Sidgwick. Since then, the term has become common in English-language ethical theory. The defining feature of consequentialist moral theories is the weight given to the consequences in evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions. In consequentialist theories, the consequences of an action or rule generally outweigh other considerations. Apart from this basic outline, there is little else that can be unequivocally said about consequentialism as such. However, there are some questions that many consequentialist theories address: What sort of consequences count as good consequences? Who is the primary beneficiary of moral action? How are the consequences judged and who judges them? Kinds of consequences One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to hedonistic utilitarianism, a good action is one that results in an increase in pleasure, and the best action is one that results in the most pleasure for the greatest number. Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in material equality or political liberty instead of something like the more ephemeral "pleasure". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Whether a particular consequentialist theory focuses on a single good or many, conflicts and tensions between different good states of affairs are to be expected and must be adjudicated. Consequences for whom Moral action always has an effect on certain people or things, the consequences. Various kinds of consequentialism can be differentiated by beneficiary of the good consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" Agent-focused or agent-neutral A fundamental distinction can be drawn between theories that demand that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest or motivation and theories that demand that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their own interests and drives. These are called "agent-focused" and "agent-neutral" theories respectively. Agent-neutral consequentialism ignores the specific value a state of affairs has for any particular agent. Thus, in an agent-neutral theory, an actor's personal goals do not count any more than anyone else's goals in evaluating what action the actor should take. Agent-focused consequentialism, on the other hand, focuses on the particular needs of the moral agent. Thus, in an agent-focused account, such as one that Peter Railton outlines, the actor might be concerned with the general welfare, but the actor is more concerned with the immediate welfare of herself and her friends and family . These two approaches could be reconciled by acknowledging the tension between an agent's interests as an individual and as a member of various groups, and seeking to somehow optimize among all of these interests. For example, it may be meaningful to speak of an action as being good for someone as an individual but bad for them as a citizen of their town. Human-centered? Many consequentialist theories may seem primarily concerned with human beings and their relationships with other human beings. However, some philosophers argue that we should not limit our ethical consideration to the interests of human beings alone. Jeremy Bentham, who is regarded as the founder of Utilitarianism, argues that animals can experience pleasure and pain, thus demanding that 'non-human animals' should be a serious object of moral concern . More recently, Peter Singer has argued that it is unreasonable that we do not give equal consideration to the interests of animals as to those of human beings when we choose the way we are to treat them . Such equal consideration does not necessarily imply identical treatment of humans and non-humans, any more than it necessarily implies identical treatment of all humans. Action guidance One important characteristic of many normative moral theories such as consequentialism is the ability to produce practical moral judgements. At the very least, any moral theory needs to define the standpoint from which the goodness of the consequences are to be determined. What is primarily at stake here is the responsibility of the agent. The ideal observer One common tactic among consequentialists, particularly those committed to an altruistic (selfless) account of consequentialism, is employ an ideal, neutral observer from which moral judgements can be made. John Rawls, a critic of utilitarianism, argues that utilitarianism, in common with other forms of consequentialism, relies on the perspective of such an ideal observer. The particular characteristics of this ideal observer can vary from an omniscient observer, who would grasp all the consequences of any action, to an ideally informed observer, who knows as much as could reasonably be expected, but not necessarily all the circumstances or all the possible consequences. Consequentialist theories that adopt this paradigm hold that right action is the action that will bring about the best consequences from this ideal observer's perspective. The real observer In practice, it is very difficult, and at times arguably impossible, to adopt the point of view of an ideal observer. Individual moral agents do not know everything about their particular situations, and thus do not know all the possible consequences of their potential actions. For this reason, some theorists have argued that consequentialist theories can only require agents to choose the best action in line with what they know about the situation. However, if this approach is naïvely adopted, then moral agents who, for example, recklessly fail to reflect on their situation, and act in a way that brings about terrible results, could be said to be acting in a morally justifiable way. Acting in a situation without first informing oneself of the circumstances of the situation can lead to even the most well-intended actions yielding miserable consequences. As a result, it could be argued that there is a moral imperative for an agent to inform himself as much as possible about a situation before judging the appropriate course of action. This imperative, of course, is derived from consequential thinking: a better informed agent is able to bring about better consequences. Varieties of consequentialism Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill, an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century and a teacher of utilitarianism, albeit his teachings are a bit different from Jeremy Bentham's philosophy Jeremy Bentham, best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism Summarily, Jeremy Bentham states that people are driven by their interests and their fears, but their interests take precedence over their fears, and their interests are carried out in accordance with how people view the consequences that might be involved with their interests. "Happiness" on this account is defined as the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain. Historically, hedonistic utilitarianism is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. This form of utilitarianism holds that what matters is the aggregate happiness; the happiness of everyone and not the happiness of any particular person. John Stuart Mill, in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures. However, some contemporary utilitarians, such as Peter Singer are concerned to maximize the satisfaction of preferences, hence "preference utilitarianism". Other contemporary forms of utilitarianism mirror the forms of consequentialism outlined below. Ethical egoism and altruism Ethical egoism can be understood as a consequentialist theory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter more than any other result. Thus, egoism may license actions which are good for the agent, but it is generally seen as detrimental to general welfare. Some like Henry Sidgwick, however, argue that a certain degree of egoism promotes general welfare for two reasons: because individuals know how to please themselves best, and because if everyone were an austere altruist then general welfare would inevitably decrease. Ethical altruism can be seen as a consequentialist ethic which prescribes that an individual take actions that have the best consequences for everyone except for himself. "Ethics" by James Fisher and Bradley Dowdwen, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy This was advocated by Auguste Comte, who coined the term "altruism," and whose ethics can be summed up in the phrase: Live for others. Moran, Gabriel Christian Religion and National Interests Rule consequentialism In general, consequentialist theories focus on actions. However, this need not be the case. Rule consequentialism is a theory that is sometimes seen as an attempt to reconcile deontology and consequentialism - and in some cases, this is stated as a criticism of rule consequentialism Bernard Williams, "Utilitarianism" in his Morality, Cambridge University Press 1993 . Like deontology, rule consequentialism holds that moral behavior involves following certain rules. However, rule consequentialism chooses rules based on the consequences that the selection of those rules have. Various theorists are split as to whether the rules are the only determinant of moral behavior or not. For example, Robert Nozick holds that a certain set of minimal rules, which he calls "side-constraints", are necessary to ensure appropriate actions. There are also differences as to how absolute these moral rules are. Thus, while Nozick's side-constraints are absolute restrictions on behavior, Amartya Sen proposes a theory which recognizes the importance of certain rules, but these rules are not absolute. That is, they may be violated if strict adherence to the rule would lead to much more undesirable consequences. One of the most common objections to rule-consequentialism is that it is incoherent, because it is based on the consequentialist principle that what we should be concerned with is maximising the good, but then it tells us not to act to maximise the good, but to follow rules (even in cases where we know that breaking the rule could produce better results). Brad Hooker avoided this objection by not basing his form of rule-consequentialism on the ideal of maximising the good. He writes: "…the best argument for rule-consequentialism is not that it derives from an overarching commitment to maximise the good. The best argument for rule-consequentialism is that it does a better job than its rivals of matching and tying together our moral convictions, as well as offering us help with our moral disagreements and uncertainties" Brad Hooker, Ideal Code, Real World Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 101. Derek Parfit described Brad Hooker's book on rule-consequentialism Ideal Code, Real World as the "best statement and defence, so far, of one of the most important moral theories." Brad Hooker, Ideal Code, Real World Oxford University Press, new edition 2002, back cover Rule consequentialism exists in the forms of rule utilitarianism and rule egoism. Negative consequentialism Most consequentialist theories focus on promoting some sort of good consequences. However, one could equally well lay out a consequentialist theory that focuses solely on minimizing bad consequences. (Negative utilitarianism is an actual example.) Of course, the maximization of good consequences could also involve the minimization of bad consequences, but the promotion of good consequences is usually of primary import. One major difference between these two approaches is the agent's responsibility. Positive consequentialism demands that we bring about good states of affairs, whereas negative consequentialism may only require that we avoid bad ones. A more strenuous version of negative consequentialism may actually require active intervention, but only to prevent harm from being done. An alternative theory (using the example of negative utilitarianism) is that some consider the reduction of suffering (for the disadvantaged) to be more valuable than increased pleasure (for the affluent or luxurious). Consequentialism and other moral theories Deontology Consequentialism is often contrasted with deontological moral theories. Deontological theories hold that we have a duty to perform or refrain from certain types of actions and that this duty derives from the nature of the act itself, rather than from the consequences produced by the action. Consequently, a deontologist might argue that we should stick to our duty regardless of the consequences. For example, Kant famously argued that we have a moral duty to always tell the truth, even to a murderer who asks where the would-be victim is. However, consequentialist and deontological theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, T.M. Scanlon advances the idea that human rights, which are commonly considered a "deontological" concept, can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights. Similarly, Robert Nozick argues for a theory that is mostly consequentialist, but incorporates inviolable "side-constraints" which restrict the sort of actions agents are permitted to do. Virtue ethics Consequentialism can also be contrasted with aretaic moral theories such as virtue ethics. Whereas consequentialist theories posit that consequences of action should be the primary focus of our thinking about ethics, virtue ethics insists that it is the character rather than the consequences of actions that should be the focal point. Some virtue ethicists hold that consequentialist theories totally disregard the development and importance of moral character. For example, Philippa Foot argues that consequences in themselves have no ethical content, unless it has been provided by a virtue such as benevolence. However, consequentialism and virtue ethics need not be understood to be entirely antagonistic. Consequentialist theories can consider character in several ways. For example, the effects on the character of the agent or any other people involved in an action may be regarded as a relevant consequence. Similarly, a consequentialist theory may aim at the maximization of a particular virtue or set of virtues. Finally, following Foot's lead, one might adopt a sort of consequentialism which argues that virtuous activity ultimately produces the best consequences. Ultimate End The Ultimate end is a concept in the moral philosophy of Max Weber, in which individuals act in a faithful, rather than rational, manner. "We must be clear about the fact that all ethically oriented conduct may be guided by one of two fundamentally differing and irreconcilably opposed maxims: conduct can be oriented to an "ethic of ultimate ends" or to an "ethic of responsibility." This is not to say that an ethic of ultimate ends is identical with irresponsibility, or that an ethic of responsibility is identical with unprincipled opportunism. Naturally nobody says that. However, there is an abysmal contract between conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of ultimate ends—that, is in religious terms, "the Christian does rightly and leaves the results with the Lord"—and conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of responsibility, in which case one has to give an account of the foreseeable results of one's action." [1] (From Politics as a Vocation, Max Weber, 1918). The "Ultimate End" is out of the hands of the actor. So long as he/she acts in a moral (Christian) manner, any bad results, or negative ends, are not the responsibility of the actor and ultimately a result of God's will or other forces. Criticisms of consequentialism General criticisms William Gass argues that moral theories such as consequentialism are unable to adequately explain why a morally wrong action is morally wrong. Gass uses the example of an "obliging stranger" who agrees to be baked in an oven. Gass claims that the rationale that any moral theory might attempt to give for this wrongness, e.g. it does not bring about good results, is simply absurd. According to Gass, it is wrong to bake a stranger, however obliging, and nothing more can or need be said about it . G. E. M. Anscombe, whose previously mentioned paper coined the term "consequentialism", objects to consequentialism on the grounds that it does not provide guidance in what one ought to do, since the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined based on the consequences it produces. Furthermore, she argues that consequentialism since Henry Sidgwick denies that there is any distinction between consequences that are foreseen and those that are intended (see Principle of double effect). Finally, Anscombe objects to the very character of consequentialism itself insofar as it is concerned with determining the rightness and wrongness of actions. She argues that the distinction between right action and wrong action only makes sense within the framework of Judeo-Christian divine law—and, according to Anscombe, Judeo-Christian divine law is incompatible with consequentialism. Character-based criticisms Bernard Williams has argued that consequentialism is alienating because it requires moral agents to put too much distance between themselves and their own projects and commitments. Williams argues that consequentialism requires moral agents to take a strictly impersonal view of all actions, since it is only the consequences, and not who produces them, that is said to matter. Williams argues that this demands too much of moral agents — since (he claims) consequentialism demands that they be willing to sacrifice any and all personal projects and commitments in any given circumstance in order to pursue the most beneficent course of action possible. He argues further that consequentialism fails to make sense of intuitions that it can matter whether or not someone is personally the author of a particular consequence. For example, that having "dirty hands" by participating in a crime can matter, even if the crime would have been committed anyway, or would even have been worse, without the agent's participation. Some consequentialists — most notably Peter Railton — have attempted to develop a form of consequentialism that acknowledges and avoids the objections raised by Williams. Railton argues that Williams's criticisms can be avoided by adopting a form of consequentialism in which moral decisions are to be determined by the sort of life that they express. On his account, the agent should choose the sort of life that will, on the whole, produce the best overall effects. However, more recently, there have been attacks upon consequentialism in a similar vein. For example, Thomas Nagel holds that consequentialism fails to appropriately take into account the people affected by a particular action. He argues that a consequentialist cannot really criticize human rights abuses in a war, for example, if they ultimately result in a better state of affairs. Applications of Consequentialist Theory Consequentialist theory has a number of potential applications. For instance, Richard Mullender sees consequentialist theory as providing a rationale and foundation for a new understanding of social democracy. Mullender, Richard (2000) 'Theorizing the Third Way: Qualified Consequentialism, the Proportionalty Principle and the New Social Democracy', Journal of Law and Society 27(4):493-516. James Page sees consequentialist theory as providing a rationale and foundation for peace education. Page, James S. (2008) Peace Education: Exploring Ethical and Philosophical Foundations. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59311-889-1. Notable consequentialists Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), whose book The Prince argues that rulers must be consequentialists Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746) Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) William Godwin (1756-1836) James Mill (1773-1836) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900) G.E. Moore (1873-1958) Richard B. Brandt (1910-1997) R.M. Hare (1919-2002) John Harsanyi (1920-2000) J. J. C. Smart (born 1920) Henry Kissinger (born 1923) Amartya Sen (born 1933) R. M. Adams (born 1937) Philip Pettit (born 1945) Peter Singer (born 1946) Shelly Kagan Peter Railton (born 1950) Brad Hooker See also Doctrine of mental reservation Welfarism The Demandingness Objection Further reading References External links Utiliarianism resources Felicifia. 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7,328 | Computer_data_storage | Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s. In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as random access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage - optical discs, forms of magnetic storage like hard disks, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature. Historically, memory and storage were respectively called primary storage and secondary storage. The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. The distinctions also reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature. Purpose of storage Many different forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been invented. So far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks. Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual purpose. A digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, using eight million bits, or about one megabyte, a typical computer could store a short novel. Traditionally the most important part of every computer is the central processing unit (CPU, or simply a processor), because it actually operates on data, performs any calculations, and controls all the other components. Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators or simple digital signal processors. Von Neumann machines differ in that they have a memory in which they store their operating instructions and data. Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines. In practice, almost all computers use a variety of memory types, organized in a storage hierarchy around the CPU, as a tradeoff between performance and cost. Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. Hierarchy of storage Primary storage Direct links to this section: Primary storage, Main memory, Internal Memory. Primary storage, presently known as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory, which was still rather cumbersome. Undoubtedly, a revolution was started with the invention of a transistor, that soon enabled then-unbelievable miniaturization of electronic memory via solid-state silicon chip technology. This led to a modern random access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered). As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM: Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic and logic unit to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are technically among the fastest of all forms of computer data storage. Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It's introduced solely to increase performance of the computer. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other hand it is much slower, but much larger than processor registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly used—primary cache being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and slower. Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the CPU via a memory bus. It is actually comprised of two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks. As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (cleared at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access). Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, rather use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly. Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what was historically called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage. http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/topics/0,295493,sid5_tax298620,00.html "Primary Storage or Storage Hardware" (shows usage of term "primary storage" meaning "hard disk storage") Secondary storage Secondary storage in popular usage, differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also an order of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Consequently, modern computer systems typically have an order of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage and data is kept for a longer time there. In modern computers, hard disks are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates the very significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times. Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB sticks or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punch cards, standalone RAM disks, and Zip drives. The secondary storage is often formatted according to a filesystem format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information. Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded. Tertiary storage Tertiary storage or tertiary memory, A thesis on Tertiary storage provides a third level of storage. Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; this data is often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archival of rarely accessed information since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 5-60 seconds vs. 1-10 milliseconds). This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes. When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library. Off-line storage Off-line storage, also known as disconnected storage, is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. See also article Federal Standard 1037C. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction. Off-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily physically transported. Additionally, in case a disaster, for example a fire, destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will be probably unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. Off-line storage increases general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is accessed seldom or never, off-line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage. In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards. Characteristics of storage Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressibility. For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and performance. Volatility Non-volatile memory Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Nowadays used for most of secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage. In 1950s and 1960s, it was also used for primary storage, in the form of magnetic core memory. Volatile memory Requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not a universal rule). Since primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory. Differentiation Dynamic memory A form of volatile memory which also requires the stored information to be periodically re-read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish. Static memory A form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed. Mutability Read/write storage or mutable storage Allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage. Read only storage Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write once storage (Write Once Read Many) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include CD-ROM and CD-R. Slow write, fast read storage Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include CD-RW and flash memory. Accessibility Random access Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage. Sequential access The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage. Addressability Location-addressable Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical memory address. In modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs, since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans. File addressable Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is selected with human-readable directory and file names. The underlying device is still location-addressable, but the operating system of a computer provides the file system abstraction to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use file systems. Content-addressable Each individually accessible unit of information is selected with a hash value, or a short identifier with a number pertaining to the memory address the information is stored on. Content-addressable storage can be implemented using software (computer program) or hardware (computer device), with hardware being faster but more expensive option. Capacity Raw capacity The total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes (e.g. 10.4 megabytes). Density The compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square inch). Performance Latency The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary storage, and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average latency. Throughput The rate at which information can be read from or written to the storage. In computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second or MB/s, though bit rate may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly, typically yields maximum throughput. Environmental Impact The impact of a storage device on the environment. Energy Energy star certified power adapters for storage devices reduce power consumption 30 percent on average Energy Star Website Storage devices that reduce fan usage, automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power hard drives can reduce energy consumption 90 percent. Energy Savings Calculator and Fabrik website 2.5 inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones. Low capacity solid-state drives consume less power than DRAM, because they have no moving parts. Super Talent's 2.5" IDE Flash hard drive - The Tech Report - Page 13 Power Consumption - Tom's Hardware : Conventional Hard Drive Obsoletism? Samsung's 32 GB Flash Drive Previewed Also, memory may use more power than hard disks. Recycling Some devices are made of recyclable materials like aluminum, bamboo, or plastics Easily disassembled devices are easier to recycle if only certain parts are recyclable Packaging may be recyclable and some companies print instructions on the box or use recyclable paper for the instructions instead of waxed paper Manufacturing The amount of raw materials (metals, aluminum, plastics, lead) used to manufacture the device Excess waste materials and if they are recycled Chemicals used in manufacturing Shipping distance for the device itself and parts Amount of packaging materials and if they are recyclable Fundamental storage technologies As of 2008, the most commonly used data storage technologies are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies have also been used in the past or are proposed for development. Semiconductor Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or dynamic random access memory. Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers. Magnetic Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data. In modern computers, magnetic storage will take these forms: Magnetic disk Floppy disk, used for off-line storage Hard disk, used for secondary storage Magnetic tape data storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage In early computers, magnetic storage was also used for primary storage in a form of magnetic drum, or core memory, core rope memory, thin film memory, twistor memory or bubble memory. Also unlike today, magnetic tape was often used for secondary storage. Optical Optical storage, the typical Optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non-volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media ), formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are currently in common use: The DVD FAQ is a comprehensive reference of DVD technologies. CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs) CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R BD-R: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, BD-RE: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage Ultra Density Optical or UDO is similar in capacity to BD-R or BD-RE and is slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage. Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-volatile, sequential access, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage. 3D optical data storage has also been proposed. Paper Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punch cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole. A few technologies allow people to make marks on paper that are easily read by machine -- these are widely used for tabulating votes and grading standardized tests. Barcodes made it possible for any object that was to be sold or transported to have some computer readable information securely attached to it. Uncommon Vacuum tube memory A Williams tube used a cathode ray tube, and a Selectron tube used a large vacuum tube to store information. These primary storage devices were short-lived in the market, since Williams tube was unreliable and Selectron tube was expensive. Electro-acoustic memory Delay line memory used sound waves in a substance such as mercury to store information. Delay line memory was dynamic volatile, cycle sequential read/write storage, and was used for primary storage. Optical tape is a medium for optical storage generally consisting of a long and narrow strip of plastic onto which patterns can be written and from which the patterns can be read back. It shares some technologies with cinema film stock and optical discs, but is compatible with neither. The motivation behind developing this technology was the possibility of far greater storage capacities than either magnetic tape or optical discs. Phase-change memory uses different mechanical phases of phase change material to store information in an X-Y addressable matrix, and reads the information by observing the varying electric resistance of the material. Phase-change memory would be non-volatile, random access read/write storage, and might be used for primary, secondary and off-line storage. Most rewritable and many write once optical disks already use phase change material to store information. Holographic storage stores information optically inside crystals or photopolymers. Holographic storage can utilize the whole volume of the storage medium, unlike optical disc storage which is limited to a small number of surface layers. Holographic storage would be non-volatile, sequential access, and either write once or read/write storage. It might be used for secondary and off-line storage. See Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD). Molecular memory stores information in polymers that can store electric charge. Molecular memory might be especially suited for primary storage. As of March 1st, the theoretical storage capacity of molecular memory is 10 terabits per square inch. Related technologies Network connectivity A secondary or tertiary storage may connect to a computer utilizing computer networks. This concept does not pertain to the primary storage, which is shared between multiple processors in a much lesser degree. Direct-attached storage (DAS) is a traditional mass storage, that does not use any network. This is still a most popular approach. This term was coined lately, together with NAS and SAN. Network-attached storage (NAS) is mass storage attached to a computer which another computer can access at file level over a local-area network, a private wide-area network, or in the case of online file storage, over the Internet. NAS is commonly associated with the NFS and CIFS/SMB protocols. Storage area network (SAN) is a specialized network, that provides other computers with storage capacity. The crucial difference between NAS and SAN is the former presents and manages file systems to client computers, whilst a latter provides access at block-addressing (raw) level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data or file systems within the provided capacity. SAN is commonly associated with Fibre Channel networks. Robotic storage Large quantities of individual magnetic tapes, and optical or magneto-optical discs may be stored in robotic tertiary storage devices. In tape storage field they are known as tape libraries, and in optical storage field optical jukeboxes, or optical disk libraries per analogy. Smallest forms of either technology containing just one drive device are referred to as autoloaders or autochangers. Robotic-access storage devices may have a number of slots, each holding individual media, and usually one or more picking robots that traverse the slots and load media to built-in drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices affects performance. Important characteristics of such storage are possible expansion options: adding slots, modules, drives, robots. Tape libraries may have from 10 to more than 100,000 slots, and provide terabytes or petabytes of near-line information. Optical jukeboxes are somewhat smaller solutions, up to 1,000 slots. Robotic storage is used for backups, and for high-capacity archives in imaging, medical, and video industries. Hierarchical storage management is a most known archiving strategy of automatically migrating long-unused files from fast hard disk storage to libraries or jukeboxes. If the files are needed, they are retrieved back to disk. See also Primary storage topics Aperture (computer memory) Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) Mass storage Memory cell (disambiguation) Memory management Memory allocation Dynamic memory Memory leak Virtual memory Memory protection Static random access memory (SRAM) Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage topics Data proliferation Data deduplication Information repository File system List of file formats Flash memory Solid-state drive Virtual Tape Library Wait state Write protection Data storage conferences Storage Decisions Storage Networking World Storage World Conference References | Computer_data_storage |@lemmatized computer:59 data:34 storage:197 often:6 call:7 memory:80 refers:2 component:3 device:28 record:3 medium:23 retain:3 digital:4 use:64 compute:1 interval:1 time:15 provide:9 one:11 core:7 function:1 modern:12 information:55 retention:1 fundamental:4 couple:1 central:2 processing:4 unit:11 cpu:11 processor:10 implement:2 basic:1 model:1 since:8 contemporary:2 usage:6 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7,329 | Caesar_salad | A typical Caesar salad comprises romaine lettuce and croutons dressed with parmesan cheese, lemon juice, olive oil, egg, Worcestershire sauce, and black pepper originally prepared tableside. Caesar Cardini (Italian-born Mexican) is credited with creating the salad. History There are several stories that chronicle the specifics of the salad's creation. Cardini was living in San Diego but also working in Tijuana where he avoided the restrictions of prohibition. As his daughter Rosa (1928-2003) reported, 1987 interview with Rosa Cardini, for Mailpac Magazine, LA. her father invented the dish when a Fourth of July 1924 rush depleted the kitchen's supplies. Cardini made do with what he had, successfully adding the dramatic flair of the table-side tossing "by the chef". A competing story, originating in Mexico, concerns Alex Cardini, who was Chef of Hotel Peñafiel in Tehuacán. Cardini, the son of an Italian immigrant, made the Caesar Salad specially for a gourmet contest in Tijuana, winning first place with his innovative dish. Some historians believe that the salad was created for a group of Hollywood stars after a long weekend party. Still others suggest that brother Alex created it as "Aviator's salad" for a bunch of San Diego aviator comrades who were in a hurry, and the dish was renamed later, when Alex was a partner of his brother. A few fellows among Cardini's personnel also claimed the authorship, but without success. In "Hail Caesar", D. Grant quotes Aviator's salad and more (2007) <ref>1998 notes on claims: "Paul Maggiora, a partner of the Cardini's, claimed to have tossed the first Caesar's salad in 1927 for American airmen from San Diego and called it "Aviator's Salad. Caesar's brother Alex had claimed to have developed the salad (he too allegedly called it "aviator's salad"). Livio Santini claimed he made the salad from a recipe of his mother, in the kitchen of Caesar's restaurant when he was 18 years old, in 1925, and that Caesar took the recipe from him.</ref> As an historical addendum, the salad recipe was created at a place operated by Cardini on the ground floor of the Hotel Comercial at the corner of 2nd Street and Main, Tijuana. In 1929-1930, Cardini moved his restaurant to the newly constructed Hotel Caesar on Main St., nowadays Avenida Revolución, near the corner of 5th St. The Hotel Comercial is long-gone, but the historic "Comercial" building still stands at the same location, and the Hotel Caesar's continues to operate to this day. The restaurant closed in 1993, but after a renovation in the late 1990s, the bar in the hotel began preparing table-side "ensalada Caesar per tradition" and claims to serve the "original Caesar salad". Moyey's Wine and Travel Blog from April 15, 2006 "Authentic Casar Salad, Caesars Sports Bar and Grill, Tijuana, Mexico" All talk aside, no documentary reference to the Caesar salad has yet been found, or at least publicized, that can reliably be dated before the mid-1940s--more than twenty years after the 1924 origin asserted by the Cardinis. The first-known instance cited by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1947, but it had appeared on a Los Angeles restaurant menu several months before that, in October 1946. "Garden Room at the Town House" restaurant, Los Angeles, menu dated October 8, 1946: "Salads ... Caesar ... 1.50." It is likely that earlier citations will ultimately be unearthed. Nowadays Hotel Caesar's on Avenida Revolución, c.2000 In today's Tijuana, only the Caesar's Sports Bar and Grill, next door to Hotel Caesars, maintains the Caesar salad tradition. Until around 1993, the restaurant in The Coronet Bar, and Restaurant Caesar's Palace (both defunct), competed with the restaurant in Hotel Caesars for the "best Caesar's Salad" in Tijuana. Recipe Contrary to popular belief, the original Caesar's salad recipe (unlike Alex's Aviator's salad) above quoted D. Grant, → 'AVIATOR'S SALAD' did not contain pieces of anchovy; the slight anchovy flavor comes from the Worcestershire sauce. Cardini was opposed to using anchovies in his salad. "My father always used Lea and Perrins Worcestershire sauce, and anchovies are one of its ingredients. [...] He meant this to be a subtle salad, and anchovies can be overwhelming." (Above quoted 1987 interview with Rosa Cardini) In the book From Julia Child's Kitchen, Julia Child describes how she ate a Caesar's salad at Cardini's restaurant when she was a child in 1920s, and some 50 years later she sought out and called Cardini's daughter, in order to discover the original recipe. In this recipe, lettuce leaves are served whole on the plate, because they are meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers. It also calls for coddled eggs and Italian olive oil. The Cardini family trademarked the original recipe in 1948, and more than a dozen of bottled Cardini's dressing varieties are available today. Many other bottled versions are sold, too. Some recipes include one or more of mustard, avocado, tomato, bacon bits, or garlic cloves. Rochelle Low is credited with the creation of the "nouveau-Caesar" style by adding the hotly contested ingredient of anchovies to the dressing recipe. This style is commonly found in fancy restaurants, often to the surprise of customers, with the anchovies served on the side. Cardini's Brand original Caesar dressing is somewhat different from Rosa's version Review on Caesar Salad, by "The Grumpy Gourmet," Doral Chenoweth, Quote:"Today the nearest to Cardini's recipe is a commercial Caesar dressing prepared and marketed by the Marzetti Co." Marzetti's(R) "Cardini's(R) Original Caesar dressing" is made with soy oil and anchovies, and gluten free, by now – Information on ingredients given by manufacturer in order to serve today's customer's and manufacturer's needs. Many restaurants offer a more substantial salad by topping a Caesar salad with grilled chicken, steak, salmon or shrimp. Certain Mexican restaurants even improvise on items such as substituting tortilla strips for croutons and Cotija cheese for the Parmesan, or the addition of tomatoes in the Letchworth salad. Let's once more cite Chenoweth on this: "In my reviewing career I have found alleged Caesar salads in this country prepared with [...] [editor's note: almost anything]. It was there that I decided to take up the cause.""I walked from the border to Caesar's Bar & Grill, 5th and Main streets. The second floor ballroom was the salad restaurant. Two chefs were treating tourists to technique. They still use Cardini's preferred wooden bowls. My conversation with one of the chefs went like this: Q - Where does the Romaine come from? A - Da states. Q - Where does the grated Parmesan come from? A - Da states. Q - Where do you get the eggs? A - From da chickens.Those answers were satisfying. I recrossed the border vowing to defend Caesar Cardini." Ingredients Ingredients according to the Hotel Caesar's recipe from about 2006: See "The original Caesar's salad" (JPG), as obtained by Doral Chenoweth romaine lettuce olive oil fresh crushed garlic - often in olive oil salt fresh-ground black pepper wine vinegar The Rosa Cardini recipe does not call for this. As there hardly will be found an Italian salad recipe of that time without any vinegar at all, this might be just an omission. lemon juice or lime juice - fresh squeezed Worcestershire sauce raw or coddled egg yolks freshly grated Parmesan cheese freshly prepared croutons Notable variations: mayonnaise variations of lettuce chicken capers Romano cheese anchovies Raw egg and salmonella Some people are concerned about the safety of Caesar salads due to the potential risk of infection by salmonella bacteria occasionally found in raw eggs. This is a concern with many similar dressings like mayonnaise, though generally the pH level is thought to be acidic enough to kill those bacteria. Nevertheless, later versions of the recipe call at least for briefly-cooked coddled eggs or pasteurized eggs. Today, many recipes even omit the egg and produce a "Caesar vinaigrette". Yogurt is sometimes substituted for the eggs to maintain a creamy texture. However, purists disdain these alternatives which do not use raw eggs, as "not being true Caesar's salads". References Books In Search of Caesar - The Ultimate Caesar Salad Book, Terry D. Greenfield, Tjicknor & Fields, 1983 What's Cooking America, Linda Stradley, Chehalem Publishing, 1997 The Dictionary of American Food & Drink, John F. Mariani, Ticknor & Fields, 1983. The Food Chronology, James Trager, Henry Holt and Company, 1995. From Julia Child's Kitchen,'' Julia Child, 1975. ISBN 0-517-20712-5 External links History of Salads. Narrative and original recipe from From Julia Child's Kitchen Caesar Salad from BigOven.com Caesar Salad Video from Hotel Caesar in Tijuana, B.C., Mexico | Caesar_salad |@lemmatized typical:1 caesar:43 salad:39 comprise:1 romaine:3 lettuce:4 crouton:3 dress:4 parmesan:4 cheese:4 lemon:2 juice:3 olive:4 oil:5 egg:11 worcestershire:4 sauce:4 black:2 pepper:2 originally:1 prepare:3 tableside:1 cardini:22 italian:4 born:1 mexican:2 credit:2 create:4 history:2 several:2 story:2 chronicle:1 specific:1 creation:2 live:1 san:3 diego:3 also:3 work:1 tijuana:7 avoid:1 restriction:1 prohibition:1 daughter:2 rosa:5 report:1 interview:2 mailpac:1 magazine:1 la:1 father:2 invent:1 dish:3 fourth:1 july:1 rush:1 deplete:1 kitchen:5 supply:1 make:4 successfully:1 add:2 dramatic:1 flair:1 table:2 side:3 toss:2 chef:3 compete:2 originate:1 mexico:3 concern:3 alex:5 hotel:11 peñafiel:1 tehuacán:1 son:1 immigrant:1 specially:1 gourmet:2 contest:2 win:1 first:3 place:2 innovative:1 historian:1 believe:1 group:1 hollywood:1 star:1 long:2 weekend:1 party:1 still:3 others:1 suggest:1 brother:3 aviator:7 bunch:1 comrade:1 hurry:1 rename:1 later:2 partner:2 fellow:1 among:1 personnel:1 claim:6 authorship:1 without:2 success:1 hail:1 grant:2 quote:4 ref:2 note:2 paul:1 maggiora:1 american:2 airman:1 call:6 develop:1 allegedly:1 livio:1 santini:1 recipe:17 mother:1 restaurant:13 year:3 old:1 take:2 historical:1 addendum:1 operate:2 ground:2 floor:2 comercial:3 corner:2 street:2 main:3 move:1 newly:1 construct:1 st:2 nowadays:2 avenida:2 revolución:2 near:2 go:2 historic:1 building:1 stand:1 location:1 continue:1 day:1 close:1 renovation:1 late:2 bar:5 begin:1 ensalada:1 per:1 tradition:2 serve:4 original:8 moyey:1 wine:2 travel:1 blog:1 april:1 authentic:1 casar:1 sport:2 grill:3 talk:1 aside:1 documentary:1 reference:2 yet:1 find:5 least:2 publicized:1 reliably:1 date:2 mid:1 twenty:1 origin:1 assert:1 cardinis:1 know:1 instance:1 cite:2 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:2 appear:1 los:2 angeles:2 menu:2 month:1 october:2 garden:1 room:1 town:1 house:1 likely:1 early:1 citation:1 ultimately:1 unearth:1 c:2 today:5 next:1 door:1 maintain:2 around:1 coronet:1 palace:1 defunct:1 best:1 contrary:1 popular:1 belief:1 unlike:1 contain:1 piece:1 anchovy:9 slight:1 flavor:1 come:3 oppose:1 use:4 always:1 lea:1 perrins:1 one:3 ingredient:5 mean:2 subtle:1 overwhelming:1 book:3 julia:5 child:6 describe:1 eat:2 seek:1 order:2 discover:1 leaf:1 whole:1 plate:1 lift:1 stem:1 finger:1 coddle:2 family:1 trademark:1 dozen:1 bottled:2 dressing:3 variety:1 available:1 many:4 version:3 sell:1 include:1 mustard:1 avocado:1 tomato:2 bacon:1 bit:1 garlic:2 clove:1 rochelle:1 low:1 nouveau:1 style:2 hotly:1 commonly:1 fancy:1 often:2 surprise:1 customer:2 brand:1 somewhat:1 different:1 review:2 grumpy:1 doral:2 chenoweth:3 commercial:1 prepared:2 market:1 marzetti:2 co:1 r:2 soy:1 gluten:1 free:1 information:1 give:1 manufacturer:2 need:1 offer:1 substantial:1 top:1 grilled:1 chicken:3 steak:1 salmon:1 shrimp:1 certain:1 even:2 improvise:1 item:1 substitute:2 tortilla:1 strip:1 cotija:1 addition:1 letchworth:1 let:1 career:1 allege:1 country:1 editor:1 almost:1 anything:1 decide:1 cause:1 walk:1 border:2 second:1 ballroom:1 two:1 treat:1 tourist:1 technique:1 prefer:1 wooden:1 bowl:1 conversation:1 chefs:1 like:2 q:3 da:3 state:2 grate:2 get:1 answer:1 satisfy:1 recrossed:1 vow:1 defend:1 accord:1 see:1 jpg:1 obtain:1 fresh:3 crush:1 salt:1 vinegar:2 hardly:1 time:1 might:1 omission:1 lime:1 squeezed:1 raw:4 yolk:1 freshly:2 notable:1 variation:2 mayonnaise:2 caper:1 romano:1 salmonella:2 people:1 safety:1 due:1 potential:1 risk:1 infection:1 bacteria:2 occasionally:1 similar:1 though:1 generally:1 ph:1 level:1 think:1 acidic:1 enough:1 kill:1 nevertheless:1 briefly:1 cook:1 coddled:1 pasteurize:1 omit:1 produce:1 vinaigrette:1 yogurt:1 sometimes:1 creamy:1 texture:1 however:1 purist:1 disdain:1 alternative:1 true:1 search:1 ultimate:1 terry:1 greenfield:1 tjicknor:1 field:2 cooking:1 america:1 linda:1 stradley:1 chehalem:1 publishing:1 food:2 drink:1 john:1 f:1 mariani:1 ticknor:1 chronology:1 james:1 trager:1 henry:1 holt:1 company:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 narrative:1 bigoven:1 com:1 video:1 b:1 |@bigram caesar_salad:18 romaine_lettuce:2 lemon_juice:2 olive_oil:4 worcestershire_sauce:4 san_diego:3 aviator_salad:6 bar_grill:3 los_angeles:2 hotly_contest:1 lime_juice:1 egg_yolk:1 external_link:1 |
7,330 | Jacob_Grimm | Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm (Hanau, January 4, 1785 – September 20, 1863 in Berlin), German philologist, jurist and mythologist, was born at Hanau, in Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). He is best known as the discoverer of Grimm's Law, the author of the monumental German Dictionary, his Deutsche Mythologie and more popularly, as one of the Brothers Grimm, as the editor of Grimm's Fairy Tales. Life Jacob Grimm's father, who was a lawyer, died while he was a child, and his mother was left with very small means; but her sister, who was lady of the chamber to the Landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and educate her numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm (born on February 24, 1786), was sent in 1798 to the public school at Kassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the University of Marburg, where he studied law, a profession for which he had been destined by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just recovered from a long and severe illness, and likewise began the study of law. Up to this time Jacob Grimm had been actuated only by a general thirst for knowledge and his energies had not found any aim beyond the practical one of making himself a position in life. The first definite impulse came from the lectures of Friedrich Karl von Savigny, the celebrated investigator of Roman law, who, as Wilhelm Grimm himself says in the preface to the Deutsche Grammatik(Grammar of German), first taught him to realize what it meant to study any science. Savigny's lectures also awakened in him a love for historical and antiquarian investigation which forms the basis of all his work. The two men became personally acquainted, and it was in Savigny's well-stocked library that Grimm first turned over the leaves of Bodmer's edition of the Old German minnesingers and other early texts, and felt an eager desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and half-revealed mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he received an invitation from Savigny, who had moved to Paris, to help him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy time in Paris, strengthening his taste for the literatures of the Middle Ages by his studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the close of the year he returned to Kassel, where his mother and Wilhelm had settled, the latter having finished his studies. The next year he obtained a position in the war office with the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his grievances was that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution of his studies. As a young man In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Kassel had been incorporated by Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an auditor to the state council, while he retained his other post. His salary was increased in a short interval from 2000 to 4000 francs, and his official duties were hardly more than nominal. After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an elector, Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814 he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books carried off by the French, and in 1814–1815 he attended the congress of Vienna as secretary of legation. On his return he was again sent to Paris on the same errand as before. Meanwhile Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Kassel library, and in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel. Upon the death of Volkel in 1828, the brothers expected to be advanced to the first and second librarianships respectively, and were dissatisfied when the first place was given to Rommel, the keeper of the archives. Consequently, they moved next year to Göttingen where Jacob received the appointment of professor and librarian, and Wilhelm that of under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on the Germania of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small and lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian dialect. His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the manuscript on which most German professors relied, and he spoke extemporaneously, referring only occasionally to a few names and dates written on a slip of paper. He regretted that he had begun the work of teaching so late in life, but as a lecturer he was not successful: he had no aptitude for digesting facts and suiting them to the level of comprehension of his students. Even the brilliant, terse, and eloquent passages which abound in his writings lost much of their effect when jerked out in the midst of a long array of dry facts. In 1837, having been one of the seven professors who signed a protest against the King of Hanover's abrogation of the constitution established some years before, he was dismissed from his professorship and banished from the kingdom of Hanover. He returned to Kassel together with his brother, who had also signed the protest, and remained there until 1840, when they accepted an invitation from the King of Prussia to move to Berlin, where they both received professorships, and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Not being under any obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together with his brother worked at their great dictionary. During their time in Kassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, where he read papers on the most varied subjects. The best known of these are those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother Wilhelm (who died in 1859), on old age, and on the origin of language. He also described his impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more general observations with linguistic details, as is the case in all his works. Grimm died in Berlin at the age of 78, working even at the end. He was never seriously ill, and worked all day without haste and without pause. He was not at all impatient of interruption, but seemed rather to be refreshed by it, returning to his work without effort. He wrote for the press with great rapidity, and hardly ever made corrections. He never revised what he had written, remarking with a certain wonder on his brother, Wilhelm, who read his own manuscripts over again before sending them to press. His temperament was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his own special work he had a marked taste for botany. The spirit which animated his work is best described by himself at the end of his autobiography: "Nearly all my labors have been devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of the written monuments." Linguistic work The purely scientific side of Grimm's character developed slowly. He seems to have felt the want of definite principles of etymology without being able to discover them, and indeed even in the first edition of his grammar (1819) he seemed to be often groping in the dark. As early as 1815 we find AW Schlegel reviewing the Altdeutsche Wälder (a periodical published by the two brothers) very severely, condemning the lawless etymological combinations it contained, and insisting on the necessity of strict philological method and a fundamental investigation of the laws of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds. This criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the direction of Grimm's studies. Grimm's scientific character is notable for its combination of breadth and unity. He was as far removed from the narrowness of the specialist who has no ideas or sympathies beyond just one author or corner of science as he was from the shallow dabbler who feverishly attempts to master the details of a half-dozen unrelated pursuits. The same concentration exists within his own special studies. The very foundations of his nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of historical investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the study of the language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his own countrymen and their kin. But from this centre, he pursued his investigations in every direction as far as his instinct would allow. He was equally fortunate in the harmony that existed between his intellectual and moral nature. He cheerfully made the heavy sacrifices that science demands from its disciples, without envy or bitterness; although he lived apart from his fellow men, he was full of human sympathies, and has had a profound influence on the destiny of mankind. History of the German Language Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching was his Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (History of the German Language), in which the linguistic elements are emphasized. The subject of the work is the history which lies hidden in the words of the German language (the oldest natural history of the Teutonic tribes determined by means of language). For this purpose he laboriously collected the scattered words and allusions found in classical writers, and endeavoured to determine the relationship between the German language and those of the Getae, Tifracians, Scythians, and many other nations whose languages were at the time known only through doubtfully identified, often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and Latin authors. Grimm's results have been greatly modified by the wider range of comparison and improved methods of investigation which now characterize linguistics, and many of the questions raised by him will probably forever remain obscure, but his book's influence has been profound. German Grammar Grimm's famous Deutsche Grammatik (German Grammar) was the outcome of his purely philological work. The labors of past generations from the humanists onwards resulted in an enormous collection of materials in the form of text-editions, dictionaries, and grammars, although most of it was uncritical and untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the way of the comparison and determination of general laws, and the concept of a comparative Germanic grammar had been clearly grasped by the illustrious Englishman George Hickes by the beginning of the 18th century in his Thesaurus. Ten Kate in Holland had afterwards made valuable contributions to the history and comparison of the Germanic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at first intend to include all the languages in his Grammar, but he soon found that Old High German postulated Gothic, and that the later stages of German could not be understood without the help of other West Germanic varieties including English, and that the rich literature of Scandinavia could not be ignored either. The first edition of the first part of the Grammar (which appeared in 1819), and is now extremely rare, treated of the inflections of all these languages, and included a general introduction, in which he vindicated the importance of an historical study of the German language against the a priori, quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue. In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition (really a new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him little reflection to mow down the first crop to the ground). The wide distance between the two stages of Grimm's development in these two editions is significantly shown by the fact that while the first edition gives only the inflections, in the second volume phonology takes up no fewer than 600 pages, more than half of the whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened to the full conviction that all sound philology must be based on rigorous adhesion to the laws of sound change, and he never afterwards swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations, even in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and that force of conviction which distinguishes science from dilettanteism. Prior to Grimm's time, philology was nothing but a more or less laborious and conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional flashes of scientific inspiration. His advances must be attributed mainly to the influence of his contemporary Rasmus Christian Rask. Rask was born two years later than Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him something of a head start. In Grimm's first editions, his Icelandic paradigms are based entirely on Rask's grammar, and in his second edition, he relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask can be appreciated only by comparing his treatment of Old English in the two editions; the difference is very great. For example, in the first edition he declines disg, dceges, plural dcegas, without having observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. There can be little doubt that the appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was the primary impetus for Grimm to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask also belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the vowels (those more fleeting elements of speech which had hitherto been ignored by etymologists). The Grammar was continued in three volumes, treating principally derivation, composition and syntax, the last of which was left unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The Grammar stands alone in the annals of science for its comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail. Every law, every letter, every syllable of inflection in the different languages was illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material, and it has served as a model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the Romance languages is founded entirely on its methods, which have also exerted a profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-European languages in general. Grimm's Law Grimm's Law, also known as 'Rask's-Grimm's Rule' is the first law in linguistics concerning a non-trivial sound change. It was a turning point in the development of linguistics, allowing the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historic linguistic research. It concerns the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo-European, and Low Saxon and High German languages, and was first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first part of his grammar. The correspondence of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors including Friedrich von Schlegel, Rasmus Christian Rask and Johan Ihre, the last having established a considerable number of literarum permutationes, such as b for f, with the examples ba~ra =ferre, befwer =fiber. Rask, in his essay on the origin of the Icelandic language, gave the same comparisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the very same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentioned this essay of Rask, there is every probability that it inspired his own investigations. But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations of his predecessors and his own comprehensive generalizations. The extension of the law to High German is entirely his own work, however. The only fact that can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not expressly mention Rask's results in his second edition. But this is part of the plan of his work, to refrain from all controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first edition he expressly calls attention to Rask's essay, and praises it most ungrudgingly. It is true that a certain bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but this may have well been the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of Grimm's views when they involved modification of his own. German Dictionary Grimm's monumental German Dictionary (Deutsches Wörterbuch) remains a standard work of reference to the present day. The dictionary was undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for him and his brother to complete it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was worked on by Grimm himself, has been described as a collection of disconnected antiquarian essays of high value. Literary Work The first work Jacob Grimm published, Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang (1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay Grimm showed that Minnesang and Meistersang were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of development, and also announced his important discovery of the invariable division of the Lied into three strophic parts. His text-editions were mostly prepared in conjunction with his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the Hildebrandslied and the Weissenbrunner Gehet, Jacob having discovered what till then had never been suspected—namely the alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for text editing, and, as he himself confessed, working on a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. Both Brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published In 1816–1818 a collection of legends culled from diverse sources and published the two-volume Deutsche Sagen (German Legends). At the same time they collected all the folktales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812–1815 the first edition of those Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children's and Household Tales) which has carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the western world. The closely related subject of the satirical beast epic of the Middle Ages also held great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the Rejnhart Fuchs in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken jointly with his brother, and published in 1815. However, this work was not followed by any others on the subject. The first edition of his Deutsche Mythologie (German Mythology) appeared in 1835. This great work covered the whole range of the subject, tracing the mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct evidence, and following their evolution to modern-day popular traditions, tales and expressions. Jacob Grimm and politics Jacob Grimm's work tied in strongly to his views on Germany and its culture. His work with fairy tales and his philological work dealt with German origins. He loved his people and wished for a united Germany. In the German revolution of 1848, he was given a chance to make these views known when he was elected to the Frankfurt National Parliament. The people of Germany had demanded a constitution and so the Parliament, formed of elected members from various German states, met in order to form one. Grimm was selected for the office in a large part because of his part in the University of Goettingen's refusal to swear to the king of Hanover expounded upon above. He then went to Frankfurt, where he did not play a very big part, but did make some speeches, which tended to stray into the realms of history and philology rather than whatever political question was at hand. Grimm was adamant on one subject, however; he wanted the duchy of Holstein of Denmark to be under German control. He talked passionately about this subject, which showed his fierce German nationalism. Grimm was not made to be a politician, and also soon realized that the National Assembly was not getting anywhere (it was eventually dissolved without establishing a constitution), and so asked to be released from his duties and returned with relief to his former studies. His political career did not bloom into anything great, but it does illustrate his characteristics- his nationalism and his moralism. He believed that good would triumph in the Parliament, and pushed for human rights legislation just as he wished for a unified Germany. Works The following is a complete list of his separately published works, those which he published in common with his brother being marked with a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, etc., see vol. V of his Kleinere Schriften, from which the present list is taken. His life is best studied in his own Selbstbiographie, in vol. I of the Kleinere Schriften. There is also a brief memoir by K Gdeke in Göttinger Professoren (Gotha (Perthes), 1872). Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang (Göttingen, 1811) Kinder und Hausmärchen (Berlin, 1812–1815) (many editions) Das Lied von Hildebrand und des Weissenbrunner Gehet (Kassel, 1812) Altdeutsche Wälder (Kassel, Frankfurt, 1813–1816, 3 vols.) Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann von der Aue (Berlin, 1815) Irmenstrasse und Irmensäule (Vienna, 1815) Die Lieder der alten Edda (Berlin, 1815) Silva de romances viejos (Vienna, 1815) Deutsche Sagen (Berlin, 1816–1818, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1865–1866) Deutsche Grammatik (Göttingen, 1819, 2nd ed., Göttingen, 1822–1840) (reprinted 1870 by Wilhelm Scherer, Berlin) Wuk Stephanowitsch' Kleine Serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mit einer Vorrede (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824) Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic - Serbian Grammer Zur Recension der deutschen Grammatik (Kassel, 1826) Irische Elfenmärchen, aus dem Englischen (Leipzig, 1826) Deutsche Rechtsaltertumer (Göttingen, 1828, 2nd ed., 1854) Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI. inter pretatio theodisca (Göttingen, 1830) Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1834) Deutsche Mythologie (Göttingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.) Taciti Germania edidit (Göttingen, 1835) Über meine Entlassung (Basel, 1838) (together with Schmeller) Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1838) Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann über Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1840) Weisti:imer, Th. i. (Göttingen, 1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840–1869) Andreas und Elene (Kassel, 1840) Frau Aventure (Berlin, 1842) Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.) Des Wort des Besitzes (Berlin, 1850) Deutsches Wörterbuch, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1854) Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede über das Alter (Berlin, 1868, 3rd ad., 1865) Kleinere Schriften ( F. Dümmler, Berlin, 1864–1884, 7 vols.). vol. 1 : Reden und Abhandlungen (1864, 2nd ed. 1879) vol. 2 : Abhandlungen zur Mythologie und Sittenkunde (1865) vol. 3 : Abhandlungen zur Litteratur und Grammatik (1866) vol. 4 : Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze part I (1869) vol. 5 : Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze part II (1871) vol. 6 : Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze part III vol. 7 : Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze part IV (1884) Terry Gilliam's The Brothers Grimm In Terry Gilliam's The Brothers Grimm, Heath Ledger played a fictionalized version of Jacob. References See also Grimm's Fairy Tales External links Grimm`s Fairy Tales. Grimm's Teutonic Mythology (1888), English translation of Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie (1835). Household Tales by the Brothers Grimm, translated by Margaret Hunt (This site is the only one to feature all of the Grimms' notes translated in English along with the tales from Hunt's original edition. Andrew Lang's introduction is also included.) 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7,331 | Meritocracy | Meritocracy is a system of a government or other organization wherein appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and ability (merit), rather than by wealth (plutocracy), family connections (nepotism), class privilege (oligarchy), friends (cronyism), seniority (gerontocracy), popularity (as in democracy) or other historical determinants of social position and political power. In a meritocracy, society rewards (by wealth, position, and social status) those who show talent and competence as demonstrated by past actions or by competition. Origin of term The term 'meritocracy' was first used in Michael Young's 1958 book Rise of the Meritocracy. Ford, Boris. 1992 The Cambridge cultural history of Britain. Cambridge University Press. p.34. Kamolnick, Paul. 2005. The just meritocracy: IQ, class mobility, and American social policy. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.87. Best, Shaun. 2005. Understand Social Divisions. SAGE. p.32. The term was intended to be pejorative, and his book was set in a dystopian future in which one's social place is determined by IQ plus effort. In the book, this social system ultimately leads to a social revolution in which the masses overthrow the elite, who have become arrogant and disconnected from the feelings of the public. Despite the negative origin of the word, there are many who believe that a meritocratic system is a good thing. Proponents argue that a meritocratic system is more just and more productive than other systems, and that it allows for an end to distinctions based on such arbitrary things as sex, race or social connections. Detractors of meritocracy, on the other hand, point to the central dystopian aspect of Young's conception: the existence of a meritocratic class that monopolises access to merit and the symbols and markers of merit, thereby perpetuating its own power, social status, and privilege. In writing the United States Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson relied heavily on Chapter Five of John Locke's Second Treatise on Government, which conceives of a society where the foundation of all property is solely the labour exerted by men. Locke argued that the acquisition of property is not morally wrong, provided it be acquired through the exertion of labour and if this be done in order to meet one's own immediate needs. So, Locke said, society is necessarily stratified, but by merit, not by birth. This doctrine of industry and merit, as opposed to idleness and inheritance, as the determining factors in a just society argued strongly against kings and governments by nobles and their lackeys, and in favor instead of representative republicanism. The Sheila Variations: Jefferson and Locke Often, opponents of the concept of meritocracy argue that characteristics such as intelligence or effort are simply impossible to measure accurately. Therefore, in their view, any implementation of meritocracy necessarily involves a high degree of guesswork and is inherently flawed. Those who support free markets believe that the free market can and should determine both merit and reward. Meritocracy has also been criticized as a myth which merely serves to justify the status quo; merit can always be defined as whatever results in success. Thus whoever is successful can be portrayed as meriting (deserving) success, rather than success being in fact predicated on rational, predetermined criteria of merit. Stephen J. McNamee and Robert K. Miller, Jr., [The Meritocracy Myth http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/isbn/0742510565] (Rowman & Littlefield, 2004); see also the authors' summary The Composition These governing principles comprise meritocracies: 1) Job placement is not awarded due to experience or expertise, but instead it is awarded on the basis of merit (although experience, expertise and seniority tend to result in greater merit), 2) on the conditions of the opportunity under the application of the job principle and 3) one that specifies the rewards for job attainment. These principles however, do not account for injustices but disregard them. Not all meritocrats operate in this manner. Most evaluate the structure of job equalities and inequalities through human abilities and personalities that allow them to perform job tasks to the best of their abilities. Social Darwinism Social Darwinism is a social theory which holds that Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is a model, not only for the development of biological traits in a population, but also can be applied to human social institutions. Social Darwinism was at its most popular from the late 19th century to the end of World War II. Proponents of Social Darwinism argue that the theory perfectly justifies social inequality as being meritocratic. Darwin himself only propounded his theories in a biological sense, and it is other theorists and thinkers who have used Darwin to show how ambition is justifiable. Criticism In Merit and Justice Meritocracy and Economic Inequality, Kenneth Joseph Arrow, Samuel Bowles, Steven N. Durlauf, Chapter 1 - Merit and Justice , Amartya Sen complains about the lack of a precise definition of what merit is meant to be (and consequently meritocracy). One of his main criticisms of the common account of meritocracy can be clearly seen in examples as Singapore and Open Source Projects, it is the "confounding merit of actions with that of persons (and possibly of groups of people)". Singapore and Open Source Projects chooses its leaders through past performance in tests and code submitted respectively, so merit is given to people (based on past performance) instead of their actions (which would need continuous assessment). The Peter principle, "In a Hierarchy Every Employee Tends to Rise to His Level of Incompetence" notes that meritocracy promotes individuals based on the ability to perform their prior assignment, not the new assignment. Individual proponents Confucius "In teaching there should be no distinction of classes." - Analects XV. 39. tr. Legge Many western admirers of Confucius, such as Voltaire and H. G. Creel, have pointed out an innovative and revolutionary idea of Confucius': he replaced the nobility of blood with one of virtue. Jūnzǐ (君子), which had meant "superior person," coming from the contemporary meaning of the literal translation "son of the ruler," slowly took on a new meaning close to the English term "gentleman" (long before the emergence of English). In this way a virtuous plebeian who cultivated his virtuous qualities could be a "gentleman", whilst a shameless son of a King was only a "small man". That Confucius allowed any kind of student to be his disciple - his teachings were intended to train future rulers - is a clear indication that he didn't wholly support feudal structures in Chinese society. Han Feizi In addition to Confucius, another ancient Chinese philosopher of the same period (that of the Warring States) advocated a meritocratic system of government and society. This was Han Feizi who was famous as the foremost proponent of the School of Law, otherwise known as the philosophy of Legalism. This had, as its central tenet, the absolute rule of law, but also contained numerous meritocratic elements . Another Legalist, Shang Yang implemented Legalist and meritocratic reforms in the state of Qin by abolishing the aristocracy and promoting individuals based on their skill, intelligence, and initiative. This led to the armies of the Qin gaining a critical edge over the other nations that adhered to old aristocratic systems of government. Legalism, along with its anti-aristocratic, pro-meritocratic ideals, remained a key part of Chinese philosophy and politics for another two millennia, although after the Qin Dynasty it was heavily diluted. Genghis Khan Meritocracy was the primary basis for selection of chiefs and generals in the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan chose whomever was talented and fit for his military chain of command. He even trusted generals and soldiers from opponents' armies if they showed loyalty to their leaders. For example, Genghis Khan's general Jebe had been an enemy soldier who had shot Genghis in battle before he became Great Khan. Napoleon Napoleonic (Revolutionary) France is also sometimes considered to have been meritocratic. After the revolution of 1792 hardly a member of the former elite remained. When Napoleon rose to power, there was no ancient base from which to draw his staff, and he had to choose the people he thought best for the job, including officers from his army, revolutionaries who had been in the peoples' assembly, and even some former aristocrats such as prime minister Talleyrand. This policy was summed up in Bonaparte's often-quoted phrase "La carrière ouverte aux talents", careers open to the talented, or as more freely translated by Thomas Carlyle, "the tools to him that can handle them". A clear example is the order of the Légion d'honneur, the first order of merit, admitting men of any class. They were judged not by ancestry or wealth but by military, scientific or artistic prowess. A later non-meritocratic practice, however, was Bonaparte's appointment of family members and Corsican friends to important positions (specifically regional leadership); loyalty may have been a more important factor than sheer merit in performance, a common case in political situations. Plato Plato's concept of the ideal government presented in his Republic (see The Republic (Plato)) is innately meritocratic. This idea is best expressed in Book IV of the Republic, 434a-434c. The line numbers provided are according to Stephanus pagination Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson was a strong advocate of meritocratic types of government, believing them superior to all other known forms of government; in more general terms, he believed a noble "natural aristocracy" would arise to look after the common good. SparkNotes: Thomas Jefferson: Economic, Social, and Political Reforms 1776-1796 Meritocratic states Singapore Among modern nation-states, the Republic of Singapore claims to be meritocratic, placing a great emphasis on identifying and grooming bright young citizens for positions of leadership (e.g., Lee Kuan Yew). The Singaporean interpretation places overwhelming emphasis on academic credentials as objective measures of merit. Meritocracy is a central political concept in Singapore, due in part to the circumstances surrounding the city-state's rise to independence. Singapore was expelled from neighboring Malaysia in 1965 as a result of the unwillingness of the majority of its population, mostly ethnic Chinese, to accept a "special position" for the self-proclaimed Bumiputra (Malay for "inheritors of the earth"), the Malays. The federal Malaysian government had argued for a system which would give special privileges to the Malays as part of their "birthright" as an "indigenous" people. Political leaders in Singapore vehemently protested against this system, arguing instead for the equality of all citizens of Malaysia, with places in universities, government contracts, political appointments, etc., going to the most deserving candidates, rather than to those chosen on the basis of connections or ethnic background. The ensuing animosity between State and Federal governments eventually proved irreconcilable; Singapore was expelled and became an independent city-state. To this day, Singapore continues to hold up meritocracy as one of its official guiding principles for domestic public policy formulation. http://app.mfa.gov.sg/data/paris/statements/REMARKS_FOR_MEDEF_28_Aug_08.html SPEECH BY SINGAPORE AMBASSADOR TO FRANCE, HIS EXCELLENCY BURHAN GAFOOR AT MEDEF UNVERSITE DEBATE AT L'ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, 28 AUGUST 2008 There is criticism backed by evidence that this system has some serious disadvantages: for one, Singaporean society is being increasingly stratified; and, for another, an elite class is being created from just a narrow segment of the population. Singapore's elites Commentators have also criticized the city-state for not applying the meritocracy principle uniformly; they cite, for example, the disproportionate influence and presence of the family of the founding prime minister Lee Kuan Yew in both political and business circles. Lee Kuan Yew Although most Singaporeans still agree that the city-state's tremendous economic success has been due in part to its strong emphasis on developing and promoting talented leaders, http://app.amed.sg/internet/amed/read_content.asp?View,176 there are more and more signs that an increasing number of Singaporeans believe Singapore is instead becoming an elitist society. Please, get out of my elite uncaring face Defendants claim the ancient Chinese proverb that 'Wealth does not pass three generations', suggesting that elitists will eventually be, and often are, replaced by those lower down the hierarchy. Indeed, many top political leaders in Singapore (and also China) come from peasant backgrounds, while modern peasants boast about their great ancestry. Nota Bene: This maybe be true about the transition from before to the Meritocratic system, but the current Prime Minister is the son of a previous one and as there is a natural tendency towards average because of biological factors, this implies either a very rare probability event happening or that the system has already been perverted for personal advantages (just as any other political system in human culture). A 2008 article in the International Political Science Review titled "Meritocracy and Elitism in a Global City: Ideological Shifts in Singapore" argues that:The concept of meritocracy is unstable as its constituent ideas are potentially contradictory. The egalitarian aspect of meritocracy, for example, can come into conflict with its focus on talent allocation, competition, and reward. In practice, meritocracy is often transformed into an ideology of inequality and elitism. In Singapore, meritocracy has been the main ideological resource for justifying authoritarian government and its pro-capitalist orientation. Through competitive scholarships, stringent selection criteria for party candidacy, and high ministerial salaries, the ruling People’s Action Party has been able to co-opt talent to form a "technocratic" government for an "administrative state". Kenneth Paul Tan (2008) "Meritocracy and Elitism in a Global City: Ideological Shifts in Singapore", International Political Science Review 29(1): 7-27. Available at Grand Duchy of Finland Another example is 19th-century Finland, which was formally ruled by an autocrat, though in practice governing was exercised by the educated class. Although ancestry and inherited wealth did influence one's educational opportunities, education and not ancestry was the principal requirement for admittance to, and promotion within, the civil service and government. Well into the mid-20th century, academic degrees remained important factors for politicians asking for the electorate's confidence. Likewise, one's military rank in reserves has been a decisive factor on selecting leaders and managers both in the public and the private sector. Even today, most Finnish managers are amongst those who have attained either an NCO (non-commissioned officer) or a reserve officer rank during their conscript tour of duty. Venetian Republic Lasting 1,112 years, the Republic of Venice at times used a system based on meritocracy to decide the membership of its ruling council. Each year, citizens were assessed based on the number of merit points earned through their successes — in academia, with works or art, in business ventures, and so on — and the top names were appointed to the council. The council's role was legislative, judicial and executive, and it elected a Doge, on the understanding that any councillor who voted to appoint a Doge who later took Venice to war and lost would, along with that Doge, be put to death. In practice, however, a relatively small number of influential families usually provided the bulk of the council nominees year after year. Meritocracy Online Although formal meritocracies are uncommon online, informal ones are quite prevalent. They often occur in online games such as MMORPGs where the best players are more likely to become guild leaders or be otherwise influential, BBC - h2g2 - The Politics of Internet Discussion although the ability to invest large amounts of time and/or money is also important. This is also the case for many discussion forums, since the most knowledgeable users often have better chances of becoming moderators. Open Source There is a general tendency among open source projects toward meritocracy; the more able a programmer or developer seems, the higher their position (albeit informal) will be. The Apache Software Foundation is an example of an (open source) organization which officially claims to be a meritocracy. How the ASF works - The Apache Software Foundation See also Meritocracy in China Aristocracy Ennoblement Bureaucracy Plutocracy Functionalism (sociology) Netocracy Geniocracy Technocracy, administration of science principles in the context of energy economics. Differential Education Achievement Notes External links World Wide Words — Michael Quinion writes about the changing use of the term Reference.com | Meritocracy |@lemmatized meritocracy:31 system:14 government:14 organization:2 wherein:1 appointment:3 make:1 responsibility:1 give:3 base:8 demonstrated:1 talent:5 ability:5 merit:19 rather:3 wealth:5 plutocracy:2 family:4 connection:3 nepotism:1 class:7 privilege:3 oligarchy:1 friend:2 cronyism:1 seniority:2 gerontocracy:1 popularity:1 democracy:1 historical:1 determinant:1 social:17 position:6 political:11 power:3 society:8 reward:4 status:3 show:3 competence:1 demonstrate:1 past:3 action:4 competition:2 origin:2 term:6 first:2 use:4 michael:2 young:3 book:4 rise:4 ford:1 boris:1 cambridge:2 cultural:1 history:1 britain:1 university:2 press:1 p:3 kamolnick:1 paul:2 iq:2 mobility:1 american:1 policy:3 greenwood:1 publish:1 group:2 best:5 shaun:1 understand:1 division:1 sage:1 intend:2 pejorative:1 set:1 dystopian:2 future:2 one:11 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genghis_khan:3 prime_minister:3 thomas_carlyle:1 légion_honneur:1 lee_kuan:3 kuan_yew:3 guiding_principle:1 ecole_polytechnique:1 grand_duchy:1 commissioned_officer:1 external_link:1 |
7,332 | Earth_(classical_element) | Earth, home and origin of humanity, has often been worshipped in its own right with its own unique spiritual tradition. Greek and Roman tradition Earth is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with qualities of practicality, restraint and materialism. It was also associated with the physical, sensual aspects of life. Earth was one of many archai proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BCE) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth. Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy. Plato (427-347 BCE) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with earth is the cube which is formed from six square sides. This places earth between fire (four triangular sides) and air (eight triangular sides). A highly un-spherical solid, these clumsy little cubes cause dirt to crumble and break when picked up, in stark difference to the smooth flow of water or air. Plato, Timaeus, chap. 22-23; Gregory Vlastos, Plato's Universe, pp. 66-82. Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BCE) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the sublunary sphere. According to Aristotle, earth is both cold and dry, and occupies a place between water and fire among the elemental spheres. G. E. R. Lloyd, Aristotle, chapters 7-8. In Classical Greek and Roman myth, various goddesses represented the earth, crops and fertility, including Ceres, Demeter, and Persephone or Proserpina. In ancient ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Black bile was the humor identified with earth, since both were cold and dry. Other things associated with earth and black bile in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of fall, since it increased the qualities of cold and aridity; the melancholic temperament (of a person dominated by the black bile humour); the feminine; and the southern point of the compass. Symbol for earth In alchemy, the chemical element of salt was associated with earth and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line. Indian Tradition Prithvi (Sanskrit: , also ) is the Hindu earth and mother goddess. According to one such tradition, she is the personification of the Earth itself; according to another, its actual mother, being Prithvi Tattwa, the essence of the element earth. As Prithvi Mata, or "Mother Earth," she contrasts with Dyaus Pita, "father sky." In the Rigveda, earth and sky are frequently addressed as a duality, often indicated by the idea of two complementary "half-shells." In addition, the element Earth is associated with Budha or Mercury, who represents communication, business, mathematics and other practical matters. Earth is also associated with the south-west direction. In Modern Magic Ceremonial Magic Earth and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system despite being considered obsolete by modern science. Zelator (1=10) is the elemental grade attributed to earth; this grade is also attributed to the Qabalistic sphere Malkuth. Israel Regardie, The Golden Dawn, pp. 154-65. The elemental weapon of earth is the Pentacle. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p.322; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 149-53. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of earth is Uriel, the angel is Phorlakh, the ruler is Kerub, the king is Ghob, and the earth elementals (following Paracelsus) are called gnomes. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p. 80. Earth is considered to be passive; it is represented by the symbol for Taurus, and it is referred to the lower left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Regardie, Golden Dawn, pp. 280-286; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 206-209. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. Wicca In Wicca, earth is associated with the North (or East in some variations), Winter, and the color brown (or green in some variations) on the physical plane. It is sometimes represented by its Hindu tattva (a yellow square), or by a downward pointing triangle with a horizontal line through it, and may be symbolized by the following: percussion instruments, animal fur, coins, a pentacle, milk, a heartbeat, jewelry, bones, or a staff. Earth represents strength, abundance, stability and femininity. In rituals, earth is represented by burying objects in the ground, herbalism, and carving images out of wood or stone. The manifestations of the earth element are found in plants, trees, mountains, forests, caves and gardens. The stag, boar, bull, sow, bear and snake are also thought to personify the element, as are all burrowing animals, such as the mole or rabbit. The astral creatures of earth, known as elementals, are the Satyr/Faun, Gnome/Goblin, and Sylvestre/Dryad. Earth’s place on the pentagram is the lower left point. Astrological Personalities People born under the astrological signs of Taurus, Capricorn and Virgo are thought to have dominant earth personalities. Earth personalities tend to be calm, practical, pragmatic, responsible and cautious; however, they can also be stubborn, intolerant and inflexible. Other Traditions In East Asia, metal is sometimes seen as the equivalent of earth and is represented by the White Tiger (Chinese constellation), known as 白虎 (Bái Hǔ) in Chinese, Byakko in Japanese and Baekho (백호, Hanja:白虎) in Korean. Earth is represented in the Aztec religion by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography, by a bull. See also Mother goddess Mother Nature Gaia (mythology) Notes External links Different versions of the classical elements Overview the 5 elements | Earth_(classical_element) |@lemmatized earth:35 home:1 origin:1 humanity:1 often:2 worship:1 right:1 unique:1 spiritual:2 tradition:5 greek:7 roman:2 one:3 four:8 classical:5 element:15 ancient:4 philosophy:2 science:2 commonly:1 associate:10 quality:3 practicality:1 restraint:1 materialism:1 also:7 physical:2 sensual:1 aspect:1 life:1 many:2 archai:2 propose:1 pre:1 socratics:1 try:1 reduce:1 thing:2 single:1 substance:1 however:2 empedocles:3 acragas:1 c:2 bce:3 select:1 root:2 air:3 fire:3 water:3 become:2 plato:4 take:1 timaeus:2 major:1 cosmological:1 dialogue:1 platonic:1 solid:2 cube:2 form:2 six:1 square:2 side:3 place:3 triangular:2 eight:1 highly:1 un:1 spherical:1 clumsy:1 little:1 cause:1 dirt:1 crumble:1 break:1 pick:1 stark:1 difference:1 smooth:1 flow:1 chap:1 gregory:1 vlastos:1 universe:2 pp:5 student:1 aristotle:3 develop:1 different:2 explanation:1 base:1 pair:1 arrange:1 concentrically:1 around:1 center:1 sublunary:1 sphere:3 accord:3 cold:3 dry:2 occupy:1 among:1 elemental:3 g:1 e:1 r:1 lloyd:1 chapter:1 myth:1 various:1 goddess:3 represent:8 crop:1 fertility:1 include:2 cere:1 demeter:1 persephone:1 proserpina:1 medicine:2 humour:2 black:3 bile:3 humor:1 identify:1 since:3 medieval:1 season:1 fall:1 increase:1 aridity:1 melancholic:1 temperament:1 person:1 dominate:1 feminine:1 southern:1 point:4 compass:1 symbol:3 alchemy:1 chemical:1 salt:1 alchemical:1 downward:2 triangle:2 bisect:1 horizontal:2 line:2 indian:1 prithvi:3 sanskrit:1 hindu:3 mother:5 personification:1 another:1 actual:1 tattwa:1 essence:1 mata:1 contrast:1 dyaus:1 pita:1 father:1 sky:2 rigveda:1 frequently:1 address:1 duality:1 indicate:1 idea:1 two:1 complementary:1 half:1 shell:1 addition:1 budha:1 mercury:1 communication:1 business:1 mathematics:1 practical:2 matter:1 south:1 west:1 direction:1 modern:4 magic:2 ceremonial:1 incorporate:1 golden:5 dawn:5 system:1 despite:1 consider:2 obsolete:1 zelator:1 grade:2 attribute:2 qabalistic:1 malkuth:1 israel:1 regardie:4 weapon:1 pentacle:2 p:2 kraig:2 magick:2 several:1 archangel:1 uriel:1 angel:1 phorlakh:1 ruler:1 kerub:1 king:1 ghob:1 elementals:2 follow:1 paracelsus:1 call:1 gnome:2 passive:1 taurus:2 refer:1 low:2 leave:2 pentagram:3 supreme:1 invoke:1 ritual:2 association:1 spread:1 throughout:1 occult:1 community:1 wicca:2 north:1 east:2 variation:2 winter:1 color:1 brown:1 green:1 plane:1 sometimes:2 tattva:1 yellow:1 pointing:1 may:1 symbolize:1 following:1 percussion:1 instrument:1 animal:2 fur:1 coin:1 milk:1 heartbeat:1 jewelry:1 bone:1 staff:1 strength:1 abundance:1 stability:1 femininity:1 bury:1 object:1 ground:1 herbalism:1 carve:1 image:1 wood:1 stone:1 manifestation:1 find:1 plant:1 tree:1 mountain:1 forest:1 cave:1 garden:1 stag:1 boar:1 bull:2 sow:1 bear:2 snake:1 think:2 personify:1 burrowing:1 mole:1 rabbit:1 astral:1 creature:1 know:2 satyr:1 faun:1 goblin:1 sylvestre:1 dryad:1 astrological:2 personality:3 people:1 sign:1 capricorn:1 virgo:1 dominant:1 tend:1 calm:1 pragmatic:1 responsible:1 cautious:1 stubborn:1 intolerant:1 inflexible:1 asia:1 metal:1 see:2 equivalent:1 white:1 tiger:1 chinese:2 constellation:1 白虎:2 bái:1 hǔ:1 byakko:1 japanese:1 baekho:1 백호:1 hanja:1 korean:1 aztec:1 religion:1 house:1 lotus:1 scythian:1 plough:1 wheel:1 christian:1 iconography:1 nature:1 gaia:1 mythology:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 version:1 overview:1 |@bigram pre_socratics:1 empedocles_acragas:1 dialogue_platonic:1 platonic_solid:1 plato_timaeus:1 arrange_concentrically:1 alchemical_symbol:1 golden_dawn:5 israel_regardie:1 regardie_golden:4 kraig_modern:2 percussion_instrument:1 external_link:1 |
7,333 | Davy_Jones_(musician) | |Davy Jones}} Davy Jones (born David Thomas Jones 30 December 1945) is a Grammy winning, English pop singer-songwriter and Tony-nominated Emmy-nominated actor best known as a member of The Monkees. Career Jones was born in Manchester, England on 30 December 1945. He lost his mother to emphysema when he was 14 years old. His father had hopes for him as a jockey, and just after his mother died, his father sent him to live with Basil Foster to train. Basil was approached by a friend who worked in the theatre on the West End of London during casting. Basil said, "I've got the kid." Jones then became more interested in being in show business. As a teenager he appeared on British TV soap operas, including Coronation Street. He appeared to great acclaim in the musical Oliver! as the Artful Dodger, playing the role both in London and on Broadway and was nominated for a Tony Award Official Davy Jones Bio . On 9 February 1964, he appeared with the Broadway cast of Oliver on the Ed Sullivan show, the same episode on which The Beatles made their first appearance. Jones says of that night, "I watched the Beatles from the side of the stage, I saw the girls going crazy, and I said to myself, this is it, I want a piece of that." Ward Sylvester of Screen Gems (then the television division of Columbia Pictures) signed Jones to a contract, following his Ed Sullivan appearance. A pair of American television appearances followed, in episodes of Ben Casey and The Farmer's Daughter. He also recorded a single and album for Colpix Records, which charted but weren't huge hits. From 1965 to 1971, Jones was a member of The Monkees, a pop-rock group formed expressly for a TV show of the same name. With Screen Gems producing the series, Jones was shortlisted for auditions, as he was the only Monkee who was signed to a deal with the studio, but still had to meet producers Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider's standards. He appeared in one episode of The Brady Bunch and in two episodes of Love, American Style. He also appeared, in animated form, on an episode of The New Scooby-Doo Movies plus Spongebob Squarepants in Spongebob Vs. The Big One as himself. As a Monkee, Jones sang lead vocals on many of the group's songs, including "I Wanna Be Free" and "Daydream Believer." After the show went off the air and the group disbanded, he continued to perform solo, later joining with fellow-Monkee Micky Dolenz and songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart as a short-lived group called Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart. In 1978 he appeared with Micky Dolenz in Harry Nilsson's play The Point at the Mermaid Theatre in London. Jones as Oblio and Dolenz as The Count. Also, Jones makes a cameo appearance as himself in the SpongeBob SquarePants episode "SpongeBob vs. The Big One" (his appearance was meant to be a pun on Davy Jones' Locker). In recent years, Jones performed with his former bandmates in reunion tours and appeared in several productions of Oliver! as Fagin. He continued to race horses with some success in his native England, while residing in Beavertown, Pennsylvania, United States. He owns and races horses in the United States and served as a commercial spokesman for Colonial Downs racetrack in Virginia. Welcome to the National HBPA In April 2006, Jones recorded the single "Your Personal Penguin MP3 of the song Personal Penguin ," written by children's author Sandra Boynton, as a companion piece to her new board book of the same title Workman Publishing author site for Sandra Boynton . On 1 November 2007, the Boynton book and CD titled "Blue Moo" was released. Davy is featured in the book and on the CD, singing "Your Personal Penguin" and has become a close friend of Boynton as a result of the project. In 2007 Jones also recorded the theme for a campy movie comedy called Sexina: Popstar PI. Jones also performed in the 2009 Flower Power Concert Series during Epcot's Flower and Garden Festival 2009 Flower Power Concert Series . In December 2008 Yahoo Music named Davy Jones #1 teen idol of all time Yahoo Music: The Top 25 Teen Idols Of All-Time . In 2009 Jones was rated second in a list of 10 best teen idols compiled by Fox News Then & Now: 10 Best Teen Idols of All Time . Singles DateLabel/Catalog #Titles (A-side / B-side)Billboard Top SinglesCashboxNotes ??/1965 Colpix CP-764 Dream Girl / Take Me To Paradise - - <small>Credited as "David Jones." ??/1965 Colpix CP-784 What Are We Going To Do? / This Bouquet 93 94 <small>Credited as "Mr. David Jones." ??/1965 Colpix CP-793 The Girl From Chelsea / Theme For A New Love - - <small>Credited as "David Jones." 04/1971 Bell 986 Do It In The Name Of Love / Lady Jane - - <small>By Micky Dolenz and Davy Jones. Released as by "The Monkees" in some countries, this is technically the group's last single during their original run, although by this point they had lost the rights to the name. 06/1971 Bell 45-111 Rainy Jane / Welcome To My Love 52 32 10/1971 Bell 45-136 I Really Love You / Sittin' In The Apple Tree - 98 11/1971 Bell 45-159 Girl / Take My Love - - 01/1972 Bell 45-178 I'll Believe In You / Road To Love - - ??/1972 MGM K14458 You're A Lady / Who Was It - - ??/1973 MGM K14524 Rubberene / Rubberene - - <small>This single was released as a promo copy only. 05/1978 Warner Brothers 17161 (Hey Ra Ra Ra) Happy Birthday Mickey Mouse / You Don't Have To Be A Country Boy To Sing A Country Song - - <small> Issued in England only to commemorate Mickey Mouse's 50th Birthday 05/1981 Japan JAS-2007 It's Now / How Do You Know - - <small>Released in Japan only. 06/1981 Japan JAS-2010 Dance Gypsy / Can She Do It (Like She Dances) - - <small>Released in Japan only. 03/1982 Pioneer K-1517 Sixteen (Baby, You'll Soon Be Sixteen) / Baby, Hold Out - - <small>Released in Japan only. 12/1984 No Label JJ2001 I'll Love You Forever / When I Look Back On Christmas - - <small>Released in England only. ??/1987 Powderworks 374 After Your Heart / Hippy Hippy Shake - - <small>Released in Australia only. NOTES: Jones recorded two singles with former Monkee Micky Dolenz and songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart under the group name "Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart" on Capitol Records in 1975. They were "I Remember The Feeling"/"You & I" (Capitol 4180) and "I Love You (And I'm Glad That I Said It)"/"Savin' My Love For You" (Capitol 4271). Jones also released a single with Micky Dolenz and Peter Tork in 1976 titled "Christmas Is My Time of Year" / "White Christmas" (Christmas CDS-700/701) which saw a rerelease in 1986 (Christmas CDS-702/703). Lastly, Jones had an EP release in the UK with Micky Dolenz culling tracks from their performance in Harry Nilsson's "The Point!" performance in London in 1978: "Lifeline" (Jones) / "It's A Jungle Out There" (Dolenz) / "Gotta Get Up" (Jones & Dolenz). It was released as MCA 348. Vinyl albums DateLabel/Catalog #Titles (A-side / B-side)Billboard Top SinglesCashboxNotes ??/1965 Colpix CP-784 (mono) / Colpix SCP-784 (stereo) David Jones 185 - <small>Credited as "David Jones." 06/1971 Bell 6067 Davy Jones - - 01/1978 MCA MCF2826 The Point - - <small>Jones sings most of the songs on this original cast recording of Harry Nilsson's stage performance of "The Point!." Album was initially released in England only, followed by a release in Japan. 06/1981 Japan JAL-1003 Davy Jones Live - - <small>Released in Japan only. 03/1982 Pioneer K-10025 Hello Davy (Davy Jones Live) - - <small>Released in Japan only. According to some sources, this is an unauthorized LP release, with the audio having been lifted from the Japanese-released laserdisc of this concert. NOTES: Jones recorded an album with former Monkee Micky Dolenz and songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart under the group name "Dolenz, Jones, Boyce & Hart" on Capitol Records in 1975. The self-titled album was released as Capitol ST-11513. He has released a number of albums in cassette- and/or CD-only formats, including "Davy Jones Sings The Monkees and More," "It's Christmas Time Again," "JustMe," "JustMe 2" and the archival 4-album "Just For The Record" set. Personal life Jones is twice divorced with four daughters: Talia Elizabeth (2 October 1968) and Sarah Lee (3 July 1971) with first wife Linda Haines, and Jessica Lillian (4 September 1981) and Annabel Charlotte (26 June 1988) with second wife Anita Pollinger. Incomplete list of songs written or co-written by Davy Jones "Dream World" (Davy Jones & Steve Pitts) "If You Have the Time" (Davy Jones & Bill Chadwick) "Party" (Davy Jones & Steve Pitts) "Changes" (Davy Jones & Steve Pitts) "Time And Time Again" (Davy Jones & Bill Chadwick) "War Games" (Davy Jones & Steve Pitts) "Smile" (Davy Jones) "Hard to Believe" (David Jones, Kim Capli, Eddie Brick, & Charlie Rockett) "Oh, What a Night" (Davy Jones) (Note: Not to be confused with the Four Seasons'' song called December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)) "(I'll) Love Your Forever" (Davy Jones) "You and I" (Davy Jones & Bill Chadwick) "You and I" (Micky Dolenz & Davy Jones) (Note: Different words and music to song above) "Zilch" (Peter Tork, Davy Jones, Micky Dolenz & Michael Nesmith) "It's Not Too Late" (Davy Jones) References External links Davy Devotees Official Fanclub Original Official site, Davy Jones Forever Official Web Site | Davy_Jones_(musician) |@lemmatized davy:28 jones:57 bear:2 david:7 thomas:1 december:4 grammy:1 winning:1 english:1 pop:2 singer:1 songwriter:4 tony:2 nominate:2 emmy:1 nominated:1 actor:1 best:3 know:2 member:2 monkees:4 career:1 manchester:1 england:5 lose:2 mother:2 emphysema:1 year:3 old:1 father:2 hope:1 jockey:1 die:1 send:1 live:4 basil:3 foster:1 train:1 approach:1 friend:2 work:1 theatre:2 west:1 end:1 london:4 cast:3 say:4 get:2 kid:1 become:2 interested:1 show:4 business:1 teenager:1 appear:7 british:1 tv:2 soap:1 opera:1 include:3 coronation:1 street:1 great:1 acclaim:1 musical:1 oliver:3 artful:1 dodger:1 play:2 role:1 broadway:2 award:1 official:4 bio:1 february:1 ed:2 sullivan:2 episode:6 beatles:2 make:2 first:2 appearance:5 night:3 watch:1 side:5 stage:2 saw:2 girl:4 go:3 crazy:1 want:1 piece:2 ward:1 sylvester:1 screen:2 gem:2 television:2 division:1 columbia:1 picture:1 sign:2 contract:1 follow:3 pair:1 american:2 ben:1 casey:1 farmer:1 daughter:2 also:6 record:9 single:7 album:7 colpix:6 chart:1 huge:1 hit:1 rock:1 group:7 form:2 expressly:1 name:6 produce:1 series:3 shortlist:1 audition:1 monkee:5 deal:1 studio:1 still:1 meet:1 producer:1 bob:1 rafelson:1 bert:1 schneider:1 standard:1 one:3 brady:1 bunch:1 two:2 love:11 style:1 animated:1 new:3 scooby:1 doo:1 movie:2 plus:1 spongebob:4 squarepants:2 v:2 big:2 sing:3 lead:1 vocal:1 many:1 song:7 wanna:1 free:1 daydream:1 believer:1 air:1 disband:1 continue:2 perform:3 solo:1 later:1 join:1 fellow:1 micky:9 dolenz:15 tommy:3 boyce:6 bobby:3 hart:6 short:1 call:3 harry:3 nilsson:3 point:5 mermaid:1 oblio:1 count:1 cameo:1 mean:1 pun:1 locker:1 recent:1 former:3 bandmates:1 reunion:1 tour:1 several:1 production:1 fagin:1 race:2 horse:2 success:1 native:1 reside:1 beavertown:1 pennsylvania:1 united:2 state:2 serve:1 commercial:1 spokesman:1 colonial:1 racetrack:1 virginia:1 welcome:2 national:1 hbpa:1 april:1 personal:4 penguin:3 write:3 child:1 author:2 sandra:2 boynton:4 companion:1 board:1 book:3 title:6 workman:1 publish:1 site:3 november:1 cd:5 blue:1 moo:1 release:19 feature:1 close:1 result:1 project:1 theme:2 campy:1 comedy:1 sexina:1 popstar:1 pi:1 flower:3 power:2 concert:3 epcot:1 garden:1 festival:1 yahoo:2 music:3 teen:4 idol:4 time:8 top:3 rat:1 second:2 list:2 compile:1 fox:1 news:1 datelabel:2 catalog:2 b:2 billboard:2 singlescashboxnotes:2 cp:4 dream:2 take:2 paradise:1 small:15 credit:4 bouquet:1 mr:1 chelsea:1 bell:6 lady:2 jane:2 country:3 technically:1 last:1 original:3 run:1 although:1 right:1 rainy:1 really:1 sittin:1 apple:1 tree:1 believe:2 road:1 mgm:2 rubberene:2 promo:1 copy:1 warner:1 brother:1 hey:1 ra:3 happy:1 birthday:2 mickey:2 mouse:2 boy:1 issue:1 commemorate:1 japan:9 jas:2 dance:2 gypsy:1 like:1 pioneer:2 k:2 sixteen:2 baby:2 soon:1 hold:1 label:1 forever:3 look:1 back:1 christmas:6 powderworks:1 heart:1 hippy:2 shake:1 australia:1 note:4 capitol:5 remember:1 feeling:1 glad:1 savin:1 peter:2 tork:2 white:1 rerelease:1 lastly:1 ep:1 uk:1 cull:1 track:1 performance:3 lifeline:1 jungle:1 gotta:1 mca:2 vinyl:1 mono:1 scp:1 stereo:1 sings:2 recording:1 initially:1 jal:1 hello:1 accord:1 source:1 unauthorized:1 lp:1 audio:1 lift:1 japanese:1 laserdisc:1 self:1 st:1 number:1 cassette:1 format:1 justme:2 archival:1 set:1 life:1 twice:1 divorce:1 four:2 talia:1 elizabeth:1 october:1 sarah:1 lee:1 july:1 wife:2 linda:1 haines:1 jessica:1 lillian:1 september:1 annabel:1 charlotte:1 june:1 anita:1 pollinger:1 incomplete:1 co:1 world:1 steve:4 pitt:4 bill:3 chadwick:3 party:1 change:1 war:1 game:1 smile:1 hard:1 kim:1 capli:1 eddie:1 brick:1 charlie:1 rockett:1 oh:2 confuse:1 season:1 different:1 word:1 zilch:1 michael:1 nesmith:1 late:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 devotee:1 fanclub:1 web:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:1 nominate_emmy:1 soap_opera:1 brady_bunch:1 scooby_doo:1 spongebob_squarepants:2 micky_dolenz:9 harry_nilsson:3 cameo_appearance:1 former_bandmates:1 teen_idol:4 colpix_cp:4 ra_ra:2 happy_birthday:1 mickey_mouse:2 michael_nesmith:1 external_link:1 |
7,334 | Capricornus | Capricornus (, genitive Capricorni ) is one of the constellations of the zodiac; it is often called Capricorn, especially when referring to the corresponding astrological sign. Its name is Latin for "horned male goat" or "goat horn", and it is commonly represented in the form of a sea-goat: a mythical creature that is half goat, half fish. Its symbol is (). Capricornus is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy. Under its modern boundaries it is bordered by Aquila, Sagittarius, Microscopium, Piscis Austrinus and Aquarius. The constellation is located in an area of sky called the Sea or Water, consisting of many water-related constellations such as Aquarius, Pisces and Eridanus. Notable features Capricornus is the second faintest constellation in the zodiac after Cancer. Its brighter stars are found on a triangle whose vertices are α2 Capricorni (Giedi), δ Capricorni (Deneb Algiedi), and ω Capricorni. Deep sky objects Capricorn has several galaxies and clusters. Messier 30 is a globular cluster located 1 degree south of the galaxy group NGC 7103. The constellation also harbors the wide spiral galaxy NGC 6907. Named Stars BayerNameOriginMeaningαAlgiediArabicα1Prima Giediα2Secunda GiediβDabihArabicβ1Dabih Majorβ2Dabih MinorγNashiraArabicbringer of newsδDeneb AlgiediArabicgoat's tailζYenChineseηChowChineseνAl ShatArabicthe sheepψYueChinesebattle ax History Despite its faintness, Capricornus has one of the oldest mythological associations, having been consistently represented as a hybrid of a goat and a fish since the Middle Bronze Age, first attested in depictions on boundary stones, and explicitly recorded in the Babylonian star catalogues as "The Goat-Fish" before 1000 BC. The constellation was a symbol of Ea and in the Early Bronze Age marked the winter solstice. John H. Rogers, "Origins of the ancient contellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108 (1998) 9–28 Due to the precession of the equinoxes the December solstice no longer takes place while the sun is in the constellation Capricornus, but the astrological sign called Capricorn begins with the solstice. The sun's most southerly position, which is attained at the northern hemisphere's winter solstice, is now called the Tropic of Capricorn, a term which also applies to the line on earth where the sun is directly overhead at noon on that solstice. The planet Neptune was discovered in this constellation by German astronomer Johann Galle, near Deneb Algedi (δ Capricorni) on September 23, 1846, which is reasonable as Capricornus can be seen best at 4:00am in September. Mythology This constellation is sometimes identified as Amalthea, the goat that suckled the infant Zeus after his mother Rhea saved him from being devoured by his father Cronos in Greek mythology. The goat's broken horn was transformed into the cornucopia or horn of plenty. Some ancient sources claim that this derives from the sun "taking nourishment" while in the constellation, in preparation for its climb back northward. However, the constellation is more often depicted as a goat with a fish's tail. One myth says that when the goat-god Pan was attacked by the monster Typhon, he dove into the Nile; the parts above the water remained a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish. In Sumer, the constellation was associated with the god Enki (Babylonian Ea), who brought culture out of the sea to humankind. The apparent paucity of stars within Capricornus, and the contrasting abundance within Sagittarius (which contains the brightest part of the Milky Way, was given a mythological explanation in Ancient Greece: due to early Greek beliefs that sin accumulated throughout the year, causing the darkness to increase, together with the sun's descent and pause at the Solstice, the ancient Greeks referred to this area of sky as the 'Augean Stable', where they considered the sun stabled during the year. The cause of the association with the location or name of Augeas is not currently known. Visualizations Early 1800 rendition of Capricornus as a sea-goat. Ptolemy's method of connecting the stars of Capricornus has been influential. . H.A. Rey has suggested an alternative visualization, which graphically shows a goat. The goat's head is formed by the triangle of stars ι Cap, θ Cap, and ζ Cap. The goat's horn sticks out with stars γ Cap and δ Cap. Star δ Cap, at the tip of the horn, is of the third magnitude. The goat's tail consists of stars β Cap and α2 Cap: star β Cap being of the third magnitude. The goat's hind foot consists of stars ψ Cap and ω Cap. Both of these stars are of the fourth magnitude. Astrology , the Sun appears in the constellation Capricornus from January 19 to February 15. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Capricornus from December 22 to January 19, and in sidereal astrology, from January 15 to February 14. Diagram of an alternative way to connect the stars of the Capricornus constellation. Citations See also IC 1337 External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Capricornus Star Tales – Capricornus | Capricornus |@lemmatized capricornus:14 genitive:1 capricorni:5 one:5 constellation:17 zodiac:2 often:2 call:4 capricorn:4 especially:1 refer:2 corresponding:1 astrological:2 sign:3 name:3 latin:1 horn:6 male:1 goat:17 commonly:1 represent:2 form:2 sea:4 mythical:1 creature:1 half:2 fish:5 symbol:2 modern:2 also:4 list:1 century:1 astronomer:2 ptolemy:2 boundary:2 border:1 aquila:1 sagittarius:2 microscopium:1 piscis:1 austrinus:1 aquarius:2 locate:2 area:2 sky:3 water:4 consist:2 many:1 related:1 pisces:1 eridanus:1 notable:1 feature:1 second:1 faint:1 cancer:1 brighter:1 star:14 find:1 triangle:2 whose:1 vertex:1 giedi:1 δ:4 deneb:2 algiedi:1 ω:2 deep:2 object:1 several:1 galaxy:3 cluster:2 messy:1 globular:1 degree:1 south:1 group:1 ngc:2 harbor:1 wide:1 spiral:1 minorγnashiraarabicbringer:1 newsδdeneb:1 algiediarabicgoat:1 tailζyenchineseηchowchineseνal:1 shatarabicthe:1 sheepψyuechinesebattle:1 ax:1 history:1 despite:1 faintness:1 old:1 mythological:2 association:3 consistently:1 hybrid:1 since:1 middle:1 bronze:2 age:2 first:1 attest:1 depiction:1 stone:1 explicitly:1 record:1 babylonian:2 catalogue:1 bc:1 ea:2 early:3 mark:1 winter:2 solstice:6 john:1 h:2 rogers:1 origins:1 ancient:4 contellations:1 mesopotamian:1 tradition:1 journal:1 british:1 astronomical:1 due:2 precession:1 equinox:1 december:2 longer:1 take:2 place:1 sun:8 begin:1 southerly:1 position:1 attain:1 northern:1 hemisphere:1 tropic:1 term:1 apply:1 line:1 earth:1 directly:1 overhead:1 noon:1 planet:1 neptune:1 discover:1 german:1 johann:1 galle:1 near:1 algedi:1 september:2 reasonable:1 see:2 best:1 mythology:2 sometimes:1 identify:1 amalthea:1 suckle:1 infant:1 zeus:1 mother:1 rhea:1 save:1 devour:1 father:1 cronos:1 greek:3 break:1 transform:2 cornucopia:1 plenty:1 source:1 claim:1 derive:1 nourishment:1 preparation:1 climb:1 back:1 northward:1 however:1 depict:1 tail:2 myth:1 say:1 god:2 pan:1 attack:1 monster:1 typhon:1 dive:1 nile:1 part:2 remain:1 sumer:1 associate:1 enki:1 bring:1 culture:1 humankind:1 apparent:1 paucity:1 within:2 contrasting:1 abundance:1 contain:1 bright:1 milky:1 way:2 give:1 explanation:1 greece:1 belief:1 sin:1 accumulate:1 throughout:1 year:2 cause:2 darkness:1 increase:1 together:1 descent:1 pause:1 augean:1 stable:2 consider:2 location:1 augeas:1 currently:1 know:1 visualization:2 rendition:1 method:1 connect:2 influential:1 rey:1 suggest:1 alternative:2 graphically:1 show:1 head:1 ι:1 cap:11 θ:1 ζ:1 stick:1 γ:1 tip:1 third:2 magnitude:3 β:2 hind:1 foot:1 consists:1 ψ:1 fourth:1 astrology:3 appear:1 january:3 february:2 tropical:1 sidereal:1 diagram:1 citation:1 ic:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 guide:1 tale:1 |@bigram constellation_zodiac:2 goat_goat:2 mythical_creature:1 astronomer_ptolemy:1 constellation_aquarius:1 aquarius_pisces:1 globular_cluster:1 spiral_galaxy:1 galaxy_ngc:1 winter_solstice:2 precession_equinox:1 constellation_capricornus:3 northern_hemisphere:1 tropic_capricorn:1 milky_way:1 augean_stable:1 sidereal_astrology:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
7,335 | Harold_and_Maude | Harold and Maude is a cult classic film directed by Hal Ashby in 1971. The film, featuring slapstick, dark humour, and existentialist drama, revolves around the exploits of a morbid young man – Harold (played by Bud Cort) – who drifts away from the life that his detached mother prescribes for him, as he develops a relationship with septuagenarian Maude (played by Ruth Gordon). The film is number 45 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies of all time AFI's 100 YEARS...100 LAUGHS , number 69 in its list for most romantic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s_100_Years..._100_Passions and number 42 on Bravo's 100 Funniest Movies. In 1997, it was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html National Film Registry list of films, 1989-2006 The film was a commercial failure when it was released, and the critical reception was extremely mixed; however, it has since developed a large cult following. Peary, Danny. Cult Movies, Delta Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-20185-2 The screenplay upon which the film was based was written by Colin Higgins, and published as a novel in 1971. The movie was shot in the San Francisco Bay Area. Harold and Maude was also a play on Broadway for some time. A French adaptation for television, translated and written by Jean-Claude Carrière, appeared in 1978. It was adapted for the stage and performed in Québec, starring Roy Dupuis. Plot synopsis The movie opens to introduce Harold Chasen (Bud Cort), a boy of nineteen who fakes his own death numerous times in a desperate attempt for his mother’s attention. Harold and his mother, (Vivian Pickles), live in a mansion in the San Francisco Bay Area. Mrs. Chasen throws a lavish dinner party which is followed by Harold “killing himself” in his mother’s dressing room. He squirts fake blood over her mirrors and himself. Mrs. Chasen declares that it is “too much” and sends him to counseling. After a brief interaction with his counselor, Harold drives with his hearse to a stranger’s funeral. This is the first time Harold sees Maude (Ruth Gordon). Upon arriving home, his mother sees his car and lectures him about growing up. She tries to convince him to join the Army like Harold’s uncle Victor, and thinks it is time for Harold to get married. The next day, Harold goes to another funeral and sees Maude again. Maude moves in closer to Harold and strikes up a conversation with him, offering him licorice, and admitting she does not know the person who died. Maude tells Harold that she does know the man who died was eighty: the proper age to die. The pair moves outside after the funeral where Maude steals the priest’s car. At the next funeral, Maude pulls beside Harold and offers him a ride home in his car which she has stolen. After getting in his car, Maude takes Harold back to her “house,” a derailed train car. Maude offers him tea, but Harold declines, going instead to his counseling meeting where he admits he has no friends. Candy Gulf is Harold’s first blind date. She shows up and watches as Harold fakes his own death by setting himself on fire. She runs from the house screaming. When Harold visits Maude for the second time, she is having an ice sculpture cut while modeling nude. Maude shows Harold her vaporizer that plays scents such as snowfall on 42nd Street. Maude tells Harold that everyone should be able to play an instrument and Harold takes to a banjo. They drink tea which is followed by a montage of date scenes including one where Maude is transfixed by a helpless tree in the city. After illegally parking and admiring the tree, Maude decides to steal the tree… and another car. Harold's mother gives him a new Jaguar as a gift; she “took away” the hearse. Later on, Harold morphs the Jaguar into yet another hearse. The next scene shows Maude and Harold driving the tree to the forest where it can be free. The pair evade the law, plant the tree, and get pulled over (ironically enough), by the same cop. Harold and Maude steal the cop’s bike and ride back to Maude’s house. The pair smokes hookah and Harold opens up about his life at home. Harold’s second date is with Edith Phern. To escape this date, Harold chops off his hand (a false one) in front of Edith and his mother. Fed up with his antics, Mrs. Chasen sends Harold to talk to his Uncle Victor about joining the armed forces. Taking his uncle to the coast, Harold pretends to become transfixed with his war stories. A protester (Maude) begins a dispute with Harold and the uncle (not knowing who Maude is) watches in horror as the woman falls to her “death.” The subject of Harold joining the Army is abandoned. To celebrate their victory, Harold and Maude go to the bay and watch the sun set. As Harold goes to hold Maude’s hand, he briefly glimpses numbers tattooed on her arm (such those used to identify prisoners in Nazi concentration camps). The next day, Harold goes on his third and final blind date with a Miss “Sunshine” Doré. He shows her his seppuku sword and pretends to commit hara-kiri, but the sword is only a prop with a sliding blade. Dore, an actress, sees right through his act and, in turn, reenacts Juliet's death scene from Romeo and Juliet. Dodging another date, Harold takes Maude to the fair, after which the couple sleep together. The next day, Harold tells his mother he is going to marry Maude. Mrs. Chasen subsequently sends Harold to see his uncle, counselor, and priest, all of whom disapprove. Harold throws Maude a surprise 80th birthday party, decorating the inside of her home with sunflowers, and after the party Maude admits that she has taken poison tablets and will be gone by midnight. As she had said before, eighty years old is the proper age to die. Rushed to the hospital, Maude dies. In the morning, Harold drives his car off of a cliff, faking his death one last time. Harold skips on the edge of the cliff, playing his banjo. Themes Hal Ashby, the director of the film, shared certain ideals with the era's youth culture, and in this film he contrasts the doomed outlook of the alienated youth of the time with the hard-won optimism of those who endured the horrors of the early 20th century, contrasting nihilism with purpose. Maude's past is revealed in a glimpse of the concentration camp ID number tattooed on her arm. Harold is part of a society in which he has no personal importance; and existentially, therefore, he is without meaning. Maude, however, has survived and lives a life rich with meaning. It is in this existential crisis, shown against the backdrop of the Vietnam War, that we see the differences between one culture, personified by Harold, handling a meaningless war, while another has experienced and lived beyond another war that produced a crisis of meaning, the Holocaust. Suicide attempts Harold tells Maude when they are talking candidly at her house the reasons why he fakes his death so often. When Harold was at boarding school, he set his science lab on fire. Escaping the fire, Harold slid down the laundry chute and ran home to hide. When the police came, Harold could not be found. Believed to be dead the police came to his house and told Mrs. Chasen (Harold’s mother) that Harold was dead. Coming up from the back balcony, Harold watched as his mother fell over in grief for the police officers. Harold then state that, “I decided then I enjoyed being dead’. Throughout the movie, Harold “kills” himself a total of eight times. He tells his psychologist that he has made similar attempts approximately 15 times. 1. Hanging himself in opening scene: Harold hangs himself while his mother is on the phone in the opening scene, in which she barely blinks twice. 2. Slitting his throat in his mother’s bathroom: after this act, we see Harold seeing a psychiatrist. 3. Floating dead in pool: Harold floats face down, fully clothed, as his mother swims laps around him. 4. Shooting towards his head: Harold initially points a gun at his mother and then shoots close to his head as his mother is reading off the questionnaire for his dating service. 5. Fire: For the first blind date, Harold pretends to set himself on fire, scaring away his date. 6. Hand chopping: The second blind dates ends abruptly with Harold chopping off a fake hand. 7. Romeo scene: For the final date, Harold performs a seppuku by stabbing himself with a fake hari-kari sword in the stomach. Instead of this date running off as the others have, Sunshine Doré instead joins in: she recites lines from Romeo and Juliet, stabs herself and “dies” with him. 8. Car: Harold sends his Jaguar/hearse off a cliff. From the initial scene, the audience may believe Harold was stricken with enough grief from Maude’s death to kill himself. However, the camera pans up to the cliff to show Harold playing Maude's banjo and dancing away casually. Influences Filmmakers who have demonstrated the influence of this classic include Bobby and Peter Farrelly, who pay tribute to the film in their movie There's Something About Mary in which the character of Mary thinks that Harold and Maude is "the greatest love story of our time". Wes Anderson has also demonstrated the influence of the film, featuring two songs by Cat Stevens in Rushmore. http://www.avclub.com/content/feature/16_films_without_which_wes , and writing a part specifically for actor Bud Cort in The Life Aquatic http://www.kamera.co.uk/interviews/a_quick_chat_with_wes_anderson.php Christian rock band Relient K's lead singer Matt Thiessen wrote a song entitled "Faking My Own Suicide" for the band's album Five Score and Seven Years Ago, which was inspired by the film, which Thiessen calls one of his favorite movies. Honors Harold and Maude is #45 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Year... 100 Laughs, the list of the top 100 films in American comedy. The list was released in 2000. Two years later, AFI released the list AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions honoring the most romantic films for the past 100 years, Harold and Maude ranked #69. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s_100_Years..._100_Passions Entertainment Weekly ranked the film #4 on their list of "The Top 50 Cult Films". In June 2008, AFI revealed its "Ten Top Ten" – the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres – after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Harold and Maude was acknowledged as the ninth best film in the romantic comedy genre. American Film Institute recognition 2000: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs #45 2002: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions #69 2006: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers #89 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 #9 Romantic Comedy At the 29th Golden Globe Awards, Bud Cort and Ruth Gordon received a nomination for Best Actor and Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy film, respectively. http://www.thegoldenglobes.com/listings/cat_actor-morc_y.html http://www.thegoldenglobes.com/welcome.html?listings/cat_actor-morc_y.html Cast Cover of the Harold and Maude video, with lead actors Ruth Gordon and Bud Cort Dame Marjorie Chardin (Maude): Ruth Gordon A 79 year old spitfire who wears her hair in braids across her head like a crown. Horrible driver, enjoys music, and she believes in living each day like it is your last. The movie does not mention anything about her tattoo, believed to be a Holocaust tattoo. Harold Chasen: Bud Cort A 19 year old, pale boy (he becomes more tan as the film progresses) who craves human interaction but is smothered by his mother’s controlled, materialistic world. Obsessed with death, he drives a hearse, attends random funerals and fakes suicides, for effect. Through meeting and falling in love with Maude, he discovers there is more to life than death and begins living for the first time. Mrs. Chasen: Vivian Pickles Harold's mother, a wealthy, middle aged woman who surrounds herself with the best of everything. Hoping to straighten out her son, Mrs. Chasen arranges computer dates and buys him lavish gifts, all to no avail. Glaucus: Cyril Cusack The sculptor who makes the ice statue of Maude and lends them his tools to transport the tree. Uncle Victor: Charles Tyner Harold’s uncle, who is a military general. He tries to persuade Harold to join the armed forces. Sunshine Doré: Ellen Geer An actress, who is about 20 years old. Harold’s third blind date, she lies down and “dies” beside him. Priest: Eric Christmas Maude steals his car. He also tells Harold not to marry Maude. Psychiatrist: G. Wood Candy Gulf: Judy Engles Harold’s first blind date, whom he scares off by pretending to set himself on fire. Edith Phern: Shari Summers Harold’s second blind date, whom he scares off by pretending to cut off his hand. This act is what makes Mrs. Chasen send Harold to talk to Uncle Victor about the armed forces. Motorcycle Officer: Tom Skerritt (as M. Borman) Director Hal Ashby has a cameo in the picture. Music The soundtrack is by Cat Stevens (now Yusuf Islam), and includes two songs, "Don't Be Shy" and "If You Want to Sing Out, Sing Out", that he composed specifically for the movie, and which were unavailable on vinyl for over a decade; they were eventually released in 1984 on the compilation Footsteps in the Dark. A vinyl LP soundtrack was released in Japan, although without the two songs Cat Stevens wrote for the film, and including five songs not actually in the film ("Morning Has Broken," "Wild World," "Father & Son," "Lilywhite" and "Lady D'Arbanville"). The first official soundtrack to the film was released in December 2007, by Vinyl Films Records, as a vinyl-only limited edition release of 2500 copies. It contained a 30-page oral history of the making of the film, the most extensive series of interviews yet conducted on "Harold and Maude." Track listing This is the track listing for the first official release of the soundtrack to Harold and Maude. Side one "Don't Be Shy" "On The Road To Find Out" "I Wish, I Wish" "Miles From Nowhere" "Tea for the Tillerman" "I Think I See The Light" Side two "Where Do The Children Play?" "If You Want To Sing Out, Sing Out" "If You Want To Sing Out, Sing Out (banjo version)" – previously unreleased "Trouble" "Don't Be Shy (alternate version)" – previously unreleased "If You Want To Sing Out, Sing Out (instrumental version)" – previously unreleased Bonus 7" single "Don't Be Shy (demo version)" – previously unreleased "If You Want To Sing Out, Sing Out (alternative version)" – previously unreleased References External links French tv adaptation written by Jean-Claude Carrière and dir. by Jean-Paul Carrère Photos of Harold and Maude Movie Locations As They Appear Today Guide to shoot locations Yusuf Islam introduces and sings Don't be shy: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOOPPO91t2Q | Harold_and_Maude |@lemmatized harold:80 maude:46 cult:4 classic:3 film:31 direct:1 hal:3 ashby:3 feature:3 slapstick:1 dark:2 humour:1 existentialist:1 drama:1 revolve:1 around:2 exploit:1 morbid:1 young:1 man:2 play:8 bud:6 cort:6 drift:1 away:4 life:5 detach:1 mother:17 prescribes:1 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7,336 | Collation | Collation is the assembly of written information into a standard order. One common type of collation is called alphabetisation, though collation is not limited to ordering letters of the alphabet. Collating lists of words or names into alphabetical order is the basis of most office filing systems, library catalogs and reference books. Collation differs from classification in that classification is concerned with arranging information into logical categories, while collation is concerned with the ordering of those categories. Advantages of sorted lists include: one can easily find the first n elements (e.g. the 5 smallest countries) and the last n elements (e.g. the 3 largest countries) one can easily find the elements in a given range (e.g. countries with an area between .. and .. square km) one can easily search for an element, and conclude whether it is in the list, e.g. with the binary search algorithm or interpolation search either automatically, or, roughly and perhaps unconsciously, manually. A collation algorithm, e.g. the "Unicode collation algorithm", differs from a sorting algorithm: the first is a process to define the order, which corresponds to the process of just comparing two values, while a sorting algorithm is a procedure to put a list of items in this order. Collation defines a on the set of possible items, typically by defining a total order on a . Note however that in the case of e.g. numerical sorting of strings representing numbers, the strings are only partially preordered, because e.g. 2e3 and 2000 have the same ranking, and 2 and 2.0 also. The numbers represented by the strings are totally ordered. Collation systems Numerical sorting, sorting of single characters One collation system is numerical sorting. For example, the list of numbers 4 · 17 · 3 · -5 collates to -5 · 3 · 4 · 17. While this might appear to work only for numbers, computers can use this method for any textual information since computers internally use character sets which assign a numeric code point to each letter or glyph. For example, a computer using ASCII code (or any of its supersets such as Unicode) and numerical sorting would collate the list of characters a · b · C · d · $ to $ · C · a · b · d. The numerical values that ASCII uses are $ = 36, a = 97, b = 98, C = 67, and d = 100, resulting in what is called "". This style of collation is commonly used, often with the refinement of converting uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values, since most people do not expect capitalised words to jump the head of the list. Alphabetical order A collation system for multiple-character words is alphabetical order, based on the conventional order of letters in an alphabet or abjad (most of which have a single conventional order). Each nth letter is compared with the nth letter of other words in the list, starting at the first letter of each word and advancing to the second, third, fourth, and so on, until the order is established. The order of the Latin alphabet is <center> The principle behind extending alphabetical order to words (lexicographical order) is that all words in a list beginning with the same letter should be grouped together; within a grouping starting with a single letter, all words beginning with the same two letters shall be grouped together; and so on, maximizing the number of common initial letters between adjacent words. The ordering principle is applied at the point where the letters differ. For instance, in the sequence: Astrolabe Astronomy Astrophysics The order of the words is given according to the first letter of the words that is different from the others (shown in bold). Since n follows l in the alphabet, but precedes p, Astronomy comes after Astrolabe, but before Astrophysics. There has historically been some variation in the application of these rules. For instance, the prefixes Mc and M in Irish and Scottish surnames were taken to be abbreviations for Mac, and alphabetized as if they were spelled out as Mac in full. Thus one might find in a catalog the sequence: McKinley Mackintosh with McKinley preceding Mackintosh, as if it had been spelled "MacKinley". Since the advent of computer-sorted lists, this type of alphabetization is less frequently encountered, though it is still used in British phone books. A variation in alphabetical principles applies to names consisting of two words. In some cases, names with identical first words are all alphabetized together under the first word, e.g., grouping together all names beginning with San, all those beginning with Santa, and those beginning with Santo: San San Cristobal San Juan San Teodoro San Tomas Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Santo Domingo But in another system, the names are alphabetized as if they had no spaces, e.g. as follows: San San Cristobal San Juan Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz San Teodoro Santo Domingo San Tomas The difference between computer-style numerical sorting and true alphabetical sorting becomes obvious in languages using an extended Latin alphabet. For example, the 29-letter alphabet of Spanish treats ñ as a basic letter following n, and formerly treated ch and ll as basic letters following c and l, respectively. Ch and ll are still considered letters, but are now alphabetized as two-letter combinations. (The new alphabetization rule was issued by the Royal Spanish Academy in 1994.) On the other hand, the digraph rr follows rqu as expected, both with and without the 1994 alphabetization rule. A numeric sort may order ñ incorrectly following z and treat ch as c + h, also incorrect when using pre-1994 alphabetization. Similar differences between computer numeric sorting and alphabetic sorting occur in Danish and Norwegian (aa is ordered at the end of the alphabet when it is pronounced like å, and at the start of the alphabet when it is pronounced like a), German (ß is ordered as s + s; ä, ö, ü are ordered as a + e, o + e, u + e in phone books, but as o elsewhere, and behind o in Austria), Icelandic (ð follows d), Dutch (ij is sometimes ordered as y; see IJ: Collation), English (æ is ordered as a + e), and many other languages. Usually the spaces or hyphens between words are ignored. Languages that used a syllabary or abugida instead of an alphabet (for example, Cherokee) can use approximately the same system if there is a set ordering for the symbols. Radical-and-stroke sorting Another form of collation is radical-and-stroke sorting, used for non-alphabetic writing systems such as Chinese hanzi and Japanese kanji, whose thousands of symbols defy ordering by convention. In this system, common components of characters are identified; these are called radicals in Chinese and logographic systems derived from Chinese. Characters are then grouped by their primary radical, then ordered by number of pen strokes within radicals. When there is no obvious radical or more than one radical, convention governs which is used for collation. For example, the Chinese character for "mother" (妈) is sorted as a six-stroke character under the three-stroke primary radical (女). The radical-and-stroke system is cumbersome compared to an alphabetical system in which there are a few characters, all unambiguous. The choice of which components of a logograph comprise separate radicals and which radical is primary is not clear-cut. As a result, logographic languages often supplement radical-and-stroke ordering with alphabetic sorting of a phonetic conversion of the logographs. For example, the kanji word ''Tōkyō (東京), the Japanese name of Tokyo can be sorted as if it were spelled out in the Japanese characters of the hiragana syllabary as "to-u-ki-yo-u" (とうきょう), using the conventional sorting order for these characters. Nevertheless, the radical-and-stroke system is the only practical method for constructing dictionaries that someone may use to look up a logograph whose pronunciation is unknown. In addition, in Greater China, surname stroke ordering is a convention in some official documentations where peoples' names are listed without hierarchy. Multilingual ordering When lists of names or words need to be ordered, but the context does not define a particular single language or alphabet, the Unicode Collation Algorithm provides a way to put them in sequence. Complications Conventions in typography and in sorting systems In typography and in the writing of scientific articles etc, such things as headers, sections, lists, pages etc. might use alphabetical numbering instead of numerical numbering. However, this does not always mean that the full alphabet of a particular language is used. Often alphabetical numbering—or enumeration—only uses a subset of the full alphabet. E.g. the Russian alphabet has 33 letters, but typically only 28 are used in typographical enumeration (and for instance Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian Cyrillic enumeration shows similar features). Two Russian letters, Ъ and Ь, are only used for modifying the preceding consonants—they naturally fall out. The last three could have been used, but mostly are not: Ы never begins a Russian word, Й almost never begins a word either, and it is perhaps too much alike the И—and also a relatively new character. Ё is also relatively new and much debated—sometimes in proper alphabetical sorting letters on Ё are listed under Е. (These "rules" are of course moderated, again, e.g. in phone catalogs, where foreign (non-Russian) names may frequently begin with Й or Ы.) This alludes to a simple fact: alphabets are not only tools for writing. And letters are often kept in an alphabet of a certain language even though they are not used in writing, not least because they are used in alphabetical enumeration. For instance, X, W, Z are not used in writing the Norwegian language, except in loanwords and names. Still they are kept in the Norwegian alphabet, and used in alphabetical lists. Likewise, earlier versions of the Russian alphabet contained letters which only had two purposes: they were good for writing Greek words and for using the Greek counting system in its Cyrillic form. Compound words and special characters A complication in alphabetical sorting can arise due to disagreements over how groups of words (separated compound words, names, titles, etc.) should be ordered. One rule is to remove spaces for purposes of ordering, another is to consider a space as a character that is ordered before numbers and letters (this method is consistent with ordering by ASCII or Unicode codepoint), and a third is to order a space after numbers and letters. Given the following strings to alphabetize—"catch", "cattle", "cat food"—the first rule produces "catch" "cat food" "cattle", the second "cat food" "catch" "cattle", and the third "catch" "cattle" "cat food". The first rule is used in many (but not all) dictionaries, the second in telephone directories (so that Wilson, Jim K appears with other people named Wilson, Jim and not after Wilson, Jimbo). The third rule is rarely used. A similar complication arises when special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes appear in words or names. Any of the same rules as above can be used in this case as well; however, the strict ASCII sorting no longer corresponds exactly to any of the rules. Name/surname ordering The telephone directory example sheds light on another complication. In cultures where family names are written after given names, it is usually still desired to sort by family name first. In this case, names need to be reordered to be sorted properly. For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as Hernandes, Juan and O'Leary, Brian even if they are not written this way. Capturing this rule in a computer collation algorithm is difficult, and simple attempts will necessarily fail. For example, unless the algorithm has at its disposal an extensive list of family names, there is no way to decide if "Gillian Lucille van der Waal" is "van der Waal, Gillian Lucille", "Waal, Gillian Lucille van der", or even "Lucille van der Waal, Gillian". Abbreviations and common words When abbreviations are used, it is sometimes desired to expand the abbreviations for sorting. In this case, "St. Paul" comes before "Shanghai". Obviously, to capture this behavior in a collation algorithm, we need a list of abbreviations. It may be more practical in some cases to store two sets of strings, one for sorting and one display. A similar problem arises when letters are replaced by numbers or special symbols in an irregular manner, for example 1337 for leet or the movie Se7en. In this case, proper sorting necessitates keeping two sets of strings. In certain contexts, very common words (such as articles) at the beginning of a sequence of words are not considered for ordering, or are moved to the end. So "The Shining" is considered "Shining" or "Shining, The" when alphabetizing and therefore is ordered before "Summer of Sam". This rule is fairly easy to capture in an algorithm, but many programs rely instead on simple lexicographic ordering. One fairly quaint exception to this rule is the flying of the flag of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia at the United Nations between those of Thailand and Timor Leste. Sorting of numbers Ascending order of numbers differs from alphabetical order, e.g. 11 comes alphabetically before 2. This can be fixed with leading zeros: 02 comes alphabetically before 11. See e.g. ISO 8601. Also -13 comes alphabetically after -12 although it is less. With negative numbers, to make ascending order correspond with alphabetical sorting, more drastic measures are needed such as adding a constant to all numbers to make them all positive. Numerical sorting of strings Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, "Figure 7b" goes before "Figure 11a", even though '7' comes after '1' in Unicode. This can be extended to Roman numerals. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly. For example, Windows XP does this when sorting file names. Sorting decimals properly is a bit more difficult, due to the fact that different locales use different symbols for a decimal point, and sometimes the same character used as a decimal point is also used as a separator, for example "Section 3.2.5". There is no universal answer for how to sort such strings; any rules are application dependent. Alphabetical sorting of numbers When numbers are used as names, rather than for their numerical properties, it is common to sort them alphabetically as they would be spelled. For example, the movie 1776 would be between Seve Ballesteros and Severus Snape. If a number is in a foreign term, it is alphabetized as it would be spelled in that language; for example, 24 heures du Mans would be between Vinge's Singularity and Vinh Airport, reflecting the French "vingt quatre". External links and references Unicode Collation Algorithm: Unicode Technical Standard #10 Collation in Spanish Collation of the names of the member states of the United Nations Typographical collation for many languages, as proposed in the List module of Cascading Style Sheets. Collation Charts: Charts demonstrating language-specific sorting orders in various operating systems and DBMS Tools sort The GNU implementation of the standard Unix sort utility. msort A sort program that provides an unusual level of flexibility in defining collations and extracting keys. 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7,337 | Bombardier | Bombardier may refer to: Armed forces Bombardier (rank), rank equivalent to corporal used in some artillery corps Bombardier (air force), crew member on a bomber aircraft An archaic name for artillery crewman Businesses Bombardier Inc., a large Canadian company mainly concerned with air and railway technology Bombardier Aerospace, the aircraft division Bombardier Transportation, the rail equipment division Bombardier Recreational Products, a maker of snowcats and snowmobiles Surnames Joseph Armand Bombardier (1907-1964), Canadian inventor and businessman, founder of Bombardier Denise Bombardier (born 1941), Canadian journalist Jean-Michel Bombardier (born 1970), Canadian skater Others Bombardier beetle, insect of family Carabidae Bombardier (film), 1943 film about aircrew training, starring Pat O'Brien, Randolph Scott, and June Allyson Bombardier Bitter, flagship beer of the Charles Wells brewery in England | Bombardier |@lemmatized bombardier:14 may:1 refer:1 armed:1 force:2 rank:2 equivalent:1 corporal:1 use:1 artillery:2 corp:1 air:2 crew:1 member:1 bomber:1 aircraft:2 archaic:1 name:1 crewman:1 business:1 inc:1 large:1 canadian:4 company:1 mainly:1 concern:1 railway:1 technology:1 aerospace:1 division:2 transportation:1 rail:1 equipment:1 recreational:1 product:1 maker:1 snowcats:1 snowmobile:1 surname:1 joseph:1 armand:1 inventor:1 businessman:1 founder:1 denise:1 born:2 journalist:1 jean:1 michel:1 skater:1 others:1 beetle:1 insect:1 family:1 carabidae:1 film:2 aircrew:1 training:1 star:1 pat:1 brien:1 randolph:1 scott:1 june:1 allyson:1 bitter:1 flagship:1 beer:1 charles:1 well:1 brewery:1 england:1 |@bigram jean_michel:1 pat_brien:1 june_allyson:1 |
7,338 | Javelin_throw | Javelin throw The javelin throw is a track and field athletics throwing event where the object to be thrown is the javelin, a spear approximately 2.5 meters in length. Javelin is an event of both the men's decathlon and the women's heptathlon. Rules and Competitions The size, shape, minimum weight, and center of gravity of the javelin implement itself are all defined by IAAF rules. In international competition, men throw a javelin between 2.6 and 2.7 meters in length and (at least) 800 grams in weight, and women throw a javelin between 2.2 and 2.3 meters in length and (at least) 600 grams in weight. The javelin is equipped with a grip, approximately 150 mm wide, made of cord and located at the javelin's center of gravity (0.9 to 1.06 meters or 0.8 to 0.92 meters from the tip of the javelin for men's and women's implements, respectively). Unlike the other throwing events (shotput, discus, and hammer), the technique used to throw the javelin is dictated by IAAF rules and "non-orthodox" techniques are not permitted. The javelin must be held at its grip and thrown overhand, over the athlete's shoulder or upper arm. Further, the athlete is prohibited from turning completely around such that his back faces the direction of throw. In practice, this prevents athletes from attempting to spin and hurl the javelin sidearm in the style of a discus throw. Instead of being confined to a circle, javelin throwers are provided with a runway 4 meters wide and at least 30 meters in length, ending in a curved arc from which their throw will be measured; athletes typically use this distance to gain momentum in a "run-up" to their throw. Like the other throwing events, the competitor may not leave the throwing area (the runway) until after the implement lands. The need to come to a stop behind the throwing arc limits both how close the athlete can come to the line before the release as well as the maximum speed achieved at the time of release. The javelin is thrown towards a "sector" covering an angle of 29 degrees extending outwards from the arc at the end of the runway. A throw is legal only if the tip of the javelin lands within this sector, and the tip strikes the ground before any other part of the javelin. The distance of the throw is measured from the throwing arc to the point where the tip of the javelin landed, rounded down to the nearest centimeter. Competition rules are similar to other throwing events: a round consists of one attempt by each competitor in turn, and competitions typically consist of three to six rounds. The competitor with the longest single legal throw (over all rounds) is the winner; in the case of a tie the competitors' second-longest throws are also considered. Competitions involving large numbers of athletes sometimes use a "cut": all competitors compete in the first three rounds, but only athletes who are currently among the top eight or have achieved some minimum distance are permitted to attempt to improve on their distance in additional rounds (typically three). Javelin redesigns On April 1, 1986, the men's javelin (800g, 1.76lb) was redesigned by the governing body (the IAAF Technical Committee). They decided to change the rules for javelin construction because of the increasingly frequent flat landings and the resulting discussions and protests when these attempts were declared valid or invalid by competition judges. The javelin was redesigned so that the centre of gravity was moved 4 cm forward, further away from the center of pressure (the point at which the aerodynamic forces of lift and drag act), so that the javelin had an increased downward pitching moment. This brings the nose down earlier, reducing the flight distance by around 10% but also causing the javelin to stick in the ground more consistently. In 1999, the women's javelin (600g, 1.32lb) was similarly redesigned. Modifications that manufacturers made to recover some of the lost distance, by increasing tail drag (using holes, rough paint or dimples), were outlawed at the end of 1991 and marks made using implements with such modifications removed from the record books. Matti Järvinen throwing the javelin at the 1932 Summer Olympics. History and the javelin at the Olympics The javelin throw has been part of the Summer Olympics since 1906. Although the javelin is currently used only for sport in most areas, it has a long history of use for hunting and fare. There are, for instance, numerous references to the javelin in ancient Hellenic civilization, who practised a form of javelin throwing at the ancient Olympics. Some people believe that the objective was to throw at a target rather than for distance, but this can not be determined. The javelin throw has a particularly strong tradition in the Nordic nations of Europe. Of the 66 Olympic medals that have been awarded in the event, 30 have gone to competitors from Norway, Sweden, or Finland. Finland is the only nation to have ever swept the medals, and has done so twice, in 1920 and 1932. Technique and Training Unlike other throwing events, javelin allows the competitor to build speed over a considerable distance. In addition to the core and upper body strength necessary to deliver the implement, javelin throwers benefit from the agility and athleticism typically associated with running and jumping events. Thus, the athletes share more physical characteristics with sprinters than with other, heavier throwing athletes. Traditional free-weight training is often used by javelin throwers. Metal-rod exercises and resistance band exercises can be used to train a similar action to the javelin throw to increase power and intensity. Core stability can help in the transference of physical power and force from the ground through the body to the javelin. Stretching and sprint training are used to enhance the speed of the athlete at the point of release, and subsequently, the speed of the javelin. At release, a javelin can reach speeds approaching 113 km/h (70 mph). Best year performance Men's seasons best YEARDISTANCEATHLETEPLACE197190.68Helsinki197293.80Stockholm197394.08Leverkusen197489.58Rome197591.38Budapest197694.58Montreal197794.10Stockholm197894.22Oslo197993.84Auckland198096.72Tata198192.48Berlin198295.80Stuttgart198399.72Westwood1984104.80Berlin198596.96Canberra A new model was introduced in 1986, and all records started fresh. YEARDISTANCEATHLETEPLACE198685.74Como198787.66Nitra198886.88Leverkusen198987.60San José199089.58Stockholm199189.16Potchefstroom199291.46Auckland199395.66Sheffield199491.82Sheffield199592.60Oslo199698.48 (WR)Jena199794.02Stellenbosch199890.88Tartu199993.09Kuortane200091.69Kuortane200192.80Edmonton200292.61Sheffield200390.11Dessau200487.73Ostrava200591.53Kuortane200691.59Oslo200791.29Indianapolis200890.57 (OR)Beijing Women's seasons best YEARDISTANCEATHLETEPLACE198070.08Podolsk198171.88Zagreb198274.20Hania198374.76Tampere198474.72Celje198575.40Schwerin198677.44Stuttgart198778.90Leipzig198880.00Potsdam198976.88Macerata199073.08Manaus199171.44Fana199270.36Moscow199372.12Oslo199471.40Seville199571.18Zürich199669.42Monaco199769.66Helsinki199870.10Berlin A new model was introduced in 1999 and all records started fresh. YEARDISTANCEATHLETEPLACE199968.19Fana200069.48Oslo200171.54Rethymno200267.47Munich200366.52Paris200471.53 (OR)Athens200571.70Helsinki200666.91Athens200770.20Munich200872.28 (WR)Stuttgart Top ten Men's best throwers of all time (current 1986 model) (Updated October 3, 2008) RANKMARKATHLETEPLACEDATE1.98.48Jena1996-05-252.93.09Kuortane1999-06-263.92.61Sheffield2002-06-304.92.60Oslo1995-07-215.91.69Kuortane2000-06-246.91.59Oslo2006-06-027.91.53Kuortane2005-06-268.91.46Auckland1992-01-259.91.29Indianapolis2007-06-2110.90.73Tallinn2007-07-22 Women's best throwers of all time (current 1999 model) (Updated October 3, 2008) RANKMARKATHLETEPLACEDATE1.72.28Stuttgart2008-09-132.71.70Helsinki2005-08-143.70.78Beijing2008-08-214.70.20Munich2007-06-235.69.48Oslo2000-07-286.68.34Elstal2008-08-317.67.67Salamanca2005-07-068.67.51Sydney2000-09-309.67.20Monaco2000-08-1810.66.91Erfurt1999-07-04 Notable javelin throwers Women Lillian Copeland, United States Babe Didrikson, United States Dorothy Dodson, United States Petra Felke, East Germany Ruth Fuchs, East Germany Trine Hattestad, Norway Tiina Lillak, Finland Mirela Manjani, Greece Osleidys Menéndez, Cuba Christina Obergföll, Germany Sofia Sakorafa, Greece Tessa Sanderson, Great Britain Kate Schmidt, United States Barbora Špotáková, Czech Republic Linda Stahl, Germany Fatima Whitbread, Great Britain Dana Zátopková, Czechoslovakia Men Steve Backley, Great Britain Patrik Bodén, Sweden Al Cantello, United States Egil Danielsen, Norway Konstadinós Gatsioúdis, Greece Breaux Greer, United States Bud Held, United States Uwe Hohn, GDR Arto Härkönen, Finland Matti Järvinen, Finland Tapio Korjus, Finland Dainis Kūla, Soviet Union (Latvia) Gergely Kulcsár, Hungary Eric Lemming, Sweden Jānis Lūsis, Soviet Union (Latvia) Sergey Makarov, Russia Jonni Myyrä, Finland Miklós Németh, Hungary Yrjö Nikkanen, Finland Aki Parviainen, Finland Tom Petranoff, United States Tero Pitkämäki, Finland Tapio Rautavaara, Finland Seppo Räty, Finland Steve Seymour, United States Janusz Sidło, Poland Andreas Thorkildsen, Norway Andrus Värnik, Estonia Vadims Vasiļevskis, Latvia Cyrus Young, United States Jan Železný, Czech Republic 10th IAAF World Championships in Athletics commemorative coin See also National champions Javelin (men) Javelin throwers have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €5 Finnish 10th IAAF World Championships in Athletics commemorative coin, minted in 2005 to commemorate the 2005 World Championships in Athletics. On the obverse of the coin, a javelin thrower is depicted. On the reverse, legs of hurdle runners with the Helsinki Olympic Stadium tower in the background can be seen. External links The following sites contain more information and statistics for Javelin throwing as well as for other track and field sports: (IAAF Statement) – statement of reasons to modify the javelin design World Record progression in athletics men World Record progression in athletics women Masters World Rankings IAAF competition rules | Javelin_throw |@lemmatized javelin:45 throw:30 track:2 field:2 athletics:6 event:8 object:1 spear:1 approximately:2 meter:7 length:4 men:9 decathlon:1 woman:8 heptathlon:1 rule:6 competition:7 size:1 shape:1 minimum:2 weight:4 center:3 gravity:3 implement:5 define:1 iaaf:7 international:1 least:3 gram:2 equip:1 grip:2 mm:1 wide:2 make:3 cord:1 locate:1 tip:4 respectively:1 unlike:2 shotput:1 discus:2 hammer:1 technique:3 use:10 dictate:1 non:1 orthodox:1 permit:2 must:1 hold:2 thrown:1 overhand:1 athlete:9 shoulder:1 upper:2 arm:1 far:2 prohibit:1 turn:2 completely:1 around:2 back:1 face:1 direction:1 practice:1 prevents:1 athletes:1 attempt:4 spin:1 hurl:1 sidearm:1 style:1 instead:1 confine:1 circle:1 thrower:8 provide:1 runway:3 end:3 curved:1 arc:4 measure:2 typically:4 distance:8 gain:1 momentum:1 run:2 like:1 competitor:7 may:1 leave:1 area:2 land:3 need:1 come:2 stop:1 behind:1 limit:1 close:1 line:1 release:4 well:2 maximum:1 speed:5 achieve:2 time:3 towards:1 sector:2 cover:1 angle:1 degree:1 extend:1 outwards:1 legal:2 within:1 strike:1 ground:3 part:2 point:3 round:6 near:1 centimeter:1 similar:2 consist:2 one:2 three:3 six:1 long:3 single:1 winner:1 case:1 tie:1 second:1 also:3 consider:1 involve:1 large:1 number:1 sometimes:1 cut:1 compete:1 first:1 currently:2 among:1 top:2 eight:1 improve:1 additional:1 redesigns:1 april:1 redesign:3 govern:1 body:3 technical:1 committee:1 decide:1 change:1 construction:1 increasingly:1 frequent:1 flat:1 landing:1 resulting:1 discussion:1 protest:1 declare:1 valid:1 invalid:1 judge:1 centre:1 move:1 cm:1 forward:1 away:1 pressure:1 aerodynamic:1 force:2 lift:1 drag:2 act:1 increase:3 downward:1 pitch:1 moment:1 bring:1 nose:1 earlier:1 reduce:1 flight:1 cause:1 stick:1 consistently:1 similarly:1 modification:2 manufacturer:1 recover:1 lost:1 tail:1 hole:1 rough:1 paint:1 dimple:1 outlaw:1 mark:1 remove:1 record:5 book:1 matti:2 järvinen:2 summer:2 olympics:4 history:2 since:1 although:1 sport:2 hunt:1 fare:1 instance:1 numerous:2 reference:1 ancient:2 hellenic:1 civilization:1 practise:1 form:1 people:1 believe:1 objective:1 target:1 rather:1 determine:1 particularly:1 strong:1 tradition:1 nordic:1 nation:2 europe:1 olympic:2 medal:2 award:1 go:1 norway:4 sweden:3 finland:12 ever:1 sweep:1 twice:1 training:3 allow:1 build:1 considerable:1 addition:1 core:2 strength:1 necessary:1 deliver:1 benefit:1 agility:1 athleticism:1 associate:1 jump:1 thus:1 share:1 physical:2 characteristic:1 sprinter:1 heavier:1 traditional:1 free:1 often:1 metal:1 rod:1 exercise:2 resistance:1 band:1 train:1 action:1 power:2 intensity:1 stability:1 help:1 transference:1 stretching:1 sprint:1 enhance:1 subsequently:1 reach:1 approach:1 km:1 h:1 mph:1 best:5 year:1 performance:1 season:2 new:2 model:4 introduce:2 start:2 fresh:2 wr:2 beijing:1 stuttgart:1 ten:1 current:2 updated:2 october:2 notable:1 lillian:1 copeland:1 united:10 state:10 babe:1 didrikson:1 dorothy:1 dodson:1 petra:1 felke:1 east:2 germany:4 ruth:1 fuchs:1 trine:1 hattestad:1 tiina:1 lillak:1 mirela:1 manjani:1 greece:3 osleidys:1 menéndez:1 cuba:1 christina:1 obergföll:1 sofia:1 sakorafa:1 tessa:1 sanderson:1 great:3 britain:3 kate:1 schmidt:1 barbora:1 špotáková:1 czech:2 republic:2 linda:1 stahl:1 fatima:1 whitbread:1 dana:1 zátopková:1 czechoslovakia:1 steve:2 backley:1 patrik:1 bodén:1 al:1 cantello:1 egil:1 danielsen:1 konstadinós:1 gatsioúdis:1 breaux:1 greer:1 bud:1 uwe:1 hohn:1 gdr:1 arto:1 härkönen:1 tapio:2 korjus:1 dainis:1 kūla:1 soviet:2 union:2 latvia:3 gergely:1 kulcsár:1 hungary:2 eric:1 lemming:1 jānis:1 lūsis:1 sergey:1 makarov:1 russia:1 jonni:1 myyrä:1 miklós:1 németh:1 yrjö:1 nikkanen:1 aki:1 parviainen:1 tom:1 petranoff:1 tero:1 pitkämäki:1 rautavaara:1 seppo:1 räty:1 seymour:1 janusz:1 sidło:1 poland:1 andreas:1 thorkildsen:1 andrus:1 värnik:1 estonia:1 vadims:1 vasiļevskis:1 cyrus:1 young:1 jan:1 železný:1 world:6 championship:3 commemorative:2 coin:4 see:2 national:1 champion:1 select:1 main:1 motif:1 collector:1 recent:1 sample:1 finnish:1 mint:1 commemorate:1 obverse:1 depict:1 reverse:1 leg:1 hurdle:1 runner:1 helsinki:1 stadium:1 tower:1 background:1 external:1 link:1 following:1 site:1 contain:1 information:1 statistic:1 throwing:1 statement:2 reason:1 modify:1 design:1 progression:2 master:1 rank:1 |@bigram javelin_throw:7 throw_javelin:6 discus_throw:1 javelin_thrower:6 summer_olympics:2 h_mph:1 czech_republic:2 soviet_union:2 commemorative_coin:2 coin_mint:1 obverse_coin:1 external_link:1 |
7,339 | Homosexual_behavior_and_Judaism | The subject of homosexuality in Judaism dates back to the Biblical book of Leviticus. This describes sexual intercourse between males as an "abomination" that may be subject to capital punishment, although Halakhic courts are not authorized to administer capital punishment in the absence of a Temple in Jerusalem. The issue has been a subject of contention within modern Jewish denominations and has led to debate and division. The prevalent view among Jews had been to regard homosexual intercourse as sinful, arguing that it is categorically forbidden by the Torah. This remains the current view of Orthodox Judaism, but not of Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism. Conservative Judaism's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, which until December 2006 held the same position as Orthodoxy, recently issued multiple opinions under its philosophy of pluralism, with one opinion continuing to follow the Orthodox position and another opinion substantially liberalizing its view of homosexuals and homosexual relationships while continuing to regard certain sexual acts as prohibited. Homosexuality in the Hebrew Bible The Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, reflects the Judaism of ancient Israel and serves as the primary source for traditional Jewish views on homosexuality. The Torah prohibits men from having sex with other men. It states: "You shall not lie with a male as one lies with a woman; it is a to'evah" (Leviticus 18:22). (וְאֶת זָכָר לֹא תִשְׁכַּב מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה תּוֹעֵבָה הִוא) Leviticus 20:13 further states: "A man who lies with a male as one lies with a woman; the two of them have done a to'evah; they shall be put to death; their bloodguilt is upon them." (וְאִישׁ אֲשֶׁר יִשְׁכַּב אֶת זָכָר מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה תּוֹעֵבָה עָשׂוּ שְׁנֵיהֶם מוֹת יוּמָתוּ דְּמֵיהֶם בָּם) The term to'eva is usually translated as "abomination" and is used in the Bible to refer to a variety of forbidden acts including incest, idolatry, eating unclean animals, and economic injustice. In the context of sexual prohibitions, the word is also interpreted by the Talmud to be a contraction of the words תועה אתה בה to'eh ata vah ("You are wandering astray with it"). Preceding this it states in Leviticus 18:3, "What is done in the land of Egypt, wherein you were settled, you are not to do; what is done in the land of Canaan, to which I am bringing you, you are not to do; by their laws you are not to walk". Rabbis later interpreted that as prohibiting lesbianism as well (see below). In Samuel (I and II), the Biblical text described the relation between David and Jonathan in terms of love, comparing it to the love between man and woman. Some modern scholars have ascribed sexual significance to these passages, Peleg, Yaron. "Love at First Sight? David, Jonathan, and the Biblical Politics of Gender" Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 30:171-189, 2005. See also sources cited by Peleg, who argues that "the text sexualizes the relations between Jonathan and David, and then destabilizes these relations until it finally reverses them to portray Jonathan as David’s ‘female bride’." Peleg does not describe the relationship as homosexual, in contrast to several other Biblical scholars who consider it at least homoerotic. while traditional interpretations overwhelmingly reject any such interpretation. For example, after David killed Goliath and spoke with Saul, the Bible relates: Jonathan's soul became bound to David's soul, and Jonathan loved him as [he loved] his own soul. Saul took him that day and did not allow him to return home. Jonathan and David made a covenant because he loved him as [much as] himself. Jonathan removed the coat that was on him and gave it to David, and his suit and even his sword and even his bow and even his belt. David went wherever Saul sent him, and would be successful. Saul put him in charge of the soldiers. He was good in the eyes of the entire nation and in the eyes of the Saul's ministers. Even though Jonathan was the crown prince, he was able to allow David to assume authority that was rightfully his own because of his great love for him. On Jonathan's passing King David eulogized him: "I have great pain over you, my brother Jonathan, you were very pleasant to me, your love for me was more wondrous than the love of women." (II Samuel 1:26) The sensual connotation seen here by certain modern authors is countered by the observation that "stripped himself...even to his sword, and to his bow, and to his girdle" may best indicate a limit, that of his outer garments and ending with “girdle, which means armor in . And that this had a clear ceremonial precedent under Moses, in which God commanded, "And strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son", () in transference of the office of the former upon the latter. In like manner, Jonathan would be symbolically and prophetically transferring the kingship of himself (as the normal heir) to David, which would come to pass. It is also known that strong emotive language was normal in Ancient Near Eastern societies in describing their relationships, and in platonic respects, such as sacrificial loyalty and zeal for the kingdom, Jonathan's love surpassed that of the women David had known. http://www.robgagnon.net/NewsweekMillerHomosexResp.htm Prof. Dr. Robert A. J. Gagnon There is, however, no evidence that Biblical passages about the relationship between David and Jonathan, or the sexual significance some modern academic scholars have ascribed to it, influenced either historical or contemporary Jewish views on the subject of homosexuality, or were thought of as having a homoerotic character in Jewish religious thought. Rabbinic Jewish application and interpretation of these verses Death penalty not carried out in practice Rabbinic Judaism does not believe that the above verses refer to what is nowadays described as a homosexual inclination, nor do these verses refer to lesbian sexual activity. Instead, these verses specifically refer to a willing act of anal sex between two male Jews. According to Rabbinic interpretation understands the Torah prohibition of Lo tikrevu legalot ervah ("You shall not come close [to another person] to uncover nakedness") to forbid all sexual acts which can lead to forbidden intercourse, and prescribes the punishment of lashes. But according to , this verse is not written in conjunction with Homosexuality, rather it is referring to the forbidden incest marriages. The major sources of Halacha (Jewish law) such as the Rambam (Maimonides) and the Shulchan Aruch (Code of Jewish Law) only quote that law in reference to the forbidden family marriages. However, even in Biblical times, it was very difficult to get a conviction that would lead to this prescribed punishment. The Jewish oral law states that capital punishment would only be applicable if two men were caught in the act of anal sex, if there were two witnesses to the act, if the two witnesses warned the men involved that they committed a capital offense, and the two men subsequently acknowledged the warning, but proceeded to engage in the prohibited act anyway. As such, it is not surprising that there is no account of capital punishment, in regards to this law, in Jewish history. In any case, rabbinic tradition understand the Torah's system of capital punishment not to be in effect in the absence of a Sanhedrin and Temple. However, the severity of the punishment may indicate the seriousness with which the act was seen in Biblical times. Lesbian sexual activity Although there is no direct textual prohibition of homosexual acts between women (lesbianism) in the entirety of the Torah, such behaviour is widely viewed as forbidden by most rabbis based on a Drash interpretation of the Biblical verse "Do not follow the ways of Egypt where you once lived, nor of Canaan, where I will be bringing you. Do not follow any of their customs." (Leviticus 18:3). A midrash, Sifra Aharei Mot 8:8–9, states that this refers to sexual customs, and that one of those customs was the marriage of women to each other, as well as a man to a woman and to her daughter. Maimonides, in his Mishneh Torah, summarizes the matter as follows: Issurei Bi'ah 21:8–9 For women to be mesollelot with one another is forbidden, as this is the practice of Egypt, which we were warned against: "Like the practice of the land of Egypt . . . you shall not do" (Leviticus 18:3). The Sages said [in the midrash of Sifra Aharei Mot 8:8–9], "What did they do? A man married a man, and a woman married a woman, and a woman married two men." Even though this practice is forbidden, one is not lashed [as for a Torah prohibition] on account of it, since there is no specific prohibition against it, and there is no real intercourse. Therefore, [one who does this] is not forbidden to the priesthood because of harlotry, and a woman is not prohibited to her husband by this, since it is not harlotry. But it is appropriate to administer to them lashings of rebellion [i.e., those given for violation of rabbinic prohibitions], since they did something forbidden. And a man should be strict with his wife in this matter, and should prevent women known to do this from coming to her or from her going to them. Classical rabbinic Jewish sources do not specifically mention that homosexual attraction is inherently sinful (though it is regarded as unnatural). However, someone who has had homosexual intercourse is seen to have allowed their "unnatural attractions" to get the better of them, and it is thus believed that they would be held accountable by God for their actions. If he does teshuva (repentance), i.e. he ceases his forbidden actions, regrets what he has done, apologizes to God, and makes a binding resolution never to repeat those actions, he is seen to be forgiven by God (in a similar manner to the other capital crimes, excepting murder). Homosexual Marriage in Midrash The Midrash is one of the few ancient religious texts that makes reference to Homosexual marriage. The following teaching can be found twice in the Midrash: "Rabbi Huna said in the name of Rabbi Joseph, 'The generation of the Flood was not wiped out until they wrote marriage documents for the union of a man to a male or to an animal.'" Genesis Rabbah 26:5; Leviticus Rabbah 23:9 Teachings of Kabbalah Hasidic Judaism views homosexuality as a grave sin. Accepting Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, as normative, it believes that heterosexual intercourse is a holy act, because it has the potential to lead to new life, and because heterosexual sex mimics the mechanism through which God created the universe. When a male and a female perform this act, they evoke creative spiritual energies, similar to ones that were used to create the Universe. This creation mechanism involved two opposite partners (male and female aspects of Divinity known as Zachar and Nehkayvah [pronounced n-kAy-vah]), a source of life-force and a recipient of it. The sexual act which evokes the male creative energy on the male side must, therefore, also involve evocation of female creative energies, even if the specific act will not lead to birth in the physical reality. If it is done properly, it results in one of the holiest activities in a Jew's life. Therefore, a homosexual act is wrong not because it does not result in a birth (in Judaism, a sexual act that does not result in a birth is not forbidden, such as when the wife is pregnant, barren, or using contraceptives), but because it invokes holy spiritual forces which are then used in an unnatural way (from the Creation's point of view), between two partners that are of the same sex. Therefore, only male homosexuality (which involves the intercourse) is Biblically forbidden; female homosexuality is forbidden for different reasons and in general is much less serious sin. (As a matter of fact, the exact same explanation can be used to explain Kabbalistic view of masturbation and why it is forbidden). Orthodox Jewish views While a variety of views regarding homosexuality as an inclination or status exist within the Orthodox Jewish community, Orthodox Judaism generally prohibits homosexual conduct. While there is disagreement about which acts come under core prohibitions, all of Orthodox Judaism puts certain core homosexual acts, including male-male anal sex in the category of yehareg ve'al ya'avor, "die rather than transgress", the small category of Biblically-prohibited acts (also including murder, idolatry, adultery, and incest) which an Orthodox Jew is obligated under the laws of Self-sacrifice under Jewish Law to die rather than do. According to Rabbi Dr. Norman Lamm, former president of Yeshiva University, halakha prohibits homosexuality to non-Jews as well as to Jews. http://www.jonahweb.org/cms/e/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=78&Itemid=42 Haredi Orthodox view Rabbi Benjamin Hecht writes that some Orthodox rabbis view homosexuality as a deliberate rebellion against God. Rav Moshe Feinstein, in Iggrot Moshe, Orach Chaim, Part 4, Responsa 115, adopted a very strong position against homosexuality. Human drives are necessary although they must be controlled. Since there is no purpose for the homosexual drive, Rav Moshe contends, it must not be a true drive. Therefore, the underlying reason for gay behavior, he argues, must be to rebel against G-d, to wish to do something forbidden (perhaps, implying some innate knowledge of its forbidden nature). Nishma Uodated June 1992. Inquiry with Rabbi Benjamin Hecht Homosexuality: Is There a Unique Torah Perspective? http://www.nishma.org/topics/ethics/sexuality/update_92-06.html Modern Orthodox view In recent years some within Modern Orthodox Judaism have begun re-evaluating homosexuality as a phenomenon, and the Orthodox community's response to homosexual Jews. Traditionally, homosexuals have been considered to have chosen to engage in homosexual actions in order to spite God (le-hach'is) or to be perverse. Beginning in the 1970s and influenced by new perspectives in the sociological and biological sciences, some Orthodox rabbis began to adopt less unsympathetic positions. Rabbi Dr. Immanuel Jakobovits, in his entry Homosexuality in the Encyclopedia Judaica (Keter Publishing), describes the traditional opinion in this way: Jewish law [...] rejects the view that homosexuality is to be regarded merely as a disease or as morally neutral.... Jewish law holds that no hedonistic ethic, even if called "love", can justify the morality of homosexuality any more than it can legitimize adultery or incest, however genuinely such acts may be performed out of love and by mutual consent. Rabbi Norman Lamm (the Chancellor, a rosh yeshiva ["head of the yeshiva"], and former president of Yeshiva University, a major Modern Orthodox Jewish institution) advocated "Judaism and the Modern Attitude to Homosexuality" that some (although not all) homosexuals should be viewed as diseased and in need of compassion and treatment, rather than willful rebels who should be ostracized. He distinguishes between six varieties of homosexuals, including "genuine homosexuals" who have "strong preferential erotic feelings for members of the same sex", "transitory" and "situational" homosexuals who would prefer heterosexual intercourse but are denied it or seek gain in homosexuality, and heterosexuals who are merely curious. Lamm explains: Clearly, genuine homosexuality experienced under duress (Hebrew: ones) most obviously lends itself to being termed pathological especially where dysfunction appears in other aspects of personality. Opportunistic homosexuality, ideological homosexuality, and transitory adult homosexuality are at the other end of the spectrum, and appear most reprehensible.... Where the category of mental illness does apply, the act itself remains to´evah (an abomination), but the fact of illness lays upon us the obligation of pastoral compassion, psychological understanding, and social sympathy. In these sense, homosexuality is no different from any other social or anti-halakhic act ... An example of a criminal act that is treated with compassion by the Halakhah, which in practice considers the act pathological rather than criminal, is suicide.... in the course of time, the tendency has been to remove the stigma from the suicide on the basis of mental disease.... The suicide analogy should not, of course, lead one to conclude that there are grounds for a blanket exculpation of homosexuality as mental illness.... people do not ordinarily propose that suicide be considered an acceptable and legitimate alternative to the rigors of daily life. No sane and moral person sits passively and watches a fellow man attempt suicide because he "understands" him and because it has been decided that suicide is a "morally neutral" act. By the same token, in orienting ourselves to certain types of homosexuals as patients rather than criminals, we do not condone the act but attempt to help the homosexual. Under no circumstances can Judaism suffer homosexuality to become respectable. When an Orthodox Rabbi, Steven Greenberg, publicly announced that he was homosexual, there was a significant response from rabbis of all denominations reported in the Jewish newspapers. Rabbi Moshe Tendler, a leading rabbi at Yeshiva University, stated "It is very sad that an individual who attended our yeshiva sunk to the depths of what we consider a depraved society," Tendler said that Rabbi Greenberg's announcement is "the exact same as if he said, 'I'm an Orthodox Rabbi and I eat ham sandwiches on Yom Kippur.' What you are is a Reform Rabbi." Rabbi Ordained by Yeshiva University Announces He is Gay. Israel Wire, May 18, 1999 21:01. http://www.israelwire.com/New/990518/99051844.html Sandi Simcha Dubowski's movie Trembling Before G-d (2001) documented the experiences of several homosexual Modern Orthodox and Haredi Jews. No Haredi Orthodox group spoke out in favor of the film. The spokesperson for Agudath Israel of America, Rabbi Avi Shafran, attacked the film with an article "Dissembling Before G-d", maintaining that gay people can be cured through therapy, and that the movie is meant to promote homosexuality: Unfortunately, though, "Trembling" seems to have other intents as well. While it never baldly advocates the case for broader societal acceptance of homosexuality or for the abandonment of elements of the Jewish religious tradition, those causes are subtly evident in the stark, simplistic picture the film presents of sincere, conflicted and victimized men and women confronted by a largely stern and stubborn cadre of rabbis. That picture is both incomplete and distorted. For starters, the film refuses to even allow for the possibility that men and women with homosexual predilections might - with great effort, to be sure - achieve successful and happy marriages to members of the opposite sex. Dissembling Before G_d, editorial, Avi Shafran http://www.tremblingbeforeg-d.com/react/agudath.html Ex-gay organizations JONAH is a Jewish ex-gay organization that focuses on "prevention, intervention, and healing of the underlying issues causing same-sex attractions." [ http://www.jonahweb.org JONAH'S Mission Statement] Retrieved April 6, 2007 It is an international organization, with the majority of its membership in the United States, Israel, Canada and Europe. News from JONAH It uses a variety of psycho-educational methods, including live support group meetings, E-mail list-serv groups, networking, therapy referrals, experiential weekend programs. http://www.pathinfo.org/orgs.htm Retrieved April 6, 2006 Atzat Nefesh is based in Israel and addresses people with a variety of sexual problems. It operates a hotline and several support groups in Israel, and purports to successfully change the sexual orientation of LGB people. [ http://www.atzat-nefesh.org Atzat Nefash] Retrieved April 6, 2006 Other viewpoints "Compassion, sympathy, empathy, understanding - these are essential elements of Judaism. They are what homosexual Jews who care about Judaism need from us today." Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth (United Kingdom) Chaim Rapoport has written Judaism and Homosexuality: An Authentic Orthodox View, he is Rabbi of London's Ilford United Synagogue and a member of the cabinet of the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom. Edah, a defunct modern Orthodox advocacy group, has decided to hold public meetings on this topic for the Orthodox Jewish community. Sandi Simcha Dubowski's movie Trembling Before G-d (2001) documented the struggles of homosexual Orthodox Jews with traditional rejection of homosexuality. The documentary was shown by several modern Orthodox synagogues and stimulated debate on whether greater acceptance of homosexuality is possible within Orthodoxy. Steven Greenberg identifies himself as a gay Orthodox rabbi; he has been a source of controversy both within Orthodoxy and among gay and lesbian Jews. For example, in 2005, Greenberg visited South Africa where he received a negative reception from many religious leaders including the Chief Rabbi of South Africa Warren Goldstein Both in the United States and in Israel, several groups have sprung up in the last few years that seek to support those who identify as both Orthodox and homosexual and to promote understanding of homosexuality within Orthodox communities and among Orthodox rabbis. These include the Gay and Lesbian Yeshiva Day School Alumni Association , the women's group OrthoDykes , the youth group JQYouth , and the Israeli group Hod ("Majesty") . Conservative/Masorti Judaism As a matter of both Jewish law and institutional policy, Conservative Judaism has wrestled with homosexuality issues since the 1980s. In Conservative Judaism, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) of the Rabbinical Assembly makes the movement's decisions concerning Jewish law. In 1992, the CJLS action affirmed its traditional prohibition on homosexual conduct, blessing homosexual unions, and ordaining openly homosexual clergy. However, these prohibitions grew increasingly controversial within the Conservative movement. In 2006, the CJLS shifted its position and paved the way for significant changes regarding the Conservative movement's policies toward homosexuality. On December 6, 2006, The CJLS adopted three distinct responsa reflecting very different approaches to the subject. One responsum substantially liberalized Conservative Judaism's approach including lifting most (but not all) classical prohibitions on homosexual conduct and permitted the blessing of homosexual unions and the ordination of gay clergy. Two others completely retained traditional prohibitions. Under the rules of the Conservative movement, the adoption of multiple opinions permits individual Conservative rabbis, congregations, and rabbinical schools to select which opinion to accept, and hence to choose individually whether to maintain a traditional prohibition on homosexual conduct, or to permit gay unions and clergy. The liberalizing responsum, adopted as a majority opinion by 13 of 25 votes, was authored by Rabbis Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel Nevins, and Avram Reisner. It lifted most restrictions on homosexual conduct and opened the way to the ordination of openly gay and lesbian rabbis and acceptance of homosexual unions, but stopped short of religiously recognizing gay marriage. The responsum invoked the Talmudic principle of kavod habriyot, which the authors translated as "human dignity", as authority for this approach. The responsum maintained a prohibition on male-male anal sex, which it described as the sole Biblically prohibited homosexual act. This act remains a yehareg ve'al ya'avor ("die rather than transgress" offense) under the decision. Elliott N. Dorff, Daniel Nevins, and Avram Reisner. Homosexuality, Human Dignity, and Halakha. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006 Two traditionalist responsa were adopted. A responsum by Rabbi Joel Roth , adopted as a majority opinion by 13 votes, reaffirmed a general complete prohibition on homosexual conduct. A second responsum by Rabbi Leonard Levy, adopted as a minority opinion by 6 votes, maintained that homosexuality is potentially curable and encouraged people with homosexual inclinations interested in living as religious Jews to seek treatment. The Committee rejected a fourth paper by Gordon Tucker which would have lifted all restrictions on homosexual sexual practices. The consequences of the decision have been mixed. On the one hand, four members of the Committee, Rabbis Joel Roth, Leonard Levy, Mayer Rabinowitz, and Joseph Prouser, resigned from the CJLS following adoption of the change. Rabbi Joel Roth, "Op-Ed: Law committee in its gay ruling stepped outside halachic framework", JTS News, December 10, 2006 On the other hand, the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies of the University of Judaism (now the American Jewish University) in Los Angeles had previously stated that it will immediately begin admitting gay and lesbian students as soon as the law committee passes a policy that sanctions gay ordination "Conservative Panel Votes To Permit Gay Rabbis", The Jewish Daily Forward", December 7, 2006]</ref>. On March 26, 2007, the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York followed suit and began accepting openly homosexual candidates for admission for their Rabbinical program “Chancellor-elect Eisen’s Letter to the Community,” The Jewish Theological Seminary, 26 March 2007. . Meanwhile, Masorti synagogues in Europe and Israel, which have historically been somewhat more traditional than the American movement, continue to maintain a complete ban on homosexual conduct, clergy, and unions. As such, most Conservative rabbis outside the USA are exercising their authority as local rabbinic authorities (mara d'atra) to reject the more liberal responsa. The head of the Israeli Masorti movement's Vaad Halakha (equivalent to the CJLS), Rabbi David Golinkin, wrote the CJLS protesting its reconsideration of the traditional ban on homosexual conduct. <ref>[http://www.uscj.org/images/prouser.pdf Rabbi Joseph Prouser, The Conservative Movement and Homosexuality: Settled Law in Unsettling Times" . The Masorti movements in Argentina, Hungary, and the United Kingdom have indicated that they will not admit or ordain homosexual rabbinical students. "Overseas Seminaries Set To Reject Gay Ordination: Canadian Rabbis Mull Forming Separate Wing of Movement" The Jewish Daily Forward, December 15, 2006 The Masorti Movement's Israeli seminar also rejected a change in its view of the status of homosexual conduct, stating that "Jewish law has traditionally prohibited homosexuality." "No gay ordinations in conservative seminar", Y-net News, March 28, 2007 Rabbi Bradley Artson, Dean of the Rabbinic School at American Jewish University claims to have studied every reference he could find to homosexual activity mentioned in ancient Greek and Latin writers. Every citation he found described an encounter between males where one party, the master, physically abused another, the slave. Rabbi Artson could not find a single example where one partner was not subservient to the other. "Homosexual relationships today," Rabbi Artson says, "should not be compared to the ancient world. I know too many homosexual individuals, including close friends and relatives, who are committed to one another in loving long-term monogamous relationships. I know too many same-sex couples that are loving parents raising good descent ethical children. Who's to say their family relationships are less sanctified in the eyes of God than mine is with my wife and our children?" Reform Judaism The Reform Judaism movement, the largest branch of Judaism in North America, has rejected the traditional view of Jewish Law on this issue. As such, they do not prohibit ordination of gays and lesbians as rabbis and cantors. They view Levitical laws as sometimes seen to be referring to prostitution, making it a stand against Jews adopting the idolatrous fertility cults and practices of the neighbouring Canaanite nations rather than a blanket condemnation of same-sex intercourse or homosexuality. Reform authorities consider that, in light of what is seen as current scientific evidence about the nature of homosexuality as a biological sexual orientation, a new interpretation of the law is required. In the late 1980s the primary seminary of the Reform movement, Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, changed its admission requirements to allow gays to join the student body. In 1990 the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) officially endorsed a report of their committee on homosexuality and rabbis. They concluded that "all rabbis, regardless of sexual orientation, be accorded the opportunity to fulfill the sacred vocation that they have chosen" and that "all Jews are religiously equal regardless of their sexual orientation." In 1996 CCAR passed a resolution of civil marriage. However, this same resolution made a distinction between civil marriages and religious marriages; this resolution thus stated: However we may understand homosexuality, whether as an illness, as a genetically based dysfunction or as a sexual preference and lifestyle - we cannot accommodate the relationship of two homosexuals as a "marriage" within the context of Judaism, for none of the elements of qiddushin (sanctification) normally associated with marriage can be invoked for this relationship. The Central Conference of American Rabbis support the right of gay and lesbian couples to share fully and equally in the rights of civil marriage, and That the CCAR oppose governmental efforts to ban gay and lesbian marriage. That this is a matter of civil law, and is separate from the question of rabbinic officiation at such marriages. In 1998, an ad hoc CCAR committee on Human Sexuality issued its majority report (11 to 1, 1 abstention) which stated that the holiness within a Jewish marriage "may be present in committed same gender relationships between two Jews and that these relationships can serve as the foundation of stable Jewish families, thus adding strength to the Jewish community." The report called for CCAR to support rabbis in officiating at gay marriages. Also in 1998, the Responsa Committee of the CCAR issued a lengthy teshuvah (rabbinical opinion) that offered detailed argumentation in support of both sides of the question whether a rabbi may officiate at a commitment ceremony for a same-sex couple. In March 2000 CCAR issued a new resolution stating that "We do hereby resolve that, that the relationship of a Jewish, same gender couple is worthy of affirmation through appropriate Jewish ritual, and further resolved, that we recognize the diversity of opinions within our ranks on this issue. We support the decision of those who choose to officiate at rituals of union for same-sex couples, and we support the decision of those who do not." To promote inclusion of LGBT members and clergy, the Reform movement established the Institute for Judaism and Sexual Orientation at Hebrew Union College. The IJSO offers educational programs and makes available copies of Reform responsa and policies on homosexuality. Reconstructionist Judaism The Reconstructionist movement sees homosexuality as a normative expression of sexuality and welcomes gays and lesbians into Reconstructionist communities to participate fully in every aspect of community life. Since 1985, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College has admitted gay and lesbian candidates for their rabbinical and cantorial programs. In 1993, a movement Commission issued: Homosexuality and Judaism: The Reconstructionist Position. [http://www.jrf.org/rt/transformation.html "Becoming a "Kehillah Mekabelet": The Struggles of Transformation"] by Roberta Israeloff The Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association (RRA) encourages its members to officiate at homosexual marriages/commitment ceremonies, though the RRA does not require its members to officiate at them. In 2007, the RRA elected as president Toba Spitzer, the first openly gay or lesbian leader of a rabbinic association. See also List of LGBT Jews LGBT rights in Israel Barney Frank Jews Offering New Alternatives to Homosexuality Hod Atzat Nefesh Keshet Rabbis Say Amen- A documentary about a gay man coming out to his Orthodox family Keep Not Silent: A documentary about Orthodox Jewish lesbians. Trembling Before G-d: A documentary film about Gay and Lesbian Orthodox Jews Touro University Gay-Straight Alliance: The GLBT student group for the largest Jewish sponsored university in the world. Notes Sources Alpert, Rebecca, Like Bread on a Seder Plate: Jewish Lesbians and the Transformation of Tradition Columbia University Press, New York, 1997. Marc Angel, Hillel Goldberg, and Pinchas Stolper, "Homosexuality and the Orthodox Jewish Community" Jewish Action 53:2 p.54 (1992). Balka, Chistie and Rose Andy Twice Blessed: on Being Lesbian or Gay and Jewish Boston: Beacon Press, 1989. J. David Bleich. "Homosexuality" in Judaism and Healing KTAV, 1981 Boyarin, Itzkovitz, Pellegrini, eds. Queer theory and the Jewish question, Columbia Univ Press, 2003 Michael Broyde, "Jews, Public Policy and Civil Rights: A Religious Jewish Perspective" at jlaw.com Cohen, Uri C. "Bibliography of Contemporary Orthodox Jewish Responses to Homosexuality" ATID, Jerusalem. .pdf online Rabbi Moshe Feinstein. Igrot Moshe OH 4:115, 1 Adar I, 5736 Greenberg, Steven, Wrestling with God and Men: Homosexuality in the Jewish Tradition. University of Wisconsin Press, 2004. ISBN 0-299-19090-0 _______. (Under pseudonym Yaakov Levado). Gayness and God, Tikkun magazine, 1993. Kahn, Yoel H. "Judaism and Homosexuality: The Traditionalist/Progressive Debate" in Homosexuality and Religion, Richard Hasbany, ed. Haworth Press, 1989 Jewish Reconstruction Federation & RRA, Homosexuality and Judaism: The Reconstructionist Position, The Reconstructionist Press, 1993 Unterman, Alan. "Judaism and Homosexuality: Some Orthodox Perspectives" in Jewish Explorations of Sexuality, Jonathan Magonet, ed. External links Homosexuality and Judaism: Synthesis or Impasse?by Rabbi Brad Artson Havruta website - the religious group Jewish Mosaic: The National Center for Sexual and Gender Diversity Letter to a homosexual baal teshuva, by Rabbi Aharon Feldman Gay life in Israel Homosexuality in Orthodox Judaism Rabbi Dr Nachum Amsel (PDF) Rabbi Danny Nevins, Living Law: A Journal of the CJLS Vote on Homosexuality and Halakhah, 16 Kislev 5767 / December 7, 2006 JONAH non-profit organization for educating about the prevention, intervention, and healing of the underlying issues causing same-sex attractions Reform's position on homosexuality Does Judaism accept same-sex behavior? Judaism, Nature and Homosexuality FAQ on homosexual Jews Bat-kol - Religious Lesbian Organization OrthoDykes For Orthodox Jewish lesbians Frum Gay Jews - a website about homosexual Orthodox Jews Feygelah - organization for queer Jews in Montreal Trembling Before G-d - official documentary website Hineini: Coming Out in a Jewish High School - official documentary website Shmuely Boteach's view of homosexuality | Homosexual_behavior_and_Judaism |@lemmatized subject:5 homosexuality:60 judaism:37 date:1 back:1 biblical:8 book:2 leviticus:7 describe:8 sexual:20 intercourse:9 male:15 abomination:3 may:8 capital:7 punishment:8 although:4 halakhic:2 court:1 authorize:1 administer:2 absence:2 temple:2 jerusalem:2 issue:11 contention:1 within:10 modern:11 jewish:55 denomination:2 lead:7 debate:3 division:1 prevalent:1 view:22 among:3 jew:23 regard:7 homosexual:54 sinful:2 argue:3 categorically:1 forbid:4 torah:9 remain:3 current:2 orthodox:36 reconstructionist:9 reform:9 conservative:13 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7,340 | Economy_of_the_Bahamas | The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Steady growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences had led to solid GDP growth in recent years, but the slowdown in the US economy and the attacks of 11 September 2001 held back growth in these sectors in 2001-03. Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for about 15% of GDP. However, since December 2000, when the government enacted new regulations on the financial sector, many international businesses have left The Bahamas. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run rest heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector, which depends on growth in the US, the source of more than 80% of the visitors. In addition to tourism and banking, the government supports the development of a "third pillar", e-commerce. Basic Ingredients of the Bahamian Economy The Bahamian economy is almost entirely dependent on tourism and financial services to generate foreign exchange earnings. Tourism alone provides an estimated 60% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about half the Bahamian work force. In 2004, over 5 million tourists visited The Bahamas, most of whom are from the United States. A major contribution to the recent growth in the overall Bahamian economy is Kerzner International's Atlantis Resort and Casino, which took over the former Paradise Island Resort and has provided a much needed boost to the economy. In addition, the opening of Breezes Super Club and Sandals Resort also aided this turnaround. The Bahamian Government also has adopted a proactive approach to courting foreign investors and has conducted major investment missions to the Far East, Europe, Latin America, and Canada. The primary purpose of the trips was to restore the reputation of The Bahamas in these markets. Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for up to 15% of GDP, due to the country's status as a tax haven and offshore banking center. As of December 1998, the government had licensed 418 banks and trust companies in The Bahamas. The Bahamas promulgated the International Business Companies (IBC) Act in January 1990 to enhance the country's status as a leading financial center. The act served to simplify and reduce the cost of incorporating offshore companies in The Bahamas. Within 9 years, more than 84,000 IBC-type companies had been established. In February 1991, the government also legalized the establishment of Asset Protection Trusts in The Bahamas. In December 2000, partly as a response to appearing the plenary FATF Blacklist, the government enacted a legislative package to better regulate the financial sector, including creation of a Financial Intelligence Unit and enforcement of "know-your-customer" rules. Other initiatives include the enactment of the Foundations Act in 2004 and the planned introduction of legislation to regulate Private Trust Companies. Agriculture and fisheries industry together account for 5% of GDP. The Bahamas exports lobster and some fish but does not raise these items commercially. There is no largescale agriculture, and most agricultural products are consumed domestically. The Bahamas imports more than $250 million in foodstuffs per year, representing about 80% of its food consumption. The government aims to expand food production to reduce imports and generate foreign exchange. It actively seeks foreign investment aimed at increasing agricultural exports, particularly specialty food items. The government officially lists beef and pork production and processing, fruits and nuts, dairy production, winter vegetables, and mariculture (shrimp farming) as the areas in which it wishes to encourage foreign investment. The Bahamian Government maintains the value of the Bahamian dollar on a par with the U.S. dollar. The Bahamas is a beneficiary of the U.S.-Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA), Canada's CARIBCAN program, and the European Union's Lome IV Agreement. Although the Bahamas participates in the political aspects of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), it has not entered into joint economic initiatives with other Caribbean states. The Bahamas has a few notable industrial firms: the Freeport pharmaceutical firm, PFC Bahamas (formerly Syntex), which recently streamlined its production and was purchased by the Swiss pharmaceutical firm Roche; the BORCO oil facility, also in Freeport, which transships oil in the region; the Commonwealth Brewery in Nassau, which produces Heineken, Guinness, and Kalik beers; and Bacardi Corp., which distills rum in Nassau for shipment to the U.S. and European markets. Other industries include sun-dried sea salt in Great Inagua, a wet dock facility in Freeport for repair of cruise ships, and mining of aragonite--a type of limestone with several industrial uses-- from the sea floor at Ocean Cay. The Hawksbill Creek Agreement established a duty-free zone in Freeport, The Bahamas' second-largest city, with a nearby industrial park to encourage foreign industrial investment. The Hong Kong-based firm, Hutchison Whampoa, has opened a container port in Freeport. The Bahamian Parliament approved legislation in 1993 that extended most Freeport tax and duty exemptions through 2054. The Bahamas is largely an import, service economy. There are about 110 U.S.-affiliated businesses operating in The Bahamas, and most are associated with tourism and banking. With few domestic resources and little industry, The Bahamas imports nearly all its food and manufactured goods from the United States. American goods and services tend to be favored by Bahamians due to cultural similarities and heavy exposure to American advertising. Secondary industries Manufacturing In 1999, the small industrial sector of the Bahamas only made up about 5 percent of the nation's GDP and 5 percent of employment. Government infrastructure projects and private construction provide the main industrial activity. The 1 shipyard in the Bahamas is at Freeport and it specializes in the repair of passenger or cruise ships. There is limited production of minerals. Sand is dredged off the Bahamas Bank and used for limestone and the production of commercial sand, which supply the local construction industry. There is also limited production of salt for export to the United States. Large-scale oil refining began in 1967 with the installation of a large refinery on Grand Bahama with a daily capacity of 500,000 barrels, but by 2000 no oil was being refined. The pharmaceutical company, PFC Bahamas, produces a small quantity of products for export and the oil company, BORCO, has a refinery in the islands, but these are individual enterprises and do not represent any large industrial presence. There is a substantial brewing industry. Companies such as Bacardi, Inc., distill rum and other spirits in the islands, while other international breweries such as Commonwealth Brewery, produce different beers including the Heineken, Guinness, and Kalik brands. Construction The construction industry seemed to peak in 1998 with the completion of several new resorts. By 1999, new construction projects had fallen by 15.9 percent, with 817 continuing commercial projects valued at US$123 million. However, private housing completions were up by 18.3 percent with a value of US$112.1 million. This reflects an increasing demand for more upscale housing in the nation. Tertiary industries Tourism Tourism dominates the Bahamian economy. In 1999, 3.65 million people visited the islands, with 2.2 million of them arriving by cruise ship. Revenue from tourism made up 60 percent of the nation's GDP. The average tourist spent US$958 while vacationing in the Bahamas, and tourist spendfding overall amounted to US$1.5 billion. In 2000, there were about 81,700 people employed in the tourist industry. Most visitors are from the United States (83 percent in 1999). However, in recent years the number of European tourists has increased by 9 percent. The largest resort in the island is the 2,340 room mega-resort Atlantis, which is owned by Sun International. It employs 5,500 people and is the second largest employer in the nation after the government. Other major resorts in the islands include Club Med (popular with the French), Sandals (attracting the British), and Holiday Inn. The Grand Bahama Development Company plans to spend US$50 million upgrading airport and cruise ship facilities to accommodate an additional 555,000 visitors per year. Although the majority of the tourist industry in the Bahamas has been driven by private enterprise, the Bahamian government did own 20 percent of the hotel accommodations in 1992. Privatization programs since that time have reduced the government holdings to 5 percent. All major cruise lines operate services to the Bahamas. To extend the stay of passengers, the government has enacted legislation that allows ships to open their casinos and stores only if they remain in port for more than 18 hours. Financial services The financial services sector is the second chief component of the Bahamian economy. In 1998, this sector added US$300 million to the economy and employed 4,000 people, accounting for some 15 percent of the GDP. Government legislation has also encouraged the formation of international companies known as shell corporations, which are established to hide or protect their assets from national taxes at home by incorporating themselves in a foreign nation. As a result there are over 100,000 such corporations. Although many of these firms employ Bahamians, they add little to the nation's economy since they essentially act as conduits for transferring money. Retail Thanks to the tourist trade, retail companies prosper in the Bahamas. There is a strong preference for recognizable name-brand products, and major American brands do well in the islands. However, the government requires that retail and wholesale businesses be Bahamian-owned. Business environment The Bahamas offers attractive features to the potential investor: a stable democratic environment, relief from personal and corporate income taxes, timely repatriation of corporate profits, proximity to the U.S. with extensive air and telecommunications links, and a good pool of skilled professional workers. The Government of The Bahamas welcomes foreign investment in tourism and banking and has declared an interest in agricultural and industrial investments to generate local employment, particularly in white-collar or skilled jobs. Despite its interest in foreign investment to diversify the economy, the Bahamian Government responds to local concerns about foreign competition and tends to protect Bahamian business and labor interests. As a result of domestic resistance to foreign investment and high labor costs, growth can stagnate in sectors which the government wishes to diversify. The country's infrastructure is best developed in the principal cities of Nassau and Freeport, where there are relatively good paved roads and international airports. Electricity is generally reliable, although many businesses have their own backup generators. In Nassau, there are two daily newspapers, three weeklies, and several international newspapers available for sale. There also are eight radio stations. Both Nassau and Freeport have a television station. Cable TV also is available locally and provides most American programs with some Canadian and European channels. Areas of opportunity The best U.S. export opportunities remain in the traditional areas of foodstuffs and manufactured goods: vehicles and automobile parts; hotel, restaurant, and medical supplies; and computers and electronics. Bahamian tastes in consumer products roughly parallel those in the U.S. With approximately 85% of the population of primarily African descent, there is a large and growing market in the Bahamas for "ethnic" personal care products. Merchants in southern Florida have found it profitable to advertise in Bahamian publications. Most imports in this sector are subject to high but nondiscriminatory tariffs. Statistics "Household income or consumption by percentage share" highest 10%: 27% (2000) "Agriculture - products" citrus, vegetables; poultry "Electricity - production" 1,716 GWh (2002) "Electricity - consumption" 1,596 GWh (2002) "Oil - consumption" 23,000 bbl/day (2001 est.) "Oil - exports" transhipments of 29,000 bbl/day (2003) "Exchange rates" Bahamian dollars per US dollar - 1 (2004), 1 (2003), 1 (2002), 1 (2001), 1 (2000) References Some of the material in this article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2005. | Economy_of_the_Bahamas |@lemmatized bahamas:29 stable:2 develop:2 nation:7 economy:14 heavily:2 dependent:2 tourism:11 offshore:3 banking:5 steady:1 growth:8 receipt:1 boom:1 construction:6 new:4 hotel:3 resort:8 residence:1 lead:2 solid:1 gdp:9 recent:3 year:5 slowdown:1 u:16 attack:1 september:1 hold:1 back:1 sector:12 financial:9 service:8 constitute:2 second:5 important:2 bahamian:21 accounting:2 however:4 since:3 december:3 government:20 enact:3 regulation:1 many:3 international:8 business:7 leave:1 manufacturing:1 agriculture:4 together:2 contribute:1 approximately:2 tenth:1 show:1 little:3 despite:2 incentive:1 aim:3 overall:3 prospect:1 short:1 run:1 rest:1 fortune:1 depend:1 source:1 visitor:3 addition:2 support:1 development:2 third:1 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7,341 | Koala | The Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is a thickset arboreal marsupial herbivore native to Australia, and the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae. The koala is found in coastal regions of eastern and southern Australia, from near Adelaide to the southern part of Cape York Peninsula. Populations also extend for considerable distances inland in regions with enough moisture to support suitable woodlands. The koalas of South Australia were largely exterminated during the early part of the 20th century, but the state has since been repopulated with Victorian stock. The koala is not found in Tasmania or Western Australia. Names The word koala comes from the Dharuk gula. Although the vowel was originally written in the Latin alphabet as "oo" (in spellings such as coola or koolah), it was changed to "oa" possibly due to an error. The word is erroneously said to mean "doesn't drink". The scientific name of the koala's genus, Phascolarctos, is derived from Greek phaskolos "pouch" and arktos "bear". Its species name, cinereus, is Latin and means "ash-coloured". Although the koala is not a bear, when first adopted by English speakers, the name koala bear became popular, as this roughly evoked the species' similarity in appearance to the Teddy bear, to people unfamiliar with it. Although taxonomically incorrect, the name koala bear is still in use today outside Australia — its use is discouraged because of the inaccuracy in the name. Other descriptive English names based on "bear" have included monkey bear, native bear, and tree-bear. Variation A Southern koala on Kangaroo Island, not native to the island Although three subspecies have been described, these are arbitrary selections from a cline and are not generally accepted as valid. Following Bergmann's Rule, southern individuals from the cooler climates are larger. A typical Victorian koala (formerly P. cinereus victor) has longer, thicker fur, is a darker, softer grey, often with chocolate-brown highlights on the back and forearms, and has a more prominently light-coloured ventral side and fluffy white ear tufts. Typical and New South Wales koala weights are for males and for females. In tropical and sub-tropical Queensland, however, the koala is smaller (at around for an average male and just over for an average female), a lighter often rather scruffy grey in colour, and has shorter, thinner fur. In Queensland, the koala was previously classified as the subspecies P. cinereus adustus, and the intermediate forms in New South Wales as P. cinereus cinereus. The variation from one form to another is continuous and there are substantial differences between individual koalas in any given region such as hair colour. The origins of the koala are unclear, although almost certainly they descended from terrestrial wombat-like animals. Koala fossils are quite rare, but some have been found in northern Australia dating to 20 million years ago. During this time, the northern half of Australia was rainforest. The koala did not specialise in a diet of eucalypts until the climate cooled and eucalypt forests grew in the place of rainforests. The fossil record indicates that before 50,000 years ago, giant koalas inhabited the southern regions of Australia. The koala fills the same ecological role as the sloth of South America. Physical description Koalas have a slow metabolism and sleep for most of the day The koala is broadly similar in appearance to the wombat (its closest living relative), but has a thicker coat, much larger ears, and longer limbs. The koala has large, sharp claws to assist with climbing tree trunks. Weight varies from about for a large southern male, to about for a small northern female. The koala's five fingers are arranged with opposable thumbs, providing better gripping ability. The first two fingers are positioned in apposition on the front paws, and the first three fingers for the hind paws. The koala is one of the few mammals (other than primates) that has fingerprints. Koala fingerprints are similar to human fingerprints; even with an electron microscope, it can be quite difficult to distinguish between the two. The teeth of the koala are adapted to their herbivorous diet, and are similar to those of other diprotodont marsupials, such as kangaroos and wombats. They have sharp incisors to clip leaves at the front of the mouth, separated from the grinding cheek teeth by a wide diastema. The dental formula for koalas is: The male koala, like many marsupials, has a bifurcated penis. The female has two lateral vaginas and two separate uteri, which is common to all marsupials. Koala walking along a branch. Koalas also walk on all four legs when walking on the ground The brain in the ancestors of the modern koala once filled the whole cranial cavity, but has become drastically reduced in the present species, a degeneration scientists suspect is an adaptation to a diet low in energy. One of the smallest in marsupials with no more than 0.2% of its body weight, about 40% of the cranial cavity is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, while the brain's two cerebral hemispheres are like "a pair of shrivelled walnut halves on top of the brain stem, in contact neither with each other nor the bones of the skull. It is the only animal on Earth with such a strangely reduced brain." It is generally a silent animal, but males have a very loud advertising call that can be heard from almost a kilometre away during the breeding season. When under stress, koalas may issue a loud cry, which has been reported as similar to that of a human baby. There is little reliable information about the lifespan of the koala, but in captivity they have been observed to reach the age of 18 years. Life cycle Baby koala at Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary Females reach maturity at 2 to 3 years of age, males at 3 to 4 years. If healthy, a female koala can produce one young each year for about 12 years. Gestation is 35 days. Twins are very rare; the world's first confirmed identical twin koalas, named "Euca" and "Lyptus", were born at the University of Queensland in 1999. http://www.koalaresearch.net.au/General.html Mating normally occurs between December and March, the Southern Hemisphere's summer. A baby koala is referred to as a joey and is hairless, blind, and earless. At birth the joey, only a quarter of an inch long, crawls into the downward-facing pouch on the mother's belly (which is closed by a drawstring-like muscle that the mother can tighten at will) and attaches itself to one of the two teats. Young remain hidden in the pouch for about six months, only feeding on milk. During this time they grow ears, eyes, and fur. The joey then begins to explore outside of the pouch. At about this stage it begins to consume small quantities of the mother’s "pap" (formerly thought to be excrement, but now thought to come from the mother's cecum) in order to inoculate its gut with the microbes necessary to digest eucalypt leaves. The joey will remain with its mother for another six months or so, riding on her back, and feeding on both milk and eucalypt leaves until weaning is complete at about 12 months of age. Young females disperse to nearby areas at that time; young males often stay in the mother's home range until they are two or three years old. Diet and behaviour Koala with young The koala lives almost entirely on eucalypt leaves. This is likely to be an evolutionary adaptation that takes advantage of an otherwise unfilled ecological niche, since eucalypt leaves are low in protein, high in indigestible substances, and contain phenolic and terpene compounds that are toxic to most species. Like wombats and sloths, the koala has a very low metabolic rate for a mammal and rests motionless for about 16 to 18 hours a day, sleeping most of that time. Koalas that are disturbed are known to be violent, their teeth and claws capable of causing considerable injury to humans; special handling requirements are as such applicable. Acrobat Distiller, Job 4 Handling of koalas has been a source of political contention due to these risks, which can cause harm to the koala as well. Koalas spend about three of their five active hours eating. Feeding occurs at any time of day, but usually at night. An average koala eats of eucalypt leaves each day, chewing them in its powerful jaws to a very fine paste before swallowing. The liver deactivates the toxic components ready for excretion, and the hind gut (especially the caecum) is greatly enlarged to extract the maximum amount of nutrient from the poor quality diet. Much of this is done through bacterial fermentation: while young are being weaned, the mother passes these essential digestive aids on to her offspring. A koala eating eucalyptus The koala will eat the leaves of a wide range of eucalypts, and occasionally even some non-eucalypt species such as Acacia, Leptospermum, and Melaleuca. It has firm preferences for particular varieties of eucalypt and these preferences vary from one region to another: in the south Manna Gum, Blue Gum, and Swamp Gum are favoured; Grey Gum and Tallowwood are important in the north, and the ubiquitous River Red Gum of the isolated seasonal swamps and watercourses that meander across the dry inland plains allows the koala to live in surprisingly arid areas. Many factors determine which of the 680 species of eucalypt trees the koala eats. Among trees of their favourite species, however, the major factor that determines which individual trees the koala chooses is the concentration of a group of phenolic toxins called formylated phloroglucinol compounds. Conservation status The Australian Government currently lists the koala as a priority species for conservation status assessment. Government estimates of the national koala population numbers in the hundreds of thousands, although other studies have estimated as few as 80 000 koalas left in the wild. The Australian Koala Foundation estimates there are around 100,000 koalas left in the wild. The IUCN lists the species as "Least Concern". The Australian government does not consider the species to be threatened, although the US government has declared the koala a threatened species. The koala inhabits four Australian states. Under state legislation, the species is listed as: Queensland — Common, or "Least Concern Wildlife" throughout the state, except in the South East Queensland bioregion, where it is listed as vulnerable. New South Wales — listed at a state scale as vulnerable, but varying regionally from secure to locally extinct. South Australia — classified as rare. Victoria — The koala population in Victoria was considered large and thriving, according to an article which was last reviewed on 29 October, 2007. However, the koala population classification in Victoria may now have changed, due to the 2009 Victorian bushfires. Helping Koalas burnt in the bushfires The koala was hunted almost to extinction in the early 20th century, largely for its fur. Millions of furs were traded to Europe and the United States, and the population has not fully recovered from such decimations. Extensive cullings occurred in Queensland in 1915, 1917, and again in 1919 when over one million koalas were killed with guns, poisons, and nooses. The public outcry over the cullings was most likely the first wide-scale environmental issue that rallied Australians. Despite the growing movement to protect native species, the poverty brought about by the drought of 1926–28 led to another 600,000 koalas being killed during a one-month open season in August 1927. Today, habitat loss and the impacts of urbanisation (for example dog attacks and traffic accidents) are the leading threats to the survival of the koala. In recent years, some colonies have been hard hit by disease, especially chlamydia. The koala requires large areas of healthy, connected forest and will travel long distances along tree corridors in search of new territory and mates. The increasing human population of the coastal parts of the continent continues to cut these corridors by agricultural and residential development, forestry, and road-building, marooning koala colonies in decreasing areas of bush. The long term viability of the koala is therefore threatened by genetic weakness . The Australian Koala Foundation is the principal organisation dedicated to the conservation of the koala and its habitat, mapping of land for koala habitat and claiming strong evidence that wild koala populations are in serious decline throughout the species natural range. Although the species covers a large area, only 'pieces' of koala habitat remain. Presently, many habitats are lost to weeds, clearance for agriculture, or carved up by developers. Other threats come from logging, poor management, attacks from feral and domestic animals, diseases, and roads. In contrast to the situation on much of the mainland, where populations are declining, koalas, like many other species, can overrun smaller islands or isolated regions where they have been introduced. On Kangaroo Island in South Australia, koalas introduced some 90 years ago have thrived in the absence of predators and competition. Combined with an inability to migrate to new areas, this has caused the koala populations to become unsustainable and threaten the island's unique ecology. In particular, species of Manna Gum, native to the island, are being stripped by koalas at a rate faster than they can regenerate, endangering local birds and invertebrates that rely on them, and causing the extinction of at least one isolated population of manna. Koala numbers are estimated at over 30,000, with ecologists suggesting that the island can sustain 10,000 at most. Although culling has been suggested as a means to reduce koala numbers, with the South Australian government seriously considering such in 1996, this has met with fierce opposition both domestically and internationally, and the species remains protected. The popularity of the koala has made the possibility of a cull politically improbable, with any negative perception likely to impact tourism and a government's electability. In place of a cull, sterilization and relocation programs have had only limited success in reducing numbers thus far, and remain expensive. There is evidence that koalas relocated to the mainland have difficulty establishing themselves in the different circumstances. A mooted alternative to the complex sterilization method, wherein the animal must first be captured, are hormonal implants that can be injected via darts. As with most native Australian animals, the koala cannot legally be kept as a pet in Australia or anywhere else. The only people who are permitted to keep koalas are wildlife carers and, occasionally, research scientists. These individuals are issued with special permits to care for koalas, but have to return them to the wild when they are either well enough or, in the case of joeys, old enough. See also Fauna of Australia Koala emblems and popular culture List of monotremes and marsupials References External links Australian Koala Foundation Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary The Koala | Koala |@lemmatized koala:87 phascolarctos:2 cinereus:6 thickset:1 arboreal:1 marsupial:6 herbivore:1 native:6 australia:12 extant:1 representative:1 family:1 phascolarctidae:1 find:3 coastal:2 region:6 eastern:1 southern:7 near:1 adelaide:1 part:3 cape:1 york:1 peninsula:1 population:10 also:3 extend:1 considerable:2 distance:2 inland:2 enough:3 moisture:1 support:1 suitable:1 woodland:1 south:10 largely:2 exterminate:1 early:2 century:2 state:6 since:2 repopulated:1 victorian:3 stock:1 tasmania:1 western:1 name:8 word:2 come:3 dharuk:1 gula:1 although:9 vowel:1 originally:1 write:1 latin:2 alphabet:1 oo:1 spelling:1 coola:1 koolah:1 change:2 oa:1 possibly:1 due:3 error:1 erroneously:1 say:1 mean:3 drink:1 scientific:1 genus:1 derive:1 greek:1 phaskolos:1 pouch:4 arktos:1 bear:10 specie:18 ash:1 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7,342 | Bronski_Beat | Bronski Beat were a popular British synth pop trio of the 1980s. Overview Bronski Beat were a British electronic music group who achieved notable success in the mid 1980s, particularly with the 1984 chart hit "Smalltown Boy". All members of the group were openly gay and their songs often contained political commentary on gay related issues. Although many groups in the early to mid 80s had an openly gay image, Bronski Beat were one of the first groups to openly address the gross inequality experienced by gay people in society. At the height of their popularity the band were singer Jimmy Somerville backed by Steve Bronski and Larry Steinbachek, both of whom played keyboards and percussion. Somerville would go on to have success as lead singer of The Communards and as a solo artist. History Early years (1983-1985) Bronski Beat formed in 1983 when Somerville, Steinbachek and Bronski shared a three-bedroom flat in Lancaster House in Brixton, southwest London. Apparently the band's name was 'God Forbid' before Bronski Beat was suggested by Bronski, as a pun on the group name of Roxy Music and the main character from the Günter Grass novel The Tin Drum. Bronski Beat signed a recording contract with London Records in 1984 after doing only nine live gigs. The band's debut single, "Smalltown Boy", the tale of a boy who was cast away by his family for being gay, was a hit, peaking at #3 in the UK Singles Chart. The single was accompanied by a promotional video directed by Bernard Rose, showing Somerville eagerly trying to make friends at a swimming pool, then being attacked by a homophobic gang, being returned to his family by the police and having to leave home. (The police officer was played by Colin Bell, then the marketing manager of London Records). "Smalltown Boy" reached #48 in the U.S. chart and peaked at #7 in Australia. The follow-up single, "Why?", while focusing on a faster energetic musical formula, was more lyrically focused on anti-gay prejudice. It also achieved Top 10 status in the UK, reaching #6, and was a Top 10 hit for the band in Australia. At the end of 1984, the trio released an album entitled The Age of Consent. The inner sleeve listed the varying ages of consent for consensual male homosexual activity in different nations around the world. At the time, the age of consent for sexual acts between men in the UK was 21 (compared with 16 for heterosexual acts). The album peaked at #4 in the UK Albums Chart, #36 in the U.S., and #12 in Australia. A third single was released amid controversy before Christmas 1984: a revival of "It Ain't Necessarily So", the George and Ira Gershwin classic (from Porgy and Bess) which questions the authenticity of Biblical tales. It also reached the UK Top 20. In 1985, the trio joined up with Marc Almond to record a version of Donna Summer's "I Feel Love". The full version was actually a medley, also incorporating snippets of Summer's "Love to Love You Baby" and John Leyton's "Johnny Remember Me". It was a success, reaching #3 in the UK, equalling the chart achievement of "Smalltown Boy". Although the original had been one of Marc Almond's all-time favourite songs, he had never read the lyrics and thus incorrectly sang "What'll it be, what'll it be, you and me" instead of "Falling free, falling free, falling free". The band and their producer Mike Thorne had gone back into the studio in early 1985 to record a new single, "Run From Love". PolyGram (London Records' parent company at that time) had pressed a number of promo singles and 12" versions of the song, sending them out to both radio and record stores in the UK. However, the single was shelved as tensions in the band, both personal and political, resulted in Somerville leaving Bronski Beat in the summer of that year. "Run From Love" was subsequently released in a remix form on the Bronski Beat album Hundreds & Thousands, an LP of mostly remixes and b-sides as well as the hit "I Feel Love". Somerville went on to form The Communards with Richard Coles while the remaining members of Bronski Beat searched for a new vocalist. Post Jimmy Somerville period Bronski Beat recruited John Foster as Somerville's replacement. A single, "Hit That Perfect Beat", was released in January 1986, reaching #3 in the UK. It repeated this success in the Australian charts and was also featured in the film, Letter to Brezhnev. A second single, "C'mon C'mon", also charted in the UK Top 20 and an album, Truthdare Doubledare, released in May 1986, peaked at #18. The film Parting Glances (1986) included Bronski Beat songs "Love and Money", "Smalltown Boy" and "Why?". During this period, the band teamed up with producer Mark Cunningham on the first-ever BBC Children In Need single, a cover of David Bowie's "Heroes", released in 1986 under the name of The County Line. Foster left the band in 1987. Following Foster's departure, Bronski Beat began work on their next album, Out and About. The tracks were recorded at Berry Street studios in London with engineer Brian Pugsley. Some of the song titles were "The Final Spin" and "Peace And Love". The latter track featured Strawberry Switchblade vocalist Rose McDowell and appeared on several internet sites in 2006. One of the other songs from the project called "European Boy" was recorded in 1987 by disco group Splash. The leader singer of Splash was former Tight Fit singer Steve Grant. Steinbachek and Bronski toured extensively with the new material and got great reviews, however the project was abandoned as the group were dropped by London Records. Also in 1987, Bronski Beat and Somerville did a reunion concert for "International AIDS Day", supported by New Order, at the Brixton Academy, London. In 1989 Jonathan Hellyer became lead singer, and the band extensively toured the U.S. and Europe with back-up vocalist Annie Conway and had one minor hit with the song "Cha Cha Heels", a one-off collaboration sung by American actress and singer Eartha Kitt. The song was originally written for movie and recording star Divine, who was unable to record the song before his death in 1988. 1990-91 saw Bronski Beat release three further singles on the Zomba record label, "I'm Gonna Run Away", "One More Chance" and "What More Can I Say". The singles were produced by Mike Thorne. Foster and Bronski Beat teamed up again in 1994, and released a techno "Tell Me Why '94" and an acoustic "Smalltown Boy '94" on the German record label, ZYX Music. The album Rainbow Nation was released the following year with Hellyer returning as lead vocalist, as Foster had dropped out of the project. Bronski Beat then dissolved with Steve Bronski going on to become a producer for other artists. Larry Steinbachek became the musical director for the Netherlands based theater group, 'Remote Control'. In 2007 Bronski remixed the song 'Stranger To none' by the UK Goth band All Living Fear, 4 different mix's were done only 1 appeared on the album 'Fifteen years after' Contemporary usage In 1998, the film Edge of Seventeen used the songs "Smalltown Boy" and "Why". In 2002, the US remake of Queer as Folk used the song "Smalltown Boy" in an episode. In 2006 the signature keyboard riff from "Smalltown Boy" and part of the vocals from "Why?" were featured in the Supermode song "Tell Me Why". The keyboard riff was used again in 2006, in the September song "Cry for You". It is also heard on Daft Punk's "Alive 2007" Album in the track "Too Long / Steam Machine". In 2008, "Smalltown Boy" was used in the sexual comedy Zack and Miri Make a Porno. Discography Albums The Age of Consent, 1984 UK # 4 Hundreds & Thousands, 1985 UK # 24 Truthdare Doubledare, 1986 UK # 18 Rainbow Nation, 1995 Compilations The Singles Collection 1984 / 1990 (incl. Jimmy Somerville, Bronski Beat & The Communards), 1990 UK#4 The Very Best Of Jimmy Somerville, Bronski Beat & The Communards, 2002 Singles "Smalltown Boy", June, 1984, #1 (2 Weeks) Netherlands; #1 US Dance Chart; #1 IT; #3 UK, #48 US Hot 100 "Why?", September, 1984, UK #6, IT #18 "It Ain't Necessarily So", December, 1984, UK #16, IT #28 "I Feel Love" (medley with Marc Almond), April, 1985, UK #3 "Hit That Perfect Beat", December, 1985, UK #3, IT #9 "C'mon C'mon", March, 1986, UK #20, IT #40 "Cha Cha Heels" (with Eartha Kitt), 1989, UK #32 "I'm Gonna Run Away", 1990 "One More Chance" 1990 "What More Can I Say", 1990 "Smalltown Boy" (remix), 1991, UK 32 "Why 94" 1994 "Smalltown Boy 94", 1994 "Kicking Up The Rain" 1995 "Hit That Perfect Beat" / "I Love The Nightlife" 1995 References The Knitting Circle: Popular Culture graduation singles from the Bristling Badger blog, Tuesday, 25 July 2006. Accessed 30 March 2007 http://www.stereosociety.com/hundreds.html All Living Fear official webpage news External links Discography Steve Bronski's personal website | Bronski_Beat |@lemmatized bronski:25 beat:21 popular:2 british:2 synth:1 pop:1 trio:3 overview:1 electronic:1 music:3 group:8 achieve:2 notable:1 success:4 mid:2 particularly:1 chart:8 hit:8 smalltown:13 boy:15 member:2 openly:3 gay:6 song:14 often:1 contain:1 political:2 commentary:1 relate:1 issue:1 although:2 many:1 early:3 image:1 one:7 first:2 address:1 gross:1 inequality:1 experience:1 people:1 society:1 height:1 popularity:1 band:10 singer:6 jimmy:4 somerville:11 back:3 steve:4 larry:2 steinbachek:4 play:2 keyboard:3 percussion:1 would:1 go:4 lead:3 communards:4 solo:1 artist:2 history:1 year:4 form:3 share:1 three:2 bedroom:1 flat:1 lancaster:1 house:1 brixton:2 southwest:1 london:7 apparently:1 name:3 god:1 forbid:1 suggest:1 pun:1 roxy:1 main:1 character:1 günter:1 grass:1 novel:1 tin:1 drum:1 sign:1 recording:1 contract:1 record:13 nine:1 live:2 gig:1 debut:1 single:16 tale:2 cast:1 away:3 family:2 peak:4 uk:22 accompany:1 promotional:1 video:1 direct:1 bernard:1 rise:2 show:1 eagerly:1 try:1 make:2 friend:1 swim:1 pool:1 attack:1 homophobic:1 gang:1 return:2 police:2 leave:3 home:1 officer:1 colin:1 bell:1 marketing:1 manager:1 reach:5 u:6 australia:3 follow:2 focus:2 faster:1 energetic:1 musical:2 formula:1 lyrically:1 anti:1 prejudice:1 also:7 top:4 status:1 end:1 release:9 album:10 entitle:1 age:4 consent:4 inner:1 sleeve:1 list:1 varying:1 consensual:1 male:1 homosexual:1 activity:1 different:2 nation:3 around:1 world:1 time:3 sexual:2 act:2 men:1 compare:1 heterosexual:1 third:1 amid:1 controversy:1 christmas:1 revival:1 necessarily:2 george:1 ira:1 gershwin:1 classic:1 porgy:1 question:1 authenticity:1 biblical:1 join:1 marc:3 almond:3 version:3 donna:1 summer:3 feel:3 love:10 full:1 actually:1 medley:2 incorporate:1 snippet:1 baby:1 john:2 leyton:1 johnny:1 remember:1 equal:1 achievement:1 original:1 favourite:1 never:1 read:1 lyric:1 thus:1 incorrectly:1 sang:1 instead:1 fall:3 free:3 producer:3 mike:2 thorne:2 studio:2 new:4 run:4 polygram:1 parent:1 company:1 press:1 number:1 promo:1 send:1 radio:1 store:1 however:2 shelve:1 tension:1 personal:2 result:1 subsequently:1 remix:2 hundred:3 thousand:2 lp:1 mostly:1 remixes:1 b:1 side:1 well:1 richard:1 cole:1 remain:1 search:1 vocalist:4 post:1 period:2 recruit:1 foster:5 replacement:1 perfect:3 january:1 repeat:1 australian:1 feature:3 film:3 letter:1 brezhnev:1 second:1 c:4 mon:4 truthdare:2 doubledare:2 may:1 part:2 glance:1 include:1 money:1 team:2 mark:1 cunningham:1 ever:1 bbc:1 child:1 need:1 cover:1 david:1 bowie:1 hero:1 county:1 line:1 departure:1 begin:1 work:1 next:1 track:3 berry:1 street:1 engineer:1 brian:1 pugsley:1 title:1 final:1 spin:1 peace:1 latter:1 strawberry:1 switchblade:1 mcdowell:1 appear:2 several:1 internet:1 site:1 project:3 call:1 european:1 disco:1 splash:2 leader:1 former:1 tight:1 fit:1 grant:1 tour:2 extensively:2 material:1 get:1 great:1 review:1 abandon:1 drop:2 reunion:1 concert:1 international:1 aid:1 day:1 support:1 order:1 academy:1 jonathan:1 hellyer:2 become:3 europe:1 annie:1 conway:1 minor:1 cha:4 heel:2 collaboration:1 sung:1 american:1 actress:1 eartha:2 kitt:2 originally:1 write:1 movie:1 star:1 divine:1 unable:1 death:1 saw:1 zomba:1 label:2 gonna:2 chance:2 say:2 produce:1 techno:1 tell:2 acoustic:1 german:1 zyx:1 rainbow:2 following:1 dissolve:1 director:1 netherlands:2 base:1 theater:1 remote:1 control:1 remixed:1 stranger:1 none:1 goth:1 living:1 fear:2 mix:1 fifteen:1 contemporary:1 usage:1 edge:1 seventeen:1 use:4 remake:1 queer:1 folk:1 episode:1 signature:1 riff:2 vocal:1 supermode:1 september:2 cry:1 hear:1 daft:1 punk:1 alive:1 long:1 steam:1 machine:1 comedy:1 zack:1 miri:1 porno:1 discography:2 compilation:1 collection:1 incl:1 best:1 june:1 week:1 dance:1 hot:1 december:2 april:1 march:2 kick:1 rain:1 nightlife:1 reference:1 knitting:1 circle:1 culture:1 graduation:1 bristling:1 badger:1 blog:1 tuesday:1 july:1 access:1 http:1 www:1 stereosociety:1 com:1 html:1 official:1 webpage:1 news:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 |@bigram bronski_beat:18 synth_pop:1 smalltown_boy:13 openly_gay:2 roxy_music:1 günter_grass:1 swim_pool:1 ira_gershwin:1 hundred_thousand:2 david_bowie:1 cha_cha:2 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
7,343 | Economy_of_Chile | Chile has a dynamic market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio Aylwin - which took over from the military in 1990 - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% during the period 1991-1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the current account deficit in check and because of lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis. Chile's economy has since recovered and has seen growth rates of 5-7% over the past several years. In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America. Chile: Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013. European Commission, 11/04/2007, §3.4, (E/2007/615) The Global Competitiveness Report for 2007-2008 ranks Chile as being the 26th most competitive country in the world and the first in Latin America, well above from Mexico (52nd), Brazil (72nd) and Argentina which ranks 85th. GCR.part1.qxd The Ease of doing business index created by the World Bank lists Chile as 33rd in the world that encompasses better, usually simpler, regulations for businesses and stronger protections of property rights. Rankings - Doing Business - The World Bank Group The OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member. Economic Department - Embassy of Chile in the United States of America In spite of this, Chile still suffers from many problems common in Latin America, ranking higher than such countries as Mexico in terms of economic inequality and unemployment rate. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2129rank.html The World Distribution of Household Wealth A map of world poverty Macroeconomic trend Chilean (blue) and average Latin American (orange) GDP per capita (1950-2007). After a decade of highly impressive growth rates, Chile experienced a moderate recession in 1999 brought on by the global economic slowdown and exacerbated by a severe drought reducing crop yields and causing hydroelectric shortfalls and rationing. Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 16 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. After averaging real GDP growth rates of around 7% in the 1990s, the economy grew 3.4% in 1998 and contracted 1.1% in 1999. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover. The economy has recovered in 2000, with Asian markets rebounding and copper prices edging up. GDP growth for 2001 is expected in the 5%-6% range. The inauguration of Ricardo Lagos in March 2000, succeeding Eduardo Frei, kept the presidency in the hands of the center-left Concertacion coalition that has held office since the return of civilian rule in 1990. The government's limited role in the economy, Chile's openness to international trade and investment, and the high domestic savings and investment rates that propelled Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the decade before the recession are still in place. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization at a slower pace. Unemployment peaked well above Chile's traditional 4%-6% range during the recession and is stubbornly remaining in the 8%-10% range well into the economic recovery. Despite recent labour troubles, wages have on average risen faster than inflation over the last several years as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The share of Chileans with incomes below the poverty line — roughly $90/month for a family of four — fell from 46% of the population in 1987 to 14% in 2006. Critics, however, argue that this poverty line is unrealistically low, and point to previous studies by the National Census Institute which consider as much as 29% of population to be affected by poverty. Maintaining a moderate inflation level is a foremost Central Bank objective. In 1996, December-to-December inflation stood at 8.2%, falling to 6.1% in 1997 and to 4.7% in 1998. The rate fell to only 2.3% during the 1999 recession. Most wage settlements and spending decisions are indexed, reducing inflation volatility (See Unidad de Fomento). The rate for 2000 was 4.75%. The establishment of a compulsory private sector pension system in 1981 was an important step toward increasing domestic savings and the pool of investment capital. Choice of Product under Government Regulation: The Case of Chile Pension System Under this system, most regular workers pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. This large capital pool has been supplemented by substantial foreign investment. Chile GDP growth since 1961. Total public and private investment in the Chilean economy has remained high despite current economic difficulties. The government recognizes the necessity of private investment to boost worker productivity. The government also is encouraging diversification, including such non-traditional exports as fruit, wine, and fish to reduce the relative importance of basic traditional exports such as copper, timber, and other natural resources. Chile's welcoming attitude toward foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. The Central Bank decided in May 1999 on the removal of the 1-year residency requirement on foreign capital entering Chile under Central Bank regulations, generally for portfolio investments. A modest capital control mechanism known as the "Encaje," which requires international investors to place a percentage of portfolio investment in non-interest-bearing accounts for up to 2 years, has been effectively suspended through reduction to zero of the applicable percentage; the mechanism could be resurrected depending on economic circumstances. Total foreign direct investment flows in 2000 contracted to $3.6 billion (3.6 G$), down from $9.2 billion in 1999, and $4.6 billion in 1998. The 2000 figure is about 13% of GDP. In 2000, Chile experienced an outflow of $1.5 billion, largely the result of diminished inward foreign investment and--for a second year running--elevated levels of Chilean direct investment abroad ($4.8 billion). Foreign Trade Chile's economy is highly dependent on international trade. In 2006, exports increased to $59.0 billion from $40.5 billion in 2005, and imports increased to $36.7 billion from $30.2 billion the previous year. Exports accounted for about 42% of GDP. Chile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports; the state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company. Foreign private investment has developed many new mines, and the private sector now produces more copper than CODELCO. Copper output continued to increase in 2000. Non-traditional exports have grown faster than those of copper and other minerals. In 1975, non-mineral exports made up just over 30% of total exports, whereas now they account for about 60%. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and other manufactured products. Nations that Chile have an FTA with in dark blue, nations which have not ratified a negotiated FTA in light blue, nation in FTA negotiations in purple. Chile is red. Chile's export markets are fairly balanced among Europe, Asia, South America, and North America. The U.S., the largest-single market, takes in 17% of Chile's exports. Latin America has been the fastest-growing export market in recent years. The government actively seeks to promote Chile's exports globally, and since 2004 has had the US-Chile Free Trade Agreement in place. Since 1991, Chile has signed several bilateral free trade agreements, including Canada, Mexico, South Korea, USA, the People's Republic of China, the CACM nations (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua), the EFTA and the European Union and has recently entered into the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership which is a multilateral free trade agreement with New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei. Chile has also recently signed a free trade agreement with Japan. This means that Chile has free-trade access to over half of the world's GDP. Chile intends to negotiate further agreements with countries such as India. Also, Chile is member (in different degrees) of many international economical instances, like APEC, WTO, Mercosur. Such diversity of relations prevents the Chilean economy from being exclusively dependent of any major partner and thus provides stability. After growing for several years, imports were down in 1998 and 1999, reflecting reduced consumer demand and deferred investment. Imports rebounded in 2000 up 19% over 1999; capital goods make up about 22% of total imports. The United States is Chile's largest-single supplier, supplying 18.5% of the country's imports in 2000, down from 21% in 1999. Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff--for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement--by a one percentage point each year until it reached 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, vegetable oils, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. Finance Chile's financial sector has grown faster than other areas of the economy over the last few years; a banking law reform approved in 1997 broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. Domestically, Chileans have enjoyed the recent introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has been accompanied by increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $36 billion at the end of September 2000, has provided an important source of investment capital for the stock market. Chile has maintained one of the best credit ratings in Latin America despite the 1999 economic slump. Bloomberg.com: Latin America Harvard University professor will be Chile’s finance minister « The Chilean Observador In recent years, many Chilean companies have sought to raise capital abroad due to the relatively lower interest rates outside of Chile. There are three main ways Chilean firms raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stock on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised go to finance investment. The government is rapidly paying down its foreign debt. The combined public and private foreign debt was roughly 50% of GDP at the end of 2000, low by Latin American standards. Income distribution The percent of total income earned by the richest 20% of the Chilean population is 61.0% of GDP, while the percent of total income earned by the poorest 20% of the Chilean population is 3.3% of GDP. EarthTrends 2003 Chile's Gini Coefficient in 2003 (53.8) has slightly changed in comparison with the value in 1995 (56.4). In 2005 the 10% poorest among the Chileans received 1.2% of GNP (2000 = 1.4%), while the 10% richest received 47% of GNP (2000 = 46%) Chile: Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013. European Commission, 11/04/2007, §3.4, (E/2007/615) . GDP by sector Gross domestic product by sector of the economy, in percentages of partial GDP. Sector20072008 Agriculture and forestry3.93.9 Fishing1.31.3 Mining Copper Rest7.76.41.47.15.81.3 Manufacturing industry Food, beverage and tobacco Textile, clothing and leather Wood and furniture Paper and printing Chemical, oil, rubber and plastic Non-metallic mineral products and basic metals Metallic products, machinery, equipment and rest17.35.10.81.12.14.61.52.116.75.10.71.02.14.41.32.2 Electricity, gas and water2.01.9 Construction7.47.9 Retail, restaurants and hotels11.111.1 Transportation7.67.7 Communications2.83.0 Financial services17.317.8 Real estate5.75.8 Personal services (health, education, etc.)11.611.5 Public administration4.34.2 GDP subtotalmillions of 2003 Chilean pesosbillions of 2003 U.S. dollars 59,127,34085.51860,954,30588.160 Note: 2007 data is provisional, 2008 data is premilinary. Does not include VAT taxes and import duties (ID). Includes imputaciones bancarias (IB). Total GDP = GDPpartial - IB + VAT + ID. Source: Central Bank of Chile, accessed on May 3, 2009. See also Chile Miracle of Chile Market fundamentalism The Shock Doctrine Economy of South America Economic history of Chile Agriculture in Chile Fishing in Chile Tourism in Chile Mining in Chile References Bibliography COLLIER, Simon and Sater, William F. A History of Chile, 1808-2002, New York and London, Cambridge University Press, 2004. CONSTABLE, Pamela and Valenzuela, Arturo. A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet. New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1993. PALEY, Julia. Marketing Democracy: Power and Social Movements in Post-Dictatorship Chile. University of California Press, 2001 SCHAEFER, Standard. Chile's Failed Economic Laboratory: an Interview with Michael Hudson. CounterPunch, October 20, 2003 WINN, Peter (editor).Victims of the Chilean Miracle: Workers and Neoliberalism in the Pinochet Era, 1973-2002. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004. 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7,344 | Joe_Pass | Joe Pass (born Joseph Anthony Passalaqua) January 13, 1929 – May 23, 1994) was a jazz guitarist. His extensive use of walking basslines, melodic counterpoint during improvisation, and use of a chord-melody style of play opened up new possibilities for jazz guitar and had a profound influence on future guitarists. Early life Born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, Joe Pass, the son of Mariano Passalacqua, a Sicilian-born steel mill worker, was raised in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. Born into a non-musical family, Pass started to play the guitar after being inspired by actor Gene Autry's portrayal of a guitar playing cowboy. He received his first guitar, a Harmony model bought for $17, on his 9th birthday. Pass' father recognized early that his son had "a little something happening" and pushed him constantly to pick up tunes by ear, play pieces not written specifically for the instrument, practice scales and not to "leave any spaces" - that is, to fill in the sonic space between the notes of the melody. As early as 14, Pass started getting gigs and was playing with bands fronted by Tony Pastor and Charlie Barnet, honing his guitar skills and learning the music business. He began traveling with small jazz groups and eventually moved from Pennsylvania to New York City. In a few years, he fell victim to drug abuse, and spent much of the 1950s in relative obscurity. Pass managed to emerge from it through a two-and-a-half-year stay at Synanon, drug rehabilitation program. During that time he played guitar non stop and further honed his skills. In 1962 he recorded The Sounds of Synanon. Discovery and subsequent career Pass recorded a series of albums during the 1960s for the Pacific Jazz label, including the early classics Catch Me, 12-String Guitar, For Django, and Simplicity. In 1963, Pass received Downbeat magazine's "New Star Award". Pass was also featured on Pacific Jazz recordings by Gerald Wilson, Bud Shank, and Les McCann. Pass toured with George Shearing in 1965. Mostly, however, during the 1960s he did TV and recording session work in Los Angeles. He was a sideman with Louis Bellson, Frank Sinatra, Sarah Vaughan, Joe Williams, Della Reese, Johnny Mathis, and worked on TV shows including the The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, The Merv Griffin Show, The Steve Allen Show, and others. In the early 1970s, Pass and guitarist Herb Ellis were performing together regularly at Donte's jazz club in Los Angeles. This collaboration led to Pass and Ellis recording the very first album on the new Concord Jazz label, entitled simply Jazz/Concord (#CJS-1), along with bassist Ray Brown and drummer Jake Hanna. In the early 1970s, Pass also collaborated on a series of music books, and his Joe Pass Guitar Style (written with Bill Thrasher) is considered a leading improvisation textbook for students of jazz. Norman Granz, the producer of Jazz at the Philharmonic and the founder of Verve Records signed Pass to Granz's new Pablo Records label in 1970. In 1974, Pass released his landmark solo album Virtuoso on Pablo Records. Also in 1974, Pablo Records released the album The Trio featuring Pass, Oscar Peterson, and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen. At the Grammy Awards of 1975, The Trio won the Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance by a Group. As part of the Pablo Records "stable," Pass also recorded with Benny Carter, Milt Jackson, Herb Ellis, Zoot Sims, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Ella Fitzgerald, Count Basie, and others. Pass and Ella Fitzgerald recorded four albums together on Pablo Records, toward the end of Fitzgerald's career: Take Love Easy (1973), Fitzgerald and Pass... Again (1976), Speak Love (1983), and Easy Living (1986). Joe Pass died from liver cancer in Los Angeles, California at the age of 65. Legacy In addition to his ensemble performances, the jazz community regards Joe Pass as an influential solo guitarist. His solo style was marked by an advanced linear technique, sophisticated harmonic sense, counterpoint between improvised lead lines, bass figures and chords, spontaneous modulations, and transitions from fast tempos to rubato passages. Pass's early style (influenced by guitarist Django Reinhardt and saxophonist Charlie Parker), was marked by fast single-note lines and a flowing melodic sense. Pass had the unusual lifelong habit of breaking his guitar picks in half and playing only with the smaller part. As Pass made the transition from ensemble to solo guitar performance, he preferred to abandon the pick altogether, and play fingerstyle. He found this enabled him to execute his harmonic concepts more effectively. His series of solo albums, Virtuoso (volumes 1 through 4) are a demonstration of Pass's refined technique. Joe Pass let some instrument manufacturers use his name, but he only used those instruments to fulfill its engagement against those brands, or as travelling ones. He really used to play a Gibson ES-175 guitar (mainly) and a guitar made for him by master crafter Jimmy D'Aquisto. Epiphone has produced an edition of the Emperor line of semi-acoustic Guitar in his honour. Previously Ibanez had a Joe Pass model jazz guitar, as they continue to for influential jazz guitarists George Benson and Pat Metheny. Discography Selected bibliography Mel Bay Presents Joe Pass "Off the Record". Mel Bay, 1993. ISBN 1-56222-687-8 Complete Joe Pass. Mel Bay, 2003. ISBN 0-7866-6747-8 Miyakaku, Takao. Joe Pass. Tokyo: Seiunsha, 2000. ISBN 4-434-00455-7 (photograph collection) Sources Joe Pass Unedited External links Joe Pass guitar solo video (YouTube) Joe Pass Joe Pass guitar tab Joe Pass Memorial Hall | Joe_Pass |@lemmatized joe:16 pas:35 bear:4 joseph:1 anthony:1 passalaqua:1 january:1 may:1 jazz:14 guitarist:6 extensive:1 use:5 walk:1 basslines:1 melodic:2 counterpoint:2 improvisation:2 chord:2 melody:2 style:4 play:8 open:1 new:7 possibility:1 guitar:16 profound:1 influence:2 future:1 early:7 life:1 brunswick:1 jersey:1 son:2 mariano:1 passalacqua:1 sicilian:1 steel:1 mill:1 worker:1 raise:1 johnstown:1 pennsylvania:2 non:2 musical:1 family:1 start:2 inspire:1 actor:1 gene:1 autry:1 portrayal:1 playing:1 cowboy:1 receive:2 first:2 harmony:1 model:2 buy:1 birthday:1 father:1 recognize:1 little:1 something:1 happen:1 push:1 constantly:1 pick:3 tune:1 ear:1 piece:1 write:2 specifically:1 instrument:3 practice:1 scale:1 leave:1 space:2 fill:1 sonic:1 note:2 get:1 gig:1 band:1 front:1 tony:1 pastor:1 charlie:2 barnet:1 hone:2 skill:2 learn:1 music:2 business:1 begin:1 travel:1 small:2 group:2 eventually:1 move:1 york:1 city:1 year:2 fell:1 victim:1 drug:2 abuse:1 spend:1 much:1 relative:1 obscurity:1 manage:1 emerge:1 two:1 half:2 stay:1 synanon:2 rehabilitation:1 program:1 time:1 stop:1 far:1 record:13 sound:1 discovery:1 subsequent:1 career:2 series:3 album:6 pacific:2 label:3 include:2 classic:1 catch:1 string:1 django:2 simplicity:1 downbeat:1 magazine:1 star:2 award:3 also:4 feature:2 recording:1 gerald:1 wilson:1 bud:1 shank:1 les:1 mccann:1 tour:1 george:2 shear:1 mostly:1 however:1 tv:2 session:1 work:2 los:3 angeles:3 sideman:1 louis:1 bellson:1 frank:1 sinatra:1 sarah:1 vaughan:1 williams:1 della:1 reese:1 johnny:2 mathis:1 show:4 tonight:1 carson:1 merv:1 griffin:1 steve:1 allen:1 others:2 herb:2 elli:2 perform:1 together:2 regularly:1 donte:1 club:1 collaboration:1 lead:3 pass:1 ellis:1 concord:2 entitle:1 simply:1 cjs:1 along:1 bassist:1 ray:1 brown:1 drummer:1 jake:1 hanna:1 collaborate:1 book:1 bill:1 thrasher:1 consider:1 textbook:1 student:1 norman:1 granz:2 producer:1 philharmonic:1 founder:1 verve:1 sign:1 pablo:5 release:2 landmark:1 solo:6 virtuoso:2 trio:2 oscar:1 peterson:1 niels:1 henning:1 ørsted:1 pedersen:1 grammy:2 win:1 best:1 performance:3 part:2 stable:1 benny:1 carter:1 milt:1 jackson:1 zoot:1 sims:1 duke:1 ellington:1 dizzy:1 gillespie:1 ella:2 fitzgerald:4 count:1 basie:1 four:1 toward:1 end:1 take:1 love:2 easy:2 speak:1 living:1 die:1 liver:1 cancer:1 california:1 age:1 legacy:1 addition:1 ensemble:2 community:1 regard:1 influential:2 mark:2 advanced:1 linear:1 technique:2 sophisticated:1 harmonic:2 sense:2 improvise:1 line:3 bass:1 figure:1 spontaneous:1 modulation:1 transition:2 fast:2 tempo:1 rubato:1 passage:1 reinhardt:1 saxophonist:1 parker:1 single:1 flowing:1 unusual:1 lifelong:1 habit:1 break:1 make:2 prefer:1 abandon:1 altogether:1 fingerstyle:1 find:1 enable:1 execute:1 concept:1 effectively:1 volume:1 demonstration:1 refine:1 let:1 manufacturer:1 name:1 fulfill:1 engagement:1 brand:1 travelling:1 one:1 really:1 gibson:1 e:1 mainly:1 master:1 crafter:1 jimmy:1 aquisto:1 epiphone:1 produce:1 edition:1 emperor:1 semi:1 acoustic:1 honour:1 previously:1 ibanez:1 continue:1 benson:1 pat:1 metheny:1 discography:1 select:1 bibliography:1 mel:3 bay:3 present:1 isbn:3 complete:1 miyakaku:1 takao:1 tokyo:1 seiunsha:1 photograph:1 collection:1 source:1 unedited:1 external:1 link:1 video:1 youtube:1 tab:1 memorial:1 hall:1 |@bigram jazz_guitarist:2 walk_basslines:1 gene_autry:1 hone_skill:1 los_angeles:3 frank_sinatra:1 johnny_carson:1 merv_griffin:1 grammy_award:2 duke_ellington:1 dizzy_gillespie:1 ella_fitzgerald:2 count_basie:1 django_reinhardt:1 charlie_parker:1 acoustic_guitar:1 pat_metheny:1 external_link:1 |
7,345 | Geography_of_the_Marshall_Islands | Map of the Marshall Islands The Marshalls consist of 29 atolls and five major islands, which form two parallel groups--the "Ratak" (sunrise) chain and the "Ralik" (sunset) chain. Two-thirds of the nation's population lives in Majuro and Ebeye. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development. Location: Oceania, group of atolls and reefs in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Papua New Guinea Geographic coordinates: Map references: Oceania Area: total: 181.3 km² land: 181.3 km² water: 0 km² note: includes the atolls of Bikini, Enewetak, and Kwajalein Area - comparative: about the size of Washington, DC Land boundaries: 0 km Coastline: 370.4 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm Climate: wet season from May to November; hot and humid; islands border typhoon belt Terrain: low coral limestone and sand islands Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location on Likiep 10 m Natural resources: phosphate deposits, marine products, deep seabed minerals Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 60% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 40% Irrigated land: NA km² Natural hazards: occasional typhoons Environment - current issues: inadequate supplies of potable water Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Geography - note: two archipelagic island chains of 30 atolls and 1,152 islands; Bikini and Enewetak are former US nuclear test sites; Kwajalein, the famous World War II battleground, is now used as a US missile test range | Geography_of_the_Marshall_Islands |@lemmatized map:2 marshall:2 islands:1 consist:1 atoll:4 five:1 major:1 island:6 form:1 two:3 parallel:1 group:2 ratak:1 sunrise:1 chain:3 ralik:1 sunset:1 third:1 nation:1 population:1 life:1 majuro:1 ebeye:1 outer:1 sparsely:1 populated:1 due:1 lack:1 employment:1 opportunity:1 economic:2 development:1 location:2 oceania:2 reef:1 north:1 pacific:2 ocean:2 one:1 half:1 way:1 hawaii:1 papua:1 new:1 guinea:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:2 total:1 land:5 water:2 note:2 include:1 bikini:2 enewetak:2 kwajalein:2 comparative:1 size:1 washington:1 dc:1 boundary:1 km:2 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 contiguous:1 zone:2 nm:3 exclusive:1 territorial:1 sea:2 climate:3 wet:1 season:1 may:1 november:1 hot:1 humid:1 border:1 typhoon:2 belt:1 terrain:1 low:2 coral:1 limestone:1 sand:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 point:2 high:1 unnamed:1 likiep:1 natural:2 resource:1 phosphate:1 deposit:1 marine:1 product:1 deep:1 seabed:1 mineral:1 use:2 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 irrigated:1 na:1 hazard:1 occasional:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 inadequate:1 supply:1 potable:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:2 desertification:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 pollution:1 sign:1 ratify:1 kyoto:1 protocol:1 geography:1 archipelagic:1 former:1 u:2 nuclear:1 test:2 site:1 famous:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 battleground:1 missile:1 range:1 |@bigram marshall_islands:1 sparsely_populated:1 pacific_ocean:2 geographic_coordinate:1 washington_dc:1 coastline_km:1 contiguous_zone:1 hot_humid:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 irrigated_land:1 supply_potable:1 potable_water:1 biodiversity_climate:1 ozone_layer:1 kyoto_protocol:1 |
7,346 | OSGi | The OSGi Alliance (formerly known as the Open Services Gateway initiative, now an obsolete name) is an open standards organization founded in March 1999. The Alliance and its members have specified a Java-based service platform that can be remotely managed. The core part of the specifications is a framework that defines an application life cycle management model, a service registry, an Execution environment and Modules. Based on this framework, a large number of OSGi Layers, APIs, and Services have been defined. OSGi Framework Scope Right|Classification: OSGi & System-Layering The Framework implements a complete and dynamic component model, something that does not exist in standalone Java/VM environments. Applications or components (coming in the form of bundles for deployment) can be remotely installed, started, stopped, updated and uninstalled without requiring a reboot; management of Java packages/classes is specified in great detail. Life cycle management is done via APIs which allow for remote downloading of management policies. The service registry allows bundles to detect the addition of new services, or the removal of services, and adapt accordingly. The original focus was on service gateways but the applicability turned out to be much wider. The OSGi specifications are now used in applications ranging from mobile phones to the open source Eclipse IDE. Other application areas include automobiles, industrial automation, building automation, PDAs, grid computing, entertainment (e.g. iPronto), fleet management and application servers. Specification Process The OSGi specification is developed by the members in an open process and made available to the public free of charge under the OSGi Specification License OSGi Specification License . The OSGi Alliance has a compliance program that is open to members only. As of September 2008, the list of certified OSGi implementations contains five entries. Architecture Right|OSGi Service Gateway Architecture Frameworks that implement the OSGi standard provide an environment for the modularization of applications into smaller bundles. Each bundle is a tightly-coupled, dynamically loadable collection of classes, jars, and configuration files that explicitly declare their external dependencies (if any). The framework is conceptually divided into the following areas: Bundles - Bundles are normal jar components with extra manifest headers. Services - The services layer connects bundles in a dynamic way by offering a publish-find-bind model for plain old Java objects(POJO). Services Registry - The API for management services (ServiceRegistration, ServiceTracker and ServiceReference). Life-Cycle - The API for life cycle management (install, start, stop, update, and uninstall bundles). Modules - The layer that defines encapsulation and declaration of dependencies (how a bundle can import and export code). Security - The layer that handles the security aspects by limiting bundle functionality to pre-defined capabilities. Execution Environment - Defines what methods and classes are available in a specific platform. There is no fixed list of execution environments, since it is subject to change as the Java Community Process creates new versions and editions of Java. However, the following set is currently supported by most OSGi implementations: CDC-1.0/Foundation-1.0 CDC-1.1/Foundation-1.1 OSGi/Minimum-1.0 OSGi/Minimum-1.1 JRE-1.1 From J2SE-1.2 up to J2SE-1.6 Bundles A bundle is a group of Java classes and additional resources equipped with a detailed manifest MANIFEST.MF file on all its contents, as well as additional services needed to give the included group of Java classes more sophisticated behaviors, to the extent of deeming the entire aggregate a component. Below an example of typical MANIFEST.MF file with OSGi Headers: Bundle-Name: Hello World Bundle-SymbolicName: org.wikipedia.helloworld Bundle-Description: A Hello World bundle Bundle-ManifestVersion: 2 Bundle-Version: 1.0.0 Bundle-Activator: org.wikipedia.Activator Export-Package: org.wikipedia.helloworld;version="1.0.0" Import-Package: org.osgi.framework;version="1.3.0" The meaning of the contents in the example is as follows Creating OSGi bundles by Costin Leau : Bundle-Name: Defines a human-readable name for this bundle, Simply assigns a short name to the bundle. Bundle-SymbolicName: The only required header, this entry specifies a unique identifier for a bundle, based on the reverse domain name convention (used also by the java packages). Bundle-Description: A description of the bundle's functionality. Bundle-ManifestVersion: This little known header indicates the OSGi specification to use for reading this bundle. Bundle-Version: Designates a version number to the bundle. Bundle-Activator: Indicates the class name to be invoked once a bundle is activated. Export-Package: Expresses what Java packages contained in a bundle will be made available to the outside world. Import-Package: Indicates what Java packages will be required from the outside world, in order to fulfill the dependencies needed in a bundle. Life-Cycle Right|OSGi Bundle Life-Cycle A Life Cycle layer adds bundles that can be dynamically installed, started, stopped, updated and uninstalled. Bundles rely on the module layer for class loading but add an API to manage the modules in run time. The lifecycle layer introduces dynamics that are normally not part of an application. Extensive dependency mechanisms are used to assure the correct operation of the environment. Life cycle operations are fully protected with the security architecture, making it virtually impossible to be attacked by viruses. Bundle State Description INSTALLED The bundle has been successfully installed. RESOLVED All Java classes that the bundle needs are available. This state indicates that the bundle is either ready to be started or has stopped. STARTING The bundle is being started, the BundleActivator.start method will be called, and this method has not yet returned. When the bundle has an activation policy, the bundle will remain in the STARTING state until the bundle is activated according to its activation policy. ACTIVE The bundle has been successfully activated and is running; its Bundle Activator start method has been called and returned. STOPPING The bundle is being stopped. The BundleActivator.stop method has been called but the stop method has not yet returned. UNINSTALLED The bundle has been uninstalled. It cannot move into another state. Below an example of typical Java class implementing the BundleActivator interface: package org.wikipedia; import org.osgi.framework.BundleActivator; import org.osgi.framework.BundleContext; public class Activator implements BundleActivator { private BundleContext context; public void start(BundleContext context) throws Exception { System.out.println("Starting: Hello World"); this.context = context; } public void stop(BundleContext context) throws Exception { System.out.println("Stopping: Goodbye Cruel World"); this.context = null; } } Services Standard Services The OSGi Alliance has specified many services. Services are specified by a Java interface. Bundles can implement this interface and register the service with the Service Registry. Clients of the service can find it in the registry, or react to it when it appears or disappears. The table below shows a description of OSGi System Services: System Services Description Logging The logging of information, warnings, debug information or errors is handled through the Log Service. It receives log entries and then dispatches these entries to other bundles that subscribed to this information. Configuration Admin This service allows an operator to set and get the configuration information of deployed bundles Device Access Facilitates the coordination of automatic detection and attachment of existing devices. This is used for Plug and Play scenarios. User Admin This service uses a database with user information (private and public) for authentication and authorization purposes. IO Connector The IO Connector Service implements the CDC/CLDC javax.microedition.io package as a service. This service allows bundles to provide new and alternative protocol schemes. Preferences Offers an alternative, more OSGi-friendly mechanism to using Java’s default java.util.Properties for storing preference Component Runtime The dynamic nature of services -- they can come and go at any time -- makes writing software harder. The Component Runtime specification can simplify handling these dynamic aspects by providing an XML based declaration of the dependencies. Deployment Admin Standardizes access to some of the responsibilities of the management agent. Event Admin Provides an interbundle communication mechanism based on a publish-and-subscribe model. Application Admin Simplifies the management of an environment with many different types of applications that are simultaneously available. The table below shows a description of OSGi Protocol Services: Protocol Services Description HTTP Service Allows information to be sent and received from OSGi using HTTP, the Web’s protocol. UPnP Device Service Specifies how OSGi bundles can be developed to interoperate with Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) devices. DMT Admin Defines an API for managing a device using concepts from the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) device management specifications. The table below shows a description of OSGi Miscellaneous Services: Miscellaneous Services Description Wire Admin Allows the connection between a Producer service and a Consumer service. XML Parser The XML Parser service allows a bundle to locate a parser with desired properties and compatibility with JAXP. Measurement and State The Measurement and State service allows and simplifies the correct handling of measurements in an OSGi service platform. Organization The OSGi Alliance was founded by Ericsson, IBM, Motorola, Sun Microsystems and others join in March 1999 (before incorporating as a nonprofit corporation it was called the Connected Alliance). Among its members are () more than 35 companies from quite different business areas, for example IONA Technologies, Ericsson, Deutsche Telekom, IBM, Makewave (formerly Gatespace Telematics), Motorola, Nokia, NTT, Oracle, ProSyst, Red Hat, Samsung Electronics, Siemens, SpringSource, and Telefonica. The Alliance has a Board of Directors which provides the organization's overall governance. OSGi Officers have various roles and responsibilities in supporting the Alliance. Technical work is conducted within Expert Groups (EGs) chartered by the Board of Directors, and non-technical work is conducted in various Working Groups and Committees. The technical work conducted within Expert Groups include developing specifications, reference implementations, and compliance tests. These Expert Groups, working together, have produced four major releases of the OSGi specifications (as of 2007). There are dedicated Expert Groups for the Enterprise, Mobile, Vehicle and the Core Platform areas. The Enterprise Expert Group (EEG) is the newest EG and is addressing Enterprise / Server-side applications. In November 2007 the Residential Expert Group (REG) started to work on specifications to remotely manage residential/home-gateways. Community In October 2003, Nokia, Motorola, IBM, ProSyst and other OSGi members formed a Mobile Expert Group (MEG) that will specify a MIDP-based service platform for the next generation of smart mobile phones, addressing some of the needs that CLDC cannot manage - other than CDC. MEG became part of OSGi as with R4. Also in 2003 Eclipse selected OSGi as the underlying runtime for the plug-in architecture used for the Eclipse Rich Client Platform and the IDE platform. Eclipse itself includes sophisticated tooling for developing OSGi bundles and there are a number of other Eclipse plug-ins aimed at supporting OSGi behaviour (e.g. both ProSyst and Knopflerfish have Eclipse plug-ins available specifically for OSGi developers). There is a vibrant free software community revolving around the OSGi. Some widely-used open source implementations are Equinox OSGi, Apache Felix, Knopflerfish OSGi project as well as the mBedded Server Equinox Edition. Regarding tooling, build system support and testing, the OPS4J Pax projects provide a lot of useful components and expertise. Specification Versions OSGi Release 1 (R1): May 2000 OSGi Release 2 (R2): October 2001 OSGi Release 3 (R3): March 2003 OSGi Release 4 (R4): October 2005 / September 2006 Core Specification (R4 Core): October 2005 Mobile Specification (R4 Mobile / JSR-232): September 2006 OSGi Release 4.1 (R4.1): May 2007 (AKA JSR-291) New in OSGi Release 4 The new features of OSGi R4 in brief are as follows: New modularization capabilities providing enhanced encapsulation of networked services that can share a single VM. Modularized class sharing and hiding of implementation details. Methods for handling multiple versions of the same classes so old and new applications can execute within the same VM. Localization of OSGi bundle manifests enabling service deployment anywhere. Enhancements in security and policies: The new Conditional Permission Admin service provides an elegant and simple way to manage networked services securely. It also supports dynamic policies that can depend on external (custom) conditions. Combined with R4 support for digital signatures, this provides a central security solution to large deployments of products using the OSGi Service Platform. A Declarative Services specification that addresses memory footprint issues that can prevent small embedded devices from using a service oriented architecture to support multiple applications. Additionally, it significantly simplifies the service-oriented programming model by declaratively handling the dynamics of services. Compatibility with Release 3, requiring no changes for existing OSGi bundles, applications, or services. OSGi Tutorial Hello World OSGi Tutorial Guidance and Information Exchange Frequently Asked Questions OSGi Developer Mail List OSGi Open Forum and Discussion Central Eclipse Equinox Article Index - Articles on an open source OSGi implementation ProSyst - Access to supported Open Source and Commercial OSGi implementations as well as to 100+ inhouse OSGi developers, seminars, trainings, consulting and custom development services aQute: OSGi Info - Information about OSGi and access to seminars OSGi Users' Forums - China, Japan, Korea, France, Spain, Sweden, Belgium, Germany and soon : Italy Related RFCs and Java Specifications RFC-2608 (Service Location Protocol) Sun JINI (Java Intelligent Network Infrastructure) Sun JCP JSR-8 (Open Services Gateway Specification) Sun JCP JSR-232 (Mobile Operational Management) Sun JCP JSR-246 (Device Management API) Sun JCP JSR-249 (Mobile Service Architecture for CDC) Sun JCP JSR-277 (Java Module System) Sun JCP JSR-291 (Dynamic Component Support for Java SE - AKA OSGi 4.1) Sun JCP JSR-294 (Improved Modularity Support in the Java Programming Language) Related Technology Standards MHP / OCAP Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) Universal Powerline Association HomePlug ITU-T G.hn LonWorks CORBA CEBus EHS (KNX) / CECED CHAIN X10 Java Management Extensions Projects Using OSGi Websphere - IBM Websphere JEE Application Server JBoss - Redhat's JBoss Application Server Weblogic - Oracle Weblogic Application Server SpringSource - Spring Source DM Server Carbon - open source SOA platform - modular ESB, Service Hosting, Data Services, Governance and Business Process runtime Datanucleus - open source data services and persistence platform in service oriented architectures OpenEJB - open source OSGi-enabled EJB 3.0 container that can be run both in standalone or embedded mode EasyBeans - open source EJB 3 container Eclipse - open source IDE and rich client platform Nuxeo - open source ECM Service Platform JOnAS 5 - open source Java EE 5 application server JPOX - open source object-relational mapper Newton - open source distributed OSGi/SCA runtime Business Intelligence and Reporting Tools (BIRT) Project - Open source reporting engine Apache Sling - OSGi-based applications layer for JCR content repositories. GlassFish (v3) - application server for J2EE Project Fuji in Open ESB v3 - Light weight and modular ESB core runtime. SIP Communicator - open source Java VoIP and multi-protocol instant messenger SpringSource dm Server - A module-based Java application server built on Spring, Tomcat and OSGi-based technologies. ServiceMix 4 - An open source ESB with an OSGi core. It also includes JBI support. FUSE ESB 4 - a productized and supported release of ServiceMix 4. GX WebManager Community Edition - An Enterprise Web Content Management System based on OSGi, spring and JCR netifera - open source network security framework Atlassian Plugin Framework 2 Dosgi - distributed OSGi through Web Services project References Bibliography Webinar OSGi Best Practices by OSGi Fellows Hargrave and Kriens at JavaOne 2007 Transactions and Clustering with OSGi with Apache ServiceMix PMC Chair Guillaume Nodet Converting (Large) Applications to OSGi by Peter Kriens and BJ Hargrave at JavaOne 2008 OSGi, the good the bad the ugly See also Knopflerfish Apache Felix Equinox Concierge OSGi Comparison of OSGi implementations External links OSGi Technology OSGi web site OSGi Alliance Developer Site OSGi Open Forum and Discussion Central The Eclipse 3.0 platform: Adopting OSGi technology ApacheCon EU 2006 presentation about OSGi best practices by Marcel Offermans. Nuxeo Runtime Documentation -- Nuxeo, open source Enterprise Content Management (ECM) solution built on OSGi technology Interview with Kriens and Hargrave (Podcast) An Introduction to OSGi on the Server Side by Daniel Rubio SOA World Article:What's happening with OSGi and why you should care by David Chappell and Khanderao Kand Makewave.com OSGi middleware technology company | OSGi |@lemmatized osgi:88 alliance:10 formerly:2 know:1 open:27 service:62 gateway:5 initiative:1 obsolete:1 name:7 standard:4 organization:3 found:2 march:3 member:5 specify:7 java:25 base:10 platform:13 remotely:3 manage:6 core:6 part:3 specification:18 framework:11 define:6 application:21 life:8 cycle:8 management:15 model:5 registry:5 execution:3 environment:7 module:6 large:3 number:3 layer:9 apis:2 scope:1 right:3 classification:1 system:8 implement:6 complete:1 dynamic:8 component:8 something:1 exist:3 standalone:2 vm:3 come:2 form:2 bundle:59 deployment:4 instal:4 start:11 stop:9 updated:2 uninstalled:4 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7,347 | Margaret_Sanger | Margaret Higgins Sanger Slee (September 14, 1879 – September 6, 1966) was an American birth control activist and the founder of the American Birth Control League (which eventually became Planned Parenthood). Although she initially met with opposition, Sanger gradually won some support for getting women access to contraception. In her drive to promote contraception and negative eugenics, Sanger remains a controversial figure. Early life Sanger was born in Corning, New York. Her mother, Anne Purcell Higgins, was a devout Roman Catholic who went through 18 pregnancies (with 11 live births) Steinem. before dying of tuberculosis and cervical cancer. Sanger's father, Michael Hennessy Higgins, earned his living "chiseling angels and saints out of huge blocks of white marble or gray granite for tombstones," and was also an activist for women's suffrage, free public education, and socialism. Sanger was the sixth of eleven children James L. Cooper and Sheila McIsaac Cooper, The Roots of American Feminist Thought (Alvin and Bacon, 1973), p219 and spent much of her youth assisting in household chores and care of her younger siblings. Sanger attended Claverack College, a boarding school in Claverack for two years. Her sisters paid her tuition. Sanger returned home in 1896 following her fathers request to come home to nurse her mother. Her mother died March 31, 1896. Toward the end of the century the mother of one of her Claverack friends arranged for her to enroll at a nursing program at a hospital in White Plains, an affluent New York suburb. In 1902, Margaret Higgins married architect William Sanger and the couple settled in New York City. Sanger had developed tuberculosis as a result of the care of her ill mother and her own overwork, and the Sangers moved to Saranac, New York in the Adirondacks, for health reasons. In 1903, she gave birth to her first child, Stuart. In 1912, after a fire destroyed the home that her husband had designed, Sanger and her family moved to New York City, where she went to work in the East Side slums of Manhattan. That same year, she also started writing a column for the New York Call entitled "What Every Girl Should Know." Distributing a pamphlet, Family Limitation, to women, Sanger repeatedly caused scandal and risked imprisonment by acting in defiance of the Comstock Law of 1873, which outlawed as obscene the dissemination of contraceptive information and devices. Sanger felt that in order for women to have more “equal footing” in society and to have physically and mentally healthy lives, they needed to be able to decide when a pregnancy would be most convenient for themselves. In addition, access to birth control would also fulfill a critical psychological need by allowing women to be able to fully enjoy sexual relations, without being burdened by the fear of pregnancy. Sanger and her husband William moved to New York City in 1910. Now in the big city they became immersed in the radical bohemian culture that was then flourishing in Greenwich Village. The Sangers became involved with local intellectuals, artists, and activists. Some of the better-known acquaintances they were affiliated with were John Reed, Upton Sinclair, Mabel Dodge, and Emma Goldman. As Sanger worked in New York's Lower East Side with poor women who were repeatedly suffering due to frequent childbirth and self induced abortions, she began to speak out for the need of women to become knowledgeable about birth control. While she was working on duty as a nurse, Sanger met Sadie Sachs when she was called to her apartment to assist her after she had become extremely ill due to a self-induced abortion. Afterward, Sachs begged the attending doctor to tell her how she could prevent this from happening again, to which the doctor simply gave the advice to remain abstinent. A few months later, Sanger was once again called back to Sach’s apartment, only this time, Sachs was found dead after yet another self-induced abortion. This was a turning point in Sanger’s life. Sachs’ predicament was not at all uncommon during that time period. Because of this particular incident, Sanger was able to see firsthand that women were literally dying to learn how to prevent unwanted pregnancies. She knew then, more than ever, that she needed to do something to help these desperate women before they were driven to pursue dangerous and illegal abortions. Margaret separated from her husband William in 1913. In 1914, Sanger launched The Woman Rebel, an eight page monthly newsletter promoting contraception, with the slogan "No Gods and No Masters" (and coining the term "birth control" Galvin, Rachel. Margaret Sanger's "Deeds of Terrible Virtue" Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities, September/October 1998, Volume 19/Number 5 Margaret Sanger Clinic, Statement of Significance (September 14, 1993) National Historic Landmarks Program ) and that each woman be "the absolute mistress of her own body." She was indicted for violating US postal obscenity laws in August 1914, but jumped bail and fled to England under the alias "Bertha Watson". Sanger returned to the US in October 1915 and her five-year-old daughter, Peggy, died November 6. In 1915, William Sanger distributed a copy of his wife’s publication, “Family Limitations,” to a postal worker who was actually working undercover. Because he was found to have been distributing “obscene” material, he was jailed for 30 days while his wife was still in Europe. Family planning clinics right | Margaret Sanger, birth control advocate, and her two sons. In 1915, Sanger visited a Dutch birth control clinic in which she became convinced that a diaphragm was actually a more effective means of contraception than the suppositories and douches that she had already been distributing back in the United States. This realization began the slow introduction of the diaphragm to the United States due to Sanger later illegally smuggling them into the country. In 1916, Sanger published What Every Girl Should Know, which was later widely distributed as one of the E. Haldeman-Julius "Little Blue Books." It provided information about such topics as menstruation and sexuality in adolescents. It was followed in 1917 by What Every Mother Should Know. She also launched the monthly periodical The Birth Control Review and Birth Control News and contributed articles on health to the Socialist Party paper, The Call. On October 16, 1916, Sanger opened a family planning and birth control clinic at 46 Amboy St. in the Brownsville neighborhood of Brooklyn, the first of its kind in the United States. It was raided nine days later by the police. She served 30 days in prison. An initial appeal was rejected but in 1918 an opinion written by Judge Frederick E. Crane of the New York Court of Appeals allowed doctors to prescribe contraception. Sanger founded the American Birth Control League (ABCL) in 1921 with Lothrop Stoddard and C. C. Little. In 1922, she traveled to Japan to work with Japanese feminist Kato Shidzue promoting birth control; over the next several years, she would return another six times for this purpose. In this year she married her second husband, the oil tycoon, James Noah H. Slee. In 1923, under the auspices of the ABCL, she established the Clinical Research Bureau (CRB). Sanger eventually found a loophole in the system when she had learned that physicians were exempt from the law that prohibited the distribution of contraceptive information to women when prescribed for medical reasons. With the help of her wealthy supporters, Sanger was finally able to open the first legal birth control clinic that was staffed entirely by female doctors and social workers. It was the first legal birth control clinic in the US (renamed Margaret Sanger Research Bureau in 1940). It received crucial grants from John D. Rockefeller, Jr.'s Bureau of Social Hygiene from 1924 onwards, which were made anonymously to avoid public exposure of the Rockefeller name to her agenda. The family also consistently supported her ongoing efforts in regard to population control. Crucial, anonymous Rockefeller grants to the Clinical Research Bureau and support for population control - see John Ensor Harr, and Peter J. Johnson. The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. (pp. 191, 461-62) Also in 1923, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control and served as its president until its dissolution in 1937 after birth control, under medical supervision, was legalized in many states. In 1927, Sanger helped organize the first World Population Conference in Geneva. Between 1921 and 1926, Sanger received over a million letters from mothers requesting information on birth control. From 1916 on, she lectured "in many places—halls, churches, women's clubs, homes, theaters" to "many types of audiences—cotton workers, churchmen, liberals, Socialists, scientists, clubmen, and fashionable, philanthropically minded women." In 1926, Sanger even gave a lecture on birth control to the women's auxiliary of the Ku Klux Klan in Silver Lake, New Jersey. She described it as "one of the weirdest experiences I had in lecturing," and added that she had to use only "the most elementary terms, as though I were trying to make children understand." Sanger's talk was well-received by the group and as a result "a dozen invitations to similar groups were proffered." In 1928, Sanger resigned as the president of the ABCL, severing all legal ties, and took full control of the CRB, renaming it the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/secure/aboutms/organization_bccrb.html . Two years later, she became president of the Birth Control International Information Center. In January 1932, she addressed the New History Society, an organization founded by Mirza Ahmad Sohrab and Julie Chanler; this address would later become the basis for an article entitled A Plan for Peace. Pouzzner. In 1937, Sanger became chairperson of the Birth Control Council of America and launched two publications, The Birth Control Review and The Birth Control News. From 1939 to 1942, she was an honorary delegate of the Birth Control Federation of America, which included a supervisory role with the Negro Project, alongside Mary Lasker and Clarence Gamble. Birth Control Federation of America, The Margaret Sanger Papers Project . From 1952 to 1959, she served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation; at the time, the largest private international "family planning" organization. In the early 1960s, Sanger promoted the use of the newly available birth control pill. She toured Europe, Africa, and Asia, lecturing and helping to establish clinics. Sanger died in 1966 in Tucson, Arizona, eight days shy of her 87th birthday and only a few months after the Griswold v. Connecticut decision, which legalized birth control for married couples in the US, the apex of her 50-year agenda. Sanger's books include Woman and the New Race (1920), The Pivot of Civilization (1922), Happiness in Marriage (1926), My Fight For Birth Control (1931), and an autobiography (1938). The book, “Motherhood in Bondage”, is a large compilation of actual letters that were written to Margaret Sanger in desperation by thousands of women who were begging to be given information on how they could prevent unwanted pregnancies for a vast number of different reasons. Many women were simply too young, too unhealthy, or too poor to take care of a child. Other women were in abusive relationships or already had too many children to care for. Philosophy Although Sanger was greatly influenced by her father, her mother's death left her with a deep sense of dissatisfaction concerning her own and society's understanding of women's health and childbirth. She also criticized the censorship of her message about sexuality and contraceptives by the civil and religious authorities as an effort by men to keep women in submission. An atheist, Sanger attacked Christian leaders opposed to her message, accusing them of Obscurantism and insensitivity to women's concerns. Sanger was particularly critical of the lack of awareness of the dangers of and the scarcity of treatment opportunities for venereal disease among women. She claimed that these social ills were the result of the male establishment's intentionally keeping women in ignorance. Sanger also deplored the contemporary absence of regulations requiring registration of people diagnosed with venereal diseases (which she contrasted with mandatory registration of those with infectious diseases such as measles). Sanger was also an avowed socialist, blaming what she saw as the evils of contemporary capitalism for the unsatisfactory conditions of young white working-class women. Her very personal views on this issue are evident in the last pages of What Every Girl Should Know. Psychology of sexuality While Sanger's understanding of and practical approach to human physiology were progressive for her times, her thoughts on the psychology of human sexuality place her squarely in the pre-Freudian 19th century. Birth control, it would appear, was for her more a means to limit the undesirable side effects of sex than a way of liberating men and women to enjoy it. In What Every Girl Should Know, she wrote: "Every normal man and woman has the power to control and direct his sexual impulse. Men and woman who have it in control and constantly use their brain cells thinking deeply, are never sensual." Sexuality, for her, was a kind of weakness, and surmounting it indicated strength: Sanger was also influenced by psychologist Havelock Ellis, especially in regards to his theories on female sexuality and its importance. His views inspired Sanger to broaden her arguments for birth control claiming that in addition to an already large number of reasons, it would also fulfill a critical psychological need by enabling women to fully enjoy sexual relations, free from the fear of an unwanted pregnancy. After Sanger and her husband divorced later on, Sanger had an affair with Ellis and also reportedly had an intimate relationship with H.G. Wells. Though sex cells are placed in a part of the anatomy for the essential purpose of easily expelling them into the female for the purpose of reproduction, there are other elements in the sexual fluid which are the essence of blood, nerve, brain, and muscle. When redirected in to the building and strengthening of these, we find men or women of the greatest endurance greatest magnetic power. A girl can waste her creative powers by brooding over a love affair to the extent of exhausting her system, with the results not unlike the effects of masturbation and debauchery. Sanger, "What Every Girl Should Know", 1920, p. 46 (PDF available here) Her thoughts on human development were also laden with racism: It is said that a fish as large as a man has a brain no larger than the kernel of an almond. In all fish and reptiles where there is no great brain development, there is also no conscious sexual control. The lower down in the scale of human development we go the less sexual control we find. It is said that the aboriginal Australian, the lowest known species of the human family, just a step higher than the chimpanzee in brain development, has so little sexual control that police authority alone prevents him from obtaining sexual satisfaction on the streets. Sanger, "What Every Girl Should Know", 1920, p. 47 Sanger, like most of the population of her time, also considered masturbation dangerous: In my experience as a trained nurse while attending persons afflicted with various and often revolting diseases, no matter what their ailments, I have never found any one so repulsive as the chronic masturbator. It would be difficult not to fill page upon page of heartrending confessions made by young girls, whose lives were blighted by this pernicious habit, always begun so innocently, for even after they have ceased the habit, they find themselves incapable of any relief in the natural act. [...] Perhaps the greatest physical danger to the chronic masturbator is the inability to perform the sexual act naturally. Sanger, "What Every Girl Should Know", 1920, pp. 39-40 For her, masturbation was not just a physical act, it was a mental state: In the boy or girl past puberty, we find one of the most dangerous forms of masturbation, i.e., mental masturbation, which consists of forming mental pictures, or thinking obscene or voluptuous pictures. This form is considered especially harmful to the brain, for the habit becomes so fixed that it is almost impossible to free the thoughts from lustful pictures. Sanger, "What Every Girl Should Know", 1920, p. 39 Eugenics and euthanasia Sanger was a proponent of negative eugenics, a social philosophy which claims that human hereditary traits can be improved through social intervention. Methods of social intervention (targeted at those seen as "genetically unfit") advocated by some negative eugenicists have included selective breeding, sterilization and euthanasia. In A Plan for Peace (1932), for example, Sanger proposed a congressional department to: Keep the doors of immigration closed to the entrance of certain aliens whose condition is known to be detrimental to the stamina of the race, such as feebleminded, idiots, morons, insane, syphilitic, epileptic, criminal, professional prostitutes, and others in this class barred by the immigration laws of 1924. Sanger, "A Plan For Peace", Birth Control Review, April 1932, p. 106 And, following: Apply a stern and rigid policy of sterilization and segregation to that grade of population whose progeny is already tainted or whose inheritance is such that objectionable traits may be transmitted to offspring. Sanger, "A Plan For Peace", Birth Control Review, April 1932, p. 106 Her first pamphlet read: It is a vicious cycle; ignorance breeds poverty and poverty breeds ignorance. There is only one cure for both, and that is to stop breeding these things. Stop bringing to birth children whose inheritance cannot be one of health or intelligence. Stop bringing into the world children whose parents cannot provide for them. Herein lies the key of civilization. For upon the foundation of an enlightened and voluntary motherhood shall a future civilization emerge. Sanger, What Every Boy and Girl Should Know, 1915, p. 140 Sanger saw birth control as a means to prevent "dysgenic" children from being born into a disadvantaged life, and dismissed "positive eugenics" (which promoted greater fertility for the "fitter" upper classes) as impractical. Though many leaders in the negative eugenics movement were calling for active euthanasia of the "unfit," Sanger spoke out against such methods. She believed that women with the power and knowledge of birth control were in the best position to produce "fit" children. She rejected any type of eugenics that would take control out of the hands of those actually giving birth. Edwin Black writes: In [William] Robinson's book, Eugenics, Marriage and Birth Control (Practical Eugenics), he advocated gassing the children of the unfit. In plain words, Robinson insisted: 'The best thing would be to gently chloroform these children or give them a dose of potassium cyanide.' Margaret Sanger was well aware that her fellow birth control advocates were promoting lethal chambers, but she herself rejected the idea completely. 'Nor do we believe,' wrote Sanger in Pivot of Civilization, 'that the community could or should send to the lethal chamber the defective progeny resulting from irresponsible and unintelligent breeding.' Black (The War Against the Weak), 251. While comparisons are made, Sanger's views diverged from the Nazi eugenics implementation, which was an aggressive, and lethal, program. In April, 1933, the Planned Parenthood publication Birth Control Review printed an article by Ernst Rüdin (who became a member of the Nazi's Expert Committee on Questions of Population and Racial Policy in June) which declared "the danger to the community of the unsegregated feeble-minded woman," and called for action "without delay." Rüdin, "Eugenics Sterlization: An Urgent Need", Birth Control Review, April 1932, p. 102-104 Sanger did not agree with Nazi Germany, however, and in May Sanger wrote in a letter: "All the news from Germany is sad & horrible, and to me more dangerous than any other war going on any where because it has so many good people who applaud the atrocities & claim its right. The sudden antagonism in Germany against the Jews & the vitriolic hatred of them is spreading underground here & is far more dangerous than the aggressive policy of the Japanese in Manchuria.." http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/secure/newsletter/articles/sanger-hitler_equation.html About placing the responsibility for eugenic control in the hands of individual parents rather than the state, she wrote: "The campaign for birth control is not merely of eugenic value, but is practically identical with the final aims of eugenics.... We are convinced that racial regeneration, like individual regeneration, must come 'from within.' That is, it must be autonomous, self-directive, and not imposed from without." Margaret Sanger. "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda." Birth Control Review, October 1921, page 5 We maintain that a woman possessing an adequate knowledge of her reproductive functions is the best judge of the time and conditions under which her child should be brought into the world. We further maintain that it is her right, regardless of all other considerations, to determine whether she shall bear children or not, and how many children she shall bear if she chooses to become a mother... Only upon a free, self-determining motherhood can rest any unshakable structure of racial betterment. Sanger, "Birth Control and Racial Betterment." The Birth Control Review, 3(2), 11-12 She nevertheless advocated certain instances of coercion, in cases where she considered the parents unfit to decide whether they should bear children: "The undeniably feeble-minded should, indeed, not only be discouraged but prevented from propagating their kind." Sanger, quoted in Charles Valenza: "Was Margaret Sanger a Racist?" Family Planning Perspectives, January-February 1985, page 44. Freedom of speech Sanger was an avid defender of free speech who was arrested at least eight times for expressing her views in a time when speaking publicly in favor of birth control was illegal. She stated in interviews that she had been influenced by the agnostic orator Robert G. Ingersoll, who spoke in her hometown when she was 12 years old. "The Child Who Was Mother to a Woman" from The New Yorker, April 11, 1925, page 11. Abortion and related issues In a chapter from Woman and the New Race (1920) entitled "Contraceptives or Abortion?," Sanger wrote, "While there are cases where even the law recognizes an abortion as justifiable if recommended by a physician, I assert that the hundreds of thousands of abortions performed in America each year are a disgrace to civilization." Roger Streitmatter has claimed that Sanger's opposition to abortion stemmed primarily from a concern for the dangers to the mother rather than moral issues. Nonetheless, in her 1938 autobiography, Sanger notes that her 1916 opposition to abortion was based on the taking of life: "To each group we explained what contraception was; that abortion was the wrong way—no matter how early it was performed it was taking life; that contraception was the better way, the safer way—it took a little time, a little trouble, but was well worth while in the long run, because life had not yet begun." In a 1916 edition of Family Limitation, Sanger advised women douche with boric acid and to take quinine to prevent implantation. She wrote further, "No one can doubt that there are times when an abortion is justifiable but they will become unnecessary when care is taken to prevent conception. This is the only cure for abortions." Legacy Sanger remains a controversial figure. While she is widely credited as a leader of the modern birth control movement, and remains an iconic figure for the American reproductive rights movements, pro-life groups condemn Sanger's views, attributing her efforts to promote birth control to a desire to "purify" the human race through eugenics, and even to eliminate minority races by placing birth control clinics in minority neighborhoods. Marshall. Despite allegations of racism, Sanger's work with minorities earned the respect of civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr. Planned Parenthood Federation of America. In their biographical article about Margaret Sanger, Planned Parenthood notes: In 1930, Sanger opened a family planning clinic in Harlem that sought to enlist support for contraceptive use and to bring the benefits of family planning to women who were denied access to their city's health and social services. Staffed by a black physician and black social worker, the clinic was endorsed by The Amsterdam News (the powerful local newspaper), the Abyssinian Baptist Church, the Urban League, and the black community's elder statesman, W. E. B. Du Bois. Knowles. In 1957, the American Humanist Association named her Humanist of the Year. A residential building is named after her on the Stony Brook University campus. Notes References Books Journals Websites See also Anthony Comstock C. C. Little Emma Goldman Ernst Rüdin Havelock Ellis H.G. Wells Houghton family Lothrop Stoddard Mary Ware Dennett Further reading Works by Margaret Sanger Family limitations (1917; 6th ed.) (Michigan State University) The Case for Birth Control: A Supplementary Brief and Statement of Facts by Margaret Sanger (1917) (Google Books) Woman and the New Race c.1920 (Harvard University); (Project Gutenberg); (Google Books) What Every Girl Should Know (1920 ed.); (1922 ed.) (Michigan State University) What Every Mother Should Know (1921) (Michigan State University) Debate on birth control (c1921) (Michigan State University) The Pivot of Civilization (1922) (Project Gutenberg); via Google Books "The Case for Birth Control" (first published in the Woman Citizen, February 23, 1924) My Fight for Birth Control (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1931) Correspondence between Sanger and Katharine McCormick The Margaret Sanger Papers at Smith College'' The Margaret Sanger Papers Project at New York University Mike Wallace video interview Mike Wallace interviews Margaret Sanger about over-population, the Catholic Church, morality, and, most importantly, why she became an advocate for birth control, Sept. 21, 1957. Hosted at the Harry Ransom Center. 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7,348 | Albion,_Michigan | Albion is a city in Calhoun County in the south central region of the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 9,144 at the 2000 census and is part of the Battle Creek Metropolitan Statistical Area. From the time that the earliest English-speaking settlers arrived, the area has also been known as The Forks, because it is situated at the confluence of the north and south branches of the Kalamazoo River. The Festival of the Forks has been held annually since 1967 to celebrate Albion's ethnic heritage. The presence of several major manufacturers since the 19th century has given Albion the reputation of a factory town. Albion College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,950. Albion is a sister city with Noisy-le-Roi, France. Albion is the birthplace of food writer M. F. K. Fisher. History The first European-American settler Tenney Peabody arrived in 1833. As local legend goes, Peabody's wife decided to name the city after Albion, Oswego County, New York, former residence of prominent pioneer Jesse Crowell. The city was almost named Peabodyville, but Albion was the preferred choice. Crowell arrived in 1835 and established the Albion Company to lay out the plan for the village and sell property to other pioneers as they arrived. He became the first postmaster in 1838. Albion incorporated as a village in 1855 and as a city in 1885. In 1835, Methodist Episcopal settlers established Albion College, which was known by a few other names before 1861 when the college was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women. The first classes were held in Albion in 1843. The forks of the Kalamazoo River provided power for mills, and Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. A railroad line arrived in 1852, fostering the development of other industries. In 1973 Albion was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. It celebrated winning the award on May 15, 1974 when the Governor of Michigan, William Milliken, and many dignitaries came to town. However, in 1975 the closure of a major factory cut the celebration short and new challenges were created overnight. Since that time citizens have mobilized, with support from the Albion Community Foundation founded in 1968, and the Albion Volunteer Service Organization, founded in the 1980s with support from Albion College, to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity. Key to the City Honor Bestowed: 1964: Aunt Jemima visits Albion on January 25, 1964. The Key To The City 1960s: Ann Landers was presented with a key upon her visit to Starr Commonwealth for Boys. Law and government Albion has a Council-Manager form of government. City residents elect a Mayor and City Council members from six districts. The council in turn selects a City Manager to handle day-to-day affairs of the city. The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.5 square miles (11.7 km²), of which, 4.5 square miles (11.6 km²) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km²) of it (0.89%) is water. Albion is positioned 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 9,144 people, 3,252 households, and 2,061 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,050.2 per square mile (791.6/km²). There were 3,591 housing units at an average density of 805.1/sq mi (310.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 61.05% White, 33.22% Black or African American, 0.36% Native American, 0.69% Asian, 1.61% from other races, and 3.07% from two or more races. 4.55% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 3,252 households out of which 31.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.0% were married couples living together, 21.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.07. In the city the population was spread out with 25.8% under the age of 18, 19.7% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females there were 83.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $30,245, and the median income for a family was $37,399. Males had a median income of $35,956 versus $22,975 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,165. About 15.0% of families and 20.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.6% of those under age 18 and 13.9% of those age 65 or over. Rail transportation Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides daily service to Albion, operating its Wolverine both directions between Chicago, Illinois and Pontiac, Michigan via Detroit. See also Old U.S. 12 Notable residents Jack Vaughn, Assistant Secretary of State, Ambassador to Panama and Colombia, and Director of the Peace Corps from 1966 to 1969 grew up in Albion. Bill Laswell, Jazz bassist, record producer and record label owner grew up in Albion graduating from Albion High School. Gary Lee Nelson, Composer, pioneer in electronic and computer music grew up in Albion. References External links Albion Michigan Home Page Historical Albion Michigan Official City of Albion Government Home Page Albion E-News -- Local News, Obituaries, Classifieds Albion E-Calendar -- Community Calendar of Events Albion E-Directory -- Business and Nonprofit Organization Directory Albion Mi Community Albion Biz Expo -- Albion Mich. Online Virtual Tradeshow Albion Artists -- Albion Michigan Artists showing and selling works of art Albion Character -- Albion MI Character Education, teaching the 6 Pillars of Character Festival of the Forks -- Albion's annual music and food festival by the forks of the Kalamazoo River The Greater Albion Chamber of Commerce Albion Michigan Community Foundation -- For Good. For Ever. Ismon House -- Community Meeting Place in Albion Mich. Albion Youth Theatre -- Children's theater group in Albion | Albion,_Michigan |@lemmatized albion:44 city:19 calhoun:1 county:2 south:2 central:1 region:1 low:1 peninsula:1 u:2 state:3 michigan:7 population:6 census:3 part:1 battle:1 creek:1 metropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:3 time:2 early:1 english:1 speak:1 settler:3 arrive:5 also:2 know:2 fork:5 situate:1 confluence:1 north:2 branch:1 kalamazoo:3 river:3 festival:3 hold:2 annually:1 since:3 celebrate:2 ethnic:1 heritage:1 presence:1 several:1 major:2 manufacturer:1 century:1 give:1 reputation:1 factory:2 town:3 college:5 private:1 liberal:1 art:2 student:1 sister:1 noisy:1 le:1 roi:1 france:1 birthplace:1 food:2 writer:1 f:1 k:1 fisher:1 history:1 first:3 european:1 american:3 tenney:1 peabody:2 local:2 legend:1 go:1 wife:1 decide:1 name:4 oswego:1 new:2 york:1 former:1 residence:1 prominent:1 pioneer:3 jesse:1 crowell:2 almost:1 peabodyville:1 preferred:1 choice:1 establish:2 company:1 lay:1 plan:1 village:2 sell:2 property:1 become:2 postmaster:1 incorporate:1 methodist:1 episcopal:1 fully:1 authorize:1 confer:1 four:2 year:7 degree:3 men:1 woman:1 class:1 provide:2 power:1 mill:2 quickly:1 well:1 agricultural:1 market:1 railroad:1 line:2 foster:1 development:1 industry:1 america:1 national:2 civic:1 league:1 win:1 award:1 may:1 governor:1 william:1 milliken:1 many:1 dignitary:1 come:1 however:1 closure:1 cut:1 celebration:1 short:1 challenge:2 create:1 overnight:1 citizen:1 mobilize:1 support:2 community:5 foundation:2 found:2 volunteer:1 service:2 organization:2 address:1 diminish:1 economic:1 opportunity:1 key:3 honor:1 bestow:1 aunt:1 jemima:1 visit:2 january:1 ann:1 lander:1 present:2 upon:1 starr:1 commonwealth:1 boy:1 law:1 government:3 council:5 manager:2 form:1 resident:2 elect:3 mayor:3 member:3 six:1 district:1 turn:1 select:1 handle:1 day:2 affair:1 preside:1 vote:1 term:1 stagger:1 every:4 two:3 geography:1 accord:1 united:1 bureau:1 total:1 square:4 mile:4 land:1 water:1 position:1 equator:1 west:1 prime:1 meridian:1 demographic:1 people:1 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:3 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 native:1 asian:1 race:3 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:2 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 old:3 size:2 spread:1 median:4 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 include:1 rail:2 transportation:1 amtrak:1 passenger:1 system:1 daily:1 operate:1 wolverine:1 direction:1 chicago:1 illinois:1 pontiac:1 via:1 detroit:1 see:1 notable:1 jack:1 vaughn:1 assistant:1 secretary:1 ambassador:1 panama:1 colombia:1 director:1 peace:1 corp:1 grow:3 bill:1 laswell:1 jazz:1 bassist:1 record:2 producer:1 label:1 owner:1 graduating:1 high:1 school:1 gary:1 lee:1 nelson:1 composer:1 electronic:1 computer:1 music:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:2 page:2 historical:1 official:1 e:3 news:2 obituary:1 classified:1 calendar:2 event:1 directory:2 business:1 nonprofit:1 biz:1 expo:1 mich:2 online:1 virtual:1 tradeshow:1 artist:1 artists:1 show:1 work:1 character:3 education:1 teach:1 pillar:1 annual:1 great:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 good:1 ever:1 ismon:1 house:1 meeting:1 place:1 youth:1 theatre:1 theater:1 group:1 |@bigram metropolitan_statistical:1 situate_confluence:1 le_roi:1 methodist_episcopal:1 census_bureau:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 chicago_illinois:1 pontiac_michigan:1 jazz_bassist:1 external_link:1 nonprofit_organization:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
7,349 | Demographics_of_Israel | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Israel, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Citizenship noun: Israeli(s) adjective: Israeli Population (December 2008) Total: 7,411,000 note: includes over 200,000 Israelis and 250,000 Arabs in East Jerusalem, about 270,000 Israeli settlers in the West Bank, and about 20,000 in the Golan Heights (July 2007 est.). Does not include foreigners living in the country (estimated around 150-200,000). Age Structure (2007) 0–14 years: 26.1% (male 858,246 / female 818,690) 15–64 years: 64.2% (male 2,076,649 / female 2,046,343) 65 years and over: 9.7% (male 269,483 / female 357,268) Population growth rate 1.8% (2007) äåãòåú ìòéúåðåú During the 1990s, the Jewish population growth rate was about 3% per year, as a result of massive immigration to Israel, primarily from the republics of the former Soviet Union. There is also a high population growth rate among certain Jewish groups, especially adherents of Haredi Judaism. The growth rate of the Arab population in Israel is 2.5%, while the growth rate of the Jewish population in Israel is 1.7%. The growth rate of the both Jewish and Arab population is slowing down from 3.8% in 1999 to 2.5% in 2006 for Arab and 2.4% to 1.7% for Jew. The fastest growing segment of population remain to be Arab Muslim with the latest growth rate of 2.8% for 2007. Crude birth rate 20.8 births/1,000 population (2005) In 2006, there were a total of 148,170 births. (143,913 in 2005 & 136,390 in 2000). Of this number, 104,513 were to Jewish mothers. (100,657 in 2005 and 91,936 in 2000). 34,337 were to Muslim mothers (34,217 in 2005, 35,740 in 2000). 2,601 to Druze (2,533 in 2005 & 2,708 in 2000). 2,500 to Christians (2,487 in 2005 & 2,789 in 2000). According to research culled by Haaretz, between the mid-1980s and 2000, the birthrate in the Muslim sector was stable at 4.6-4.7 children per woman; After 2001 a gradual decline became evident, reaching 4.0 children per woman in 2005. By point of comparison, in 2005 there was a stable birthrate of 2.6-2.7 children among the Jewish population. Avraham Tal."It's ideology, not demography", Haaretz, October 23, 2006 Crude death rate 6.18 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) There were a total of 38,666 deaths in 2006. (39,026 in 2005 & 37,688 in 2000). Of this 33,568 were Jews (34,031 in 2005 & 33,421 in 2000). 3,078 were Muslims (2,968 in 2005 & 2,683 in 2000). 360 were Druze (363 in 2005 & 305 in 2000). 712 were Christian (686 in 2005 & 666 in 2000). Net migration rate 3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) There were a total of 19,269 immigrants in 2006: 7,472 from the Former Soviet Union, 3,595 from Ethiopia, 2,411 from France, 2,159 from the United States, 594 from the United Kingdom, 304 from India, 293 from Argentina, 232 from Brazil, 228 from Canada, 142 from Colombia, 134 from Venezuela, 114 from South Africa, 112 from Germany, 91 from Belgium, 91 from Central America, 85 from Switzerland, 73 from Uruguay, 72 from Mexico, 66 from Oceania, 63 from Hungary, 61 from Chile, 50 from Romania and 50 from the Netherlands. Emigration For many years definitive data on Israeli emigration was unavailable. Henry Kamm. "Israeli emigration inspires anger and fear;" New York Times January 4, 1981 In The Israeli Diaspora sociologist Stephen J. Gold maintains that calculation of Jewish emigration has been a contentious issue, explaining, "Since Zionism, the philosophy that underlies the existence of the Jewish state, calls for return home of the world's Jews, the opposite movement - Israelis leaving the Jewish state to reside elsewhere - clearly presents an ideological and demographic problem." Stephen J. Gold. The Israeli Diaspora; Routledge 2002, p.8 In the past several decades, emigration (yerida) has seen a considerable increase. From 1990 to 2005, 230,000 Israelis left the country; a large proportion of these departures included people who initially immigrated to Israel and then reversed their course (48% of all post-1990 departures and even 60% of 2003 and 2004 departures were former immigrants to Israel). 8% of Jewish immigrants in the post-1990 period left Israel, while 15% of non-Jewish immigrants did. In 2005 alone, 21,500 Israelis left the country and had not yet returned at the end of 2006; among them 73% were Jews, 5% Arabs, and 22% "Others" (mostly non-Jewish immigrants, with Jewish ancestry, from USSR). At the same time, 10,500 Israelis came back to Israel after over one year abroad; 84% were Jews, 9% Others, and 7% Arabs. ICBS 2005 departures and returns According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, as of 2005, 650,000 Israelis had left the country for over one year and not returned. Of them, 530,000 are still alive today. This number does not include the children born overseas. It should also be noted that Israeli law grants citizenship only to the first generation of children born to Israeli emigrants. Sex ratio At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 6.89 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 7.61 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 6.14 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth (2006) Total population: 79.46 years Male: 77.33 years Female: 81.7 years Total fertility rate (2008) In Israel, the total fertility rate (TFR) is 2.9 children born per woman. TFR was 2.8 for Jews (2.69 in 2005, 2.67 in 2000), 3.9 for Muslims (4.03 in 2005, 4.57 in 2000), 2.49 for Druze (2.59 in 2005, 2.87 in 2000), 2.14 for Christians (2.15 in 2005, 2.35 in 2000) and 1.55 for Others (1.49 in 2005, 1.55 in 2000). TFR is very high among Haredi Jews. For Ashkenazi Haredim, the TFR rose to 8.51 in 1996 from 6.91 in 1980. The figure for 2008 is estimated to be even higher. TFR for Sephardi/Mizrachi Haredim rose from 4.57 in 1980 to 6.57 in 1996. TFR for Mizrahi Haredim Ethnic groups According to the 2008 Israeli census, Israel's population of 7,282,000 is broken down into the following ethnic groups: ICBS ethnic breakdown {| class="toccolours sortable" border="1" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse:collapse" |+ Ethnic Makeup of Israel |- bgcolor=#6495ED !Ethnic group !Population !% of total |- |Jewish | |76.0% |- |Arab (Includes East Jerusalem Arabs) | |19.4% |- |Other | |4.6% |- These data include legal citizens of the State of Israel, not including any Muslim, Christian, or other citizen living under areas administrated by the Palestinian Authority. ICBS on 'unaffiliated' people in Israel Jews Among Jews, 68% were Sabras (Israeli-born), mostly second or third generation Israelis, and the rest are olim — 22% from Europe and the Americas, and 10% from Asia and Africa, including the Arab countries. ICBS data on sabras and olim Ashkenazim (about 38% of the national population): Jews whose ancestors came from Germany, France, and Eastern Europe. Most Ashkenazi Jews that settled in Israel were from Russia, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, Germany, Hungary, Czech Republic,North America, South America, South Africa and Australia. Mizrahim and Sephardim (about 38% of the national population): Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from Iran, Iraq, Yemen, and Syria are considered Mizrahim, and the term has come to refer to Jews whose ancestors lived in Arab or Muslim lands, but did not live in Spain or Portugal. The word Sephardi refers to Jews whose ancestors lived in Spain and Portugal until 1492, and sometimes until later, then spread to Greece, Italy, England, the Netherlands and elsewhere in Europe, as well as into the Ottoman Empire and in North Africa. Many Sephardi Jews that settled in Israel from Morocco, Algeria, Turkey and the whole Mediterranean area are descendants from migrants from Spain and Portugal. In modern Israeli Hebrew usage, this category is often included in Mizrahim.Those with origins in Muslim and Arab lands are commonly called Sephardim by their Ashkenazi counterparts, though the majority does not descend from Iberian Jews and are best described as Mizrahi. The Jews of Iran and Iraqi Jews are always considered Mizrahi as well as the Yemenite and Omani Jews. Italian Jews (about 1% of the national population): Jews whose ancestors lived mainly in central Italy. Due to its history and geographical position, Rome hosted the most ancient continuous Jewish community in Western Europe, dating back to the Roman Empire. Indian Jews (about 1% of the national population): Jews from five distinct communities in India and also Burma, each with very different origins. Beta Israel/Falash Mura of Ethiopia (about 2% of the national population): Jews who were initially brought to Israel during Operation Solomon and Operation Moses. Today at least 127,000 live in the country. Note: the Greek are considered Romaniotes, and many of the Bulgarian and a portion of Latin American Jews are considered Sephardic. These groups claim distinct cultures and histories. In Israel there are approximately 300,000 citizens with Jewish ancestry who are not Jewish according to the Jewish law (mostly immigrants from the former USSR). Of this number approximately 10% are Christian and 89% are either Jewish or non-religious. Only a small number of them (c.2,000) convert every year to Judaism, while immigration from FSU adds thousands to their number every year. The total number of conversions under the Nativ program of IDF was 640 in 2005 and 450 in 2006. From 2002 to 2007 October 1, a total of 2,213 soldiers have converted under Nativ. Jewish Agency: Nativ conversions In 2003, 437 Christians converted to Judaism, in 2004 – 884, and in 2005 – 733. Ynet: Christian converts to Judaism It should be noted that recently several thousand conversions conducted by the Chief Rabbinate under the leadership of Rabbi Chaim Drukman have been annulled, and the official Jewish status over several thousand people who converted through the conversion court of the Chief Rabbinate since 1999 hangs in limbo as the proceedings continue regarding these individuals Jewish status. The vast majority of these individuals are former FSU immigrants. <http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3538630,00.html> Arabs Arab citizens of Israel are those Arabs who remained within Israel's borders during the 1948 Palestinian exodus following the establishment of the state of Israel, including those born within the state borders subsequent to this time, as well as those who had left during the exodus (or their descendants) who have since re-entered by means accepted as lawful residence by the Israeli state (primarily family reunifications). About 82.6% of the Arab population in Israel is Sunni Muslim (with a very small minority of Shia), another 9% is Druze, and around 9% is Christian (mostly Eastern Orthodox and Catholic denominations). Bedouin According to the Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel, currently, 110,000 Bedouins live in the Negev, 50,000 in the Galilee and 10,000 in the central region of Israel. The Bedouin in Israel: Demography Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1999-07-01 Druze All of the Druze living in what was then British Mandate Palestine became Israeli citizens after the declaration of the State of Israel. Though some individuals identify themselves as "Palestinian Druze", For example, Said Nafa, a self-identified "Palestinian Druze" serves as the head of the Balad party's national council and founded the "Pact of Free Druze" in 2001, an organization that aims ";to stop the conscription of the Druze and claims the community is an inalienable part of the Arabs in Israel and the Palestinian nation at large." most Druze do not consider themselves to be Palestinian, and consider their Israeli identity stronger than their Arab identity; indeed, Druze serve prominently in the Israel Defense Forces, and are represented in mainstream Israeli politics and business as well ...their Arab identity emanates in the main from the common language and their socio-cultural background, but is detached from any national political conception. It is not directed at Arab countries or Arab nationality or the Palestinian people, and does not express sharing any fate with them. From this point of view, their identity is Israel, and this identity is stronger than their Arab identity. Nissim Dana, The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status, Sussex Academic Press, 2003, p. 201. Israeli Druze numbered an estimated 117,500 at the end of 2006. Table 2.2, Statistical Abstract of Israel 2007, No. 58. Armenians More than 5,000 Armenians reside in Israel mostly in Jerusalem (including in the Armenian Quarter), but also in Tel Aviv, Haifa, Jaffa and the West Bank. Armenians have a Patriarchate in Jerusalem and churches in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Haifa and Jaffa. Circassians In Israel, there are also a few thousand Circassians, living mostly in Kfar Kama (2,000) and Reyhaniye (1,000). These two villages were a part of a greater group of Circassian villages around the Golan Heights. The Circassians in Israel enjoy, like Druzes, a status aparte. Male Circassians (at their leader's request) are mandated for military service, while females are not. Samaritans The Samaritans are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant. Ancestrally, they claim descent from a group of Israelite inhabitants who have connections to ancient Samaria from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the beginning of the Common Era. 2007 population estimates show that 712 Samaritans live half in Holon, Israel and half at Mount Gerizim in the West Bank. Others Small populations of other groups reside in Israel: 2,500 Lebanese (35,000-100,000 descendents) Christians from Romania and Bulgaria, or, Romani Ethiopian Christians Religions Two Israeli soldiers chat with Arab citizens of Israel in the Galilee, 1978 {| class="toccolours sortable" border="1" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse:collapse" |+ Religious Makeup of Israel'|- bgcolor=#6495ED !Religion !Population !% of total |- |Jewish | |76.0% |- |Muslim | |15.9% |- |Christian | |1.8% |- |Druze | |1.7% |- |Unclassified by choice | |4.6% |} Official figures do not exist as to the number of atheists or otherwise non-affiliated individuals, who may comprise up to a quarter of the population referred to as Jewish. According to a 2004 Israel Central Bureau of Statistics Study on Israelis aged over 8% of Israeli Jews define themselves as haredim (or Ultra-Orthodox); an additional 9% are "religious" (predominantly orthodox, also known in Israel as: Zionist-religious, national-religious and kippot srugot); 12% consider themselves "religious-traditionalists" (mostly adhering to Jewish Halakha); 27% are "non-religious traditionalists" (only partly respecting the Jewish Halakha), and 43% are "secular". Among the seculars, 53% say they believe in God. Due to the higher natality rate of religious and traditionalists over seculars, the share of religious and traditionalists among the overall population is even higher. Languages Due to its immigrant nature, Israel is one of the most multicultural and multilingual societies in the world. Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages in the country, while English, Russian, Georgian,Yiddish, Romanian, Ukrainian, Amharic, Armenian, Ladino, French, Spanish, German, Vietnamese, Thai, Tagalog and Polish are the most commonly used foreign languages. A certain degree of English is spoken virtually universally, and is the language of choice for many Israeli businesses. Courses on the English language are mandatory in the Israeli school system, and most schools offer either Arabic, Spanish, German or French. Literacy The definition of literacy: Age 15 and over can read and write.Total population: 95.4%Male: 97.3%Female: 93.6% (2003 est.) Education between ages 5 and 18 is compulsory. It is not free, but may be subsidized by the government, individual organizations (such as the Beit Yaakov System) or a combination. Parents are expected to participate in costs as well. The school system is organized into kindergartens, 6-year primary schools, and either 6-year secondary schools or 3-year junior secondary schools + 3-year senior secondary schools (depending on region), after which a comprehensive examination is offered for university admissions. See Education in israel and the List of universities and colleges in Israel for more information. Israeli demographic policy As Israel's continued existence as a "Jewish State" relies upon maintenance of a Jewish demographic majority, Israeli demographers, politicians and bureaucrats have treated Jewish population growth promotion as a central question in their research and policymaking. Non-Jewish population growth and immigration is regarded as a threat to the Jewish demographic majority and to Israel's security, as detailed in the Koenig Memorandum. According to Jewish National Fund Board member Daniel Orenstein, Israel is the second most-densely crowded country in the developed world. In an academic article, Orenstein argues that, as elsewhere, overpopulation is a stressor on the environment in Israel; he shows that environmentalists have conspicuously failed to consider the impact of population on the environment and argues that overpopulation in Israel has not been appropriately addressed for ideological reasons. Orenstein, Daniel. "Population Growth and Environmental Impact: Ideology and Academic Discourse in Israel;" Population and Environment Volume 26, Number 1 / September, 2004 Daniel Orenstein and Steven Hamburg."The JNF's Assault on the Negev"; The Jerusalem Report, November 28, 2005 Russian immigration During the 1970s about 163,000 people immigrated to Israel from the USSR. Later Ariel Sharon, in his capacity as Minister of Housing & Construction and member of the Ministerial Committee for Immigration & Absorption, launched an unprecedented large-scale construction effort to accommodate the new Russian population in Israel so as to facilitate their smooth integration and encourage further Jewish immigration as an ongoing means of increasing the Jewish population of Israel. Prime Minister's Office: Sharon Bio Citizenship and Entry Law The Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law (Temporary Order) 5763 was first passed on 31 July, 2003 and has since been extended until 31 July, 2008. The law places age restrictions for the automatic granting of Israeli citizenship and residency permits to spouses of Israeli citizens, such that spouses who are inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza Strip are ineligible. On May 8, 2005, The Israeli ministerial committee for issues of legislation once again amended the Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law, to restrict citizenship and residence in Israel only to Palestinian men over the age of 35, and Palestinian women over the age of 25. Those in favor of the law say the law not only limits the possibility of the entrance of terrorists into Israel, but, as Ze'ev Boim asserts, allows Israel "to maintain the state's democratic nature, but also its Jewish nature" (i.e. it's Jewish demographic majority). Critics, including the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, say the law disproportionately affects Arab citizens of Israel, since Arabs in Israel are far more likely to have spouses from the West Bank and Gaza Strip than other Israeli citizens. References See also Jew Jewish ethnic divisions Yerida Arab citizens of Israel Religion in Israel Languages of Israel Poverty in Israel External links Israel no Promised Land for Africans Sergio Della Pergola, Israele e Palestina: la forza dei numeri. Il conflitto mediorientale fra demografia e politica'', Il Mulino, Bologna, 2007 The Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics CIA World Factbook entry on Israel Israelbooks.com Annual Assessment 2004-2005: Between Thriving and Decline The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (2005). Gefen Publishing House. 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7,350 | Indian_numerals | Most of the positional base 10 numeral systems in the world have originated from India, which first developed the concept of positional numerology. The Indian numeral system is commonly referred to in the West as the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, since it reached Europe through the Arabs. Devanagari numerals and their Sanskrit names Below is a list of the Indian numerals in their Devanagari form, the corresponding European (Indo-Arabic) equivalents, and their Sanskrit pronunciation. Devanagarinumeral Western Sanskrit word forthe ordinal numeral (wordstem) ० 0 (शून्य) १ 1 (एक) २ 2 (द्वि) ३ 3 (त्रि) ४ 4 (चतुर्) ५ 5 (पञ्च) ६ 6 (षष्) ७ 7 (सप्त) ८ 8 (अष्ट) ९ 9 (नव) Since Sanskrit is an Indo-European language, it is obvious (as also seen from the table) that the words for numerals closely resemble those of Greek and Latin. The word "Shunya" for zero was translated into Arabic as "سفر" "sifr", meaning 'nothing' which became the term "zero" in many European languages from Medieval Latin, zephirum (Arabic: sifr). Online Etymological Dictionary Tamil numerals and their names Below is a list of the Tamil numerals, the corresponding European (Indo-Arabic) equivalents, and their Tamil pronunciation. Tamilnumeral Western Tamil word forthe ordinal numeral (wordstem) ௦ 0 (பூஜ்யம்) ௧ 1 (ஒன்று) ௨ 2 (இரண்டு) ௩ 3 (மூன்று) ௪ 4 (நான்கு ) ௫ 5 (ஐந்து) ௬ 6 (ஆறு) ௭ 7 (ஏழு) ௮ 8 (எட்டு) ௯ 9 (ஒன்பது) Since Tamil is a Dravidian language, it is obvious (as also seen from the table) that the words for numerals differ from most of the other Indian Languages which are similar to Greek and Latin numerals. Tamil Numbers in Unicode Other modern Indian languages The four Indian languages (Hindi, Marathi, Konkani and Sanskrit itself) that have adapted the Devanagari script to their use also naturally employ the numeral symbols above; of course, the names for the numbers vary by language. The table below presents a listing of the symbols used in various modern Indian scripts for the numbers from zero to nine: Variant 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Used inEastern Nagari numerals ০ ১ ২ ৩ ৪ ৫ ৬ ৭ ৮ ৯ Bengali language Assamese languageGujarati numerals ૦ ૧ ૨ ૩ ૪ ૫ ૬ ૭ ૮ ૯ Gujarati languageGurmukhi numerals ੦ ੧ ੨ ੩ ੪ ੫ ੬ ੭ ੮ ੯ Punjabi languageKannada numerals ೦ ೧ ೨ ೩ ೪ ೫ ೬ ೭ ೮ ೯ Kannada languageMalayalam numerals ൦ ൧ ൨ ൩ ൪ ൫ ൬ ൭ ൮ ൯ Malayalam languageTamil numerals ௦ ௧ ௨ ௩ ௪ ௫ ௬ ௭ ௮ ௯ Tamil languageTelugu numerals ౦ ౧ ౨ ౩ ౪ ౫ ౬ ౭ ౮ ౯ Telugu languageLepcha numerals Image:Lepcha_num.gif Sikkim and Bhutan Note: The symbols for zero in Tamil and Malayalam are modern innovations. Unicode 4.1 and later define encodings for them. FAQ - Tamil Language and Script - Q: What can you tell me about Tamil Digit Zero? History A decimal place system has been traced back to ca. 500 in India. Before that epoch, the Brahmi numeral system was in use; that system did not encompass the concept of the place-value of numbers. Instead, Brahmi numerals included additional symbols for the tens, as well as separate symbols for hundred and thousand. The Indian place-system numerals spread to neighboring Persia, where they were picked up by the conquering Arabs. In 662, a Nestorian bishop living in what is now called Iraq said: I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians ... of their subtle discoveries in astronomy - discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians - and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. I wish only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe that because they speak Greek they have arrived at the limits of science would read the Indian texts they would be convinced even if a little late in the day that there are others who know something of value. The addition of zero as a tenth positional digit is documented from the 7th century by Brahmagupta, though the earlier Bakhshali Manuscript, written sometime before the 5th century, also included zero. But it is in Khmer numerals of modern Cambodia is where the first extant material evidence of zero as a numerical figure, dating its use back to the seventh century, is found. As it was from the Arabs that the Europeans learned this system, the Europeans called them Arabic numerals; ironically, to this day the Arabs refer to their numerals as Indian numerals. In academic circles they are called the Hindu-Arabic or Indo-Arabic numerals. The significance of the development of the positional number system is probably best described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827) who wrote: It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity. Tobias Dantzig, the father of George Dantzig had this to say in Number: This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert [...] Man used these devices for thousands of years without contributing a single important idea to the system [...] Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light, the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event. References Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers. John Wiley, 2000. Sanskrit Siddham(Bonji) Numbers Karl Menninger (mathematics), Number Words and Number Symbols - A Cultural Hystory of Numbers ISBN 0-486-27096-3 David Eugene Smith and Louis Charles Karpinski, The Hindu-Arabic Numerals (1911) See also Eastern Arabic numerals Indian numbering system Khmer numerals Thai numerals | Indian_numerals |@lemmatized positional:4 base:1 numeral:33 system:11 world:2 originate:1 india:3 first:4 develop:1 concept:2 numerology:1 indian:11 commonly:1 refer:2 west:1 hindu:4 arabic:10 since:3 reach:1 europe:1 arab:4 devanagari:3 sanskrit:6 name:3 list:2 form:1 corresponding:2 european:6 indo:4 equivalent:2 pronunciation:2 devanagarinumeral:1 western:2 word:6 forthe:2 ordinal:2 wordstem:2 श:1 न:1 य:1 एक:1 द:1 व:1 त:2 र:2 चत:1 पञ:1 च:1 षष:1 सप:1 अष:1 ट:1 नव:1 language:8 obvious:2 also:5 see:3 table:3 closely:1 resemble:1 greek:4 latin:3 shunya:1 zero:8 translate:1 سفر:1 sifr:2 mean:3 nothing:1 become:1 term:1 many:2 medieval:1 zephirum:1 online:1 etymological:1 dictionary:1 tamil:10 tamilnumeral:1 ப:1 ஜ:1 யம:1 ஒன:2 ற:2 இரண:1 ட:2 ம:1 ன:2 ந:1 க:1 ஐந:1 த:1 ஆற:1 ஏழ:1 எட:1 பத:1 dravidian:1 differ:1 similar:1 number:13 unicode:2 modern:4 languages:1 four:1 hindi:1 marathi:1 konkani:1 adapt:1 script:3 use:5 naturally:1 employ:1 symbol:8 course:1 vary:1 present:2 listing:1 various:1 nine:2 variant:1 used:1 ineastern:1 nagari:1 bengali:1 assamese:1 languagegujarati:1 gujarati:1 languagegurmukhi:1 punjabi:1 languagekannada:1 kannada:1 languagemalayalam:1 malayalam:2 languagetamil:1 languagetelugu:1 telugu:1 languagelepcha:1 image:1 gif:1 sikkim:1 bhutan:1 note:1 innovation:1 later:1 define:1 encoding:1 faq:1 q:1 tell:1 digit:2 history:3 decimal:1 place:3 trace:1 back:2 ca:1 epoch:1 brahmi:2 encompass:1 value:4 instead:1 include:2 additional:1 ten:2 well:3 separate:1 hundred:1 thousand:3 spread:1 neighbor:1 persia:1 pick:1 conquering:1 nestorian:1 bishop:1 living:1 call:4 iraq:1 say:3 omit:1 discussion:1 science:2 subtle:1 discovery:2 astronomy:1 ingenious:2 babylonian:1 valuable:1 method:2 calculation:2 surpass:1 description:1 wish:1 computation:2 sign:1 believe:1 speak:1 arrive:1 limit:1 would:2 read:1 text:1 convince:1 even:3 little:1 late:1 day:2 others:1 know:1 something:1 addition:1 tenth:1 document:1 century:4 brahmagupta:1 though:1 early:2 bakhshali:1 manuscript:1 write:2 sometime:1 khmer:2 cambodia:1 extant:1 material:1 evidence:1 numerical:1 figure:1 date:1 seventh:1 find:1 learn:1 ironically:1 academic:1 circle:1 significance:1 development:1 probably:1 best:1 describe:1 french:1 mathematician:1 pierre:1 simon:1 laplace:1 give:1 u:2 express:1 receive:1 position:2 absolute:1 profound:1 important:2 idea:3 appear:1 simple:1 ignore:1 true:1 merit:1 simplicity:1 great:2 ease:1 lend:1 put:1 arithmetic:1 rank:1 useful:1 invention:1 shall:1 appreciate:1 grandeur:1 achievement:3 remember:1 escape:1 genius:1 archimedes:1 apollonius:1 two:1 mind:1 produce:1 antiquity:1 tobias:1 dantzig:2 father:1 george:1 long:1 period:1 nearly:1 five:1 year:2 saw:1 rise:1 fall:1 civilization:1 leave:1 behind:1 heritage:1 literature:1 art:2 philosophy:1 religion:1 net:1 field:1 reckoning:1 practice:1 man:2 inflexible:1 numeration:1 crude:1 make:1 progress:1 nigh:1 impossible:1 calculating:1 device:2 limited:1 scope:1 elementary:1 service:1 expert:1 without:1 contribute:1 single:1 compare:1 slow:1 growth:1 dark:1 age:1 reckon:1 peculiar:1 picture:1 desolate:1 stagnation:1 view:1 light:1 unknown:1 time:1 era:1 discover:1 principle:1 assume:1 importance:1 event:1 reference:1 georges:1 ifrah:1 universal:1 john:1 wiley:1 siddham:1 bonji:1 karl:1 menninger:1 mathematics:1 cultural:1 hystory:1 isbn:1 david:1 eugene:1 smith:1 louis:1 charles:1 karpinski:1 eastern:1 thai:1 |@bigram arabic_numeral:5 indo_european:1 closely_resemble:1 etymological_dictionary:1 hindi_marathi:1 devanagari_script:1 tamil_malayalam:1 brahmi_numeral:2 hundred_thousand:1 simon_laplace:1 george_dantzig:1 ifrah_universal:1 |
7,351 | Ant | Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae (), and along with the related wasps and bees, they belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. Today, more than 12,000 species are classified with upper estimates of about 14,000 species. They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and a distinctive node-like structure that forms a slender waist. Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies which may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. These larger colonies consist mostly of sterile wingless females forming castes of "workers", "soldiers", or other specialised groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called "drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens". The colonies are sometimes described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony. Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and certain remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems, and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass. Their success has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships. Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 471 Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication and rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents. However, their ability to exploit resources brings ants into conflict with humans, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant, are regarded as invasive species, since they have established themselves in new areas where they have been accidentally introduced. Taxonomy and evolution Ants fossilised in Baltic amber The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the vespoid wasps. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that ants arose in the mid-Cretaceous period about 110 to 130 million years ago. After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago they diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago. In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (Sphecomyrma freyi) that lived in the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to more than 80 million years ago, has features of both ants and wasps. Sphecomyrma was probably a ground forager but some suggest on the basis of groups such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae that primitive ants were likely to have been predators under the soil surface. Phylogenetic position of the Formicidae. During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian super-continent (the northern hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to other insects, representing about 1% of the insect population. Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Tertiary period. By the Oligocene and Miocene ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, approximately one in ten genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene). Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 23–24 Termites, though sometimes called white ants, are not ants and belong to the order Isoptera. Termites are actually more closely related to cockroaches and mantids. The fact that ants and termites are both eusocial came about by convergent evolution. Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps. Etymology The word ant is derived from ante of Middle English which is derived from æmette of Old English and is related to the Old High German āmeiza, hence the modern German Ameise. All of these words come from West Germanic *amaitjo, and the original meaning of the word was "the biter" (from Proto-Germanic *ai-, "off, away" + *mait- "cut"). The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin formīca ("ant") from the words in other Romance languages such as the Portuguese formiga, Spanish hormiga, Romanian furnică and French fourmi are derived. Distribution and diversity Region Number ofspecies Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 4 Neotropics 2162 Nearctic 580 Europe 180 Africa 2500 Asia 2080 Melanesia 275 Australia 985 Polynesia 42 Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica and only a few large islands such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species. Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches, and are able to exploit a wide range of food resources either as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers. Most species are omnivorous generalists but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance may be measured by their biomass, and estimates in different environments suggest that they contribute 15–20% (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of the total terrestrial animal biomass, which exceeds that of the vertebrates. Ants range in size from . Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 589 Their colours vary; most are red or black, green is less common, and some tropical species have a metallic lustre. More than 12,000 species are currently known (with upper estimates of about 14,000), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species. The relative ease with which ants can be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies. Morphology Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having elbowed antennae, metapleural glands, and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole. The head, mesosoma and metasoma or gaster are the three distinct body segments. The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole can be formed by one or two nodes (the second alone, or the second and third abdominal segments). Borror, Triplehorn & Delong (1989), p. 737 Bull ant showing the powerful mandibles and the relatively large compound eyes that provide excellent vision Like other insects, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates. Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases like carbon dioxide pass through their exoskeleton through tiny valves called spiracles. Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the "dorsal aorta") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph towards the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids. The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages. Borror, Triplehorn & Delong (1989), pp. 24–71 Diagram of a worker ant (Pachycondyla verenae) An ant's head contains many sensory organs. Like most insects, ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together. Ants' eyes are good for acute movement detection but do not give a high resolution. They also have three small ocelli (simple eyes) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarisation. Compared to vertebrates, most ants have poor-to-mediocre eyesight and a few subterranean species are completely blind. Some ants such as Australia's bulldog ant, however, have exceptional vision. Two antennae ("feelers") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents and vibrations; they are also used to transmit and receive signals through touch. The head has two strong jaws, the mandibles, used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defence. In some species a small pocket (infrabuccal chamber) inside the mouth stores food, so it can be passed to other ants or their larvae. All six legs are attached to the mesosoma ("thorax"). A hooked claw at the end of each leg helps ants to climb and hang onto surfaces. Most queens and male ants have wings; queens shed the wings after the nuptial flight, leaving visible stubs, a distinguishing feature of queens. However, wingless queens (ergatoids) and males occur in a few species. The metasoma (the "abdomen") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae) and excretory systems. Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests. Polymorphism Seven Leafcutter ant workers of various castes (left) and two Queens (right) In the colonies of a few ant species, there are physical castes—workers in distinct size-classes, called minor, median, and major workers. Often the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads, and correspondingly stronger mandibles. Such individuals are sometimes called "soldier" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting, although they are still workers and their "duties" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species the median workers are absent, creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors. Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution. Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers. The smallest and largest workers in Pheidologeton diversus show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry-weights. Workers cannot mate; however, because of the haplodiploid sex-determination system in ants, workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile haploid males. The role of workers may change with their age and in some species, such as honeypot ants, young workers are fed until their gasters are distended, and act as living food storage vessels. These food storage workers are called repletes. This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers was initially thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones which led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp. These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens. The Australian jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula), has only a single pair of chromosomes (males have just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects. Development and reproduction Meat eater ant nest during swarming The life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female (diploid); if not, it will be male (haploid). Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larval stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the "social stomach", among themselves. Larvae may also be provided with solid food such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey and seeds brought back by foraging workers and may even be transported directly to captured prey in some species. The larvae grow through a series of moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa. The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers (when they exist), is determined by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around the various brood chambers within the colony. Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 351, 372 A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. It then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants that are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes. Fertilised meat eater ant queen beginning to dig a new colony Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens while others can exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "gamergates" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right. The winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae along with the breeding females (although some species, like army ants, have wingless queens), and do nothing in life except eat and mate. During the short breeding period, the reproductives, excluding the colony queen, are carried outside where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterwards. Females of some species mate with multiple males. Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females store the sperm they obtain during their nuptial flight to selectively fertilise future eggs. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how new colonies start in most species. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 143–179 a process akin to swarming in honeybees. Ants mating. A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis and one species, Mycocepurus smithii is known to be all-female. Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, and survive only a few weeks. Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times longer than solitary insects of a similar size. Ants are active all year long in the tropics but, in cooler regions, survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity. Behaviour and ecology Communication Weaver ants collaborating to dismember a red ant (the two at the extremities are pulling the red ant, while the middle one cuts the red ant until it snaps) Ants communicate with each other using pheromones. These chemical signals are more developed in ants than in other hymenopteran groups. Like other insects, ants perceive smells with their long, thin and mobile antennae. The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents. Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that can be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually finding the best path. Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from further away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves. Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum and hind tibia. Pheromones are also exchanged mixed with food and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony. This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to. In ant species with queen castes, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone. Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 354 Some ants produce sounds by stridulation, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species. Defence A weaver ant in fighting position, mandibles wide open Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging, often injecting or spraying chemicals like formic acid. Bullet ants (Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index. The sting of Jack jumper ants can be fatal, and an antivenin has been developed. Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a poison sac containing piperidine alkaloids. Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people. Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom. One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between 126 and 230 km/h (78 - 143 mph), with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backwards to escape a threat. Before the strike, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap-jaws are also seen in the following genera: Anochetus, Orectognathus, and Strumigenys, plus some members of the Dacetini tribe , which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution. Ant mound holes prevent water from entering the nest during rain. In addition to defence against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory, the disposal of dead nest-mates. Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released by dead ants that triggers undertaking behaviour in Atta mexicana. Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and over-heating by elaborate nest architecture. Workers of Cataulacus muticus, an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside. Learning Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed. A knowledgeable forager of Temnothorax albipennis leads a naive nest-mate to newly discovered food by the excruciatingly slow process of tandem running. The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner with the leader slowing down when the follower lags, and speeding up when the follower gets too close. Controlled experiments with colonies of Cerapachys biroi suggest that individuals may choose nest roles based on their previous experience. An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled. One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed. As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out less and less. A month later, the successful foragers continued in their role while the others moved to specialise in brood care. Nest construction Leaf nest of weaver ants, Pamalican, Philippines Complex nests are built by many ants, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests can be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter, and ants carefully select their nest sites; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats. The army ants of South America and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together. Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), p. 573 Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis. Food cultivation Myrmecocystus (Honeypot) ants store food to prevent colony famine. Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers and indirect herbivores, but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition. Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Workers specialise in tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria that may harm the fungi. Navigation Foraging ants travel distances of up to from their nest and usually find their way back using scent trails. Some ants forage at night. Day foraging ants in hot and arid regions face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants (Cataglyphis fortis) use visual landmarks in combination with other cues to navigate. In the absence of visual landmarks, the closely related Sahara desert ant (Cataglyphis bicolor) navigates by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled, like an internal pedometer that counts how many steps they take in each direction. They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest. Several species of ants are able to use the Earth's magnetic field.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Orientation by magnetic field in leaf-cutter ants, Atta colombica (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)|author=Banks AN, Srygley RB|year=2003|journal=Ethology|volume=109|pages=835–846|doi=10.1046/j.0179-1613.2003.00927.x}}</ref> Ants' compound eyes have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun, which is used to determine direction. These polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum. Locomotion Harpegnathos saltator, a jumping ant Worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator) is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs. There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus; this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to control the direction of their descent while falling. Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands. Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they breathe in trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests. Cooperation and competition These meat eater ants are feeding on honey. Social ants cooperate and collectively gather food. Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal (primitive) of ants. Like virtually all ants they are eusocial, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using its large eyes instead of its chemical senses to find prey. Some species (such as Tetramorium caespitum) attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies. Others are less expansionist but just as aggressive; they invade colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers/slaves. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive. Captured workers of the enslaved species Temnothorax have evolved a counter strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making Protomognathus americanus, but sparing the males (who don't take part in slave-raiding as adults). See also New Scientist, 2009 April 9 Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons. If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent. Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked. Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species like Strumigenys xenos are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead rely on the food gathered by their Strumigenys perplexa hosts. This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host. A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant. A parasitic queen can enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent. Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest. Some simply fight their way into the nest. Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 436—448 A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with the reproductives apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process where a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males that are clones of the father. Relationships with other organisms Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, either preying on ants, their larvae and eggs, consuming the ants' food stores, or avoiding predators. These inquilines can bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Wasmannian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines. An ant collects honeydew from an aphid. Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect. In some cases the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to the ants' tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids between feeding locations. On migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealybugs can become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies. Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants. Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ants' nest where it feeds on the ant larvae. Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus genera of the Agaricaceae family. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey. Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees (Duroia hirsuta). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees. Some trees have extrafloral nectaries that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from herbivorous insects. Species like the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the symbiotic ants. In return, the ants obtain food from protein-lipid Beltian bodies. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants. Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants. Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread particularly in Africa and Australia. Some plants in fire-prone grassland systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal. Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food. A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch. A Meat ant tending a common leafhopper nymph Ants prey on and obtain food from a number of social insects including other ants. Some species specialise in preying on termites (Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants. Some termites form associations with certain ant species to keep away other predatory ant species. The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellant chemical. It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Stingless bees (Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defences against ants. Flies in the Old World genus Bengalia (Calliphoridae) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites, snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants. Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea) live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are cared for by the ants. The fungus Cordyceps infects ants, causing them to climb up plants and sink their mandibles into plant tissue. The fungus kills the ant, grows on its remains, and produces a fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behaviour of the ant to help disperse its spores. Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates. A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) that infects canopy ants (Cephalotes atratus) causes the black coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant, and makes them carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits such as Hyeronima alchorneoides and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young leading to the further spread of the nematode. South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants. Several South American antbirds follow army ants to feed on the insects that are flushed from cover by the foraging ants. This behaviour was once considered mutualistic, but later studies show that it is instead kleptoparasitic, with the birds stealing prey. Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that is as yet not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may remove ectoparasites. Anteaters, pangolins and several marsupial species in Australia have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been found to feed on ants, and about 12%, 16%, and 4% of their faecal volume in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants. Relationship with humans Weaver ants are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China. Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control. Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 619–629 On the other hand, ants can become nuisances when they invade buildings, or cause economic losses. In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound. Some ants of the family Ponerinae have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include Paraponera clavata (Tocandira) and Dinoponera spp. (false Tocandiras) of South America and the Myrmecia ants of Australia. In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), which are small seeds used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them en masse. Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds can be collected from one ant-heap. As food Ant larvae on sale in Isaan, Thailand Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are the basis for the dish in Mexico known as escamoles. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as USD 40 per pound (USD 90/kg) because they are seasonal and hard to find. In the Colombian department of Santander, hormigas culonas (roughly interpreted as "large-bottomed ants") Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten. In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry. Weaver ant eggs and larvae as well as the ants themselves may be used in a Thai salad, yum (ยำ), in a dish called yum khai mod daeng (ยำไข่มดแดง) or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the Naturalist in Australia wrote "Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, "these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates". In his First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickly acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the replete workers, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (Myrmecocystus). As pests The tiny pharaoh ant is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper. Some ant species are considered pests, and because of the adaptive nature of ant colonies, eliminating the entire colony is nearly impossible. Pest management is therefore a matter of controlling local populations, instead of eliminating an entire colony, and most attempts at control are temporary solutions. Ants classified as pests include the pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, sugar ants, the Pharaoh ant, carpenter ants, Argentine ant, odorous house ants, red imported fire ant and European fire ant. Populations are controlled using insecticide baits, either in granule or liquid formulations. Bait is gathered by the ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Boric acid and borax are often used as insecticides that are relatively safe for humans. Bait may be broadcast over a large area to control species like the red fire ant that occupy large areas. Nests of red fire ants may be destroyed by following the ants' trails back to the nest and then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. This works in about 60% of the mounds and requires about per mound. In science and technology Myrmecologists study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions. Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms. Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbok in 1881. Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology, sociobiology and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies. Ant colonies can be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria, specially constructed glass framed enclosures. Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with colours. The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage and networking algorithms. In culture Aesop's ants: picture by Milo Winter, 1888–1956 Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort. They are also mentioned in religious texts. In the Book of Proverbs in the Bible, ants are held up as a good example for humans for their hard work and cooperation. Aesop did the same in his fable The Ant and the Grasshopper. In the Quran, Sulayman() is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army. In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief. Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in initiation ceremonies as a test of endurance. Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his A Tramp Abroad. Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual. Examples are Robert Frost in his poem "Departmental" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King. The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's Les Fourmis science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour is described using contemporary scientific knowledge. In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3D animated movies featuring ants have been produced include Antz, A Bug's Life, The Ant Bully, The Ant and the Aardvark, Atom Ant, and there is a comic book superhero called Ant-Man. The Chinese character for ant is a combination of logograms that may be interpreted as "insect 虫 which behaves properly 義". The Japanese character for ant also shares this etymology. From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular educational children's toys in the United States. Later versions use transparent gel instead of soil allowing greater visibility. In the early 1990s, the video game SimAnt, which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for "Best Simulation Program". Ants are also quite popular inspiration for many science-fiction creatures, such as the Formics of Ender's Game, the Bugs of Starship Troopers, the giant ants in the film Them!, and ants mutated into super intelligence in Phase IV. In strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the Master of Orion series of games or the ChCht in Deadlock II''. These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies. See also Ant stings Task allocation and partitioning of social insects International Union for the Study of Social Insects Footnotes References Further reading External links Antweb from The California Academy of Sciences AntBlog a website dedicated to the study of ant colonies AntBase - a taxonomic database with literature sources Discover Life—images, information and links BugGuide Global Ant Project Navajo Ant Project Article on ants | Ant |@lemmatized ant:316 social:11 insect:25 family:6 formicidae:5 along:7 related:2 wasp:9 bee:3 belong:3 order:4 hymenoptera:4 evolve:6 like:18 ancestor:2 mid:3 cretaceous:4 period:6 million:6 year:9 ago:5 diversify:2 rise:2 flower:1 plant:15 today:2 specie:77 classify:2 upper:2 estimate:4 easily:1 identify:4 elbow:2 antenna:5 distinctive:1 node:3 structure:8 form:20 slender:1 waist:2 colony:53 range:8 size:7 dozen:1 predatory:3 individual:8 live:12 small:9 natural:4 cavity:1 highly:1 organised:1 may:24 occupy:3 large:15 territory:1 consist:3 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7,352 | Chuck_Smith_(pastor) | Charles Ward “Chuck” Smith, born , is the senior pastor of Calvary Chapel Costa Mesa. He is widely credited as founding Calvary Chapel Costa Mesa, though he was the second pastor. Smith was born in Ventura, California to Charles and Maude Smith. His wife, Kay, directs Costa Mesa's women's ministry. Smith's four children currently do or have worked in the ministry. Early career Smith graduated from LIFE Bible College and was ordained as a pastor for the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel. In the late '50s Smith was the campaign manager and worship director for healing evangelist Paul Cain. After struggling as a pastor and being frustrated by church growth and recruitment techniques, he left his denomination to pastor a non-denominational church plant in Corona, California and eventually moved to a church called Calvary Chapel in Costa Mesa, California in December 1965. It was the only church on Church Street in Costa Mesa. The church had been planted by Pastor Floyd Nelson as a ministry to shut-in's begun with a small group of people in a mobile home park populated mainly by senior citizens in 1962. From there they moved to a Girl Scout building and eventually to Church Street which is where the church was meeting when Chuck Smith was hired as the "pulpit pastor." Calvary Chapel In March 1968, Smith brought into his home pentecostal evangelist Lonnie Frisbee with his wife Connie. Lonnie was 18 years old. Chuck Smith paired him up with John Higgins who already had a Bible study going for youth and they started a Christian commune called "The House of Miracles." John and Lonnie went out into community to reach the youth with the gospel during the early days of the Jesus movement. The church in Santa Ana grew, and as of 2006, 35,000 people attend. Over 1,000 churches have branched out from his church. Some of these churches are led by those whom Smith discipled including: Greg Laurie, Jon Courson, Mike MacIntosh, Joe Focht, Raul Ries, Xavier Ries, Skip Heitzig, Bil Gallatin and Malcolm Wild. At its beginning, Calvary Chapel operated as a cross-cultural missions organization that bridged the "generation gap" as it existed during the Vietnam War period. Calvary Chapel was a hub of the "Jesus People" phenomenon that existed at that time and was featured in Time Magazine for its success among "hippies" and young people. Calvary Chapel pioneered a less formal and contemporary approach in its worship and public meetings. For example, it did outreaches on the beach and baptisms in the Pacific Ocean. Much of Contemporary Christian Music (CCM) has it roots in Calvary Chapel worship music. Calvary Chapel's rolling commentary style of preaching kept the Calvary Chapels close to the text of the Bible and was readily understandable by many hearers. Calvary Chapel early developed its own internal training for multiplication of church leaders and pastors. By pioneering a more informal and contemporary style in its church practices, Calvary Chapel reached large numbers in Costa Mesa, CA and expanded easily by adding many pastors and new congregations in many locations. The impact of Chuck Smith and Calvary Chapel on evangelical Christianity is profound and widespread and largely unheralded. Rather than being a teacher of systems and how to grow a large church (all the things that frustrated him in his denominational experience), Chuck Smith teaches the Bible at pastors conferences modeling in word and deed what he feels is the critical core of Calvary Chapels. There are some who criticize Calvary Chapel churches for a perceived dogmatic approach and losing their connection to their founding principles of the 1960s. Those defending Calvary Chapel would say that Calvary Chapel has not changed, but as culture has become more egalitarian, it is more averse to this type of approach. Chuck Smith is the author and co-author of several books. Titles of his books include Answers for Today; Calvary Chapel Distinctives; Calvinism, Arminianism & The Word of God; Charisma vs. Charismania; Comfort for Those Who Mourn; Effective Prayer Life; Harvest; Living Water; The Claims of Christ; The Gospel According to Grace; The Philosophy of Ministry of Calvary Chapel; Why Grace Changes Everything; Love: The More Excellent Way; and others. References External links Calvary Chapel Chuck Smith’s audio library Chuck Smith’s book library The Word for Today—Official Site Maranatha! 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7,353 | My_Neighbor_Totoro | , is a 1988 Japanese anime film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki and produced by Studio Ghibli. The film follows the two young daughters of a professor and their interactions with friendly wood spirits in postwar rural Japan. The movie won the Animage Anime Grand Prix prize in 1988. The movie was originally released in the U.S. in VHS format with the title, My Friend Totoro. Troma Films, under their 50th St. Films banner, produced a 1993 dub of the film co-produced by Jerry Beck. It was released on VHS and DVD by Fox Video. Troma's and Fox's rights to this version expired in 2004. The film was re-released by Disney on March 7, 2006. It features a new dub cast. This DVD release is the first version of the film in the United States to include both Japanese and English language tracks, as Fox did not have the rights to the Japanese audio track for their version. Plot In 1958, a university professor and his two daughters, Satsuki and Mei, move into an old house in rural Japan to be closer to the hospital where his wife is recovering from an illness. The daughters find that the house is inhabited by tiny animated dust creatures called soot sprites—small house spirits seen when moving from light to dark places. When the girls become comfortable in their new house and laugh with their father, the soot spirits leave. While she is playing outside one day, the younger daughter, Mei, sees two white, rabbit-like ears in the grass. She follows the ears under the house where she discovers two small magical creatures, who lead her through a briar patch, and into the hollow of a large Camphor Laurel tree. She meets and befriends a larger version of the same kind of spirit, which identifies itself by a series of roars she interprets as "Totoro" (in the Japanese original dub it stems from Mei's mispronunciation of the word for "troll", tororu). Her father later tells her that this is the "keeper of the forest". One rainy night the girls are waiting for their father's bus and grow worried when he does not arrive on the bus they expect him on. As they wait, Mei eventually falls asleep on Satsuki's back and Totoro appears beside them, allowing Satsuki to see him for the first time. He only has a leaf on his head for protection against the rain, so Satsuki offers him the umbrella she had taken along for her father. Totoro is delighted at both the shelter and the sounds made upon it by falling raindrops. In return he gives her a bundle of nuts and seeds. A bus-shaped giant cat halts at the stop, and Totoro boards it, taking the umbrella. Shortly after, their father’s bus arrives. The girls plant the seeds. A few days later they awaken at midnight to find Totoro and his two miniature colleagues engaged in a ritual dance around the planted nuts and seeds. The girls join in, whereupon the seeds sprout and then grow into an enormous tree. Totoro takes his colleagues and the girls for a ride on a magical flying top. In the morning, the tree is gone, but the seeds have indeed sprouted. Mei, believing her mother's condition has worsened, sets off on foot to the hospital and gets lost. Desperate to find her sister, Satsuki returns to the camphor laurel tree and pleads for Totoro's help. Delighted to be of assistance, he summons the Catbus, which rescues Mei, then whisks her and Satsuki over the countryside to see their mother in the hospital. The girls perch in a tree outside of the hospital to discover that she is doing well. They deliver an ear of corn that Mei believes will speed her mother's recovery, and then return home on the Catbus. When the Catbus departs, it fades away from the girls' sight. The closing credits show Mei and Satsuki's mother returning home and feature scenes of Satsuki and Mei playing with other human children, with Totoro and his friends as unseen observers. Voice cast Character Original Japanese version Streamline English version Disney English version Satsuki Kusakabe Noriko Hidaka Lisa Michelson Dakota Fanning Mei Kusakabe Chika Sakamoto Cheryl Chase Elle Fanning Tatsuo Kusakabe (father) Shigesato Itoi Steve Kramer Timothy Daly Yasuko Kusakabe (mother) Sumi Shimamoto Alexandra Kenworthy Lea Salonga Kanta Toshiyuki Amagasa Kenneth Hartman Paul Butcher Nanny Tanie Kitabayashi Natalie Core Pat Carroll Totoro Hitoshi Takagi N/A Frank Welker Catbus Hitoshi Takagi N/A Frank Welker Production The art direction of My Neighbor Totoro was performed by Kazuo Oga. The art director was drawn to the film when Hayao Miyazaki showed him an original image of Totoro in a satoyama. The director challenged Oga to raise his standards, and Oga's experience with My Neighbor Totoro jump-started the anime artist's career. Oga and Miyazaki debated the palette of the film, Oga seeking to paint black soil from Akita Prefecture and Miyazaki preferring the color of red soil from the Kantō region. The ultimate product was described by Studio Ghibli producer Toshio Suzuki, "It was nature painted with translucent colors." Oga described his approach to painting background art, "I appreciate my role and I draw with the feeling that if I don't make a good effort, I will be somehow punished." Oga's conscientious approach to My Neighbor Totoro was a style that the International Herald Tribune recognized as "[updating] the traditional Japanese animist sense of a natural world that is fully, spiritually alive". The newspaper described the final product, "Set in a period that is both modern and nostalgic, the film creates a fantastic, yet strangely believable universe of supernatural creatures coexisting with modernity. A great part of this sense comes from Oga's evocative backgrounds, which give each tree, hedge and twist in the road an indefinable feeling of warmth that seems ready to spring into sentient life." Oga's work on My Neighbor Totoro led to his continued involvement with Studio Ghibli. The studio assigned jobs to Oga that would play to his strengths, and Oga's style became a trademark style of Studio Ghibli. Release After writing and filming Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Castle in the Sky (1986), Hayao Miyazaki began directing My Neighbor Totoro for Studio Ghibli. Miyazaki's production paralleled his colleague Isao Takahata's production of Grave of the Fireflies. Miyazaki's film was financed by executive producer Yasuyoshi Tokuma, and both My Neighbor Totoro and Grave of the Fireflies were released on the same bill in 1988. The dual billing was considered "one of the most moving and remarkable double bills ever offered to a cinema audience". In 1993, 20th Century Fox released the first English-language version of My Neighbor Totoro, produced by John Daly and Derek Gibson (the producers of The Terminator) with co-producer Jerry Beck. Fox and Troma's rights to the film expired in 2004. Disney's English-language version premiered on October 23, 2005; it then appeared at the 2005 Hollywood Film Festival. The Turner Classic Movies cable television network held the television premiere of Disney's new English dub on January 19, 2006, as part of the network's salute to Hayao Miyazaki. (TCM aired the dub as well as the original Japanese with English subtitles.) The Disney version was released on DVD on March 7, 2006. As is the case with Disney's other English dubs of Miyazaki films, the Disney version of Totoro features a star-heavy cast, including Dakota and Elle Fanning as Satsuki and Mei, Timothy Daly as Mr. Kusakabe, Pat Carroll as Granny, Lea Salonga as Mrs. Kusakabe, and Frank Welker as Totoro and Catbus. The songs for the new dub retained the same translation as the previous dub, but were sung by Sonya Isaacs. Critical reception Rotten Tomatoes reported that 87% of critics gave the film positive write-ups, based upon a sample of 23, with an average score of 7.9/10. Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times identified My Neighbor Totoro as one of his "Great Movies", calling it "one of the lovingly hand-crafted works of Hayao Miyazaki". Ebert reviewed the film, "My Neighbor Totoro is based on experience, situation and exploration—not on conflict and threat," and described its appeal: "...it would never have won its worldwide audience just because of its warm heart. It is also rich with human comedy in the way it observes the two remarkably convincing, lifelike little girls... It is a little sad, a little scary, a little surprising and a little informative, just like life itself. It depends on a situation instead of a plot, and suggests that the wonder of life and the resources of imagination supply all the adventure you need." Leonard Klady of the entertainment trade newspaper Variety wrote that My Neighbor Totoro demonstrated "adequate television technical craft" that was characterized by "muted pastels, homogenized pictorial style and [a] vapid storyline". Klady described the film's environment, "Obviously aimed at an international audience, the film evinces a disorienting combination of cultures that produces a nowhere land more confused than fascinating." Stephen Holden of The New York Times described My Neighbor Totoro as "very visually handsome", and believed that the film was "very charming" when "dispensing enchantment". Despite the highlights, Holden wrote, "Too much of the film, however, is taken up with stiff, mechanical chitchat." Matthew Leyland of Sight & Sound reviewed the DVD released in 2006, "Miyazaki's family fable is remarkably light on tension, conflict and plot twists, yet it beguiles from beginning to end... what sticks with the viewer is the every-kid credibility of the girls' actions as they work, play and settle into their new surroundings." Leyland praised the DVD transfer of the film, but noted that the disc lacked a look at the film's production, instead being overabundant with storyboards. Cultural impact My Neighbor Totoro helped bring Japanese animation into the global spotlight, and its set writer-director Hayao Miyazaki on the road to success. The film's central character, Totoro, is as famous among Japanese children as Winnie-the-Pooh is among British ones. The Independent recognized Totoro as one of the greatest cartoon characters, describing the creature, "At once innocent and awe-inspiring, King Totoro captures the innocence and magic of childhood more than any of Miyazaki's other magical creations." The Financial Times recognized the character's appeal, "[Totoro] is more genuinely loved than Mickey Mouse could hope to be in his wildest—not nearly so beautifully illustrated—fantasies." The environmental journal Ambio described the influence of My Neighbor Totoro, "[It] has served as a powerful force to focus the positive feelings that the Japanese people have for satoyama and traditional village life." The film's central character Totoro was used as a mascot by the Japanese "Totoro Hometown Fund Campaign" to preserve areas of satoyama in the Saitama Prefecture. The fund, started in 1990 after the film's release, held an auction in August 2008 at Pixar Animation Studios to sell over 210 original paintings, illustrations, and sculptures inspired by My Neighbor Totoro. A main-belt asteroid was named 10160 Totoro after the film's central character Totoro. Totoro has made cameo appearances in multiple Studio Ghibli films, including Pom Poko, Kiki's Delivery Service, and Whisper of the Heart. Additionally, various other anime series and films have featured cameos, including one episode of the Gainax TV series His and Her Circumstances; director Hideaki Anno worked as a key animator on Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind in 1984 and considers Miyazaki a mentor. Totoro has also had cameo appearances in various non-Japanese works, including on Comedy Central's Drawn Together and in the Imaginationland episodes of South Park as a background character, in Neil Gaiman's The Sandman: Brief Lives in which Delirium blows bubbles into a number of impossible shapes, including a Totoro holding an umbrella. Miyazaki also uses Totoro as a part of his Studio Ghibli company logo. Volume 9 of the Gin Tama manga has a spoof of the film entitled "My Neighbor Pedro". Also, the episode of Samurai Jack entitled "Jack and the Creature" pays homage to this film. Media Books A four-volume series of ani-manga books, which use color images and lines directly from the film, were published in Japan in May 1988 by Tokuma. The series was licensed for English language release in North America by Viz Media, which released the books from November 10, 2004 through February 15, 2005. A 112 picture book based on the film and aimed at younger readers was released by Viz on November 8, 2005. On the same day, Viz released a 176 page art book containing conceptual art from the film and interviews with the production staff. Anime short is a thirteen minute sequel to My Neighbor Totoro, written and directed by Miyazaki. Chika Sakamoto, who voiced Mei in Totoro, returned to voice Mei in this short. Hayao Miyazaki himself did the voice of the Neko Ba-chan as well as Totoro. It concentrates on the character of Mei Kusakabe from the original film and her adventures one night with the Kittenbus (offspring of the Catbus from the film) and other cat-oriented vehicles. Originally released in Japan in 2003, the short is regularly shown at the Ghibli Museum, but has not been released to home video. It was shown briefly in the United States in 2006 to honor the North American release of fellow Miyazaki film Spirited Away and at a Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation fundraiser a few days later. Soundtrack The Tonari no Totoro Soundtrack was originally released in Japan on May 1, 1988 by Tokuma Shoten. The CD primarily features the musical score used in the film composed by Joe Hisaishi, except for five vocal pieces performed by Azumi Inoue. It has since been re-released twice, once on November 21, 1996 and again on August 25, 2004. (Azumi Inoue) (Inoue) (Inoue) (Inoue and Suginami Children's Choir) References Further reading External links Mei and the Kittenbus at the Internet Movie Database Mei and the Kittenbus at Nausicaa.net | My_Neighbor_Totoro |@lemmatized japanese:12 anime:5 film:39 write:6 direct:3 hayao:7 miyazaki:18 produce:5 studio:9 ghibli:8 follow:2 two:6 young:3 daughter:4 professor:2 interaction:1 friendly:1 wood:1 spirit:5 postwar:1 rural:2 japan:5 movie:5 win:2 animage:1 grand:1 prix:1 prize:1 originally:3 release:19 u:1 vhs:2 format:1 title:1 friend:2 totoro:43 troma:3 st:1 banner:1 dub:8 co:2 jerry:2 beck:2 dvd:5 fox:5 video:2 right:3 version:11 expire:2 disney:7 march:2 feature:5 new:6 cast:3 first:3 united:2 state:2 include:6 english:9 language:4 track:2 audio:1 plot:3 university:1 satsuki:10 mei:16 move:2 old:1 house:5 close:1 hospital:4 wife:1 recover:1 illness:1 find:3 inhabit:1 tiny:1 animated:1 dust:1 creature:5 call:2 soot:2 sprite:1 small:2 see:4 light:2 dark:1 place:1 girl:9 become:2 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7,354 | Neutron | The neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Neutrons are usually found in atomic nuclei. The nuclei of most atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number and defines the type of element the atom forms. The number of neutrons determines the isotope of an element. For example, the carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while the carbon-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. While bound neutrons in stable nuclei are stable, free neutrons are unstable; they undergo beta decay with a lifetime of just under 15 minutes (885.7 ± 0.8 s). Particle Data Group's Review of Particle Physics 2006 Free neutrons are produced in nuclear fission and fusion. Dedicated neutron sources like research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for the use in irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments. Even though it is not a chemical element, the free neutron is sometimes included in tables of nuclides. It is then considered to have an atomic number of zero and a mass number of one. Discovery In 1930 Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker in Germany found that if the very energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium, boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. At first this radiation was thought to be gamma radiation, although it was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were very difficult to interpret on this basis. The next important contribution was reported in 1932 by Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris. They showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin or any other hydrogen-containing compound it ejected protons of very high energy. This was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but detailed quantitative analysis of the data became increasingly difficult to reconcile with such a hypothesis. Finally, in 1932 the physicist James Chadwick in the George Holt building at the University of Liverpool performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable. He suggested that in fact the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles of approximately the mass of the proton, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his suggestion. These uncharged particles were called neutrons, apparently from the Latin root for neutral and the Greek ending -on (by imitation of electron and proton). The discovery of the neutron immediately explained a known puzzle involving the spin of the nitrogen-14 nucleus, which had been experimentally measured to be 1 basic unit of angular momentum. It was known that atomic nuclei usually had about half as many positive charges as if they were composed completely of protons, and in existing models this was often explained by proposing that nuclei also contained some "nuclear electrons" to neutralize the excess charge. Thus, nitrogen-14 would be composed of 14 protons and 7 electrons to give it a charge of +7 but a mass of 14 atomic mass units. However, it also known that both protons and electrons carried an intrinsic spin of 1/2 unit of angular momentum, and there was no way to arange 21 particles in one group, or in groups of 7 and 14, to give a spin of 1. All possible pairings gave a net spin of 1/2. However, when nitrogen-14 was proposed to consist of 3 pairs of protons and neutrons, with an additional unpaired neutron and proton each contributing a spin of 1/2 in the same direction for a total spin of 1, the model became viable. Soon, nuclear neutrons were used to naturally explain spin differences in many different nuclides in the same way, and the neuton as a basic structural unit of atomic nuclii was accepted. Intrinsic properties Stability and beta decay The Feynman diagram of the neutron beta decay process Because the neutron consists of three quarks, the only possible decay mode without a change of baryon number requires the flavour changing of one of the quarks via the weak nuclear force. The neutron consists of two down quarks with charge -1/3 and one up quark with charge +2/3, and the decay of one of the down quarks into a lighter up quark can be achieved by the emission of a W boson. By this means the neutron decays into a proton (which contains one down and two up quarks), an electron, and an electron antineutrino (antineutrino). Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of (about 15 minutes), decaying by emission of a negative electron and antineutrino to become a proton: Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons → + + This decay mode, known as beta decay, can also transform the character of neutrons within unstable nuclei. Bound inside a nucleus, protons can also transform via inverse beta decay into neutrons. In this case, the transformation occurs by emission of a positron (antielectron) and a neutrino (instead of an antineutrino): → + + The transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is also possible through electron capture: + → + Positron capture by neutrons in nuclei that contain an excess of neutrons is also possible, but is hindered because positrons are repelled by the nucleus, and quickly annihilate when they encounter negative electrons. When bound inside of a nucleus, the instability of a single neutron to beta decay is balanced against the instability that would be acquired by the nucleus as a whole if an additional proton were to participate in repulsive interactions with the other protons that are already present in the nucleus. As such, although free neutrons are unstable, bound neutrons are not necessarily so. The same reasoning explains why protons, which are stable in empty space, may transform into neutrons when bound inside of a nucleus. Beta decay and electron capture are types of radioactive decay and are both governed by the weak interaction. Electric dipole moment The Standard Model of particle physics predicts a tiny separation of positive and negative charge within the neutron leading to a permanent electric dipole moment. The predicted value is, however, well below the current sensitivity of experiments. From several unsolved puzzles in particle physics, it is clear that the Standard Model is not the final and full description of all particles and their interactions. New theories going beyond the Standard Model generally lead to much larger predictions for the electric dipole moment of the neutron. Currently, there are at least four experiments trying to measure for the first time a finite neutron electric dipole moment. Anti-neutron The antineutron is the antiparticle of the neutron. It was discovered by Bruce Cork in the year 1956, a year after the antiproton was discovered. CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. The fractional difference in the masses of the neutron and antineutron is . Since the difference is only about 2 standard deviations away from zero, this does not give any convincing evidence of CPT-violation. Particle Data Group's Review of Particle Physics 2006 Neutron compounds Dineutrons and tetraneutrons The existence of stable clusters of four neutrons, or tetraneutrons, has been hypothesised by a team led by Francisco-Miguel Marqués at the CNRS Laboratory for Nuclear Physics based on observations of the disintegration of beryllium-14 nuclei. This is particularly interesting because current theory suggests that these clusters should not be stable. The dineutron is another hypothetical particle. Neutronium and neutron stars At extremely high pressures and temperatures, nucleons and electrons are believed to collapse into bulk neutronic matter, called neutronium. Presumably this is what happens in neutron stars. Detection The common means of detecting a charged particle by looking for a track of ionization (such as in a cloud chamber) does not work for neutrons directly. Neutrons that elastically scatter off atoms can create an ionization track that is detectable, but the experiments are not as simple to carry out; other means for detecting neutrons, consisting of allowing them to interact with atomic nuclei, are more commonly used. A common method for detecting neutrons involves converting the energy released from such reactions into electrical signals. The nuclides , , , , , and are useful for this purpose. A good discussion on neutron detection is found in chapter 14 of the book Radiation Detection and Measurement by Glenn F. Knoll (John Wiley & Sons, 1979). Uses The neutron plays an important role in many nuclear reactions. For example, neutron capture often results in neutron activation, inducing radioactivity. In particular, knowledge of neutrons and their behavior has been important in the development of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. The fissioning of elements like uranium-235 and plutonium-239 is caused by their absorption of neutrons. Cold, thermal and hot neutron radiation is commonly employed in neutron scattering facilities, where the radiation is used in a similar way one uses X-rays for the analysis of condensed matter. Neutrons are complementary to the latter in terms of atomic contrasts by different scattering cross sections; sensitivity to magnetism; energy range for inelastic neutron spectroscopy; and deep penetration into matter. The development of "neutron lenses" based on total internal reflection within hollow glass capillary tubes or by reflection from dimpled aluminum plates has driven ongoing research into neutron microscopy and neutron/gamma ray tomography. Physorg.com, "New Way of 'Seeing': A 'Neutron Microscope'" NASA.gov: "NASA Develops a Nugget to Search for Life in Space" One use of neutron emitters is the detection of light nuclei, particularly the hydrogen found in water molecules. When a fast neutron collides with a light nucleus, it loses a large fraction of its energy. By measuring the rate at which slow neutrons return to the probe after reflecting off of hydrogen nuclei, a neutron probe may determine the water content in soil. Sources Because free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). Free neutron beams are obtained from neutron sources by neutron transport. For access to intense neutron sources, researchers must go to specialist facilities, such as the ISIS facility in the UK, which is currently the world's most intense pulsed neutron and muon source. Neutrons' lack of total electric charge prevents engineers or experimentalists from being able to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by electric or magnetic fields. However, these methods have no effect on neutrons except for a small effect of an inhomogeneous magnetic field because of the neutron's magnetic moment. Protection Exposure to free neutrons can be hazardous, since the interaction of neutrons with molecules in the body can cause disruption to molecules and atoms, and can also cause reactions which give rise to other forms of radiation (such as protons). The normal precautions of radiation protection apply: avoid exposure, stay as far from the source as possible, and keep exposure time to a minimum. Some particular thought must be given to how to protect from neutron exposure, however. For other types of radiation, e.g. alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays, material of a high atomic number and with high density make for good shielding; frequently lead is used. However, this approach will not work with neutrons, since the absorption of neutrons does not increase straightforwardly with atomic number, as it does with alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Instead one needs to look at the particular interactions neutrons have with matter (see the section on detection above). For example, hydrogen rich materials are often used to shield against neutrons, since ordinary hydrogen both scatters and slows neutrons. This often means that simple concrete blocks or even paraffin-loaded plastic blocks afford better protection from neutrons than do far more dense materials. After slowing, neutrons may then be absorbed with an isotope which has high affinity for slow neutrons without causing secondary capture-radiation, such as lithium-6. Hydrogen-rich ordinary water affects neutron absorption in nuclear fission reactors: usually neutrons are so strongly absorbed by normal water that fuel-enrichement with fissionable isotope, is required. The deuterium in heavy water has a very much lower absorption affinity for neutrons than does protium (normal light hydrogen). Deuterium is therefore used in CANDU-type reactors, in order to slow (moderate) neutron velocity, to increase the probability of nuclear fission compared to neutron capture. Production Various nuclides become more stable by expelling neutrons as a decay mode; this is known as neutron emission, and happens commonly during spontaneous fission. Cosmic radiation interacting the Earth's atmosphere continuously generates neutrons that can be detected at the surface. Even stronger neutron radiation is produced at the surface of Mars where the atmosphere is thick enough to generate neutrons from cosmic ray spallation, but not thick enough to provide significant protection from the neutrons produced. These neutrons not only produce a Martian surface neutron radiation hazard from direct downward-going neutron radiation, but also a significant hazard from reflection of neutrons from the Martian surface, which will produces reflected neutron radiation penetrating upward into a Martian craft or habitat from the floor. http://www.physicamedica.com/VOLXVII_S1/20-CLOWDSLEY%20et%20alii.pdf Nuclear fission reactors naturally produce free neutrons; their role is to sustain the energy-producing chain reaction. The intense neutron radiation can also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture. Experimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors which generate neutrons are likely to create around twice the amount of radioactive waste of a fission reactor, but the waste is composed of neutron-activated lighter isotopes, which have relatively short (50-100 years) decay periods as compared to typical half lives of 10,000 years for fission waste, which is long primarily due to the long half life of alpha-emitting transuranic actinides. Neutron temperature Thermal neutron A thermal neutron is a free neutron that is Boltzmann distributed with kT = 0.024 eV (4.0×10-21 J) at room temperature. This gives characteristic (not average, or median) speed of 2.2 km/s. The name 'thermal' comes from their energy being that of the room temperature gas or material they are permeating. (see kinetic theory for energies and speeds of molecules). After a number of collisions (often in the range of 10–20) with nuclei, neutrons arrive at this energy level, provided that they are not absorbed. In many substances, thermal neutrons have a much larger effective cross-section than faster neutrons, and can therefore be absorbed more easily by any atomic nuclei that they collide with, creating a heavier — and often unstable — isotope of the chemical element as a result. Most fission reactors use a neutron moderator to slow down, or thermalize the neutrons that are emitted by nuclear fission so that they are more easily captured, causing further fission. Others, called fast breeder reactors, use fission energy neutrons directly. Cold neutrons These neutrons are thermal neutrons that have been equilibrated in a very cold substances such as liquid deuterium. These are produced in neutron scattering research facilities. Ultracold neutrons Ultracold neutrons are produced by equilibration in substances with a temperature of a few kelvins, such as solid deuterium or superfluid helium. An alternative production method is the mechanical deceleration of cold neutrons. Fission energy neutron A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 2 MeV (20 TJ/kg), hence a speed of 28,000 km/s. They are named fission energy or fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators. Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes such as nuclear fission. Fast neutrons can be made into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation. This is done with a neutron moderator. In reactors, typically heavy water, light water, or graphite are used to moderate neutrons. Fusion neutron D-T (deuterium-tritium) fusion is both the easiest fusion reaction to ignite, and produces the most energetic neutrons, with 14.1 MeV of kinetic energy and traveling at 17% of the speed of light. With about 10 times the energy of fission neutrons, they are very effective at fissioning even non-fissile heavy nuclei, and those high-energy fissions tend to produce more neutrons per fission. 14 MeV neutrons can also produce more neutrons by knocking them loose from nuclei. (spallation) On the other hand, they are less likely to simply be captured without causing fission or spallation. For these reasons, nuclear weapon designs extensively utilize 14.1 MeV neutrons to cause more fission. Other fusion reactions produce much less energetic neutrons; for example, D-D fusion produces a 2.45 MeV neutron and 3He half of the time. (It produces tritium and a proton but no neutron the other half of the time.) Intermediate neutrons A fission energy neutron that is slowing down is often said to have intermediate energy. There are not many non-elastic reactions in this energy region, so most of what happens is just slowing to thermal speeds before eventual capture. Intermediate energy neutrons are a hazard in reactors owing to the existence of a resonance region in the fission cross section of fissile elements. Within this region there exist many local minima and local maxima of probability of causing fission; this means that a reactor operating with a significant population of intermediate neutrons in contact with fuel nuclei could exhibit dangerous transient response. In such reactors, other mechanisms of inherent stability must be provided, such as large hydrogen populations to provide Doppler broadening. High-energy neutrons These neutrons have more energy than fission energy neutrons and are generated in accelerators or in the atmosphere from cosmic particles. They can have energies as high as tens of joules per neutron. See also Neutron radiation List of particles Nuclear reaction Thermal reactor Fast neutron Ionizing radiation Isotope Neutron flux Neutron generator Neutron magnetic moment Neutron capture nucleosynthesis: R-process S-process Neutron radiation and the Sievert radiation scale Neutron sources Neutron sources Neutron generator Processes involving neutrons Neutron bomb Neutron diffractionNeutron flux Neutron transport References Further reading Krane, K. S. (1998) Introductory Nuclear Physics G. L. Squires (1997) Introduction to the Theory of Thermal Neutron Scattering M. S. Dewey, D. M. Gilliam, J. S. Nico, M. S. Snow and F. E. Wietfeldt NIST Neutron Lifetime Experiment be-x-old:Нэўтрон | Neutron |@lemmatized neutron:170 subatomic:1 particle:21 net:2 electric:7 charge:10 mass:6 slightly:1 large:5 proton:22 usually:3 find:4 atomic:11 nucleus:27 atom:4 consist:6 therefore:4 collectively:1 refer:1 nucleon:2 number:9 define:1 type:5 element:7 form:3 determine:2 isotope:8 example:4 carbon:2 bound:5 stable:6 free:13 unstable:6 undergo:1 beta:9 decay:14 lifetime:3 minute:2 data:5 group:5 review:2 physic:6 produce:21 nuclear:20 fission:23 fusion:8 dedicate:1 source:9 like:2 research:3 reactor:15 spallation:4 use:14 irradiation:1 scattering:3 experiment:7 even:4 though:1 chemical:2 sometimes:1 include:1 table:2 nuclides:4 consider:1 zero:2 one:9 discovery:2 walther:1 bothe:1 herbert:1 becker:1 germany:1 energetic:3 alpha:4 emit:3 polonium:1 fell:2 certain:1 light:8 specifically:1 beryllium:2 boron:1 lithium:2 unusually:1 penetrating:2 radiation:25 first:2 think:1 gamma:7 although:2 ray:7 know:6 detail:2 experimental:2 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7,355 | Transport_in_Lesotho | This article concerns systems of transport in Lesotho. As a landlocked country, Lesotho has no seaports or harbours, but does possess road, air, and limited rail infrastructure. Roads Prior to Lesotho's independence in 1966, the only paved road in the country was the Kingsway in the capital, Maseru, between the Mejametalana Airport and the Royal Palace. Since the early 1970s, the road infrastructure has been substantially developed. In 1999, Lesotho had a road network measuring at in length, of which were paved. The most weight has been given to connecting the district centres, but the roads within central Lesotho have also been improved, as part of the construction needs of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project. Railways There are of narrow-gauge (1067mm) railway in Lesotho, owned and operated by South Africa. The railway is also included in statistics for that country. The only railway, built in 1905, connects Lesotho's capital Maseru's northern commercial district to Marseilles, South Africa and from there to the Bloemfontein/KwaZulu-Natal main line. As of 2008, there have been talks of building new railways to connect Lesotho to Durban and Port Elizabeth. Air transport There are a total of 28 airports in Lesotho, of which 3 have paved runways. The only international airport is the Moshoeshoe I International Airport in Mazenod, a short distance southeast from Maseru. The main runway of the Moshoeshoe Airport is the only one with a runway longer than 1,523 meters; it measures at 3,200 meters. Of the other airports, one has a paved runway between 914 and 1,523 meters in length and one a paved runway with a length of under 914 meters. Four of the airports have unpaved runways of between 914 and 1,523 meters in length, and the others have unpaved runways of less than 914 meters. All of the classifications are made by the length of the longest runway on an airport. Water transport Lesotho is landlocked and completely dependent on South Africa for sea transport. The nearest major port and the transshipping point for the country is Durban. Recently due to delays out of Durban more companies have been using the Port Elizabeth facilities that are 2 hours further south. Inland water transport is limited to small ferry boats at river crossings, and the Government of Lesotho operates boats at major crossings. Intermediate means of transport The main intermediate means of transport (IMTs) in use are wheelbarrows and work animals. Wheelbarrows are widespread in the urban and rural areas and are commonly used by women and men to transport food aid, grains for milling, water containers and building materials. The importance of wheelbarrows for water collection is gradually being reduced by the provision of water taps. Also common in both highland and lowland areas are two-wheeled ‘scotch carts' with pneumatic tyres. They used to be pulled mainly by oxen, but in recent years there has been an increasing tendency to use cows (females), as farmers often do not own oxen. The carts vary in design, some being made with old pickup bodies, some made using old axles, and many being purpose-made to standard designs by small workshops in Lesotho or South Africa. Most are painted red. Discussion with workshops producing carts suggest the main problem is obtaining suitable wheels and axles, as well as other raw materials, that can be afforded by their clients. Horses are very important in the highlands for riding. Horses are sometimes used as pack animals to carry goods, but this is relatively uncommon. Donkeys, on the other hand are widely used as pack animals in all parts of the county. Donkeys are quite commonly ridden, mainly by young men and usually without a saddle. It is quite common for women to ride horses, but relatively few women ride donkeys. A few people, notably older men, ride donkeys fitted with saddles. Mules are relatively uncommon, and may be used for riding or pack transport.The use of horses, mules and donkeys to pull carts is very low. Very few two-wheeled donkey carts or horse carts, although such carts are very common in other countries in southern, eastern, western and northern Africa. In at least two urban areas (Maputsoe and Mafeteng) a small number of transport entrepreneurs use carts or wagons with pneumatic tyres pulled mainly by single horses (and occasionally by two donkeys or a mule). In Mafeteng, the transporters use two-wheel carts, while in Maputsoe, the transporters use four-wheel wagons. The numbers of bicycles and motorcycles in use is very low. The the per-capita ownership of motorcycles in Lesotho, and also bicycles, may be among the lowest in the world. The small number of people who do use bicycles tend to be children and young men, primarily for recreation although some use them for inter-village travel. A few people use bicycles for sport, and some South Africans and other tourists travel through the highlands on bicycles. A small number of transport entrepreneurs use bicycles to gain a livelihood. 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7,356 | Minos | Palace of Minos In Greek mythology, Minos (ancient Greek: ) was a mythical king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa. After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades. The Minoan civilization has been named after him. By his wife, Pasiphaë, he fathered Ariadne, Androgeus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Glaucus, Catreus, Acacallis, and many others. Minos, along with his brothers, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, was raised by King Asterion (or Asterius) of Crete. When Asterion died, his throne was claimed by Minos Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 3.1.3. who banished Sarpedon and (according to some sources) Rhadamanthys too. It is not clear if Minos was a name or a title, the Cretan word for "king", "We call him Minos, but we do not know his name, probably the word is a title, like Pharaoh or Caesar, and covers a multitude of kings" (Will Durant, The Life of greece [The Story of Civilization Part II), New york: Simon & shuster), 1939:11). or indeed the name of a particular king that was subsequently used as a title. Scholars have noted the interesting similarity between Minos and the names of other ancient founder-kings, such as Menes of Egypt, Mannus of Germany, Manu of India, and so on. There is a name in Minoan Linear A mi-nu-te that may be related to Minos. According to La Marle's reading of Linear A (see below), we should read mwi-nu ro-ja (Minos the king) on a Linear A tablet. The royal title ro-ja is read on several documents, including on stone libation tables from the sanctuaries, where it follows the name of the main god, Asirai (the equivalent of Sanskrit Asura, and of Avestan Ahura). The name mwi-nu (Minos) is expected to mean 'ascetic' as Skt. muni, and this explanation fits the legend about Minos sometimes living in caves on Crete. Hubert La Marle, Lineaire A : la premiere ecriture syllabique de Crete, Geuthner, Paris, 4 volumes, 1997-1999 (in the third volume, ch. XIV concerns kings and meetings) It is thought that royal succession in Minoan Crete might have descended matrilinearly; i.e. from the queen to her firstborn daughter, and in this case the queen's husband became the Minos, or war chief. The literary Minos Minos reigned over Crete and the islands of the Aegean Sea three generations before the Trojan War. He lived at Knossos for periods of nine years, where he received instruction from Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its naval supremacy. Herodotus 3.122; Thucydides 1.4) In Attic tradition and on the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant, Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth. Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998, p. 346. the heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed the Minotaur. To reconcile the contradictory aspects of his character, as well as to explain how Minos governed Crete over a period spanning so many generations, two kings of the name of Minos were assumed by later poets and mythologists. According to this view, the first King Minos was the son of Zeus and Europa and brother of Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon. This was the 'good' king Minos, and he was held in such esteem by the Olympian gods that, after he died, he was made one of the three 'Judges of the Dead', Horace, Odes 4.7.21. alongside his brother Rhadamanthys and half-brother Aeacus. The wife of this Minos ('Minos I') was said to be Itone (daughter of Lyctius) or Crete (a nymph, or daughter of his stepfather Asterion), and he had a single son named Lycastus, his successor as King of Crete. Lycastus had a son named Minos, after his grandfather, born by Lycastus's wife, Ida, daughter of Corybas. This second Minos—the 'bad' king Minos—is the son of this Lycastus, and was a far more colorful character than his father and grandfather. It is to this Minos ('Minos II') that we owe the myths of Theseus, Pasiphaë, the Minotaur, Daedalus, Glaucus, and Nisus. Unlike Minos I, Minos II fathered numerous children, including Androgeus, Catreus, Deucalion, Ariadne, Phaedra, and Glaucus—all born to him by his wife Pasiphaë. He was the grandfather of King Idomeneus, who led the Cretans to the Trojan War. Since relations with Phoenicia were in later times supposed to have played an important part in the development of Crete, Minos is sometimes called a Phoenician. There is no doubt that there is a considerable historical element in the legend; recent discoveries in Crete prove the existence of a civilization such as the legends imply, and render it possible that not only Athens, but Mycenae itself, was once subject to the kings of Knossos, of whom Minos was greatest, though this suggestion has been disputed and is no longer widely accepted. In view of the splendour and wide influence of Minoan Crete, the age generally known as "Mycenaean" has been given the name of "Minoan" by Dr. Arthur Evans, the chief proponent of a powerful Minoan empire, as more properly descriptive Minos himself is said to have died at Camicus in Sicily, whither he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Cocalus, king of Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him while he was taking a bath. Diodorus Siculus 4.79. Subsequently his remains were sent back to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on which was inscribed: "The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus." The earlier legend knows Minos as a beneficent ruler, legislator, and suppressor of piracy. Thucydides 1.4. His constitution was said to have formed the basis of that of Lycurgus for Sparta. Pausanias 3. 2, 4. In accordance with this, after his death he became judge of the shades in the under-world. Odyssey, 11.568. In later versions, Aeacus and Rhadamanthus were made judges as well, with Minos leading as the "appeals court" judge. Plato, Gorgias; 524 The mythological Minos Asterios, king of Crete, adopted the three sons of Zeus and Europa, Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthus. According to the Odyssey he spoke with Zeus every nine years or for nine years. He got his laws straight from Zeus himself. When his son Androgeos had won the Panathenaeic Games the king, Aegeus, sent him to Marathan to fight a bull, resulting in the death of Androgeos. Outraged, Minos went to Athens to revenge his son, and on the way he camped at Megara. The king there at the time was Nisos and his strength came from his hair. His daughter, Scylla fell in love with him and cut off her father's purple hair so Minos could conquer the city. After his triumph, he punished Scylla for her treachery against her father by tying her to a boat and dragging her until she drowned. On arriving in Attica, he asked Zeus to punish the city, and the god struck it with plague and hunger. An oracle told the Athenians to meet any of Minos' demands if they wanted to escape the revenge. Minos then asked Athens to send seven boys and seven girls to Crete every nine years to be sacrificed to the Minotaur. As a punishment for Minos' refusing to sacrifice a certain bull, Poseidon made his wife Pasiphae fall in love with it, giving birth to the Minotaur. Minos had his architect Daedalus construct a labyrinth in which he hid the monster. The Minotaur was defeated by the hero Theseus with the help of Minos' daughter Ariadne. Glaucus One day, Glaucus was playing with a ball or mouse and suddenly disappeared. Bibliotheke 3.3.1. The Curetes told them "A marvelous creature has been born amongst you: whoever finds the true likeness for this creature will also find the child." Polyidus observed the similarity of a newborn calf in Minos' herd, colored white and red and black, to the ripening of the fruit of the bramble plant, and so Minos sent him to find Glaucus. Searching for the boy, Polyidus saw an owl driving bees away from a wine-cellar in Minos' palace. Inside the wine-cellar was a cask of honey, with Glaucus dead inside. Minos demanded Glaucus be brought back to life, though Polyidus objected. Minos shut Polyidus up in the wine-cellar with a sword. When a snake appeared nearby, Polyidus killed it with the sword. Another snake came for the first, and after seeing its mate dead, the second serpent left and brought back an herb which brought the first snake back to life. Following this example, Polyidus used the same herb to resurrect Glaucus. Minos refused to let Polyidus leave Crete until he taught Glaucus the art of divination. Polyidus did so, but then, at the last moment before leaving, he asked Glaucus to spit in his mouth. Glaucus did so, and forgot everything he had been taught. Poseidon, Daedalus and Pasiphaë Minos justified his accession as king and prayed to Poseidon for a sign. Poseidon sent a giant white bull out of the sea. Bibliotheke 3.1.3; compare Diodorus Siculus 4.77.2 and John Tzetzes, Chiliades i.479ff. Lactantius Placidus, commentary on Statius, Thebaid v.431, according to whom the bull was sent, in answer to Minos's prayer, not by Poseidon but by Jupiter. Minos was committed to sacrificing the bull to Poseidon, The act would have "returned" the bull to the god who sent it. but then decided to substitute a different bull. In rage, Poseidon cursed Pasiphaë, Minos' wife, with zoophilia. Daedalus built her a wooden cow, which she hid inside. The bull mated with the wooden cow and Pasiphaë was impregnated by the bull, giving birth to a horrible monster, again named Asterius, Bibliotheke 3.1.4. the Minotaur, half man half bull. Daedalus then built a complicated "chamber that with its tangled windings perplexed the outward way" Apparently a quotation, according to Sir James George Frazer, (Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation, 1921), commenting on Bibliotheke 3.1.4 (. called the Labyrinth, and Minos put the Minotaur in it. To make sure no one would ever know the secret of who the Minotaur was and how to get out of the Labyrinth (Daedalus knew both of these things), Minos imprisoned Daedalus and his son, Icarus, along with the monster. Fortunately, both Daedalus and Icarus escaped the Labyrinth and the Minotaur's clutches, but they were marooned on Crete. Daedalus and Icarus flew away on wings Daedalus invented, but Icarus' wings melted because he flew too close to the sun. Icarus fell in the sea and drowned. Theseus Minos' son Androgeus won every game in a contest hosted by Aegeas of Athens. Alternatively, the other contestants were jealous of Androgeus and killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace if they sent Minos seven young men and seven virgin maidens to feed the Minotaur every nine years (which corresponded directly to the Minoans' meticulous records of lunar alignments - a full moon falls on the equinoxes once every eight years). This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' lovestruck daughter. 17th century engraving of Scylla falling in love with Minos Nisus Minos was also part of the King Nisus story. Nisus was King of Megara, and he was invincible as long as a lock of purple hair still existed, hidden in his white hair. Minos attacked Megara but Nisus knew he could not be beaten because he still had his lock of purple hair. His daughter, Scylla, fell in love with Minos and proved it by cutting the purple hair off her father's head. Nisus died and Megara fell to Crete. Minos spurned Scylla for disobeying her father. She was changed into a seabird, relentlessly pursued by her father, who was a sea eagle. The death of Minos Minos searched for Daedalus by travelling from city to city asking a riddle; he presented a spiral seashell and asked for it to be strung all the way through. When he reached Camicus, Sicily, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, fetched the old man. He tied the string to an ant, which walked through the seashell, stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince him to take a bath first. Cocalus' daughters and Daedalus then killed Minos by burning him with boiling water. After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades together with Aeacus and Radamanthus. Radamanthus judged the souls of Asians, Aeacus judged Europeans and Minos had the deciding vote. Minos in art On Cretan coins, Minos is represented as bearded, wearing a diadem, curly-haired, haughty and dignified, like the traditional portraits of his reputed father, Zeus. On painted vases and sarcophagus bas-reliefs he frequently occurs with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus as judges of the under-world and in connection with the Minotaur and Theseus. In Michelangelo's famous fresco, The Last Judgment (located in the Sistine Chapel), Minos appears as judge of the under-world, surrounded by a crowd of devils. With his tail coiled around him, Minos judges the damned as they are brought down to hell (see Divine Comedy First Circle). In poetry Minos, as portrayed in Dante's Inferno In the Aeneid of Virgil, Minos was the judge of those who had been given the death penalty on a false charge - Minos sits with a gigantic urn, and decides whether a soul should go to Elysium or Tartarus with the help of a silent jury. Radamanthus, his brother, is a judge at Tartarus who decides upon suitable punishments for sinners there Aeneid VI, 568–572). . In Dante's Divine Comedy, Minos sits at the entrance to the second circle in the Inferno, which is the beginning of proper Hell. Here, he judges the sins of each soul and assigns it to its rightful punishment by indicating the circle to which it must descend. He does this by circling his tail around his body the appropriate number of times. He can also speak, to clarify the soul's location within the circle indicated by the wrapping of his tail. Inferno V, 4–24; XXVII, 124–127). References See also USS Minos (ARL-14) Literature Theodore Ziolkowski, Minos and the Moderns: Cretan Myth in Twentieth-Century Literature and Art (Oxford, OUP, 2008), 192 pp. (Classical Presences). | Minos |@lemmatized palace:2 minos:81 greek:2 mythology:1 ancient:3 mythical:1 king:24 crete:17 son:11 zeus:9 europa:3 death:6 become:4 judge:13 dead:5 hades:2 minoan:7 civilization:3 name:13 wife:6 pasiphaë:6 father:9 ariadne:5 androgeus:4 deucalion:2 phaedra:2 glaucus:12 catreus:2 acacallis:1 many:2 others:1 along:2 brother:5 rhadamanthys:4 sarpedon:4 raise:1 asterion:3 asterius:2 die:4 throne:1 claim:1 pseudo:1 apollodorus:2 bibliotheke:5 banish:1 accord:6 source:1 clear:1 title:4 cretan:6 word:2 call:3 know:7 probably:1 like:2 pharaoh:1 caesar:1 cover:1 multitude:1 durant:1 life:3 greece:1 story:2 part:3 ii:3 new:3 york:1 simon:1 shuster:1 indeed:1 particular:1 subsequently:2 use:2 scholar:1 note:1 interesting:1 similarity:2 founder:2 menes:1 egypt:1 mannus:1 germany:1 manu:1 india:1 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7,357 | History_of_Mexico | Mexico is a country in North America and the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world. It also has the largest number of Native American language speakers on the continent (the majority speaking Nahuatl, Mayan, Mixtec and Zapotec). For thousands of years, what is now known as Mexico was a land of hunter-gatherers. Around 9,000 years ago, ancient Amerindians domesticated corn and initiated an agricultural revolution, leading to the formation of many complex civilizations. These civilizations revolved around cities with writing, monumental architecture, astronomical studies, mathematics, and militaries. After 4,000 years, these civilizations were destroyed with the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519. For three centuries, Mexico was colonized by Spain, during which time the majority of its indigenous population died off. Formal independence from Spain was recognized in 1821. A war with the United States ended with Mexico losing almost half of its territory in 1848. France then invaded Mexico in 1861 and ruled briefly until 1867. The Mexican Revolution would later result in the death of 10% of the nation's population. Since then, Mexico as a nation-state has struggled with reconciling its deeply-entrenched indigenous heritage with the demands of the modern Western cultural model imposed in 1519. The nation's name is derived from the Aztec's capital called Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Pre-Columbian civilizations An image of one of the pyramids in the upper level of Yaxchilán The pre-Columbian history of what now is known as Mexico is known through the work of archaeologists and epigraphers, and through the accounts of the conquistadors, clergymen, and indigenous chroniclers of the immediate post-conquest period. While relatively few parchments (or codices) of the Mixtec and Aztec cultures of the Post-Classic period survived the Spanish conquest, more progress has been made in the area of Mayan archaeology and epigraphy. Human presence in Mesoamerica was once thought to date back 40,000 years based upon what were believed to be ancient human footprints in the Valley of Mexico, but after further investigation using radioactive dating, it appears this may be untrue. It is currently unclear whether 21,000 year old campfire remains found in the Valley of Mexico are the earliest human remains in Mexico. "Native Americans", Encarta Indigenous peoples began to selectively breed maize plants around 8,000 BC. Evidence shows a marked increase in pottery working by 2300 BC and the beginning of intensive corn farming between 1800 and 1500 BC. Between 1800 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form. Many matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as the: Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Tarascan, "Toltec" and Aztec, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. These civilizations are credited with many inventions and advancements including pyramid-temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology. While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico can be said to have had five major civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Toltec, the Aztec and the Maya. These civilizations (with the exception of the politically-fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mexico, and beyond, like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these five civilizations over the span of 3,000 years. Many made war with them. But almost all found themselves within these five spheres of influence. Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex.Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Aztecs thought of themselves as heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them, much as Charlemagne did with respect to the fallen Roman Empire. What the Aztecs lacked in political power, they made up for with ambition and military skill. In 1428, the Aztecs led a war of liberation against their rulers from the city of Azcapotzalco, which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexico's peoples. The revolt was successful, and the Aztecs, through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, became the rulers of central Mexico as the leaders of the Triple Alliance. This Alliance was composed of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. At their peak, 350,000 Aztecs presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising around 10 million people, almost half of Mexico's then-estimated population of 24 million. This empire stretched from ocean to ocean, and extended into Central America. The westward expansion of the empire was halted by a devastating military defeat at the hands of the Purepecha (who possessed superior weapons made of copper). The empire relied upon a system of taxation (of goods and services) which were collected through an elaborate bureaucracy of tax collectors, courts, civil servants, and local officials who were installed as loyalists to the Triple Alliance (led by Tenochtitlan). By 1519, the Aztec capital, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the largest city in the world with a population of around 350,000 (although some estimates range as high as 500,000). By comparison, the population of London in 1519 was 80,000 people. Tenochtitlan is the site of modern-day Mexico City. Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire Site of Tenochtitlán, according to Lienzo de Tlaxcala. In 1519, the Aztec civilization of what now is known as Mexico was invaded by Spain, and two years later in 1521, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was conquered by an alliance between Spanish and Tlaxcaltecs (the main enemies of Aztecs). Francisco Hernández de Córdoba explored the shores of South Mexico in 1517, followed by Juan de Grijalva in 1518. The most important of the early Conquistadores was Hernán Cortés, who entered the country in 1519 from a native coastal town which he renamed "Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz" (today's Veracruz). Contrary to popular opinion, Spain did not conquer all the empire when Cortes conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. It would take another two centuries after the Siege of Tenochtitlan before the Conquest of the Aztec Empire would be complete, as rebellions, attacks, and wars continued against the Spanish by other native peoples. Role of religion in the fall of the Aztec Empire The Aztecs' religious beliefs were based on a great fear that the universe would cease functioning without a constant offering of human sacrifice. They sacrificed thousands of people on special occasions. This belief is thought to have been common throughout Nahuatl people. In order to acquire captives in times of peace, the Aztec resorted to a form of "ritual warfare", or flower war. Tlaxcalteca and other Nahuatl nations were forced into such wars, and, not particularly liking the idea of being a perpetual source of human sacrifices, they willingly joined the Spaniard forces against the Aztecs. The small Spanish force, consisting of 508 men schooled in European warfare and equipped with steel weapons and armor, was reinforced with thousands of indigenous Indian allies. Their use of ambush during indigenous ceremonies allowed the Spanish to avoid fighting the best native warriors in direct armed battle, such as during The Feast of Huitzilopochtli. The colonial period Hernán Cortés The Spanish defeat of the Aztecs in 1521 marked the beginning of the 300 year-long colonial period called the New Spain. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it would take decades of sporadic warfare to pacify the rest of Mesoamerica. Particularly fierce was the Chichimeca War in the north of the New Spain (1576-1606). The Council of Indies and the Mendecant establishments that arose in Mesoamerica as early as 1524 labored to generate capital for the broken crown of Spain and convert the Indian populations to Catholicism. Over the period of conquest (1519-c1600s) and the following Colonial periods the sponsorship of Mendecant friars and a process of religious syncretism combined the Pre-Hispanic cultures with Spanish socio-religious tradition. The resulting hodgepodge of culture was a pluriethnic State that relied on the repartimiento of peasant "Republic of Indians" labor to accomplish any work considered necessary. The existing feudal system of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican culture was replaced by the encomienda feudal-style system of Spain, probably adapted to the pre-Hispanic tradition. It was finally replaced by a debt-based inscription of labor that led to wide-spread revitalization movements and prompted the revolution that ended the colonial state of New Spain. Miner's gear from the colonial period in Mexico on display at the Historical Archive and Museum of Mining in Pachuca. During the colonial period, which lasted from 1521 to 1810, Mexico was known as "la Nueva España" or "New Spain" (as aforementioned), whose territories included today's Mexico. ("Mexico" in this period only meant the area that is the Valley of Mexico.) This entity was part of an eponymous viceroyalty, which joined with it the Spanish Caribbean islands, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, the area comprising today's southwestern United States, and the Philippines. Since Spaniards conquered areas with high civilizations and dense populations, which could provide the settlers with a sufficient labor source and a population to catechize, Spaniards in the sixteenth century tended not to develop the territories that had nomadic peoples, which were harder to conquer (and in fact, with the exception of the Amazon Basin, were not subdued until the nineteenth century). The Spanish did explore a good part of North America looking for more treasure-laden societies. These explorers claimed the land as was their practice, but finding no treasures or sedentary Indian tribes, they returned to the areas in Mexico, which had already been conquered. It was in the seventeenth century that a concerted effort was made to settle the northern frontier in what is now the United States. Mexican war of independence Map of Mexico, 1847 After Napoleon I invaded Spain in 1807 and put his brother, Joseph on the Spanish throne, Mexican Conservatives and rich land-owners who supported Spain's Bourbon royal family objected to the comparatively liberal Napoleonic policies. Thus an unlikely alliance was formed in Mexico: liberales, or Liberals, who favored a democratic Mexico, and conservadores, or Conservatives, who favored a Mexico ruled by a Bourbon monarch who would restore the status quo ante. These two elements agreed only that Mexico must achieve independence and determine her own destiny. Taking advantage of the fact that Spain was severely handicapped under the occupation of Napoleon's army, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest of Spanish descent and progressive ideas, declared Mexico's independence from Spain in the small town of Dolores on September 16, 1810. This act started the long war, the first official document of independence was the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America signed in 1813 by the Congress of Anáhuac. This Declaration of Independence promised to maintain the Catholic religion and announced recovery of Mexico's "usurped sovereignty" under "the present circumstances in Europe" and "the inscrutable designs of Providence." Vazquez, Josefina Zoraida (March 1999) "The Mexican Declaration of Independence" The Journal of American History 85(4): pp. 1362-1369, p. 1368 Eventually led to the official recognition of independence from Spain in 1821 and the creation of the First Mexican Empire. As with many early leaders in the movement for Mexican independence, Hidalgo was captured by opposing forces and executed. Miguel Hidalgo. Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence were Father José María Morelos, Vicente Guerrero, and General Agustín de Iturbide. The war for independence lasted eleven years until the troops of the liberating army entered Mexico City in 1821. Thus, although independence from Spain was first proclaimed in 1810, it was not achieved until 1821, by the Treaty of Córdoba, which was signed on August 24 in Córdoba, Veracruz, by the Spanish viceroy Juan de O'Donojú and Agustín de Iturbide, ratifying the Plan de Iguala. In 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, a former Spanish general who switched sides to fight for Mexican independence, proclaimed himself emperor – officially as a temporary measure until a member of European royalty could be persuaded to become monarch of Mexico (see Mexican Empire for more information). A revolt against Iturbide in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824, "Guadalupe Victoria" became the first president of the new country; his given name was actually Félix Fernández but he chose his new name for symbolic significance: Guadalupe to give thanks for the protection of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and Victoria, which means Victory. After independence After independence, several Spanish possessions in Central America which also proclaimed their independence were incorporated into Mexico from 1822 to 1823, with the exception of Chiapas and several other Central American states. The northern provinces grew increasingly isolated, economicaly and politically, due to prolonged Comanche raids and attacks. New Mexico in particular had been gravitating more toward Comancheria. In the 1820s, when the United States began to exert influence over the region, New Mexico had already begun to question its loyalty to Mexico City. By the time of the Mexican-American War large portions of northern Mexico had been systematically raided and pillaged by the Comanches, causing impoverishment, political fragmentation, and a general frustration with the inability, or unwillingness, of the Mexican government to curb the Comanches. Online at Google Books Soon after achieving its independence from Spain, the Mexican government, in an effort to populate some of its sparsely-settled northern land claims, awarded extensive land grants in a remote area of the state of Coahuila y Tejas to thousands of immigrant families from the United States, on the condition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and assume Mexican citizenship. It also forbade the importation of slaves, a condition that, like the others, was largely ignored. A key factor in the decision to allow American to settle Texas was the hope that the immigrants would help buffer and protect the province from Comanche attacks. It was also hoped that the policy would blunt American imperial expansion by turning the immigrants into Mexican citizens. The policy failed on both accounts, as the Americans tended to settle far from the Comanche raiding zones and used the failure of the central Mexican government to suppress the raids as a pretext for declaring independence. First Republic The government of the newly independent Mexico soon fell to rogue republican forces led by Antonio López de Santa Anna and others. The first Republic was formed with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president, followed in office by Vicente Guerrero who won the electoral vote but lost the popular vote. The Mexican constitution was at that time very similar to the US constitution; but was largely disregarded by the majority of the population. The conservative party saw the opportunity to control the government and led a revolution under the leadership of Gen. Anastasio Bustamante who became president from 1830 to early 1832. The federalists asked Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna to overthrow Bustamante and he did, declaring General Manuel Gómez Pedraza (who won the electoral vote back in 1828) as the "true" president. Elections took place, and Santa Anna took office on 1832. Constantly changing political beliefs, as president (he was president eleven different times), Scheina, Robert L. (2002) Santa Anna: a curse upon Mexico Brassey's, Washington D.C., ISBN 1-57488-405-0 in 1834 Santa Anna abrogated the federal constitution, causing insurgencies in the southeastern state of Yucatán and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas. Both areas sought independence from the central government. After negotiations and the presence of Santa Anna's army eventually brought Yucatán to again recognize Mexican sovereignty, Santa Anna's army turned to the northern rebellion. The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans and led mainly by relatively recently-arrived English-speaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico at Washington-on-the-Brazos, giving birth to the Republic of Texas. Texan militias defeated the Mexican army and captured General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto. Texas declared their independence from Mexico in 1836, further reducing the claimed territory of the fledgling Mexican republic. In 1845, Texans voted to be annexed by the United States, and this was agreed to by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President John Tyler. War with the United States Antonio López de Santa Anna Many presidents, dictators, etc. came and went during a long period of instability which lasted most of the 19th century. One of the dominant figures of the second quarter of that century was the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna was Mexico's leader during the conflict with Texas, which declared itself independent from Mexico in 1836 and ensured that independence by defeating the Mexican army and Santa Anna. Santa Anna was in and out of power again during the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-48). After accepting Texas's application for statehood in 1846, the US government sent troops to Texas in order to secure the territory, subsequently ignoring Mexico's demands for US withdrawal. Mexico saw this as a US intervention in their internal affairs by supporting a rebel province. Disagreements about boundaries made the conflict inevitable. Mexican troops then attacked and killed several American soldiers and captured a small American detachment between the Rio Grande (which the Republic of Texas, and subsequently the U.S., claimed as the southern border) and the Nueces River (which had been considered the historic southern border of the Mexican department of Tejas). As a result, President James K. Polk requested a declaration of war, and the US Congress voted in favor on May 13, 1846. Mexico formally declared war on 23 May. This resulted in the Mexican–American War, which lasted from 1846 to 1848. Mexico was defeated by United States forces, which occupied Mexico City and many other parts of the country. The war was terminated with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo which stipulated that, as a condition for peace, Mexico was obligated to sell the mostly vacant northern territories to the United States for US$15 million. Over the next few decades, Americans settled these territories and petitioned for statehood, forming the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and most of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. Baja California was not included in the U.S. purchases or in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo despite being occupied by U.S. troops at the end of the war. American Occupation The primary reason for Mexico's defeat was its problematic internal situation, which led to a lack of unity and organization for a successful defense. One of the very few commemorated groups of Mexicans in the U.S. invasion of 1847 was a group of very young Military College cadets (now considered by some as Mexican national heroes). These cadets fought to the death defending their college against a detachment of American soldiers during the Battle of Chapultepec (September 13, 1847). Another group of combatants revered by Mexicans was the Batallón de San Patricio, a unit composed of hundreds of mostly Irish-born American deserters who fought under Mexican command until their overwhelming defeat at the Battle of Churubusco (August 20, 1847). Most of the "San Patricios" were killed and a few captured. Many of the captured men were court-martialled by the U.S. Army as deserters and traitors, and were subsequently executed at Chapultepec. In 1853, mostly vacant desert territory containing parts of present-day Arizona and New Mexico were sold to the United States in the Gadsden Purchase. This land was sold by President Santa Anna in order to gain personal profit and to pay off his army. The Americans had not realized when they were negotiating the Treaty of Hidalgo (when they accepted the Gila River as the southern U.S. boundary) that a much easier railroad route to California lay slightly south of the Gila River. The Southern Pacific Railroad, the second transcontinental railroad to California, was built through this purchased land in 1881. As a bonus, the city of Tucson (Arizona) and its few hundred inhabitants was added to the United States territory of New Mexico. The struggle for liberal reforms In 1855, Santa Anna, who had become leader one more time, was overthrown by the liberals, in what was called the Revolution of Ayutla. The moderate liberal Ignacio Comonfort became president. The Moderados tried to find a middle ground between the nation's Liberals and Conservatives. The 1857 Constitution During Comonfort's presidency, a new Constitution was drafted. The Constitution of 1857 retained most of the Roman Catholic Church's Colonial era privileges and revenues, but, unlike the earlier constitution, did not mandate that the Catholic Church be the nation's exclusive religion. Such reforms were unacceptable to the leadership of the clergy and the Conservatives. Comonfort and members of his administration were excommunicated, and a revolt was then declared. The War of Reform This led to the War of Reform, from December 1857 to January 1861. This civil war became increasingly bloody and polarized the nation's politics. Many of the Moderates came over to the side of the Liberals, convinced that the great political power of the Church needed to be curbed. For some time, the Liberals and Conservatives had their own governments, the Conservatives in Mexico City and the Liberals headquartered in Veracruz. The war ended with Liberal victory, and Liberal president Benito Juárez moved his administration to Mexico City. French intervention and the Second Mexican Empire Portrait of Maximilian I of Mexico, by Franz Xaver Winterhalter In the 1860s, the country again underwent a military occupation, this time by France, establishing the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria on the throne of Mexico as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and conservative elements of the upper class as well as some indigenous communities. Although the French, then considered one of the most efficient armies of the world, suffered an initial defeat in the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862 (now commemorated as the Cinco de Mayo holiday) they eventually defeated the Mexican government forces and set the couple upon the throne. Benito Juárez, President of Mexico (1861–1863 and 1867–1872) The Mexican monarchy set up its government in the Capital of Mexico City and used the National Palace as their government seat. The Emperor's consort, born a Belgian princess, was Empress Carlota of Mexico, a cousin of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. The Imperial couple chose as their home Chapultepec Castle, and later adopted two grandchildren of the first Mexican Emperor, Augustin I. The Imperial couple noticed how the people of Mexico were treated, especially the Indians, and wanted to ensure their human rights. They were interested in a Mexico for the Mexicans, and did not share the views of Napoleon III, who was interested in exploiting the rich mines in the north-west of the country. Emperor Maximilian I favored the establishment of a limited monarchy sharing powers with a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal to please Mexico's Conservatives, while the liberals refused to accept a monarch, leaving Maximilian with few enthusiastic allies within Mexico. Maximilian was eventually captured and executed in the Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro, by the forces loyal to President Benito Juárez, who kept the federal government functioning during the French intervention that put Maximilian in power. In mid-1867, following repeated losses in battle to the Republican Army and ever decreasing support by Napoleon III, Maximilian was captured and executed by Juárez's soldiers, along with his last loyal generals, Mejia and Miramon in Querétaro. From then on, Juárez remained in office until his death from heart failure in 1872. Restoration of the Republic In 1867, the republic was restored and Juárez was reelected, continuing to implement his reforms. In 1871 he was elected a second time, much to the dismay of his opponents within the liberal party, who considered reelection to be something undemocratic. Juárez died one year later and was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. Order, progress and the Díaz dictatorship In 1876 Lerdo was re-elected, defeating Porfirio Díaz in the elections. Díaz rebelled against the government with the proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec, in which he opposed reelection, in 1876. Díaz managed to overthrow Lerdo, who fled the country, and was named president. Díaz became the new president. Thus began a period of more than thirty years (1876–1911) during which Díaz was the strong man in Mexico. A brief period of a puppet president Manuel Gonzalez, Diaz's secretary of war, was established from 1880-1884 until Diaz seeing that the economic infrastructure that he had started was slowly crumbling beneath Mexico's feet needed a new boost that he happily helped with. course of Mexican History This period of relative prosperity and peace is known as the Porfiriato. During this period, the country's infrastructure improved greatly thanks to increased foreign investment. Some of these improvements include the increase of railroad tracks, expansion of oil fields, investment of private capitalistic companies, establishment of copper mines in Northern Mexico, and the building of telegraph and telephone lines across the country. However, the period is also characterized by social inequality and discontent among the working classes. The Mexican Revolution 1910-1921 Porfirio Díaz, President of Mexico, (1876 - 1911) In 1910 the 80-year-old Díaz decided to hold an election to serve another term as president. He thought he had long since eliminated any serious opposition in Mexico; however, Francisco I. Madero, an academic from a rich family, decided to run against him and quickly gathered popular support, despite Díaz putting Madero in jail. When the official election results were announced, it was declared that Díaz had won re-election almost unanimously, with Madero receiving only a few hundred votes in the entire country. This fraud by the Porfiriato was too blatant for the public to swallow, and riots broke out. Madero prepared a document known as the Plan de San Luis Potosí, in which he called the Mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of Porfirio Díaz on November 20, 1910. Madero managed to flee to San Antonio, Texas, where he started to prepare his overthrow of the Díaz government. This started what is known as the Mexican Revolution. The Federal Army was defeated by the revolutionary forces which were led by, amongst others, Emiliano Zapata in the South, Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco in the North, and Venustiano Carranza. Porfirio Díaz resigned in 1911 for the "sake of the peace of the nation" and went to exile in France, where he died in 1915. Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. Villa is sitting in the presidential throne in the Palacio Nacional at the left. The revolutionary leaders had many different objectives; revolutionary figures varied from liberals such as Madero to radicals such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. As a consequence, it proved very difficult to reach agreement on how to organize the government that emanated from the triumphant revolutionary groups. The result of this was a struggle for the control of Mexico's government in a conflict that lasted more than twenty years. This period of struggle is usually referred to as part of the Mexican Revolution, although it might also be considered a civil war. Presidents Francisco I. Madero (1913), Venustiano Carranza (1920), and former revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata (1919) and Pancho Villa (1923) were assassinated during this time, amongst many others. Following the resignation of Díaz and a brief reactionary interlude, Madero was elected President in 1911. He was ousted and killed in 1913 by Victoriano Huerta, with the support of the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, but not that of U.S. President-elect Woodrow Wilson. Huerta was a former General of Porfirio Díaz. Huerta's brutality soon lost him his domestic support, and his regime was actively opposed by the Wilson Administration. In 1915 he was overthrown by Venustiano Carranza, a former revolutionary general. Carranza promulgated a new Constitution on February 5, 1917. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 still guides Mexico. Carranza was assassinated in an internal feud of his former supporters over who would replace him as President. Madero and Zapata in Cuernavaca, Morelos In 1920 Álvaro Obregón, one of Carranza's former allies who plotted against him, became president. He accommodated all elements of Mexican society except the most reactionary clergy and landlords, and successfully catalyzed social liberalization, particularly in curbing the role of the Catholic Church, improving education and taking steps toward instituting women's civil rights. While the Mexican revolution and civil war may have subsided after 1920, armed conflicts did not cease. The most widespread conflict of this era was the battle between those favoring a secular society with separation of Church and State and those favoring supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church, which developed into an armed uprising by supporters of the Church that came to be called "la Guerra Cristera." It is estimated that between 1910 and 1921 about 900,000 people died. The Cristero War 1926-1929 Between 1926 and 1929 an armed conflict in the form of a popular uprising broke out against the anti-Catholic\ anti-clerical Mexican government, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Discontent over the provisions had been simmering for years. The conflict is known as the Cristero War. A number of articles of the 1917 Constitution were at issue. Article 5 outlawed monastic religious orders. Article 24 forbade public worship outside of church buildings, while Article 27 restricted religious organizations' rights to own property. Finally, Article 130 took away basic civil rights of members of the clergy: priests and religious leaders were prevented from wearing their habits, were denied the right to vote, and were not permitted to comment on public affairs in the press. The Cristero War was eventually resolved diplomatically, largely with the influence of the U.S. Ambassador. The conflict claimed the lives of some 90,000: 56,882 on the federal side, 30,000 Cristeros, and numerous civilians and Cristeros who were killed in anticlerical raids after the war's end. As promised in the diplomatic resolution, the laws considered offensive to the Cristeros remained on the books, but no organized federal attempts to enforce them were put into action. Nonetheless, in several localities, persecution of Catholic priests continued based on local officials' interpretations of the law. The Institutional Revolutionary Party In 1929, the National Mexican Party (PNM) was formed by the serving president, General Plutarco Elías Calles. (It would later become the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) that ruled the country for the rest of the 20th century.) The PNM succeeded in convincing most of the remaining revolutionary generals to dissolve their personal armies to create the Mexican Army, and so its foundation is considered by some the real end of the Mexican Revolution. The PRI set up a new type of system, led by a caudillo. The PRI is typically referred to as the three-legged stool, in reference to Mexican workers, peasants and bureaucrats. After it was founded in 1929, the PRI monopolized all the political branches. The PRI did not lose a senate seat until 1988 or a gubernatorial race until 1989. It wasn't until July 2, 2000, that Vicente Fox of the opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by the National Action Party (PAN), was elected president. His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's 71-year hold on the presidency. President Lázaro Cárdenas President Lázaro Cárdenas came to power in 1935 and transformed Mexico. On April 1, 1936 he exiled Calles, the last general with dictatorial ambitions, thereby removing the army from power. Cárdenas managed to unite the different forces in the PRI and set the rules that allowed his party to rule unchallenged for decades to come without internal fights. He nationalized the oil industry on March 18, 1938, the electricity industry, created the National Polytechnic Institute, granted asylum to Spanish expatriates fleeing the Spanish Civil War, started land reform and the distribution of free textbooks for children. President Manuel Ávila Camacho Manuel Ávila Camacho, Cárdenas's successor, presided over a "bridge" between the revolutionary era and the era of machine politics under PRI that would last until 2000. Ávila, moving away from nationalistic autarchy, proposed to create a favorable climate for international investment, favored nearly two generations earlier by Madero. Ávila's regime froze wages, repressed strikes, and persecuted dissidents with a law prohibiting the "crime of social dissolution." During this period, the PRI regime thus betrayed the legacy of land reform. Miguel Alemán Valdés, Ávila's successor, even had Article 27 amended to protect elite landowners. The Mexican economic miracle During the next four decades, Mexico experienced impressive economic growth (from a very low base), and historians call this period "El Milagro Mexicano", the Mexican Miracle. This was in spite of failing foreign confidence in investment during the worldwide Great Depression. The assumption of mineral rights and subsequent nationalisation of the oil industry into Pemex during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was a popular move. Economy collapses However, the economy collapsed several times afterwards. Although PRI regimes achieved economic growth and relative prosperity for almost three decades after World War II, the management of the economy collapsed several times, and political unrest grew in the late 1960s, culminating in the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968. In the 1970s, economic crises affected the country in 1976 and 1982, after which the banks were nationalized, having been blamed for the economic problems. (La Década Perdida) On both occasions, the Mexican peso was devalued, and, until 2000, it had been normal to expect a big devaluation and a recessionary period after each presidential term ended every six years. The crisis that came after a devaluation of the peso in late 1994 threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession in over half a century. 1985 earthquake On September 19, 1985, an earthquake measuring approximately 8.1 on the Richter scale struck Michoacán and inflicted severe damage on Mexico City. Estimates of the number of dead range from 6,500 to 30,000. (See 1985 Mexico City earthquake.) NAFTA Logo of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) On January 1, 1994, Mexico became a full member of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), joining the United States of America and Canada in a large and prosperous economic bloc. It is on this date that the Zapatista Army of National Liberation emerged, capturing several towns and sparking a brief conflict with the government. On March 23, 2005, the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America was signed by the elected leaders of those countries. According to the U.S. CIA Factbook for 2006: Mexico has a free market economy that recently entered the trillion dollar class. It contains a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. Recent administrations have expanded competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution, and airports. Per capita income is one-fourth that of the US; income distribution remains highly unequal. Trade with the US and Canada has tripled since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994. Mexico has 12 free trade agreements with over 40 countries including, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, the European Free Trade Area, and Japan, putting more than 90% of trade under free trade agreements. The Fox administration was cognizant of the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, and allow private investment in the energy sector, but has been unable to win the support of the opposition-led Congress. The current Calderón government that took office in December 2006 is confronting the same challenges of boosting economic growth, improving Mexico's international competitiveness, and reducing poverty. The end of PRI's hegemony Accused many times of blatant fraud, the PRI's candidates continually held almost all public offices until the end of the 20th century. It was not until the 1980s that the PRI lost the first state governorship, an event that marked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony. Through the electoral reforms started by president Carlos Salinas de Gortari and consolidated by president Ernesto Zedillo, by the mid 1990s, the PRI had lost its majority in Congress. In 2000, after seventy years, the PRI lost the presidential election to the candidate of the National Action Party (PAN — Partido Acciòn Nacional), Vicente Fox. He was the 69th president of Mexico. The continued non-PAN majority in the Congress of Mexico prevented him from implementing most of his reforms. President Ernesto Zedillo In 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo faced an economic crisis. There were public demonstrations in Mexico City and constant military presence after the 1994 rising of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Chiapas. Zedillo also oversaw political and electoral reforms that reduced the PRI's hold on power. After the 1988 election, which was strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government party, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral – Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 1990s. It is run by ordinary citizens, overseeing that elections are conducted legally and fairly. President Vicente Fox Quesada As a result of popular discontent, the presidential candidate of the National Action Party (PAN) Vicente Fox Quesada won the federal election of July 2, 2000, but did not win a majority in the chambers of congress. The results of this election ended 71 years of PRI hegemony in the presidency. Many people in Mexico claim that, even if Fox won the election, President Zedillo did not give his party (PRI) a chance to dispute the results of the election by making Fox's victory "official" by addressing the nation the same night of the election, a first in Mexican politics (and in other places, too, where it is more normal for the losing candidate to admit defeat, rather than the outgoing incumbent). One reason offered for this is that Zedillo sought a quick and peaceful election in 2000 to avoid another crisis after the change of government. President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa Felipe Calderón Hinojosa (also a member of the conservative National Action Party (PAN) is, as of April 2009, the president of Mexico. Many people in Mexico claim that he actually did not win the election: as a result, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the candidate of the leftist Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) appointed himself as the "legitimate president" and is currently traveling all over the country, along with his own cabinet, with resources from the taxes from all Mexicans, to strictly supervise every and all of the actions of president Felipe Calderón. In 2008, there was a major escalation in the Mexican Drug War. See also History of the west coast of North America Further reading Daily Life of the Aztecs, on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest , Jacques Soustelle, Stanford University Press, 1970, ISBN 0-8047-0721-9 Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs, Michael Coe, Thames & Hudson, 2004, 5th edition, ISBN 0-500-28346-X 1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Charles Mann, Knopf, 2005, ISBN 1-4000-4006-X American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World, David Stannard, Oxford University Press, 1993, Rep edition, ISBN 0-19-508557-4 Mexico Profundo, Guillermo Bonfil Batalla, University of Texas Press, 1996, ISBN 0-292-70843-2 Mexico's Indigenous Past, Alfredo Lopez Austin, Leonardo Lopez Lujan, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8061-3214-0 American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000 Years of Inventions and Innovations , Kay Marie Porterfield, Emory Dean Keoke, Checkmark Books, 2003, paperback edition, ISBN 0-8160-5367-7 Great River, The Rio Grande in North American History, Paul Horgan, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, reprint, 1977, in one hardback volume, ISBN 0-03-029305-7 An Archaeological Guide to Central and Southern Mexico, Joyce Kelly, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8061-3349-X The Course of Mexican History , Michael C. Meyer, William L. Sherman, Susan M. Deeds, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-514819-3 Skywatchers : A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico , Anthony Aveni, University of Texas Press, 2001, ISBN 0-292-70502-6 The Olmecs: America's First Civilization, Richard A. Diehl, Thames & Hudson , 2004, ISBN 0-500-02119-8 The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico , Miguel Leon-Portillo, Beacon Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8070-5501-8 <cite>Prehistoric Mesoamerica: Revised Edition, Richard E. W. Adams, University of Oklahoma Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8061-2834-8 Michael Snodgrass, Deference and Defiance in Monterrey: Workers, Paternalism, and Revolution in Mexico, 1890-1950 (Cambridge University Press, 2003) (ISBN 0-521-81189-9) Borderlands/La Frontera, Gloria Anzaldua, Aunt Lute Books, San Francisco, 1987, ISBN 1-879960-56-7 Notes External links Hernán Cortés: Página de relación Brown University Library: Three for Three Million – Information about the Paul R. Dupee Jr. '65 Mexican History Collection in the John Hay Library, including maps and photos of books History of Mexico – Provides a history of Mexico from ancient times to today Mexico: From Empire to Revolution – Photographs from the Getty Research Institute's collections exploring Mexican history and culture though images produced between 1857 and 1923 US-Mexican War – US political context and overview of military campaign that ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1816-1848. 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7,358 | Key_signature | This key signature – A major or F minor – consists of three sharps, here placed after the clef In musical notation, a key signature is a series of sharp or flat symbols placed on the staff, designating notes that are to be consistently played one semitone higher or lower than the equivalent natural notes unless otherwise altered with an accidental. Key signatures are generally written immediately after the clef at the beginning of a line of musical notation, although they can appear in other parts of a score, notably after a double bar. Key signatures are generally used in a score to avoid the complication of having sharp or flat symbols on every instance of certain notes. Each major and minor key has an associated key signature that sharpens or flattens the notes which are used in its scale. However, it is not uncommon for a piece to be written with a key signature that does not match its key, for example, in some Baroque pieces, '… to determine the key of a Baroque work one must always analyze its tonal structure rather than rely on the "key" signature.'Schulenberg, David. Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 72. or in transcriptions of traditional modal folk tunes. "In a few cases Petrie has given what is clearly a modal melody a key signature which suggests that it is actally in a minor key. For example, 'Banish Misfortune' is presented in D minor, although it is clearly in the Dorian mode."Cooper, David. The Petrie Collection of the Ancient Music of Ireland. Cork: Cork University Press, 2005. p. 22. Conventions of 'common practice period' B major scale: no key signature; accidentals required throughout B major scale: key signature; accidentals not needed In principle, any piece can be written with any key signature, using accidentals to correct any notes where it shouldn't apply. The purpose of the key signature is to minimize the number of such accidentals required to notate the music. The sequence of sharps or flats in key signatures is generally rigid in music from the common practice period. For example, if a key signature has only one sharp, it must be an F sharp. The effect of a key signature continues throughout a piece or movement, unless explicitly cancelled by another key signature. For example, if a five-sharp key signature is placed at the beginning of a piece, every A in the piece in any octave will be played as A sharp, unless preceded by an accidental (for instance, the A in the above scale — the next-to-last note — is played as an A even though the A in the key signature is written an octave lower). In a score containing more than one instrument, all the instruments are usually written with the same key signature. Exceptions: If an instrument is a transposing instrument If an instrument is a percussion instrument with indeterminate pitch Composers may omit the key signature for horn and occasionally trumpet parts. This is perhaps reminiscent of the early days of brass instruments, when crooks would be added to them, in order to change the length of the tubing and allow playing in different keys. Notational conventions Circle of fifths showing major and minor keys and their signatures The convention for the notation of key signatures follows the circle of fifths. Starting from C major (or equivalently A minor) which has no sharps or flats, successively raising the key by a fifth adds a sharp, going clockwise round the circle of fifths. The new sharp is placed on the new key's leading note (seventh degree) for major keys or supertonic (second degree) for minor keys. Thus G major (E minor) has one sharp which is on the F; then D major (B minor) has two sharps (on F and C) and so on. Similarly successively lowering the key by fifth adds a flat, going anti-clockwise round the circle of fifths. The new flat is placed on the subdominant (fourth degree) for major keys or submediant (sixth degree) for minor keys. Thus F major (D minor) has one flat which is on the B; then B has two flats (on B and E) and so on. Put another way: for key signatures with sharps, the first sharp is placed on F line with subsequent sharps on C, G, D, A, E and B; for key signatures with flats, the first flat is placed on B with subsequent flats on E, A, D, G, C and F. There are thus fifteen 15 possible different key signatures, with up to seven sharps or flats and including the "empty" signature of C major (A minor). Corollaries: Starting from a key with flats in its key signature: raising by fifths successively reduces the flats to zero at C major (A minor). Further such raising adds sharps as described above. Starting from a key with sharps: lowering by fifths successively reduces those sharps to zero. Further such lowering adds flats as described above. When the process of raising by a fifth (adding a sharp) produces more than five or six sharps, successive such raising generally involves changing to the enharmonic equivalent key using a flat-based signature. Typically this is at F = G, but may also be at C = D or B = C. The same principle applies to the process of successive lowering by a fifth. The relative minor is a minor third down from the major, regardless of whether it is a "flat" or a "sharp" key signature. The key signatures with seven flats and seven sharps are rarely used because they have simpler enharmonic equivalents. For example, the key of C major (seven sharps) is more simply represented as D major (five flats). For modern practical purposes these keys are the same, because C and D are the same note. Pieces are written in these "extreme" sharp or flat keys, however: for example, Bach's Prelude and Fugue No. 3 from Book 1 of The Well-Tempered Clavier BWV 848 is in C major. The modern musical Seussical by Flaherty and Ahrens also has several songs written in these more difficult keys. Relation of signature to key A key signature is not the same as a key; key signatures are merely notational devices. They are convenient principally for diatonic or tonal music. Some pieces that change key (modulate) insert a new key signature on the staff partway, while others use accidentals: natural signs to "neutralize" the key signature and other sharps or flats for the new key. For a given musical mode the key signature defines the diatonic scale that a piece of music uses. Most scales require that some notes be consistently sharped or flatted. For example, the only sharp in the G major scale is F sharp, so the key signature associated with the G major key is the one-sharp key signature. However, the connection is not absolute; a piece with a one-sharp key signature is not necessarily in the key of G major, and likewise, a piece in G major may not always be written with a one-sharp key signature. This is particularly true of minor keys. Keys which are associated with the same key signature are called relative keys. Bach Cantata 106 is almost entirely in E-flat major, but has two flats in the key signature The "Dorian" Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538 by Bach has no key signature, which accords with its Dorian mode status (empty signature on D) in preference to its minor key status (which would have a single B signature). The Bs that occurs in the piece are written with accidentals. When musical modes, such as Lydian or Dorian, are written using key signatures, they are called transposed modes. Other practices D Freygish scale rendered by NoteWorthy Composer Exceptions to 'comon practice period' use may be found in Klezmer scales, such as Freygish (Phrygian). In the 20th century composers such as Bartók and Rzewski (see below) began experimenting with unusual key signatures that departed from the standard order. Variant key signatures in a Victoria motet. In the Superius part the E-flat appears first, and in two other parts a flat occurs in two octaves. In 15th-century scores partial signatures are quite common, in which different voices will have different key signatures; however, this is derived from the different hexachords in which the parts were implicitly written, and the use of the term "key signature" can be misleading for music of this and earlier periods. Unusual signatures The above key signatures only express diatonic scales and are therefore sometimes called "standard key signatures". Other scales are written either with a standard key signature and use accidentals as required, or with a non-standard key signature. Examples of the latter include the E (right hand) and F & G (left hand) used for the E diminished (E octatonic) scale in Bartók's "Crossed Hands" (no. 99, vol. 4, Mikrokosmos), or the B, E & F used for the D Phrygian dominant scale in Frederic Rzewski's God to a Hungry Child. The absence of a key signature does not always mean that the music is in the key of C major or A minor: each accidental may be notated explicitly as required, or the piece may be modal or atonal. The common practice period conventions are so firmly established that some musical notation programs are unable to show other key signatures. History The use of a one-flat signature developed in the Medieval period, but signatures with more than one flat did not appear until the 16th century, and signatures with sharps not until the mid-17th century. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Key Signature When signatures with multiple flats first came in, the order of the flats was not standardized, and often a flat appeared in two different octaves, as shown at right. In the late 1400s and early 1500s it was common for different voice parts in the same composition to have different signatures, a situation called a partial signature or conflicting signature. This was actually more common than complete signatures in the 15th century. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., Partial signature The 16th-century motet "Absolon fili mi" attributed to Josquin Desprez features two voice parts with two flats, one part with three flats, and one part with four flats. Baroque music written in minor keys often was written with a key signature with fewer flats than we now associate with their keys; for example, movements in C minor often had only two flats (because the A would frequently have to be sharpened to A natural in the ascending melodic minor scale, as would the B). Mnemonics In order to remember which order that the sharps and flats of a key signature are written, there are several mnemonics that can help: The order of the sharps is Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle. From this you can say that if you know a key of E major has four sharps, the mnemonic shows which sharps they are (F,C,G,D). The mnemonic for flats is 'Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles Father'. See also Key signature names and translations Major and minor Parallel key Relative key References | Key_signature |@lemmatized key:90 signature:68 major:25 f:12 minor:23 consist:1 three:2 sharp:37 place:7 clef:2 musical:6 notation:4 series:1 flat:37 symbol:2 staff:2 designate:1 note:9 consistently:2 play:3 one:13 semitone:1 high:1 low:2 equivalent:3 natural:3 unless:3 otherwise:1 alter:1 accidental:10 generally:4 write:15 immediately:1 beginning:2 line:2 although:2 appear:4 part:9 score:4 notably:1 double:1 bar:1 use:13 avoid:1 complication:1 every:2 instance:2 certain:1 associate:4 sharpen:2 flatten:1 scale:14 however:4 uncommon:1 piece:13 match:1 example:9 baroque:4 determine:1 work:1 must:2 always:3 analyze:1 tonal:2 structure:1 rather:1 rely:1 schulenberg:1 david:2 music:11 new:6 york:1 oxford:1 university:2 press:2 p:2 transcription:1 traditional:1 modal:3 folk:1 tune:1 case:1 petrie:2 give:2 clearly:2 melody:1 suggest:1 actally:1 banish:1 misfortune:1 present:1 dorian:4 mode:5 cooper:1 collection:1 ancient:1 ireland:1 cork:2 convention:4 common:6 practice:5 period:6 b:13 require:5 throughout:2 need:1 principle:2 correct:1 apply:1 purpose:2 minimize:1 number:1 notate:2 sequence:1 rigid:1 effect:1 continue:1 movement:2 explicitly:2 cancel:1 another:2 five:3 octave:4 precede:1 next:1 last:1 even:1 though:1 contain:1 instrument:7 usually:1 exception:2 transpose:1 percussion:1 indeterminate:1 pitch:1 composer:3 may:6 omit:1 horn:1 occasionally:1 trumpet:1 perhaps:1 reminiscent:1 early:3 day:1 brass:1 crook:1 would:4 add:6 order:6 change:3 length:1 tubing:1 allow:1 playing:1 different:8 notational:2 circle:4 fifth:10 show:4 follow:1 start:3 c:14 equivalently:1 successively:4 raise:4 go:4 clockwise:2 round:2 lead:1 seventh:1 degree:4 supertonic:1 second:1 thus:3 g:10 e:11 two:9 similarly:1 lower:2 anti:1 subdominant:1 fourth:1 submediant:1 sixth:1 put:1 way:1 first:4 subsequent:2 fifteen:1 possible:1 seven:4 include:2 empty:2 corollary:1 raising:1 reduce:1 zero:2 far:2 describe:2 lowering:2 reduces:1 process:2 produce:1 six:1 successive:2 involve:1 enharmonic:2 base:1 typically:1 also:3 applies:1 relative:3 third:1 regardless:1 whether:1 rarely:1 simpler:1 simply:1 represent:1 modern:2 practical:1 extreme:1 bach:3 prelude:1 fugue:2 book:1 well:1 temper:1 clavier:1 bwv:2 seussical:1 flaherty:1 ahrens:1 several:2 song:1 difficult:1 relation:1 merely:1 device:1 convenient:1 principally:1 diatonic:3 modulate:1 insert:1 partway:1 others:1 sign:1 neutralize:1 define:1 us:1 sharped:1 flatted:1 connection:1 absolute:1 necessarily:1 likewise:1 particularly:1 true:1 call:4 cantata:1 almost:1 entirely:1 toccata:1 accord:1 status:2 preference:1 single:1 occur:1 lydian:1 transposed:1 freygish:2 render:1 noteworthy:1 comon:1 find:1 klezmer:1 phrygian:2 century:6 bartók:2 rzewski:2 see:2 begin:1 experiment:1 unusual:2 depart:1 standard:4 variant:1 victoria:1 motet:2 superius:1 occurs:1 partial:3 quite:1 voice:3 derive:1 hexachords:1 implicitly:1 term:1 mislead:1 signatures:3 express:1 therefore:1 sometimes:1 either:1 non:1 latter:1 right:2 hand:3 left:1 diminish:1 octatonic:1 cross:1 vol:1 mikrokosmos:1 dominant:1 frederic:1 god:1 hungry:1 child:1 absence:1 mean:1 atonal:1 firmly:1 establish:1 program:1 unable:1 history:1 develop:1 medieval:1 mid:1 harvard:2 dictionary:2 ed:2 multiple:1 come:1 standardize:1 often:3 late:1 composition:1 situation:1 conflicting:1 actually:1 complete:1 absolon:1 fili:1 mi:1 attribute:1 josquin:1 desprez:1 feature:1 four:2 frequently:1 ascend:1 melodic:1 mnemonic:4 remember:1 help:1 father:2 charles:2 end:2 battle:2 say:1 know:1 name:1 translation:1 parallel:1 reference:1 |@bigram unless_otherwise:1 dorian_mode:2 percussion_instrument:1 brass_instrument:1 notational_convention:1 prelude_fugue:1 temper_clavier:1 diatonic_scale:2 toccata_fugue:1 minor_bwv:1 |
7,359 | Musical_chairs | Musical chairs is a game played by a group of people (usually children), often in an informal setting purely for entertainment such as a birthday party. The game starts with any number of players and a number of chairs one fewer than the number of players; the chairs are arranged in a circle (or other closed figure if space is constrained; a double line is sometimes used) facing outward, with the people standing in a circle just outside of that. A non-playing individual plays recorded music or a musical instrument. While the music is playing, the players in the circle walk in unison around the chairs. When the music controller suddenly shuts off the music, everyone must race to sit down in one of the chairs. The player who is left without a chair is eliminated from the game, and one chair is also removed to ensure that there will always be one fewer chair than there are players. The music resumes and the cycle repeats until there is only one player left in the game, who is the winner. Other meanings "Playing musical chairs" is also a metaphorical way of describing any activity where items or people are repeatedly and usually pointlessly shuffled among various locations. It can also refer to a condition where people have to expend time searching for a resource, such as having to travel from gasoline station to gasoline station when there is a shortage. It is also used to refer to political situations where one leader replaces another, only to be rapidly replaced in turn due to the instability of the governing system. A game of musical chairs being played at a party. "Musical chairs" is or was formerly also known as "Going to Jerusalem". Laura Lee Hope describes it under that name in chapter XIII of The Bobbsey Twins at School, as does John P. Marquand in chapter XXXI of Wickford Point. In the musical Evita, during the song "the art of the possible" Juan Perón and a group of other military officers play a game of musical chairs which Perón wins, symbolizing his rise to power. In the documentary Money as Debt, Andrew Gause is quoted as saying: "One thing to realize about our fractional reserve banking system is that, like a child's game of musical chairs, as long as the music is playing, there are no losers." Andrew Gause - Wikiquote In mathematics, the principle that says that if the number of players is one more than the number of chairs, then one player is left standing, is the pigeonhole principle. Versions A game of the non-competitive version in one of its final stages Instead of using chairs, one version of the game has players sit on the ground when the music stops, the last to sit being eliminated. This is known as 'musical bumps'. In 'musical statues', players stop moving when the music stops, and stay standing in the same position. If any player is seen moving, they are out of the game. In the non-competitive version of "musical chairs" one chair but no player is eliminated in each round. All players have to "sit down" on the remaining chairs, while their feet must not touch the floor. A Cold Wind Blows is another non-competitive substitute for "musical chairs." Extreme Musical Chairs: The set up is the same as traditional musical chairs. Before the players sit down they must complete a task that the music person gives out before each round. For example before sitting in a chair, players must do five jumping jacks or run and touch the wall. Another varriation is to have the players hop, jump, walk backwards, or dance while they are walking around the chairs. The game's name in different languages Assamese: "Xongeet Soki" Cantonese: 爭凳仔 (literally fighting for chairs) Catalan: "El joc de les cadires" (The game of the chairs) Danish: "Stoledans" (Chair dance) Dutch: "Stoelendans" (Chair dance) Filipino: "Trip to Jerusalem" French: "Chaises musicales" (Musical chairs) German: "Reise nach Jerusalem" (Journey to Jerusalem) Greek: "Μουσικές Καρέκλες" - Musikes Karekles (Musical chairs) Hebrew: "kisot muziklayim; כסאות מוזיקליים" (Musical chairs) Hindi: "Sangeet ke saath Khursi" (Music with the Chairs) Hungarian: "Székfoglaló" (Chair taking game) Italian: "Il gioco della sedia" (The Chair Game) Japanese:"Isu tori game"(The game of stolen chairs) Norwegian: "Stol-leken" (The Chair Game) Portuguese: "Dança das cadeiras" (Dance of the chairs) Romania: "Pǎsǎricǎ mutǎ-ţi cuibul" (Birdie, move your nest) Russia: "Скучно так сидеть" (It's boring sitting like this) Sinhalese: "Sangeetha Putu Tharagaya" (Musical Chairs) Spanish: "El juego de las sillas", "El juego de la silla" (The game of the chairs); "La sillita musical", "Las sillas musicales" (The musical chair); in Argentina: "El baile de las sillas" (Dance of the chairs) Swedish: "Hela havet stormar" (The whole sea is storming) Thai: "Kao'ee Dontri" (Musical chairs) Türkçe: "Müzikli Sandalye" (Musical chairs) References See also Pass the parcel Chinese fire drill | Musical_chairs |@lemmatized musical:22 chair:42 game:18 play:8 group:2 people:4 usually:2 child:2 often:1 informal:1 setting:1 purely:1 entertainment:1 birthday:1 party:2 start:1 number:5 player:16 one:12 arrange:1 circle:3 closed:1 figure:1 space:1 constrain:1 double:1 line:1 sometimes:1 use:3 face:1 outward:1 stand:2 outside:1 non:4 individual:1 record:1 music:10 instrument:1 walk:3 unison:1 around:2 controller:1 suddenly:1 shut:1 everyone:1 must:4 race:1 sit:7 leave:3 without:1 eliminate:3 also:6 remove:1 ensure:1 always:1 resume:1 cycle:1 repeat:1 winner:1 meaning:1 metaphorical:1 way:1 describe:1 activity:1 item:1 repeatedly:1 pointlessly:1 shuffle:1 among:1 various:1 location:1 refer:2 condition:1 expend:1 time:1 search:1 resource:1 travel:1 gasoline:2 station:2 shortage:1 political:1 situation:1 leader:1 replace:2 another:3 rapidly:1 turn:1 due:1 instability:1 govern:1 system:2 formerly:1 know:2 go:1 jerusalem:4 laura:1 lee:1 hope:1 describes:1 name:2 chapter:2 xiii:1 bobbsey:1 twin:1 school:1 john:1 p:1 marquand:1 xxxi:1 wickford:1 point:1 evita:1 song:1 art:1 possible:1 juan:1 perón:2 military:1 officer:1 win:1 symbolize:1 rise:1 power:1 documentary:1 money:1 debt:1 andrew:2 gause:2 quote:1 say:2 thing:1 realize:1 fractional:1 reserve:1 banking:1 like:2 long:1 loser:1 wikiquote:1 mathematics:1 principle:2 standing:1 pigeonhole:1 version:4 competitive:3 final:1 stage:1 instead:1 ground:1 stop:3 last:1 bump:1 statue:1 move:3 stay:1 position:1 see:2 round:2 remain:1 foot:1 touch:2 floor:1 cold:1 wind:1 blow:1 substitute:1 extreme:1 set:1 traditional:1 complete:1 task:1 person:1 give:1 example:1 five:1 jump:2 jack:1 run:1 wall:1 varriation:1 hop:1 backwards:1 dance:5 different:1 language:1 assamese:1 xongeet:1 soki:1 cantonese:1 爭凳仔:1 literally:1 fight:1 catalan:1 el:4 joc:1 de:4 le:1 cadires:1 danish:1 stoledans:1 dutch:1 stoelendans:1 filipino:1 trip:1 french:1 chaise:1 musicales:2 german:1 reise:1 nach:1 journey:1 greek:1 μουσικές:1 καρέκλες:1 musikes:1 karekles:1 hebrew:1 kisot:1 muziklayim:1 כסאות:1 מוזיקליים:1 hindi:1 sangeet:1 ke:1 saath:1 khursi:1 hungarian:1 székfoglaló:1 take:1 italian:1 il:1 gioco:1 della:1 sedia:1 japanese:1 isu:1 tori:1 steal:1 norwegian:1 stol:1 leken:1 portuguese:1 dança:1 da:1 cadeiras:1 romania:1 pǎsǎricǎ:1 mutǎ:1 ţi:1 cuibul:1 birdie:1 nest:1 russia:1 скучно:1 так:1 сидеть:1 bore:1 sinhalese:1 sangeetha:1 putu:1 tharagaya:1 spanish:1 juego:2 la:4 sillas:3 silla:1 sillita:1 las:1 argentina:1 baile:1 swedish:1 hela:1 havet:1 stormar:1 whole:1 sea:1 storm:1 thai:1 kao:1 ee:1 dontri:1 türkçe:1 müzikli:1 sandalye:1 reference:1 pass:1 parcel:1 chinese:1 fire:1 drill:1 |@bigram fractional_reserve:1 pigeonhole_principle:1 |
7,360 | Ode | It is most likely that the Greek odes gradually lose their musical character; they were accompanied on the flute, and then declaimed without any music at all. The ode, as it was practiced by the Romans, returned to the personally lyrical form of the Lesbian lyrists. This was exemplified, in the most exquisite way, by Horace and Catullus; the former imitated, and even translated, Alcaeus and Anacreon, the latter was directly inspired by Sappho. English ode The initial model for English odes was Horace, who used the form to write meditative lyrics on various themes. The earliest odes in the English language, using the word in its strict form, were the magnificent Epithalamium and Prothalamium of Edmund Spenser. In the 17th century, the most important original odes in English are those of Abraham Cowley and Andrew Marvell. Marvell, in his Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland uses a regular form (two four-foot lines followed by two three-foot lines) modelled on Horace, while Cowley wrote "Pindarick" odes which had irregular patterns of line lengths and rhyme schemes, though they were iambic. The principle of Cowley's Pindaricks was based on a misunderstanding of Pindar's metrical practice, but was widely imitated, with notable success by John Dryden. With Pindar's metre being better understood in the 18th century, the fashion for Pindaric odes faded, though there are notable "actual" Pindaric odes by Thomas Gray, The Progress of Poesy and The Bard. The Pindarick of Cowley was revived around 1800 by Wordsworth for one of his very finest poems, the Intimations of Immortality ode; irregular odes were also written by Coleridge. Keats and Shelley wrote odes with regular stanza patterns. Shelley's Ode to the West Wind, written in fourteen line terza rima stanzas, is a major poem in the form, but perhaps the greatest odes of the 19th century were Keats's Five Great Odes of 1819 which included Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on Melancholy, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to Psyche, and Ode to Autumn. After Keats, there have been comparatively few major odes in English. One major exception is the fourth verse of the poem For the Fallen by Laurence Binyon which is often known as "The ode to the fallen" or more simply as "The Ode". Spanish and Latin American ode In the Spanish-speaking world, the Chilean poet and Nobel Laureate, Pablo Neruda revived the ode; composing odes to simple and common things that had never been the subject matter of poets before. Many of Neruda’s odes were published in three books, Odas elementales (Elemental Odes) (1954), Nuevis Odas Elementales (New Elemental Odes) (1956) and Navegaciones y regresos (Voyages and Homecomings) (1959). Neruda’s odes have been widely translated and have greatly contributed to the popularity of the ode among students and young poets. Some subjects of his odess included a tomato, a cat, wine,rum, and so on. Ode in music A musical setting of a poetic ode is also known as an ode. Horatian odes were frequently set to music in the 16th century, notably by Ludwig Senfl and Claude Goudimel. In the 17th century Nicholas Brady's Ode to St. Cecilia was set by Purcell. The Ode for St. Cecilia's Day written by Dryden was set twice to music by Handel, as was his Alexander's Feast, or the Power of Music which was also in praise of Saint Cecilia, the patron saint of music and musicians. One of many settings of Schiller's Ode to Joy (An die Freude) forms the crowning choral movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, completed in 1824. Parry's Blest Pair of Sirens, dating from 1887, is a setting of John Milton's ode At a Solemn Musick, and Arthur O'Shaughnessy's well-known Ode was set by Elgar in his The Music Makers, first performed in 1912. Gerald Finzi's Intimations of Immortality is a setting for tenor, chorus, and orchestra of Wordsworth's ode of the same title. Odes to dignitaries were also often set, such as the Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne by Handel. Byron's Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte was set by Arnold Schoenberg. References | Ode |@lemmatized likely:1 greek:1 ode:45 gradually:1 lose:1 musical:2 character:1 accompany:1 flute:1 declaim:1 without:1 music:7 practice:2 roman:1 return:2 personally:1 lyrical:1 form:6 lesbian:1 lyrist:1 exemplify:1 exquisite:1 way:1 horace:3 catullus:1 former:1 imitate:2 even:1 translate:2 alcaeus:1 anacreon:1 latter:1 directly:1 inspire:1 sappho:1 english:5 initial:1 model:2 use:3 write:6 meditative:1 lyric:1 various:1 theme:1 early:1 language:1 word:1 strict:1 magnificent:1 epithalamium:1 prothalamium:1 edmund:1 spenser:1 century:5 important:1 original:1 abraham:1 cowley:4 andrew:1 marvell:2 horatian:2 upon:1 cromwell:1 ireland:1 regular:2 two:2 four:1 foot:2 line:4 follow:1 three:2 pindarick:2 odes:1 irregular:2 pattern:2 length:1 rhyme:1 scheme:1 though:2 iambic:1 principle:1 pindaricks:1 base:1 misunderstanding:1 pindar:2 metrical:1 widely:2 notable:2 success:1 john:2 dryden:2 metre:1 good:1 understood:1 fashion:1 pindaric:2 fade:1 actual:1 thomas:1 gray:1 progress:1 poesy:1 bard:1 revive:2 around:1 wordsworth:2 one:3 fine:1 poem:3 intimation:2 immortality:2 also:4 coleridge:1 keats:3 shelley:2 stanza:2 west:1 wind:1 fourteen:1 terza:1 rima:1 major:3 perhaps:1 great:2 five:1 include:2 nightingale:1 melancholy:1 grecian:1 urn:1 psyche:1 autumn:1 comparatively:1 exception:1 fourth:1 verse:1 fall:2 laurence:1 binyon:1 often:2 know:3 simply:1 spanish:2 latin:1 american:1 speaking:1 world:1 chilean:1 poet:3 nobel:1 laureate:1 pablo:1 neruda:3 compose:1 simple:1 common:1 thing:1 never:1 subject:2 matter:1 many:2 publish:1 book:1 odas:2 elementales:2 elemental:2 nuevis:1 new:1 navegaciones:1 regresos:1 voyage:1 homecoming:1 greatly:1 contribute:1 popularity:1 among:1 student:1 young:1 tomato:1 cat:1 wine:1 rum:1 setting:3 poetic:1 frequently:1 set:7 notably:1 ludwig:1 senfl:1 claude:1 goudimel:1 nicholas:1 brady:1 st:2 cecilia:3 purcell:1 day:1 twice:1 handel:2 alexander:1 feast:1 power:1 praise:1 saint:2 patron:1 musician:1 schiller:1 joy:1 die:1 freude:1 crown:1 choral:1 movement:1 beethoven:1 ninth:1 symphony:1 complete:1 parry:1 blest:1 pair:1 siren:1 date:1 milton:1 solemn:1 musick:1 arthur:1 shaughnessy:1 well:1 elgar:1 maker:1 first:1 perform:1 gerald:1 finzi:1 tenor:1 chorus:1 orchestra:1 title:1 dignitary:1 birthday:1 queen:1 anne:1 byron:1 napoleon:1 bonaparte:1 arnold:1 schoenberg:1 reference:1 |@bigram ode_horace:1 edmund_spenser:1 andrew_marvell:1 rhyme_scheme:1 keats_shelley:1 terza_rima:1 ode_grecian:1 grecian_urn:1 laurence_binyon:1 nobel_laureate:1 pablo_neruda:1 st_cecilia:2 patron_saint:1 ode_joy:1 beethoven_ninth:1 ninth_symphony:1 chorus_orchestra:1 napoleon_bonaparte:1 arnold_schoenberg:1 |
7,361 | Lisp_(programming_language) | Lisp (or LISP) is a family of computer programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized syntax. Originally specified in 1958, Lisp is the second-oldest high-level programming language in widespread use today; only Fortran is older. Like Fortran, Lisp has changed a great deal since its early days, and a number of dialects have existed over its history. Today, the most widely known general-purpose Lisp dialects are Common Lisp and Scheme. Lisp was originally created as a practical mathematical notation for computer programs, based on Alonzo Church's lambda calculus. It quickly became the favored programming language for artificial intelligence (AI) research. As one of the earliest programming languages, Lisp pioneered many ideas in computer science, including tree data structures, automatic storage management, dynamic typing, object-oriented programming, and the self-hosting compiler. The name LISP derives from "LISt Processing language". Linked lists are one of Lisp languages' major data structures, and Lisp source code is itself made up of lists. As a result, Lisp programs can manipulate source code as a data structure, giving rise to the macro systems that allow programmers to create new syntax or even new domain-specific programming languages embedded in Lisp. The interchangeability of code and data also gives Lisp its instantly recognizable syntax. All program code is written as s-expressions, or parenthesized lists. A function call or syntactic form is written as a list with the function or operator's name first, and the arguments following; for instance, a function f that takes three arguments might be called using (f x y z). History Lisp was invented by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). McCarthy published its design in a paper in Communications of the ACM in 1960, entitled "Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Part I" ("Part II" was never published). He showed that with a few simple operators and a notation for functions, one can build a Turing-complete language for algorithms. Information Processing Language was the first AI language, from 1955 or 1956, and already included many of the concepts, such as list-processing and recursion, which came to be used in Lisp. McCarthy's original notation used bracketed "M-expressions" that would be translated into S-expressions. As an example, the M-expression car[cons[A,B]] is equivalent to the S-expression (car (cons A B)). Once Lisp was implemented, programmers rapidly chose to use S-expressions, and M-expressions were abandoned. M-expressions surfaced again with short-lived attempts of MLISP by Horace Enea and CGOL by Vaughan Pratt. Lisp was first implemented by Steve Russell on an IBM 704 computer. Russell had read McCarthy's paper, and realized (to McCarthy's surprise) that the Lisp eval function could be implemented in machine code. According to what reported by Paul Graham in Hackers & Painters, p. 185, McCarthy said: "Steve Russell said, look, why don't I program this eval..., and I said to him, ho, ho, you're confusing theory with practice, this eval is intended for reading, not for computing. But he went ahead and did it. That is, he compiled the eval in my paper into IBM 704 machine code, fixing bug , and then advertised this as a Lisp interpreter, which it certainly was. So at that point Lisp had essentially the form that it has today..." The result was a working Lisp interpreter which could be used to run Lisp programs, or more properly, 'evaluate Lisp expressions.' Two assembly language routines for the IBM 704 became the primitive operations for decomposing lists: car (Contents of Address Register) and cdr (Contents of Decrement Register). Lisp dialects still use car and cdr ( and ) for the operations that return the first item in a list and the rest of the list respectively. The first complete Lisp compiler, written in Lisp, was implemented in 1962 by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT. This compiler introduced the Lisp model of incremental compilation, in which compiled and interpreted functions can intermix freely. The language used in Hart and Levin's memo is much closer to modern Lisp style than McCarthy's earlier code. Genealogy and variants Over its fifty-year history, Lisp has spawned many variations on the core theme of an S-expression language. Moreover, each given dialect may have several implementations—for instance, there are more than a dozen implementations of Common Lisp. Differences between dialects may be quite visible—for instance, Common Lisp and Scheme use different keywords to define functions. Within a dialect that is standardized, however, conforming implementations support the same core language, but with different extensions and libraries. Historically significant dialects LISP 1.5 – First widely distributed version, developed by McCarthy and others at MIT. So named because it contained several improvements on the original "LISP 1" interpreter, but was not a major restructuring as the planned LISP 2 would be. Stanford LISP 1.6 – This was a successor to LISP 1.5 developed at the Stanford AI Lab, and widely distributed to PDP-10 systems running the TOPS-10 operating system. It was rendered obsolete by Maclisp and InterLisp. MACLISP – developed for MIT's Project MAC (no relation to Apple's Macintosh, nor to McCarthy), direct descendant of LISP 1.5. It ran on the PDP-10 and Multics systems. (MACLISP would later come to be called Maclisp, and is often referred to as MacLisp.) InterLisp – developed at BBN Technologies for PDP-10 systems running the Tenex operating system, later adopted as a "West coast" Lisp for the Xerox Lisp machines as InterLisp-D. A small version called "InterLISP 65" was published for Atari's 6502-based computer line. For quite some time Maclisp and InterLisp were strong competitors. Franz Lisp – originally a Berkeley project; later developed by Franz Inc. The name is a humorous deformation of "Franz Liszt". The name "Franz Lisp" does not refer to Allegro Common Lisp, the dialect of Common Lisp sold by Franz Inc. in more recent years. XLISP, which AutoLisp was based on. Standard Lisp and Portable Standard Lisp were widely used and ported, especially with the Computer Algebra System REDUCE. ZetaLisp, also known as Lisp Machine Lisp – used on the Lisp machines, direct descendant of Maclisp. ZetaLisp had big influence on Common Lisp. LeLisp is a French Lisp dialect. One of the first Interface Builders was written in LeLisp. Common Lisp (1984), as described by Common Lisp: The Language – a consolidation of several divergent attempts (ZetaLisp, Spice Lisp, NIL, and S-1 Lisp) to create successor dialects to Maclisp, with substantive influences from the Scheme dialect as well. This version of Common Lisp was available for wide-ranging platforms and was accepted by many as a de facto standard until the publication of ANSI Common Lisp (ANSI X3.226-1994). Dylan was in its first version a mix of Scheme with the Common Lisp Object System. EuLisp – attempt to develop a new efficient and cleaned-up Lisp. ISLisp – attempt to develop a new efficient and cleaned-up Lisp. Standardized as ISO/IEC 13816:1997 and later revised as ISO/IEC 13816:2007 - Information technology – Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces – Programming language ISLISP. IEEE Scheme – IEEE standard, 1178–1990 (R1995) ANSI Common Lisp – an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for Common Lisp, created by subcommittee X3J13, chartered to begin with Common Lisp: The Language as a base document and to work through a public consensus process to find solutions to shared issues of portability of programs and compatibility of Common Lisp implementations. Although formally an ANSI standard, the implementation, sale, use, and influence of ANSI Common Lisp has been and continues to be seen world-wide. ACL2 or "A Computational Logic for Applicative Common Lisp", an applicative (side-effect free) variant of Common LISP. ACL2 is both a programming language in which you can model computer systems and a tool to help proving properties of those models. arc – a new sub version of Lisp created by Paul Graham, released on January 29, 2008. Clojure - a modern Lisp dialect which runs on the Java Virtual Machine. Designed with concurrency in mind. For more information about various dialects of Lisp see category Lisp programming language family, and The History of Lisp. Connection to artificial intelligence Since its inception, Lisp was closely connected with the artificial intelligence research community, especially on PDP-10 The 36-bit word size of the PDP-6/PDP-10 was influenced by the usefulness of having two Lisp 18-bit pointers in a single word. "The PDP-6 project started in early 1963, as a 24-bit machine. It grew to 36 bits for LISP, a design goal." systems. Lisp was used as the implementation of the programming language Micro Planner that was the foundation for the famous AI system SHRDLU. In the 1970s, as AI research spawned commercial offshoots, the performance of existing Lisp systems became a growing issue. Lisp was a difficult system to implement with the compiler techniques and stock hardware of the 1970s. Garbage collection routines, developed by then-MIT graduate student Daniel Edwards, made it practical to run Lisp on general-purpose computing systems, but efficiency was still a problem. This led to the creation of Lisp machines: dedicated hardware for running Lisp environments and programs. Advances in both computer hardware and compiler technology soon made Lisp machines obsolete, to the detriment of the Lisp market. During the 1980s and 1990s, a great effort was made to unify the numerous Lisp dialects (most notably, InterLisp, Maclisp, ZetaLisp, MetaLisp, and Franz Lisp) into a single language. The new language, Common Lisp, was essentially a compatible subset of the dialects it replaced. In 1994, ANSI published the Common Lisp standard, "ANSI X3.226-1994 Information Technology Programming Language Common Lisp." At that time the world market for Lisp was much smaller than it is today. Since 2000 Having declined somewhat in the 1990s, Lisp experienced a regrowth of interest. Most new activity is focused around open source implementations of Common Lisp, and includes the development of new portable libraries and applications. This interest can be measured partly by sales from the print version of Practical Common Lisp by Peter Seibel, a tutorial for new Lisp programmers published in 2004. Practical Common Lisp going into 3rd printing It was briefly Amazon.com's second most popular programming book. It is available online for free. Practical Common Lisp Many new Lisp programmers were inspired by writers such as Paul Graham and Eric S. Raymond to pursue a language others consider antiquated. New Lisp programmers often describe the language as an eye-opening experience and claim to be substantially more productive than in other languages. This increase in awareness may be contrasted to the "AI winter" and Lisp's brief gain in the mid-1990s. Trends for the Future Dan Weinreb lists in his survey of Common Lisp implementations eleven actively maintained Common Lisp implementations. Scieneer Common Lisp is a new commercial implementation forked from CMUCL with a first release in 2002. The open source community has created new supporting infrastructure: Cliki is a Wiki that collects Common Lisp related information, the Common Lisp directory lists resources, #lisp is a popular IRC channel (with support by a Lisp-written Bot), lisppaste supports the sharing and commenting of code snippets, Planet Lisp collects the contents of various Lisp-related Blogs, on LispForum user discuss Lisp topics, Lispjobs is a service for announcing job offers and there is a new weekly news service (Weekly Lisp News). 50 years of Lisp (1958-2008) has been celebrated at LISP50@OOPSLA. There are several regular local user meetings (Boston, Vancouver, Hamburg, ...), Lisp Meetings (European Common Lisp Meeting, European Lisp Symposium) and an International Lisp Conference . The Scheme community actively maintains over twenty implementations. Several significant new implementations (Chicken, Gauche, Ikarus, Larceny, Ypsilon) have been developed in the last few years. The Revised5 Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme standard of Scheme was widely accepted in the Scheme community. The Scheme Requests for Implementation process has created a lot of quasi standard libraries and extensions for Scheme. User communities of individual Scheme implementations continue to grow. A new language standardization process was started in 2003 and led to the R6RS Scheme standard in 2007. Academic use of Scheme for teaching computer science seems to have declined somewhat. Some universities are no longer using Scheme in their computer science introductory courses. There are also a few new dialects of Lisp. Notably: Newlisp (a scripting language), Arc (developed by Paul Graham) and recently Clojure (developed by Rich Hickey) and Nu for programming with Apple's Cocoa. Major dialects The two major dialects of Lisp used for general-purpose programming today are Common Lisp and Scheme. These languages represent significantly different design choices. Common Lisp, descended mainly from MacLisp, Interlisp, and Lisp Machine Lisp, is an expanded superset of earlier Lisp dialects, with a large language standard including many built-in data types and syntactic forms, as well as an object system. Scheme is a more minimalist design, with a much smaller set of standard features but with certain implementation features (such as tail-call optimization and full continuations) not necessarily found in Common Lisp. Common Lisp also borrowed certain features from Scheme such as lexical scoping and lexical closures. Scheme is a statically scoped and properly tail-recursive dialect of the Lisp programming language invented by Guy Lewis Steele Jr. and Gerald Jay Sussman. It was designed to have an exceptionally clear and simple semantics and few different ways to form expressions. A wide variety of programming paradigms, including imperative, functional, and message passing styles, find convenient expression in Scheme. Scheme continues to evolve with a series of standards (Revisedn Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme) and a series of Scheme Requests for Implementation. In addition, Lisp dialects are used as scripting languages in a number of applications, with the most well-known being Emacs Lisp in the Emacs editor, Visual Lisp in AutoCAD, Nyquist in Audacity. Language innovations Lisp was the first homoiconic programming language: the primary representation of program code is the same type of list structure that is also used for the main data structures. As a result, Lisp functions can be manipulated, altered or even created within a Lisp program without extensive parsing or manipulation of binary machine code. This is generally considered one of the primary advantages of the language with regard to its expressive power, and makes the language amenable to metacircular evaluation. The ubiquitous if-then-else structure, now taken for granted as an essential element of any programming language, was invented by McCarthy for use in Lisp, where it saw its first appearance in a more general form (the cond structure). It was inherited by Algol, which popularized it. Lisp deeply influenced Alan Kay, the leader of the research on Smalltalk, and then in turn Lisp was influenced by Smalltalk, by adopting object-oriented programming features (classes, instances, etc.) in the late 1970s. Largely because of its resource requirements with respect to early computing hardware (including early microprocessors), Lisp did not become as popular outside of the AI community as Fortran and the ALGOL-descended C language. Newer languages such as Java and Python have incorporated some limited versions of some of the features of Lisp, but are necessarily unable to bring the coherence and synergy of the full concepts found in Lisp. Because of its suitability to ill-defined, complex, and dynamic applications, Lisp is currently enjoying some resurgence of popular interest. Syntax and semantics Note: This article's examples are written in Common Lisp (though most are also valid in Scheme). Lisp is an expression-oriented language. Unlike most other languages, no distinction is made between "expressions" and "statements"; all code and data are written as expressions. When an expression is evaluated, it produces a value (in Common Lisp, possibly multiple values), which then can be embedded into other expressions. Each value can be any data type. McCarthy's 1958 paper introduced two types of syntax: S-expressions (Symbolic Expressions, also called "sexps"), which mirror the internal representation of code and data; and M-expressions (Meta Expressions), which express functions of S-expressions. M-expressions never found favor, and almost all Lisps today use S-expressions to manipulate both code and data. The use of parentheses is Lisp's most immediately obvious difference from other programming language families. As a result, students have long given Lisp nicknames such as Lost In Stupid Parentheses, or Lots of Irritating Superfluous Parentheses. However, the S-expression syntax is also responsible for much of Lisp's power; the syntax is extremely regular, which facilitates manipulation by computer. However, the syntax of Lisp is not limited to traditional parentheses notation. It can be extended to include alternative notations. XMLisp, for instance, is a Common Lisp extension that employs the metaobject-protocol to integrate S-expressions with the Extensible Markup Language (XML). The reliance on expressions gives the language great flexibility. Because Lisp functions are themselves written as lists, they can be processed exactly like data. This allows easy writing of programs which manipulate other programs (metaprogramming). Many Lisp dialects exploit this feature using macro systems, which enables extension of the language almost without limit. A Lisp list is written with its elements separated by whitespace, and surrounded by parentheses. For example, (1 2 foo) is a list whose elements are three atoms: the values 1, 2, and foo. These values are implicitly typed: they are respectively two integers and a Lisp-specific data type called a "symbol", and do not have to be declared as such. The empty list () is also represented as the special atom nil. This is the only entity in Lisp which is both an atom and a list. Expressions are written as lists, using prefix notation. The first element in the list is the name of a form, i.e., a function, operator, macro, or "special operator" (see below.) The remainder of the list are the arguments. For example, the function list returns its arguments as a list, so the expression (list '1 '2 'foo) evaluates to the list (1 2 foo). The "quote" before the arguments in the preceding example is a "special operator" which prevents the quoted arguments from being evaluated (not strictly necessary for the numbers, since 1 evaluates to 1, etc). Any unquoted expressions are recursively evaluated before the enclosing expression is evaluated. For example, (list 1 2 (list 3 4)) evaluates to the list (1 2 (3 4)). Note that the third argument is a list; lists can be nested. Arithmetic operators are treated similarly. The expression (+ 1 2 3 4) evaluates to 10. The equivalent under infix notation would be "1 + 2 + 3 + 4". Arithmetic operators in Lisp are variadic (or n-ary), able to take any number of arguments. "Special operators" (sometimes called "special forms" by older users) provide Lisp's control structure. For example, the special operator if takes three arguments. If the first argument is non-nil, it evaluates to the second argument; otherwise, it evaluates to the third argument. Thus, the expression (if nil (list 1 2 "foo") (list 3 4 "bar")) evaluates to (3 4 "bar"). Of course, this would be more useful if a non-trivial expression had been substituted in place of nil. Lambda expressions Another special operator, lambda, is used to bind variables to values which are then evaluated within an expression. This operator is also used to create functions: the arguments to lambda are a list of arguments, and the expression or expressions to which the function evaluates (the returned value is the value of the last expression that is evaluated). The expression (lambda (arg) (+ arg 1)) evaluates to a function that, when applied, takes one argument, binds it to arg and returns the number one greater than that argument. Lambda expressions are treated no differently from named functions; they are invoked the same way. Therefore, the expression ((lambda (arg) (+ arg 1)) 5) evaluates to 6. Atoms In the original LISP there were two fundamental data types: atoms and lists. A list was a finite ordered sequence of elements, where each element is in itself either an atom or a list, and an atom was a number or a symbol. A symbol was essentially a unique named item, written as an Alphanumeric string in source code, and used either as a variable name or as a data item in symbolic processing. For example, the list (FOO (BAR 1) 2) contains three elements: the symbol FOO, the list (BAR 1), and the number 2. The essential difference between atoms and lists was that atoms were immutable and unique. Two atoms that appeared in different places in source code but were written in the exact same way represented the same object, whereas each list was a separate object that could be altered independently of other lists and could be distinguished from other lists by comparison operators. As more data types were introduced in later Lisp dialects, and programming styles evolved, the concept of an atom lost importance. Many dialects still retained the predicate atom for legacy compatibility, defining it true for any object which is not a cons. Conses and lists Box-and-pointer diagram for the list (42 69 613) A Lisp list is a singly-linked list. Each cell of this list is called a cons (in Scheme, a pair), and is composed of two pointers, called the car and cdr. These are equivalent to the data and next fields discussed in the article linked list, respectively. Of the many data structures that can be built out of cons cells, one of the most basic is called a proper list. A proper list is either the special nil (empty list) symbol, or a cons in which the car points to a datum (which may be another cons structure, such as a list), and the cdr points to another proper list. If a given cons is taken to be the head of a linked list, then its car points to the first element of the list, and its cdr points to the rest of the list. For this reason, the car and cdr functions are also called first and rest when referring to conses which are part of a linked list (rather than, say, a tree). Thus, a Lisp list is not an atomic object, as an instance of a container class in C++ or Java would be. A list is nothing more than an aggregate of linked conses. A variable which refers to a given list is simply a pointer to the first cons in the list. Traversal of a list can be done by "cdring down" the list; that is, taking successive cdrs to visit each cons of the list; or by using any of a number of higher-order functions to map a function over a list. Because conses and lists are so universal in Lisp systems, it is a common misconception that they are Lisp's only data structures. In fact, all but the most simplistic Lisps have other data structures – such as vectors (arrays), hash tables, structures, and so forth. S-expressions represent lists Parenthesized S-expressions represent linked list structure. There are several ways to represent the same list as an S-expression. A cons can be written in dotted-pair notation as (a . b), where a is the car and b the cdr. A longer proper list might be written (a . (b . (c . (d . nil)))) in dotted-pair notation. This is conventionally abbreviated as (a b c d) in list notation. An improper list NB: a so-called "dotted list" is only one kind of "improper list". The other kind is the "circular list" where the cons cells form a loop. Typically this is represented using #n=(...) to represent the target cons cell that will have multiple references, and #n# is used to refer to this cons. For instance, (#1=(a b) #1#) would normally be printed as ((a b) a b) (without circular structure printing enabled), but makes the reuse of the cons cell clear. #1=(a . #1#) cannot normally be printed as it is circular, the CDR of the cons cell defined by #1= is itself. may be written in a combination of the two – as (a b c . d) for the list of three conses whose last cdr is d (i.e., the list (a . (b . (c . d))) in fully specified form). List-processing procedures Lisp provides many built-in procedures for accessing and controlling lists. Lists can be created directly with the list procedure, which takes any number of arguments, and returns the list of these arguments. (list 1 2 'a 3) ;Output: (1 2 a 3) (list 1 '(2 3) 4) ;Output: (1 (2 3) 4) Because of the way that lists are constructed from cons pairs, the cons procedure can be used to add an element to the front of a list. Note that the cons procedure is asymmetric in how it handles list arguments, because of how lists are constructed. (cons 1 '(2 3)) ;Output: (1 2 3) (cons '(1 2) '(3 4)) ;Output: ((1 2) 3 4) The append procedure appends two (or more) lists to one another. Because Lisp lists are linked lists, appending two lists has asymptotic time complexity . (append '(1 2) '(3 4)) ;Output: (1 2 3 4) (append '(1 2 3) '() '(a) '(5 6)) ;Output: (1 2 3 a 5 6) Shared structure Lisp lists, being simple linked lists, can share structure with one another. That is to say, two lists can have the same tail, or final sequence of conses. For instance, after the execution of the following Common Lisp code: (setf foo (list 'a 'b 'c)) (setf bar (cons 'x (cdr foo))) the lists foo and bar are (a b c) and (x b c) respectively. However, the tail (b c) is the same structure in both lists. It is not a copy; the cons cells pointing to b and c are in the same memory locations for both lists. Sharing structure rather than copying can give a dramatic performance improvement. However, this technique can interact in undesired ways with functions that alter lists passed to them as arguments. Altering one list, such as by replacing the c with a goose, will affect the other: (setf (third foo) 'goose) This changes foo to (a b goose), but thereby also changes bar to (x b goose) – a possibly unexpected result. This can be a source of bugs, and functions which alter their arguments are documented as destructive for this very reason. Aficionados of functional programming avoid destructive functions. In the Scheme dialect, which favors the functional style, the names of destructive functions are marked with a cautionary exclamation point, or "bang"—such as set-car! (read set car bang), which replaces the car of a cons. In the Common Lisp dialect, destructive functions are commonplace; the equivalent of set-car! is named rplaca for "replace car." This function is rarely seen however as Common Lisp includes a special facility, setf, to make it easier to define and use destructive functions. A frequent style in Common Lisp is to write code functionally (without destructive calls) when prototyping, then to add destructive calls as an optimization where it is safe to do so. Self-evaluating forms and quoting Lisp evaluates expressions which are entered by the user. Symbols and lists evaluate to some other (usually, simpler) expression – for instance, a symbol evaluates to the value of the variable it names; (+ 2 3) evaluates to 5. However, most other forms evaluate to themselves: if you enter 5 into Lisp, it returns 5. Any expression can also be marked to prevent it from being evaluated (as is necessary for symbols and lists). This is the role of the quote special operator, or its abbreviation ' (a single quotation mark). For instance, usually if you enter the symbol foo you will get back the value of the corresponding variable (or an error, if there is no such variable). If you wish to refer to the literal symbol, you enter (quote foo) or, usually, 'foo. Both Common Lisp and Scheme also support the backquote operator (often called quasiquote by Schemers), entered with the ` character. This is almost the same as the plain quote, except it allows expressions to be evaluated and their values interpolated into a quoted list with the comma and comma-at operators. If the variable snue has the value (bar baz) then `(foo ,snue) evaluates to (foo (bar baz)), while `(foo ,@snue) evaluates to (foo bar baz). The backquote is most frequently used in defining macro expansions. Self-evaluating forms and quoted forms are Lisp's equivalent of literals. It may be possible to modify the values of (mutable) literals in program code. For instance, if a function returns a quoted form, and the code that calls the function modifies the form, this may alter the behavior of the function on subsequent iterations. (defun should-be-constant () '(one two three)) (let ((stuff (should-be-constant))) (setf (third stuff) 'bizarre)) ; bad! (should-be-constant) ; returns (one two bizarre) Modifying a quoted form like this is generally considered bad style, and is defined by ANSI Common Lisp as erroneous (resulting in "undefined" behavior in compiled files, because the file-compiler can coalesce similar constants, put them in write-protected memory, etc). Lisp's formalization of quotation has been noted by Douglas Hofstadter (in Gödel, Escher, Bach) and others as an example of the philosophical idea of self-reference. Scope and closure The modern Lisp family splits over the use of dynamic or static (aka lexical) scope. Scheme and Common Lisp make use of static scoping by default, while Newlisp and the embedded languages in Emacs and AutoCAD use dynamic scoping. List structure of program code A fundamental distinction between Lisp and other languages is that in Lisp, the textual representation of a program is simply a human-readable description of the same internal data structures (linked lists, symbols, number, characters, etc.) as would be used by the underlying Lisp system. Lisp macros operate on these structures. Because Lisp code has the same structure as lists, macros can be built with any of the list-processing functions in the language. In short, anything that Lisp can do to a data structure, Lisp macros can do to code. In contrast, in most other languages the parser's output is purely internal to the language implementation and cannot be manipulated by the programmer. Macros in C, for instance, operate on the level of the preprocessor, before the parser is invoked, and cannot re-structure the program code in the way Lisp macros can. In simplistic Lisp implementations, this list structure is directly interpreted to run the program; a function is literally a piece of list structure which is traversed by the interpreter in executing it. However, most actual Lisp systems (including all conforming Common Lisp systems) also include a compiler. The compiler translates list structure into machine code or bytecode for execution. Evaluation and the Read-Eval-Print Loop Lisp languages are frequently used with an interactive command line, which may be combined with an integrated development environment. The user types in expressions at the command line, or directs the IDE to transmit them to the Lisp system. Lisp reads the entered expressions, evaluates them, and prints the result. For this reason, the Lisp command line is called a "read-eval-print loop", or REPL. The basic operation of the REPL is as follows. This is a simplistic description which omits many elements of a real Lisp, such as quoting and macros. The read function accepts textual S-expressions as input, and parses them into an internal data structure. For instance, if you type the text (+ 1 2) at the prompt, read translates this into a linked list with three elements: the symbol +, the number 1, and the number 2. It so happens that this list is also a valid piece of Lisp code; that is, it can be evaluated. This is because the car of the list names a function—the addition operation. Note that a foo will be read as a single symbol. 123 will be read as the number 123. "123" will be read as the string "123". The eval function evaluates the data, returning zero or more other Lisp data as a result. Evaluation does not have to mean interpretation; some Lisp systems compile every expression to native machine code. It is simple, however, to describe evaluation as interpretation: To evaluate a list whose car names a function, eval first evaluates each of the arguments given in its cdr, then applies the function to the arguments. In this case, the function is addition, and applying it to the argument list (1 2) yields the answer 3. This is the result of the evaluation. The symbol foo evaluates to the value of the symbol foo. Data like the string "123" evaluates to the same string. The list (quote (1 2 3)) evalutes to the list (1 2 3). It is the job of the print function to represent output to the user. For a simple result such as 3 this is trivial. An expression which evaluated to a piece of list structure would require that print traverse the list and print it out as an S-expression. To implement a Lisp REPL, it is necessary only to implement these three functions and an infinite-loop function. (Naturally, the implementation of eval will be complicated, since it must also implement all special operators like if or lambda.) This done, a basic REPL itself is but a single line of code: (loop (print (eval (read)))). The Lisp REPL typically also provides input editing, an input history, error handling and an interface to the debugger. Lisp is usually evaluated eagerly. In Common Lisp, arguments are evaluated in applicative order ('leftmost innermost'), while in Scheme order of arguments is undefined, leaving room for optimization by a compiler. Control structures Lisp originally had very few control structures, but many more were added during the language's evolution. (Lisp's original conditional operator, cond, is the precursor to later if-then-else structures.) Programmers in the Scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion. Scheme's commonality in academic computer science has led some students to believe that tail recursion is the only, or the most common, way to write iterations in Lisp; this is incorrect. All frequently seen Lisp dialects have imperative-style iteration constructs, from Scheme's do loop to Common Lisp's complex loop expressions. Moreover, the key issue that makes this an objective rather than subjective matter is that Scheme makes specific requirements for the handling of tail calls, and consequently the reason that the use of tail recursion is generally encouraged for Scheme is that the practice is expressly supported by the language definition itself. By contrast, ANSI Common Lisp does not require 3.2.2.3 Semantic Constraints in Common Lisp HyperSpec the optimization commonly referred to as tail call elimination. Consequently, the fact that tail recursive style as a casual replacement for the use of more traditional iteration constructs (such as do, dolist or loop) is discouraged 4.3. Control Abstraction (Recursion vs. Iteration) in Tutorial on Good Lisp Programming Style by Pitman and Norvig, August, 1993. in Common Lisp is not just a matter of stylistic preference, but potentially one of efficiency (since an apparent tail call in Common Lisp may not compile as a simple jump) and program correctness (since tail recursion may increase stack use in Common Lisp, risking stack overflow). Some Lisp control structures are special operators, equivalent to other languages' syntactic keywords. Expressions using these operators have the same surface appearance as function calls, but differ in that the arguments are not necessarily evaluated—or, in the case of an iteration expression, may be evaluated more than once. In contrast to most other major programming languages, Lisp allows the programmer to implement control structures using the language itself. Several control structures are implemented as Lisp macros, and can even be macro-expanded by the programmer who wants to know how they work. Both Common Lisp and Scheme have operators for non-local control flow. The differences in these operators are some of the deepest differences between the two dialects. Scheme supports re-entrant continuations using the call/cc procedure, which allows a program to save (and later restore) a particular place in execution. Common Lisp does not support re-entrant continuations, but does support several ways of handling escape continuations. Frequently, the same algorithm can be expressed in Lisp in either an imperative or a functional style. As noted above, Scheme tends to favor the functional style, using tail recursion and continuations to express control flow. However, imperative style is still quite possible. The style preferred by many Common Lisp programmers may seem more familiar to programmers used to structured languages such as C, while that preferred by Schemers more closely resembles pure-functional languages such as Haskell. Because of Lisp's early heritage in list processing, it has a wide array of higher-order functions relating to iteration over sequences. In many cases where an explicit loop would be needed in other languages (like a for loop in C) in Lisp the same task can be accomplished with a higher-order function. (The same is true of many functional programming languages.) A good example is a function which in Scheme is called map and in Common Lisp is called mapcar. Given a function and one or more lists, mapcar applies the function successively to the lists' elements in order, collecting the results in a new list: (mapcar #'+ '(1 2 3 4 5) '(10 20 30 40 50)) This applies the + function to each corresponding pair of list elements, yielding the result (11 22 33 44 55). Examples Here are examples of Common Lisp code. The basic "Hello world" program: (print "Hello world") As the reader may have noticed from the above discussion, Lisp syntax lends itself naturally to recursion. Mathematical problems such as the enumeration of recursively defined sets are simple to express in this notation. Evaluate a number's factorial: (defun factorial (n) (if (<= n 1) 1 (* n (factorial (- n 1))))) An alternative implementation, often faster than the previous version if the Lisp system has tail recursion optimization: (defun factorial (n &optional (acc 1)) (if (<= n 1) acc (factorial (- n 1) (* acc n)))) Contrast with an iterative version which uses Common Lisp's loop macro: (defun factorial (n) (loop for i from 1 to n for fac = 1 then (* fac i) finally (return fac))) The following function reverses a list. (Lisp's built-in reverse function does the same thing.) (defun -reverse (l &optional acc) (if (atom l) acc (-reverse (cdr l) (cons (car l) acc)))) Object systems Various object systems and models have been built on top of, alongside, or into Lisp, including: ObjectLisp pg 17 of Bobrow 1986 or Object Lisp, used by Lisp Machines Incorporated and early versions of Macintosh Common Lisp LOOPS (Lisp Object-Oriented Programming System) and the later CommonLOOPS Flavors, built at MIT, and its descendant New Flavors (developed by Symbolics). KR (short for Knowledge Representation), a constraints-based object system developed to aid the writing of Garnet, a GUI library for Common Lisp. KEE used an object system called UNITS and integrated it with an inference engine. Veitch, p 108, 1988 and a truth maintenance system (ATMS). The Common Lisp Object System, CLOS. CLOS is an integral part of ANSI Common Lisp. CLOS descended from New Flavors and CommonLOOPS. ANSI Common Lisp was the first standardized object-oriented Programming Language (1994, ANSI X3J13). Various dialects and implementations Since the first Lisp in 1958 many implementations of Lisp have been created. Lisp has some standardized dialects like Common Lisp (ANSI), Scheme (ANSI, IEEE) and ISLisp (ISO). There are also a lot of Lisp implementations of Lisp dialects that are based on an informal standard. Lisp dialects like Portable Standard Lisp, Emacs Lisp and InterLisp are in this category. Third there are also many Lisp systems that implement their own dialect of Lisp. Lush (Lisp Universal Shell) is an object-oriented Lisp dialect initially developed as a Scripting language. M&P www.hdolder.com/ARTEC_EN.htm incorporates mpLISP, a minimum Lisp dialect that enables the development of model-driven systems. ExperCommonLISP was derived from the ExperLISP product available for the Mac. It is no longer available. http://www.byte.com/art/9608/sec4/art2.htm For more information about various dialects of Lisp see category Lisp programming language family, and The History of Lisp. References Further reading Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, by Harold Abelson, Gerald Jay Sussman and Julie Sussman. 1996 (2nd edition), MIT Press; ISBN 0262011530 My Lisp Experiences and the Development of GNU Emacs, transcript of Richard Stallman's speech, 28 Oct 2002, at the International Lisp Conference Paul Graham, Hackers & Painters. Big Ideas from the Computer Age, 2004, O'Reilly, ISBN 0-596-00662-4 See also Common Lisp Scheme (programming language) Clojure Object Lisp Artificial intelligence Maxima Fexpr mod_lisp External links History of Lisp John McCarthy's history of 12 Feb 79 Lisp History - Herbert Stoyan's history compiled from the documents (acknowledged by McCarthy as more complete than his own, see: McCarthy's history links) Oral history interview with John McCarthy at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. McCarthy discusses his role in the development of time-sharing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also describes his work in artificial intelligence (AI) funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, including logic-based AI (LISP) and robotics. Lisp: made with secret alien technology – Selection of Lisp quotes by eminent Lispers Usenet newsgroup Association of Lisp Users Association of Lisp Users Wiki, a general discussion of things Lisp History of LISP at the Computer History Museum LispMachine.net - Lisp books and information On Lisp, a free book by Paul Graham Interview with Richard P. Gabriel (Podcast) Lisp in a Box, a useful package for lisp beginners - for Windows or Unix Practical Common Lisp, a free book by Peter Seibel LISP FAQ | Lisp_(programming_language) |@lemmatized lisp:269 family:5 computer:15 program:29 language:66 long:2 history:15 distinctive:1 fully:2 parenthesized:3 syntax:9 originally:4 specify:2 second:3 old:3 high:4 level:2 widespread:1 use:49 today:6 fortran:3 like:8 change:3 great:4 deal:1 since:8 early:8 day:1 number:14 dialect:36 exist:2 widely:5 know:4 general:5 purpose:3 common:69 scheme:40 create:11 practical:6 mathematical:2 notation:11 base:7 alonzo:1 church:1 lambda:8 calculus:1 quickly:1 become:4 favored:1 programming:21 artificial:5 intelligence:5 ai:9 research:5 one:16 pioneer:1 many:17 idea:3 science:4 include:12 tree:2 data:25 structure:38 automatic:1 storage:1 management:1 dynamic:4 typing:1 object:18 orient:6 self:4 hosting:1 compiler:9 name:13 derives:1 list:125 processing:7 link:13 major:5 source:7 code:28 make:12 result:12 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7,362 | Foreign_relations_of_Equatorial_Guinea | A transitional agreement, signed in October 1968, implemented a Spanish preindependence decision to assist Equatorial Guinea and provided for the temporary maintenance of Spanish forces there. A dispute with President Macias in 1969 led to a request that all Spanish troops immediately depart, and a large number of civilians left at the same time. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were never broken but were suspended by Spain in March 1977 in the wake of renewed disputes. After Macias' fall in 1979, President Obiang asked for Spanish assistance, and since then, Spain has regained influence in Equatorial Guinea's diplomatic relations. The two countries signed permanent agreements for economic and technical cooperation, private concessions, and trade relations. President Obiang made an official visit to Madrid in March 2001, and senior Spanish Foreign Ministry officials visited Malabo during 2001 as well. Spain maintained a bilateral assistance program in Equatorial Guinea. Some Equato-Guinean opposition elements are based in Spain to the annoyance of the government in Malabo. Equatorial Guinea has cordial relations with neighbouring Cameroon, although there was criticism in Cameroon in 2000 about perceived mistreatment of Cameroonians working in Equatorial Guinea. The majority Fang ethnic group of mainland Equatorial Guinea extends both north and south into the forests of Cameroon and Gabon. Cameroon exports some food products to Equatorial Guinea and imports oil from Equatorial Guinea for its refinery at nearby Limbe. Equatorial Guinea has warmer relations with Nigeria, and the Nigerian President made an official visit to Malabo in 2001. The two countries have delineated their offshore borders, which will facilitate development of nearby gas fields. In addition, many Nigerians work in Equatorial Guinea, as do immigrants from Cameroon and some West African states. Equatorial Guinea is member of the Central African Economic and Monetary Union (CEMAC), which includes Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), and Gabon. It also is a member of the Franc zone. Parallel to the Equatoguinean rapprochement with its Francophone neighbors, France's role has significantly increased following Equatorial Guinea's entry into the CFA Franc Zone and the BEAC. French technical advisers work in the finance and planning ministries, and agreements have been signed for infrastructure development projects. In 1995, the United States closed its embassy, ostensibly for budget reasons, though the ambassador of the time had been accused of witchcraft, and had criticised the human rights situation. In 1996, offshore oil began flowing, and, with several US oil companies present in the country, the US reopened the embassy in October 2003. The US has sought to encourage the progress of human rights to the country by addressing its concerns directly to the government, as well as holding seminars for better police conduct and judicial conferences with US judeges to improve the rule of law. The government's official policy is one of nonalignment. In its search for assistance to meet the goal of national reconstruction, the Government of Equatorial Guinea has established diplomatic relations with numerous European and Third World Countries. Having achieved independence under UN sponsorship, Equatorial Guinea feels a special kinship with that organization. It became the 126th UN member on November 12, 1968. Disputes - international: exclusive maritime economic zone boundary dispute with Cameroon is presently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay; maritime boundary dispute with Nigeria and Cameroon because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea See also Equatorial Guinea Diplomatic missions of Equatorial Guinea List of diplomatic missions in Equatorial Guinea Canada-Equatorial Guinea relations Equatorial Guinea-United States relations Equatorial Guinea-Pakistan relations External links Embassy of Equatorial Guinea in London, United Kingom United States Embassy in Malabo Honorary Consul of Equatorial Guinea and Investment Opportunities in Bucharest, Romania (Spanish) Curriculum Vitae of Equatorial Guinea Foreign Minister H.E. Don Pastor Micha Ondo Bile (Spanish) | Foreign_relations_of_Equatorial_Guinea |@lemmatized transitional:1 agreement:3 sign:3 october:2 implement:1 spanish:7 preindependence:1 decision:1 assist:1 equatorial:23 guinea:24 provide:1 temporary:1 maintenance:1 force:1 dispute:6 president:4 macias:2 lead:1 request:1 troop:1 immediately:1 depart:1 large:1 number:1 civilian:1 leave:1 time:2 diplomatic:5 relation:9 two:3 country:6 never:1 break:1 suspend:1 spain:4 march:2 wake:1 renew:1 fall:1 obiang:2 ask:1 assistance:3 since:1 regain:1 influence:1 permanent:1 economic:3 technical:2 cooperation:1 private:1 concession:1 trade:1 make:2 official:4 visit:3 madrid:1 senior:1 foreign:2 ministry:2 malabo:4 well:2 maintain:1 bilateral:1 program:1 equato:1 guinean:1 opposition:1 element:1 base:1 annoyance:1 government:4 cordial:1 neighbouring:1 cameroon:8 although:1 criticism:1 perceive:1 mistreatment:1 cameroonian:1 work:3 majority:1 fang:1 ethnic:1 group:1 mainland:1 extend:1 north:1 south:1 forest:1 gabon:3 export:1 food:1 product:1 import:1 oil:4 refinery:1 nearby:2 limbe:1 warmer:1 nigeria:2 nigerian:2 delineate:1 offshore:2 border:1 facilitate:1 development:2 gas:1 field:1 addition:1 many:1 immigrant:1 west:1 african:3 state:4 member:3 central:2 monetary:1 union:1 cemac:1 include:1 republic:1 chad:1 congo:1 brazzaville:1 also:2 franc:2 zone:3 parallel:1 equatoguinean:1 rapprochement:1 francophone:1 neighbor:1 france:1 role:1 significantly:1 increase:1 follow:1 entry:1 cfa:1 beac:1 french:1 adviser:1 finance:1 planning:1 infrastructure:1 project:1 united:4 close:1 embassy:4 ostensibly:1 budget:1 reason:1 though:1 ambassador:1 accuse:1 witchcraft:1 criticise:1 human:2 right:2 situation:1 begin:1 flow:1 several:1 u:4 company:1 present:1 reopen:1 seek:1 encourage:1 progress:1 address:1 concern:1 directly:1 hold:1 seminar:1 good:1 police:1 conduct:1 judicial:1 conference:1 judeges:1 improve:1 rule:1 law:1 policy:1 one:1 nonalignment:1 search:1 meet:1 goal:1 national:1 reconstruction:1 establish:1 numerous:1 european:1 third:1 world:1 achieve:1 independence:1 un:2 sponsorship:1 feel:1 special:1 kinship:1 organization:1 become:1 november:1 international:1 exclusive:1 maritime:3 boundary:3 presently:1 icj:1 disputed:2 sovereignty:1 island:1 corisco:1 bay:1 jurisdiction:1 rich:1 area:1 gulf:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 canada:1 pakistan:1 external:1 link:1 london:1 kingom:1 honorary:1 consul:1 investment:1 opportunity:1 bucharest:1 romania:1 curriculum:1 vitae:1 minister:1 h:1 e:1 pastor:1 micha:1 ondo:1 bile:1 |@bigram equatorial_guinea:23 diplomatic_relation:3 cordial_relation:1 cameroon_gabon:1 congo_brazzaville:1 cfa_franc:1 nigeria_cameroon:1 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1 bucharest_romania:1 curriculum_vitae:1 |
7,363 | Heredity | Heredity is the passing of traits to offspring (from its parent or ancestors). This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause a species to evolve. The study of heredity in biology is called genetics, which includes the field of epigenetics. History The ancients had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen; Hippocrates speculated that "seeds" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception, and Aristotle thought that male and female semen mixed at conception. Aeschylus, in 458 BC, proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a "nurse for the young life sown within her". Various hereditary mechanisms were envisaged without being properly tested or quantified. These included blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early Lamarckian ideas on evolution. In the 9th century AD, the Afro-Arab writer Al-Jahiz considered the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and first described the struggle for existence. Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1), p. 71-123. Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", The Islamic Quarterly. London. His ideas on the struggle for existence in the Book of Animals have been summarized as follows: In 1000 AD, the Arab physician, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (known as Albucasis in the West), wrote the first clear description of haemophilia, a hereditary genetic disorder, in his Al-Tasrif. In this work, he wrote of an Andalusian family whose males died of bleeding after minor injuries. Patricia Skinner (2001), Unani-tibbi, Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine During the 1700s, Dutch microscopist Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (homunculus) inside each sperm. These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception. Pangenesis was an idea that males and females formed "pangenes" in every organ. These pangenes subsequently moved through their blood to the genitals and then to the children. The concept originated with the ancient Greeks, and influenced biology until as recently as a century ago. The terms "blood relative", "full-blooded", and "royal blood" are relics of pangenesis. Francis Galton, Charles Darwin's cousin, experimentally tested and disproved pangenesis during the 1870s. Types of heredity The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories: 1. Number of involved loci Monogenetic (also called "simple") – one locus Oligogenetic – few loci Polygenetic – many loci 2. Involved chromosomes Autosomal – loci are not situated on a sex chromosome Gonosomal – loci are situated on a sex chromosome X-chromosomal – loci are situated on the X chromosome (the more common case) Y-chromosomal – loci are situated on the Y chromosome Mitochondrial – loci are situated on the mitochondrial DNA 3. Correlation genotype–phenotype Dominant Intermediate (also called "codominant") Recessive These three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance in the above order. Additionally, more specifications may be added as follows: 4. Coincidental and environmental interactions Penetrance Complete Incomplete (percentual number) Expressivity Invariable Variable Heritability (in polygenetic and sometimes also in oligogenetic modes of inheritance) Maternal or paternal imprinting phenomena (also see epigenetics) 5. Sex-linked interactions Sex-linked inheritance (gonosomal loci) Sex-limited phenotype expression (e.g., cryptorchism) Inheritance through the maternal line (in case of mitochondrial DNA loci) Inheritance through the paternal line (in case of Y-chromosomal loci) 6. Locus–locus interactions Epistasis with other loci (e.g., overdominance) Gene coupling with other loci (also see crossing over) Homozygotous lethal factors Semi-lethal factors Determination and description of a mode of inheritance is primarily achieved through statistical analysis of pedigree data. In case the involved loci are known, methods of molecular genetics can also be employed. Charles Darwin: theory of evolution Charles Darwin proposed a theory of evolution in 1859 and one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and thus would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of On the Origin of Species and his later biological works. Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits could be inherited which were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms. Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin Francis Galton, who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity. Galton rejected the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model which relied on acquired traits. The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August Weismann cut the tails off many generations of mice and found that their offspring continued to develop tails. Gregor Mendel: father of modern genetics The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1901. It was initially assumed the Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants — and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until R.A. Fisher's (1918) paper on The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance. Modern development of genetics and heredity In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that: Mayr & Provine 1998 Mayr E. 1982. The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution & inheritance. Harvard, Cambs. p567 et seq. All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists. Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by natural selection. Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through geographical separation and extinction (not saltation). Selection is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are important when continued. The object of selection is the phenotype in its surrounding environment. The role of genetic drift is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by Dobzhansky, it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained. The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are all important. In palaeontology, the ability to explain historical observations by extrapolation from micro to macro-evolution is proposed. Historical contingency means explanations at different levels may exist. Gradualism does not mean constant rate of change. The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay Gould suggests he may be an exception. Gould S.J. Ontogeny and phylogeny. Harvard 1977. p221-2 Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post-World War II era. Trofim Lysenko however caused a backlash of what is now called Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union when he emphasised Lamarckian ideas on the inheritance of acquired traits. This movement affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the USSR. See also Genetics Hard inheritance Notes and references External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability | Heredity |@lemmatized heredity:11 passing:1 trait:9 offspring:5 parent:4 ancestor:1 process:1 cell:2 organism:2 acquires:1 becomes:1 predispose:1 characteristic:1 variation:2 exhibit:1 individual:1 accumulate:1 cause:3 specie:4 evolve:1 study:1 biology:4 call:4 genetics:6 include:3 field:1 epigenetics:2 history:1 ancient:2 variety:1 idea:9 theophrastus:1 propose:5 male:5 flower:2 female:5 ripen:1 hippocrates:1 speculate:2 seed:1 produce:1 various:2 body:1 part:4 transmit:1 time:3 conception:3 aristotle:1 think:2 semen:1 mix:2 aeschylus:1 bc:1 nurse:1 young:1 life:1 sown:1 within:1 hereditary:2 mechanism:5 envisage:1 without:1 properly:1 test:2 quantify:1 blending:1 inheritance:20 acquire:6 nevertheless:1 people:1 able:1 develop:2 domestic:1 breed:1 animal:4 well:2 crop:1 artificial:1 selection:7 also:8 form:3 early:1 lamarckian:3 evolution:8 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evolutionary:3 synthesis:5 bridge:1 gap:1 experimental:1 geneticist:1 naturalist:2 palaeontologist:1 state:1 mayr:2 provine:1 diversity:2 harvard:2 cambs:1 et:1 seq:1 explain:3 way:1 consistent:1 observational:1 evidence:1 gradual:1 small:1 change:4 recombination:1 discontinuity:1 amongst:1 taxon:1 gradually:1 geographical:1 separation:1 extinction:1 saltation:1 overwhelmingly:1 even:1 slight:1 advantage:1 important:2 object:1 surrounding:1 role:1 drift:1 equivocal:1 though:1 strongly:1 support:1 dobzhansky:1 downgrade:1 later:2 ecological:2 obtain:1 primacy:1 thinking:1 key:1 strength:1 wild:1 great:3 expect:1 niche:1 occupation:1 significance:1 barrier:1 flow:1 palaeontology:1 ability:1 historical:2 observation:1 extrapolation:1 micro:1 macro:1 contingency:1 mean:2 explanation:1 different:1 level:1 exist:1 gradualism:1 constant:1 rate:1 speciation:2 occur:1 reproductively:1 isolate:1 much:1 debate:1 polyploidy:1 must:1 view:2 formulation:1 consist:1 frequency:1 allele:1 another:1 traditional:1 developmental:1 evo:1 devo:1 play:1 gavin:1 de:1 beer:1 stephen:1 jay:1 gould:2 exception:1 j:1 ontogeny:1 phylogeny:1 almost:1 challenge:1 vary:1 degree:1 success:1 doubt:1 landmark:1 confusion:1 directly:1 responsible:1 deal:1 research:2 post:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 era:1 trofim:1 lysenko:1 backlash:1 lysenkoism:1 soviet:1 union:1 emphasise:1 movement:1 affect:2 agricultural:1 food:1 shortage:1 seriously:1 ussr:1 hard:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 stanford:1 philosophy:1 entry:1 |@bigram male_female:2 al_jahiz:2 al_qasim:1 qasim_al:1 al_zahrawi:1 van_leeuwenhoek:1 egg_sperm:1 francis_galton:2 charles_darwin:3 locus_situate:5 mitochondrial_dna:2 genotype_phenotype:1 maternal_paternal:1 august_weismann:1 gregor_mendel:2 mendelian_inheritance:2 et_seq:1 genetic_drift:1 developmental_biology:1 stephen_jay:1 jay_gould:1 ontogeny_phylogeny:1 evolutionary_biology:1 soviet_union:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
7,364 | Galba | Servius Sulpicius Galba ( 24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69), also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor for seven months, from 8 June 68 until his death. He was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. Origins and rise to power He was born as Servius Sulpicius Galba near Terracina, "on the left as you go towards Fundi" in the words of Suetonius. Through his paternal grandfather ("more eminent for his learning than for his rank — for he did not advance beyond the grade of praetor" and who "published a voluminous and painstaking history", according to Suetonius), who predicted his rise to power (Suetonius, 4), he was descended from Servius Sulpicius Galba. Galba's father attained the consulship, and although he was short, hunchbacked and only an indifferent speaker, was an industrious pleader at the bar. His mother was Mummia Achaica, the granddaughter of Catulus and great-granddaughter of Lucius Mummius Achaicus. They only had one other child, an elder son called Gaius who left Rome after squandering the greater part of his estate, and committed suicide because Tiberius would not allow him to take part in the allotment of the provinces in his year. On his father's remarriage to Livia Ocellina, Galba was adopted by her and took her names, remaining Lucius Livius Ocella Sulpicius Galba until becoming emperor. He came from a noble family and was a man of great wealth, but was unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, Annals, vi. 20; Suet. Galba, 4). His wife, however, was connected at least by the marriage of some of her relatives to some of the Julii-Claudii. The couple had two sons, who died during their father's life. However, Suetonius's description of Galba was that In sexual matters he was more inclined to males, and then none but the hard bodied and those past their prime Suetonius, Galba, 22 . This seems to be the only case in Roman history where a man is specifically stated to prefer adult males. Richlin, The Garden of Priapus: Sexuality and Aggression in Roman Humor, Oxford, 1992 He became Praetor in 20, and consul in 33; he earned a reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germania, Africa and Hispania (Iberia, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) for his military capability, strictness and impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for the empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the first half of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68, Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and death of the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the Praetorian Prefect, had given him his favour revived Galba's spirits. Until now, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the senate and Roman people; after Nero's suicide, he assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. Following Nero's death, Nymphidius Sabinus sought to seize power prior to the arrival of Galba, but he could not win the loyalty of the Praetorian guard and was killed. Upon Galba's approach to the city in October, he was met by soldiers presenting demands; Galba replied by killing many of them. Rule and fall Mutiny Galba's primary concern during his brief reign was in restoring state finances, and to this end he undertook a number of unpopular measures, the most dangerous of which was his refusal to pay the praetorians the reward promised in his name. Galba scorned the notion that soldiers should be "bribed" for their loyalty. He further disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands of favourites. Three of these — Titus Vinius, who became Galba's colleague as consul, Cornelius Laco, the commander of the Praetorian Guard and Galba's freedman Icelus Marcianus — were said to virtually control the emperor. The three were called "the three pedagogues" because of their influence on Galba. All this made the new emperor gravely unpopular. On January 1, 69, two legions in Germania Superior refused to swear loyalty to Galba and toppled his statues, demanding that a new emperor be chosen; on the next day, the soldiers of Germania Inferior also rebelled and took the decision of who should be the next emperor into their own hands, proclaiming the governor of the province, Vitellius, as emperor. This outbreak of revolt made Galba aware of his own unpopularity and of the general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso. The populace regarded the choice of successor as a sign of fear, and the Praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was not forthcoming. Assassination M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented Praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to meet the rebels — he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter — was met by a troop of cavalry and was butchered near the Lacus Curtius. Piso was killed shortly afterwards. According to Plutarch, during Galba's last moments he offered his neck, and said, "Strike, if it be for the good of the Romans!" According to Suetonius, Galba prior to his death had put on a linen corset—although remarking that it had little protection against so many swords. After his death, Galba's head was brought to Otho, who gave it to his camp followers who paraded and mocked it—the Camp followers mocking was their angry response to a remark by Galba that his strength was unimpaired ; the head was then brought by a freeman so he could throw it on the place where his master had been executed on Galba's orders. Galba steward buried both head and trunk in an Aurelian Road tomb. Altogether around 120 people claimed the credit for killing Galba, being anxious to win Otho's favour and hoping to be rewarded. A list of their names was drawn up, which fell into the hands of Vitellius when he succeeded Otho as emperor. Every one of them was executed. During the later period of his provincial administration, Galba was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to a desire not to attract Nero's favor or to the growing infirmities of age. Tacitus says all pronounced him worthy of the empire, until he became emperor ("omnium consensū cāpax imperiī nisi imperasset"). References External links Primary sources Galba.net: researching Galba's heritage Life of Galba (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original) Life of Galba (Plutarch; English translation) Cassius Dio, Book 63 Secondary material Galba at RomansOnline Biography at De Imperatoribus Romanis | Galba |@lemmatized servius:4 sulpicius:5 galba:37 december:1 bc:1 january:2 also:2 call:4 caesar:3 augustus:2 roman:5 emperor:13 seven:1 month:1 june:1 death:7 first:4 year:3 four:1 origin:1 rise:3 power:3 bear:1 near:2 terracina:1 left:1 go:1 towards:1 fundi:1 word:1 suetonius:7 paternal:1 grandfather:1 eminent:1 learning:1 rank:1 advance:1 beyond:1 grade:1 praetor:2 publish:1 voluminous:1 painstaking:1 history:2 accord:3 predict:1 descend:1 father:3 attain:1 consulship:1 although:2 short:1 hunchbacked:1 indifferent:1 speaker:1 industrious:1 pleader:1 bar:1 mother:1 mummia:1 achaica:1 granddaughter:2 catulus:1 great:3 lucius:2 mummius:1 achaicus:1 one:3 child:1 elder:1 son:2 gaius:1 leave:1 rome:2 squander:1 part:2 estate:1 commit:1 suicide:2 tiberius:2 would:1 allow:1 take:3 allotment:1 province:4 remarriage:1 livia:1 ocellina:1 adopt:3 name:3 remain:1 livius:1 ocella:1 become:4 come:1 noble:1 family:1 man:2 wealth:1 unconnected:1 either:2 birth:1 adoption:1 six:1 early:2 regard:2 youth:1 remarkable:1 ability:1 say:4 prophesy:1 future:1 eminence:1 tacitus:2 annals:1 vi:1 suet:1 wife:1 however:2 connect:1 least:1 marriage:1 relative:1 julii:1 claudii:1 couple:1 two:2 die:1 life:3 description:1 sexual:1 matter:1 inclined:1 male:2 none:1 hard:1 bodied:1 past:1 prime:1 seem:1 case:1 specifically:1 state:2 prefer:1 adult:1 richlin:1 garden:1 priapus:1 sexuality:1 aggression:1 humor:1 oxford:1 consul:2 earn:1 reputation:1 gaul:2 germania:3 africa:1 hispania:2 iberia:1 comprise:1 modern:1 spain:1 portugal:1 military:1 capability:1 strictness:1 impartiality:1 caligula:1 refuse:2 invitation:1 friend:1 make:3 bid:1 empire:2 loyally:1 serve:1 claudius:1 half:1 nero:5 reign:2 live:1 retirement:1 till:1 bestow:1 tarraconensis:1 spring:1 inform:1 intention:1 put:2 insurrection:1 julius:1 vindex:2 incline:1 follow:2 example:1 defeat:1 latter:1 renew:1 hesitation:1 news:1 nymphidius:2 sabinus:2 praetorian:6 prefect:1 give:2 favour:2 revive:1 spirit:1 dare:1 legate:1 senate:1 people:2 assume:1 title:1 march:1 straight:1 seek:1 seize:1 prior:2 arrival:1 could:2 win:2 loyalty:3 guard:2 kill:4 upon:1 approach:1 city:1 october:1 meet:3 soldier:3 present:1 demand:2 reply:1 many:2 rule:1 fall:1 mutiny:1 primary:2 concern:1 brief:1 restore:1 finance:1 end:1 undertake:1 number:1 unpopular:2 measure:1 dangerous:1 refusal:1 pay:1 reward:2 promise:1 scorn:1 notion:1 bribe:1 far:1 disgust:1 mob:1 meanness:1 dislike:1 pomp:1 display:1 advanced:1 age:2 destroy:1 energy:1 entirely:1 hand:3 favourite:1 three:3 titus:1 vinius:1 colleague:1 cornelius:1 laco:1 commander:1 freedman:1 icelus:1 marcianus:1 virtually:1 control:1 pedagogue:1 influence:1 new:2 gravely:1 legion:1 superior:1 swear:1 topple:1 statue:1 choose:2 next:2 day:1 inferior:1 rebel:2 decision:1 proclaim:1 governor:2 vitellius:2 outbreak:1 revolt:1 aware:1 unpopularity:1 general:1 discontent:1 order:2 check:1 storm:1 coadjutor:1 successor:2 l:1 calpurnius:1 piso:3 populace:1 choice:1 sign:1 fear:1 indignant:1 usual:1 donative:1 forthcoming:1 assassination:1 salvius:1 otho:4 formerly:1 lusitania:1 supporter:1 disappoint:1 instead:1 enter:1 communication:1 discontented:1 set:1 feeble:1 carry:1 litter:1 troop:1 cavalry:1 butcher:1 lacus:1 curtius:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 plutarch:2 last:1 moment:1 offer:1 neck:1 strike:1 good:1 linen:1 corset:1 remark:2 little:1 protection:1 sword:1 head:3 bring:2 camp:2 follower:2 parade:1 mock:2 angry:1 response:1 strength:1 unimpaired:1 freeman:1 throw:1 place:1 master:1 execute:2 steward:1 bury:1 trunk:1 aurelian:1 road:1 tomb:1 altogether:1 around:1 claim:1 credit:1 anxious:1 hoping:1 list:1 draw:1 fell:1 succeed:1 every:1 late:1 period:1 provincial:1 administration:1 indolent:1 apathetic:1 due:1 desire:1 attract:1 favor:1 grow:1 infirmity:1 pronounce:1 worthy:1 omnium:1 consensū:1 cāpax:1 imperiī:1 nisi:1 imperasset:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 source:1 net:1 researching:1 heritage:1 english:2 translation:2 latin:1 original:1 cassius:1 dio:1 book:1 secondary:1 material:1 romansonline:1 biography:1 de:1 imperatoribus:1 romani:1 |@bigram servius_sulpicius:4 sulpicius_galba:5 paternal_grandfather:1 commit_suicide:1 tacitus_annals:1 hispania_tarraconensis:1 nymphidius_sabinus:2 praetorian_prefect:1 praetorian_guard:2 germania_superior:1 swear_loyalty:1 germania_inferior:1 calpurnius_piso:1 shortly_afterwards:1 external_link:1 cassius_dio:1 de_imperatoribus:1 imperatoribus_romani:1 |
7,365 | Armed_forces | The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their governing body, and to defend that body and the nation it represents from external and internal aggressors. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation's armed forces. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives. The study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three "levels": strategy, operational art, and tactics. All three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. Organization In most countries the armed forces are divided into three or four forces: an army, a navy, an air force, and often a gendarmerie or a paramilitary police force. Gendarmeries (including equivalents such as Internal Troops, Paramilitary Forces, etc.) are common in most of the world but are uncommon in Anglo-Saxon countries. A number of countries have no navy, for geographical reasons. Many countries have a variation on the standard model of three or four basic forces. Variations include China (army, navy, air force, strategic missile force), South Africa (army, navy, air force, military health service), Egypt (army, navy, air force, air defense) or The Netherlands (army, navy, air force, military police). The United States has five (army, navy, air force, marines, coast guard), like Italy (army, navy, air force, military police and financial police). In larger armed forces the culture between the different branches of a country's armed forces can be quite different. Most smaller countries have a single organization that encompasses all armed forces employed by the country in question. Third-world armies tend to consist primarily of infantry, while first-world armies tend to have larger units manning expensive equipment and only a fraction of personnel in infantry units. The state of readiness of a military organization may be indicated by its alert state. Armed forces may be organized as standing forces (e.g. regular army), which describes a professional army that is engaged in no other profession than preparing for and engaging in warfare. In contrast, there is the very rare citizen army as used in Switzerland. A citizen army (also known as a militia or reserve army) is only mobilized as needed. Its advantage lies in the fact that it is dramatically less expensive (in terms of wealth, manpower, and opportunity cost) for the organizing society to support. The disadvantage is that such a "citizen's army" is usually less well trained and organized. A compromise between the two has a small cadre of professional non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and officers who act as a skeleton for a much larger force. When war comes, this skeleton is filled out with conscripts or reservists (former full-time soldiers who volunteer for a small stipend to occasionally train with the cadre to keep their military skills intact), who form the wartime unit. This balances the pros and cons of each basic organization, and allows the formation of huge armies (in terms of millions of combatants), necessary in modern large scale fare. Benefits and costs Military spending in 2007, in USD, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. The obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces, is in providing protection from foreign threats, and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also been used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand they may also harm a society by engaging in counter-productive (or merely unsuccessful) warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly. See also: Deterrence theory Armed forces of the world See also: :Category:Military by country See also Mercenary Military organization Militaria Military fiat Military history Military incompetence Military intelligence Junta Military rule Military science Military Aid to the Civil Power Military Aid to the Civil Community List of countries by military expenditures List of countries by number of active troops List of countries by size of armed forces List of countries without an army List of air forces List of navies List of armies List of battles | Armed_forces |@lemmatized armed:8 force:32 country:15 government:1 sponsor:1 defense:3 fight:1 organization:6 exist:1 foreign:2 domestic:1 policy:1 governing:1 body:2 defend:1 nation:2 represent:1 external:1 internal:3 aggressor:1 paramilitary:3 include:3 arm:6 use:5 achieve:2 political:1 objective:2 study:2 call:1 military:18 science:3 broadly:1 speak:1 involve:1 consider:1 offense:1 three:4 level:2 strategy:1 operational:1 art:1 tactic:1 application:1 order:1 desired:1 divide:1 four:2 army:18 navy:9 air:9 often:1 gendarmerie:1 police:4 gendarmery:1 equivalent:1 troop:2 etc:1 common:1 world:4 uncommon:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 number:2 geographical:1 reason:1 many:1 variation:2 standard:1 model:1 basic:2 china:1 strategic:1 missile:1 south:1 africa:1 health:1 service:1 egypt:1 netherlands:1 united:1 state:3 five:1 marine:1 coast:1 guard:1 like:1 italy:1 financial:1 large:4 culture:1 different:2 branch:1 quite:1 small:3 single:1 encompass:1 employ:1 question:1 third:1 tend:2 consist:1 primarily:1 infantry:2 first:1 unit:3 man:1 expensive:2 equipment:1 fraction:1 personnel:2 readiness:1 may:3 indicate:1 alert:1 organize:3 standing:1 e:1 g:1 regular:1 describe:1 professional:2 engage:3 profession:1 prepare:1 warfare:2 contrast:1 rare:1 citizen:3 switzerland:1 also:6 know:1 militia:1 reserve:1 mobilize:1 need:1 advantage:1 lie:1 fact:1 dramatically:1 less:2 term:2 wealth:1 manpower:1 opportunity:1 cost:2 society:2 support:2 disadvantage:1 usually:1 well:1 trained:1 compromise:1 two:1 cadre:2 non:1 commission:1 officer:2 ncos:1 act:1 skeleton:2 much:1 war:1 come:2 fill:1 conscript:1 reservist:1 former:1 full:1 time:1 soldier:1 volunteer:1 stipend:1 occasionally:1 train:1 keep:1 skill:1 intact:1 form:1 wartime:1 balance:1 pro:1 con:1 allow:1 formation:1 huge:1 million:1 combatant:1 necessary:1 modern:1 scale:1 fare:1 benefit:4 spending:1 usd:1 accord:1 stockholm:1 international:1 peace:1 research:1 institute:1 obvious:1 maintain:1 provide:1 protection:1 threat:1 conflict:1 recent:1 decade:1 emergency:1 civil:3 role:1 post:1 disaster:1 situation:1 hand:1 harm:1 counter:1 productive:1 merely:1 unsuccessful:1 expenditure:2 technology:1 develop:1 weapon:1 system:1 sometimes:1 produce:1 side:1 although:1 claim:1 great:1 could:1 target:1 money:1 directly:1 see:3 deterrence:1 theory:1 category:1 mercenary:1 militaria:1 fiat:1 history:1 incompetence:1 intelligence:1 junta:1 rule:1 aid:2 power:1 community:1 list:8 active:1 size:1 without:1 battle:1 |@bigram governing_body:1 anglo_saxon:1 officer_ncos:1 pro_con:1 |
7,366 | Carboxylic_acid | Structure of a carboxylic acid The 3D structure of the carboxyl group A space-filling model of the carboxyl group Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by the presence of a carboxyl group, which has the formula -C(=O)OH, usually written -COOH or -CO2H. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, carboxylic acids, accessed 15 Jan 2007. Carboxylic acids are Brønsted-Lowry acids — they are proton donors. Salts and anions of carboxylic acids are called carboxylates. The simplest series of carboxylic acids are the alkanoic acids, R-COOH, where R is a hydrogen or an alkyl group. Compounds may also have two or more carboxylic acid groups per molecule. Physical properties Carboxylic acid dimers Carboxylic acids are polar, and form hydrogen bonds with each other. At high temperatures, in vapor phase, carboxylic acids usually exist as dimeric pairs. Smaller carboxylic acids (1 to 5 carbons) are miscible with water, whereas higher carboxylic acids are very much less-soluble due to the increasing hydrophobic nature of the alkyl chain. They tend to be rather soluble in less-polar solvents such as ethers and alcohols. R.T. Morrison, R.N. Boyd. Organic Chemistry, 6th Ed. (1992) ISBN 0-13-643669-2. Carboxylic acids are widespread in nature and are typically weak acids, meaning that they only partially dissociate into H+ cations and RCOO− anions in aqueous solution. For example, at room temperature, only 0.02 % of all acetic acid molecules are dissociated in water. Since the carboxylic acids are weak acids, in water, both forms exist in an equilibrium: RCOOH ↔ RCOO− + H+ The acidity of carboxylic acids can be explained by either the stability of the acid or the stability of the conjugate base using inductive effects or resonance effects. Stability of the acid Using inductive effects, the acidity of carboxylic acids can be rationalized by the two electronegative oxygen atoms distorting the electron clouds surrounding the O-H bond, weakening it. The weak O-H bond causes the acid molecule to be less stable, and causing the hydrogen atom to be labile, thus it dissociates easily to give the H+ ion. Since the acid is unstable, the equilibrium will lie on the right. Additional electronegative atoms or groups, such as chlorine or hydroxyl, substituted on the R-group have a similar, though lesser effect. The presence of these groups increases the acidity through inductive effects. For example, trichloroacetic acid (three -Cl groups) is a stronger acid than lactic acid (one -OH group), which in turn is stronger than acetic acid (no electronegative constituent). Stability of the conjugate base Resonance stabilization of carboxylic acids The acidity of a carboxylic acid can also be explained by resonance effects. The result of the dissociation of a carboxylic acid is a resonance stabilized product in which the negative charge is shared (delocalized) between the two oxygen atoms. Each of the carbon-oxygen bonds has what is called a partial double-bond characteristic. Since the conjugate base is stabilized, the above equilibrium lies on the right. Spectroscopy Carboxylic acids are most readily identified as such by infrared spectroscopy. They exhibit a sharp C=O stretch between 1680 and 1725 cm−1, and the characteristic O-H stretch of the carboxyl group appears as a broad peak in the 2500 to 3000 cm−1 region. In 1H NMR spectrometry, the hydroxyl hydrogen appears in the 10-13 ppm region, though it is often either broadened or not observed due to exchange with any traces of water. Sources Lower straight-chain aliphatic carboxylic acids, as well as those of even carbon number up to C18, are commercially available. For example, acetic acid is produced by methanol carbonylation with carbon monoxide, whereas long chain carboxylic acids are obtained by the hydrolysis of triglycerides obtained from plant or animal oils. Vinegar, a dilute solution of acetic acid, is biologically produced from the fermentation of ethanol. It is used in food and beverages, but is not used in industry. Synthesis Carboxylic acids can be produced by oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes with strong oxidants such as potassium dichromate, Jones reagent, potassium permanganate, or sodium chlorite. They may also be produced by the oxidative cleavage of olefins by ozonolysis, potassium permanganate, or potassium dichromate. In particular, any alkyl group on a benzene ring will be fully oxidized to a carboxylic acid, regardless of its chain length. This is the basis for the industrial synthesis of benzoic acid from toluene. Carboxylic acids can also be obtained by the hydrolysis of nitriles, esters, or amides, with the addition of acid or base. They can also be prepared from the action of a Grignard reagent on carbon dioxide, though this method is not used in industry. Carboxylic acids may also form from the following reactions: Disproportionation of an aldehyde in the Cannizzaro reaction Rearrangement of diketones in the benzilic acid rearrangement Halogenation followed by hydrolysis of methyl ketones in the haloform reaction Hydroformylation of an alkene followed by hydrolysis in the Koch reaction Less-common reactions involving the generation of benzoic acids are the von Richter reaction from nitrobenzenes and the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction from phenols. Reactions Carboxylic acids react with bases to form carboxylate salts, in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl (-OH) group is replaced with a metal cation. Thus, acetic acid found in vinegar reacts with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to form sodium acetate, carbon dioxide, and water: CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COO−Na+ + CO2 + H2O Carboxylic acids also react with alcohols and amines to give esters and amides. Like other alcohols and phenols, the hydroxyl group on carboxylic acids may be replaced with a chlorine atom using thionyl chloride to give acyl chlorides. As with all carbonyl compounds, the protons on the α-carbon are labile due to keto-enol tautomerization. Thus the α-carbon is easily halogenated in the Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky halogenation. The Arndt-Eistert synthesis inserts an α-methylene group into a carboxylic acid. The Curtius rearrangement converts carboxylic acids to isocyanates. The Schmidt reaction converts carboxylic acids to amines. Carboxylic acids are decarboxylated in the Hunsdiecker reaction. The Dakin-West reaction converts an amino acid to the corresponding amino ketone. In the Barbier-Wieland degradation (1912), the alpha-methylene group in an aliphatic carboxylic acid is removed in a sequence of reaction steps, effectively a chain-shortening Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 3, p.234 (1955); Vol. 24, p.38 (1944) Link Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 3, p.237 (1955); Vol. 24, p.41 (1944) Link. . The addition of a carboxyl group to a compound is known as carboxylation; the removal of one is decarboxylation. Enzymes that catalyze these reactions are known as carboxylases (EC 6.4.1) and decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1). Nomenclature and examples The carboxylate anion R-COO– is usually named with the suffix -ate, so acetic acid, for example, becomes acetate ion. In IUPAC nomenclature, carboxylic acids have an -oic acid suffix (e.g., octadecanoic acid). In common nomenclature, the suffix is usually -ic acid (e.g., stearic acid). +Straight-Chained, Saturated Carboxylic AcidsCarbon atomsCommon nameIUPAC nameChemical formulaCommon location or use1 Formic acid Methanoic acid HCOOH Insect stings2 Acetic acid Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Vinegar3 Propionic acid Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH 4 Butyric acid Butanoic acid CH3(CH2)2COOH Rancid butter5 Valeric acid Pentanoic acid CH3(CH2)3COOH Valerian6 Caproic acid Hexanoic acid CH3(CH2)4COOH Goat fat7 Enanthic acid Heptanoic acid CH3(CH2)5COOH 8 Caprylic acid Octanoic acid CH3(CH2)6COOH Coconuts and breast milk9 Pelargonic acid Nonanoic acid CH3(CH2)7COOH Pelargonium10 Capric acid Decanoic acid CH3(CH2)8COOH 12 Lauric acid Dodecanoic acid CH3(CH2)10COOH Coconut oil and hand wash soaps.14 Myristic acid Tetradecanoic acid CH3(CH2)12COOH Nutmeg16 Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH Palm oil18 Stearic acid Octadecanoic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH Chocolate, waxes, soaps, and oils20 Arachidic acid Eicosanoic acid CH3(CH2)18COOH Peanut oil Other carboxylic acids include: Short-chain unsaturated monocarboxylic acids Acrylic acid (2-propenoic acid) – CH2=CHCOOH, used in polymer synthesis Fatty acids – medium to long-chain saturated and unsaturated monocarboxylic acids, with even number of carbons Docosahexaenoic acid – nutritional supplement Eicosapentaenoic acid – nutritional supplement Amino acids – the building blocks of proteins Keto acids – acids of biochemical significance that contain a ketone group Acetoacetic acid Pyruvic acid Aromatic carboxylic acids Benzoic acid – C6H5COOH; sodium benzoate, the sodium salt of benzoic acid is used as a food preservative Mandelic acid - an alpha hydroxy type Salicylic acid – a beta hydroxy type found in many skin care products Dicarboxylic acids – containing two carboxyl groups Adipic acid – the monomer used to produce nylon Aldaric acid – a family of sugar acids Fumaric acid Glutaric acid Maleic acid Malic acid – found in apples Malonic acid Oxalic acid – found in many foods Succinic acid – a component of the citric acid cycle Tartronic acid Tricarboxylic acids – containing three carboxyl groups Citric acid – found in citrus fruits Isocitric acid Aconitic acid Propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid (tricarballylic acid, carballylic acid) Alpha hydroxy acids – containing a hydroxy group Glyceric acid Glycolic acid Lactic acid (2-hydroxypropanoic acid) – found in sour milk Tartaric acid - found in red wine See also Acid anhydride Acid chloride Amide Ester References External links Carboxylic acids synthesis - Collection of links pertaining to synthesis of Carboxylic acid Carboxylic acids pH and titration - freeware for calculations, data analysis, simulation, and distribution diagram generation | Carboxylic_acid |@lemmatized structure:2 carboxylic:41 acid:141 carboxyl:7 group:21 space:1 fill:1 model:1 organic:4 characterize:1 presence:2 formula:1 c:2 oh:3 usually:4 write:1 cooh:2 compendium:1 chemical:1 terminology:1 access:1 jan:1 brønsted:1 lowry:1 proton:2 donor:1 salt:3 anion:3 call:2 carboxylates:1 simple:1 series:1 alkanoic:1 r:6 hydrogen:5 alkyl:3 compound:3 may:4 also:8 two:4 per:1 molecule:3 physical:1 property:1 dimer:1 polar:2 form:5 bond:5 high:2 temperature:2 vapor:1 phase:1 exist:2 dimeric:1 pair:1 small:1 carbon:9 miscible:1 water:5 whereas:2 much:1 less:5 soluble:2 due:3 increase:2 hydrophobic:1 nature:2 chain:8 tend:1 rather:1 solvent:1 ether:1 alcohol:4 morrison:1 n:1 boyd:1 chemistry:1 ed:1 isbn:1 widespread:1 typically:1 weak:3 mean:1 partially:1 dissociate:3 h:6 cation:2 rcoo:2 aqueous:1 solution:2 example:4 room:1 acetic:7 since:3 equilibrium:3 rcooh:1 acidity:4 explain:2 either:2 stability:4 conjugate:3 base:5 use:9 inductive:3 effect:6 resonance:4 rationalize:1 electronegative:3 oxygen:3 atom:5 distort:1 electron:1 cloud:1 surround:1 weaken:1 cause:2 stable:1 labile:2 thus:3 easily:2 give:3 ion:2 unstable:1 lie:2 right:2 additional:1 chlorine:2 hydroxyl:4 substitute:1 similar:1 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aldaric:1 family:1 sugar:1 fumaric:1 glutaric:1 maleic:1 malic:1 apple:1 malonic:1 oxalic:1 succinic:1 component:1 citric:2 cycle:1 tartronic:1 tricarboxylic:2 citrus:1 fruit:1 isocitric:1 aconitic:1 propane:1 tricarballylic:1 carballylic:1 glyceric:1 glycolic:1 hydroxypropanoic:1 sour:1 milk:1 tartaric:1 red:1 wine:1 see:1 anhydride:1 reference:1 external:1 collection:1 pertain:1 ph:1 titration:1 freeware:1 calculation:1 data:1 analysis:1 simulation:1 distribution:1 diagram:1 |@bigram carboxylic_acid:40 brønsted_lowry:1 hydrogen_bond:1 miscible_water:1 polar_solvent:1 organic_chemistry:1 aqueous_solution:1 acetic_acid:7 hydrogen_atom:1 electronegative_atom:1 acid_lactic:2 lactic_acid:2 infrared_spectroscopy:1 carbon_monoxide:1 alcohol_aldehyde:1 potassium_permanganate:2 benzene_ring:1 benzoic_acid:4 ester_amide:2 grignard_reagent:1 carbon_dioxide:2 methyl_ketone:1 haloform_reaction:1 hydroxyl_oh:1 sodium_bicarbonate:1 bake_soda:1 thionyl_chloride:1 acyl_chloride:1 carbonyl_compound:1 amino_acid:2 synthesis_coll:2 coll_vol:2 catalyze_reaction:1 iupac_nomenclature:1 stearic_acid:2 formic_acid:1 ethanoic_acid:1 propionic_acid:1 butanoic_acid:1 fatty_acid:1 saturate_unsaturated:1 docosahexaenoic_acid:1 nutritional_supplement:2 eicosapentaenoic_acid:1 keto_acid:1 food_preservative:1 salicylic_acid:1 dicarboxylic_acid:1 malic_acid:1 oxalic_acid:1 citric_acid:2 citrus_fruit:1 tartaric_acid:1 acid_anhydride:1 external_link:1 |
7,367 | Gregory_the_Illuminator | Saint Gregory the Illuminator or Saint Gregory the Enlightener ( translit. , or , or ), the founder and patron saint of the Armenian Apostolic Church (c. 257 – c. 331) was a religious leader credited with forging the Christian identity of Armenia via conversion from pagan beliefs. Armenia became the first country to establish itself as a Christian nation, an event traditionally dated to AD 301 though now believed by most scholars to have occurred somewhat later, but by 314. Beginnings Gregory's father Anak, a Parthian, was charged with assassinating Khosrov I, one of the kings of the Arshakouni line and was put to death. Gregory's mother was named Okohe. Gregory narrowly escaped execution with the help of Sopia and Yevtagh, his caretakers. Gregory was taken to Caesarea (present-day Kayseri) in Cappadocia where Sopia and Yevtagh hoped to raise him. Gregory was given to the Christian Holy Father Phirmilianos (Euthalius) to be educated and was brought up as a devout Christian. He went on to marry Mariam, also a devout Christian; they had two sons, the younger of whom, Aristaces (Aristakes), succeeded his father. At that time Tiridates III (Trdat the Great), a son of King Khosrov II, reigned. Influenced partly by the fact that Gregory was the son of his father's enemy, he ordered Gregory imprisoned him for twelve (some sources indicate fourteen) years in a pit on the Ararat Plain under the present day church of Khor Virap located near by historical city Artashat in Armenia. Gregory was eventually called forth from his pit in 297 to restore Tiridates III (a.k.a. Trdat), who had lost all reason after he was betrayed by Diocletian, to sanity. Diocletan invaded with the assistance of Sassanid Persia and a vast amount of territory from Western provinces of Greater Armenia became "protectorates" of Rome. Declaration of Christianity in Armenia In 301 Gregory baptized Trdat (now known as Trdat the Great) along with members of the royal court and upper class as Christians. Trdat issued a decree by which he granted Gregory full rights to begin carrying out the conversion of the entire nation to the Christian faith. The same year Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion. The newly-built cathedral, the Mother Church in Echmiadzin became and remains the spiritual and cultural center of Armenian Christianity and center of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Most Armenians were baptized in Aratsani (upper Euphrates) and Yeraskh (Arax) rivers. Many of the pre-Christian, traditional Indo-European, festivals and celebrations such as Tyarndarach (Trndez - associated with fire worship) and Vartavar (Vadarvar - associated with water worship), that dated back to thousands of years were preserved and continued in the form of Christian celebrations and chants. In 302, Gregory received consecration as Patriarch of Armenia from Leontius of Caesarea, his childhood home. Retirement and Death In 318 AD, St. Gregory appointed his son Aristaces (Aristakes) as the next Catholicos in line of Armenia's Holy Apostolic Church to stabilize and continue strengthening Christianity not only in Armenia, but also in the Caucasus and Anatolia. Gregory also placed and instructed his grandson Grigoris (Aristakes' son) in charge of the holy missions to the peoples and tribes of all of the Caucasus and Caucasian Albania. Grigoris was martyred by a fanatical mob, while preaching in Albania. In his late eighties Gregory withdrew to a small sanctuary near Mount Sebuh (Mt. Sepuh) in the Daranalia province (Manyats Ayr, Upper Armenia) with a small convent of monks, where he remained until his death. Veneration by Armenians and by Christian Churches After his death his corpse was removed to the village of Thodanum (T'ordan - modern Doğanköy, near Erzincan). His remains were scattered far and near in the reign of Zeno. His head is believed to be now in Italy, his right hand at Echmiadzin, Armenia, and his left at the Holy See of Cilicia in Antelias, Lebanon. In the eighth century, the iconoclast decrees in Greece caused a number of religious orders to flee the Byzantine Empire and seek refuge elsewhere. San Gregorio Armeno in Naples was built in that century over the remains of a Roman temple dedicated to Ceres, by a group of nuns escaping from the Byzantine Empire with the relics of Gregory the Illuminator. A number of prayers, and about thirty of the canons of the Armenian Church are ascribed to Gregory the Illuminator. The homilies appeared for the first time in a work called Haschacnapadum at Constantinople in 1737; a century afterwards a Greek translation was published at Venice by the Mekhiterists; and they have since been edited in German by J. M. Schmid (Ratisbon, 1872). The original authorities for Gregory's life are Agathangelos, whose History of Tiridates was published by the Mekhitarists in 1835; Moses of Chorene, Historiae Armenicae; and Simeon Metaphrastes. A Life of Gregory by the Vartabed Matthew was published in the Armenian language at Venice in 1749 and was translated into English by the Rev. Father Malan (1868). The Armenian Apostolic Church became extremely rich, besides the old temples which the church had confiscated, it was granted large tracts of land. The Armenian Church became the owner of approximately 10,000 farms and the clergy exploited these exactly as did the other Armenian princes. During wartime the church was obliged to assist the king with soldiers as well as taxes. It is on record that the church, if necessary, was obliged to provide the king with 5,000 cavalry and 4,000 infantry soldiers. Gallery See also Khor Virap Armenian Apostolic Church Armenian Catholic Church Eastern Christianity Vardapet; Armenian preaching monks External links Agathangelos: History of St. Gregory and the Conversion of Armenia Catholic Encyclopedia — Gregory the Illuminator Armenian Church Website Gandzasar Monastery, Nagorno Karabakh | Gregory_the_Illuminator |@lemmatized saint:3 gregory:22 illuminator:4 enlightener:1 translit:1 founder:1 patron:1 armenian:14 apostolic:5 church:15 c:2 religious:2 leader:1 credit:1 forge:1 christian:10 identity:1 armenia:12 via:1 conversion:3 pagan:1 belief:1 become:6 first:3 country:2 establish:1 nation:2 event:1 traditionally:1 date:2 ad:2 though:1 believe:2 scholar:1 occur:1 somewhat:1 later:1 beginning:1 father:5 anak:1 parthian:1 charge:2 assassinate:1 khosrov:2 one:1 king:4 arshakouni:1 line:2 put:1 death:4 mother:2 name:1 okohe:1 narrowly:1 escape:2 execution:1 help:1 sopia:2 yevtagh:2 caretaker:1 take:1 caesarea:2 present:2 day:2 kayseri:1 cappadocia:1 hop:1 raise:1 give:1 holy:4 phirmilianos:1 euthalius:1 educate:1 bring:1 devout:2 go:1 marry:1 mariam:1 also:4 two:1 son:5 young:1 aristaces:2 aristakes:3 succeed:1 time:2 tiridates:3 iii:2 trdat:5 great:3 ii:1 reign:2 influence:1 partly:1 fact:1 enemy:1 order:2 imprison:1 twelve:1 source:1 indicate:1 fourteen:1 year:3 pit:2 ararat:1 plain:1 khor:2 virap:2 locate:1 near:4 historical:1 city:1 artashat:1 eventually:1 call:2 forth:1 restore:1 k:1 lose:1 reason:1 betray:1 diocletian:1 sanity:1 diocletan:1 invade:1 assistance:1 sassanid:1 persia:1 vast:1 amount:1 territory:1 western:1 province:2 protectorate:1 rome:1 declaration:1 christianity:5 baptize:2 know:1 along:1 member:1 royal:1 court:1 upper:3 class:1 issue:1 decree:2 grant:2 full:1 right:2 begin:1 carry:1 entire:1 faith:1 adopt:1 state:1 religion:1 newly:1 build:2 cathedral:1 echmiadzin:2 remain:2 spiritual:1 cultural:1 center:2 aratsani:1 euphrates:1 yeraskh:1 arax:1 river:1 many:1 pre:1 traditional:1 indo:1 european:1 festival:1 celebration:2 tyarndarach:1 trndez:1 associate:2 fire:1 worship:2 vartavar:1 vadarvar:1 water:1 back:1 thousand:1 preserve:1 continue:2 form:1 chant:1 receive:1 consecration:1 patriarch:1 leontius:1 childhood:1 home:1 retirement:1 st:2 appoint:1 next:1 catholicos:1 stabilize:1 strengthen:1 caucasus:2 anatolia:1 place:1 instruct:1 grandson:1 grigoris:2 mission:1 people:1 tribe:1 caucasian:1 albania:2 martyr:1 fanatical:1 mob:1 preach:2 late:1 eighty:1 withdraw:1 small:2 sanctuary:1 mount:1 sebuh:1 mt:1 sepuh:1 daranalia:1 manyats:1 ayr:1 convent:1 monk:2 veneration:1 corpse:1 remove:1 village:1 thodanum:1 ordan:1 modern:1 doğanköy:1 erzincan:1 remains:2 scatter:1 far:1 zeno:1 head:1 italy:1 hand:1 left:1 see:2 cilicia:1 antelias:1 lebanon:1 eighth:1 century:3 iconoclast:1 greece:1 cause:1 number:2 flee:1 byzantine:2 empire:2 seek:1 refuge:1 elsewhere:1 san:1 gregorio:1 armeno:1 naples:1 roman:1 temple:2 dedicate:1 cere:1 group:1 nun:1 relic:1 prayer:1 thirty:1 canon:1 ascribe:1 homily:1 appear:1 work:1 haschacnapadum:1 constantinople:1 afterwards:1 greek:1 translation:1 publish:3 venice:2 mekhiterists:1 since:1 edit:1 german:1 j:1 schmid:1 ratisbon:1 original:1 authority:1 life:2 agathangelos:2 whose:1 history:2 mekhitarists:1 moses:1 chorene:1 historiae:1 armenicae:1 simeon:1 metaphrastes:1 vartabed:1 matthew:1 language:1 translate:1 english:1 rev:1 malan:1 extremely:1 rich:1 besides:1 old:1 confiscate:1 large:1 tract:1 land:1 owner:1 approximately:1 farm:1 clergy:1 exploit:1 exactly:1 prince:1 wartime:1 oblige:2 assist:1 soldier:2 well:1 tax:1 record:1 necessary:1 provide:1 cavalry:1 infantry:1 gallery:1 catholic:2 eastern:1 vardapet:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 website:1 gandzasar:1 monastery:1 nagorno:1 karabakh:1 |@bigram gregory_illuminator:4 patron_saint:1 armenian_apostolic:4 narrowly_escape:1 indo_european:1 seek_refuge:1 external_link:1 nagorno_karabakh:1 |
7,368 | Kyle_MacLachlan | Kyle Merritt MacLachlan (b. February 22, 1959) is a Golden Globe award winning American actor. He is a graduate of the University of Washington and moved to Hollywood, California, to pursue his career soon after his 1982 graduation. He is best recalled for his roles as Jeffrey Beaumont in the cult film Blue Velvet, and Paul Atreides in Dune, as well as his television series roles as Special Agent Dale Cooper in Twin Peaks, Trey MacDougal in Sex and the City and Orson Hodge in Desperate Housewives. Career MacLachlan has worked extensively with David Lynch. He first appeared as Paul Atreides in the film Dune (1984), Lynch's adaptation of Frank Herbert's novel, and as Jeffrey Beaumont in Blue Velvet (1986). Later he played Special Agent Dale Cooper in Lynch's ABC television series Twin Peaks (1990-1991), reprising that role for Lynch's 1992 prequel Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me. Lynch commented on those roles in a GQ story about MacLachlan: "Kyle plays innocents who are interested in the mysteries of life. He's the person you trust enough to go into a strange world with." Contrechamp.com, Voyages en cinéphilie. L'homme sériel, November 10, 2006. In the 1993 film version of Franz Kafka's The Trial, MacLachlan played the lead role of the persecuted Josef K. He also had a recurring role in the American television series Sex and the City, portraying Dr. Trey MacDougal, the one-time husband of Charlotte York (Kristin Davis). He portrayed the spirit of Cary Grant in Touch of Pink. About.com, Kyle MacLachlan Reflects on "Touch of Pink" by Rebecca Murray. Retrieved January 29, 2008. Noteworthy to critics was his uncanny ability to capture the nuances of Grant's mannerisms, his resemblance to Grant had been previously noted in an episode of Twin Peaks. MacLachlan also lent his voice to nefarious media mogul Donald Love in the video game Grand Theft Auto III http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0019099/ . In 1995, MacLachlan starred in Paul Verhoeven's Showgirls. The movie was heavily panned by critics Metacritic, http://www.metacritic.com/video/titles/showgirls accessed May 22, 2008 and it collected seven Golden Raspberry Awards (from a record thirteen nominations). MacLachlan himself was deeply embarrassed with his involvement. Allegedly he walked out of the film's premiere, but he himself contradicted these claims and commented that he "suffered through the whole two hours" of the premiere. The Desert Sun. Bob Hope Chrysler Classic celebrity Q&A: Actor Kyle MacLachlan by Leighton Ginn, January 17, 2008. MacLachlan has appeared in several plays, including John Kolvenbach's On an Average Day with Woody Harrelson, on Broadway in The Caretaker with Patrick Stewart, as well as in Romeo and Juliet, and the Shakespearean history Henry V. In recent years, MacLachlan continues to play dark and/or morally ambiguous characters. This included a guest role on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, in which he played a father who shot and killed a sociopathic child who murdered his son. After starring in the short-lived In Justice, MacLachlan has become a regular on Desperate Housewives. His character, the mysterious dentist Orson Hodge, first appeared during the show's second season, with MacLachlan becoming a full-time cast member with the start of season three. On July 7, 2007, MacLachlan was one of the presenters at the London leg of Live Earth. Blog: No Rock And Roll Fun, "Kyle MacLachlan introduces Corinne Bailey Rae", Thursday, July 5, 2007. MacLachlan appeared in the 2008 movie, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2. Personal life MacLachlan was born in Yakima, Washington and is of Scottish descent. He has has two younger brothers named Craig and Kent, both of whom live in the Pacific Northwest. MacLachlan graduated from Eisenhower High School. MacLachlan lives in Manhattan with his wife, Desiree Gruber, and their son, Callum Lyon MacLachlan, born July 25, 2008, in Los Angeles. The couple has two small dogs (a Jack Russell terrier and a Yorkie/Chihuahua mix) and out of "probably too much affection" have created a website about their dogs http://www.mookieandsam.com/ as well as a TV series popular on YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcU_u2EO0L8 A dedicated oenophile, Kyle is partners with vintner Eric Dunham in Pursued By Bear, a winery in Washington's Columbia Valley. The name, suggested over dinner by Steve Martin, comes from a stage direction ("Exit, pursued by a bear") in Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale. http://www.pursuedbybearwine.com Selected filmography {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center" | Year || Title || Role || Director/Series creator || Other notes |- | 1984 || Dune || Paul Atreides || David Lynch || |- | 1986 || Blue Velvet || Jeffrey Beaumont || David Lynch || |- | 1987 || The Hidden || Lloyd Gallagher || Jack Sholder || |- | 1990 || Don't Tell Her It's Me|| Trout || Malcolm Mowbray || |- | 1990 – 1991 || Twin Peaks (TV series) || Special Agent Dale Cooper || David Lynch, Mark Frost || lead |- |rowspan="2"| 1991 || The Doors || Ray Manzarek || Oliver Stone || |- | Tales from the Crypt (TV series) (3.03 Carrion Death) || Earl Raymond Digs || Steven E. de Souza || |- |rowspan="2"| 1992 || Where the Day Takes You || Ted || Marc Rocco || |- | Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me || Special Agent Dale Cooper || David Lynch || |- |rowspan="2"| 1993 || The Trial || Josef K. || David Jones || |- | Rich in Love || Billy McQueen || Bruce Beresford || |- |rowspan="3"| 1994 || The Flintstones || Cliff Vandercave || Brian Levant || |- | Against The Wall (TV) || Michael Smith || John Frankenheimer || |- | Roswell (TV) || Maj. Jesse Marcel || Jeremy Kagan || |- | 1995 || Showgirls || Zack Carey || Paul Verhoeven || |- |rowspan="4"| 1996 || Moonshine Highway (TV) || Jed Muldoon || Andy Armstrong || |- | Windsor Protocol (TV) || Sean Dillon || George Mihalka || |- | The Trigger Effect || Matthew || David Koepp || |- | Mad Dog Time || Jake Parker || Larry Bishop || |- | 1997 || One Night Stand || Vernon || Mike Figgis || |- | 1998 || Thunder Point (TV) || Sean Dillon || George Mihalka || |- |rowspan="4"| 2000 || XChange || Fisk/Toffler 2 || Allan Moyle || |- | The Spring (TV) || Dennis Conway || David Jackson || |- | Hamlet || Claudius || Michael Almereyda || |- | Timecode || Bunny Drysdale || Mike Figgis || |- | 2000 – 2002 || Sex and the City (TV series) || Trey MacDougal || Darren Star || recurring role (seasons 3-5) |- |rowspan="2"| 2001 || Me Without You || Daniel || Sandra Goldbacher || |- | Grand Theft Auto III (video game) || Donald Love || || voice |- | 2002 || Miranda || Nailor || Marc Munden |- | 2003 || Northfork || Mr. Hope || Michael Polish |- |rowspan="3"| 2004 || Touch of Pink || Spirit of Cary Grant || Ian Iqbal Rashid |- | The Librarian: Quest for the Spear (TV) || Edward Wilde || Peter Winther |- | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (TV series) (6.6 Conscience) || Dr. Brett Morton || David Platt || guest appearance |- | 2005 || Mysterious Island (TV) || Cyrus || Russell Mulcahy |- |rowspan="2"| 2006 || In Justice (TV series) || David Swain || Michelle King, Robert King || lead |- | Free Jimmy || Marius || Christopher Nielsen |- | 2006-present || Desperate Housewives (TV series) || Orson Hodge || Marc Cherry || regular (season 2-present) |- | 2007 || Live Earth in London (TV) || Himself || || Appeared as a presenter |- | 2008 || Justice League: The New Frontier || Superman || || (voice) |} References External links Kyle MacLachlan official site Biography from Playbill'' | Kyle_MacLachlan |@lemmatized kyle:7 merritt:1 maclachlan:21 b:1 february:1 golden:2 globe:1 award:2 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7,369 | Eclipse | Totality during the 1999 solar eclipse. Solar prominences can be seen along the limb (in red) as well as extensive coronal filaments. An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another. The term is derived from the ancient Greek noun (), from verb (), "to leave behind," a combination of prefix (), from preposition (), "out," and of verb (), "to leave". When an eclipse occurs within a stellar system, such as the Solar System, it forms a type of syzygy—the alignment of three or more celestial bodies in the same gravitational system along a straight line. The term eclipse is most often used to describe either a solar eclipse, when the Moon's shadow crosses the Earth's surface, or a lunar eclipse, when the Moon moves into the shadow of Earth. However, it can also refer to such events beyond the Earth-Moon system: for example, a planet moving into the shadow cast by one of its moons, a moon passing into the shadow cast by its host planet, or a moon passing into the shadow of another moon. A binary star system can also produce eclipses if the plane of their orbit intersects the position of the observer. Syzygy Umbra, penumbra and antumbra cast by a solid object occulting a larger light source. A syzygy is the alignment of three or more celestial bodies in the same gravitational system along a straight line. The word is usually used in context with the Sun, Earth, and the Moon or a planet, where the latter is in conjunction or opposition. Solar and lunar eclipses occur at times of syzygy, as do transits and occultation there is a syzygy between a star and two celestial bodies, such as a planet and a moon. The shadow cast by the object closest to the star intersects the more distant body, lowering the amount of luminosity reaching the latter's surface. The region of shadow cast by the occulting body is divided into an umbra, where the radiation from the star's radiation-emitting photosphere is completely blocked, and a penumbra, where only a portion of the radiation is blocked. A total eclipse will occur when the observer is located within the umbra of the occulting object. Totality occurs at the point of maximum phase during a total eclipse, when the occulted object is completely covered. When the star and a smaller occulting object are nearly spherical, the umbra forms a cone-shaped region of shadow in space. Beyond the end of the umbra is a region called the antumbra, where a planet or moon will be seen transiting across the star but not completely covering it. For an observer inside the antumbra of a solar eclipse, for example, the Moon appears smaller than the Sun, resulting in an annular eclipse. The remaining volume of shadowed space, where only a fraction of the occulting object overlaps the star, is called the penumbra. An eclipse that does not reach totality, such as when the observer is in the penumbra, is called a partial eclipse. For spherical bodies, when the occluding object is smaller than the star, the length (L) of the Umbra's cone-shaped shadow is given by: where Rs is the radius of the star, Ro is the occulting object's radius, and r is the distance from the star to the occulting object. For Earth, on average L is equal to 1.384 km, which is much larger than the Moon's semimajor axis of 3.844 km. Hence the umbral cone of the Earth can completely envelop the Moon during a lunar eclipse. If the occulting object has an atmosphere, however, some of the luminosity of the star can be refracted into the volume of the umbra. This occurs, for example, during an eclipse of the Moon by the Earth—producing a faint, ruddy illumination of the Moon even at totality. An astronomical transit is also a type of syzygy, but is used to describe the situation where the nearer object is considerably smaller in apparent size than the more distant object. Likewise, an occultation is a syzygy where the apparent size of the nearer object appears much larger than the distant object, and the distant object becomes completely hidden during the event. An eclipse cycle takes place when a series of eclipses are separated by a certain interval of time. This happens when the orbital motions of the bodies form repeating harmonic patterns. A particular instance is the Saros cycle, which results in a repetition of a solar or lunar eclipse every 6,585.3 days, or a little over 18 years. However, because this cycle has an odd number of days, a successive eclipse is viewed from a different part of the world. Earth-Moon System An eclipse involving the Sun, Earth and Moon can occur only when they are nearly in a straight line, allowing the shadow cast by the Sun to fall upon the eclipsed body. Because the orbital plane of the Moon is tilted with respect to the orbital plane of the Earth (the ecliptic), eclipses can occur only when the Moon is close to the intersection of these two planes (the nodes). The Sun, Earth and nodes are aligned twice a year, and eclipses can occur during a period of about two months around these times. There can be from four to seven eclipses in a calendar year, which repeat according to various eclipse cycles, such as the Saros cycle. Solar eclipse The progression of a solar eclipse on August 1, 2008, viewed from Novosibirsk, Russia. The time between shots is 3 minutes. An eclipse of the Sun by the Moon is termed a solar eclipse. The type of solar eclipse event depends on the distance of the Moon from the Earth during the event. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Earth intersects the umbra portion of the Moon's shadow. When the umbra does not reach the surface of the Earth, the Sun is only partially occluded, resulting in an annular eclipse. Partial solar eclipses occur when the viewer is inside the penumbra. The eclipse magnitude is the fraction of the Sun's diameter that is covered by the Moon. For a total eclipse, this value is always greater than or equal to one. In both annular and total eclipses, the eclipse magnitude is the ratio of the angular sizes of the Moon to the Sun. Solar eclipses are relatively brief events that can only be viewed in totality along a relatively narrow track. Under the most favorable circumstances, a total solar eclipse can last for 7 minutes, 31 seconds, and can be viewed along a track that is up to 250 km wide. However, the region where a partial eclipse can be observed is much larger. The Moon's umbra will advance eastward at a rate of 1,700 km/h, until it no longer intersects the Earth. During a solar eclipse, the Moon can sometimes perfectly cover the Sun because its apparent size is nearly the same as the Sun when viewed from the Earth. A solar eclipse is actually a misnomer; the phenomenon is more correctly described as an occultation of the Sun by the Moon or an eclipse of the Earth by the Moon. Lunar eclipse The progression of a lunar eclipse. Totality is shown with the last two images to lower right. These required a longer exposure time to make the details visible. Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes through the Earth's shadow. Since this occurs only when the Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun, lunar eclipses only occur when there is a full moon. Unlike a solar eclipse, an eclipse of the Moon can be observed from nearly an entire hemisphere. For this reason it is much more common to observe a lunar eclipse from a given location. A lunar eclipse also lasts longer, taking several hours to complete, with totality itself usually averaging anywhere from about 30 minutes to over an hour. There are three types of lunar eclipses: penumbral, when the Moon crosses only the Earth's penumbra; partial, when the Moon crosses partially into the Earth's umbra; and total, when the Moon circles entirely within the Earth's umbra. Total lunar eclipses pass through all three phases. Even during a total lunar eclipse, however, the Moon is not completely dark. Sunlight refracted through the Earth's atmosphere intersects the umbra and provides a faint illumination. Much as in a sunset, the atmosphere tends to scatter light with shorter wavelengths, so the illumination of the Moon by refracted light has a red hue. Historical record Records of solar eclipses have been kept since ancient times. Eclipse dates can be used for chronological dating of historical records. A Syrian clay tablet records a solar eclipse which occurred on March 5, 1223 BCE, while Paul Griffin argues that a stone in Ireland records an eclipse on November 30, 3340 BCE. Chinese historical records of solar eclipses date back over 4,000 years and have been used to measure changes in the Earth's rate of spin. A solar eclipse record appears in an oracle bone inscription dating back to the Shang Dynasty, estimated to have taken place on May 26, 1217 BCE. Records of lunar eclipses date back to an even earlier time. Oracle bone and tortoise shell inscriptions record five lunar eclipses that took place during the 14th and 13th centuries BCE. Other planets Gas giants A picture of Jupiter and its moon Io taken by Hubble. The black spot is Io's shadow. Saturn eclipses the Sun as seen from the Cassini–Huygens space probe The gas giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) have many moons and thus frequently display eclipses. The most striking involve Jupiter, which has four large moons and a low axial tilt, making eclipses more frequent as these bodies pass through the shadow of the larger planet. Transits occur with equal frequency. It is common to see the larger moons casting circular shadows upon Jupiter's cloudtops. The eclipses of the Galilean moons by Jupiter became accurately predictable once their orbital elements were known. During the 1670s, it was discovered that these events were occurring about 17 minutes later than expected when Jupiter was on the far side of the Sun. Ole Rømer deduced that the delay was caused by the time needed for light to travel from Jupiter to the Earth. This was used to produce the first estimate of the speed of light. On the other three gas giants, eclipses only occur at certain periods during the planet's orbit, due to their higher inclination between the orbits of the moon and the orbital plane of the planet. The moon Titan, for example, has an orbital plane tilted about 1.6° to Saturn's equatorial plane. But Saturn has an axial tilt of nearly 27°. The orbital plane of Titan only crosses the line of sight to the Sun at two points along Saturn's orbit. As the orbital period of Saturn is 29.7 years, an eclipse is only possible about every 15 years. The timing of the Jovian satellite eclipses was also used to calculate an observer's longitude upon the Earth. By knowing the expected time when an eclipse would be observed at a standard longitude (such as Greenwich), the time difference could be computed by accurately observing the local time of the eclipse. The time difference gives the longitude of the observer because every hour of difference corresponded to 15° around the Earth's equator. This technique was used, for example, by Giovanni D. Cassini in 1679 to re-map France. Mars Phobos transits Sun, as seen by Mars Rover Opportunity On Mars, only partial solar eclipses (transits) are possible, because neither of its moons is large enough, at their respective orbital radii, to cover the Sun's disc as seen from the surface of the planet. Eclipses of the moons by Mars are not only possible, but commonplace, with hundreds occurring each Earth year. There are also rare occasions when Deimos is eclipsed by Phobos. Martian eclipses have been photographed from both the surface of Mars and from orbit. Pluto Pluto, with its proportionately large moon Charon, is also the site of many eclipses. A series of such mutual eclipses occurred between 1985 and 1990. These daily events led to the first accurate measurements of the physical parameters of both objects. Mercury and Venus Eclipses are impossible on Mercury and Venus, which have no moons. However, both have been observed to transit across the face of the Sun. There are on average 13 transits of Mercury each century. Transits of Venus occur in pairs separated by an interval of eight years, but each pair of events happen less than once a century. Eclipsing binaries A binary star system consists of two stars that orbit around their common center of mass. The movements of both stars lie on a common orbital plane in space. When this plane is very closely aligned with the location of an observer, the stars can be seen to pass in front of each other. The result is a type of extrinsic variable star system called an eclipsing binary. The maximum luminosity of an eclipsing binary system is equal to the sum of the luminosity contributions from the individual stars. When one star passes in front of the other, the luminosity of the system is seen to decrease. The luminosity returns to normal once the two stars are no longer in alignment. The first eclipsing binary star system to be discovered was Algol, a star system in the constellation Perseus. Normally this star system has a visual magnitude of 2.1. However, every 2.867 days the magnitude decreases to 3.4 for more than 9 hours. This is caused by the passage of the dimmer member of the pair in front of the brighter star. The concept that an eclipsing body caused these luminosity variations was introduced by John Goodricke in 1783. See also Eclipse cycle Mursili's eclipse Saros cycle Syzygy References External links A Catalogue of Eclipse Cycles Search 5,000 years of eclipses (notice: loads slowly) NASA eclipse home page International Astronomical Union's Working Group on Solar Eclipses Mark's eclipse chasing website Interactive eclipse maps site Dan McGlaun's Total Eclipse web site Why do Hindus believe that the mythological demons Rahu and Ketu cause solar eclipses? May 18, 1920 5:22-5:33 eclipse John Paul II Google KNOL on Eclipses by Prof. Jay Pasachoff Os Eclipses - AsterDomus Planetarium website, portuguese Image galleries Solar and Lunar Eclipse Image Gallery Williams College eclipse collection of images Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site | Eclipse |@lemmatized totality:7 solar:26 eclipse:98 prominence:1 see:9 along:6 limb:1 red:2 well:1 extensive:1 coronal:1 filament:1 astronomical:3 event:9 occur:21 one:4 celestial:4 object:17 move:3 shadow:16 another:2 term:3 derive:1 ancient:2 greek:1 noun:1 verb:2 leave:2 behind:1 combination:1 prefix:1 preposition:1 within:3 stellar:1 system:14 form:3 type:5 syzygy:8 alignment:3 three:5 body:10 gravitational:2 straight:3 line:4 often:1 use:8 describe:3 either:1 moon:48 cross:4 earth:28 surface:5 lunar:16 however:7 also:8 refer:1 beyond:2 example:5 planet:11 cast:7 pass:7 host:1 binary:6 star:23 produce:3 plane:10 orbit:6 intersect:5 position:1 observer:7 umbra:13 penumbra:6 antumbra:3 solid:1 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7,370 | Molecular_mass | Assuming hydrogen and oxygen are standard weights in this image (as opposed to deuterium oxide) the molecular mass should be 18.01528 u. The molecular mass (abbreviated M) of a substance, frequently referred by the older term molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one isotope of carbon-12 Calculate Molecular Weight - Molar Mass Calculator - Chemistry Online Education ). This is distinct from the relative molecular mass of a molecule, which is the ratio of the mass of that molecule to 1/12 of the mass of carbon 12 and is a dimensionless number. Relative molecular mass is abbreviated to Mr. Molecular mass differs from more common measurements of the mass of chemicals, such as molar mass, by taking into account the isotopic composition of a molecule rather than the average isotopic distribution of many molecules. As a result molecular mass is a more precise number than molar mass; however it is more accurate to use molar mass on bulk samples. This means that molar mass is appropriate most of the time except when dealing with single molecules. Definition There are varying interpretations of this definition. Many chemists use molecular mass as a synonym of molar mass, http://www.mrcoulter.com/REG_LECTURES/09formula.pdf differing only in units (see average molecular mass below). A stricter interpretation does not equate the two, as the mass of a single molecule is not the same as the average of an ensemble. Because a mole of molecules may contain a variety of molecular masses due to natural isotopes, the average mass is usually not identical to the mass of any single molecule. The actual numerical difference can be very small when considering small molecules and the molecular mass of the most common isotopomer in which case the error only matters to physicists and a small subset of highly specialized chemists; however it is always more correct, accurate and consistent to use molar mass in any bulk stoichiometric calculations. The size of this error becomes much larger when considering larger molecules or less abundant isotopomers. The molecular mass of a molecule which happens to contain heavier isotopes than the average molecule in the sample can differ from the molar mass by several mass units. Average mass The average molecular mass (sometimes abbreviated as average mass) is another variation on the use of the term molecular mass. The average molecular mass is the abundance weighted mean (average) of the molecular masses in a sample. This is often closer to what is meant when "molecular mass" and "molar mass" are used synonymously and may have derived from shortening of this term. The average molecular mass and the molar mass of a particular substance in a particular sample are in fact numerically identical and may be interconverted by Avogadro's constant. It should be noted, however, that the molar mass is almost always a computed figure derived from the standard atomic weights, whereas the average molecular mass, in fields that need the term, is often a measured figure specific to a sample. Therefore, they often vary since one is theoretical and the other is experimental. Specific samples may vary significantly from the expected isotopic composition due to real deviations from earth's average isotopic abundances. Computation The molecular mass can be calculated as the sum of the individual isotopic masses (as found in a table of isotopes) of all the atoms in any molecule. This is possible because molecules are created by chemical reactions which, unlike nuclear reactions, have very small binding energies compared to the rest mass of the atoms ( 10-9) and therefore create a negligible mass defect. The use of average atomic masses derived from the standard atomic weights found on a standard periodic table will result in an average molecular mass, whereas the use of isotopic masses will result in a molecular mass consistent with the strict interpretation of the definition, i.e. that of a single molecule. However, any given molecule may contain any given combination of isotopes, so there may be multiple molecular masses for each chemical compound. Measurement The molecular mass can also be measured directly using mass spectrometry. In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass, that is, the mass of the molecule containing only the most common isotope of each element. Note that this also differs subtly from the molecular mass in that the choice of isotopes is defined and thus is a single specific molecular mass of the many possible. The masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not found on a typical periodic table. The average molecular mass is often used for larger molecules since molecules with many atoms are unlikely to be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of each element. A theoretical average molecular mass can be calculated using the standard atomic weights found on a typical periodic table, since there is likely to be a statistical distribution of atoms representing the isotopes throughout the molecule. This however may differ from the true average molecular mass of the sample due to natural (or artificial) variations in the isotopic distributions. Unit type variation The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mol (the SI unit for the basis SI quantity amount of substance, having the symbol n) of the substance. This has a numerical value which is the average molecular mass of the molecules in the substance multiplied by Avogadro's constant approximately 6.022*1023. The most common units of molar mass are g/mol because in those units the numerical value equals the average molecular mass in units of u. Conversion factor of average molecular mass to molar mass: molar mass = average molecular mass * ((1/6.022)*10-23g/u)*(6.022*1023/mol) or molar mass in g/mol= average molecular mass in u (Note that these relations are true for theoretical and experimental values, but not between experimental and theoretical values. Molar mass is most often theoretical and average molecular mass is most often experimental) The average atomic mass of natural hydrogen is 1.00794 u and that of natural oxygen is 15.9994 u; therefore, the molecular mass of natural water with formula H2O is (2 × 1.00794 u) + 15.9994 u = 18.01528 u. Therefore, one mole of water has a mass of 18.01528 grams. However, the exact mass of hydrogen-1 (the most common hydrogen isotope) is 1.00783, and the exact mass of oxygen-16 (the most common oxygen isotope) is 15.9949, so the mass of the most common molecule of water is 18.01056 u. The difference of 0.00472 u or 0.03% comes from the fact that natural water contain traces of water molecules containing, oxygen-17, oxygen-18 or hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms. Although this difference is trivial in bulk chemistry calculations, it can result in complete failure in situations where the behavior of individual molecules matters, such as in mass spectrometry and particle physics (where the mixture of isotopes does not act as an average). There are also situations where the isotopic distributions are not typical such as with heavy water used in some nuclear reactors which is artificially enriched with Deuterium. In these cases the computed values of molar mass and average molecular mass, which are ultimately derived from the standard atomic weights, will not be the same as the actual molar mass or average molecular mass of the sample. In this case the mass of deuterium is 2.0136 u and the average molecular mass of this water (assuming 100% deuterium enrichment) is (2 × 2.0136 u) + 15.9994 u = 20.0266 u. This is a very large difference of ~11% error from the expected average molecular mass based on the standard atomic weights. Furthermore the most abundant molecular mass is actually slightly less than the average molecular mass since oxygen-16 is still the most common. (2 × 2.0136 u) + 15.9949 u = 20.0221 u. Although this is an extreme artificial example, natural variation in isotopic distributions do occur and are measurable. For example, the atomic weight of lithium as found by isotopic analysis of 39 lithium reagents from several manufacturers varied from 6.939 to 6.996 http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/ancham/1997/69/i19/abs/ac9704669.html See also Avogadro's number Atomic mass unit Absolute molar mass Monoisotopic mass gram-molecular weight References External links Learning by Simulations Calculation of Molecular Formulas from Molecular Masses Molecular Mass Calculator An online molecular mass calculator Free online calculations for mol weight and elemental composition using ChemAxon's Marvin and Calculator Plugins - requires Java Molecular Mass Calculator Online Molecular Mass and Elemental Composition Calculator Calculate a molecular formula:ChemCalc Online calculation of Molecular Mass with isotopic distribution | Molecular_mass |@lemmatized assume:2 hydrogen:5 oxygen:7 standard:7 weight:12 image:1 oppose:1 deuterium:5 oxide:1 molecular:54 mass:102 u:19 abbreviated:1 substance:7 frequently:1 refer:1 old:1 term:4 abbreviate:3 mw:1 one:4 molecule:26 relative:3 unified:1 atomic:10 unit:9 equal:2 isotope:12 carbon:2 calculate:4 molar:20 calculator:6 chemistry:2 online:5 education:1 distinct:1 ratio:1 dimensionless:1 number:3 mr:1 differs:1 common:8 measurement:2 chemical:3 take:1 account:1 isotopic:12 composition:4 rather:1 average:31 distribution:6 many:4 result:4 precise:1 however:6 accurate:2 use:13 bulk:3 sample:8 mean:3 appropriate:1 time:1 except:1 deal:1 single:5 definition:3 vary:4 interpretation:3 chemist:2 synonym:1 http:2 www:1 mrcoulter:1 com:1 pdf:1 differ:4 see:2 stricter:1 equate:1 two:1 ensemble:1 mole:2 may:7 contain:6 variety:1 due:3 natural:7 usually:2 identical:2 actual:2 numerical:3 difference:4 small:5 consider:2 isotopomer:1 case:3 error:3 matter:2 physicist:1 subset:1 highly:1 specialized:1 always:2 correct:1 consistent:2 stoichiometric:1 calculation:5 size:1 become:1 much:1 large:4 less:2 abundant:3 isotopomers:1 happen:1 heavy:2 several:2 sometimes:1 another:1 variation:4 abundance:2 often:6 closer:1 synonymously:1 derive:4 shorten:1 particular:2 fact:2 numerically:1 interconverted:1 avogadro:3 constant:2 note:3 almost:1 computed:2 figure:2 whereas:2 field:1 need:1 measured:1 specific:3 therefore:4 since:4 theoretical:5 experimental:4 significantly:1 expect:2 real:1 deviation:1 earth:1 computation:1 sum:1 individual:2 find:6 table:5 atom:5 possible:2 create:2 reaction:2 unlike:1 nuclear:2 binding:1 energy:1 compare:1 rest:1 negligible:1 defect:1 periodic:3 strict:1 e:1 give:2 combination:1 multiple:1 compound:1 also:4 measure:1 directly:1 spectrometry:3 report:1 monoisotopic:3 element:2 subtly:1 choice:1 define:1 thus:1 compute:1 typical:3 unlikely:1 compose:1 exclusively:1 likely:1 statistical:1 represent:1 throughout:1 true:2 artificial:2 type:1 mol:5 si:2 basis:1 quantity:1 amount:1 symbol:1 n:1 value:5 multiply:1 approximately:1 g:2 conversion:1 factor:1 relation:1 water:7 formula:3 gram:2 exact:2 come:1 trace:1 although:2 trivial:1 complete:1 failure:1 situation:2 behavior:1 particle:1 physic:1 mixture:1 act:1 reactor:1 artificially:1 enrich:1 ultimately:1 enrichment:1 base:1 furthermore:1 actually:1 slightly:1 still:1 extreme:1 example:2 occur:1 measurable:1 lithium:2 analysis:1 reagent:1 manufacturer:1 pub:1 ac:1 org:1 cgi:2 bin:1 abstract:1 ancham:1 abs:1 html:1 absolute:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 learn:1 simulation:1 free:1 elemental:2 chemaxon:1 marvin:1 plugins:1 require:1 java:1 chemcalc:1 |@bigram deuterium_oxide:1 isotopic_composition:2 http_www:1 avogadro_constant:2 isotopic_abundance:1 periodic_table:3 mass_spectrometry:3 nuclear_reactor:1 org_cgi:1 cgi_bin:1 external_link:1 |
7,371 | Wikipedia:Redirect | A redirect is a Wikipedia page starting with: #REDIRECT [[Article]] where Article is the target page. A redirect is not an article, but it sends the reader to an article, usually from an alternative title. For example, if you type "UK" in the search box, or if you make a wikilink: , you will be taken to the article United Kingdom, with a note at the top of the page: "(Redirected from UK)". The article contains no content other than the one line of code shown above, as you can see here. How to make a redirect (redirect command) To redirect page A (the redirecting page) to a different page B (the target page), enter the following redirecting command at the top of the redirecting page. #REDIRECT [[NAME OF PAGE B]] For example, to redirect the [ Cambridge University] page (redirecting page) to the University of Cambridge page (target page), [ edit] the Cambridge University page and enter: #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]] In addition to checking your spelling, make sure you capitalize the article name exactly like the main article is capitalized. Alternative capitalizations sometimes cause halts in redirects. You can and should also give a reason for a redirect: #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]{{R from alternative name}} See below for an incomplete list of possible reasons. Redirects to page sections You can also redirect to page sections within an article. See Meta:Help:Redirect#A redirect to an anchor: #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge#History]]{{R from alternative name}}{{R to section}} Consider that when the target page is displayed, it is likely that the top of the page will not be shown, so the user may not see the helpful "(redirected from... )" text unless they know to scroll back to the top. This is less likely to cause confusion if the redirect is to a heading with the same name as the redirect; see for example "Argument from contingency". One option for documenting a redirect to a section heading is to leave a comment using <!-- ... ---> to remind others that the title is linked, so that if the title is altered, the redirect can be changed. For example: ==Evolutionary implications== <!-- This section is linked from redirect "[[Richard Dawkins]]" --> A redirect to a non-existent section – perhaps due to a misspelling or name change – will simply lead to the top of the target article. A more resilient approach is to insert an inside the heading, copying the heading's current title as a parameter to the template; then, even if the heading is renamed, its original anchor is preserved and the existing anchor links will still work. will take multiple parameters, so several names and variations can be accommodated. Documenting terms expected in the subsection without confusing the readers is encouraged. The above example becomes: ==Evolutionary implications {{Anchor|Evolutionary implications}}== This method however has an unwanted side effect: the {{Anchor|parameters}} will appear in section edit summaries: /* Some section title {{Anchor|parameters}} */ the user summary The following markup avoids this side effect: ==Evolutionary implications == {{Anchor|Evolutionary implications}} or this real example, which does have a convenient nearby section title: ==Table of AWG wire sizes== {{Anchor|Table of AWG wire sizes}} <!-- redirect target and direct link from other articles --> will also work in the body text of a long section where one might not want a section or sub-section title, such as above a table referenced by another article. Undesirable redirects Double redirects A double redirect is a title that redirects to another redirect. Double redirects are usually created after a move when old redirects are left unchanged and pointing toward an old name. This is one reason good editors check links and observe if the link traversed was a redirect or direct path. Avoid making double redirects (a redirect that points to another redirect); they do not work (to prevent endless looping, a redirect will not "pass through" more than one entry). If you move or rename a page, it is best to click on "What links here" to see if any redirects exist, and to change them to redirect straight to the new title. Self-redirect A self-redirect is a title that redirects straight to the page on which the link is found. This may occur if a redirect is created from a red link on the page, or if the title once was an article of its own but was merged. This is particularly common in a series of new inter-related topics moving together from the stub stage. Many editors despise red links, even temporarily in new topics. The team working the articles may well intend to expand such redirects to full articles, so the cyclical links are place holders; in such cases, checking the page histories should make it clear whether to make a corrective edit. An exception is a redirect to a section within the article, especially in a long article that cannot be viewed all at once on an average-sized computer screen. Essentially, this is comparable to a "see above" or "see below," accomplished by wikilinking [[#Heading]] (no article name, just the heading name prefixed by #). Nonfunctional redirects Redirects to other Wikimedia projects, other websites, or special pages do not work. These should be avoided or replaced with a soft redirect template. Shortcuts within article space While redirects to project pages or sections thereof for the purpose of creating a shortcut are accepted, the same is not usually desired for mainspace articles, though exceptions exist. Redirects from well-recognized abbreviations and acronyms to an article's title are acceptable (for example, UCLA redirects to University of California, Los Angeles). When creating such a redirect, try to learn about other titles that might use that same abbreviation. It may be more appropriate for the abbreviation or acronym to serve as a disambiguation page, or else the template {{redirect|abbreviation}} shall be placed at the top of the page for which that abbreviation is most recognized, pointing to a disambiguation page for all other uses of the abbreviation. Abusive redirects Redirect vandalism Vandals may abuse redirects. Usually, the vandals attempt to shock readers by redirecting them to pages with offensive content. They may also redirect random pages to other random pages to confuse readers. Promotional redirects Spammers may redirect random pages to their spam page to promote their product. Attack redirects Others are meant to attack people or promote propaganda by creating false, negative, or abusive redirects to articles. Creating new redirects You can create a new page in order to make a redirect. Alternatively, if you are unable to create a new page (as an anonymous user, for example), you can make a request at Articles for Creation. Only the redirect line will be displayed when you save the page. To go back and edit your redirect after it is working, add ?redirect=no to the end of the URL for your redirect: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University?redirect=no If you wish to add a reason, select one of the tags from the Tag column below and add it on the same line as #REDIRECT [[Wherever]], enclosed in double braces. For example, on the redirect page University of cambridge, #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]{{R from other capitalisation}} That will also add the redirect to the category listed in the Category column below. Redirects take effect immediately after saving a page. You may need to clear your cache to see these changes. Suppressing redirects When a page is moved, a redirect is automatically left behind. Administrators have the ability to suppress the redirect, i.e., to prevent it being created, by unchecking the box labelled "Leave a redirect behind." This is useful to save time when performing moves for which a redirect is inappropriate, such as reverting page move vandalism. However, in general, unless there is a good reason (such as vandalism or userfying recently created malplaced items) to suppress the redirect, it is best to leave it behind, as a useful entry in the history. This leaves a trail to help readers find the old article, in case a new article is created at its previous location. Redirect or rename? If there is an article named, say, University of Oxford, and you discover that the title "Oxford University", although a reasonable alternative designation and search term for the same university, is still a red link, you can create a page with that title as a new redirect page, redirecting to the page University of Oxford. An alternative is instead to rename the University of Oxford page to "Oxford University". This is also called a "page move"; see Help:Moving a page for more detail. The old page becomes a redirect to the new page. The following table summarizes this schematically, using arrows to indicate who redirects to whom: {| | Old situation: || || Oxford University || || University of Oxford |- | New redirect: || || Oxford University || → || University of Oxford |- | Rename/move: || || Oxford University || ← || University of Oxford |} To choose between two such possibilities, the main consideration should be that the preferred title of an article is the most common name for the topic of the article as would normally be used in articles written in English. So we prefer "Italy" over "Italia", and "Pope" over "Pope of Rome". However, it is often better to have an article at a well-defined, unambiguous term, with redirects from looser colloquial terms, rather than vice versa. There are many declarations of independence, but there is only one United States Declaration of Independence. For more on this, see Wikipedia:Naming conventions. Categories for redirect pages See Wikipedia:Categorizing redirects for situations where categorizing a redirect might be helpful. Redirects should not normally contain categories that would fit on the target page because it can result in duplicate listings of the same page within a category. Relevant categories should be moved to the main page where the redirect is pointing. In some cases, however, adding categories to a redirect page allows legitimate alternative titles or names to be found in category lists. Redirect pages within categories will appear in italics. Navigating redirects When a redirected page is linked to normally, the user is taken to a page that is neither the original page nor the page to which it is redirected. Instead, the user is taken to a page that has the content of the destination page with a clickable mention of the redirect at the top, and the URL of the original page. To go to the original page, one can click on the aforementioned link, or append the string &redirect=no to the end of the URL. To go to the actual article, rather than simply viewing the mirror version, click on the "article" or "project page" tab at the top of the page. For instance, clicking on the phrase "clickable mention" above will take you to the "embedded link" page, which is redirected to the "hyperlink" page. Towards the top of the page is the phrase "Redirected from Embedded link", with the words "Embedded link" in blue. Clicking on these words will take you to the actual Embedded link page. Directly above the article title "Hyperlink" at the top of the page is the word "article" in blue. Clicking on this word will take you to the actual Hyperlink page. What do we use redirects for? Compare the more complete template list in the guideline sub-page: Wikipedia:Template_messages/Redirect_pages and the notations in the corresponding category. The templates in the following lists are used to classify redirect pages, depending on the reason for the redirect. Use as many of these templates to tag the redirect as are applicable. Some redirects will have both alternative spellings, alternative capitalisations, and perhaps be a redirection to a list article entry or section. In the final analysis, all these templates do is establish a categorization of the redirect page, and like articles, more than one category can – and frequently should – apply. Spellings, misspellings, tenses and capitalisations ReasonUsage notes, and text that will be shown on Previewing the page when applied.Tag / Category to find articles so taggedAbbreviationsDSM-IV redirects to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders:Category:Redirects from abbreviationShortcutsWP:A redirects to Wikipedia:Attribution:Category:Redirects from shortcutMisspellingsCondoleeza Rice redirects to Condoleezza Rice:Category:Redirects from misspellingsOther spellings, other punctuationcolour redirects to color Al-Jazeera redirects to Al Jazeera:Category:Redirects from alternative spellingsPluralsgreenhouse gases redirects to greenhouse gas, etc. Note that [[greenhouse gas]]es shows up as greenhouse gases, so it is not usually necessary to redirect regular plurals. However third-party websites started adding automatic links to Wikipedia from their topics. Many of them follow the opposite naming convention, i.e., topics are named in plural, and the link to Wikipedia may land into an empty page, if there is no redirect. or :Category:Redirects from pluralsRelated wordsSymbiont redirects to Symbiosis:Category:Redirects from related wordsOther capitalisations, to ensure that "Go" to a mixed-capitalisation article title is case-insensitiveAdding a redirect for mixed-capitalisation article titles (e.g., Isle of Wight) allows going to these articles to be case-insensitive. For example, without the redirect Isle of wight going to "Isle Of wight" or any capitalisation other than exactly 'Isle of Wight' would not find the article Isle of Wight. Why: Articles whose titles contain mixed-capitalisation words (not all initial caps, or not all lower case except the first word) are found only via an exact case match. (Articles, including redirects, whose titles are either all initial caps or only first word capitalised are found via "Go" using a case-insensitive match.) Note: Related redirects are needed only if the article title has two or more words and words following the first have different capitalisations. They are not needed, for example, for proper names which are all initial caps. Examples: Natural Selection redirects to Natural selection Redirect Vice chancellor of austria to Vice-Chancellor of Austria is needed because the Go search is case-sensitive for mixed-caps titles. Adding this redirect allows the article to be found when a user enters "vice chancellor of austria" or "vice chancellor of Austria" as a Go search. No redirect to Francis Ford Coppola is needed because the "Go" command is case-insensitive for an article whose title is all initial caps. Any capitalisation (e.g. "francis fOrD CoPPola") entered as a "Go" will find the article.:Category:Redirects from other capitalisations Sub-topics and small topics in broader contexts ReasonUsage notes, and text that will be shown on Previewing the page when applied.Tag / Category to find articles so taggedToo short for own articleList entry or Section:Category:Redirects to list entries When List is more section-like in organization, such as list of fictional characters in a fictional universe. Sub-topics or closely related topics that should be explained within the textDistributed denial of service redirects to Denial of service:Category:Redirects with possibilitiesPeople known solely in the context of one eventA redirect from the person's name to the article on the event. For example: Joe Steele redirects to Glasgow Ice Cream Wars Skylar Deleon redirects to Murder of Thomas and Jackie HawksPeople who are members of a group, organization, ensemble or teamEric Dill redirects to The Click Five:Category:Redirects from membersTo redirect to decade article1003 BC redirects to 1009–1000 BC:Category:Redirects to decade Alternative names and languages ReasonUsage notes, and text that will be shown on Previewing the page when applied.Tag / Category to find articles so taggedFull names such asMunicipality, State forms or Village, City forms to briefer name form.Other names with a comma separating (delimiting) another larger geopolitical entity, normally a state such as "Notodden, Norway" giving a search capability by the full name. (And somewhat uncluttering .):Category:Redirects from alternative but more complete namesFull namespersons, things, topics and such alternative forms of names redirected to briefer article page names.:Category:Redirects from full namesOther names,Alternative namesgeneral pseudonyms, nicknames, and synonyms that are not historic names or a full name as above.Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone redirects to Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone Wellie throwing redirects to Wellie wanging Cassinoide redirects to Cassini oval Butcher of Kurdistan redirects to Ali Hassan al-Majid Rev. Fred Phelps redirects to Fred Phelps Linear operator redirects to Linear map or :Category:Redirects from alternative namesOther names with Historic significance, where subsumed into a modern entity or region.Note that in some cases, the entity can have articles under several names, each discussing the period of the entity's history when it had a particular name; see for example Byzantium, Istanbul and Constantinople. Depending upon the age and historic detail known about a principality, many of these might also be tagged with Scientific names (from such to briefer)Heosemys depressa redirects to Arakan Forest Turtle Deuterium oxide redirects to Heavy water 1P/Halley redirects to Comet Halley:Category:Redirects from scientific namesScientific names(commonplace name to more formal, specific article name)This is a redirect from the common name to the scientific name. See also Template:R from scientific name European shore crab redirects to Carcinus maenas Baking soda redirects to Sodium bicarbonate Alnitak redirects to Zeta Orionis:Category:Redirects to scientific namesOther languagesThe Abduction from the Seraglio redirects to Die Entführung aus dem Serail Brown seaweed redirects to Wakame Argumentum ad ignorantiam redirects to argument from ignorance As-Sulta Al-Wataniyya Al-Filastiniyya redirects to Palestinian National Authority:Category:Redirects from alternative languagesNon-ASCII CharactersUlla Toernaes redirects to Ulla Tørnæs:Category:Redirects from titles with ASCIIDiacritical marksKurt Goedel and Kurt Godel redirect to Kurt Gödel:Category:Redirects from title without diacriticsUnambiguous surnameObama redirects to Barack Obama:Category:Redirects from surnames Miscellaneous and administrative redirects ReasonUsage notes, and text that will be shown on Previewing the page when applied.Tag / Category to find articles so taggedFacilitate disambiguationAmerica (disambiguation) redirects to America:Category:Redirects to disambiguation pagesTo redirect from a shortcutWP:CAT redirects to Wikipedia:Categorization:Category:Redirects from shortcutOldstyle CamelCase linksAnnaKournikova redirects to Anna Kournikova:Category:Redirects with old historylinks auto-generated from EXIF informationAdobe Photoshop CS Windows redirects to Adobe Photoshop:Category:Redirects from EXIF informationFrom school stub to merge locationCuller Middle School redirects to Lincoln Public Schools:Category: Redirects from school articles Avoiding broken links on merges Redirects can be used to avoid breaking of links on article merges. We try to avoid broken links because they are annoying to our readers. Therefore, if you change the layout of some section of Wikipedia, or merge two duplicate articles, always leave redirects in the old location to point to the new location. Search engines and visitors will probably have linked to that page at that url. If the page is deleted, potential new visitors from search engines will be greeted with an edit window. The same is true for anyone who previously bookmarked that page, and so on. ReasonText that will be shown on Previewing the page when applied.Tag / Category to find articles so taggedMergesZip of death redirects to Zip bomb online and offline redirect to on-line and off-line:Category:Redirects from mergesDuplicated articlesGreen Slime redirects to The Green Slime:Category:Redirects from duplicated articles When should we delete a redirect? To delete a redirect without replacing it with a new article, list it on redirects for discussion. See deletion policy for details on how to nominate pages for deletion. Listing is not necessary if you just want to replace a redirect with an article, or change where it points: see these instructions for help doing this. If you want to swap a redirect and an article, but are not able to move the article to the location of the redirect please use Wikipedia:Requested moves to request help from an admin in doing that. What needs to be done on pages that are targets of redirects? We follow the "principle of least astonishment" — after following a redirect, the reader's first question is likely to be: "hang on ... I wanted to read about this. Why has the link taken me to that?". Make it clear to the reader that they have arrived in the right place. Normally, we try to make sure that all "inbound redirects" other than mis-spellings or other obvious close variants of the article title are mentioned in the first couple of paragraphs of the article or section to which the redirect goes. It will often be appropriate to bold the redirected term. For example: James Tiptree, Jr. (August 24, 1915 – May 19, 1987) was the pen name of American science fiction author Alice Bradley Sheldon ... James Tiptree, Jr., redirect from Alice Sheldon Water (H2O, HOH) is the most abundant molecule ... Water (molecule), redirect from H2O, NB not bolded If there is an ambiguity associated with a redirect, one of the redirect disambiguation templates may be useful. Do not cause a secondary redirect. They do not work like a primary redirect; same with tertiary redirects. Self-links, duplicate links Avoid self-links, including self-links through redirects ("loop links"). Also, avoid having two links that go to the same place. These can confuse readers, and cause them to unnecessarily load the same page twice. Do not "fix" links to redirects that are not broken There is nothing inherently wrong with linking to redirects. 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7,372 | Building_society | A building society is a financial institution, owned by its members, that offers banking and other financial services, especially mortgage lending. The term building society first arose in the 19th century, in the United Kingdom, from co-operative savings groups. In the UK today building societies actively compete with banks for most personal banking services, especially mortgage lending and deposit accounts. At the start of 2008, there were 59 building societies in the UK (listed below) with total assets exceeding £360 billion Building Societies Association . Every building society in the UK is a member of the Building Societies Association. The number of societies in the UK fell by four during 2008 due to a series of mergers brought about, to a large extent, by the consequences of the financial crisis of 2007-2009, and further mergers are planned for the first few months of 2009. History The original Building Society was formed in Birmingham in 1774. Most of the original societies were fully terminating, where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them was wound up in 1980. In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the Permanent Building Society, where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases, such as Leek United Building Society. The main legislative framework for the Building Society was the Building Society Act of 1874, with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see Coney Hall), and 1960. In their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town. Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process, and other societies opted for demutualisation followed by - in the great majority of cases - eventual takeover by a listed bank. Most of the existing larger building societies are the end result of the mergers of many smaller societies. 1980s and 1990s In the 1980s, British banking laws were changed to allow building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal banks. The management of a number of societies still felt that they were unable to compete with the banks, and a new Building Society Act was passed in 1986 in response to their concerns. This permitted societies to 'demutualise'. If more than 75% of members voted in favour, the building society would then become a limited company like any other. Members' mutual rights were exchanged for shares in this new company. A number of the larger societies made such proposals to their members and all were accepted. Some became independent companies quoted on the London Stock Exchange, others were acquired by larger financial groups. A movement arose whereby investors would open a savings account with a mutual building society, thereby getting voting rights in the society, and pressurise for a vote on demutualisation, with the intent of getting a windfall payment as a result. A number of societies' members and managers were very unhappy about such investors, who were termed carpetbaggers, maintaining that as mutual societies, they could supply better and cheaper home loans than the banks and demutualised societies, as they only had to make a profit to cover their operational costs, and had no need to generate an additional profit to return to shareholders. In the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the remaining societies modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s. The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation. With the chance of a quick profit removed, the wave of demutualisations came to an end in 2000. One academic study (Heffernan, 2003) found that demutualised societies' pricing behaviour on deposits and mortgages was more favourable to shareholders than to customers, with the remaining mutual building societies offering consistently better rates. Deposits with building societies of up to £50,000 per individual, per institution, are normally protected by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS), but Nationwide and Yorkshire Building Societies negotiated a temporary change to the terms of the FSCS to protect members of the societies they are acquiring in late 2008/early 2009. The amended terms allow former members of multiple societies which merge into one to maintain multiple entitlements to FSCS protection until 30 September 2009, so (for example) a member with £50,000 in each of Nationwide, Cheshire and Derbyshire would retain £150,000 of FSCS protection for their funds in the merged Nationwide. http://www.moneymadeclear.fsa.gov.uk/news/product/bs_merger_compensation.html List of building societies in the United Kingdom The remaining building societies are: (Total group assets of building societies) Source: Building Societies Association updated for subsequent mergers and the administration of Dunfermline Building Society Building societies Name Group Assets -latest published figure at March 2009 Building Societies ranked by asset size Building Societies Association (Retrieved 28 March 2009) Notes 1 Nationwide Building Society incorporating Derbyshire Building Society and Cheshire Building Society £202,361m (Ending 4th April 2009) Merged with Cheshire and Derbyshire building societies in December 2008. BSA welcomes mergers (Retrieved 8 September 2008) 2 Britannia Building Society £36,827m Proposed merger with Co-operative Financial Services. Britannia and Co-operative Financial Services unveil plans for super-mutual (Retrieved 22 January 2009) 3 Yorkshire Building Society incorporating Barnsley Building Society £20,498m(+£376m) Merged with Barnsley Building Society on 31 December 2008. http://www.barnsley-bs.co.uk/mergerstatement.htm 4 Coventry Building Society* £14,909m 5 Chelsea Building Society incorporatingCatholic Building Society £13,087m(+£44m) Merged with Catholic Building Society on 31 December 2008. Catholic Building Society members approve the merger with Chelsea Building Society (Retrieved 29 November 2008) 6 Skipton Building Society £12,531m Merged with Scarborough Building Society on 30 March 2009. Merger of Skipton Building Society and Scarborough Building Society (retrieved 29 November 2008) 7 West Bromwich Building Society £9,602m 8 Leeds Building Society £9,181m 9 Principality Building Society £5,853m 10 Newcastle Building Society £4,816m 11 Norwich & Peterborough Building Society £4,308m 12 Stroud & Swindon Building Society £3,172m 13 Nottingham Building Society £3,026m 14 Kent Reliance Building Society £2,340m 15 Progressive Building Society* £1,495m 16 Cumberland Building Society £1,474m 17 National Counties Building Society £1,177m 18 Furness Building Society £845m 19 Cambridge Building Society £844m 20 Leek United Building Society £800m 21 Manchester Building Society £792m 22 Saffron Building Society £784m 23 Hinckley & Rugby Building Society £700m 24 Darlington Building Society £689m 25 Newbury Building Society £656m 26 Monmouthshire Building Society £607m 27 Melton Mowbray Building Society* £439m 28 Ipswich Building Society* £423m 29 Market Harborough Building Society £419m 30 Hanley Economic Building Society £363m 31 Marsden Building Society £356m 32 Tipton & Coseley Building Society* £350m 33 Dudley Building Society £288m 34 Mansfield Building Society* £286m 35 Loughborough Building Society* £277m 36 Teachers Building Society £271m 37 Scottish Building Society £259m 38 Chesham Building Society* £257m 39 Vernon Building Society £246m 40 Bath Investment & Building Society £190m 41 Chorley & District Building Society* £176m 42 Stafford Railway Building Society* £159m 43 Harpenden Building Society* £158m 44 Holmesdale Building Society* £152m 45 Beverley Building Society* £145m 46 Buckinghamshire Building Society* £139m 47 Swansea Building Society £120m 48 Earl Shilton Building Society* £96m 49 Shepshed Building Society £86m 50 Penrith Building Society* £78m 51 Ecology Building Society* £75m 52 City of Derry Building Society* £36m 53 Century Building Society* £22m * These societies do not form part of a corporate business group, although they may own other businesses. List of building societies in the United Kingdom that have demutualised Ten building societies of the United Kingdom demutualised between 1989 and 2000, either becoming a bank or being acquired by a larger bank. Building Society Takeovers and Flotations Building Societies Association website (Retrieved 5 April 2007) By 2008, every building society that floated on the stock market in the wave of demutualisations of the 1980s and 1990s has either been sold to a conventional bank, or been nationalised. Building SocietyDetailsCurrent positionYear Abbey National Converted to plc Now known as "Abbey", a subsidiary of Banco Santander 1989 Cheltenham and Gloucester takeover by Lloyds Bank Now part of Lloyds TSB although C&G still have a branch network. 1994 National & Provincial Building Society takeover by Abbey National Business merged into Abbey National, name no longer used 1995 Alliance & Leicester Converted to plc Acquired by Banco Santander, which also owns Abbey, in October 2008 1997 Bristol and West takeover by the Bank of Ireland Remains a division of Bank of Ireland but its savings balances and branch network were transferred to the Britannia Building Society in 2005 1997 Halifax Converted to plc Became part of HBOS in 2001, which itself became part of Lloyds Banking Group in 2009. Trading name still in use. 1997 Northern Rock Converted to plc Nationalised in February 2008 following near bankruptcy due to the Subprime mortgage crisis 1997 The Woolwich Converted to plc Now part of Barclays plc. Woolwich brand name now only used for mortgages from Barclays with the Woolwich branch network merging with that of Barclays in 2007 1997 Birmingham Midshires takeover by the Halifax Now owned by Lloyds Banking Group 1999 Bradford & Bingley Converted to plc Nationalisation with sale of savings book to Santander-owned Abbey announced 29 September 2008 2000 List of building societies in the United Kingdom that no longer exist The following is an incomplete list of building societies in the United Kingdom that no longer exist, since they either merged with or were taken over by other building societies Building Society Mergers and Conversions since 1980 Building Societies Association website (Retrieved 5 April 2007) . Name Fate Successor Year Abbey Road Building Society and National Building Society merged to form the Abbey National Building Society in 1944 Bingley Permanent Building Society and Bradford Equitable Building Society merged to form the Bradford & Bingley Building Society in 1964Co-operative Permanent Building Society changed its name to Nationwide Building Society in 1970Bedfordshire Building Society and Temperance Permanent merged to form Gateway Building Society in 1974 http://www.bsa.org.uk/docs/consumerpdfs/yearbooknamechangepart1.pdf retrieved 2008-07-12. The Temperance Permanent was so-called because the directors were required to sign the pledge, a requirement which was dropped with the merger and name-change — to the reported dismay of some members. [The Times, Friday, Apr 25, 1975; pg. 4; Issue 59379; col E, 'Temperance abandoned by building society'. Retrieved from InfoTrac on July 17, 2008]. Leek & Westbourne Building Society and Oldbury Britannia Building Society merged to form Britannia Building Society in 1975Huddersfield & Bradford Building Society and West Yorkshire Building Society merged to form Yorkshire Building Society in 1982Coventry Economic Building Society and Coventry Provident Building Society merged to form the Coventry Building Society in 1983Burnley Building Society and Provincial Building Society merged to form the National & Provincial Building Society in 1984 Alliance Building Society and Leicester Building Society merged to form the Alliance & Leicester Building Society in 1985Birmingham & Bridgwater Building Society and Midshires Building Society merged to form the Birmingham Midshires Building Society in 1986 Anglia Building Society and Nationwide Building Society merged to form which reverted to the Nationwide Anglia Building Society Nationwide Building Society in 1987 in 1991Gateway Building Society and Woolwich Equitable Building Society merged to form the Woolwich Building Society in 1988Wessex Building Society and Portman Building Society merged to form the Portman Wessex Building Society in 1989Regency & West of England Building Society and Portman Wessex Building Society merged to form Portman Building Society in 1990 Hendon Building Society was taken over by Bradford & Bingley Building Society in 1991Cheshunt Building Society merged with the Bristol and West Building Society in 1992Heart of England Building Society merged with the Cheltenham & Gloucester Building Society in 1993St. Pancras Building Society merged with the Portman Building Society in 1993 Leeds Permanent Building Society merged with the Halifax Building Society in 1995 Staffordshire Building Society merged with the Portman Building Society in 2003Lambeth Building Society merged with the Portman Building Society in 2006 Mercantile Building Society merged with the Leeds Building Society in 2006 Universal Building Society merged with the Newcastle Building Society in 2006 Portman Building Society merged with the Nationwide Building Society in 2007Cheshire Building Society merged with the Nationwide Building Society in 2008Derbyshire Building Society merged with the Nationwide Building Society in 2008Barnsley Building Society merged with the Yorkshire Building Society in 2008Catholic Building Society merged with the Chelsea Building Society in 2008Scarborough Building Society merged with the Skipton Building Society in 2009Dunfermline Building Society went into administration and the majority of assets and liabilities transferred to Nationwide Building Society in 2009 Other countries Australia: In Australia, building societies evolved along British lines. Because of strict regulations on banks, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the 1980s. Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as St. George) officially attained the status of banks. Austria: In Austria there are four building societies: Allgemeine Bausparkasse (ABV), Raiffeisen-Bausparkasse, Bausparkasse Wüstenrot AG and Bausparkasse der Sparkassen (savings bank). Finland: In Finland the Mortgage Society of Finland, a permanent building society, was founded in 1860. Since 2002 mortgage loans are handled by Suomen AsuntoHypoPankki, the licensed bank owned by the society. Germany: In Germany there are 11 Bausparkassen der Sparkassen (savings bank) named Landesbausparkassen (LBS) and 15 Bausparkassen of the private banks, for example Schwäbisch Hall, Wüstenrot, Deutsche Bank Bauspar AG etc. Ireland: In Ireland, the three building societies are as follows; EBS Building Society, ICS Building Society, and Irish Nationwide Building Society Jamaica: In Jamaica, four building societies compete with commercial banks and credits unions for most consumer financial services. United States: In the United States, savings and loan associations have a similar organisation and purpose. New Zealand: In New Zealand, a number of building societies have been established. However the New Zealand finance company crash of 2006-2008 and the flow on from the credit crisis have lead to the consolidation, collapse and restructuring of many, notably Southland Building Society who moved in October 2008 to become a registered bank. Operational differences from banks Roll numbers Because most building societies were not direct members of the UK clearing system, it was common for them to use a roll number to identify accounts rather than to allocate a six-digit sort-code and eight-digit account number to the BACS standards. More recently, building societies have tended to obtain sort-code and account number allocations within the clearing system, and hence the use of roll numbers has diminished. Nationwide is the most notable society to have discontinued the use of roll numbers completely. Sort code and account number replaces roll number When using BACS, roll numbers are entered into the Reference field whilst the building society's generic sort-code and account number would be entered in the standard BACS fields. Roll Number at Experian References See also Cooperative banking Mutual organisation Mutualism Demutualisation Banking in the United Kingdom External links Building Societies Association The History of Building Societies from the Building Societies Association website. | Building_society |@lemmatized building:152 society:223 financial:9 institution:2 member:14 offer:3 banking:8 service:7 especially:2 mortgage:7 lending:2 term:4 first:3 arise:2 century:2 united:11 kingdom:7 co:4 operative:4 saving:7 group:7 uk:8 today:1 build:49 actively:1 compete:3 bank:21 personal:1 deposit:3 account:7 start:1 list:5 total:2 asset:5 exceed:1 billion:1 association:9 every:3 number:18 fell:1 four:3 due:2 series:1 merger:10 bring:1 large:8 extent:1 consequence:1 crisis:3 plan:2 month:1 history:2 original:2 form:16 birmingham:3 fully:1 terminate:1 would:6 dissolve:1 house:1 last:1 wind:1 new:7 development:1 take:4 place:1 permanent:7 continue:1 rolling:1 basis:1 continually:1 early:2 one:5 complete:1 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7,373 | Foreign_relations_of_Gabon | Gabon has followed a non-aligned policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing both parts of divided countries. Since 1973, the number of countries establishing diplomatic relations with Gabon has doubled. In inter-African affairs, Gabon espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favors regulated free enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth. Concerned about stability in Central Africa and the potential for intervention, Gabon has been directly involved with mediation efforts in Chad, Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, Angola, and former Zaire. In December 1999, through the mediation efforts of President Bongo, a peace accord was signed in Congo-Brazzaville between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion. President Bongo has remained involved in the continuing Congolese peace process. Gabon has been a strong proponent of regional stability, and Gabonese armed forces played an important role in the UN Peacekeeping Mission to the Central African Republic (MINURCA). Gabon is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank; Organization of African Unity (OAU); Central African Customs Union (UDEAC/CEMAC); EC association under Lome Convention; Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA); Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC); Non-Aligned Movement; withdrew from the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Gabon is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Canada Canada established diplomatic relations with Gabon in 1963. Gabon is represented in Canada by an Embassy in Ottawa. Since 2003, Canada has also been working with Gabon in the Group of Friends of the Great Lakes Region, which Canada co-chairs, in support of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region. Equatorial Guinea Gabon is involved in a maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay. See also Gabon Gabonese diplomatic missions Canada-Gabon relations Franco-Gabonese relations Gabon-United States relations List of diplomatic missions in Gabon | Foreign_relations_of_Gabon |@lemmatized gabon:15 follow:1 non:2 aligned:2 policy:1 advocate:1 dialogue:1 international:3 affair:2 recognize:1 part:1 divided:1 country:3 since:2 number:1 establish:2 diplomatic:4 relation:5 double:1 inter:1 african:5 espouses:1 development:1 evolution:1 rather:1 revolution:1 favor:1 regulate:1 free:1 enterprise:1 system:1 likely:1 promote:1 rapid:1 economic:1 growth:1 concern:1 stability:2 central:4 africa:1 potential:1 intervention:1 directly:1 involve:3 mediation:2 effort:2 chad:1 republic:2 congo:2 brazzaville:2 angola:1 former:1 zaire:1 december:1 president:2 bongo:2 peace:2 accord:1 sign:1 government:1 leader:1 armed:1 rebellion:1 remain:1 continue:1 congolese:1 process:1 strong:1 proponent:1 regional:1 gabonese:3 arm:1 force:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 un:2 peacekeeping:1 mission:3 minurca:1 member:2 specialize:1 relate:1 agency:1 include:1 world:1 bank:1 organization:2 unity:1 oau:1 custom:1 union:1 udeac:1 cemac:1 ec:1 association:1 lome:1 convention:1 communaute:1 financiere:1 africaine:1 cfa:1 organisation:1 islamic:1 conference:2 oic:1 movement:1 withdrew:1 petroleum:1 export:1 opec:1 also:3 criminal:1 court:1 bilateral:1 immunity:1 agreement:1 protection:1 u:1 military:1 cover:1 article:1 canada:6 represent:1 embassy:1 ottawa:1 work:1 group:1 friend:1 great:2 lakes:2 region:2 co:1 chair:1 support:1 equatorial:2 guinea:2 maritime:1 boundary:1 dispute:1 disputed:1 sovereignty:1 island:1 corisco:1 bay:1 see:1 franco:1 united:1 state:1 list:1 |@bigram non_aligned:2 diplomatic_relation:2 republic_congo:1 congo_brazzaville:2 un_peacekeeping:1 peacekeeping_mission:1 unity_oau:1 financiere_africaine:1 conference_oic:1 aligned_movement:1 bilateral_immunity:1 equatorial_guinea:2 diplomatic_mission:2 |
7,374 | Erik_Satie | Erik Satie (Original 1895) Selfportrait of Erik Satie. The text reads (translated from French): Project for a bust of Mr. Erik Satie (painted by the same), with a thought: "I came into the world very young, in an age that was very old" Éric Alfred Leslie Satie (Honfleur, 17 May 1866 – Paris, 1 July 1925) was a French composer and pianist. Starting with his first composition in 1884, he signed his name as Erik Satie. Satie was introduced as a "gymnopedist" in 1887, shortly before writing his most famous compositions, the Gymnopédies. Later, he also referred to himself as a "phonometograph" or "phonometrician" (meaning "someone who measures (and writes down) sounds") preferring this designation to that of "musician," after having been called "a clumsy but subtle technician" in a book on contemporary French composers published in 1911. In addition to his body of music, Satie also left a remarkable set of writings, having contributed work for a range of publications, from the dadaist 391 to the American Vanity Fair. Although in later life he prided himself on always publishing his work under his own name, in the late nineteenth century he appears to have used pseudonyms such as Virginie Lebeau and François de Paule in some of his published writings. Satie was a colourful figure in the early 20th century Parisian avant-garde. He was a precursor to later artistic movements such as minimalism, repetitive music, and the Theatre of the Absurd. Life and work From Normandy to Montmartre Erik Satie's youth was spent alternating between living in Honfleur, Basse-Normandie, and Paris. When he was four years old, his family moved to Paris, his father (Alfred), having been offered a translator's job in the capital. After his mother (born Jane Leslie Anton, who was born in London to Scottish parents) died in 1872, he was sent, together with his younger brother Conrad, back to Honfleur, to live with his paternal grandparents. There he received his first music lessons from a local organist. When his grandmother died in 1878, the two brothers were reunited with their father in Paris, who remarried (a piano teacher) shortly afterwards. From the early 1880s onwards, Alfred Satie started publishing salon compositions (by his new wife and himself, among others). Satie house and museum in Honfleur In 1879 Satie entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he was soon labelled untalented by his teachers. After being sent home for two and a half years, he was readmitted to the Conservatoire at the end of 1885, but was unable to make a much more favourable impression on his teachers than he had before, and, as a result, resolved to take up military service a year later. However, Satie's military career did not last very long; within a few weeks he left the army through deceptive means. In 1887 Satie left home to take lodgings in Montmartre. By this time he had started what was to be an enduring friendship with the romantic poet Patrice Contamine (J.P. Contamine de Latour), and had had his first compositions published by his father. He soon integrated with the artistic clientèle of the Le Chat Noir Café-cabaret, and started publishing his Gymnopédies. Publication of compositions in the same vein (Ogives, Gnossiennes, etc.) followed. In the same period he befriended Claude Debussy. He moved to a smaller room, still in Montmartre (rue Cortot N° 6), in 1890. By 1891 he was the official composer and chapel-master of the Rosicrucian Order "Ordre de la Rose-Croix Catholique, du Temple et du Graal", led by Sâr Joséphin Péladan, which led to compositions such as Salut Drapeau!, Le Fils des étoiles, and the Sonneries de la Rose+Croix. By mid-1892 he had composed the first pieces in a compositional system of his own making (Fête donnée par des Chevaliers Normands en l'Honneur d'une jeune Demoiselle), had provided incidental music to a chivalric esoteric play (two Prélude du Nazaréen), had had his first hoax published (announcing the premiere of Le Bâtard de Tristan, an anti-Wagnerian opera he probably never composed), and had broken with Péladan, starting that autumn with the Uspud project, a "Christian Ballet", in collaboration with Contamine de Latour. While the comrades from both the Chat Noir and Miguel Utrillo's Auberge du Clou sympathised, a promotional brochure was produced for the project, which reads as a pamphlet for a new esoteric sect. Satie and Suzanne Valadon, an artists' model and artist in her own right, and a long-time friend of Miguel Utrillo (and mother of Maurice Utrillo), began an affair early in 1893. After their first night together, he proposed marriage. The two did not marry, but Valadon moved to a room next to Satie's at the Rue Cortot. Satie became obsessed with her, calling her his Biqui, and writing impassioned notes about "her whole being, lovely eyes, gentle hands, and tiny feet". During their relationship, Satie composed the Danses Gothiques as a kind of prayer to restore peace of mind, and Valadon painted a portrait of Satie, which she gave to him. After six months she moved away, leaving Satie broken-hearted. Afterwards, he said that he was left with "nothing but an icy loneliness that fills the head with emptiness and the heart with sadness". It is believed this was the only intimate relationship Satie ever had. In the same year he met the young Maurice Ravel for the first time, Satie's style emerging in the first compositions of the youngster. One of Satie's own compositions of that period, the Vexations, was to remain undisclosed until after his death. By the end of the year he had founded the Eglise Métropolitaine d'Art de Jésus Conducteur (the Metropolitan Church of Art of the Leading Christ). As its only member, in the role of "Parcier et Maître de Chapelle" he started to compose a Grande Messe (later to become known as the Messe des Pauvres), and wrote a flood of letters, articles and pamphlets showing off his self-assuredness in religious and artistic matters. To give an example: he applied for membership of the Académie Française twice, leaving no doubt in the application letter that the board of that organisation (presided by Camille Saint-Saëns) as much as owed him such membership. Such proceedings without doubt rather helped to wreck his popularity in the cultural establishment. In 1895 he inherited some money, allowing him to have more of his writings printed, and to change from wearing a priest-like habit to being the "Velvet Gentleman". Moving to Arcueil — cabaret compositions, Schola Cantorum By mid-1896 all his financial means had vanished, and he had to move to cheaper lodgings, first at the Rue Cortot, to a room not much bigger than a cupboard, and two years later (after he'd composed the two first sets of Pièces froides in 1897), to Arcueil, a suburb some five kilometers from the centre of Paris (in the Val-de-Marne district of the Île-de-France). At this period he re-established contact with his brother Conrad (in much the way Vincent Van Gogh had with his brother Theo) for numerous practical and financial matters, disclosing some of his inner feelings in the process. The letters to Conrad made it clear that he had set aside any religious ideas (which were not to return until the last months of his life). From the winter of 1898–1899, Satie could be seen, as a daily routine, leaving his apartment in the Parisian suburb of Arcueil to walk across Paris to either Montmartre or Montparnasse, before walking back again in the evening. From 1899 on he started making money as a cabaret pianist (mostly accompanying Vincent Hyspa, later also Paulette Darty), adapting over a hundred compositions of popular music for piano (or piano and voice), adding some of his own. The most popular of these were Je te veux (text by Henry Pacory), Tendrement (text by Vincent Hyspa), Poudre d'or (a waltz), La Diva de l'"Empire" (text by Dominique Bonnaud/Numa Blès), Le Picadilly (A March), Légende Californienne (text by Contamine de Latour lost, but the music later reappears in La Belle Excentrique), and many more (probably even more have been lost). In his later years Satie would reject all his cabaret music as vile and against his nature Erik Satie in a 17 January 1911 letter to his brother Conrad, quoted in Volta 1989 and in Gillmor 1992 (Chronology p. xxix) (although he revived some of the fun of it in his 1920 Belle excentrique), but for the time being, it was an income. Only a few compositions that Satie himself took seriously remain from this period: Jack-in-the-box, music to a pantomime by Jules Dépaquit (called a "clownerie" by Satie), Geneviève de Brabant, a short comic opera on a serious theme, text by Lord Cheminot, The Dreamy Fish, piano music to accompany a lost tale by Lord Cheminot, and a few others (mostly incomplete, hardly any of them staged, and none of them published at the time). Both Geneviève de Brabant and The Dreamy Fish have been analysed (e.g. by Ornella Volta) as containing elements of competition with Claude Debussy, of which Debussy was probably not aware (Satie not making this music public). Meanwhile, Debussy was having one of his first major successes with Pelléas et Mélisande in 1902, leading a few years later to ‘who-was-precursor-to-whom’ debates between the two composers (in which Maurice Ravel would also get involved). In October 1905 Satie enrolled in Vincent d'Indy's Schola Cantorum to study classical counterpoint (while still continuing his cabaret work). Most of his friends were as dumbfounded as the professors at the Schola when they heard about his new plan to return to the classrooms (especially as d'Indy was an admiring pupil of Saint-Saëns, not particularly favoured by Satie). As for Satie's motivation for this step, there were probably two main reasons: first, he was tired of being told that the harmonisation of his compositions was erratic (a criticism he could not very well counter, not having completed any studies in music), and secondly, he was developing the idea that one of the most typical characteristics of French music was clarity (which could better be achieved with a good background knowledge of how traditional harmony was perceived). Satie would follow these courses at the Schola, as a respected pupil, for more than five years, receiving a first (intermediate) diploma in 1908. Some of his classroom counterpoint-exercises would, after his death, be published (e.g., the Désespoir agréable), but he probably saw the En Habit de Cheval (published in 1911 as the result of "eight years hard work to come to a new, modern fugue") as the culmination of the Schola episode. Another summary, of the period prior to the Schola, also appeared in 1911: the Trois Morceaux en forme de poire, which was a kind of compilation of the best of what he had written up to 1903. Something that becomes clear through these published compilations is that maybe he did not so much reject Romanticism (and its exponents like Wagner) as a whole (he has become more moderate in a way), as that he rejected certain aspects of it: musically the thing he rejected most consequently, from his very first composition to his very last, was the idea of development, certainly in the more strict definition of this term: the intertwining of different themes in a development section of a sonata form: naturally this makes his contrapuntal (and other works) very short: e.g. the "new, modern" Fugues do not extend further than the exposition of the theme(s). Generally he would say that he did not think it permitted that a composer would take more time from his public than strictly necessary, certainly avoiding being boring in any way. Also Melodrama, in its historical meaning of the then popular romantic genre of "spoken words to a background of music", was something Satie appears to have succeeded quite well in staying clear of (although his 1913 Piège de Méduse could be seen as an absurdistic spoof of that genre). In the meantime, other changes had also taken place: Satie had become a member of a radical (socialist) party, had socialised with the Arcueil community (amongst other things, he'd been involved in the "Patronage Laïque" work for children), and he had changed his appearance to that of the 'bourgeois functionary' (with bowler hat, umbrella, etc.). Also, instead of involving himself again in any kind of medievalist sect, he channelled these interests into a peculiar secret hobby: in a filing cabinet he maintained a collection of imaginary buildings (most of them described as being made out of some kind of metal), which he drew on little cards. Occasionally, extending the game, he would publish anonymous small announcements in local journals, offering some of these buildings (e.g., a "castle in lead") for sale or rent. Riding the waves From this point, things started to move very quickly for Satie. First, there was, starting in 1912, the success of his new "miniature", humorous piano pieces; he was to write and publish many of these over the next few years (most of them premiered by the pianist Ricardo Viñes): the Véritables Préludes flasques (pour un chien) ("Genuine Flabby Preludes (for a dog)"), the Vieux sequins et vieilles cuirasses ("Old Sequins and Old Breastplates"), the Embryons desséchés ("Dried up Embryos"), the Descriptions Automatiques, and the Sonatine Bureaucratique (a Muzio Clementi spoof), etc., all date from this period. His habit of accompanying the scores of his compositions with all kinds of written remarks was now well established (so that a few years later he had to insist that these not be read out during performances). He had mostly stopped using barlines by this time. In some ways these compositions were very reminiscent of Rossini's compositions from the final years of his life, grouped under the name Péchés de Vieillesse. But the real acceleration in Satie's life did not come so much from the increasing success of his new piano pieces. In fact, it was Ravel who (perhaps unwittingly) triggered something that was to become a characteristic of Satie's remaining years and part of each progressive movement that manifested itself in Paris over the following years. These movements succeeded one another rapidly, at a time in which Paris was seen as the artistic capital of the world (long before London or New York would achieve much significance in this regard), and the beginning of the new century appeared to have set many minds on fire. In 1910 the "Jeunes Ravêlites", a group of young musicians around Ravel, proclaimed their preference for Satie's earlier work (from before the Schola period), reinforcing the idea that Satie had been a precursor of Debussy. At first Satie was pleased that at least some of his works were receiving public attention, but when he realised that this meant that his more recent work was overlooked or dismissed, he looked for other young artists who related better to his more recent ideas, so as to have better mutual support in creative activity. Thus young artists such as Roland-Manuel, and later Georges Auric and Jean Cocteau, started to receive more of his attention than the "Jeunes". As a result of his contact with Roland-Manuel, Satie again began publicising his thoughts, with far more irony than he had done before (amongst other things, the Mémoires d'un amnésique and Cahiers d'un mammifère). English translations of these pieces were published in A Mammal's Notebook, see Sources section below. With Jean Cocteau, whom he had first met in 1915, Satie started work on incidental music for a production of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream (resulting in the Cinq Grimaces). From 1916, he and Cocteau worked on the ballet Parade, which was premiered in 1917 by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, with sets and costumes by Pablo Picasso, and choreography by Léonide Massine. Through Picasso Satie also became acquainted with other cubists, such as Georges Braque, with whom he would work on other, aborted, projects. With Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, and Germaine Tailleferre Satie formed the Nouveaux Jeunes, shortly after writing Parade. Later the group was joined by Francis Poulenc and Darius Milhaud. In September 1918, Satie — giving little or no explanation — withdrew from the Nouveaux Jeunes. Jean Cocteau gathered the six remaining members, forming the Groupe des Six (to which Satie would later have access, but later again would fall out with most of its members). From 1919 Satie was in contact with Tristan Tzara, the initiator of the Dada movement. He became acquainted with other artists involved in the movement, such as Francis Picabia (later to become a Surrealist), André Derain, Marcel Duchamp, and Man Ray, among others. On the day of his first meeting with Man Ray, the two fabricated the artist's first readymade: The Gift (1921). Satie contributed writing to the Dadaist publication 391. In the first months of 1922 he was surprised to find himself entangled in the argument between Tzara and André Breton about the true nature of avant-garde art, epitomised by the failure of the Congrès de Paris. Satie originally sides with Tzara, but manages to maintain friendly relations with most players in both camps. Meanwhile, an "Ecole d'Arcueil" had formed around Satie, with young musicians like Henri Sauguet, Maxime Jacob, Roger Désormière and Henri Cliquet-Pleyel. Finally he composed an "instantaneist" ballet (Relâche) in collaboration with Picabia, for the Ballets Suédois of Rolf de Maré. In a simultaneous project, Satie added music to the surrealist film Entr'acte by René Clair, which was given as an intermezzo for Relâche. Other work and episodes in this last period of Satie's life: Since 1911 he had been on friendly terms with Igor Stravinsky, about whom he would later write articles. Le Piège de Méduse (1913) had a unique position in Satie's oeuvre, as it was a stage work conceived and composed seemingly without any collaboration with other artists. Sports et divertissements was a kind of multi-media project, in which Satie provided piano music to drawings made by Charles Martin. The work was composed in 1914, but not published or performed until the early 1920s. The individual pieces are characteristic Satie "miniatures": in all, there are twenty pieces - none over two minutes in length, and some as short as 15 seconds. He got in trouble over an insulting postcard he had written to one of his critics shortly after the premiere of Parade; he was condemned to a week of imprisonment, but was finally released as a result of the (financial) intercession of Winnaretta Singer, Princess Edmond de Polignac. Singer, who had learnt Ancient Greek when she was over 50, had commissioned a work on Socrates in October 1916; this would become his Socrate, which he presented early in 1918 to the Princess. From 1917 Satie wrote five pieces of furniture music ("Musique d'ameublement") for different occasions. From 1920, he was on friendly terms with the circles around Gertrude Stein, amongst others, leading to the publication of some of his articles in Vanity Fair (commissioned by Sibyl Harris). Some works would originate under the patronage of the count Etienne de Beaumont, from 1922 onwards: La Statue retrouvée (or "Divertissement"): another Satie-Cocteau-Picasso-Massine collaboration. Ludions: a setting of nonsense rhyme by Léon-Paul Fargue Mercure: the subtitle of this piece ("Poses plastiques") suggests it might have been intended rather as an emulation of the tableau vivant genre than as an actual ballet, the "tableaux" being cubist, by Picasso (and Massine). During his final years Satie travelled; for example, in 1924 to Belgium, invited by Paul Collaer, and to Monte Carlo for the premiere of a work on which he had collaborated. Epilogue: the shrine of Arcueil At the time of Satie's death in 1925, absolutely nobody else had ever entered his room in Arcueil since he had moved there twenty-seven years earlier. What his friends would discover there, after Satie's burial at the Cimetière d'Arcueil, had the allure of the opening of the grave of Tutankhamun; apart from the dust and the cobwebs (which, among other things, made clear that Satie never composed using his piano), they discovered numerous items that included: great numbers of umbrellas, some that had apparently never been used by Satie, a total of four pianos: two of which were back to back, two of which sat upside-down on top of the other two the portrait of Satie by Suzanne Valadon, love-letters and drawings from the Valadon romance, other letters from all periods of his life, his collection of drawings of medieval buildings (only then did his friends see a link between Satie and certain previously anonymous, journal advertisements regarding "castles in lead" and the like), other drawings and texts of autobiographical value, other memorabilia from all periods of his life, amongst which were the seven velvet suits from his Velvet gentleman period. Additionally, there were compositions that were totally unknown or which were thought to have been lost. They were found behind the piano, in the pockets of the velvet suits, and in other odd places. These included the Vexations, Geneviève de Brabant, and other unpublished or unfinished stage works, The Dreamy Fish, many Schola Cantorum exercises, a previously unseen set of "canine" piano pieces, several other piano works, often without a title. Some of these works would be published later as more Gnossiennes, Pièces Froides, Enfantines, and Furniture music). "Petit dictionnaire d'idées reçues" (short dictionary of preconceived ideas) In MIDI file format: "Idée reçue" is a play on words; in French it is the normal term for "prejudice", but Satie used it as the non-material equivalent of found objects (as in readymades) — for example, when he incorporated odd bits of music by Saint-Saëns and Ambroise Thomas in his furniture music. This section treats some popular (mis)conceptions regarding Satie and his music: Satie and furniture music: not all of Satie's music is furniture music. In the strict sense the term applies only to five of his compositions, which he wrote in 1917, 1920, and 1923. For the first public performance of furniture music see Entr'acte. Satie as precursor: the only "precursor" discussion Satie was involved in during his lifetime was whether or not he was a precursor of Claude Debussy, but many would follow. Over the years Satie would be described as a precursor of movements and styles as varied as Impressionism, neo-classicism, Dada, Surrealism, atonalism, minimalism, conceptual art, the Theatre of the Absurd, muzak, ambient music, multimedia art, etc., and as taking the first steps towards techniques such as prepared piano and music-to-film synchronisation. Further, Satie became one of the first musicians to perform a cameo appearance — he was in a 1924 film by René Clair (see: a sample of the film (rm format) and the Entr'acte article). All by himself Satie appears to have been the precursor to half of the avant-garde movements of the 20th century. Many of these "precursorisms" are possibly based on quite superficial resemblances only, while, on the other hand, he undeniably inspired and influenced many later artists, and their ideas. According to Milhaud, Satie had "prophesied the major movements in classical music to appear over the next fifty years within his own body of work." There is a website exploring that theory in detail: Erik Satie's Crystal Ball Satie as humorist: many would be surprised to know how many of Satie's seemingly humorous compositions were at heart taken very seriously by him. When he forbade commentaries written in his partitions to be read aloud, he probably saw this himself as a means to safeguard the seriousness of his intentions. When, at the first public performance of Socrate, there was laughter, he felt hurt. Many other examples of his serious attitude can be found, but there's no doubt that Satie was a witty person, certainly not without many humorous idiosyncrasies. Satie and compositions in three parts: although many of his compositions (e.g., most of the pre-war piano pieces) were indeed in three parts, there is no general rule in this respect. After his death, publishers would force more of them into an artificial three-part structure; Satie had actually already made a joke of such proceedings with his seven-part Trois Morceaux en forme de poire, which is French for "Three Pieces in the Shape of a Pear." Satie and (lack of) money: although Satie certainly knew periods of dire poverty, and was perhaps a little uncontrollable in his spending, in long periods of his life he had few worries in this sense. Although maybe not having much money in his pockets, he was (certainly from the second decade of the new century) often invited to expensive restaurants and to all sort of events, and was given financial help, by all sorts of people. Satie as an opponent of other musical styles. The musical styles Satie opposed were allegedly numerous: Wagnerism, Romanticism (Saint-Saëns, Franck, etc.), Impressionism (Debussy and Ravel), Expressionism (later Ravel), Slavism (Stravinsky), post-Wagnerism (Schoenberg), cabaret music, etc. Apart from some animosities on the personal level (which can be seen as symptomatic of most adherents of avant-garde movements of those days), Satie's ideas on other music of his time generally had more subtlety; for example, about César Franck he could not be brought to write critically, but would avoid the issue with jokes ("Franck's music shows surprisingly much Franckism; Some even say César Frank was lazy, which is not a commendable property in a hard working man"). Perhaps the same can be said as above regarding "Satie as precursor": there is much empty discussion — for example, the debate with Debussy appears to have been over whether or not Satie was a precursor of Impressionism, which would not have made much sense if he had been opposed to Impressionism as such. Satie and boredom. Satie often consciously disregarded the conception of development found in the German tradition (Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Brahms). Satie's compositions tend to be very short; a typical movement of a Satie composition takes less than two minutes to play, and compositions with more than five movements are exceptional. Even his larger-scale works conforming to the genres known in his time would be two to five times shorter than the usual duration of such compositions (Socrate, a secular oratorio — or "symphonic drama" — lasting about half an hour, is the longest). In general, Satie thought it to be a great fault for a composer to bore his audience in any way. There are eight of his compositions that use repetition as a compositional technique, more than doubling the total duration: Vexations: with 840 repetitions of the musical motif (and many more of the melody of the bass), this is definitely the longest single-movement work with a defined number of repetitions (note that, without the repetitions, the actual music takes less than two minutes to play). No explanation by Satie survives regarding the exceptional length of the piece. If excluding the Tango mentioned in the next point, performing the Vexations takes longer than all his other music played in sequence. For Le Tango ("The Tango"), a rather catchy tune from Sports et divertissements, Satie indicates in the score perpétuel (i.e. something like a perpetuum mobile, which in French is "mouvement perpétuel"). There is little indication how Satie understood this "perpetual", apart that at the premiere, at least assisted by Satie, there was obviously nothing repeated ad infinitum, taken literally. When performed for a recording there is seldom more than one repeat of this part of the composition, making it one of the shortest tangos ever, something like a Minute Tango. Five pieces of furniture music, which were intended as "background" music with no number of repeats specified. The circumstances in which such music was performed by Satie himself indicate, however, that the total playing times would be intended to be the usual 'intermission' time of a stage production (see Entr'acte). While the public was not expected to be silent, these compositions can hardly be seen as an experiment in boredom. His music for the film Entr'acte has ten repeat zones in order to synchronise with the twenty-minute film (which has a very varied plot, so not much boredom is to be found there either). Satie and sexuality: much has been said about Satie's sexuality, ranging from "hidden" homosexuality to "ordinary" heterosexuality. In fact, apart from the short-lived, and highly "idealised", Valadon period, Satie's behaviour appeared more or less asexual: he tended to be dismissive when the topic of sexuality came up. See also: Gymnopédie. Media Recordings and arrangements Piano works Recordings of Satie's piano works have been released by Cristina Ariagno, Aldo Ciccolini, Claude Coppens (live recording), Reinbert de Leeuw, Eve Egoyan, Philippe Entremont, Olof Höjer, Michel Legrand, Jacques Loussier, Bill Quist, Pascal Rogé, João Paulo Santos, Jean-Yves Thibaudet, Daniel Varsano, Jean-Pierre Armengaud, and Yuju Takahashi, among others. Orchestral and vocal A recording of historical importance is probably Erik Satie, Les inspirations insolites, re-issued by EMI as a 2-CD set, containing among other pieces: Geneviève de Brabant (in a version before Contamine's text had been recovered), Le piège de Méduse, Messe des pauvres, etc. Many other recordings exist: Parade/Relâche (Michel Plasson / Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse), Satie: Socrate [etc.] (Jean-Paul Fouchécourt / Ensemble), and recordings of songs, e.g., by Anne-Sophie Schmidt. Arrangements Various composers and performers have made arrangements of Satie's piano pieces for chamber ensembles and orchestras, including Debussy. In 1980 Gary Numan's 7" We Are Glass featured Trois Gymnopedies (First Movement) on the B-side. In 2000, ex-Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett released the album, "Sketches of Satie", performing Satie's works on acoustic guitar, with contributions by his brother John on flute. Frank Zappa was also a devoted fan of Satie, incorporating many elements into both his rock and orchestral works. The English electronic duo Isan recorded versions of the three Gymnopédies for a 2006 7-inch single, "Trois Gymnopedies" on the Morr Music record label. See also List of compositions by Erik Satie :Category:Writings by Erik Satie Notes Sources In English, unless indicated: Writings by Satie: A Mammal's Notebook: Collected Writings of Erik Satie (Serpent's Tail; Atlas Arkhive, No 5, 1997) ISBN 0-947757-92-9 (with introduction and notes by Ornella Volta, translations by Anthony Melville, contains several drawings by Satie) Correspondence presque complète: Réunie, établie et présentée par Ornella Volta (Paris: Fayard/Imes, 2000; 1265pp) ISBN 2-213-60674-9 (an almost complete edition of Satie's letters, in French) Books on Satie: Gillmor, Alan M., Erik Satie (Twayne Pub., 1988, reissued 1992; 387pp) ISBN 0-393-30810-3 Myers, Rollo H., Erik Satie. (Dover Publications, New York 1968.) ISBN 0-486-21903-8 Orledge, Robert, Satie Remembered (London: Faber and Faber, London, 1995) Orledge, Robert, Satie the Composer Cambridge University Press: 1990; 437pp — in the series Music in the Twentieth Century [ed.] Arnold Whittall) ISBN 0-521-35037-9 Templier, Pierre-Daniel (translated by Elena L. French and David S. French), Erik Satie (The MIT Press, 1969, reissued 1971) ISBN 0-262-70005-0 and (New York: Da Capo Press, 1980 reissue) ISBN 0-306-76039-8 note: Templier extensively consulted Conrad, Erik Satie's brother, when writing this first biography that appeared in 1932. The English translation was, however, criticised by John Cage; in a letter to Ornella Volta (25 May 1983) he referred to the translation as disappointing compared to the formidable value of the original biography. Volta, Ornella and Simon Pleasance, Erik Satie (Hazan: The Pocket Archives Series, 1997; 200pp) ISBN 2-85025-565-3 Volta, Ornella, transl. Michael Bullock, Satie Seen Through His Letters (Marion Boyars, 1989) ISBN 0-7145-2980-X Whiting, Steven, Satie the Bohemian: from Cabaret to Concert Hall (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999; 596pp) a fully researched account of Satie's musical career in what then was regarded as popular music. Other: Satie Home page — Niclas Fogwall's website dedicated to Satie External links Public domain scores Satie's Scores + Audio www.kreusch-sheet-music.net Free Scores by Satie Satie's Scores — by the Mutopia Project Photos of Satie's tomb in Arcueil An Erik Satie Primer - including samples JAZCLASS : About Erik SATIE - the eccentric Impressionist French composer and musician Erik Satie at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music | Erik_Satie |@lemmatized erik:19 satie:134 original:2 selfportrait:1 text:8 read:4 translate:2 french:11 project:7 bust:1 mr:1 paint:2 thought:2 come:4 world:2 young:7 age:1 old:4 éric:1 alfred:3 leslie:2 honfleur:4 may:2 paris:11 july:1 composer:9 pianist:3 start:11 first:26 composition:29 sign:1 name:3 introduce:1 gymnopedist:1 shortly:4 write:16 famous:1 gymnopédies:3 later:18 also:12 refer:2 phonometograph:1 phonometrician:1 mean:4 someone:1 measure:1 sound:1 prefer:1 designation:1 musician:5 call:3 clumsy:1 subtle:1 technician:1 book:2 contemporary:2 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7,375 | Casino_game | Games available in most casinos are commonly called casino games. In a casino game, the players gamble casino chips on various possible random outcomes or combinations of outcomes. Casino games are available in online casinos, where permitted by law. Casino games can also be played outside of casinos for entertainment purposes, some on machines that simulate gambling. Categories of casino games There are three general categories of casino games: table games, electronic gaming machines, and random number ticket games such as Keno and simulated racing. Gaming machines, such as slot machines and pachinko, are usually played by one player at a time and do not require the involvement of casino employees to play. Random number games are based upon the selection of random numbers, either from a computerized random number generator or from other gaming equipment. Random number games may be played at a table, such as Roulette, or through the purchase of paper tickets or cards, such as Keno or Bingo. Common table games Common non-table games Gaming machines Pachinko Slot machine Video Lottery Terminal Video poker Random numbers Bingo Keno House advantage Casino games generally provide a predictable long-term advantage to the casino, or "house", while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout. Some casino games have a skill element, where the player makes decisions; such games are called "random with a tactical element." While it is possible through skillful play to minimize the house advantage, it is extremely rare that a player has sufficient skill to completely eliminate his inherent long-term disadvantage (the house edge or house vigorish) in a casino game. Such a skill set would involve years of training, an extraordinary memory and numeracy, and/or acute visual or even aural observation, as in the case of wheel clocking in Roultte. The player's disadvantage is a result of the casino not paying winning wagers according to the game's "true odds", which are the payouts that would be expected considering the odds of a wager either winning or losing. For example, if a game is played by wagering on the number that would result from the roll of one die, true odds would be 5 times the amount wagered since there is a 5 to 1 probability of any single number appearing. However, the casino may only pay 4 times the amount wagered for a winning wager. The house edge (HE) or vigorish is defined as the casino profit expressed as a percentage of the player's original bet. (In games such as Blackjack or Spanish 21, the final bet may be several times the original bet, if the player double and splits.) Example: In American Roulette, there are two zeroes and 36 non-zero numbers (18 red and 18 black). If a player bets $1 on red, his chance of winning $1 is therefore 18/38 and his chance of losing $1 (or winning -$1) is 20/38. The player's expected value, EV = (18/38 x 1) + (20/38 x -1) = 18/38 - 20/38 = -2/38 = -5.26%. Therefore, the house edge is 5.26%. After 10 rounds, play $1 per round, the average house profit will be 10 x $1 x 5.26% = $0.53. Of course, it is not possible for the casino to win exactly 53 cents; this figure is the average casino profit from each player if it had millions of players each betting 10 rounds at $1 per round. The house edge of casino games vary greatly with the game. Keno can have house edges up to 25%, slot machines can have up to 15%, while most Australian Pontoon games have house edges between 0.3% and 0.4%. The calculation of the Roulette house edge was a trivial exercise; for other games, this is not usually the case. Combinatorial analysis and/or computer simulation is necessary to complete the task. In games which have a skill element, such as Blackjack or Spanish 21, the house edge is defined as the house advantage from optimal play (without the use of advanced techniques such as card counting), on the first hand of the shoe (the container that holds the cards). The set of the optimal plays for all possible hands is known as "basic strategy" and is highly dependent on the specific rules, and even the number of decks used. Good Blackjack and Spanish 21 games have house edges below 0.5%. Standard deviation The luck factor in a casino game is quantified using standard deviations (SD). The standard deviation of a simple game like Roulette can be calculated using the binomial distribution. In the binomial distribution, SD = sqrt (npq ), where n = number of rounds played, p = probability of winning, and q = probability of losing. The binomial distribution assumes a result of 1 unit for a win, and 0 units for a loss, rather than -1 units for a loss, which doubles the range of possible outcomes. Furthermore, if we flat bet at 10 units per round instead of 1 unit, the range of possible outcomes increases 10 fold. Therefore, SD (Roulette, even-money bet) = 2b sqrt(npq ), where b = flat bet per round, n = number of rounds, p = 18/38, and q = 20/38. For example, after 10 rounds at $1 per round, the standard deviation will be 2 x 1 x sqrt(10 x 18/38 x 20/38) = $3.16. After 10 rounds, the expected loss will be 10 x $1 x 5.26% = $0.53. As you can see, standard deviation is many times the magnitude of the expected loss. The range is six times the standard deviation: three above the mean, and three below. Therefore, after 10 rounds betting $1 per round, your result will be somewhere between -$0.53 - 3 x $3.16 and -$0.53 + 3 x $3.16, i.e., between -$10.01 and $8.95. (There is still a 0.1% chance that your result will exceed a $8.95 profit, and a 0.1% chance that you will lose more than $10.01.) This demonstrates how luck can be quantified; we know that if we walk into a casino and bet $5 per round for a whole night, we are not going to walk out with $500. The standard deviation for Pai Gow poker is the lowest out of all common casinos . Many , particularly slots, have extremely high standard deviations. As the size of the potential payouts increase, so does the standard deviation. As the number of rounds increases, eventually, the expected loss will exceed the standard deviation, many times over. From the formula, we can see the standard deviation is proportional to the square root of the number of rounds played, while the expected loss is proportional to the number of rounds played. As the number of rounds increases, the expected loss increases at a much faster rate. This is why it is impossible for a gambler to win in the long term. It is the high ratio of short-term standard deviation to expected loss that fools gamblers into thinking that they can win. It is important for a casino to know both the house edge and variance for all of their games. The house edge tells them what kind of profit they will make as percentage of turnover, and the variance tells them how much they need in the way of cash reserves. The mathematicians and computer programmers that do this kind of work are called gaming mathematicians and gaming analysts. Casinos do not have in-house expertise in this field, so outsource their requirements to experts in the gaming analysis field, such as Mike Shackleford, the "Wizard of Odds". See also Gambler's fallacy | Casino_game |@lemmatized game:33 available:2 casino:26 commonly:1 call:3 player:12 gamble:2 chip:1 various:1 possible:6 random:8 outcome:4 combination:1 online:1 permit:1 law:1 also:2 play:12 outside:1 entertainment:1 purpose:1 machine:7 simulate:2 category:2 three:3 general:1 table:4 electronic:1 gaming:3 number:16 ticket:2 keno:4 racing:1 slot:4 pachinko:2 usually:2 one:2 time:7 require:1 involvement:1 employee:1 base:1 upon:1 selection:1 either:2 computerized:1 generator:1 equipment:1 may:3 roulette:5 purchase:1 paper:1 card:3 bingo:2 common:3 non:2 video:2 lottery:1 terminal:1 poker:2 house:18 advantage:4 generally:1 provide:1 predictable:1 long:3 term:5 offer:1 possibility:1 large:1 short:2 payout:1 skill:4 element:3 make:2 decision:1 tactical:1 skillful:1 minimize:1 extremely:2 rare:1 sufficient:1 completely:1 eliminate:1 inherent:1 disadvantage:2 edge:11 vigorish:2 set:2 would:4 involve:1 year:1 training:1 extraordinary:1 memory:1 numeracy:1 acute:1 visual:1 even:3 aural:1 observation:1 case:2 wheel:1 clock:1 roultte:1 result:5 pay:2 win:8 wager:6 accord:1 true:2 odds:4 payouts:2 expect:3 consider:1 winning:2 losing:1 example:3 roll:1 die:1 amount:2 since:1 probability:3 single:1 appear:1 however:1 define:2 profit:5 express:1 percentage:2 original:2 bet:10 blackjack:3 spanish:3 final:1 several:1 double:2 split:1 american:1 two:1 zero:2 red:2 black:1 chance:4 therefore:4 lose:3 value:1 ev:1 x:12 round:18 per:7 average:2 course:1 exactly:1 cent:1 figure:1 million:1 vary:1 greatly:1 australian:1 pontoon:1 calculation:1 trivial:1 exercise:1 combinatorial:1 analysis:2 computer:2 simulation:1 necessary:1 complete:1 task:1 optimal:2 without:1 use:4 advanced:1 technique:1 count:1 first:1 hand:2 shoe:1 container:1 hold:1 know:3 basic:1 strategy:1 highly:1 dependent:1 specific:1 rule:1 deck:1 good:1 standard:12 deviation:12 luck:2 factor:1 quantify:2 sd:3 simple:1 like:1 calculate:1 binomial:3 distribution:3 sqrt:3 npq:2 n:2 p:2 q:2 assume:1 unit:5 loss:8 rather:1 range:3 furthermore:1 flat:2 instead:1 increase:5 fold:1 money:1 b:1 expected:5 see:3 many:3 magnitude:1 six:1 mean:1 somewhere:1 e:1 still:1 exceed:2 demonstrate:1 walk:2 whole:1 night:1 go:1 pai:1 gow:1 low:1 particularly:1 high:2 size:1 potential:1 eventually:1 formula:1 proportional:2 square:1 root:1 much:2 faster:1 rate:1 impossible:1 gambler:3 ratio:1 fool:1 think:1 important:1 variance:2 tell:2 kind:2 turnover:1 need:1 way:1 cash:1 reserve:1 mathematician:2 programmer:1 work:1 analyst:1 expertise:1 field:2 outsource:1 requirement:1 expert:1 mike:1 shackleford:1 wizard:1 fallacy:1 |@bigram gamble_casino:1 binomial_distribution:3 pai_gow:1 gambler_fallacy:1 |
7,376 | American_League_Division_Series | In Major League Baseball, the American League Division Series (ALDS) determines which two teams from the American League will advance to the American League Championship Series. The Division Series consist of two best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and a wild-card team (the non-division winning team with the best record). History The Division Series was permanently created after the season when Major League Baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but their first regular playing was in due to the cancellation of the 1994 playoffs. Previously, because of a players' strike in , a split-season format forced a divisional playoff series, in which the New York Yankees won the Eastern Division series over the Milwaukee Brewers (who were in the American League until ) in five games while the Oakland Athletics swept the Kansas City Royals in three games in the Western Division. The Yankees have currently played in the most division series in history, with fourteen appearances. One team has yet to play in an A.L. division series, the Toronto Blue Jays (though they have won the World Series twice, they won both before the division series existed). Determining the matchups Since 1998, the wild-card team has been assigned to play the division winner with the best winning percentage (outside of their own division) in one series, and the other two division winners meet in the other series. The two series winners move on to the best-of-seven ALCS. Home field advantage goes to the team with the better regular season record, except for the wild card team, which never receives the home field advantage. Beginning in , MLB has implemented a new rule to give the team with the best regular season record a slightly greater advantage. In order to spread out the Division Series games for broadcast purposes, the two ALDS series follow one of two off-day schedules. Starting in 2007, after consulting the MLBPA, MLB has decided to allow the team with the best record in the AL to choose whether to use the seven-day schedule (1-2-off-3-4-off-5) or the eight-day schedule (1-off-2-off-3-4-off-5). The team only gets to choose the schedule; the opponent is still determined by win-loss records. This rule change does not apply to the two NLDS, since they are not similarly staggered. Currently, the Division Series follows a 2-2-1 format. Major League Baseball announces revamped postseason schedule, MLB.com Press Releases The higher seed plays at home in Games 1 and 2. The lower seed plays at home in Game 3 and Game 4 (if necessary). If a Game 5 is needed, the teams return to the higher seed's field. Historically, MLB had also used a 2-3 format in a best-of-5 series, but no longer uses that format. 1984 NL Championship Series, Baseball-Reference.com 1997 AL Division Series, Baseball-Reference.com Previous matchups Since the ALDS's inception, several pairs of opponents have met more than once. The Cleveland Indians and the Boston Red Sox played in: 1995 1998 1999 The Texas Rangers played the New York Yankees in: 1996 1998 1999 The Boston Red Sox and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim met in: 2004 2007 2008 Also, five matchups have occurred twice, four of which involve the Yankees; they played: Oakland Athletics in 2000 & 2001. Anaheim-LA Angels in 2002 and 2005 Minnesota Twins in 2003 and 2004 Cleveland Indians in 1997 and 2007 The Athletics and the Twins make up the fifth such occurrence, meeting in: 2002 2006 ALDS results Year Winner Loser Wins Losses1981 New York Yankees Milwaukee Brewers 3 2 Oakland Athletics Kansas City Royals 3 01994 Not held due to player strike.1995 Cleveland Indians Boston Red Sox 3 0Seattle Mariners New York Yankees† 3 21996 New York Yankees Texas Rangers 3 1Baltimore Orioles† Cleveland Indians 3 11997 Baltimore Orioles Seattle Mariners 3 1 Cleveland Indians New York Yankees† 3 21998 New York Yankees Texas Rangers 3 0 Cleveland Indians Boston Red Sox† 3 11999 New York Yankees Texas Rangers 3 0Boston Red Sox† Cleveland Indians 3 22000 Seattle Mariners† Chicago White Sox 3 0New York Yankees Oakland Athletics 3 22001 New York Yankees Oakland Athletics† 3 2 Seattle Mariners Cleveland Indians 3 22002 Minnesota Twins Oakland Athletics 3 2 Anaheim Angels† New York Yankees 3 12003 New York Yankees Minnesota Twins 3 1 Boston Red Sox† Oakland Athletics 3 22004 New York Yankees Minnesota Twins 3 1 Boston Red Sox† Anaheim Angels 3 02005 Chicago White Sox Boston Red Sox† 3 0 Anaheim Angels New York Yankees 3 22006 Detroit Tigers† New York Yankees 31 Oakland Athletics Minnesota Twins 302007 Boston Red Sox Anaheim Angels 3 0 Cleveland Indians New York Yankees† 3 12008 Boston Red Sox† Anaheim Angels 31 Tampa Bay Rays Chicago White Sox 31† indicates wild card team See also Division Series Criticism of Scheduling in the Division Series Baseball American League pennant winners 1901-68 National League pennant winners 1876-1900 National League pennant winners 1901-68 National League Division Series (NLDS) American League Championship Series (ALCS) National League Championship Series (NLCS) World Series References External links Baseball-Reference.com - annual playoffs MLB.com - MLB's Division Series historical reference - box scores, highlights, etc. | American_League_Division_Series |@lemmatized major:3 league:14 baseball:7 american:6 division:21 series:27 alds:4 determines:1 two:7 team:12 advance:1 championship:4 consist:1 best:7 five:3 feature:1 three:3 winner:8 wild:4 card:4 non:1 win:6 record:5 history:2 permanently:1 create:1 season:4 restructure:1 first:1 regular:3 playing:1 due:2 cancellation:1 playoff:3 previously:1 player:2 strike:2 split:1 format:4 force:1 divisional:1 new:16 york:16 yankee:18 eastern:1 milwaukee:2 brewer:2 game:7 oakland:8 athletics:9 sweep:1 kansas:2 city:2 royal:2 western:1 currently:2 play:8 fourteen:1 appearance:1 one:3 yet:1 l:1 toronto:1 blue:1 jay:1 though:1 world:2 twice:2 exist:1 determine:2 matchup:3 since:3 assign:1 winning:1 percentage:1 outside:1 meet:3 move:1 seven:2 alcs:2 home:4 field:3 advantage:3 go:1 good:1 except:1 never:1 receive:1 begin:1 mlb:6 implement:1 rule:2 give:1 slightly:1 great:1 order:1 spread:1 broadcast:1 purpose:1 follow:2 day:3 schedule:6 start:1 consult:1 mlbpa:1 decide:1 allow:1 al:2 choose:2 whether:1 use:3 eight:1 get:1 opponent:2 still:1 loss:1 change:1 apply:1 nlds:2 similarly:1 stagger:1 announces:1 revamp:1 postseason:1 com:5 press:1 release:1 high:2 seed:3 low:1 necessary:1 need:1 return:1 historically:1 also:3 long:1 nl:1 reference:5 previous:1 inception:1 several:1 pair:1 cleveland:9 indian:6 boston:9 red:10 sox:13 texas:4 ranger:4 los:1 angeles:1 angel:6 anaheim:7 occur:1 four:1 involve:1 la:1 minnesota:5 twin:6 make:1 fifth:1 occurrence:1 meeting:1 result:1 year:1 loser:1 hold:1 mariner:4 oriole:2 indians:3 baltimore:1 seattle:3 chicago:3 white:3 detroit:1 tiger:1 angels:1 tampa:1 bay:1 ray:1 indicate:1 see:1 criticism:1 pennant:3 national:4 nlcs:1 external:1 link:1 annual:1 historical:1 box:1 score:1 highlight:1 etc:1 |@bigram league_baseball:3 divisional_playoff:1 milwaukee_brewer:2 oakland_athletics:8 winning_percentage:1 red_sox:10 texas_ranger:4 los_angeles:1 angel_anaheim:1 minnesota_twin:5 winner_loser:1 cleveland_indians:3 baltimore_oriole:1 seattle_mariner:3 white_sox:3 yankee_oakland:3 anaheim_angel:4 detroit_tiger:1 tampa_bay:1 pennant_winner:3 external_link:1 |
7,377 | Demographics_of_Mongolia | A young Mongolian boy This article is about the demographic features of the population of Mongolia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.54% (2000 census). About two-thirds of the total population is under age 30, 36% of whom are under 14. Demographics of Mongolia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Ethnic groups of Mongolia + Ethnic groups of Mongolia "Монгол улсын ястангуудын тоо, байршилд гарч буй өөрчлөлтyyдийн асуудалд" М.Баянтөр, Г.Нямдаваа, З.Баярмаа pp.57-70 national censuses dataEthnicgroupMongolianname1956%1963%1969%1979%1989%2000%2007est. State Center for Civil Registration and Information %KhalkhaХалх639,14175.59775,37676.23911,07976.671,235,80680.301,610,42481.041,934,67481.802,134,49382.04KazakhКазах36,7294.3447,7354.6962,8125.2984,3055.48120,5066.06102,9834.35140,1525.39 Dörvöd Дөрвөд25,6673.0431,3393.0834,7252.9245,0532.9355,2082.7866,7062.8270.2522.70Buryats Буриад24,6252.9128,5232.8029,7722.5129,8021.9435,4441.7840,6201.7244,2111.70Bayad Баяд15,8741.8819,8911.9625,4792.1431,0532.0239,2331.9750,8242.1553,2462.05Dariganga Дарьганга16,8521.9918,5871.8320,6031.7324,5641.6029,0401.4631,9091.3534,6801.33Uriankhai Урианхай10,833*1.28*13,1401.2915,0571.2719,4751.2722,9981.1629,7661.2624,1110.93Zakhchin Захчин15,7721.8714,3991.4215,6621.3218,9571.2323,4781.1825,1831.0631,1961.20Darkhad Дархад **8,8260.8710,1740.8610,7160.7014,7570.7419,0190.8020,0600.77Torguud Торгууд4,7290.566,0280.597,1190.608,6170.5610,0500.5112,6280.5312,9500.50Ööld Өөлд4,9070.585,6140.556,8760.588,8570.589,1880.4614,6340.6211,2770.43Khoton Хотон2,6030.312,8740.284,0560.344,3800.286,0760.319,0140.386,9040.27Myangad Мянгад2,5180.302,7120.273,2220.274,1730.274,7600.246,0280.258,2220.32Barga Барга2,4580.292,3430.232,3050.191,9990.132,1300.112,5060.112,3920.09Üzemchin Үзэмчин 2,0460.242,0700.202,1270.182,0300.132,0860.102,3860.101,9950.08RussiansОрос 13,4441.598,9050.881,4330.121960.011400.011580.011,3450.05ChineseХятад16,1571.9121,9812.167250.063440.022470.011730.012490.01Other**|| ||11,125||1.32||6,819||0.67||35,045||2.95||8,653||0.56||1,509||0.08||8,128||0.341,1400.04Total 845,481100.001,017,162100.001,188,271100.001,538,980100.001,987,274100.002,365,269100.002,601,789100.00 * - In the 1956 National Census Darkhad were counted with Uriankhai ** - including Chantuu (Uzbek),Tuvan, Khoshuud, Khotgoid,Tsaatan Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language--named after the Altay Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies--and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, Tatar, and Kazakh), Manchu, and possibly Korean or Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Tuvans, and Uzbeks) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia. Nationality: noun: Mongolian(s) adjective: Mongolian Ethnic groups: Mongol 90%, Kazakh 4%, other 6% Religions: Buddhist 98%, Muslim 2%, 20,000 Christians note: previously limited religious activity because of communist regime Languages: Khalkha Mongol 90%, Turkic (Kazakh, Tuvan), Russian Literacy: CIA World Factbook, accessed Dec. 9th, 2008 definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97.8% male: 98% female: 97.5% Base Demographic Indicators for Mongolia Base Demographic Indicators for Mongolia Demography indicator units U.S. Census BureauInternationalData Base1 July 2007 U.S. Census Bureau International Data Base - Mongolia Country Summary United Nations World PopulationProspects: The 2007 Revision1 July 2007 United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2007 Revision United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and Pacific(ESCAP)1 July 2006 United Nations ESCAP 2007 Statistical Yearbook National Statistical Office of Mongolia31 December 2007 Statistical Yearbook of Mongolia 2007, National Statistical Office, Ulaanbaatar, 2008 Population person 2,951,786 2,629,000 2,605,000 2,635,200 Age structure: 0-14 years: % of total population 28.72 27 28 28.58 Age structure: 15-59 years: % of total population 65.56 67 n.a. 65.36 Age structure: 60 years and over: % of total population 5.72 6 n.a. 6.06Population growth rate :% 1.486 1.20 0.9 1.545Birth rate: births/1,000 population 21.07 18.5 19.7 (2000-2005) 21.7Death rate: deaths/1,000 population 6.21 6.6 6.9 (2000-2005) 6.2Net migration rate: migrant(s)/1,000 population 0 0 -4.0 (2000-2005) n.a. Sex ratio: at birth:male(s)/female 1.0500 1.01 1.0424 1.0310 Sex ratio: under 15 years:male(s)/female 1.0408 n.a. 1.0153 1.0193 Sex ratio: 15-59 years:male(s)/female 1.0003 n.a. 0.9414 0.9379 Sex ratio: 60 years and over:male(s)/female 0.8169 0.80 n.a. 0.7933 Sex ratio: total population:male(s)/female 1.0002 0.9947 n.a. 0.9508Potential support ratio: persons aged 15 to 64 per persons aged 65 or older 17.47 17 n.a. 16.33Infant mortality rate: deaths/1,000 live births 42.65 40 39 (2005) 15.4Mortality under age 5: deaths/1,000 n.a. 55 49 (2005) 22 Life expectancy at birth total population:years 66.99 68 65.1 (2000-2005) 66.54 Life expectancy at birth male:years 64.61 64 61.9 (2000-2005) 63.13 Life expectancy at birth female:years 69.48 70 68.4 (2000-2005) 70.23Total fertility rate: children born/woman 2.2517 1.9 2.1 (2000-2005) 2.3Age specific fertility rate: ages 15-19 (per 1,000) 22.5 45 49.7 (2000-2005) 18.7Urban population: % of total population n.a. 57 56.8 60.75 Gross secondary school enrolment ratio males:% n.a. 84 n.a. 92.1 Gross secondary school enrolment ratio females:% n.a. 95 n.a. 95.6 Contraceptive prevalence rate all methods:% of women aged 15 to 49 who are married or in union n.a. 67.4 n.a. n.a. Contraceptive prevalence rate modern methods:% of women aged 15 to 49 who are married or in union n.a. 54.3 n.a. n.a.Persons with disabilities: % of total population n.a. 3.5 n.a. n.a.National poverty rate: % of total population n.a. 35.6 36.1 (2002) 32.2Human development index: % of total population n.a. 0.691 n.a. 0.720 Population projected to 2025:person 3,725,352 3,112,000 n.a. n.a. Population projected to 2050:person 4,340,496 3,388,000 n.a. n.a. References | Demographics_of_Mongolia |@lemmatized young:1 mongolian:3 boy:1 article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:26 mongolia:13 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:3 status:1 religious:2 affiliation:1 aspect:1 life:5 sparsely:1 populated:1 become:2 urbanized:1 nearly:1 half:1 people:1 live:5 capital:1 ulaanbaatar:2 provincial:1 center:2 semi:1 nomadic:1 still:1 predominate:1 countryside:1 settle:1 agricultural:1 community:1 common:1 growth:2 rate:11 estimate:1 census:5 two:1 third:1 total:11 age:11 data:2 fao:1 year:10 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 ethnic:5 group:4 монгол:1 улсын:1 ястангуудын:1 тоо:1 байршилд:1 гарч:1 буй:1 өөрчлөлтyyдийн:1 асуудалд:1 м:1 баянтөр:1 г:1 нямдаваа:1 з:1 баярмаа:1 pp:1 national:5 state:1 civil:1 registration:1 information:1 dörvöd:1 дархад:1 үзэмчин:1 darkhad:1 count:1 uriankhai:1 chantuu:1 uzbek:3 tuvan:2 khoshuud:1 khotgoid:1 tsaatan:1 mongol:9 account:1 consist:1 khalkha:3 distinguish:1 primarily:2 dialect:1 language:4 altaic:1 name:1 altay:1 mountain:1 central:1 asia:2 family:1 comprise:1 turkic:4 tungusic:2 mongolic:1 subfamily:1 relate:1 turkish:1 tatar:1 kazakh:4 manchu:1 possibly:1 korean:1 japanese:1 make:1 remain:2 durbet:1 others:1 north:1 dariganga:1 east:1 speaker:2 tuvans:1 constitute:1 rest:1 chinese:1 russian:3 leave:1 country:2 follow:1 withdrawal:1 aid:1 collapse:1 soviet:1 union:3 traditionally:1 tibetan:1 buddhism:2 predominant:1 religion:2 however:1 suppress:1 communist:2 regime:2 one:1 showcase:1 monastery:1 allow:1 since:1 liberalization:1 begin:1 enjoy:1 resurgence:1 million:2 outside:1 china:1 mainly:1 inner:1 autonomous:1 region:1 russia:1 buryatia:1 kalmykia:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 buddhist:1 muslim:1 christian:1 note:1 previously:1 limit:1 activity:1 literacy:1 cia:1 world:3 factbook:1 access:1 dec:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 male:8 female:8 base:3 indicator:3 demography:1 unit:1 u:2 bureauinternationaldata:1 july:3 bureau:1 international:1 summary:1 united:3 nation:4 populationprospects:1 prospect:1 revision:1 unite:1 socialcommission:1 pacific:1 escap:2 statistical:4 yearbook:2 office:2 december:1 person:6 structure:3 n:30 birth:6 death:3 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:5 ratio:8 support:1 per:2 old:1 mortality:1 expectancy:3 fertility:2 child:1 bear:1 woman:3 specific:1 gross:2 secondary:2 school:2 enrolment:2 contraceptive:2 prevalence:2 method:2 marry:2 modern:1 disability:1 poverty:1 development:1 index:1 project:2 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 sparsely_populated:1 semi_nomadic:1 altay_mountain:1 tungusic_mongolic:1 soviet_union:1 tibetan_buddhism:1 inner_mongolia:1 nationality_noun:1 male_female:6 census_bureau:1 prospect_revision:1 statistical_yearbook:2 rate_migrant:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:3 expectancy_birth:3 fertility_rate:2 |
7,378 | Ahmad_Shah_Massoud | Ahmad Shah Massoud (- Aḥmad Šāh Mas‘ūd; September 1953 – 9 September 2001) was a Kabul University engineering student turned military leader who, with support from the United States and other foreign nations, played a leading role in driving the Soviet army out of Afghanistan, earning him the nickname Lion of Panjshir. Many Afghans call him Āmir Sāhib-e Shahīd, translating to (Our) Martyred Commander. Massoud was the most moderate and popular of the anti-Soviet resistance leaders. VOA News - Author Roy Gutman Talks About What Went Wrong in the Decade Before 9/11 Attacks Following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet-backed government there, Massoud became Defense Minister in 1992 under former Afghan President Burhanuddin Rabbani. Following the collapse of Rabbani's government and the rise of the Taliban in 1996, Massoud returned to the role of an armed opposition leader, serving as the military commander of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan. On September 9, 2001, two days prior to the September 11 attacks in the United States, Massoud was assassinated in Takhar Province of Afghanistan by suspected al-Qaeda agents. The following year, he was named "National Hero" by the order of Afghan President Hamid Karzai. The date of his death, September 9th, is observed as a national holiday in Afghanistan, known as "Massoud Day." Afghanistan Events - Lonely Planet Travel Guide The year following his assassination, in 2002, Massoud was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. "Warrior and Peace," by Mohammad Shehzad, The News on Sunday, May 22, 2002. . Early life The son of police commander Dost Mohammad and an ethnic Tajik Staff (22 November 2001) "Ahmad Shah Massoud" Daily Telegraph United Kingdom , Ahmad Shah Massoud was born on 2 September 1953 in Bazarak, Panjshir, Afghanistan. At the age of five, he started grammar school in Bazarak and stayed there until second grade. Since his father was promoted to be police chief of Herat, he attended 3rd and 4th grade at the Mowaffaq School in Herat. He also received a religious education at the "Masjed-e Jame" mosque in Herat. Later, his father was moved to Kabul, so he attended intermediate and senior grades at the French Lycee of Al Istiqlal in Kabul. Since his childhood, he was considered exceedingly talented; from 10th grade on, his school acknowledged him as a particularly gifted student. His native tongue was Persian (Dari), but he was also fluent in French, Accueil Pashto, Hindi, and Urdu. He also had a good working knowledge of Arabic. While studying in Kabul in 1972, Massoud became involved with the sazman-i jawanan-i musulman ("organization of Muslim youth"), the student branch of the Jamiat Islami ("Islamic Society"), whose chairman was professor Burhanuddin Rabbani. This Islamist organization opposed the rising communist influence that became especially evident after the coup d'état that brought Mohammed Daoud Khan to power in 1973: the coup was orchestrated by the Parcham faction of the PDPA, the Afghan communist party. As soon as Daoud came to power, he began a crackdown against the Islamist movements, forcing those who were not arrested to flee to Pakistan. From here they organized the resistance movement, aided by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who feared Daoud's revival of the Pashtunistan issue. In July 1975, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, then a Jamiat member, organized an uprising against Daoud's government. Massoud was placed in charge of the Panjshir resistance and had some success in this area, but the revolt ultimately failed due to lack of support among the people and Gulbuddin's inability to entice officers of the Afghan army to join the resistance. Roy, Olivier(1990); Islam and resistance in Afghanistan; Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-39700-6, p.76 The ensuing repression greatly weakened the Islamist movement and forced the surviving militants back to Pakistan. In 1976, the movement split between supporters of Rabbani, who led the Jamiat, and the more fundamentalists members of Hekmatyar, who founded the Hezbi Islami. Massoud, who blamed the failure of the insurrection on Hekmatyar, joined Rabbani's faction. The Soviet war The 1978 uprising In 1978, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (حزب دیموکراتیک خلق افغانستان) came to power, and they began to reform Afghanistan along Marxist lines. These reforms met with resistance, especially as the government attempted to enforce its Marxist policies by arresting or simply executing those who resisted. The repression plunged large parts of the country, especially the rural areas, into open revolt against the new Marxist government. Islamist intellectuals such as Massoud became leaders of these uprisings. The first instance of open rebellion occurred in Nuristan, in July 1978. Massoud joined the rebels, and was present when they wiped out an armoured battalion sent by the PDPA to suppress the revolt. Roy p. 102 Having ascertained that an uprising against the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan would be backed by the people, Massoud made his way to the Panjshir and started a new insurrection on July 6, 1979. The fight lasted 40 days, during which the whole Panjshir, Salang, and Bola Ghain were in open revolt against the Marxist government. After these 40 days, Massoud's leg was injured and the troops under his command had no more weapons and ammunition. Despite 600 relief fighters from Nuristan, the government troops finally defeated them. Biography: Ahmad Shah Massoud; http://www.afgha.com/; 31/08/2006 Drawing lessons from this failure, Massoud decided to avoid direct confrontation with government troops and to wage a guerrilla war. He set about creating bases and giving his men training in guerilla warfare tactics. , p.107 Resisting the Soviet invasion and occupation Following the 1979 invasion and occupation of Afghanistan by Soviet troops, Massoud devised a strategic plan for expelling the invaders and overthrowing the communist regime. The first phase consisted of the establishment of a guerilla force, supported by the people. The second phase was one of "active defense" of the Panjshir stronghold, while carrying out irregular warfare. The third phase, the "strategic offensive," would see Massoud's forces taking control of large parts of Northern Afghanistan. The fourth phase was the "general application" of Massoud's principles on the whole country, and the final demise of the Afghan communist government. Massoud's resistance efforts ultimately drew military and other support from the United States during the administrations of Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan. Under the Reagan administration, U.S. support for the mujahideen ultimately evolved into an official U.S. foreign policy doctrine, known as the Reagan Doctrine, under which the U.S. supported anti-Soviet resistance movements in Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua and elsewhere. "The Reagan Doctrine, 1985," United States State Department. U.S. support for Massoud and his forces grew considerably in the late 1980s. From the start of the war, Massoud's mujahideen proved to be a thorn in the side for the occupying Soviet forces by ambushing Soviet and Afghan convoys travelling through the Salang Pass, resulting in fuel shortages in Kabul. To relieve the pressure on their supply lines, the Soviets were forced to mount a series of offensives against the Panjshir. Between 1980 and 1985, these offensives were conducted twice a year. Yet, despite engaging more men and hardware on each occasion, the Soviets were unable to defeat Massoud's forces. In 1982, the Soviets began deploying major combat units in the Panjshir numbering up to 12,000 men, and Massoud pulled his troops back into subsidiary valleys, where they occupied fortified positions. When the Soviet columns advanced onto these positions, they fell into ambushes and suffered heavy casualties. When the Soviets withdrew, they handed over their positions to Afghan army garrisons, and Masoud and his mujahideen forces attacked and recaptured them one by one. Roy p.199 In 1983, the Soviets offered Massoud a truce, which he accepted. He put this respite to good use, extending his influence to areas outside Panjshir, mostly in Takhar and Baghlan Provinces. This expansion prompted Babrak Karmal to demand that the Red Army resume their offensives, in order to crush the Panjshir groups definitively. However, Massoud had received advanced warning of the attack through his agents in the government and he evacuated all 30,000 inhabitants from the valley, leaving the Soviet bombings to fall on empty ground. Roy, p.201 Eventually, after 1985, no more offensives were carried out against the Panjshir. With the end of the Soviet-Afghan attacks, Massoud was able to carry out the next phase of his strategic plan, expanding the resistance movement and liberating the northern provinces of Afghanistan. In August 1986, he captured Farkhar in Takhar Province. In November 1986, his forces overran the headquarters of the government's 20th division at Nahrin in Baghlan Province, scoring an important victory for the resistance. Roy p.213 This expansion was also carried out through diplomatic means, as more mujahideen commanders were persuaded to adopt the Panjshir military system. Jamiat-e Islami fighters in 1987 with a Soviet DShK. Despite almost constant attacks by the Red army and the Afghan army, Massoud was able to increase his military strength. Starting in 1980 with a force of less than 1,000 ill-equipped guerillas, the Panjshir valley mujahideen grew to a 5,000-strong force by 1984. After expanding his influence outside the valley, Massoud grew his resistance forces to 13,000 fighters by 1989. Isby, p.98 These forces were divided into different types of units: the locals (mahalli) were tasked with static defense of villages and fortified positions. The best of the mahalli were formed into units called grup-i zarbati (shock troops), semi-mobile groups that acted as reserve forces for the defense of several strongholds. A different type of unit was the mobile group (grup-i-mutaharek), a lightly equipped commando-like formation numbering 33 men, whose mission was to carry out hit-and-run attacks outside the Panjshir, sometimes as far as 100 km from their base. These men were professional soldiers, well-paid and trained, and, from 1983 on, they provided an effective strike force against government outposts. Uniquely among the mujahideen, these groups wore uniforms, and their use of the pakul made this headwear emblematic of the Afghan resistance. Massoud's military organization was an effective compromise between the traditional Afghan method of warfare and the modern principles of guerilla warfare that Massoud had learned from the works of Mao Zedong and Che Guevara. His forces were considered the most effective of all the various Afghan resistance movements. Roy p.202 In July 1983, Massoud created the Shura-ye-nazar (council of supervision), a military council that would eventually coordinate the actions of 130 mujahideen commanders from seven provinces of northern Afghanistan: Parwan, Laghman, Kapisa, Kunar, Badakshan, Takhar, Baghlan and Kunduz . This council existed outside the fold of the Peshawar parties that were prone to internecine rivalry and bickering, and served to smooth out differences between resistance groups, due to political and ethnic divisions. It was the predecessor of what would ultimately become the "Northern Alliance." Barry, Michael(2002); Massoud, de l'islamisme à la liberté; Audibert; ISBN 2-84749-002-7, p.216 Relations with the party headquarters in Peshawar were often strained, as Rabbani insisted on giving Massoud no more weapons and supplies than to other Jamiat commanders, even those who did little fighting. To compensate for this deficiency, Massoud relied on revenues drawn from exports of emeralds and lapis lazuli, that are traditionally exploited in Northern Afghanistan. To organize the support for the mujahideen, he established an administrative system that enforced law and order (nazm) in areas under his control. The Panjshir was divided into 22 bases(qarargah) that were governed by a military commander and a civilian administrator and each had a judge, a prosecutor and a public defender. Davies, Will & Shariat, Abdullah(2004); Fighting Masoud's war; Lothian books ISBN 0-7344-0590-1, p.200 Massoud's policies were implemented by different committees: an economic committee was charged with funding the war effort. The health committee provided health services, assisted by volunteers from foreign humanitarian non-governmental organizations, such as Aide médicale internationale. An education committee was charged with the training of the military and administrative cadre. A culture and propaganda committee and a judiciary committee were also created. Barry, p.194 United States support Massoud ultimately drew strong support from the United States, especially during the second term of the Reagan administration, which labeled support for Massoud and other Afghan resistance forces "Operation Cyclone." Primary advocates for supporting Massoud included two Heritage Foundation foreign policy analysts, Michael Johns and James A. Phillips, both of whom championed Massoud as the Afghan resistance leader most worthy of U.S. support under the Reagan Doctrine. "Winning the Endgame in Afghanistan," by James A. Phillips, Heritage Foundation Backgrounder #181, May 18, 1992. "Charlie Wilson's War Was Really America's War," by Michael Johns, January 19, 2008. The Soviet army and the Afghan communist army were defeated by Massoud and the mujahideen in numerous small engagements between 1984 and 1988, but many of these battles remain either undocumented or unknown to outside sources. However, the strength of the Afghan resistance continued to grow in the late 1980s, fueled by increased U.S. support and associated military success of the Afghan resistance forces, causing the Soviet Union to rethink its occupation of the nation. In 1989, after labeling the Soviet Union's military engagement in Afghanistan "a bleeding wound," Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev began a withdrawal of Soviet troops from the nation. On February 15, 1989, in what was depicted as an improbable victory for the mujahideen, the last Soviet soldier left the nation. April 1992: The fall of Kabul After the departure of Soviet troops in 1989, the PDPA regime, then headed by Mohammad Najibullah, proved unexpectedly capable holding its own against the mujahideen. Backed by a massive influx of weapons from the Soviet Union, the Afghan armed forces reached a level of performance they had never reached under direct Soviet tutelage and were able to maintain control over all of Afghanistan's major cities. By 1992, however, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the regime began to crumble. Food and fuel shortages undermined the capacities of the government's army, and a resurgence of factionalism split the regime between Khalq and Parcham supporters. The Fall of Kabul, April 1992- Library of Congress country studies - Retrieved on 2007-04-02. A few days after it was clear that Najibullah had lost control of the nation, his army commanders and governors arranged to turn over authority to resistance commanders and local notables throughout the country. Joint councils (shuras) were immediately established for local government in which civil and military officials of the former government were usually included. In many cases, prior arrangements for transferring regional and local authority had been made between foes. Collusions between military leaders quickly brought down the Kabul government. In mid-January 1992, within three weeks of the demise of the Soviet Union, Massoud was aware of conflict within the government's northern command. General Abdul Momim, in charge of the Hairatan border crossing at the northern end of Kabul's supply highway, and other non-Pashtun generals based in Mazari Sharif feared removal by Najibullah and replacement by Pashtun officers. The generals rebelled and the situation was taken over by Abdul Rashid Dostum, who held general rank as head of the Jowzjani militia, also based in Mazari Sharif. He and Massoud reached a political agreement, together with another major militia leader, Sayyed Mansour, of the Ismaili community based in Baghlan Province. These northern allies consolidated their position in Mazar-i-Sharif on March 21. Their coalition covered nine provinces in the north and northeast. As turmoil developed within the government in Kabul, there was no government force standing between the northern allies and the major air force base at Bagram, some seventy kilometers north of Kabul. By mid-April 1992, the Afghan air force command at Bagram had capitulated to Massoud. Kabul was defenseless and its army no longer reliable. On March 18, 1992, Najibullah announced his willingness to resign, and on April 17, as his government fell apart, he tried to escape but was stopped at Kabul Airport by Dostum' forces. He then took refuge at the United Nations mission, where he remained until 1995. A group of Parchami generals and officials declared themselves an interim government for the purpose of handing over power to the mujahideen. For more than a week, Massoud remained poised to move his forces into the capital. He was awaiting the arrival of political leadership from Peshawar. The parties suddenly had sovereign power in their grasp, but no plan for executing it. With his principal commander prepared to occupy Kabul, Rabbani was positioned to prevail by default. Meanwhile. U.N. mediators tried to find a political solution that would assure a transfer of power acceptable to all sides. Civil war Gulbuddin Hekmatyar placed Kabul under intensive rocket bombardment in February 1993. Some sources cite up to 3,000 rockets being fired on Kabul daily * * * Biography * * *Lion of Panjshir Ahmad Shah Massoud , killing many civilians. After a series of negotiations in Kabul and in Peshawar, arranged by the power players of the Afghan Civil War - Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Iran - the warring factions failed to find a peaceful solution. As defense minister of the Afghan government, Massoud ordered a retreat from Kabul on September 26, 1996, after Taliban forces encircled the capital. Coll, Ghost Wars (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14. Resisting the Taliban As the Taliban took control of approximately 90 percent of Afghanistan, the warring factions had no choice but to form an alliance, which they called the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan. Because most factions were from the north of Afghanistan, the Western media called them the "Northern Alliance." The alliance consisted of warlords and tribal leaders like Haji Rahim, Commander Piram Qol, Haji Mohammad Mohaqiq, General Dostum, Qazi Kabir Marzban, Commander Ata Mohammad and General Malik. From the east were Haji Abdul Qadir, Commander Hazrat Ali, Commander Jaan Daad Khan and Abdullah Wahedi. From the northeast areas, Commander Qatrah and Commander Najmuddin participated. From the southern provinces, there were Commander Qari Baba, Noorzai, and Hotak. From the western and southwest provinces came General Ismail Khan, Doctor Ibrahim, and Fazlkarim Aimaq. From central Afghanistan Commander Anwari, Said Hussein Aalemi Balkhi, Said Mustafa Kazemi, Akbari, Mohammad Ali Jawed, Karim Khaili, Commander Sher Alam, and Abdur Rassul Sayyaf were members of this union. The alliance consisted of warlords who had been ousted by the locals from all regions of Afghanistan. International support After the Taliban publicly executed Mohammed Najibullah, Massoud and the Northern Alliance received increasing assistance from India. [http://books.google.com/books?id=XaQPHbHb_fkC&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54&dq=Mohammad+Najibullah+delhi&source=bl&ots=P99ziKKf3-&sig=9msSFGE-gWwa8jtpVoHSC9g-_A4&hl=en&ei=qsMZStLsHpeWMZKphJoP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4 Canada in Afghanistan By Peter Pigott] India was particularly concerned about the Islamic militancy in its neighborhood and consequently provided substantial aid to the Northern Alliance — US$70 million in aid including two Mi-17 helicopters, three additional helicopters in 2000 and US$8 million worth of high-altitude equipment in 2001. [http://books.google.com/books?id=EqDdfZwSc3EC&pg=PA93&dq=india+hijacking+ahmed+shah+massoud&client=firefox-a India and Pakistan By Duncan Mcleod] Furthermore, the alliance also received extensive aid from Iran because of their opposition to a strong Sunni Taliban government, and Russia and Tajikistan because of the growing Islamic movements in Chechnya and Central Asia.. In April 2001, Nicole Fontaine invited Massoud to address the European Parliament in Brussells, Belgium. In his speech, Massoud warned that the Taliban had connections with al-Qaeda and that he believed an important terrorist attack was imminent. Death Massoud was the target of a successful suicide attack at Khwaja Bahauddin, Afghanistan on 9 September 2001. The attackers were two Arabs, Dahmane Abd al-Sattar husband of Malika El Aroud and Bouraoui el-Ouaer, who claimed to be Belgians originally from Morocco. However, their passports turned out to be stolen and their nationality was later determined to be Tunisian. The assassins claimed to want to interview Massoud and then, while asking Massoud questions, set off a bomb in the camera, killing Massoud. The explosion also killed Mohammed Asim Suhail, a Northern Alliance official, while Mohammad Fahim Dashty and Massoud Khalili were injured. The assassins may have intended to attack several Northern Alliance council members simultaneously. Bouraoui was killed by the explosion and Dahmane was captured and shot while trying to escape. Massoud was rushed after the attack to the Indian Military hospital at Farkhor, Tajikistan, which is now Farkhor Air Base. News of Massoud's death was reported almost immediately, appearing in BBC, European and North American newspapers on 10 September 2001. However, the news was quickly overshadowed by the September 11, 2001 attacks the following day, which appeared to be the terrorist attack that Massoud had warned against in his speech to the European Parliament several months earlier. The timing of the assassination, two days before the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, is considered significant by commentators who believe Osama bin Laden ordered the assassination to help his Taliban protectors and ensure he would have their protection and cooperation in Afghanistan. The assassins are also reported to have shown support for bin Laden in their questioning of Massoud. The Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and Mujahideen leader Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, an Afghan Wahhabi Islamist, have also been mentioned as possible organizers or collaborators of the Massoud assassins. "The assassins" by Jon Lee Anderson. The New Yorker, June 10, 2002. Vol.78, Iss. 15; pg. 72 Massoud was a strong opponent of Pakistani involvement in Afghanistan. The assassins are said to have entered Northern Alliance territory under the auspices of the Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and had his assistance in bypassing "normal security procedures." The French secret service revealed on 16 October 2003 that the camera used by Massoud's assassins had been stolen in December 2000 in Grenoble, France from a photojournalist, Jean-Pierre Vincendet, who was then working on a story on that city's Christmas store window displays. By tracing the camera's serial number, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation was able to determine that Vincendet was its original owner. The French secret service and the FBI then began working on tracing the route the camera took between the time it was taken from Vincendet and the Massoud assassination. Legacy Massoud's tomb in the Panjshir Valley. In 2001, the Afghan Interim Government under president Hamid Karzai awarded Massoud the title of "Hero of the Afghan Nation". Massoud is the subject of Ken Follett's Lie Down With Lions, a novel about the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Many documentaries, books and movies have been made about Ahmad Shah Massoud. One of the most notable is Fire by Sebastian Junger. In this book, there is a chapter named "The Lion in Winter" in which Junger interviews Massoud. Junger was one of the last Western journalists to interview Massoud in depth. The bulk of this interview was first published in March 2001 for National Geographic'''s Adventure Magazine, along with photographs by the renowned Iranian photographer Reza Deghati. The Path to 9/11 The well known French musician-songwriter-author Damien Saez wrote a song called "Massoud" in 2002. Massoud also was featured in the ABC Television mini-series The Path to 9/11, which aired commercial free in the U.S. in 2006, on the fifth anniversary of the 9/11 attacks. The mini-series depicts Massoud warning U.S. intelligence agents of the coming U.S. attack by al-Qaeda Ahmad Shah Massoud's warning to the United States, The Path to 9/11. and Massoud's September 9, 2001 assassination. Assassination of Ahmad Shah Massoud, The Path to 9/11. Personal Massoud was married with four daughters and a son, and the family has a great deal of prestige in the politics of Afghanistan. Of his six brothers, Ahmad Zia Massoud is the current vice-president of Afghanistan and Ahmad Wali Massoud is Afghanistan's ambassador to the United Kingdom. Following his assassination, Massoud was interred in a mausoleum in Panjshir Valley. A larger mausoleum is currently being constructed to replace the current one. "The Lion of Panjshir" Massoud's nickname, the "Lion of Panjshir" is a rhyme and play on words in Persian, which alludes to the strength of his resistance against the Soviet Union, the mythological exaltation of the lion in Persian literature, and finally, the place name of the Panjshir Valley, where Massoud was born. The place name of "Panjshir" Valley in Persian means (Valley of the) Five Lions. Thus, the phrase "Lion of Panjshir." which in Persian is "Shir-e-Panjshir," is a rhyming play on words. See also Malika El Aroud Reagan Doctrine Sebastian Junger#Fire Further reading Stephen Tanner: Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban Christophe de Ponfilly: Massoud l'Afghan (in French) Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 Penguin Press, 695. ISBN 1-59420-007-6. Peter Bergen: Holy War, Inc.Ahmed Rashid: TALIBAN - The Story of the Afghan Warlords. ISBN 0-330-49221-7. A. R. Rowan: On The Trail Of A Lion: Ahmed Shah Massoud, Oil Politics and TerrorKen Follett: Lie Down With Lions Roger Plunk: The Wandering Peacemaker References to Masood appear in the book A Thousand Splendid Suns by Khaled Hosseini. MaryAnn T. Beverly: From That Flame (2007, Kallisti Publishing) Gary C Schroen, 2005, ""First In" An Insiders Account of How The CIA Spearheaded the War on Terror in Afghanistan", Presido Press, ISBN 978345496614. External links Massoud's Letter To The People Of America 1998 The Assassination of Ahmad Shah Massoud Paul Wolf, Global Research, September 14, 2003 AhmadShahMassoud.com Jawedan.com tribute site to Ahmad Shah Massoud (in Persian & English) 60 Years of Asian Heroes: Ahmad Shah Massoud Time, 2006 Profile: Afghanistan's 'Lion Of Panjshir' Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, September 5, 2006 The Last Interview with Ahmad Shah Massoud Piotr Balcerowicz, early August 2001 "Breakfast with Massoud" by Roger Plunk The Source'', December 1, 2001 Bharat Rakshak Monitor - Ahmad Shah Mas’ud (1953-2001) Proposal for Peace, promoted by Commander Massoud, in English in Dari (Persian) Massoud, l'Afghan (documentary film) New York Times Film Review rottentomatoes.com Film Review Theatrical Release Ahmad Shah Massoud, destiny's Afghan by Iqbal Malhotra The Lion Of Panjshir (Symphony No. 2) for narrator and symphonic band by composer David Gaines Information, concert program, newspaper reviews, available recordings and scores From That Flame (historical fiction) From That Flame by MaryAnn T. Beverly Photographs Photographs of the Lion of the Panjshir Notes and references | Ahmad_Shah_Massoud |@lemmatized ahmad:16 shah:16 massoud:95 aḥmad:1 šāh:1 ūd:1 september:15 kabul:18 university:2 engineering:1 student:3 turn:3 military:15 leader:9 support:16 united:13 state:9 foreign:4 nation:7 play:3 leading:1 role:2 drive:1 soviet:33 army:11 afghanistan:37 earn:1 nickname:2 lion:14 panjshir:27 many:5 afghan:29 call:5 āmir:1 sāhib:1 e:4 shahīd:1 translate:1 martyr:1 commander:20 moderate:1 popular:1 anti:2 resistance:20 voa:1 news:4 author:2 roy:7 gutman:1 talk:1 go:1 wrong:1 decade:1 attack:16 follow:5 withdrawal:2 troop:9 subsequent:1 collapse:3 backed:1 government:24 become:5 defense:5 minister:2 former:2 president:4 burhanuddin:2 rabbani:7 rise:2 taliban:10 return:1 armed:1 opposition:2 serve:2 islamic:5 front:2 salvation:2 two:5 day:7 prior:2 assassinate:1 takhar:4 province:10 suspected:1 al:5 qaeda:3 agent:3 following:2 year:4 name:4 national:3 hero:3 order:5 hamid:2 karzai:2 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7,379 | History_of_North_Korea | For the history of Korea before its division, see History of Korea. The history of North Korea formally begins with the establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in 1948. In the aftermath of the Japanese occupation of Korea which ended with Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel in accordance with a United Nations arrangement, to be administered by the Soviet Union in the north and the United States in the south. The Soviets and Americans were unable to agree on the implementation of Joint Trusteeship over Korea. This led in 1948 to the establishment of separate governments, each claiming to be the legitimate government of all of Korea. The early years Having occupied Najin and Ch’ŏngjin on 12 August, the Soviets moved into Wonsan and Hamhŭng on 24 August and P’yŏngyang during 24-26 August, sending troops directly into each of the provinces. Chistiakov, commander of the Soviet 25th Army arrived in Hamhŭng on 24 August and in accordance with his orders from the headquarters of the 1st Field Army of the Far Eastern Division he opened negotiations with the provincial governor and other Japanese leaders of the provincial government about taking over administration of the province. The content of their agreement was as follows: If anyone, whether they are Japanese or Korean, leaves their post, they will immediately be sentenced to death by hanging. … For the time being, the Japanese police and military police will maintain order and administrative functions will continue to be carried out as before by the Japanese provincial governor and his subordinates. Those who cause disturbances of the peace will be severely punished. … Work should continue in factories, workshops, mines etc, and goods must not be removed from these workplaces. This agreement was published in the Soviet Army’s decree of 25 August. This decree, which stressed the continuation of Japanese administrative and security control, was the Soviet command’s first official position revealing their policy toward the Korean peninsula. However, before a day had passed this decree was cancelled. Song Sŏnggwan, Ch’oe Kimo, Im Ch’ungsŏk and Kim Inhak, members of the South Hamgyŏng Province Communist Council as well as To Yongho and Ch’oe Myŏnghak, leaders of the South Hamgyŏng Province branch of the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence had visited Chistiakov, informing him that a ‘South Hamgyŏng Executive Committee’ had been formed and requesting that authority for administration be transferred to this committee. Chistiakov cancelled the decree and announced that, “this Executive Committee will manage all administrative and security affairs, under the command of the Soviet Army.” The government moved rapidly to establish a political system that was partly styled on the Soviet system, with political power monopolised by the WPK. The establishment of a command economy followed. Most of the country's productive assets had been owned by the Japanese or by Koreans who had been collaborators. The nationalization of these assets in 1946 placed 70% of industry under state control. By 1949 this percentage had risen to 90%. Since then, virtually all manufacturing, finance and internal and external trade has been conducted by the state. In agriculture, the government moved more slowly towards a command economy. The "land to the tiller" reform of 1946 redistributed the bulk of agricultural land to the poor and landless peasant population, effectively breaking the power of the landed class. In 1954, however, a partial collectivization was carried out, with peasants being urged, and often forced, into agricultural co-operatives. By 1958, virtually all farming was being carried out collectively, and the co-operatives were increasingly merged into larger productive units. Like all the postwar communist states, North Korea undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods. By paying the collectivized peasants low state-controlled prices for their product, and using the surplus thus extracted to pay for industrial development, the state carried out a series of three-year plans, which brought industry's share of the economy from 47% in 1946 to 70% in 1959, despite the devastation of the Korean War. There were huge increases in electricity production, steel production and machine building. The large output of tractors and other agricultural machinery achieved a great increase in agricultural productivity. The Korean War The consolidation of Syngman Rhee's government in the South with American military support and the suppression of the October 1948 insurrection ended hopes that the country could be reunified by way of Stalinist revolution in the South, and from early 1949 Kim sought Soviet and Chinese support for a military campaign to reunify the country by force. The withdrawal of most U.S. forces from South Korea in June 1949 left the southern government defended only by a weak and inexperienced South Korean army. The southern regime also had to deal with a citizenry of uncertain loyalty. The North Korean army, by contrast, had been the beneficiary of the Soviet Union's outdated Soviet WWII-era equipment, and had a core of hardened veterans who had fought as anti-Japanese guerrillas or with the Chinese Communists. Bruce Cummings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, Princeton University Press Initially, the Soviet Union's Joseph Stalin rejected Kim's requests for permission to invade the South, but in late 1949 the Communist victory in China and the development of Soviet nuclear weapons made him re-consider Kim's proposal. In January 1950, after China's Mao Zedong indicated that China would send troops and other support to Kim, Stalin approved an invasion. The Soviets provided limited support in the form of advisors who helped the North Koreans as they planned the operation, and Soviet military instructors to train some of the Korean units. However, from the very beginning Stalin made it clear that the Soviet Union would avoid a direct confrontation with the U.S. over Korea and would not commit ground forces even in case of some major military crisis. The stage was set for a civil war between two rival regimes on the Korean peninsula. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, Princeton University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-691-10113-2 For over a year before North Korean forces tried to attack the southern government on June 25 1950, the two sides had been engaged in a series of bloody clashes along the 38th parallel, especially in the Ongjin area on the west coast. On June 25 1950 the northern forces escalated the battles into a full-fledged offensive and crossed the parallel in large numbers. Due to a combination of surprise, superior military forces, and a poorly armed South Korean army, the Northern forces quickly captured Seoul and Syngman Rhee and his government was forced to flee further south. However, the North Koreans failed to unify the peninsula when foreign powers entered the civil war. North Korean forces were soon defeated and driven northwards by United Nations forces led by the U.S. By October, the U.N. forces had retaken Seoul and captured Pyongyang, and it became Kim's turn to flee. But in November, Chinese forces entered the war and pushed the U.N. forces back, retaking Pyongyang in December and Seoul in January 1951. In March U.N. forces retook Seoul, and the war essentially became a bloody stalemate for the next two years. The front was stabilized in 1953 along what eventually became the current Armistice Line. After long negotiations, the two sides agreed on a border formed by the Korean Demilitarized Zone, and a ceasefire was declared. An official peace treaty, however, was never signed, and the two Koreas have technically been at war since 1950. After the war, Kim took control of North Korean politics, with the support of the armed forces, who respected his wartime record and long resistance to the Japanese. Pak Hon-yong, party vice chairman and Foreign Minister of DPRK, was blamed for the failure of the southern population to support North Korea during the war and was executed after a show-trial in 1955. Most of the South Korean leftists who defected to the North in 1945–1953 were also accused of espionage and other crimes and killed, imprisoned or exiled to remote agricultural and mining villages. Potential rivals from other groups such as Kim Tu-bong were also purged. Postwar consolidation The 1954–56 three-year plan repaired the massive damage caused by the war and brought industrial production back to pre-war levels. This was followed by the five-year plan of 1957–61 and the seven-year plan of 1961–67. These plans brought about further growth in industrial production and substantial development of state infrastructure. By the 1960s North Korea was the second most industrialized nation in East Asia, trailing only Japan. While a number of internal limitations appeared, such as in the production of consumer goods, the national standard of living was considered by many third-world nations as an alternative to the capitalist model of development sponsored by the United States. Building upon the ruins left by the Korean War, the North Korean economy by the late 1960s provided its people with medical care, universal education, adequate caloric intake, and habitable housing. Kim Il-sung promoted Juche ("self-reliance"), a slogan he began to develop in the late 1950s and which he ultimately made North Korea's official ideology, displacing Marxism-Leninism. The goal of Juche is to make North Korea strong enough to resist foreign invasion and capitalist intervention. The North Korean people were making use of domestic materials, technology, and innovations instead of becoming dependent upon those from outside the nation. Juche urged the North Korean people to resist foreign invasion by launching a series of mass-campaigns designed to strengthen the country economically, militarily, and culturally. North Korea's position was complicated by the Sino-Soviet split, which began in 1960. Relations between North Korea and the Soviet Union worsened when the Soviets concluded that Kim Il-sung was supporting the Chinese side, although in fact Kim hoped to use the split to play China and the Soviets off against each other while pursuing a more independent policy. The result was a sharp decline in Soviet aid and credit, which could not be replaced by the less advanced Chinese. In fact, Kim's enthusiasm for Mao Zedong's policies was limited, despite his rhetorical denunciations of "revisionism." While he supported Chinese campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward, he saw Maoist initiatives such as the Hundred Flowers Campaign and the Cultural Revolution as destabilising and dangerous. In this way, Kim Il-sung showed his determination to mark an independent path for North Korea when possible. Economic decline Due to a series of ill fortuned policy decisions concerning military expenditures and mining industries and the radical changes in international oil prices by the late seventies, the North Korean economy began to slow down. These decisions eventually affected the whole economy, forcing the nation to acquire external debts. At the same time North Korea's policy of self-reliance and the antagonism of America and its allies made it difficult for them to expand foreign trade or secure credit. In the seventies the expansion of North Korea's economy, with the accompanying rise in living standards, came to an end and a few decades later went into reverse. A huge increase in the price of oil following the oil shock of 1974 hurt the economies of countries throughout the world, North Korea among them. North Korea has no oil of its own, and it had few export commodities of interest to the west. Compounding this was a decision to borrow foreign capital and invest simultaneously in the military and mining industries. North Korea's desire to gain as much independence as it could from China and Russia prompted the expansion of its military power. They believed such expenditures could be covered by foreign borrowing and increased sales of its minerals in the international market. North Korea invested heavily in its mining industries and purchased a large quantity of extractive machinery and tools from abroad. However, soon after making these investments, the international prices for many of these minerals fell, leaving North Korea with large debts and an inability to both pay off the debts and provide a high level of social welfare to its people. Bruce Cumings, Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History, W. W. Norton & Co., 1998, ISBN 0-393-31681-5 Adding to the above, the centrally planned economy, which emphasized heavy industry, had reached the limits of its productive potential in North Korea. Juche repeated demands that North Koreans learn to build and innovate domestically had run its course as had the ability of North Koreans to keep technological pace with other industrialized nations. By the mid to late-1970s some parts of the capitalist world, including South Korea, were advancing into new phases of technology and economic development and phasing out the coal-and-steel-based economies of the earlier period. Kim Il-sung, continuing his ideology that had once been highly successful, was unable to respond effectively to the challenge of an increasingly prosperous and well-armed South Korea, which undermined the legitimacy of his own regime. Having failed at their earlier attempt to turn to the market and conduct market-economy reforms such as those carried out in China by Deng Xiaoping, Kim opted for continued ideological purity. The DPRK by 1980 was faced with the choice of either repaying its international loans, or continuing its support of social welfare for its people. Given the ideals of Juche, North Korea chose to default on its loans and by the late 1980s its industrial output was declining. Bruce Cumings, North Korea: Another Country, New Press, 2004, ISBN 1-56584-940-X Succession by Kim Jong-il Kim Il-sung died in 1994. His son, Kim Jong-il, who already had key positions in the government, succeeded him as General-Secretary of the Korean Workers Party. At that period North Korea had neither a secretary-general in the party nor a president. No functions of the government or party were normal. Minimal legal procedure was ignored. Although the new constitution appears to end the abnormal political system, it does not appear to completely terminate the transitional military rule. Rather it seems to legitimize and institutionalize military rule by making the NDC the most important state organ and its chairman the highest authority. Kim Jong-il became Chairman of the National Defense Commission, a position described as the nation's "highest administrative authority," and thus North Korea's de facto head of state. His succession had been decided as early as 1980, with the support of the military and party apparatus. During the decade of Kim Jong-il's rule, North Korea's economy has continued to deteriorate and the standard of living of its 23 million people has continued to fall. From 1996 to 1999 the country experienced a large-scale famine which left some 600–900,000 people dead. The fundamental cause of this decline is that the state, which runs the entire economy, is bankrupt, and cannot pay for the necessary imports of capital goods to undertake the desperately needed modernization of its industrial plants. The inefficiency of North Korea's Stalinist-style collective agricultural system also contributed to the disaster. North Korea spends about a quarter of its GDP on armaments, including the development of nuclear weapons, and keeps nearly all able-bodied males aged 18–30 in uniform, while the basic infrastructure of the state is allowed to crumble. As a result, North Korea is now dependent on international food aid to feed its population. According to Amnesty International, more than 13 million people, over half the population of the country, suffered from malnutrition in the DPRK in 2003. In 2001 the DPRK received nearly $US300 million in food aid from the U.S., South Korea, Japan, and the European Union, plus much additional aid from the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. Unspecified (but apparently large) amounts of aid in the form of food, oil and coal are also provided by China every year. Despite this North Korea maintained its hostile rhetoric against the U.S., South Korea and Japan. The supply of heating and electricity outside the capital is practically non-existent, and food and medical supplies are scarce. When there is a bad harvest, as has been persistently the case over recent years, the population faces actual famine: a situation never before seen in a peacetime industrial economy. Since 1997 there has been a steady stream of illegal emigration to China, despite the efforts of both countries to prevent it. Kim Jong-il has said that the solution to this crisis is earning hard currency, developing information technology, and attracting foreign aid, but despite some movement towards reform it has not substantially reduced the state's control over the economy or introduced the market-oriented reforms which have produced spectacular economic growth in China since 1979. So far the DPRK, not surprisingly given Juche and UN attempts to isolate them, has made little progress in attracting private capital. In July 2002 some limited reforms were announced. The currency was devalued and food prices were allowed to rise in the hope of stimulating agricultural production. It was announced that food rationing systems as well as subsidized housing would be phased out. A "family-unit farming system" was introduced on a trial basis for the first time since collectivization in 1954. The government also set up a "special administrative zone" in Sinuiju, a town near the border with China. The local authority was given near-autonomy, especially in its economic affairs. This was an attempt to emulate the success of such free-trade zones in China, but it attracted little outside interest. Despite some optimistic talk in the foreign press the impetus of these reforms has not been followed with, for example, a large-scale decollectivization such as occurred in China under Deng. Current situation President Kim Dae-jung of South Korea actively attempted to reduce tensions between the two Koreas under the Sunshine Policy, but this produced few immediate results. Since the election of George W. Bush as the President of the United States, North Korea has faced renewed external pressure over its nuclear program, reducing the prospect of international economic assistance. North Korea remains a totalitarian Stalinist state. The lack of access to the foreign media and the tradition of secrecy in North Korea means that there is little news about political conditions, but Amnesty International's 2003 report on North Korea says that "there were reports of severe repression of people involved in public and private religious activities, including imprisonment, torture and executions. Unconfirmed reports suggested that torture and ill-treatment were widespread in prisons and labour camps. Conditions were reportedly extremely harsh." Amnesty International Report 2003: Korea (Democratic People's Republic of), Amnesty International There seems little immediate likelihood that North Korea will undergo an East German-style collapse: a prospect that South Korea and China view with great trepidation because of the fear of a sudden and large exodus of North Korean refugees into their countries. There appears to be little significant internal opposition to the regime. Indeed, a great many of the refugees fleeing to China because of famine still showed significant support for the current government as well as pride in their homeland. Many of these food refugees reportedly return to North Korea after earning sufficient money. Kim Hong-min, "I'm not brave. I'm only pretending to be brave in coming here." Outsider, no. 15, September 2003. ISBN 89-90720-04-4 In 2002 Kim Jong Il declared that "money should be capable of measuring the worth of all commodities", followed by some small market economy relaxations, and the creation of the Kaesong Industrial Region with transport links to South Korea was announced. Experiments are under way to allow factory managers to fire underperforming workers and give bonuses. China’s investments increased to $200 million in 2004. China has counseled North Korea’s leaders to gradually open the economy to market forces, and it is possible this path will be successfully followed as well as China's policy of keeping political control firmly in the hands of the communist party. North Korea declared on Feb. 10, 2005 that it has nuclear weapons DPRK FM on Its Stand to Suspend Its Participation in Six-party Talks for Indefinite Period, KCNA, February 10, 2005 bringing widespread calls for the North to return to the six-party talks aimed at curbing its nuclear program. It was initially disputed by outside sources whether or not North Korea has nuclear weapons, and many Russian sources denied that North Korea has the technology necessary to build a nuclear weapon. On Monday, 9 October 2006, North Korea has announced that it had successfully detonated a nuclear device underground at 10:36 am local time without any radiation leak. An official at South Korea's seismic monitoring center confirmed a magnitude-3.6 tremor felt at the time North Korea said it conducted the test was not a natural occurrence. Associated Press Additionally, North Korea has a very active missile development program. In 1998, North Korea tested a Taepondong-1 Space Launch Vehicle, which successfully launched but failed to reach orbit. On July 5, 2006, they tested a Taepodong-2 ICBM that reportedly could reach the west coast of the U.S. in the 2-stage version, or the entire U.S. with a third stage. However, the missile failed shortly after launch, so it is unknown what its exact capabilities are or how close North Korea is to perfecting the technology. North Korea's advancements in weapons technology appear to give them leverage in ongoing negotiations with the United Nations and other countries. On Feb 13, 2007, North Korea signed an agreement with South Korea, the United States, Russia, China, and Japan, in which North Korea will shut down its Yongbyon nuclear reactor in exchange for economic and energy assistance. However in 2009 the North continued its nuclear test program. See also History of Korea Prehistory of Korea 2006 North Korea flooding 2007 North Korea flooding List of Korea-related topics References External links Speak Out About Human Rights In North Korea (a commentary from Human Rights Watch, published in The Asian Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2004) On North Korea's streets, pink and tangerine buses, Christian Science Monitor, June 2 2005 North Korea on the rebound, Global Beat Syndicate, June 27 2005 The North Korea International Documentation Project (Primary source documents concerning DPRK history) Further reading O'Hanlon, Michael; Mochizuki, Mike. "Crisis on the Korean Peninsula." McGraw-Hill. 2003. ISBN 0-07-143155-1 Cumings, Bruce, et al.. "Inventing the Axis of Evil." The New Press. 2004. 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7,380 | Burwash_Hall | Burwash dining hall viewed from Charles St. Burwash Hall is the second oldest of the residence buildings at Toronto's Victoria College. Construction began in 1911 and was completed in 1913. It was named after Nathanael Burwash, a former president of Victoria. The building is an extravagant Neo-Gothic work with turrets, gargoyles, and battlements. The architect was Henry Sproatt. The building is divided between the large dining hall in the northwest and the student residence proper. The residence area is divided into two sections. The Upper Houses, built in 1913, consist of four houses: North House, Middle House, Gate House, and South House. The Lower Houses were built in 1931 and were originally intended to house theology students at Emmanuel College, whose current building was opened the same year. Ryerson House, Nelles House, Caven House, Bowles-Gandier House are now mostly home to undergraduate arts and science students. The latter two are mostly reserved for students in the new Vic One Programme. Famous residents of Burwash include Vincent Massey, Lester B. Pearson, Don Harron, and Donald Sutherland. The upper houses were gutted and renovated in 1995. The lower houses have only been partially upgraded. Before the renovations the entire building was all male, but now every house is co-ed. Since its renovations Burwash has been viewed by residents as one of the best residences in Canada. Each Upper House consists of three floors. The lower floor contains a common room equipped with kitchen facilities, couches and a television. The upper floors each have their own kitchen and dining area. All except North House have a very high bathroom ratio, with Gate House being the best with nine washrooms for its twenty-eight residents. Upper Houses are divided between double rooms and singles, with about sixty percent of the population being in doubles. The Lower Houses each have four floors, but are much narrower with each level having only four rooms. Each level also has its own kitchen, but these are much smaller than in the Upper Houses. The Lower Houses do have far larger and better fitted common rooms that are similar to the one's the Upper Houses had before the renovations. The rooms in the Lower Houses are also considered more luxurious with hardwood floors and large sizes. Rooms in the Lower Houses are more expensive, however. Until 2003 the Lower Houses were restricted to upper year students but with the double cohort of graduates from Ontario schools many of the rooms were transformed into doubles and now hold first years. Gate House viewed from the Quad To the west the Upper Houses look out on the Vic Quad and the main Victoria College building across it. West of the Lower Houses is the new Lester B. Pearson Garden of Peace and International Understanding and the E.J. Pratt Library beyond it. The views from the eastern side of the building are more interesting with the Upper Houses looking out at Rowell Jackman Hall and the Lower Houses seeing the amazingly better St. Michael's College residence of Elmsley. The only exception is the view from Gate House's tower that looks down St. Mary's Street. The dining hall is perhaps the best known part of the building to outsiders. It is the University of Toronto's largest holding some 250 students and sixteen large tables. Hanging on the western wall is Queen Victoria's burial flag, given to the college soon after her death. Under the flag is the high table where the professors and college administration lunch. The Upper Houses each have their own table. Gate sits in the southwest corner, Middle sits in the far northeast, South is in the table to the west of Middle, while North is one to the west of the southeast corner. The only lower house to have a designated table is Caven, in the northwest corner beside the Alumni table. (Note that prior to the 1995 renovations, some of these houses, particularly North and Caven, 'traditionally' sat elsewhere) Victoria College residences Burwash Hall | Annesley Hall | Margaret Addison Hall | Rowell Jackman Hall | Burwash_Hall |@lemmatized burwash:6 din:4 hall:9 view:5 charles:1 st:3 second:1 oldest:1 residence:6 building:8 toronto:2 victoria:5 college:7 construction:1 begin:1 complete:1 name:1 nathanael:1 former:1 president:1 extravagant:1 neo:1 gothic:1 work:1 turret:1 gargoyle:1 battlement:1 architect:1 henry:1 sproatt:1 divide:3 large:5 northwest:2 student:6 proper:1 area:2 two:2 section:1 upper:11 house:35 build:2 consist:2 four:3 north:4 middle:3 gate:5 south:2 low:11 originally:1 intend:1 theology:1 emmanuel:1 whose:1 current:1 open:1 year:3 ryerson:1 nelles:1 caven:3 bowl:1 gandier:1 mostly:2 home:1 undergraduate:1 art:1 science:1 latter:1 reserve:1 new:2 vic:2 one:4 programme:1 famous:1 resident:3 include:1 vincent:1 massey:1 lester:2 b:2 pearson:2 harron:1 donald:1 sutherland:1 gutted:1 renovate:1 partially:1 upgraded:1 renovation:4 entire:1 male:1 every:1 co:1 ed:1 since:1 best:3 canada:1 three:1 floor:5 contain:1 common:2 room:7 equip:1 kitchen:3 facility:1 couch:1 television:1 except:1 high:2 bathroom:1 ratio:1 nine:1 washroom:1 twenty:1 eight:1 double:4 single:1 sixty:1 percent:1 population:1 much:2 narrower:1 level:2 also:2 small:1 far:2 well:1 fitted:1 similar:1 consider:1 luxurious:1 hardwood:1 size:1 expensive:1 however:1 restrict:1 cohort:1 graduate:1 ontario:1 school:1 many:1 transform:1 hold:2 first:1 quad:2 west:4 look:3 main:1 across:1 garden:1 peace:1 international:1 understanding:1 e:1 j:1 pratt:1 library:1 beyond:1 eastern:1 side:1 interesting:1 rowell:2 jackman:2 see:1 amazingly:1 good:1 michael:1 elmsley:1 exception:1 tower:1 mary:1 street:1 perhaps:1 known:1 part:1 outsider:1 university:1 sixteen:1 table:6 hang:1 western:1 wall:1 queen:1 burial:1 flag:2 give:1 soon:1 death:1 professor:1 administration:1 lunch:1 sits:2 southwest:1 corner:3 northeast:1 southeast:1 designate:1 beside:1 alumnus:1 note:1 prior:1 particularly:1 traditionally:1 sat:1 elsewhere:1 annesley:1 margaret:1 addison:1 |@bigram donald_sutherland:1 queen_victoria:1 |
7,381 | LaTeX | LaTeX (, , or ) is a document markup language and document preparation system for the TeX typesetting program. Within the typesetting system, its name is styled as \LaTeX. LaTeX is most widely used by mathematicians, scientists, engineers, philosophers, economists and other scholars in academia and the commercial world, and other professionals. As a primary or intermediate format (e.g. translating DocBook and other XML-based formats to PDF), LaTeX is used because of the high quality of typesetting achievable by TeX. The typesetting system offers programmable desktop publishing features and extensive facilities for automating most aspects of typesetting and desktop publishing, including numbering and cross-referencing, tables and figures, page layout and bibliographies. LaTeX is intended to provide a high-level language that accesses the power of TeX. LaTeX essentially comprises a collection of TeX macros and a program to process LaTeX documents. Because the TeX formatting commands are very low-level, it is usually much simpler for end-users to use LaTeX. LaTeX was originally written in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International. It has become the dominant method for using TeX—relatively few people write in plain TeX anymore. The current version is LaTeX2e (styled \LaTeXe). The term LaTeX refers only to the language in which documents are written, not to the editor used to write those documents. In order to create a document in LaTeX, a .tex file must be created using some form of text editor. While most text editors can be used to create a LaTeX document, a number of editors have been created specifically for working with LaTeX. Distributed under the terms of the LaTeX Project Public License (LPPL), LaTeX is free software. Typesetting system LaTeX is based on the idea that authors should be able to focus on the content of what they are writing without being distracted by its visual presentation. In preparing a LaTeX document, the author specifies the logical structure using familiar concepts such as chapter, section, table, figure, etc., and lets the LaTeX system worry about the presentation of these structures. It therefore encourages the separation of layout from content while still allowing manual typesetting adjustments where needed. This is similar to the mechanism by which many word processors allow styles to be defined globally for an entire document or the CSS mechanism used by HTML. The example below shows the LaTeX input and corresponding output: \documentclass[12pt]{article} \usepackage{amsmath} \title{\LaTeX} \date{} \begin{document} \maketitle \LaTeX{} is a document preparation system for the \TeX{} typesetting program. It offers programmable desktop publishing features and extensive facilities for automating most aspects of typesetting and desktop publishing, including numbering and cross-referencing, tables and figures, page layout, bibliographies, and much more. \LaTeX{} was originally written in 1984 by Leslie Lamport and has become the dominant method for using \TeX; few people write in plain \TeX{} anymore. The current version is \LaTeXe. % This is a comment, it is not shown in the final output. % The following shows a little of the typesetting power of LaTeX \begin{align} E &= mc^2 \\ m &= \frac{m_0}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} \end{align} \end{document} LaTeX output LaTeX can be arbitrarily extended by using the underlying macro language to develop custom formats. Such macros are often collected into packages, which are available to address special formatting issues such as complicated mathematical content or graphics. Indeed, in the example above the align environment is provided by the amsmath package. Pronouncing and writing "LaTeX" LaTeX can also be used to produce vector graphics. LaTeX is usually or in English (that is, not with the pronunciation English speakers normally associate with X, but with a ). The characters T, E, X in the name come from capital Greek letters tau, epsilon, and chi, as the name of TeX derives from the (skill, art, technique); for this reason, TeX's creator Donald Knuth promotes a pronunciation Donald E. Knuth, The TeXbook, Addison–Wesley, Boston, 1986, p. 1. (that is, with a voiceless velar fricative as in Modern Greek, or the last sound of the German word "Bach", similar to the Spanish "j" sound). Lamport, on the other hand, has said he does not favor or discourage any pronunciation for LaTeX. The name is traditionally printed with the special typographical logo shown at the top of this page. In media where the logo cannot be precisely reproduced in running text, the word is typically given the unique capitalization LaTeX to avoid confusion with the word "latex". The TeX, LaTeX and XeTeX logos can be rendered via pure CSS and XHTML for use in graphical web browsers following the specifications of the internal \LaTeX macro. Licensing LaTeX is typically distributed along with plain TeX. It is distributed under a free software license, the LaTeX Project Public License (LPPL). The LPPL is not compatible with the GNU General Public License, as it requires that modified files must be clearly differentiable from their originals (usually by changing the filename); this was done to ensure that files that depend on other files will produce the expected behavior and avoid dependency hell. The LPPL is DFSG compliant as of version 1.3. As free/open source software, LaTeX is available on most operating systems including Unix (including Linux and the BSDs), Windows, Mac OS X, RISC OS and AmigaOS. As a macro package, LaTeX provides a set of macros for TeX to interpret. There are many other macro packages for TeX, including Plain TeX, GNU Texinfo, AMSTeX, and ConTeXt. When TeX "compiles" a document, the processing loop (from the user's point of view) goes like this: Macros > TeX > Driver > Output. Different implementations of each of these steps are typically available in TeX distributions. Traditional TeX will output a DVI file, which is usually converted to a PostScript file. More recently, Hàn Thế Thành and others have written a new implementation of TeX called pdfTeX, which also outputs to PDF and takes advantages of features available in that format. The XeTeX engine developed by Jonathan Kew merges modern font technologies and Unicode with TeX. The default font for LaTeX is Knuth's Computer Modern, which gives default documents created with LaTeX the same distinctive look as those created with plain TeX. XeTeX allows to use OpenType and TrueType (that is, outlined) fonts for output files. Versions LaTeX2e is the current version of LaTeX. , a future version called LaTeX3, started in the early 1990s, is still in development. See e.g. . Furthermore, all LaTeX3 components actually carry the copyright notice "(C) 1990-2006 LaTeX3 project", e.g. . Planned features include improved syntax, hyperlink support, a new user interface, access to arbitrary fonts, and new documentation. There are numerous commercial implementations of the entire TeX system. System vendors may add extra features like additional typefaces and telephone support. LyX is a free visual document processor that uses LaTeX for a back-end. TeXmacs is a free, WYSIWYG editor with similar functionalities as LaTeX but a different typesetting engine. Other WYSIWYG editors that produce LaTeX include Scientific Word on MS Windows. A number of TeX distributions are available, including TeX Live (multiplatform), teTeX (deprecated in favour of TeX Live, Unix), fpTeX (deprecated), MiKTeX (Windows; for Linux in the upcoming version 2.8), MacTeX, gwTeX (Mac OS X), OzTeX (Mac OS Classic), AmigaTeX (no longer available) and PasTeX (AmigaOS) available on the Aminet repository. See also AMS-LaTeX - American Mathematical Society extension for LaTeX ConTeXt DocBook BibTeX reference management software typically used with LaTeX Free TeX Software Kile free open source LaTeX editor (Linux, KDE) LaTeX-Editor (LEd) free development environment for the production of LaTeX and TeX documents under Windows LyX free open source GUI based editor that uses LaTeX for typesetting New Typesetting System NTS - a TeX reimplementation (discontinued) TeXnicCenter free open source LaTeX editor (Windows) WinShell A free multilingual integrated development environment (IDE) for LaTeX and TeX References Further reading External links LaTeX home page CTAN – The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List The UK TeX FAQ The TeX Users Group LaTeX Wikibook A Working Guide to LaTeX (2002) Getting Started with LaTeX (basic introduction to typesetting with TeX and LaTeX) (1995) Online LaTeX Equation Editor Online LaTeX Compiler LaTeX Reference Card (Other TeX reference cards and source code) LaTeX3 newsletter, which will be updated semiannually ScribTeX, a a free collaborative LaTeX web based editor. | LaTeX |@lemmatized latex:62 document:16 markup:1 language:4 preparation:2 system:10 tex:38 typesetting:7 program:3 within:1 name:4 style:3 widely:1 use:17 mathematician:1 scientist:1 engineer:1 philosopher:1 economist:1 scholar:1 academia:1 commercial:2 world:1 professional:1 primary:1 intermediate:1 format:5 e:6 g:3 translate:1 docbook:2 xml:1 base:4 pdf:2 high:2 quality:1 typeset:7 achievable:1 offer:2 programmable:2 desktop:4 publishing:4 feature:5 extensive:2 facility:2 automate:2 aspect:2 include:8 numbering:2 cross:2 referencing:2 table:3 figure:3 page:4 layout:3 bibliography:2 intend:1 provide:3 level:2 access:2 power:2 essentially:1 comprise:1 collection:1 macro:8 process:1 formatting:1 command:1 low:1 usually:4 much:2 simpler:1 end:4 user:4 originally:2 write:9 early:2 leslie:2 lamport:3 sri:1 international:1 become:2 dominant:2 method:2 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gui:1 nt:1 reimplementation:1 discontinue:1 texniccenter:1 winshell:1 multilingual:1 integrate:1 ide:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 ctan:1 comprehensive:2 archive:1 network:1 symbol:1 list:1 uk:1 faq:1 group:1 wikibook:1 guide:1 get:1 basic:1 introduction:1 online:2 equation:1 compiler:1 card:2 code:1 newsletter:1 update:1 semiannually:1 scribtex:1 collaborative:1 |@bigram cross_referencing:2 tex_latex:3 leslie_lamport:2 tex_typeset:1 donald_knuth:1 addison_wesley:1 voiceless_velar:1 velar_fricative:1 avoid_confusion:1 web_browser:1 user_interface:1 external_link:1 |
7,382 | Global-warming_potential | Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. It is a relative scale which compares the gas in question to that of the same mass of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is by definition 1). A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval and the value of this must be stated whenever a GWP is quoted or else the value is meaningless. The substances subject to restrictions in the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth's atmosphere or have a large GWP. The GWP depends on the following factors: the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus, a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime. The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated. Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength, this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength. A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a "window" of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent. The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph. Matthew Elrod, "Greenhouse Warming Potential Model." Based on Journal of Chemical Education, Vol 76, pp. 1702-1705, December 1999 Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change. Calculating the global warming potential Just as radiative forcing provides a simplified means of comparing the various factors that are believed to influence the climate system to one another, Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) are one type of simplified index based upon radiative properties that can be used to estimate the potential future impacts of emissions of different gases upon the climate system in a relative sense. GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (infrared-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide . The radiative forcing capacity (RF) is the amount of energy per unit area per unit time, absorbed by the greenhouse gas, that would otherwise be lost to space. It can be expressed by the formula: where the subscript i represents an interval of 10 inverse centimeters. Absi represents the integrated infrared absorbance of the sample in that interval, and Fi represents the RF for that interval. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001. An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's 2001 Third Assessment Report. The GWP is defined as the ratio of the time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kg of a trace substance relative to that of 1 kg of a reference gas: where TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; ax is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm-2 kg-1) and [x(t)] is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0. The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e. CO2). The radiative efficiencies ax and ar are not necessarily constant over time. While the absorption of infrared radiation by many greenhouse gases varies linearly with their abundance, a few important ones display non-linear behaviour for current and likely future abundances (e.g., CO2, CH4, and N2O). For those gases, the relative radiative forcing will depend upon abundance and hence upon the future scenario adopted. Since all GWP calculations are a comparison to CO2 which is non-linear, all GWP values are affected. Assuming otherwise as is done above will lead to lower GWPs for other gases than a more detailed approach would. Use in Kyoto Protocol Under the Kyoto Protocol, the Conference of the Parties decided (decision 2/CP.3) that the values of GWP calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report are to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO2 equivalents when computing overall sources and sinks. Importance of time horizon Note that a substance's GWP depends on the timespan over which the potential is calculated. A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect but for longer time periods as it has been removed becomes less important. Thus methane has a potential of 25 over 100 years but 72 over 20 years; conversely sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800 over 100 years but 16,300 over 20 years (IPCC TAR). The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere. This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact. For this reason when quoting a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation. The GWP for a mixture of gases can not be determined from the GWP of the constituent gases by any form of simple linear addition. Commonly, a time horizon of 100 years is used by regulators (e.g., the California Air Resources Board). Values Carbon dioxide has a GWP of exactly 1 (since it is the baseline unit to which all other greenhouse gases are compared). GWP values and lifetimes from 2007 IPCC AR4 (2001 IPCC TAR in parentheses)Lifetime (years)GWP time horizon <center>20 years <center>100 years <center>500 years Methane 12 (12) 72 (62) 25 (23) 7.6 (7) Nitrous oxide 114 (114) 289 (275) 298 (296) 153 (156) HFC-23 (hydrofluorocarbon) 270 (260) 12,000 (9400) 14,800 (12000) 12,200 (10000) HFC-134a (hydrofluorocarbon) 14 (13.8) 3830 (3300) 1430 (1300) 435 (400) sulfur hexafluoride 3200 (3200) 16,300 (15100) 22,800 (22200) 32,600 (32400) A GWP is not usually calculated for water vapour. Water vapour has a significant influence with regard to absorbing IR radiation (which is the green house effect); however its concentration in the atmosphere mainly depends on air temperature. As there is no possibility to directly influence atmospheric water vapour concentration, the GWP-level for water vapour is not calculated; see greenhouse gas. See also Carbon dioxide equivalent Emission factor Emission standard References External links 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by Working Group 1 (WG1) and Chapter 2 of that report (Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing) which contains GWP information. 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) page on Global Warming Potentials and Direct GWP. List of Global Warming Potentials and Atmospheric Lifetimes from the U.S. EPA Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential Values, Excerpt from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2000 from the U.S. EPA An overview of the role of H2O as a greenhouse gas GWP and the different meanings of CO2e explained | Global-warming_potential |@lemmatized global:8 warm:3 potential:10 gwp:32 measure:1 much:2 give:4 mass:2 greenhouse:12 gas:25 estimate:2 contribute:1 warming:5 relative:6 scale:1 compare:3 question:1 carbon:5 dioxide:5 whose:1 definition:2 calculate:7 specific:1 time:12 interval:4 value:10 must:1 state:1 whenever:1 quote:2 else:1 meaningless:1 substance:5 subject:1 restriction:1 kyoto:3 protocol:3 either:1 rapidly:1 increase:2 concentration:4 earth:1 atmosphere:7 large:3 depend:6 following:1 factor:4 absorption:4 infrared:7 radiation:5 specie:2 spectral:1 location:1 absorb:6 wavelength:6 atmospheric:6 lifetime:5 thus:2 high:1 correlate:1 long:2 dependence:2 complicated:1 even:1 absorbs:1 efficiently:1 certain:1 may:2 affect:2 already:1 effect:3 window:1 fairly:1 transparent:1 function:1 find:2 empirically:1 publish:1 graph:1 matthew:1 elrod:1 model:1 base:3 journal:1 chemical:1 education:1 vol:1 pp:1 december:1 directly:2 spectrum:1 use:5 spectroscopy:1 study:1 centrally:1 important:4 effort:1 understand:1 impact:2 human:1 activity:1 climate:4 change:4 radiative:9 force:1 provide:2 simplified:1 mean:1 various:2 believe:1 influence:3 system:2 one:3 another:1 gwps:2 type:1 simplify:1 index:1 upon:4 property:1 future:3 emission:5 different:2 sense:1 number:2 include:1 efficiency:3 ability:1 well:1 decay:3 rate:1 amount:2 remove:3 year:10 forcing:4 capacity:1 rf:2 energy:1 per:2 unit:4 area:1 would:2 otherwise:2 lose:1 space:1 express:1 formula:1 subscript:1 represent:3 inverse:1 centimeter:1 absi:1 integrate:1 absorbance:1 sample:1 fi:1 intergovernmental:1 panel:1 ipcc:8 generally:1 accept:1 slightly:1 exact:2 third:2 assessment:4 report:5 define:1 ratio:1 integrated:1 instantaneous:2 release:2 kg:3 trace:1 reference:4 th:1 horizon:4 calculation:3 consider:2 ax:2 due:1 abundance:5 e:4 wm:1 x:1 dependent:1 follow:1 denominator:1 contain:2 corresponding:1 quantity:1 ar:1 necessarily:1 constant:1 many:1 varies:1 linearly:1 display:1 non:2 linear:3 behaviour:1 current:1 likely:1 g:2 hence:2 scenario:1 adopt:1 since:2 comparison:1 assume:1 lead:1 low:1 detailed:1 approach:1 conference:1 party:1 decide:1 decision:1 cp:1 second:1 convert:1 comparable:1 equivalent:2 compute:1 overall:1 source:1 sink:2 importance:1 note:1 timespan:1 quickly:1 initially:1 period:1 becomes:1 less:1 methane:2 conversely:1 sulfur:2 hexafluoride:2 tar:3 often:1 precisely:1 know:1 reason:1 mixture:1 determine:1 constituent:2 form:1 simple:1 addition:1 commonly:1 regulator:1 california:1 air:2 resource:1 board:1 exactly:1 baseline:1 parenthesis:1 center:3 nitrous:1 oxide:1 hfc:2 hydrofluorocarbon:2 usually:1 water:4 vapour:4 significant:1 regard:1 ir:1 green:1 house:1 however:1 mainly:1 temperature:1 possibility:1 level:1 see:2 also:1 standard:1 external:1 link:1 fourth:1 work:1 group:1 chapter:1 information:1 page:1 direct:1 list:1 u:3 epa:2 excerpt:1 inventory:1 overview:1 role:1 meaning:1 explain:1 |@bigram greenhouse_gas:11 global_warming:5 carbon_dioxide:5 kyoto_protocol:3 infrared_radiation:2 infrared_spectroscopy:1 radiative_forcing:4 intergovernmental_panel:1 sulfur_hexafluoride:2 nitrous_oxide:1 external_link:1 |
7,383 | Countable_set | In mathematics, a countable set is a set with the same cardinality (i.e., number of elements) as some subset of the set of natural numbers. The term was originated by Georg Cantor; it stems from the fact that the natural numbers are often called counting numbers. A set that is not countable is called uncountable. Some authors use countable set to mean a set with the same cardinality as the set of natural numbers. For an example of this usage see The difference between the two definitions is that under the former, finite sets are also considered to be countable, while under the latter definition, they are not considered to be countable. To resolve this ambiguity, the term at most countable is sometimes used for the former notion, and countably infinite for the latter. The term denumerable is also used to mean countably infinite. See . Definition A set S is called countable if there exists an injective function from S to the natural numbers Since there is an obvious bijection between and it makes no difference whether one considers 0 to be a natural number of not. In any case, this article follows ISO 31-11 and the standard convention in mathematical logic, which make 0 a natural number. If f is also surjective, thus making f bijective, then S is called countably infinite. As noted above, this terminology is not universal: some authors define countable not to include finite sets, i.e. they define countable to mean what is here called "countably infinite". There are alternative (equivalent) formulations of the definition in terms of a bijective function or a surjective function as the following theorem shows. A proof of this result can be found in Lang's text. Theorem: Let S be a set. The following statements are equivalent: S is countable, i.e. there exists an injective function . Either S is empty or there exists a surjective function . Either S is finite or there exists a bijection . Gentle introduction A set is a collection of elements, and may be described in many ways. One way is simply to list all of its elements; for example, the set consisting of the integers 3, 4, and 5 may be denoted . This is only effective for small sets, however; for larger sets, this would be time-consuming and error-prone. Instead of listing every single element, sometimes ellipsis ('…') is used, if the writer believes that the reader can easily guess what is missing; for example, presumably denotes the set of integers from 1 to 100. Even in this case, however, it is still possible to list all the elements, because the set is finite; it has a specific number of elements. Some sets are infinite; these sets have more than n elements for any integer n. For example, the set of natural numbers, denotable by , has infinitely many elements, and we can't use any normal number to give its size. Nonetheless, it turns out that infinite sets do have a well-defined notion of size (or more properly, of cardinality, which is the technical term for the number of elements in a set), and not all infinite sets have the same cardinality. To understand what this means, we must first examine what it does not mean. For example, there are infinitely many odd integers, infinitely many even integers, and (hence) infinitely many integers overall. However, it turns out that the number of odd integers, which is the same as the number of even integers, is also the same as the number of integers overall. This is because we arrange things such that for every integer, there is a distinct odd integer: … −2 → −3, −1 → −1, 0 → 1, 1 → 3, 2 → 5, …; or, more generally, n → 2n + 1. What we have done here is arranged the integers and the odd integers into a one-to-one correspondence (or bijection), which is a function that maps between two sets such that each element of each set corresponds to a single element in the other set. However, not all infinite sets have the same cardinality. For example, Georg Cantor (who introduced this branch of mathematics) demonstrated that the real numbers cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers (non-negative integers), and therefore that the set of real numbers has a greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. A set is countable if: (1) it is finite, or (2) it has the same cardinality (size) as the set of natural numbers. Equivalently, a set is countable if it has the same cardinality as some subset of the set of natural numbers. Otherwise, it is uncountable. More formal introduction It might then seem natural to divide the sets into different classes: put all the sets containing one element together; all the sets containing two elements together; ...; finally, put together all infinite sets and consider them as having the same size. This view is not tenable, however, under the natural definition of size. To elaborate this we need the concept of a bijection. Do the sets { 1, 2, 3 } and { a, b, c } have the same size? "Obviously, yes." "How do you know?" "Well, it's obvious. Look, they've both got 3 elements." "What's a 3?" This may seem a strange situation but, although a "bijection" seems a more advanced concept than a "number", the usual development of mathematics in terms of set theory defines functions before numbers, as they are based on much simpler sets. This is where the concept of a bijection comes in: define the correspondence a ↔ 1, b ↔ 2, c ↔ 3 Since every element of { a, b, c } is paired with precisely one element of { 1, 2, 3 }, and vice versa, this defines a bijection. We now generalize this situation and define two sets to be of the same size if (and only if) there is a bijection between them. For all finite sets this gives us the usual definition of "the same size". What does it tell us about the size of infinite sets? Consider the sets A = { 1, 2, 3, ... }, the set of positive integers and B = { 2, 4, 6, ... }, the set of even positive integers. We claim that, under our definition, these sets have the same size, and that therefore B is countably infinite. Recall that to prove this we need to exhibit a bijection between them. But this is easy, using n ↔ 2n, so that 1 ↔ 2, 2 ↔ 4, 3 ↔ 6, 4 ↔ 8, .... As in the earlier example, every element of A has been paired off with precisely one element of B, and vice versa. Hence they have the same size. This gives an example of a set which is of the same size as one of its proper subsets, a situation which is impossible for finite sets. Likewise, the set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like the one in the picture: The Cantor pairing function assigns one natural number to each pair of natural numbers The resulting mapping is like this: 0 ↔ (0,0), 1 ↔ (1,0), 2 ↔ (0,1), 3 ↔ (2,0), 4 ↔ (1,1), 5 ↔ (0,2), 6 ↔ (3,0) …. It is evident that this mapping will cover all such ordered pairs. Interestingly: if you treat each pair as being the numerator and denominator of a vulgar fraction, then for every positive fraction, we can come up with a distinct number corresponding to it. This representation includes also the natural numbers, since every natural number is also a fraction N/1. So we can conclude that there are exactly as many positive rational numbers as there are positive integers. This is true also for all rational numbers, as can be seen below (a more complex presentation is needed to deal with negative numbers). Theorem: The Cartesian product of finitely many countable sets is countable. This form of triangular mapping recursively generalizes to vectors of finitely many natural numbers by repeatedly mapping the first two elements to a natural number. For example, (0,2,3) maps to (5,3) which maps to 41. Sometimes more than one mapping is useful. This is where you map the set which you want to show countably infinite, onto another set; and then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the positive rational numbers can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers because p/q maps to (p, q). What about infinite subsets of countably infinite sets? Do these have fewer elements than N? Theorem: Every subset of a countable set is countable. In particular, every infinite subset of a countably infinite set is countably infinite. For example, the set of prime numbers is countable, by mapping the n-th prime number to n: 2 maps to 1 3 maps to 2 5 maps to 3 7 maps to 4 11 maps to 5 13 maps to 6 17 maps to 7 19 maps to 8 23 maps to 9 etc. What about sets being "larger than" N? An obvious place to look would be Q, the set of all rational numbers, which is "clearly" much bigger than N. But looks can be deceiving, for we assert: Theorem: Q (the set of all rational numbers) is countable. Q can be defined as the set of all fractions a/b where a and b are integers and b > 0. This can be mapped onto the subset of ordered triples of natural numbers (a, b, c) such that a ≥ 0, b > 0, a and b are coprime, and c ∈ {0, 1} such that c = 0 if a/b ≥ 0 and c = 1 otherwise. 0 maps to (0,1,0) 1 maps to (1,1,0) −1 maps to (1,1,1) 1/2 maps to (1,2,0) −1/2 maps to (1,2,1) 2 maps to (2,1,0) −2 maps to (2,1,1) 1/3 maps to (1,3,0) −1/3 maps to (1,3,1) 3 maps to (3,1,0) −3 maps to (3,1,1) 1/4 maps to (1,4,0) −1/4 maps to (1,4,1) 2/3 maps to (2,3,0) −2/3 maps to (2,3,1) 3/2 maps to (3,2,0) −3/2 maps to (3,2,1) 4 maps to (4,1,0) −4 maps to (4,1,1) ... By a similar development, the set of algebraic numbers is countable, and so is the set of definable numbers. Theorem: (Assuming the axiom of countable choice) The union of countably many countable sets is countable. For example, given countable sets a, b, c ... Using a variant of the triangular enumeration we saw above: a0 maps to 0 a1 maps to 1 b0 maps to 2 a2 maps to 3 b1 maps to 4 c0 maps to 5 a3 maps to 6 b2 maps to 7 c1 maps to 8 d0 maps to 9 a4 maps to 10 ... Note that this only works if the sets a, b, c,... are disjoint. If not, then the union is even smaller and is therefore also countable by a previous theorem. Theorem: The set of all finite-length sequences of natural numbers is countable. This set is the union of the length-1 sequences, the length-2 sequences, the length-3 sequences, each of which is a countable set (finite Cartesian product). So we are talking about a countable union of countable sets, which is countable by the previous theorem. Theorem: The set of all finite subsets of the natural numbers is countable. If you have a finite subset, you can order the elements into a finite sequence. There are only countably many finite sequences, so also there are only countably many finite subsets. Basic properties This section presents terse but rigorous proofs of some of the basic facts about countable sets. By definition a set S is countable if there exists an injective function from S to the natural numbers The following theorem gives equivalent formulations in terms of a bijective function or a surjective function. A proof of this result can be found in Lang's text. Basic Theorem: Let S be a set. The following statements are equivalent: S is countable, i.e. there exists an injective function . Either S is empty or there exists a surjective function . Either S is finite or there exists a bijection . Several standard properties follow easily from this theorem. We present them here tersely. For a gentler presentation see the sections above. Observe that in the theorem can be replaced with any countably infinite set. In particular we have the following Corollary. Corollary: Let S and T be sets. If the function is injective and T is countable then S is countable. If the function is surjective and S is countable then T is countable. Proof: For (1) observe that if T is countable there is an injective function Then if is injective the composition is injective, so S is countable. For (2) observe that if S is countable there is a surjective function Then if is surjective the composition is surjective, so T is countable. Proposition: Any subset of a countable set is countable. Proof: The restriction of an injective function to a subset of its domain is still injective. Proposition: The Cartesian product of two countable sets A and B is countable. Proof: Note that is countable as a consequence of the definition because the function given by is injective. It then follows from the Basic Theorem and the Corollary that the Cartesian product of any two countable sets is countable. This follows because if A and B are countable there are surjections and . So is a surjection from the countable set to the set and the Corollary implies is countable. This result generalizes to the Cartesian product of any finite collection of countable sets and the proof follows by induction on the number of sets in the collection. Proposition: The integers are countable and the rational numbers are countable. Proof: The integers are countable because the function given by if n is non-negative and if n is negative is an injective function. The rational numbers are countable because the function given by is a surjection from the countable set to the rationals . Proposition: If is a countable set for each then is countable. Proof: This is a consequence of the fact that for each n there is a surjective function and hence the function given by is a surjection. Since is countable the Corollary implies is countable. We are using the axiom of countable choice in this proof in order to pick for each a surjection from the non-empty collection of surjections from to . Cantor's Theorem asserts that if is a set and is its power set, i.e. the set of all subsets of , then there is no surjective function from to . A proof is given in the article Cantor's Theorem. As an immediate consequence of this and the Basic Theorem above we have: Proposition: The set is not countable; i.e. it is uncountable. For an elaboration of this result see Cantor's diagonal argument. The set of real numbers is uncountable (see Cantor's first uncountability proof), and so is the set of all infinite sequences of natural numbers. A topological proof for the uncountability of the real numbers is described at finite intersection property. Minimal model of set theory is countable If there is a set which is a standard model (see inner model) of ZFC set theory, then there is a minimal standard model (see Constructible universe). The Löwenheim-Skolem theorem can be used to show that this minimal model is countable. The fact that the notion of "uncountability" makes sense even in this model, and in particular that this model M contains elements which are subsets of M, hence countable, but uncountable from the point of view of M, was seen as paradoxical in the early days of set theory, see Skolem's paradox. The minimal standard model includes all the algebraic numbers and all effectively computable transcendental numbers, as well as many other kinds of numbers. Total orders Countable sets can be totally ordered in various ways, e.g.: well orders (see also ordinal number): the usual order of natural numbers the integers in the order 0, 1, 2, 3, .., −1, −2, −3, .. other: the usual order of integers the usual order of rational numbers See also Aleph number Counting Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel References Notes | Countable_set |@lemmatized mathematics:3 countable:67 set:97 cardinality:8 e:7 number:60 element:22 subset:15 natural:28 term:7 originate:1 georg:2 cantor:7 stem:1 fact:4 often:1 call:5 counting:1 uncountable:5 author:2 use:9 mean:5 example:12 usage:1 see:13 difference:2 two:7 definition:9 former:2 finite:17 also:11 consider:4 latter:2 resolve:1 ambiguity:1 sometimes:3 notion:3 countably:14 infinite:20 denumerable:1 exist:8 injective:12 function:25 since:4 obvious:3 bijection:10 make:4 whether:1 one:13 considers:1 case:2 article:2 follow:7 iso:1 standard:5 convention:1 mathematical:1 logic:1 f:2 surjective:11 thus:1 bijective:3 noted:1 terminology:1 universal:1 define:7 include:3 alternative:1 equivalent:4 formulation:2 theorem:19 show:3 proof:13 result:5 find:2 lang:2 text:2 let:3 following:4 statement:2 either:4 empty:3 gentle:1 introduction:2 collection:4 may:3 describe:2 many:12 way:3 simply:1 list:3 consisting:1 integer:22 denote:2 effective:1 small:2 however:5 large:2 would:2 time:1 consuming:1 error:1 prone:1 instead:1 every:8 single:2 ellipsis:1 writer:1 believe:1 reader:1 easily:3 guess:1 miss:1 presumably:1 even:6 still:2 possible:1 specific:1 n:13 denotable:1 infinitely:4 normal:1 give:10 size:12 nonetheless:1 turn:2 well:4 properly:1 technical:1 understand:1 must:1 first:3 examine:1 odd:4 hence:4 overall:2 arrange:2 thing:1 distinct:2 generally:1 correspondence:3 map:49 correspond:2 introduce:1 branch:1 demonstrate:1 real:4 cannot:1 put:3 non:3 negative:4 therefore:3 great:1 equivalently:1 otherwise:2 formal:1 might:1 seem:3 divide:1 different:1 class:1 contain:3 together:3 finally:1 view:2 tenable:1 elaborate:1 need:3 concept:3 b:17 c:9 obviously:1 yes:1 know:1 look:3 get:1 strange:1 situation:3 although:1 advanced:1 usual:5 development:2 theory:4 defines:1 base:1 much:2 simple:1 come:2 paired:1 precisely:2 vice:2 versa:2 generalize:3 u:2 tell:1 positive:6 claim:1 recall:1 prove:1 exhibit:1 easy:1 early:2 pair:7 proper:1 impossible:1 likewise:1 ordered:2 path:1 like:2 picture:1 assigns:1 mapping:4 evident:1 cover:1 order:10 interestingly:1 treat:1 numerator:1 denominator:1 vulgar:1 fraction:4 representation:1 conclude:1 exactly:1 rational:9 true:1 complex:1 presentation:2 deal:1 cartesian:5 product:5 finitely:2 form:1 triangular:2 recursively:1 vector:1 repeatedly:1 useful:1 want:1 onto:2 another:1 p:2 q:5 particular:3 prime:2 th:1 etc:1 place:1 clearly:1 big:1 deceive:1 assert:2 triple:1 coprime:1 similar:1 algebraic:2 definable:1 assume:1 axiom:2 choice:2 union:4 variant:1 enumeration:1 saw:1 note:3 work:1 disjoint:1 previous:2 length:4 sequence:7 talk:1 basic:5 property:3 section:2 present:2 terse:1 rigorous:1 several:1 tersely:1 gentler:1 observe:3 replace:1 corollary:5 composition:2 proposition:5 restriction:1 domain:1 consequence:3 surjections:2 surjection:4 implies:2 induction:1 pick:1 power:1 immediate:1 elaboration:1 diagonal:1 argument:1 uncountability:3 topological:1 intersection:1 minimal:4 model:8 inner:1 zfc:1 constructible:1 universe:1 löwenheim:1 skolem:2 sense:1 point:1 paradoxical:1 day:1 paradox:2 effectively:1 computable:1 transcendental:1 kind:1 total:1 totally:1 various:1 g:1 ordinal:1 aleph:1 count:1 hilbert:1 grand:1 hotel:1 reference:1 |@bigram georg_cantor:2 countably_infinite:11 vice_versa:2 ordered_pair:1 numerator_denominator:1 vulgar_fraction:1 cartesian_product:5 disjoint_union:1 cantor_diagonal:1 constructible_universe:1 löwenheim_skolem:1 skolem_theorem:1 |
7,384 | Empedocles | Empedocles (Greek: , ca. 490–430 BC) was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily. Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being the origin of the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements. He also proposed powers called Love and Strife which would act as forces to bring about the mixture and separation of the elements. These physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which also dealt with the origin and development of life. Influenced by the Pythagoreans, he supported the doctrine of reincarnation. Empedocles is generally considered the last Greek philosopher to record his ideas in verse. Some of his work still survives today, more so than in the case of any other Presocratic philosopher. Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments. Life The temple of Hera at Agrigentum, built when Empedocles was a young man, c. 470 BC. Empedocles was born, c. 490 BC, at Agrigentum (Acragas) in Sicily to a distinguished family. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 51 Very little is known about his life. His father Meto seems to have been instrumental in overthrowing the tyrant of Agrigentum, presumably Thrasydaeus in 470 BC. Empedocles continued the democratic tradition of his house by helping to overthrow the succeeding oligarchic government. He is said to have been magnanimous in his support of the poor; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 73 severe in persecuting the overbearing conduct of the aristocrats; Timaeus, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 64, comp. 65, 66 and he even declined the sovereignty of the city when it was offered to him. Aristotle ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 63; compare, however, Timaeus, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, 66, 76 His brilliant oratory, Satyrus, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 58; Timaeus, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, 67 his penetrating knowledge of nature, and the reputation of his marvellous powers, including the curing of diseases, and averting epidemics, Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 60, 70, 69; Plutarch, de Curios. Princ., adv. Colotes; Pliny, H. N. xxxvi. 27, and others produced many myths and stories surrounding his name. He was said to have been a magician and controller of storms, and he himself, in his famous poem Purifications seems to have promised miraculous powers, including the destruction of evil, the curing of old age, and the controlling of wind and rain. Empedocles was acquainted or connected by friendship with the physicians Acron Pliny, Natural History, xxix.1.4-5; cf. Suda, Akron and Pausanias, Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 60, 61, 65, 69 who was his eromenos; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 60: "Pausanias, according to Aristippus and Satyrus, was his eromenos" with various Pythagoreans; and even, it is said, with Parmenides and Anaxagoras. Suda, Empedocles; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 55, 56, etc. The only pupil of Empedocles who is mentioned is the sophist and rhetorician Gorgias. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 58 Timaeus and Dicaearchus spoke of the journey of Empedocles to the Peloponnese, and of the admiration which was paid to him there; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 71, 67; Athenaeus, xiv. others mentioned his stay at Athens, and in the newly-founded colony of Thurii, 446 BC; Suda, Akron; Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 52 there are also fanciful reports of him travelling far to the east to the lands of the Magi. Pliny, H. N. xxx. 1, etc. According to Aristotle, he died at the age of sixty, (c. 430 BC) even though other writers have him living up to the age of one hundred and nine. Apollonius, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 52, comp. 74, 73 Likewise, there are myths concerning his death: a tradition, which is traced to Heraclides Ponticus, represented him as having been removed from the earth; whereas others had him perishing in the flames of Mount Etna. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 67, 69, 70, 71; Horace, ad Pison. 464, etc. Works Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in verse and the surviving fragments of his teaching are from two poems, Purifications and On Nature. Empedocles was undoubtedly acquainted with the didactic poems of Xenophanes and Parmenides Hermippus and Theophrastus, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 55, 56 - allusions to the latter can be found in the fragments, - but he seems to have surpassed them in the animation and richness of his style, and in the clearness of his descriptions and diction. Aristotle called him the father of rhetoric, and, although he acknowledged only the meter as a point of comparison between the poems of Empedocles and the epics of Homer, he described Empedocles as Homeric and powerful in his diction. Aristotle, Poetics, 1, ap. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 57. Lucretius speaks of him with enthusiasm, and evidently viewed him as his model. See especially Lucretius, i. 716, etc. The two poems together comprised 5000 lines. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 58. About 550 lines of his poetry survive, although because ancient writers rarely mentioned which poem they were quoting, it is not always certain to which poem the quotes belong. Some scholars now believe that there was only one poem, and that the Purifications merely formed the beginning of On Nature. Simon Trépanier, (2004), Empedocles: An Interpretation, Routledge. Purifications We possess only about 100 lines of his Purifications. It seems to have given a mythical account of the world which may, nevertheless, have been part of Empedocles' philosophical system. The first lines of the poem are preserved by Diogenes Laërtius: Friends who inhabit the mighty town by tawny Acragas which crowns the citadel, caring for good deeds, greetings; I, an immortal God, no longer mortal, wander among you, honoured by all, adorned with holy diadems and blooming garlands. To whatever illustrious towns I go, I am praised by men and women, and accompanied by thousands, who thirst for deliverance, some ask for prophecies, and some entreat, for remedies against all kinds of disease. Frag. B112, (Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 61) It was probably this work which contained a story about souls, Frag. B115, (Plutarch, On Exile, 607CE; Hippolytus, vii. 29) where we are told that there were once spirits who lived in a state of bliss, but having committed a crime (the nature of which is unknown) they were punished by being forced to become mortal beings, reincarnated from body to body. Humans, animals, and even plants are such spirits. The moral conduct recommended in the poem may allow us to become like gods again. On Nature There are about 450 lines of his poem On Nature extant, including 70 lines which have been reconstructed from some papyrus scraps known as the Strasbourg Papyrus. The poem originally consisted of 2000 lines of hexameter verse, Suda, Empedocles and was addressed to Pausanias. Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 60 It was this poem which outlined his philosophical system. In it, Empedocles explains not only the nature and history of the universe, including his theory of the four classical elements, but he describes theories on causation, perception, and thought, as well as explanations of terrestrial phenomena and biological processes. Philosophy Empedocles as portrayed in the Nuremberg Chronicle Although acquainted with the theories of the Eleatics and the Pythagoreans, Empedocles did not belong to any one definite school. An eclectic in his thinking, he combined much that had been suggested by Parmenides, Pythagoras and the Ionian schools. He was both a firm believer in Orphic mysteries, as well as a scientific thinker and a precursor of physical science. Aristotle mentions Empedocles among the Ionic philosophers, and he places him in very close relation to the atomist philosophers and to Anaxagoras. Aristotle, Metaphysics, i. 3, 4, 7, Phys. i. 4, de General, et Corr. i. 8, de Caelo, iii. 7. Empedocles, like the Ionian philosophers and the atomists, tried to find the basis of all change. They did not, like Heraclitus, consider the coming into existence and motion as the existence of things, and rest and tranquillity as the non-existence, because they had derived from the Eleatics the conviction that an existence could not pass into non-existence, and vice versa. In order to allow change to occur in the world, against the views of the Eleatics, they viewed changes as the result of mixture and separation of unalterable substances. Thus Empedocles said that a coming into existence from a non-existence, as well as a complete death and annihilation, are impossible; what we call coming into existence and death is only mixture and separation of what was mixed. Frag. B8, (Plutarch, Against Colotes, 1111F); Frag. B12, (Pseudo-Aristotle, On Melissus, Xenophanes, Gorgias, 975a36-b6) The four elements It was Empedocles who established four ultimate elements which make all the structures in the world - fire, air, water, earth. Frag. B17, (Simplicius, Physics, 157-159) Empedocles called these four elements "roots", which, in typical fashion, he also identified with the mythical names of Zeus, Hera, Nestis, and Aidoneus. Frag. B6, (Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians, x, 315.) Empedocles never used the term "element" () (stoicheion), which seems to have been first used by Plato. Plato, Timaeus, 48b-c According to the different proportions in which these four indestructible and unchangeable elements are combined with each other the difference of the structure is produced. It is in the aggregation and segregation of elements thus arising, that Empedocles, like the atomists, found the real process which corresponds to what is popularly termed growth, increase or decrease. Nothing new comes or can come into being; the only change that can occur is a change in the juxtaposition of element with element. This theory of the four elements became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years. Love and Strife The four elements are, however, simple, eternal, and unalterable, and as change is the consequence of their mixture and separation, it was also necessary to suppose the existence of moving powers - to bring about mixture and separation. The four elements are eternally brought into union, and eternally parted from each other, by two divine powers, Love and Strife. Love () explains the attraction of different forms of matter, and Strife () accounts for their separation. Frag. B35, B26, (Simplicius, Physics, 31-34) If the elements are the content of the universe, then Love and Strife explain their variation and harmony. Love and Strife are attractive and repulsive forces which the ordinary eye can see working amongst people, but which really pervade the universe. They alternately hold empire over things, - neither, however, being ever quite absent. The sphere of Empedocles As the best and original state, there was a time when the pure elements and the two powers co-existed in a condition of rest and inertness in the form of a sphere. The elements existed together in their purity, without mixture and separation, and the uniting power of Love predominated in the sphere: the separating power of Strife guarded the extreme edges of the sphere. Frag. B35, (Simplicius, Physics, 31-34; On the Heavens, 528-530) Since that time, strife gained more sway and the bond which kept the pure elementary substances together in the sphere was dissolved. The elements became the world of phaenomena we see today, full of contrasts and oppositions, operated on by both Love and Strife. The sphere being the embodiment of pure existence is the embodiment or representative of god. Empedocles assumed a cyclical universe whereby the elements return and prepare the formation of the sphere for the next period of the universe. Cosmogony Since the time of the sphere, Strife has gained more sway; and the actual world is full of contrasts and oppositions, due to the combined action of both principles. Empedocles attempted to explain the separation of elements, the formation of earth and sea, of sun and moon, of atmosphere. He also dealt with the first origin of plants and animals, and with the physiology of humans. As the elements entered into combinations, there appeared strange results - heads without necks, arms without shoulders. Frag. B57, (Simplicius, On the Heavens, 586) Then as these fragmentary structures met, there were seen horned heads on human bodies, bodies of oxen with human heads, and figures of double sex. Frag. B61, (Aelian, On Animals, xvi 29) But most of these products of natural forces disappeared as suddenly as they arose; only in those rare cases where the parts were found to be adapted to each other, did the complex structures last. Thus the organic universe sprang from spontaneous aggregations, which suited each other as if this had been intended. Soon various influences reduced the creatures of double sex to a male and a female, and the world was replenished with organic life. It is possible (although anachronistic) to see this theory as a crude anticipation of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Perception and knowledge Knowledge is explained by the principle that the elements in the things outside us are perceived by the corresponding elements in ourselves. Frag. B109, (Aristotle, On the Soul, 404b11-15) Like is known by like. The whole body is full of pores, (and hence respiration takes place over the whole frame). In the organs of sense these pores are specially adapted to receive the effluences which are continually rising from bodies around us; and in this way perception is explained. Frag. B100, (Aristotle, On Respiration, 473b1-474a6) Thus in vision, certain particles go forth from the eye to meet similar particles given forth from the object, and the resultant contact constitutes vision. Frag. B84, (Aristotle, On the Senses and their Objects, 437b23-438a5) Perception is not merely a passive reflection of external objects. Empedocles noted the limitation and narrowness of human perceptions. We see only a part, but fancy that we have grasped the whole. But the senses cannot lead to truth; thought and reflection must look at the thing on every side. It is the business of a philosopher, while laying bare the fundamental difference of elements, to display the identity that exists between what seem unconnected parts of the universe. Frag. B2, (Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians, vii. 123-125) Reincarnation Like Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the transmigration of the soul, that souls can be reincarnated between humans, animals and even plants. Frag. B127, (Aelian, On Animals, xii. 7); Frag. B117, (Hippolytus, i. 3.2) For Empedocles, all living things were on the same spiritual plane; plants and animals are links in a chain where humans are a link too. Empedocles urged a vegetarian lifestyle, since the bodies of animals are the dwelling places of punished souls. Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians, ix. 127; Hippolytus, vii. 21 Wise people, who have learned the secret of life, are next to the divine, Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies, iv. 23.150 and their souls, free from the cycle of reincarnations are able to rest in happiness for eternity. Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies, v. 14.122 Death and literary treatments Diogenes Laërtius records the legend that he died by throwing himself into an active volcano (Mount Etna in Sicily), so that people would believe his body had vanished and he had turned into an immortal god; however, the volcano threw back one of his bronze sandals, revealing the deceit. Another legend has it that he threw himself in the volcano to prove to his disciples that he was immortal; he believed he would come back as a god among man after being devoured by the fire. In Icaro-Menippus, a comedic dialogue written by the second century satirist Lucian of Samosata, Empedocles’s final fate is re-evaluated. Rather than being incinerated in the fires of Mount Etna, he was carried up into the heavens by a volcanic eruption. Although a bit singed by the ordeal, Empedocles survives and continues his life on the moon, surviving by feeding on dew. Empedocles' death has inspired two major modern literary treatments. Empedocles's death is the subject of Friedrich Hölderlin's play Tod des Empedokles (Death of Empedocles), two versions of which were written between the years 1798 and 1800. A third version was made public in 1826. In Matthew Arnold's poem Empedocles on Etna, a narrative of the philosopher's last hours before he jumps to his death in the crater first published in 1852, Empedocles predicts: To the elements it came from Everything will return. Our bodies to earth, Our blood to water, Heat to fire, Breath to air. In 2006, a massive underwater volcano off the coast of Sicily was named Empedocles. BBC News, Underwater volcano found by Italy, 23 June 2006 Notes Further reading Review by John Bussanich Review by John Opsopaus Bibliography: http://empedocles.acragas.googlepages.com/bibliographie Bollack, Jean (trans.), Empédocle. Les purifications. Un projet de paix universelle. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 2003. Pp. 144. External links Empedocles at Philosophical Dictionary Empedocles Fragments and Commentary Empedocles Bilingual Anthology (in Greek and English, side by side) Empedocles (of Acragas) at Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Empedocles of Agrigentum at Peithô's Web Explanation of Empedocles Theory regarding the existence of two suns New articles, thesis, books on Empedocles The extensive bibliography on Empedocles drawn up by T. 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7,385 | Base_on_balls | Rashad Eldridge of the Oklahoma Redhawks walks to first base after drawing a base on balls. A base on balls (BB) is credited to a batter and against a pitcher in baseball statistics when a batter receives four pitches that the umpire calls balls. It is better known as a walk. The base on balls is defined in Section 2.00 of baseball's Official Rules, rule 2.00 and further detail is given in 6.08(a). rule 6.00 It is called a "walk" because the batter is then entitled to walk to first base, or more specifically (as defined in the rules of baseball) he is "entitled to first base without liability to be put out." However, the term "base on balls" is used in official context because it is considered a faux pas for a professional player to walk to first base, and also to distinguish from the other manners in which a batter can be awarded first base without liability to be put out (e.g., hit by pitch, catcher's interference). A batter who draws a base on balls is commonly said to have been "walked" by the pitcher. When the batter is walked, runners advance one base without liability to be put out only if forced to vacate their base to allow the batter to take first base. If a batter draws a walk with the bases loaded, all preceding runners are forced to advance, including the runner on third base who is forced to home plate to score a run, and the batter is credited with an RBI per rule 10.04. rule 10.00 Receiving a base on balls does not count as a hit or an at bat for a batter but does count as a time on base and a plate appearance. Therefore, a base on balls does not increase nor decrease a player's batting average, but it does increase his on-base percentage. In 1887, Major League Baseball counted bases on balls as hits. The result was skyrocketed batting averages, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season. Current record books do not count walks in 1887 as hits. A hit by pitch is not counted statistically as a walk, though the effect is the same, with the batter receiving a free pass to first base. Intentional base on balls A subset of the base on balls, an intentional base on balls (IBB) or intentional walk is when the pitcher deliberately pitches the ball away from the batter in order to issue a base on balls. As with any other walk, an intentional walk entitles the batter to first base without liability to be put out, and entitles any runners to advance if forced. Intentional walks are a strategic defensive maneuver, usually done to bypass one hitter for one the defensive team believes is less likely to initiate a run-scoring play (e.g., a home run, sacrifice fly, or RBI base hit), or to set up a double play or force out situation for the next batter. They do carry an inherent risk, however, as they give the offensive team another runner on base, without any effort on their part, who could potentially score a run. Mark Hendrickson of the Florida Marlins intentionally walking the Atlanta Braves' Yunel Escobar in 2008. Note the Florida catcher, Mike Rabelo, in a standing position behind the opposite batter's box to receive the pitch An intentional walk is signaled by the catcher standing and extending one arm to the side away from the batter. The pitcher then pitches the ball to that side several feet outside from home plate, usually outside the reach of the batter. A ball pitched in this manner is called an intentional ball and counts as a ball in the pitcher's pitch count. In order to count as an intentional ball, the ball must be legally pitched, i.e., the pitcher's foot must be on the pitcher's rubber, the catcher must be in the catcher's box, and the batter must be in the batter's box appearing ready to take a pitch at the time the ball is thrown. An intentional walk may be signaled at any time during the batter's turn at the plate; in these cases only enough additional intentional balls need to be thrown to bring the total to four. Only walks issued by the catcher signaling as described above are recorded as intentional walks (see below); walks issued without the catcher signaling – even if the pitches are intentionally thrown outside of the strike zone – are not recorded as intentional. Another risk taken by the defensive team in issuing a base on balls is that since intentional balls must be pitched in a legal manner, they can legally become wild pitches or passed balls. Likewise, a baserunner can attempt to steal a base, or the batter can choose to swing at an intentional ball; however, these rarely occur since taking these risks is rarely more beneficial to the offensive team than allowing the walk to occur. In the Major Leagues, the most recent example of a swing at an intentional ball resulting in a hit occurred during a June 22, 2006 game between the Florida Marlins and the Baltimore Orioles. In the top of the 10th inning, with a runner on second base, Baltimore pitcher Todd Williams was signaled to intentionally walk the Marlins' Miguel Cabrera. Noticing that the intentional ball came in too close to the plate, Cabrera swung at the ball, resulting in a base hit and a run scored for Florida. Though intentional walks are recorded as such in the records of the official scorer, they are combined with standard, non-intentional walks when calculating a player's on-base percentage, and were only given a separate column with a player's statistics since 1955. Batters, on occasion, have been given intentional walks with the bases loaded (effectively giving the offensive team a risk-free run), although this occurs very infrequently. Holtzman, Jerome (May 2000). Free Pass—Players who were intentionally walked with bases loaded - Brief Article. Baseball Digest. Retrieved on 2009-05-13. A common nickname for the intentional walk is four-finger salute, since most managers call for an intentional walk by holding up four fingers. Outside the professional leagues, such as in high school or college baseball, the manager may simply request to the plate umpire to let the batter go to first instead of having the pitcher waste four outside pitches. Barry Bonds is the all time record holder with 688 intentional bases on balls (as of the start of the 2008 season). The next most is Hank Aaron with 293. Major League Baseball leaders Career Top 100 MLB leaders in base on balls (walks) through September 30, 2008 Active All-time rank Player Base on balls 9 Frank Thomas 1,667 15 Jim Thome 1,550 22 Gary Sheffield 1,435 46 Chipper Jones 1,242 47 Ken Griffey, Jr. 1,240 50 Manny Ramirez 1,212 Single-season Rank Player Year Base on balls 1 Barry Bonds 232 2 Barry Bonds 198 3 Barry Bonds 177 4 Babe Ruth 170 5 Mark McGwire 162 Ted Williams 162 Ted Williams 162 8 Ted Williams 156 9 Barry Bonds 151 Eddie Yost 151 See also related lists Baseball statistics Top 100 MLB leaders in base on balls (walks) List of Major League Baseball players with 2000 hits List of Major League Baseball players with 4,000 Total bases List of Major League Baseball players with 400 doubles List of Major League Baseball players with 100 triples List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI Top 15, and List of active MLB players in the Top 50 in strikeouts List of Major League Baseball players with a .325 batting average List of Major League Baseball players with a .400 on-base percentage List of Major League Baseball players with a .500 slugging percentage List of Major League Baseball players with a .900 on-base plus slugging List of Major League Baseball leaders in games started List of Major League Baseball leaders in games finished List of Major League Baseball leaders in career wins 300 win club Top 100 Major League Baseball strikeout pitchers 3000 strikeout club List of 300-save club and Blown saves List of Major League Baseball all-time saves leaders References External links Career walks leaders, Baseball-Reference.com Single-season walks leaders, Baseball-Reference.com | Base_on_balls |@lemmatized rashad:1 eldridge:1 oklahoma:1 redhawks:1 walk:31 first:9 base:43 draw:3 ball:34 bb:1 credit:2 batter:23 pitcher:10 baseball:26 statistic:3 receive:4 four:5 pitch:14 umpire:2 call:4 well:1 know:1 define:2 section:1 official:3 rule:6 detail:1 give:5 entitle:4 specifically:1 without:6 liability:4 put:4 however:3 term:1 use:1 context:1 consider:1 faux:1 pa:1 professional:2 player:18 also:2 distinguish:1 manner:3 award:1 e:3 g:2 hit:9 catcher:7 interference:1 commonly:1 say:1 runner:6 advance:3 one:4 force:5 vacate:1 allow:2 take:4 load:3 precede:1 include:2 third:1 home:4 plate:6 score:3 run:8 rbi:3 per:1 count:8 bat:1 time:6 appearance:1 therefore:1 increase:2 decrease:1 batting:3 average:3 percentage:4 major:19 league:20 result:3 skyrocket:1 near:1 experiment:1 abandon:1 following:1 season:4 current:1 record:6 book:1 statistically:1 though:2 effect:1 free:3 pas:2 intentional:22 subset:1 ibb:1 deliberately:1 away:2 order:2 issue:4 strategic:1 defensive:3 maneuver:1 usually:2 bypass:1 hitter:2 team:5 believe:1 less:1 likely:1 initiate:1 scoring:1 play:2 sacrifice:1 fly:1 set:1 double:2 situation:1 next:2 carry:1 inherent:1 risk:4 offensive:3 another:2 effort:1 part:1 could:1 potentially:1 mark:2 hendrickson:1 florida:4 marlins:1 intentionally:4 atlanta:1 brave:1 yunel:1 escobar:1 note:1 mike:1 rabelo:1 standing:2 position:1 behind:1 opposite:1 box:3 signal:5 extend:1 arm:1 side:2 several:1 foot:2 outside:5 reach:1 must:5 legally:2 rubber:1 appear:1 ready:1 throw:2 may:3 turn:1 case:1 enough:1 additional:1 need:1 bring:1 total:2 walks:1 describe:1 see:2 even:1 thrown:1 strike:1 zone:1 since:4 legal:1 become:1 wild:1 pass:1 likewise:1 baserunner:1 attempt:1 steal:1 choose:1 swing:2 rarely:2 occur:4 beneficial:1 recent:1 example:1 june:1 game:3 marlin:2 baltimore:2 oriole:1 top:7 inning:1 second:1 todd:1 williams:4 miguel:1 cabrera:2 notice:1 come:1 close:1 swung:1 scorer:1 combine:1 standard:1 non:1 calculate:1 separate:1 column:1 occasion:1 effectively:1 although:1 infrequently:1 holtzman:1 jerome:1 brief:1 article:1 digest:1 retrieve:1 common:1 nickname:1 finger:2 salute:1 manager:2 hold:1 high:1 school:1 college:1 simply:1 request:1 let:1 go:1 instead:1 waste:1 barry:5 bond:5 holder:1 start:1 hank:1 aaron:1 leader:9 career:3 mlb:3 september:1 active:2 rank:2 frank:1 thomas:1 jim:1 thome:1 gary:1 sheffield:1 chipper:1 jones:1 ken:1 griffey:1 jr:1 manny:1 ramirez:1 single:2 year:1 babe:1 ruth:1 mcgwire:1 ted:3 eddie:1 yost:1 related:1 list:18 triple:1 strikeouts:1 slug:1 plus:1 slugging:1 started:1 finished:1 win:2 club:3 strikeout:2 save:3 blown:1 reference:3 external:1 link:1 com:2 |@bigram faux_pa:1 catcher_interference:1 batting_average:3 league_baseball:18 intentional_walk:11 florida_marlins:1 atlanta_brave:1 florida_marlin:1 baltimore_oriole:1 hank_aaron:1 jim_thome:1 chipper_jones:1 ken_griffey:1 griffey_jr:1 manny_ramirez:1 babe_ruth:1 mark_mcgwire:1 ted_williams:3 slug_percentage:1 plus_slugging:1 external_link:1 |
7,386 | Beijing_cuisine | Beijing cuisine () is the cooking style in Beijing, China. It is also formally known as Mandarin cuisine. There are numerous dishes that has been developed and elvolved along the history that some may prefer to call Lao Beijing Cuisine (老北京菜,means traditional Beijing cuisine). There are also a number of new dishes developed since recent economic take-off that many people calls Xin Beijing Cuisine (新北京菜, means new Beijing cuisine) or New Chinese Cuisine (新派中国菜). Lao Beijing cuisine Since Beijing has been the Chinese capital city for centuries, its cuisine has been influenced by culinary traditions from all over China, but the cuisine that has exerted the greatest influence on Beijing cuisine is the cuisine of the eastern coastal province of Shandong. Beijing cuisine has itself, in turn, also greatly influenced other Chinese cuisines, particularly the cuisine of Liaoning, the Chinese imperial cuisine, and the Chinese aristocrat cuisine. "The Emperor's Kitchen" (御膳房; pinyin: yùshànfáng) was a term referring to the cooking places (厨房; pinyin:chufang; means kitchen) inside of the Forbidden City, Beijing where thousands of cooks from the different parts of China showed their best cooking skills to please royal families and officials. Therefore, it is at times rather difficult to determine the actual origin of a dish as the term "Mandarin" is generalized and refers not only to Beijing, but other provinces as well. However, some generalization of Beijing cuisine can be characterized as follows: Foods that originated in Beijing are often snacks rather than full courses, and they are typically sold by little shops or street vendors. There is emphasis on dark soy paste (炸酱; pinyin: zhajiang), sesame paste (麻酱; pinyin: majiang) sesame oil (香油; pinyin: xiangyou), and scallions (葱; pinyin: 葱), and fermented tofu (臭豆腐; pinyin: choudoufu) is often served as a condiment. In addition to materials, many different processing methods are also applied to make differnt tastes. These processes including pan-frying, saute, steam, deep frying. There is a lesser emphasis on rice as an accompaniment than in many other areas of China, as local rice production is limited by the relatively dry climate. Restaurants: Quan Ju De Roasted Duck (全聚德烤鸭店) Bian Yi Fang Roasted Duck (便宜坊烤鸭店) Dong Lai Shun Fan Zhuang (东来顺饭庄) Sha Guo Ju (砂锅居) Liu Quan Ju (柳泉居) Fang Shan ( 仿膳) Well known Mandarin dishes Peking Duck (usually served with pancakes) (北京烤鸭) Hot and Sour Soup (酸辣汤) Peking Barbecue (烤肉/北京烤肉) Instant-boiled mutton (涮羊肉) Sweetened Vinegar Spareribs (糖醋排骨) Stir Fried Tomatoes with Scrambled Eggs (西红柿炒鸡蛋 xīhóngshì chǎo jīdàn) Beggar's chicken (富贵鸡) Lo, Eileen Yin-Fei (1999). "Chinese Classics", The Chinese Kitchen, calligraphy by San Yan Wong, 1st Edition, New York, New York: William Morrow and Company, 416. ISBN 0-688-15826-9. Sweet Stir Fried Mutton/Lamb (它似蜜) (Ta Si Mi) Plain Boiled Pork (白肉) (Bai Rou) Fried Small Meatballs (炸丸子) (Zha Xiao Wan Zi) Fried Pig Liver wrapped in Chinese Small Iris (Iris pallasii) (炸卷肝) (Zha Juan Gan) Shredded Skin Salad (拌皮丝) (Ban Pi Si) Cold Pig ears in Sauce (拌双脆) (Ban Shuang Cui) Pickled Chinese Cabbage with Blood Filled Intestines (酸菜血肠) (suan cai xue chang) Sauced Meat (酱肉) (Jiang Rou) Pickled Sauced Meat (清酱肉) (Qing Jiang Rou) Upper Parts of the Pork Hand/Leg (水晶肘子) (Shui Jing Zhou Zi) Three Non-Stickiness (三不粘 ; San Bu Nian) Wood shavings meat 木须肉 (Moo shu pork) Quick-Fried Tripe (mainly intestines) (爆肚) (Bao Du) Fried Triangle (炸三角) (Zha San Jiao) Roast (Mutton/Beef/Pork (烧牛/羊/猪肉) (Shao Niu/Yang/Zhu Rou) Peking Dumpling (饺子/北京饺子) (Jiaozi/Beijing Jiaozi) Peking wonton (馄饨/北京馄饨) (Hun Tun/Beijing Huntun) Braised fish (酥鱼) (Su Yu) Soft fried fish (软炸鱼) (Ruan Zha Yu) Fish cooked with five spices (五香鱼) (Wu Xiang Yu) Fish cooked with vinegar and pepper (醋椒鱼) (Cu Jiao Yu) Shrimp chips with egg (金鱼戏莲) (Jin Yu Xi Lian) Fish soaked with soup (干烧鱼) (Gan Shao Yu) Family style boiled fish (家常熬鱼) (Jia Chang Ao Yu) Sea cucumber with quail egg (乌龙吐珠) (Wu Long Tu Zhu) Fish cooked with five kinds of sliced vegetable (五柳鱼) (Wu Liu Yu) Abalone with peas and fish paste (蛤蟆鲍鱼) (Ha Ma Bao Yu) Meat wrapped in thin mung bean flour pancake (煎饼馃子) (Jian Bing Guo Zi) Egg and shrimp wrapped in corn flour pancake (糊饼) (Hu Bing) Fried tofu with egg wrapping (锅塌豆腐) (Guo Ta Do Fu) Wheaten cake boiled in meat broth (卤煮火烧) (Lu Zhu Huo Shao) Fried wheaten pancake with meat and sea cucumber fillings (褡裢火烧) (Da Lian Huo Shao) Fried butter cake (奶油炸糕) (Nai You Zha Gao) Fried cake with fillings (烫面炸糕) (Tang Mian Zha Gao) Fried dry soybean cream with diced meat filling (炸响铃) (Zha Xiang Ling) Dried Soy Milk Cream in Tight Roll with Beef Fillings (炸卷果) (Zhua Juan Guo) Lotus ham (莲枣肉方) (Lian Rou Zao Fang) Pork in broth (苏造肉) (Su Zao Rou) Stewed pork organs (炖吊子) (Dun Diao Zi) Goat/sheep intestine filled with blood (羊霜肠) (Yang Shuang Chang) Beef wrapped in pancake (门钉肉饼) (Men Ding Rou Bing) Soft fried tenderloin (软炸里脊) (Ruan Zha Li Ji) Meatballs soup (清汤丸子) (Qing Tang Wan Zi) Fried sesame egg cake (开口笑) (Kai Kuo Xiao) Pork fat with flour wrapping glazed in honey (蜜汁葫芦) (Mi Zhi Hu Lu) Glazed fried egg cake (金丝糕) (Jin Si Gao) Steamed egg cake (碗糕) (Wan Gao) Lotus shaped cake with chicken meat (莲蓬鸡糕) (Lian Peng Ji Gao) Fried thin pancake with meat stuffing (炸卷果) (Zha Juan Guo) Noodles (Can be either vegetarian or served with meat) Noodles with Thick Gravy (打卤面) (Da Lu Mian) Zhajiang mian (炸酱面) Naked oats noodle (莜面搓鱼) (You Mian Cuo Yu) Vegetarian Mustardy Chinese cabbage (芥末墩) (Jie Mo Dun) Beijing preserved fruit (果脯) (Guo Pu) Beijing candied fruit (蜜饯) (Mi Jian) Hawthorn cake (京糕) (Jin Gao) Stir fried hawthorn (炒红果) (Chao Hong Guo) Iced fruits (冰果) (Bing Guo) Watermellon jelly (西瓜酪) (Xi Gua Lao) Almond drink (杏仁茶) (Xin Ren Cha) Beijng 'yoghurt' (奶酪) (Nai Lao) Fuling pancake sandwich (茯苓夹饼) (Fuling jiabing) Thin Millet Flour Pancake (煎饼) (Jian Bing) Thin pancake (薄饼) (Bao Bing) Pancake (烙饼) Lao bing Deep Fried Dough Cake (油饼) (You Bing) Baked Sesame Seed Cake (烧饼) (shaobing) Purplevine Cake (藤萝饼) (Teng Luo Bing) Shortening cake (牛舌饼) (Niu She Bing) Glutinous rice cake (切糕) (Qie Gao) Thousand-layer cake (千层糕) (Qian Ceng Gao) Lamma cake (喇嘛糕) (La Ma Gao) Proso millet cake (黄糕) (Huang Gao) Glutinous rice cake roll (卷糕) (Juan Gao) Glazed steamed glutinous rice cake (水晶糕) (Shui Jing Gao) Rice and white kidney bean cake with jujube (盆糕) (Pen Gao) Honeycomb cake (蜂糕) (Feng Gao) Buckwheat cake (扒糕) (Ba Gao) Rice and jujube cake (甑糕) (Zeng Gao) Mung bean cake (绿豆糕) (Lu Dou Gao) Soybean flour cake (豆面糕) (Dou Mian Gao) Bean paste cake (凉糕) (Liang Gao) Fried Cake (炸糕) (Zha Gao) Rice cake with bean paste (花糕) (Hua Gao) Chestnut cake with bean paste (栗子糕) (Li Zi Gao) Chestnut broth (栗子羹) (Li Zi Geng) Glazed/Candied Chinese Yam (拔丝山药) (Ba Si Shan Yao) Glazed thin pancake with Chinese yam and jujube stuffing (糖卷果) (Tang Juan Guo) Thin pancake of pork fat (油皮) (You Pi) Sweet hard flour cake (硬面饽饽) (Yi Mian Bo Bo) Sweet flour cake (墩饽饽) (Dun Bo Bo) Fried sugar cake (糖耳朵) (Tang Er Duo) Fried cake glazed in malt sugar (蜜三刀) (Mi San Dao) Cake with bean paste filling (豆陷烧饼) (Dou Xian Shao Bing) Freshwater snail shaped cake (螺蛳转) (Luo Si Zhuan) Chinese "fajitas" (春饼卷菜 — not to be confused with spring rolls [春卷]) Chatang / Miancha / Youcha (茶汤/面茶/油茶) Fermented Mung Bean Juice (豆汁) (Dou Zhi) Baked Wheaten Cake (火烧) (Huo Shao) Sweetened baked wheaten cake (糖火烧) (Tang Huo Shao) Bean Jelly (凉粉) (Liangfen) Sweet Potato Starch Jelly (粉皮) (Fen Pi) Crisp Fritter (麻页) (Ma Ye) Crisp Fritter with Sesame (薄脆) (Bao Cui) Crisp Thin Fritter Twist (排叉) (Pai Cha) Crisp Noodle (馓子) (San Zi) Stir Fried Starch Knots (炒疙瘩) (Chao Ge Da) Fried Ring (焦圈) (Jiao Quan) Fried Dough Twist (麻花) (Ma Hua) Pease Pudding (豌豆黄) (Wan Dou Huang) Fermented Mung Bean Juice Dried (麻豆腐) (Ma Dou Fu) Jellied Bean Curd (豆腐脑) (Dou Fu Nao) Almond tofu (杏仁豆腐) Glutinous rice ball (艾窝窝) (Ai Wo Wo) Noodle roll (银丝卷) (Yi Si Juan) Kidney bean roll (芸豆卷) (Yun Dou Juan) Dried Soy Milk Cream in Tight Rolls (腐竹) (Fu Zhu) Sugarcoated haws on a stick (糖葫芦) (Tang hu lu) Millet zongzi (粽子) (Zongzi) Tangyuan (元宵) (Yuan Xiao) Xin Beijing cuisine Since China's economic boom, local consumption in Beijing evolves quickly to accommodate increasingly diversified new taste among Beijingers as well as travelers. This trend has been led by two groups of people. The first group of people are cooks looking for ways to differentiate themselves among others. The second group are local gourmets constantly looking for new tastes. The creative ideas that feed into the recent development in Beijing come from other cuisines. As a result, non-traditional ingredients and processing methods have been introduced or developed into Beijing Cuisine, which is now commonly referred as New Beijing Cuisine. These new ingredients include pepper, onion, cheese, pepper oil, and salad dressing. Baking, which is not popular among the Old Beijing Cuisine, has become increasingly popular. In addition to innovative dishes, New Beijing Cuisine restaurant tends to carry some Beijing or Chinese culture components such as Chinese antiques, Chinese tea, Chinese music performance such as Guqin (古琴), Guzheng (古筝), and folk culture displays to amuse the diners. Restaurants: Xiao Wang Fu Fan Dian (小王府饭店) Qin Restaurant & Cafe (瑶琴文化主题餐厅) Da Zhai Men (大宅门) Xu Yuan (煦园) Qiao Jiang Nan (俏江南) Da Ya Li (大鸭梨) Popular dishes among new Beijing cuisine Sea Food Fresh abalone pumpkin soup (南瓜汁焗鲜鲍) Spicy & sour fish fillets soup (椒麻水煮鱼) Spicy & fermented crab (香辣蟹) Deep fried fish w/ special sauce (油浸鱼) Crispy & spicy shrimp (官府辣爆虾) Rosted Cumming Pork (孜然排骨) Pork, Chiken and Beef Deep fried pork w/ tea leaves (茶香猪柳) Fried egg w/ pickled radish (菜圃蛋) Rosted Cumming Pork (孜然排骨) Fried Pork ribs w/ Coffee (咖啡排骨) Fried chicken gristle w/ fresh chilies (椒麻鸡脆骨) Vegetarian Vegetarian spicy & sour “fish” fillets soup (素水煮鱼) Fried mushroom w/ XO sauce (XO茶树菇) Fried vegetable w/ barbecued pork (椒香藕合沙拉) Fried dried bean curd w/ chilies (干煸素鸭) Snacks Spicy codfish puff (糯米竹粽) Durian puff (榴莲酥) Fresh cream tart (奶油千层塔) Steamed green tea cake (绿茶发糕) References | Beijing_cuisine |@lemmatized beijing:27 cuisine:25 cooking:3 style:2 china:5 also:4 formally:1 know:2 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7,387 | Indiana_Jones | {{Infobox character | colour = #DEDEE2 | colour text = | name = Indiana Jones | series = Indiana Jones | image = | caption = Indiana Jones in Raiders | first = Raiders of the Lost Ark | last = | cause = | creator = George Lucas | portrayer = Films:Harrison Ford (ages 36–58)River Phoenix (age 13)TV Series:Corey Carrier (ages 8–10)Sean Patrick Flanery (ages 16–21)George Hall (age 93)Video games:Doug Lee (voice)David Esch (voice) | episode = | nickname = IndyJunior | height = 6'1 | species = | height = 6'1| age = | born = July 1, 1899Princeton, New Jersey | death = | alma mater = University of Chicago | occupation = ArchaeologistAssociate deanCollege professorSoldierSpy | title = | callsign = | family = Henry Jones, Sr. (father, deceased)Anna Jones (mother, deceased) | spouse = Marion Ravenwood | significantother = | children = Henry "Mutt Williams" Jones III | relatives = | residence = | religion = | nationality = Scottish American | imdb_id = }} Dr. Henry Walton "Indiana" Jones, Jr. The character's full name is stated in the Corey Carrier narration of the feature-length episode My First Adventure from the The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles. is a fictional adventurer, soldier, professor of archaeology, and the main protagonist of the Indiana Jones franchise. George Lucas created the character in homage to the action heroes of 1930s film serials. The character first appeared in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, to be followed by Temple of Doom in 1984, The Last Crusade in 1989, The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles from 1992 to 1996, and Kingdom of the Crystal Skull in 2008. As well as film and television appearances, the character has been featured in novels, comics, video games, and other media. Jones is also featured in the theme park attraction Indiana Jones Adventure, which exists in similar forms at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea. Jones is most famously played by Harrison Ford; he has also been portrayed by River Phoenix (as the young Jones in The Last Crusade), and in the television seriesThe Young Indiana Jones Chronicles by Corey Carrier, Sean Patrick Flanery, and George Hall. Doug Lee has supplied Jones's voice to two LucasArts video games, Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis and Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, while David Esch supplied his voice to Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb. Tom Selleck was originally cast in the role in Raiders of the Lost Ark; however, due to Selleck's commitment to Magnum PI, he was replaced by Ford. The character's iconic outfit was designed by Jim Steranko. Jones is notable for his bullwhip, fedora, leather jacket, and fear of snakes. Appearances Since his introduction in 1981's Raiders of the Lost Ark (later retitled on VHS and DVD box covers as Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark), Indy has made appearances in three more feature films, a three-season TV series entitled The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, novels, comic books, video games, role-playing games, and even his own theme park rides. Feature films An older Indiana Jones in Kingdom of the Crystal Skull Indiana Jones, played by Harrison Ford, was first introduced in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, set in 1936. He is portrayed as an adventurous throwback to the 1930s film serial treasure hunters and pulp action heroes, with an alter ego of Doctor Jones, a respected archaeologist at Marshall College (named after producer Frank Marshall) - a fictional college in Connecticut. In this first adventure, he is pitted against the Nazis, traveling the world to prevent them from recovering the Ark of the Covenant (see also Biblical archaeology). He is aided by Marion Ravenwood and Sallah. The Nazis are led by Jones's archrival, a Nazi-sympathizing French archaeologist named René Belloq, and Arnold Toht, a sinister Gestapo agent. The 1984 prequel Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, set in 1935, took the character into a more horror-oriented story, skipping his legitimate teaching job and globe trotting, and taking place almost entirely in India. This time, Jones attempts to recover children and the Sankara Stones from the bloodthirsty Thuggee cult. Young Indiana Jones in The Last Crusade The third film, 1989's Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, set in 1938, returned to the formula of the original, reintroducing characters such as Sallah and Marcus Brody, a scene from Professor Jones's classroom (he now teaches at Barnett College), the globe trotting element of multiple locations, and the return of the infamous Nazi mystics, this time trying to find the Holy Grail. The film's introduction, set in 1912, provided some back story to the character, specifically the origin of his fear of snakes, his use of a bullwhip, the scar on his chin, and his fedora hat; the film's epilogue also reveals that "Indiana" is not Jones's first name, but a nickname he took from the family dog. The film was a buddy movie of sorts, teaming Jones with his father, often to comical effect. Although Lucas intended at the time to do five films, this ended up being the last for over eighteen years, as Lucas could not think of a good MacGuffin to drive the next installment. The 2008 film, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, became the latest film in the series. Set in 1957, 19 years after the third film, it pits an older, wiser Indiana Jones against Soviet agents bent on harnessing the power of a crystal skull discovered in South America by his former colleague Harold Oxley (John Hurt). He is aided in his adventure by an old lover, Marion Ravenwood (Karen Allen), and her son—a young greaser named Mutt Williams (Shia LaBeouf), later revealed to be his biological child Henry Jones III. This film also reveals that Jones was recruited by the Office of Strategic Services (a predecessor department to the CIA) during World War II, attaining the rank of Colonel and running covert operations with MI6 agent George McHale on the "Reds", which could mean the Soviet Union. Television Young Indiana Jones in The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles From 1992 to 1996, George Lucas executive produced a television series named The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, which was designed as an educational program for children, spotlighting historical figures and important events, using the concept of a prequel to the films as a draw. The show featured a standard formula of a 93-year-old Jones (George Hall), wearing an eye patch, introducing a story, and then an adventure with either a 17-year-old Jones (Sean Patrick Flanery) or a 10-year-old Jones (Corey Carrier), and even a baby Indy (Neil Boulane). Historical figures featured on the show include Leo Tolstoy, Pancho Villa, Charles de Gaulle, Elliot Ness, Ernest Hemingway, and John Ford, in such diverse locations as Egypt, Austria-Hungary, India, China, and the whole of Europe. Old Indiana Jones in The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles One episode, "Young Indiana Jones and the Mystery of the Blues", is bookended by Harrison Ford, reprising his role as the character. Indiana loses one of his eyes sometime between 1957 and when the "Old Indy" segments take place. The show provided some backstory for the films, as well as new information regarding the character. He was born July 1, 1899, and his middle name is Walton, Lucas's middle name. It is also mentioned that he had a sister called Suzie who died as an infant of fever. His relationship with his father, first introduced in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, was further fleshed out with stories about his travels with his father as a young boy. A large portion of the series centered around his activities during World War I. In 1999, Lucas removed the episode introductions and epilogues by George Hall for the VHS and DVD releases, as he re-edited the episodes into chronologically ordered feature-length stories. The series title was also changed to The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones. Video games The character has appeared in several officially licensed video games, beginning with adaptations of Raiders of the Lost Ark, Temple of Doom, and two adaptations of The Last Crusade (one with purely action mechanics, one with an adventure and puzzle based structure). Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis, Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, and Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb, which sets up Jones's companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci's ashes seen at the beginning of Temple of Doom. The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones, while Emperor's Tomb had David Esch fill the role. There is also a small game from Lucas Arts Indiana Jones and His Desktop Adventures. A video game was made for young Indy called Young Indiana Jones and the Instruments of Chaos, as well as a video game version of The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles. Indy also stars in the new Wii Lego Indiana Jones, where gamers can play as Indy through the movies Lego style.Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures was released on June 3, 2008 in the US. A new Indiana Jones video game, Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings, is in development by LucasArts. Indiana Jones has also made cameo appearances as an unlockable character in the games Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction and Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga. Theme parks The Indiana Jones Adventure attractions at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea ("Temple of the Forbidden Eye" and "Temple of the Crystal Skull", respectively) place Indy at the forefront of two similar archaeological discoveries. These two temples each contain a wrathful deity who threatens the guests who ride through in World War II troop transports. They opened in 1995 and 2001, respectively, and each was an expensive project by Walt Disney Imagineering. Disney ended up not gaining rights to Harrison Ford's likeness, but the Indiana Jones character does appear in audio-animatronic form at three points in both attractions. Disneyland Resort Paris also features an Indiana Jones ride where people speed off through ancient ruins in a runaway wagon similar to that found in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. This roller-coaster is known as Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril. The Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular! is an amusement show in Disney's Hollywood Studios in Walt Disney World Resort. The show has various different stunts, and recruits members of the audience to partake in the show. The show is 25 minutes long. In the show, the stunt artists reveal some of the secrets of the stunts behind Raiders of the Lost Ark, including the well-known running-from-the-boulder scene from early in the film. Characterization In his role as a college professor of archaeology, Henry Jones Jr. is scholarly and learned in a tweed suit, lecturing on ancient civilizations. But at the opportunity to recover important artifacts, he transforms into "Indiana", a near superhero image he has concocted for himself. Producer Frank Marshall said, "Indy [is] a fallible character. He makes mistakes and gets hurt. [...] That's the other thing people like: He's a real character, not a character with superpowers." Spielberg said there "was the willingness to allow our leading man to get hurt and to express his pain and to get his mad out and to take pratfalls and sometimes be the butt of his own jokes. I mean, Indiana Jones is not a perfect hero, and his imperfections, I think, make the audience feel that, with a little more exercise and a little more courage, they could be just like him." According to Spielberg biographer Douglas Brode, Indiana is a childish man who created his heroic figure so to escape the dullness of teaching at a school. Both of Indiana's personas reject one another in philosophy, creating a duality. Harrison Ford said the fun of playing the character was because Indiana is both a romantic and a cynic, while scholars have analyzed Indiana as having traits of a lone wolf; a man on a quest; a noble treasure hunter; a hardboiled detective; a human superhero; and an American patriot. Like many characters in his films, Jones has some autobiographical elements of Spielberg. Indiana lacks a proper father figure because of his strained relationship with his father, Henry Senior. His own contained anger is misdirected at the likes of Professor Abner Ravenwood, his mentor at the University of Chicago, leading to a strained relationship with Marion Ravenwood. The teenage Indiana bases his own look on a figure from the prologue of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, after being given his hat. Marcus Brody acts as Indiana's positive role model at the college. Indiana's own insecurities are made worse by the absence of his mother. In Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, the character becomes the father in a temporary family unit with Willie Scott and Short Round to survive. Indiana is rescued from the evil of Kali by Short Round's dedication. Indiana also saves many children from slavery. Because of Indiana's strained relationship with his father, a Christian searching for the Holy Grail, the character rejects the spiritual side of the profession he has followed. Indiana uses his knowledge of Shiva to ultimately defeat Mola Ram. In Raiders, the cynical Indiana chooses to close his eyes in the presence of the spirits who have been disturbed from their slumber in the Ark of the Covenant. By contrast, his rival Rene Belloq is killed for trying to communicate directly with God. In Crusade's prologue, Indiana's intentions are revealed as social, as he believes artifacts "belong in a museum". In the film's climax, Indiana undergoes "literal" tests of faith to retrieve the Grail and save his father's life. He also recognizes Jesus as a humble carpenter when he recognizes the simple nature and tarnished appearance of the real Grail amongst a large assortment of much more ornately decorated ones. Henry Senior rescues his son from falling to his death when reaching for the fallen Grail, telling him to "let it go", overcoming his mercenary nature. The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles explains how Indiana becomes solitary and less idealistic after fighting in World War I. In Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, Jones is older and wiser, whereas his sidekicks Mutt and Mac are youthfully arrogant and greedy, respectively. Concept and creation Indiana Jones is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinée serials and pulp magazines that George Lucas and Steven Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods (such as the Republic Pictures serials, and the Doc Savage series). The two friends first discussed the project in Hawaii around the time of the release of the first Star Wars film. Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted his next project to be something fun, like perhaps a James Bond film. According to sources, Lucas responded to the effect that he had something "even better", or that he "got that beat". Nashawaty, Chris; "National Treasure"; Entertainment Weekly; March 14, 2008. The character was originally named Indiana Smith, after an Alaskan Malamute Lucas owned in the 1970s ("Indiana"); however, Spielberg disliked the name "Smith", and Lucas casually suggested "Jones" as an alternative. Wardrobe and equipment Original Indiana Jones concept, produced by Jim Steranko in 1973. Indiana Jones was designed by comic book artist Jim Steranko. George Lucas suggested the flight jacket (which reminded Steranko of Lucas), the fedora (which reminded him of Humphrey Bogart in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre) and a whip (reminiscent of Zorro). Steranko added the Sam Browne belt, a belt with a holster, and the khaki shirt and trousers. Costume designer Deborah Nadoolman Landis said the inspiration for Indiana's outfit was Charlton Heston's Harry Steele in Secret of the Incas: "We did watch this film together as a crew several times, and I always thought it strange that the filmmakers did not credit it later as the inspiration for the series." Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas, the costume designer gave the character a distinctive silhouette through the styling of the hat; after examining many hats, the designers chose a tall-crowned, wide-brimmed fedora. As a documentary of Raiders pointed out, the hat served a practical purpose. Following the lead of the old "B"-movies that inspired the Indiana Jones series, the fedora hid the actor's face sufficiently to allow doubles to perform the more dangerous stunts seamlessly. Examples in Raiders include the wider-angle shot of Indy and Marion crashing a statue through a wall, and Indy sliding under a fast-moving vehicle from front to back. Thus it was necessary for the hat to stay in place much of the time. The hat became so iconic that the filmmakers could only come up with very good reasons or jokes to remove it. If it ever fell off during a take, filming would have to stop to put it back on. In jest, Ford put a stapler against his head when a documentary crew visited during shooting of The Last Crusade. This created the urban legend that Ford stapled the hat to his head. Although other hats were also used throughout the movies, the general style and profile remained the same. Elements of the outfit include: The fedora – made by Herbert Johnson Hatters in England for the first three films. Indy's fedoras for Crystal Skull were made by Steve Delk and Marc Kitter of the Adventurebilt Hat Company. The hat style is the "Australian" or the "Poet", fitted with a Petersham bow. The leather jacket – a hybrid of the "Type 440" and the A-2 jacket, were made by Leather Concessionaires (now known as Wested Leather Co). Raiders of the Lost Ark and The Last Crusade. For Temple of Doom, jackets were made in house at Bermans&Nathans in London based on a stunt jacket they provided for Raiders of The Lost Ark, while Tony Nowak made the jacket in Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. The bag – a modified Mark VI British gas mask bag The whip – a 10-foot bullwhip crafted by David Morgan for the first three films. The whips for Indy 4 were crafted by a variety of people, including Terry Jacka, Joe Strain and David (different lengths and styles were likely used in specific stunts). The pistol – usually a World War I-era revolver, examples include the Webley Green (Last Crusade and Crystal Skull), or a .45 ACP Smith & Wesson Hand Ejector 2nd model revolver (Raiders). He has also been seen using an M1917 revolver, and a 9 mm Browning Hi-Power. The shoes – "Indy Boots" made by Alden Shoes, which are still sold today (though in a lighter shade of brown than seen in the movies) Jones's fedora and leather jacket (as used in The Last Crusade) are on display at the Smithsonian's American History Museum in Washington, D.C. The collection of props and clothing from the films has become a thriving hobby for some aficionados of the franchise. Jones's whip was the third most popular film weapon, as shown by a 2008 poll held by 20th Century Fox, which surveyed approximately two thousand film fans. Casting Originally, Spielberg suggested Harrison Ford; Lucas resisted the idea, since he had already cast the actor in three of his movies (American Graffiti, Star Wars, and The Empire Strikes Back), and did not want Ford to become known as his "Bobby De Niro" (in reference to the fact that fellow director Martin Scorsese regularly cast Robert De Niro in his films). During an intensive casting process, Lucas and Spielberg auditioned many actors, and finally cast then little-known actor Tom Selleck as Indiana Jones. Shortly afterward pre-production began in earnest on Raiders of the Lost Ark. However, CBS refused to release Selleck from his contractual commitment to Magnum, P.I. (which was gradually gaining momentum in the ratings), forcing him to turn down the role. After Spielberg suggested Ford again, Lucas finally gave in, and he was cast in the role — less than 3 weeks before filming of Raiders began. Models Many people are said to be the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character — although none of the following have been confirmed as inspirations by Lucas or Spielberg. In alphabetical order by last name: Paleontologist Roy Chapman Andrews. , pp. 97–98, "Andrews is allegedly the real person that the movie character of Indiana Jones was patterned after... crack shot, fighter of Mongolian brigands, the man who created the metaphor of 'Outer Mongolia' as denoting any exceedingly remote place." Italian archaeologist and circus strongman Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778–1823). Yale University professor, historian, and explorer Hiram Bingham III, who rediscovered and excavated the lost city of Machu Picchu, and chronicled his find in the bestselling book The Lost City of the Incas in 1948. The University of Chicago archaeologist Robert Braidwood. Fellow University of Chicago archaeologist James Henry Breasted http://phoenix.uchicago.edu/HTMLVirtualTour/oriental.html British archaeologist and soldier T. E. Lawrence http://www.theraider.net/information/influences/lawrence_of_arabia.php William Montgomery McGovern Frederick Albert Mitchell-Hedges German archaeologist Otto Rahn George Lucas has said on various occasions that Sean Connery's portrayal of British secret agent James Bond was one of the primary inspirations for Jones, a reason Connery was chosen for the role of Indiana's father in the third film, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Bond Inspiration For Indiana Jones Influence Though some archaeologists criticize Indy's methods as befitting a "looter" rather more than a careful worker of precious sites, many have adopted the popular figure as something of a standard-bearer for their profession. The industry magazine Archaeology, believing that Jones, as one editor said, was "a horrible archaeologist but a great diplomat for archeology," named eight past and current archaeologists who they felt "embodied [Jones'] spirit" as recipients of the "Indy Spirit Awards" in 2008. That same year Ford himself was elected to the Board of Directors of the Archaeological Institute of America. Commenting that "understanding the past can only help us in dealing with the present and the future", Ford was praised by the association's president for his character's "significant role in stimulating the public's interest in archaeological exploration." While himself a homage to various prior adventurers, aspects of Indiana Jones also directly influenced some subsequent characterizations: Lara Croft, the self-styled female archaeologist of the Tomb Raider franchise, was originally designed as a man, but was changed to a woman, partly because the developers felt that the original design was too similar to Indiana Jones. Paramount Pictures, which distributed the Indiana Jones film series, would later make two films based on the Tomb Raider games. Malcolm Reynolds, spaceship captain in television series Firefly and its feature film continuation Serenity (Nathan Fillion reflects many of Harrison Ford's mannerisms) "A Filmmaker's Journey" featurette, from the Serenity Collector's Edition DVD . Prince of Persia'' producer Ben Mattes explained that their "inspiration was anything Harrison Ford has ever done: Indiana Jones, Han Solo." As quoted in Gary Steinman, "Prince of Persia: Anatomy of a Prince," PlayStation: The Official Magazine 13 (December 2008): 50. References External links IndianaJones.com — the official Indiana Jones site A tribute site to the Raiders of the Lost Ark movie, specifically the Kenner playset depicting the scene at the Well of Souls - The complete parts list, history, and information about the highly sought-after 1982 playset from Kenner. | Indiana_Jones |@lemmatized infobox:1 character:26 colour:2 text:1 name:13 indiana:89 jones:95 series:12 image:2 caption:1 raider:20 first:12 lose:13 ark:14 last:15 cause:1 creator:1 george:11 lucas:21 portrayer:1 film:36 harrison:9 ford:17 age:6 river:2 phoenix:3 tv:2 corey:4 carrier:4 sean:4 patrick:3 flanery:3 hall:4 video:9 game:15 doug:3 lee:3 voice:5 david:5 esch:3 episode:5 nickname:2 indyjunior:1 height:2 specie:1 bear:2 july:2 new:4 jersey:1 death:2 alma:1 mater:1 university:5 chicago:4 occupation:1 archaeologistassociate:1 deancollege:1 professorsoldierspy:1 title:2 callsign:1 family:3 henry:8 sr:1 father:10 decease:2 anna:1 mother:2 spouse:1 marion:5 ravenwood:5 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7,388 | Globular_cluster | The Messier 80 globular cluster in the constellation Scorpius is located about 28,000 light-years from the Sun and contains hundreds of thousands of stars. A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars that orbits a galactic core as a satellite. Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity, which gives them their spherical shapes and relatively high stellar densities toward their centers. The name of this category of star cluster is derived from the Latin globulus—a small sphere. A globular cluster is sometimes known more simply as a globular. Globular clusters, which are found in the halo of a galaxy, contain considerably more stars and are much older than the less dense galactic, or open clusters, which are found in the disk. Globular clusters are fairly common; there are about 158 currently known globular clusters in the Milky Way, with perhaps 10 to 20 more still undiscovered. Large galaxies can have more: Andromeda, for instance, may have as many as 500. Some giant elliptical galaxies, such as M87, may have as many as 10,000 globular clusters. These globular clusters orbit the galaxy out to large radii, 40 kiloparsecs (approximately 131,000 light-years) or more. Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated group of globular clusters, and almost every large galaxy surveyed has been found to possess a system of globular clusters. The Sagittarius Dwarf and Canis Major Dwarf galaxies appear to be in the process of donating their associated globular clusters (such as Palomar 12) to the Milky Way. This demonstrates how many of this galaxy's globular clusters were acquired in the past. Although it appears that globular clusters contain some of the first stars to be produced in the galaxy, their origins and their role in galactic evolution are still unclear. It does appear clear that globular clusters are significantly different from dwarf elliptical galaxies and were formed as part of the star formation of the parent galaxy rather than as a separate galaxy. However, recent conjectures by astronomers suggest that globular clusters and dwarf spheroidals may not be clearly separate and distinct types of objects. Observation history + Early Globular Cluster DiscoveriesCluster nameDiscovered byYearM22Abraham Ihle1665ω CenEdmond Halley1677M5Gottfried Kirch1702M13Edmond Halley1714M71Philippe Loys de Chéseaux1745M4Philippe Loys de Chéseaux1746M15Jean-Dominique Maraldi1746M2Jean-Dominique Maraldi1746 The first globular cluster discovered was M22 in 1665 by Abraham Ihle, a German amateur astronomer. However, given the small aperture of early telescopes, individual stars within a globular cluster were not resolved until Charles Messier observed M4. The first eight globular clusters discovered are shown in the table. Subsequently, Abbé Lacaille would list NGC 104, NGC 4833, M55, M69, and NGC 6397 in his 1751–52 catalogue. The M before a number refers to the catalogue of Charles Messier, while NGC is from the New General Catalogue by John Dreyer. William Herschel began a survey program in 1782 using larger telescopes and was able to resolve the stars in all 33 of the known globular clusters. In addition he found 37 additional clusters. In Herschel's 1789 catalog of deep sky objects, his second such, he became the first to use the name globular cluster as their description. The number of globular clusters discovered continued to increase, reaching 83 in 1915, 93 in 1930 and 97 by 1947. A total of 151 globular clusters have now been discovered in the Milky Way galaxy, out of an estimated total of 180 ± 20. These additional, undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be hidden behind the gas and dust of the Milky Way. Beginning in 1914, Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters, published in about 40 scientific papers. He examined the cepheid variables in the clusters and would use their period–luminosity relationship for distance estimates. M75 is a highly concentrated, Class I globular cluster. Of the globular clusters within our Milky Way, the majority are found in the vicinity of the galactic core, and the large majority lie on the side of the celestial sky centered on the core. In 1918 this strongly asymmetrical distribution was used by Harlow Shapley to make a determination of the overall dimensions of the galaxy. By assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy's center, he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the sun relative to the galactic center. While his distance estimate was significantly in error, it did demonstrate that the dimensions of the galaxy were much greater than had been previously thought. His error was due to the fact that dust in the Milky Way diminished the amount of light from a globular cluster that reached the earth, thus making it appear farther away. Shapley's estimate was, however, within the same order of magnitude of the currently accepted value. Shapley's measurements also indicated that the Sun was relatively far from the center of the galaxy, contrary to what had previously been inferred from the apparently nearly even distribution of ordinary stars. In reality, ordinary stars lie within the galaxy's disk and are thus often obscured by gas and dust, whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much further distances. Shapley was subsequently assisted in his studies of clusters by Henrietta Swope and Helen Battles Sawyer (later Hogg). In 1927–29, Harlow Shapley and Helen Sawyer began categorizing clusters according to the degree of concentration the system has toward the core. The most concentrated clusters were identified as Class I, with successively diminishing concentrations ranging to Class XII. This became known as the Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class. (It is sometimes given with numbers [Class 1–12] rather than Roman numerals.) Composition Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low-metal, old stars. The type of stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a volume of only a few cubic parsecs. They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all of the gas and dust was long ago turned into stars. While globular clusters can contain a high density of stars (on average about 0.4 stars per cubic parsec, increasing to 100 or 1000 stars per cubic parsec in the core of the cluster), they are not thought to be favorable locations for the survival of planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at 1 astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster such as 47 Tucanae would only survive on the order of 108 years. However, there has been at least one planetary system found orbiting a pulsar (PSR B1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M4. With a few notable exceptions, each globular cluster appears to have a definite age. That is, most of the stars in a cluster are at approximately the same stage in stellar evolution, suggesting that they formed at about the same time. No known globular clusters appear to have active star formation, which is consistent with the view that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in the Galaxy, and were among the first collections of stars to form. Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters, such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way, may be the precursors of globular clusters. Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri in our Milky Way and G1 in M31, are extraordinarily massive (several million solar masses) and contain multiple stellar populations. Both can be regarded as evidence that supermassive globular clusters are in fact the cores of dwarf galaxies that are consumed by the larger galaxies. Several globular clusters (like M15) have extremely massive cores which may harbor black holes, although simulations suggest that a less massive black hole or central concentration of neutron stars or massive white dwarfs explain observations equally well. Metallic content Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars, which have a low metallic content compared to Population I stars such as the Sun. (To astronomers, metals includes all elements heavier than helium, such as lithium and carbon.) The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff noticed that there appear to be two populations of globular clusters, which became known as Oosterhoff groups. The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars. Both groups have weak lines of metallic elements. But the lines in the stars of Oosterhoff type I (OoI) cluster are not quite as weak as those in type II (OoII). Hence type I are referred to as "metal-rich" while type II are "metal-poor". These two populations have been observed in many galaxies (especially massive elliptical galaxies). Both groups are of similar ages (nearly as old as the universe itself) but differ in their metal abundances. Many scenarios have been suggested to explain these subpopulations, including violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy. In our Milky Way, the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the Bulge. In the Milky Way it has been discovered that the large majority of the low metallicity clusters are aligned along a plane in the outer part of the galaxy's halo. This result argues in favor of the view that type II clusters in the galaxy were captured from a satellite galaxy, rather than being the oldest members of the Milky Way's globular cluster system as had been previously thought. The difference between the two cluster types would then be explained by a time delay between when the two galaxies formed their cluster systems. Exotic components Globular clusters have a very high star density, and therefore close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often. Due to these chance encounters, some exotic classes of stars, such as blue stragglers, millisecond pulsars and low-mass X-ray binaries, are much more common in globular clusters. A blue straggler is formed from the merger of two stars, possibly as a result of an encounter with a binary system. The resulting star has a higher temperature than comparable stars in the cluster with the same luminosity, and thus differs from the main sequence stars formed at the beginning of the cluster. Globular cluster M15 has a 4,000-solar mass black hole at its core. NASA image. Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s. The resolution requirements for this task, however, are exacting, and it is only with the Hubble space telescope that the first confirmed discoveries have been made. In independent programs, a 4,000 solar mass intermediate-mass black hole has been suggested to exist based on HST observations in the globular cluster M15 and a 20,000 solar mass black hole in the Mayall II cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy. Both x-ray and radio emissions from Mayall II appear to be consistent with an intermediate-mass black hole. These are of particular interest because they are the first black holes discovered that were intermediate in mass between the conventional stellar-mass black hole and the supermassive black holes discovered at the cores of galaxies. The mass of these intermediate mass black holes is proportional to the mass of the clusters, following a pattern previously discovered between supermassive black holes and their surrounding galaxies. Claims of intermediate mass black holes have been met with some skepticism. The densest objects in globular clusters are expected to migrate to the cluster center due to mass segregation. These will be white dwarfs and neutron stars in an old stellar population like a globular cluster. As pointed out in two papers by Holger Baumgardt and collaborators, the mass-to-light ratio should rise sharply towards the center of the cluster, even without a black hole, in both M15 and Mayall II. Color-magnitude diagram The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR-diagram) is a graph of a large sample of stars that plots their visual absolute magnitude against their color index. The color index, B−V, is the difference between the magnitude of the star in blue light, or B, and the magnitude in visual light (green-yellow), or V. Large positive values indicate a red star with a cool surface temperature, while negative values imply a blue star with a hotter surface. When the stars near the Sun are plotted on an HR diagram, it displays a distribution of stars of various masses, ages, and compositions. Many of the stars lie relatively close to a sloping curve with increasing absolute magnitude as the stars are hotter, known as main sequence stars. However the diagram also typically includes stars that are in later stages of their evolution and have wandered away from this main sequence curve. As all the stars of a globular cluster are at approximately the same distance from us, their absolute magnitudes differ from their visual magnitude by about the same amount. The main sequence stars in the globular cluster will fall along a line that is believed to be comparable to similar stars in the solar neighborhood. (The accuracy of this assumption is confirmed by comparable results obtained by comparing the magnitudes of nearby short-period variables, such as RR Lyrae stars and cepheid variables, with those in the cluster.) By matching up these curves on the HR diagram the absolute magnitude of main sequence stars in the cluster can also be determined. This in turn provides a distance estimate to the cluster, based on the visual magnitude of the stars. The difference between the relative and absolute magnitude, the distance modulus, yields this estimate of the distance. When the stars of a particular globular cluster are plotted on an HR diagram, nearly all of the stars fall upon a relatively well defined curve. This differs from the HR diagram of stars near the Sun, which lumps together stars of differing ages and origins. The shape of the curve for a globular cluster is characteristic of a grouping of stars that were formed at approximately the same time and from the same materials, differing only in their initial mass. As the position of each star in the HR diagram varies with age, the shape of the curve for a globular cluster can be used to measure the overall age of the collected stars. Color-magnitude diagram for the globular cluster M3. Note the characteristic "knee" in the curve at magnitude 19 where stars begin entering the giant stage of their evolutionary path. The most massive main sequence stars in a globular cluster will also have the highest absolute magnitude, and these will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage. As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will also enter the giant star stage. Thus the age of a cluster can be measured by looking for the stars that are just beginning to enter the giant star stage. This forms a "knee" in the HR diagram, bending to the upper right from the main sequence line. The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the age of globular cluster, so an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude. In addition, globular clusters can be dated by looking at the temperatures of the coolest white dwarfs. Typical results for globular clusters are that they may be as old as 12.7 billion years. This is in contrast to open clusters which are only tens of millions of years old. The ages of globular clusters place a bound on the age limit of the entire universe. This lower limit has been a significant constraint in cosmology. During the early 1990s, astronomers were faced with age estimates of globular clusters that appeared older than cosmological models would allow. However, better measurements of cosmological parameters through deep sky surveys and satellites such as COBE have resolved this issue as have computer models of stellar evolution that have different models of mixing. Evolutionary studies of globular clusters can also be used to determine changes due to the starting composition of the gas and dust that formed the cluster. That is, the change in the evolutionary tracks due to the abundance of heavy elements. (Heavy elements in astronomy are considered to be all elements more massive than helium.) The data obtained from studies of globular clusters are then used to study the evolution of the Milky Way as a whole. In globular clusters a few stars known as blue stragglers are observed, apparently continuing the main sequence in the direction of brighter, bluer stars. The origins of these stars is still unclear, but most models suggest that these stars are the result of mass transfer in multiple star systems. Morphology In contrast to open clusters, most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound for time periods comparable to the life spans of the majority of their stars. (A possible exception is when strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of the stars.) At present the formation of globular clusters remains a poorly understood phenomenon. It remains uncertain whether the stars in a globular cluster form in a single generation, or are spawned across multiple generations over a period of several hundred million years. This star-forming period is relatively brief, however, compared to the age of many globular clusters. Observations of globular clusters show that these stellar formations arise primarily in regions of efficient star formation, and where the interstellar medium is at a higher density than in normal star-forming regions. Globular cluster formation is prevalent in starburst regions and in interacting galaxies. After they are formed, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. As a result the velocity vectors of the stars are steadily modified, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time. This is related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster as well as the number of stellar masses in the system. The value of the relaxation time varies by cluster, but the mean value is on the order of 109 years. + Ellipticity of GlobularsGalaxyEllipticity Milky Way0.07±0.04LMC0.16±0.05SMC0.19±0.06M310.09±0.04 Although globular clusters generally appear spherical in form, ellipticities can occur due to tidal interactions. Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape, while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical. Radii Astronomers characterize the morphology of a globular cluster by means of standard radii. These are the core radius (rc), the half-light radius (rh) and the tidal radius (rt). The overall luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance from the core, and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half. A comparable quantity is the half-light radius, or the distance from the core within which half the total luminosity from the cluster is received. This is typically larger than the core radius. Note that the half-light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight, so theorists will also use the half-mass radius (rm)—the radius from the core that contains half the total mass of the cluster. When the half-mass radius of a cluster is small relative to the overall size, it has a dense core. An example of this is Messier 3 (M3), which has an overall visible dimension of about 18 arc minutes, but a half-mass radius of only 1.12 arc minutes. Almost all globular clusters have a half-light radius of less than 10 pc. Although there are well-established globular clusters with very large radii (i.e. NGC 2419 (Rh = 18 pc) and Palomar 14 (Rh = 25 pc). Finally the tidal radius is the distance from the center of the globular cluster at which the external gravitation of the galaxy has more influence over the stars in the cluster than does the cluster itself. This is the distance at which the individual stars belonging to a cluster can be separated away by the galaxy. The tidal radius of M3 is about 38 arc minutes. Mass segregation and luminosity In measuring the luminosity curve of a given globular cluster as a function of distance from the core, most clusters in the Milky Way increase steadily in luminosity as this distance decreases, up to a certain distance from the core, then the luminosity levels off. Typically this distance is about 1–2 parsecs from the core. However about 20% of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed "core collapse". In this type of cluster, the luminosity continues to increase steadily all the way to the core region. An example of a core-collapsed globular is M15. 47 Tucanae - the second most luminous globular cluster in the Milky Way, after Omega Centauri. Core-collapse is thought to occur when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive companions. As a result of the encounters the larger stars tend to lose kinetic energy and start to settle toward the core. Over a lengthy period of time this leads to a concentration of massive stars near the core, a phenomenon called mass segregation. The Hubble Space Telescope has been used to provide convincing observational evidence of this stellar mass-sorting process in globular clusters. Heavier stars slow down and crowd at the cluster's core, while lighter stars pick up speed and tend to spend more time at the cluster's periphery. The globular star cluster 47 Tucanae, which is made up of about 1 million stars, is one of the densest globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere. This cluster was subjected to an intensive photographic survey, which allowed astronomers to track the motion of its stars. Precise velocities were obtained for nearly 15,000 stars in this cluster. The different stages of core-collapse may be divided into three phases. During a globular cluster's adolescence, the process of core-collapse begins with stars near the core. However, the interactions between binary star systems prevents further collapse as the cluster approaches middle age. Finally, the central binaries are either disrupted or ejected, resulting in a tighter concentration at the core. A 2008 study by Dr. John Fregeau of 13 globular clusters in the Milky Way shows that three of them have an unusually large number of X-ray sources, or X-ray binaries, suggesting the clusters are middle-aged. Previously, these globular clusters had been classified as being in old age because they had very tight concentrations of stars in their centers, another test of age used by astronomers. The implication is that most globular clusters, including the other ten studied by Fregeau, are not in middle age as previously thought, but are actually in 'adolescence'. "It's remarkable that these objects, which are thought to be some of the oldest in the Universe, may really be very immature," said Fregeau, whose paper appears in The Astrophysical Journal. "This would represent a major change in thinking about the current evolutionary status of globular clusters." The overall luminosities of the globular clusters within the Milky Way and M31 can be modeled by means of a gaussian curve. This gaussian can be represented by means of an average magnitude Mv and a variance σ2. This distribution of globular cluster luminosities is called the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF). (For the Milky Way, Mv = −7.20±0.13, σ=1.1±0.1 magnitudes.) The GCLF has also been used as a "standard candle" for measuring the distance to other galaxies, under the assumption that the globular clusters in remote galaxies follow the same principles as they do in the Milky Way. N-body simulations Computing the interactions between the stars within a globular cluster requires solving what is termed the N-body problem. That is, each of the stars within the cluster continually interacts with the other N−1 stars, where N is the total number of stars in the cluster. The naive CPU computational "cost" for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to N3, so the potential computing requirements to accurately simulate such a cluster can be enormous. An efficient method of mathematically simulating the N-body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdividing into small volumes and velocity ranges, and using probabilities to describe the locations of the stars. The motions are then described by means of a formula called the Fokker-Planck equation. This can be solved by a simplified form of the equation, or by running Monte Carlo simulations and using random values. However the simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces (such as from the Milky Way galaxy) must also be included. The results of N-body simulations have shown that the stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster, often forming loops and often falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass. In addition, due to interactions with other stars that result in an increase in velocity, some of the stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster. Over long periods of time this will result in a dissipation of the cluster, a process termed evaporation. The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 1010 years. Binary stars form a significant portion of the total population of stellar systems, with up to half of all stars occurring in binary systems. Numerical simulations of globular clusters have demonstrated that binaries can hinder and even reverse the process of core collapse in globular clusters. When a star in a cluster has a gravitational encounter with a binary system, a possible result is that the binary becomes more tightly bound and kinetic energy is added to the solitary star. When the massive stars in the cluster are sped up by this process, it reduces the contraction at the core and limits core collapse. The ultimate fate of a globular cluster must be either to accrete stars at its core, causing its steady contraction, or gradual shedding of stars from its outer layers. Intermediate forms The distinction between cluster types is not always clear-cut, and objects have been found that blur the lines between the categories. For example, BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster. In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy, which is, in several ways, very similar to globular clusters. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number to that found in globular clusters. The clusters share other characteristics with globular clusters such as stellar populations and metallicity. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger – several hundred light-years across – and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters. Parametrically, these clusters lie somewhere between a (low dark-matter) globular cluster and a (dark matter-dominated) dwarf spheroidal galaxy. How these clusters are formed is not yet known, but their formation might well be related to that of globular clusters. Why M31 has such clusters, while the Milky Way does not, is not yet known. It is also unknown if any other galaxy contains these types of clusters, but it would be very unlikely that M31 is the sole galaxy with extended clusters. Tidal encounters When a globular cluster has a close encounter with a large mass, such as the core region of a galaxy, it undergoes a tidal interaction. The difference in the pull of gravity between the part of the cluster nearest the mass and the pull on the furthest part of the cluster results in a tidal force. A "tidal shock" occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy. As a result of a tidal shock, streams of stars can be pulled away from the cluster halo, leaving only the core part of the cluster. These tidal interaction effects create tails of stars that can extend up to several degrees of arc away from the cluster. These tails typically both precede and follow the cluster along its orbit. The tails can accumulate significant portions of the original mass of the cluster, and can form clumplike features. The globular cluster Palomar 5, for example, is near the apogalactic point of its orbit after passing through the Milky Way. Streams of stars extend outward toward the front and rear of the orbital path of this cluster, stretching out to distances of 13,000 light-years. Tidal interactions have stripped away much of the mass from Palomar 5, and further interactions as it passes through the galactic core are expected to transform it into a long stream of stars orbiting the Milky Way halo. Tidal interactions add kinetic energy into a globular cluster, dramatically increasing the evaporation rate and shrinking the size of the cluster. Not only does tidal shock strip off the outer stars from a globular cluster, but the increased evaporation accelerates the process of core collapse. The same physical mechanism may be at work in Dwarf spheroidal galaxies such as the Sagittarius Dwarf, which appears to be undergoing tidal disruption due to its proximity to the Milky Way. See also List of globular clusters Plummer model Extragalactic Distance Scale Polytrope Leonard-Merritt mass estimator References General resources NASA Astrophysics Data System has a collection of past articles, from all major astrophysics journals and many conference proceedings. SCYON is a newsletter dedicated to star clusters. MODEST is a loose collaboration of scientists working on star clusters. Books Review Articles Elson, Rebecca; Hut, Piet; Inagaki, Shogo (1987). Dynamical evolution of globular clusters. Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics 25 565. NASA ADS Meylan, G.; Heggie, D. C. (1997). Internal dynamics of globular clusters. The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 8 1. NASA ADS External links Globular Clusters, SEDS Messier pages Milky Way Globular Clusters Catalogue of Milky Way Globular Cluster Parameters by William E. Harris, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada A galactic globular cluster database by Marco Castellani, Rome Astronomical Observatory, Italy Key stars have different birthdays article describes how stars in globular clusters are born in several bursts, rather than all at once Globular Clusters Blog News, papers and preprints on Galactic Globular Clusters Clickable Messier Object table including globular clusters | Globular_cluster |@lemmatized messy:3 globular:125 cluster:206 constellation:1 scorpius:1 locate:1 light:13 year:10 sun:6 contain:8 hundred:6 thousand:3 star:125 spherical:4 collection:3 orbit:10 galactic:8 core:41 satellite:3 tightly:2 bind:3 gravity:2 give:4 shape:4 relatively:6 high:6 stellar:11 density:4 toward:5 center:9 name:2 category:2 derive:1 latin:1 globulus:1 small:4 sphere:1 sometimes:2 know:9 simply:1 find:9 halo:5 galaxy:48 considerably:1 much:7 old:11 less:5 dense:7 open:4 disk:3 fairly:1 common:2 currently:2 milky:28 way:29 perhaps:1 still:3 undiscovered:2 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7,389 | Lorenzo_de'_Medici | Lorenzo de' Medici (1 January 1449 – 9 April 1492) was an Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance. Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent (Lorenzo il Magnifico) by contemporary Florentines, he was a diplomat, politician and patron of scholars, artists, and poets. His life coincided with the high point of the early Italian Renaissance; his death marked the end of the Golden Age of Florence. The fragile peace he helped maintain between the various Italian states collapsed with his death. Lorenzo de' Medici is buried in the Medici Chapel in Florence. Childhood Lorenzo's grandfather, Cosimo de' Medici, was the first member of the Medici family to combine running the Medici bank with leading the Republic. Cosimo, one of the wealthiest men in Europe, spent a very large portion of his fortune in government and philanthropy. He was a patron of the arts and funded public works. Lorenzo's father, Piero 'the Gouty' de' Medici, was also at the center of Florentine life, active as a patron and collector. His mother Lucrezia Tornabuoni was a dilettante poet and friend to figures like Luigi Pulci and Agnolo Poliziano. Lorenzo was considered the brightest of the five children, tutored by a diplomat, Gentile Becchi. He participated in jousting, hawking, hunting, and horse breeding for the palio, a horse race in Siena. His own horse was named Morello. Piero sent Lorenzo on many important diplomatic missions when he was still a youth. These included trips to Rome to meet with the pope and other important religious and political figures. Politics Bust of Lorenzo de' Medici by Verrocchio Lorenzo, groomed for power, assumed a leading role in the state upon the death of his father in 1469, when Lorenzo was twenty. Lorenzo had little success in running the bank, and its assets contracted seriously during the course of his lifetime. Lorenzo, like his father and grandfather, ruled Florence indirectly, through surrogates in the city councils, through threats, payoffs, strategic marriages — all the tools of despotism. Although Florence flourished under Lorenzo's rule, he effectively ruled as a despot and people had little freedom. It was inevitable that rival families should harbor resentments as to Medici dominance, and enemies of the Medici remained a factor in Florentine life long after Lorenzo's passing. On Easter Sunday, April 26, 1478, in an incident called the Pazzi Conspiracy, a group including members of the Pazzi family, backed by the Archbishop of Pisa and his patron Pope Sixtus IV, attacked Lorenzo and his co-ruler brother Giuliano in the cathedral of Florence. Lorenzo was stabbed but escaped; however the attackers managed to kill Giuliano. The conspiracy was brutally put down, with measures including the lynching of the archbishop and the death of the entire Pazzi family. In the aftermath of the Pazzi conspiracy and the punishment of the Pope's supporters, the Medici and Florence suffered from the wrath of the Pope. He seized all the Medici assets he could find, excommunicated Lorenzo and the entire government of Florence, and ultimately put the city under interdict. When that had little effect, the Pope formed a military alliance with King Ferdinand I of Naples, whose son, Alfonso, Duke of Calabria launched an invasion. A. Pucci, Lorenzo de Medici and F. Sassetti Lorenzo rallied the citizens. However, with little help being provided by traditional Medici allies in Bologna and Milan (the latter being convulsed by power struggles among the Sforza), the war dragged on, and only diplomacy by Lorenzo, who personally traveled to Naples, resolved the crisis. This enabled him to secure constitutional changes that enhanced his power. Thereafter, Lorenzo, like his grandfather Cosimo de' Medici, pursued a policy of maintaining both peace and a balance of power between the northern Italian states and of keeping other states out of Italy. Lorenzo kept good relations with Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire, as the trade with Ottomans was a major source of wealth for the Medici. According to the Catasto of 1481, (income tax) his net worth was ƒ 57,930, florins. Renaissance Lorenzo's court included artists such as Piero and Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Andrea del Verrocchio, Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Michelangelo Buonarroti who were involved in the 15th century Renaissance. Although he did not commission many works himself, he helped them secure commissions from other patrons. Michelangelo lived with Lorenzo and his family for several years, dining at the family table and attending meetings of the Neo-Platonic Academy. Lorenzo was an artist himself, writing poetry in his native Tuscan. In his poetry he celebrates life even while—particularly in his later works—acknowledging with melancholy the fragility and instability of the human condition. Love, feasts and light dominate his verse. Cosimo had started the collection of books which became the Medici Library (also called the Laurentian Library) and Lorenzo expanded it. Lorenzo's agents retrieved from the East large numbers of classical works, and he employed a large workshop to copy his books and disseminate their content across Europe. He supported the development of humanism through his circle of scholarly friends who studied Greek philosophers, and attempted to merge the ideas of Plato with Christianity; among this group were the philosophers Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. Later years A posthumous portrait of Lorenzo by Giorgio Vasari During his tenure, several branches of the family bank collapsed because of bad loans, and, in later years, he got into financial difficulties and resorted to mis-appropriating trust and state funds. Toward the end of Lorenzo's life, Florence came under the spell of Savonarola, who believed Christians had strayed too far into Greco-Roman culture. Lorenzo played a role in bringing Savonarola to Florence. Lorenzo de' Medici died during the night of April 8th/9th, 1492, at the long-time family villa of Careggi (Florentine reckoning considers days to begin at sunset, so his death date is the 9th in that reckoning). Savonarola visited Lorenzo on his death bed. The rumor that Savonarola damned Lorenzo on his deathbed has been refuted by Roberto Ridolfi in his book, Vita di Girolamo Savonarola. Letters written by witnesses to Lorenzo's death report Lorenzo died a consoled man, on account of the blessing Savonarola gave him. As Lorenzo died, the tower of the church of Santa Reparata was allegedly struck by lightning. He and his brother Giuliano are buried in a chapel designed by Michelangelo, the New Sacristy; it is located adjacent to the north transept of the Church of San Lorenzo and is reached by passing through the main Capella di Medici; the chapel is ornamented with famous sculptures, and some of the original working drawings of Michelangelo can still be distinguished on two of the walls. He died at the dawn of "The Age of Exploration"; Christopher Columbus would reach the "New World" only six months later. With his death, the center of the Italian Renaissance shifted from Florence to Rome, where it would remain for the next century and beyond. Marriage and children Lorenzo married twice. He first married Clarice Orsini by proxy on February 7, 1469. She was a daughter of Giacomo Orsini, Lord of Monterotondo and Bracciano by his wife and cousin Maddalena Orsini. They had nine children: Lucrezia di Lorenzo de' Medici (August 4, 1470 - November, 1553). She married Giacomo Salviati. Their daughter Maria Salviati was mother to Cosimo I de' Medici. Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici (February 15, 1471 - December 28, 1503). Twins born in March, 1472. Died shortly after birth. Maddalena de' Medici (July 25, 1473 - December, 1528). Married Franceschetto Cybo, an illegitimate son of Pope Innocent VIII. Pope Leo X (born Giovanni de' Medici; December 11, 1475 - December 1, 1521). Luisa de' Medici (1477 - 1488). She was betrothed to her cousin Giovanni de' Medici il Popolano. Contessina de' Medici (1478 - 1515). Married Piero Ridolfi. Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Nemours (March 12, 1479 - March 17, 1516). After Clarice's death, he married Philippina (Philippa) of Savoy, daughter of Philip II, Duke of Savoy. The couple had no children. Two of his sons later became powerful popes. His second son, Giovanni, became Pope Leo X, and his adopted son Giulio (who was the illegitimate son of his slain brother Giuliano) became Pope Clement VII. His first son and his political heir, Piero 'the Unfortunate', squandered his father's patrimony and brought down his father's dynasty in Florence. Another Medici, his brother Giovanni, restored it, but it was only made wholly secure again on the accession of a distant relative from a branch line of the family, Cosimo I de' Medici. See also Medici Medici giraffe Further reading Miles J. Unger, Magnifico: The Brilliant Life and Violent Times of Lorenzo de Medici (Simon and Schuster 2008) is a vividly colorful new biography of this true "renaissance man", the uncrowned ruler of Florence during its golden age. Christopher Hibbert, The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall (Morrow-Quill, 1980) is a highly readable, non-scholarly general history of the family, and covers Lorenzo's life in some detail F. W. Kent, Lorenzo de- Medici and the Art of Magnificence (The Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004) A summary of 40 years of research with a specific theme of Il Magnifico's relationship with the visual arts Historical novels Linda Proud, A Tabernacle for the Sun (Godstow Press, 2005), a literary novel set in Florence during the Pazzi Conspiracy adheres closely to known facts. Linda Proud, Pallas and the Centaur (Godstow Press, 2004), deals with the aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and Lorenzo de' Medici's strained relations with his wife and with Poliziano. Linda Proud, The Rebirth of Venus (Godstow Press, 2008), the final volume of The Botticelli Trilogy, covers the 1490s and the death of Lorenzo. References External links Texts of Lorenzo de' Medici Associazione Culturale "Clarice Orsini" - Monterotondo (Italy) | Lorenzo_de'_Medici |@lemmatized lorenzo:48 de:23 medici:37 january:1 april:3 italian:6 statesman:1 facto:1 ruler:3 florentine:5 republic:2 renaissance:6 know:2 magnificent:1 il:3 magnifico:3 contemporary:1 diplomat:2 politician:1 patron:5 scholar:1 artist:3 poet:2 life:7 coincide:1 high:1 point:1 early:1 death:10 mark:1 end:2 golden:2 age:3 florence:13 fragile:1 peace:2 help:3 maintain:2 various:1 state:5 collapse:2 bury:2 chapel:3 childhood:1 grandfather:3 cosimo:6 first:3 member:2 family:10 combine:1 run:2 bank:3 lead:1 one:1 wealthy:1 men:1 europe:2 spend:1 large:3 portion:1 fortune:1 government:2 philanthropy:1 art:3 funded:1 public:1 work:4 father:5 piero:6 gouty:1 also:3 center:2 active:1 collector:1 mother:2 lucrezia:2 tornabuoni:1 dilettante:1 friend:2 figure:2 like:3 luigi:1 pulci:1 agnolo:1 poliziano:2 consider:1 bright:1 five:1 child:4 tutor:1 gentile:1 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7,390 | Hedonism | Hedonism is a school of philosophy which argues that pleasure has an ultimate importance and is the most important pursuit of humanity. Etymology The name derives from the Greek word for "delight" ( hēdonismos from hēdonē "pleasure", a cognate of English sweet + suffix -ισμός -ismos "ism"). Basic concepts The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure is the only thing that is good for a person; indeed: the only good. This is often used as a justification for evaluating actions in terms of how much pleasure and how little pain (i.e. suffering) they produce. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize this net pleasure (pleasure minus pain). The nineteenth-century British philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham defended the ethical theory of utilitarianism, according to which we should perform whichever action maximizes the aggregate good. Conjoining hedonism, as a view as to what is good for people, to utilitarianism has the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness. Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s versions of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism: Hedonism, 2004-04-20 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy One school, grouped around Jeremy Bentham, defends a quantitative approach. Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood. Essentially, he believed the value of a pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration - so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account. Other proponents, like John Stuart Mill, argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often references pigs) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their lower pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such "simple pleasures" in the same manner. Critics of the quantitative approach assert that, generally, "pleasures" do not necessarily share common traits besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable." Critics of the qualitative approach argue that whether one pleasure is higher than another depends on factors other than how pleasurable it is. For example, the pleasure of sadism is a more base pleasure because it is morally unpalatable, and not because it is lacking in pleasure. In the medical sciences, the inability to derive pleasure from experiences that are typically considered pleasurable is referred to as anhedonia. Predecessors Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life "contentment" or "cheerfulness", claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark of things beneficial and harmful" (DK 68 B 188). p. 125, C.C.W. Taylor, "Democritus", in C. Rowe & M. Schofield (eds.), Greek and Roman Political Thought, Cambridge 2005. Cyrenaicism (4th and 3rd centuries B.C.), founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was one of the earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic teaching. Taking Socrates' assertion that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, Aristippus maintained that pleasure was the supreme good. He found bodily gratifications, which he considered more intense, preferable to mental pleasures. They also denied that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans. Cyrenaics, the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophyat the University of Tennessee at Martin, Accessed 2007-11-04 "The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. Accessed 2007-11-04 Epicureanism is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism. Epicurus identified pleasure with tranquillity and emphasized the reduction of desire over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the highest good are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. Egoism Hedonism can be conjoined with psychological egoism - the theory that humans are motivated only by their self interest - to make psychological hedonism: a purely descriptive claim which states that agents naturally seek pleasure. Hedonism can also be combined with ethical egoism - the claim that individuals should seek their own good - to make ethical hedonism the claim that we should act so as to produce our own pleasure. However, hedonism is not necessarily related to egoism. The utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and happiness of all. This is altruistic hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make everyone happy. Compare individualism and collectivism. It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective. Some of Sigmund Freud's theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure. However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the "death instinct". The death instinct, Thanatos, can be equated to the desire for silence and peace, for calm and darkness, which causes them another form of happiness. It is also a death instinct, thus it can also be the desire for death. The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by objective testing, casts doubt on this theory. A modern proponent of hedonism with an ethical touch is the Swedish philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö Torbjörn Tännsjö; Hedonistic Utilitarianism (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press (1998). . See also Abolitionism (bioethics) Christian hedonism Ethical egoism Hedonistic relevance Paradox of hedonism Pleasure Psychological egoism The Picture of Dorian Gray Rational egoism Utilitarianism References and notes External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Manifesto of the Hedonist International | Hedonism |@lemmatized hedonism:19 school:4 philosophy:4 argue:4 pleasure:32 ultimate:1 importance:1 important:1 pursuit:2 humanity:1 etymology:1 name:1 derive:2 greek:2 word:1 delight:1 hēdonismos:1 hēdonē:1 cognate:1 english:1 sweet:1 suffix:1 ισμός:1 ismos:1 ism:1 basic:3 concepts:1 idea:1 behind:1 hedonistic:5 thought:4 thing:2 good:8 person:1 indeed:1 often:2 use:1 justification:1 evaluate:1 action:6 term:3 much:1 little:1 pain:2 e:1 suffer:1 produce:2 simple:4 hedonist:2 strive:1 maximize:2 net:1 minus:1 nineteenth:1 century:2 british:1 philosopher:3 john:3 stuart:3 mill:7 jeremy:2 bentham:4 defend:2 ethical:5 theory:4 utilitarianism:5 accord:1 perform:1 whichever:1 aggregate:1 conjoin:2 view:1 people:2 result:1 direct:1 toward:1 achieve:1 great:2 total:1 amount:1 happiness:5 though:1 consistent:1 version:1 differ:2 two:1 somewhat:1 stanford:2 encyclopedia:3 one:5 group:1 around:1 quantitative:2 approach:4 believe:3 value:2 could:1 quantitatively:1 understood:1 essentially:2 intensity:2 multiply:1 duration:1 number:1 long:3 last:1 must:1 take:2 account:1 proponent:2 like:1 qualitative:2 different:1 level:1 high:4 quality:2 well:1 low:2 also:6 simpler:2 reference:2 pig:1 easy:1 access:1 pleasures:1 since:1 see:3 aspect:1 life:5 simply:1 indulge:2 elaborate:1 tend:1 spend:2 matter:1 hence:1 lessen:1 time:1 therefore:1 difficult:1 manner:1 critic:2 assert:1 generally:1 necessarily:2 share:1 common:1 trait:1 besides:1 fact:2 pleasurable:3 whether:1 another:2 depend:1 factor:1 example:1 sadism:1 base:1 morally:1 unpalatable:1 lack:1 medical:1 science:1 inability:1 experience:1 typically:1 consider:3 refer:1 anhedonia:1 predecessor:1 democritus:2 seem:1 early:2 record:1 categorically:1 embrace:1 call:2 supreme:2 goal:1 contentment:1 cheerfulness:1 claim:5 joy:1 sorrow:1 distinguish:1 mark:1 beneficial:1 harmful:1 dk:1 b:2 p:1 c:4 w:1 taylor:1 rowe:1 schofield:1 eds:1 roman:1 political:1 cambridge:1 cyrenaicism:1 found:1 aristippus:2 cyrene:1 socratic:2 emphasize:2 side:1 teaching:1 socrates:1 assertion:1 end:1 moral:1 maintain:1 find:1 bodily:1 gratification:2 intense:1 preferable:1 mental:1 deny:1 defer:1 immediate:2 sake:1 gain:1 respect:1 epicurean:1 cyrenaics:2 internet:1 philosophyat:1 university:2 tennessee:1 martin:1 accessed:2 origin:1 org:1 bltc:1 epicureanism:2 form:2 ancient:1 epicurus:3 identify:1 tranquillity:1 reduction:1 desire:3 acquisition:1 way:1 escape:1 precede:1 objection:1 equate:2 consist:1 moderate:1 friend:1 philosophical:1 discussion:1 egoism:7 psychological:4 human:2 motivate:1 self:1 interest:1 make:4 purely:1 descriptive:1 state:1 agent:1 naturally:1 seek:2 combine:1 individual:2 act:1 however:2 relate:1 sometimes:1 classify:1 type:1 judge:1 morality:1 consequent:1 contribution:1 altruistic:1 whereas:1 doctrine:1 propose:1 whatever:1 happiest:1 run:1 promotes:1 everyone:1 happy:1 compare:1 individualism:1 collectivism:1 true:1 recommend:1 u:1 pursue:2 never:1 suggest:1 live:1 selfish:1 impede:1 others:1 get:1 objective:2 sigmund:1 freud:1 motivation:1 instinct:5 observation:1 introduce:1 extra:1 complexity:1 various:1 mechanism:1 death:4 thanatos:1 silence:1 peace:1 calm:1 darkness:1 cause:1 thus:1 leave:1 survive:1 primary:1 motivator:1 hypothesis:1 notoriously:1 invalidate:1 testing:1 cast:1 doubt:1 modern:1 touch:1 swedish:1 torbjörn:2 tännsjö:2 edinburgh:2 press:1 abolitionism:1 bioethics:1 christian:1 relevance:1 paradox:1 picture:1 dorian:1 gray:1 rational:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 manifesto:1 international:1 |@bigram nineteenth_century:1 stuart_mill:3 jeremy_bentham:2 pursuit_happiness:1 stanford_encyclopedia:2 beneficial_harmful:1 psychological_egoism:2 purely_descriptive:1 ethical_egoism:2 individualism_collectivism:1 sigmund_freud:1 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 rational_egoism:1 external_link:1 |
7,391 | Dacoity | The word Dacoity is the anglicized version of the Indian word ḍakaitī (historically spelled dakaitee, Hindi डकैती or Urdu ڈکیتی or Bangla ডাকাতি) which comes from ḍākū (historically spelled dakoo, Hindi: डाकू, Urdu: ڈاکو, meaning "armed robber") or Bangla ḍakat (ডাকাত). Dacoity (Hindi: डकैती ḍakaitī, Urdu: ڈکیتی ḍakaitī, Bangla: ডাকাতি ḍakati) means "armed robbery". Dacoit (Hindi: डकैत ṭakait, Urdu: ڈکیت ṭakait, Bangla: ডাকাত ḍakat) means "a bandit". According to OED ("A member of a class of robbers in India and Burmah, who plunder in armed bands.") Dacoits existed in Burmah as well as India, and Rudyard Kipling's fictional Private Mulvaney was hunting Burmese "dacoits" in The Taking of Lungtungpen. The term was also applied, according to OED, to "pirates who formerly infested the Ganges between Calcutta and Burhampore". The most infamous member of the Dacoit "profession" was probably India's Phoolan Devi. But the title of the most legendary dacoit is held by Daku Man Singh and Nirbhay Singh Gujjar who was killed in 2005. Between 1939 and 1955, Daku Man Singh had notched up 1,112 dacoities, 185 murders, countless ransom kidnappings. He was involved in 90 police encounters and had killed 32 policemen. In recent times, Veerappan became one of the most famous who was on the run for 20 years. In Madhya Pradesh State, women belonging to a village defense group have been issued gun permits to fend off Dacoity. The Chief Minister of the district, Shivraj Singh Chouhan, recognized the role the women had played in defending their villages without guns. He stated that he wanted to enable these women to better defend both themselves and their villages, and issued the gun permits to advance this goal Indian Women Granted Gun Permits to Fend Off Armed Robbers | LearnAboutGuns.com . See also :Category:Indian robbers References External links As modern world closes in, India's fabled bandits are disappearing - International Herald Tribune | Dacoity |@lemmatized word:2 dacoity:4 anglicized:1 version:1 indian:3 ḍakaitī:3 historically:2 spell:2 dakaitee:1 hindi:4 डक:3 त:3 urdu:4 ڈکیتی:2 bangla:4 ড:4 ক:4 ত:4 come:1 ḍākū:1 dakoo:1 ड:1 क:1 ڈاکو:1 mean:3 arm:2 robber:4 ḍakat:2 ḍakati:1 robbery:1 dacoit:5 ṭakait:2 ڈکیت:1 bandit:2 accord:2 oed:2 member:2 class:1 india:4 burmah:2 plunder:1 armed:2 band:1 exist:1 well:1 rudyard:1 kipling:1 fictional:1 private:1 mulvaney:1 hunt:1 burmese:1 taking:1 lungtungpen:1 term:1 also:2 apply:1 pirate:1 formerly:1 infest:1 ganges:1 calcutta:1 burhampore:1 infamous:1 profession:1 probably:1 phoolan:1 devi:1 title:1 legendary:1 hold:1 daku:2 man:2 singh:4 nirbhay:1 gujjar:1 kill:2 notch:1 murder:1 countless:1 ransom:1 kidnapping:1 involve:1 police:1 encounter:1 policeman:1 recent:1 time:1 veerappan:1 become:1 one:1 famous:1 run:1 year:1 madhya:1 pradesh:1 state:2 woman:4 belong:1 village:3 defense:1 group:1 issue:2 gun:4 permit:3 fend:2 chief:1 minister:1 district:1 shivraj:1 chouhan:1 recognize:1 role:1 play:1 defend:2 without:1 want:1 enable:1 good:1 advance:1 goal:1 grant:1 learnaboutguns:1 com:1 see:1 category:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 modern:1 world:1 close:1 fabled:1 disappear:1 international:1 herald:1 tribune:1 |@bigram ক_ত:4 rudyard_kipling:1 madhya_pradesh:1 external_link:1 herald_tribune:1 |
7,392 | Finger_Lakes | The Finger Lakes are a chain of lakes in the west-central section of Upstate New York that are a popular tourist destination. The lakes mainly are linear in shape, each lake oriented on a north-south axis. The two longest, Cayuga Lake and Seneca Lake, are among the deepest in America. Both are close to 40 miles (64 km) from end to end, but never more than 3.5 miles (5,600 m) wide. Cayuga is the longest (38.1 miles (61.3 km)), but Seneca the largest in total area. Seneca is the deepest (618 feet, 188.4 m), followed by Cayuga (435 feet, 132.6 m), with the bottoms well below sea level. These largest lakes resemble the others in shape, which collectively reminded early map-makers of the fingers of a hand. New York's Finger Lakes. Lake Ontario appears at top, Oneida Lake upper right, Cazenovia Lake directly below. Lakes The Finger Lakes from east to west (the first seven being commonly identified as Finger Lakes): Map of the Finger Lakes. Otisco Lake Skaneateles Lake Owasco Lake Cayuga Lake Seneca Lake Keuka Lake Canandaigua Lake Honeoye Lake Canadice Lake Hemlock Lake Conesus Lake Cazenovia Lake to the east, although smaller, is sometimes called "the eighth Finger Lake," because it is similar in shape, located in Appalachian hill terrain, with a historic village linked to other Finger Lakes by US 20. It may have been formed in the same manner as the Finger Lakes, as satellite photos show three valleys similar in character and spacing to the Finger Lakes east of Otisco Lake. The first is the Tully Valley, which includes a chain of small lakes at the south end that could be a "Finger Lake" that never formed because of a terminal moraine. The moraine caused the Tioughnioga River to flow south instead of north, the opposite of the other waters of the Finger Lakes. The next two valleys to the east contain Butternut Creek, which flows north, and the East Branch of the Tioughnioga River, which flows south. The next valley contains Limestone Creek, which flows north. The next valley after that contains Cazenovia Lake. Oneida Lake, to the northeast of Syracuse, New York, is sometimes included as the "thumb," although it is shallow and somewhat different in character from the rest. Onondaga Lake, though located just north of the Finger Lakes region, is not considered one of the Finger Lakes. As with Oneida and Cazenovia Lakes, it drains into Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. Conesus, Hemlock, Canadice, Honeoye, and Otisco are considered the minor Finger Lakes. Other, smaller lakes, including Silver, Waneta, and Lamoka lakes, dot this region. However, Waneta and Lamoka lakes are part of the Susquehanna River watershed as they drain into a tributary of the Chemung River. East of Oneida and Cazenovia Lakes are the headwaters of the Susquehanna River and Hudson River watersheds (the former in the foothills of the Catskills, the latter through the Mohawk Valley and southern Adirondacks). Seneca Lake, from South Main Street in Geneva, New York. Region The Finger Lakes were modified by glaciers, but were not simply gouged out by glacial action, as often asserted. The present lakes were preglacial stream valleys or earlier lakes. Glaciers modified the terrain somewhat, but more critically: when the ice retreated, deposits left behind dammed the valleys, impounding water. The deep valley south of Syracuse, seen from Interstate 81, might have been another Finger Lake, had the glacier's recessional moraine been deposited farther north rather than at Tully, New York. The Finger Lakes are situated on the northern edge of the Appalachian Upland. They now drain northward to Lake Ontario. The southern ends of the lakes are characterized by steeper hills etched by streams running toward the lakes below. Glacial hanging valleys, terraces in the descent toward the lakes, often end with waterfalls. Taughannock Falls, with a drop of , is one of the highest waterfalls east of the Rocky Mountains. Taughannock Falls State Park, Fillmore Glen, Robert H. Treman State Park, and Watkins Glen are especially scenic examples of glens and waterfalls that have been incorporated into public parks. The glens of this region are unique worldwide. They are the narrow, rocky valleys carved by rainfall's relatively quick (10,000 years) erosion of the loose shale and siltstone of this plateau of nearly level sedimentary rock. The eroded sediment ends up, e.g., along or in Cayuga Lake (Taughannock and Treman) and Seneca Lake (Watkins Glen). Most of the area was originally forested with oak, hickory, maple, chestnut, ash, hemlock, and beech trees. Today the Finger Lakes area is still known for fishing and hunting. Winter sports are also popular, with skiing, snowmobling and ice fishing available. Skaneateles Lake, a Finger Lake located in Onondaga County near Syracuse. The Finger Lakes region is an important agricultural sector of New York. The rolling land between the lakes is occupied notably by vineyards (discussed below) but more commonly with other farms, mostly dairy operations, a number owned by Amish and Mennonite families in the twentieth centuries. Many Quakers settled in the nineteenth century. Farms raise corn, hay, wheat, oats, barley, and soybeans. Cabbages, sweetcorn, and potatoes are major vegetable crops. Maple syrup and honey are also local products. Cornell University (below) maintains the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station and horticultural gene bank at Geneva on the north end of Seneca Lake. Finger Lakes cities and larger villages are situated at the head and foot of most major lakes: Skaneateles, Auburn, Ithaca, Geneva, Watkins Glen, Penn Yan, Hammondsport and Canandaigua. These historic communities with scenic situations all are tourist destinations, as is the village of Aurora, which is situated on the east shore of Cayuga Lake, and Naples, located about five miles south of Canandaigua Lake. Although not on one of the lakes, the nearby city of Corning is also a major destination for visitors, because of its famous glass museum and demonstrations. Similarly, the villages of Seneca Falls and Waterloo, although not on lakes, attract many to the several sites of the Women's Rights National Historical Park and the National Women's Hall of Fame. Likewise not on a lake but attracting many visitors is the Genesee Country Village and Museum at Mumford. Similarly, Letchworth State Park, with its famous gorge and waterfalls, draws visitors to the western end of the Finger Lakes region. The Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge at the foot of Cayuga Lake is also a major feature of the region, as is the Sonnenberg Gardens and Mansion State Historic Park at Canandaigua. Tourism has become a major growth industry of the Finger Lakes Region. According to the New York State Department of Economic Development, taxable sales derived from tourism in one county alone exceeded ninety million dollars in a recent year (2001). Visitors spent an estimated 200 million dollars in the central Finger Lakes region, where the industry employed about fifteen thousand people.Honeoye Lake at the end of summer. Water quality becomes an increasing concern as population expands, with waterfront property increasingly in demand. Hemlock lake remains the purest of all Finger Lakes, with an undeveloped shoreline and protected watershed. Motor boats are discouraged on Hemlock Lake and boats over 10 h.p. are prohibited. Hemlock Lake is home to NYS most established Bald Eagle nest and is said to have among the oldest growth forests still remaining in the North Eastern United States. Skaneateles Lake is the purest of the developed Finger Lakes, in large part because of controls imposed by the City of Syracuse, which in 2006 spent 2.3 million dollars to protect its water supply. Skaneateles Lake is deep and also has a relatively small watershed compared to other Finger Lakes. Smaller and shallower Owasco Lake, to the west, has a watershed nearly four times larger, while receiving discharge from two municipal sewage plants, but with far less pollution control. Wine Vineyard overlooking Canandaigua Lake, from Route 21 The Finger Lakes area is New York's largest wine producing region. Over 100 wineries and vineyards are centered around Seneca, Cayuga, Canandaigua, Keuka, Conesus and Hemlock lakes. Because of the lakes' great depth, they provide a lake effect to the lush vineyards that flank their shores. Retaining residual summer warmth in the winter, and winter's cold in the spring, the grapes are protected from disastrous spring frost during shoot growth, and early frost before the harvest. The main grape varieties grown are: Chardonnay, Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Gris, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, Vidal Blanc, Seyval Blanc and many vitis labrusca (native american)varietals . With the passage of the Farm Winery Act in 1976, numerous wineries have opened their doors to visitors from all over the world. Wineries are a major growth industry of the region, not merely contributing to the economy through production, but increasingly because they attract large numbers of visitors who support other components of tourism. History The Finger Lakes region contains evidence of pre-Iroquois habitation, such as The Bluff Point Stoneworks, but little is known about who may have constructed these enigmatic works. The Finger Lakes region is a central part of the Iroquois homeland. The Iroquois tribes include the Seneca and Cayuga tribes, for which the two largest Finger Lakes are named. The Tuscarora tribe lived in the Finger Lakes region as well. The Onondaga and Oneida tribes lived at the eastern edge of the region, closer to their namesake lakes, Lake Oneida and Onondaga Lake. The sixth Iroquois tribe, the Mohawk, lived farther east. During colonial times, many other tribes moved to the Finger Lakes region, seeking the protection of the Iroquois. For example, remnants of several tribes of North Carolina, collectively called the Tutelo, moved to the town of Coreorgonel at the south end of Cayuga Lake near present-day Ithaca. Major Iroquois towns in the Finger Lakes region included the Seneca town of Gen-nis-he-yo (present-day Geneseo), Kanadaseaga (Seneca Castle, near present-day Geneva), Goiogouen (Cayuga Castle, east of Cayuga Lake), Chonodote (Cayuga town, present-day Aurora), and Catherine's Town (near present-day Watkins Glen). As one of the most powerful Indian nations during colonial times, the Iroquois were able to prevent European colonization of the Finger Lakes region for nearly two centuries after first contact. By the late 18th century Iroquois power had weakened, relative to the European-Americans, and internal strife eroded the political unity of the Iroquois Confederacy. During the American Revolutionary War some of the Iroquois sided with the British and some with the Americans, resulting in civil war among the Iroquois. In the late 1770s, British-allied Iroquois attacked various American frontier settlements, prompting counter-attacks, culminating in the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, which destroyed most of the Iroquois towns and effectively broke Iroquois power. After the Revolutionary War, the Iroquois and other Indians of the region were assigned reservations. Most of their land, including the Finger Lakes region, was opened up to purchase and settlement. Roughly the western half of the Finger Lakes region comprised the Phelps and Gorham Purchase of 1790. The region was rapidly settled at the turn of the nineteenth century, largely by a westward migration from New England, but to a lesser degree by northward influx from Pennsylvania. The regional architecture reflects these area traditions of the Federal and Greek Revival periods. The Finger Lakes region, together with the Genesee Country of Western New York, has been referred to as the Burned-Over District, where, in the 19th century, the Second Great Awakening was a revival of Christianity, and some new religions were also formed. The region was active in reform and utopian movements. Many Underground Railroad sites have been documented. The Harriet Tubman Home at Auburn recalls the life and work of the African-American "Moses of her people." On the northern end of the Finger Lakes are also Seneca Falls, the birthplace of the Women's suffrage movement; Waterloo, the birthplace of Memorial Day; and Palmyra, the birthplace of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as the Mormon Church. An annual outdoor drama, The Hill Cumorah Pageant, produced by the Mormons, draws thousands of visitors each year. Hammondsport was the home of aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss, and the favorable air currents make the area a popular spot for glider pilots. Elmira, just to the south, was the home of Mark Twain in his later life, and the site of an infamous Civil War prison. Corning is most noted as the home of Corning Glass Works and the Corning Museum of Glass. Hornell, just southwest of the Finger Lakes was a major railroad center. Locomotives were repaired there until recently. Conesus, New York remains the home of the oldest producer of pure grape sacramental wine in the Western hemisphere. Granger Homestead, 1816, Canandaigua Notable among the historic buildings of the region (most linked below) is the Granger Homestead (1816), a large village house in Federal Style at Canandaigua, New York. Another example of the Federal Style is the Prouty-Chew House (1829) at Geneva, portions of which were altered at various times in new fashions. Three Greek Revival mansions are situated near three lakes: The Richard DeZeng House, Skaneateles (1839), Rose Hill, Geneva (1839), and Esperanza, Penn Yan (1838). The latter two are open to the public. The Seward House in Auburn, a National Historic Landmark, is a mansion more characteristic of the Civil War era, virtually unchanged from the nineteenth century. Belhurst Castle, Geneva, a stone mansion in the Romanesque Revival style, now serves as an inn. Sonnenberg mansion at Canandaigua is later nineteenth-century residence in the Queen Anne style, known for its restored period gardens. Geneva on the Lake is a villa (1910-14) that recalls those on Italian lakes. Now an inn, it has exceptional gardens in the European manner. Many buildings and historic districts of the Finger Lakes region are notable, other than these historic houses. Educational institutions Wells College, Aurora The area is also known for education, with the largest institution being Cornell University in Ithaca, the state land grant institution. Its alma mater begins "Far Above Cayuga's Waters", because it is on the hills overlooking the city of Ithaca and the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Elmira College, founded in 1855 in Elmira, has the distinction of being the first college exclusively women's college to grant degrees equal to men in the country and is the final home of Mark Twain's study where he created his most famous characters: Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. There are several other private colleges in the area. They include Ithaca College in Ithaca, Hobart and William Smith Colleges in Geneva, Wells College in Aurora, also on Cayuga Lake, Keuka College in Penn Yan, and New York Chiropractic College in Seneca Falls. There are also the State Universities of New York at Geneseo and Cortland, and four community colleges: Finger Lakes Community College in Canandaigua; Cayuga Community College in Auburn; Corning Community College in Corning; and Tompkins Cortland Community College in Dryden. There are also four statutory colleges at Cornell. These include: New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences (which includes the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva), the New York State College of Human Ecology, the New York State College of Veterinary Medicine, and the New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations. Museums The Finger Lakes region is also home to a number of museums. This include the Corning Museum of Glass, the Strong National Museum of Play, Glenn H. Curtiss Museum, Wings of Eagles Discovery Center,Museum of the Earth, National Soaring Museum the Rockwell Museum of Western Art, the Genesee Country Museum in Mumford and the Samuel Warren Homestead of the York Historical Society, birthplace of NYS' first successful commercial winery. References Thompson, John H., ed. Geography of New York State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1977) Engeln, O. D., von. ''The Finger Lakes Region: Its Origin and Nature (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1961, 1988) Finger Lakes Tourism Statistics External Links Survey of Finger Lakes Rieslings Finger Lakes Tourism Alliance commonscat|Finger Lakes Finger Lakes Visitors' Connection Corning & the Finger Lakes New York State Parks, Finger Lakes Region Finger Lakes Wine Country Formation of the Finger Lakes Images of the Finger Lakes Region Watkins Glen International Woman's Rights National Park, Seneca Falls National Women's Hall of Fame, Seneca Falls Harriet Tubman Home, Auburn Granger Homestead, Canandaigua Rose Hill Mansion, Geneva Seward House, Auburn Sonnenberg Gardens, Canandaigua New York Wine & Culinary Center, Canandaigua Finger Lakes Community College, Canandaigua Genesee Country Village Museum, Mumford Plant Genetics Resource Unit at Geneva Cayuga Community College, Auburn Corning Museum of Glass Hangout With Finger Lakes Folks Online For Local News and Events Visit My Finger Lakes Online Community WHERE TO GO GUIDE in the Finger Lakes | Finger_Lakes |@lemmatized finger:59 lake:98 chain:2 west:3 central:3 section:1 upstate:1 new:25 york:23 popular:3 tourist:2 destination:3 mainly:1 linear:1 shape:3 orient:1 north:9 south:9 axis:1 two:6 long:2 cayuga:18 seneca:16 among:4 deep:3 america:1 close:2 mile:4 km:2 end:12 never:2 wide:1 large:10 total:1 area:8 deepest:1 foot:4 follow:1 bottom:1 well:4 sea:1 level:2 resemble:1 others:1 collectively:2 remind:1 early:3 map:2 maker:1 hand:1 ontario:3 appear:1 top:1 oneida:6 upper:1 right:3 cazenovia:5 directly:1 lakes:33 east:10 first:5 seven:1 commonly:2 identify:1 otisco:3 skaneateles:6 owasco:2 keuka:3 canandaigua:14 honeoye:3 canadice:2 hemlock:7 conesus:4 although:4 small:5 sometimes:2 call:2 eighth:1 similar:2 locate:4 appalachian:2 hill:6 terrain:2 historic:7 village:7 link:3 u:1 may:2 form:3 manner:2 satellite:1 photo:1 show:1 three:3 valley:11 character:3 space:1 tully:2 include:10 could:1 terminal:1 moraine:3 cause:1 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7,393 | Ithaca_College | Ithaca College is a private college located on the South Hill of Ithaca, New York. The school was founded by William Egbert in 1892 as a conservatory of music. The college has a strong liberal arts core, but also offers several pre-professional programs and some graduate programs. Carnegie Classifications: Ithaca College The college is also known internationally for its communications program. The college is at the center of a sophisticated cultural community, with a backdrop of Cayuga Lake, Cornell University, and hundreds of waterfalls and gorges. The college is perhaps best known for its large list of alumni who play or have played substantial roles in the world of broadcasting. The college has been ranked among the top ten master's universities in the North by U.S. News & World Report every year since 1996. "U.S. News & World Report America's Best Colleges" Ranks Ithaca College in Top Ten - News Release - Ithaca College Office of Media Relations For the 2009 rankings, the college was ranked 7 in this category. USNews.com: America's Best Colleges 2009: Master's Universities (North) Rankings History Beginnings Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in 1892 when a local violin teacher, William Grant Egbert, rented four rooms and arranged for the instruction of eight students. For nearly seven decades the institution flourished in the city of Ithaca, adding to its music curriculum the study of elocution, dance, physical education, speech correction, radio, business, and the liberal arts. In 1931 the conservatory was chartered as a private college. Modern Era "Textor Ball," a modern art sculpture on the roof of the Textor lecture halls. By 1960, some 2,000 students were in attendance. A modern campus was built on South Hill in the sixties, and students were shuttled between the old and new during the construction. The hillside campus continued to grow in the ensuing 30 years to accommodate more than 6,000 students. As the campus expanded, the college also began to expand its curriculum. By the 1990s, some 2,000 courses in more than 100 programs of study were available in the college's five schools. The school attracts a multicultural student body with representatives from almost every state and from 78 foreign countries. Office of Institutional Research - Institutional Research - Ithaca College Academics The college offers a curriculum with more than 100 degree programs in its five schools. Schools School of Business Roy H. Park School of Communications School of Health Sciences & Human Performance School of Humanities & Sciences School of MusicDivisions Division of Interdisciplinary and International Studies Division of Graduate and Professional Studies Campus Ithaca College's current campus was built in the 1960's on South Hill. In 1968 the College's final academic department moved to the South Hill campus from downtown, making the move complete. Satellite Campuses Besides its Ithaca campus, Ithaca College also operates the following satellite campuses: Ithaca College London Center in London, UK offers both Semester and Summer study-abroad with an option of an internship. Ithaca College Washington Semester Program in Washington, D.C.. In addition to the Semester Program, there is a summer option for the Washington Program. The Washington Program is internship based, which is usually supplemented with classes for a semester. Ithaca College Los Angeles Program, an extension of the Roy H. Park School of Communications at the James B. Pendleton Center in Los Angeles, CA. The LA Program is internship based, supplemented with classes during the semester and an option for a class in the summer. Ithaca College Walkabout Down Under Program, a defunct program which gave students the opportunity to experience several different regions of Australia in one semester. During the semester students studied at Murdoch University, University of Tasmania and La Trobe University. This program ended in spring 2008 due to financial reasons. The college maintains direct enrollment exchange programs with all three Australian universities. Ithaca College Antigua Program, a short-term study abroad program, with the development of a semester program expected. Ithaca College also operates direct enrollment exchange programs with the following universities: Ithaca College International Programs Griffith University on Gold Coast, Queensland & Brisbane, Queensland, Australia La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia Murdoch University in Perth, Western Australia, Australia University of Tasmania on Tasmania, Australia Chengdu Sport University in Chengdu, China Beijing Sport University in Beijing, China University of Hong Kong in Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong Masaryk University in Brno, Czech Republic Akita International University in Akita, Akita, Japan University of Tsukuba in Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Hanyang University in Seoul, Korea Nanyang Technological University in Singapore University of Valencia in Valencia, Spain Jönköping University in Jönköping, Sweden Media and publications The Ithacan An issue of The Ithacan The Ithacan is Ithaca College's official newspaper. The paper is written, edited and published by students. The Ithacan is available in print every Thursday morning and online. The Ithacan Online The Ithacan and its staff have won many major collegiate journalism awards, most notably, the Associated Collegiate Press' National Pacemaker Award for the 2004-2005 academic year. The Pacemaker has been widely considered the Pulitzer Prize of collegiate journalism. ICView ICView is Ithaca College's publication for alumni, parents of students, and friends of the college About Us - IC View - Ithaca College . The paper is written, edited and published by students. The publication was formerly known as Ithaca College Quarterly and it published four times per year. Many of the articles are also available on the publications website: ICView ICTV See main entry Ithaca College Television Imprint Magazine Imprint Magazine: College Life’s Internet Magazine, published from Ithaca College, is published by college students, for college students, about college students. Imprint strives to inform its readers of national issues and give them the opportunity to voice their opinion and become involved in the discussion. Buzzsaw Magazine Buzzsaw Magazine, formally Buzzsaw Haircut, was founded in 1997 and is the college's monthly alternative news magazine. It is available in print and online every month. Buzzsaw Haircut The magazine is produced by the Ithaca College community and printed by Our Press of Binghamton, NY. It is funded by the Ithaca College Student Government Association, the Park School of Communication, local advertising, community support, and a grant from Campus Progress. It has won a number of national awards, including the Campus Alternative Journalism Project's award for "Best Sense of Humor" in 2003 and the Independent Press Association's Campus Independent Journalism Awards for "Best Campus Publication with a Budget Under $10,000" and "Best Political Commentary" in 2005. Ithaca College Radio Ithaca College is also home to two student-operated radio stations. 92 WICB 92 WICB is an FCC-licensed station that operates at 7500 Watts at 91.7 on the FM band. The majority of its programming falls under the modern rock category. While broadcasting modern rock, the station is run similarly to a commercial modern rock station, with the inclusion of playlists planned by the programming and music departments that include leeway for listener requests and DJ choices. The station was recently honored with the MTVU Woodie Award for Best College Radio Station. Other programming ranges from mainstream hip-hop and R&B, to underground, downtempo, and other lesser-known genres of what is generally considered urban music. In addition to a lunchtime Jazz show, WICB broadcasts a number of other specialty shows throughout the week. These shows, which usually run 2-3 hours in length, come from genres such as blues, broadway, jam band music, and "homeless" music, that is not normally heard on the public airwaves. VIC Radio VIC Radio, once known as 106-VIC, is an Internet radio station broadcasting via Live 365 at www.vicradio.org. VIC Radio - Home The majority of VIC's programming falls under the indie pop, alternapop, and power pop genres. The playlists are planned by the Programming Department, with leeway for on-air talent favorites and listener requests. The rest of its programming consists of specialty shows, programmed by student DJs, which are more representative of a typical college station. The station also hosts an annual 50 Hour Marathon, where two DJs stay awake for fifty hours straight to raise money for a local charity. The marathon, which is simulcast on 92 WICB and ICTV 16, typically involves events such as concerts, scavenger hunts, and remote broadcasts around Ithaca. Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity Founded in 2004 by several Ithaca College students, the Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity is an academic journal that explores complexities of such topics and welcomes student contributions. The journal is available in print and online. Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender & Ethnicity Athletics The Ithaca athletics nickname "Bombers" is unique in NCAA athletics, and the mystery surrounding its origin is almost as rare. Ithaca College's sports teams were originally named the Cayugans, but the name was changed to the Bombers sometime in the 1930s. Several possibilities for the change have been posited. It may have made reference to the New York Yankees, who are known as the Bronx Bombers, or (less likely) boxer Joe Louis, known as the Brown Bomber. The most common explanation is that the school's baseball uniforms - white with navy blue pinstripes and an interlocking "IC" on the left chest - bear a striking resemblance to the distinctive home uniforms of the New York Yankees. It may also have referred to the Ithaca basketball team of that era and its propensity for half-court "bombs." Grumman Aircraft also manufactured airplanes including bombers in Ithaca for many years. The first “Bombers” reference on record was in the December 17, 1938 issue of the Rochester Times-Union in a men’s basketball article. December 07, 2000 - Stories swirl around about Mascots The name has at times sparked controversy for its perceived martial connotations. It is an occasional source of umbrage from Ithaca's prominent pacifist community, but the athletics department has consistently stated it has no interest in changing the name. The athletics logo has in the past, but currently does not, incorporated World War II era fighter planes. Ithaca is a member of the NCAA's Division III, the Empire Eight Conference, and the Eastern College Athletic Conference. Ithaca has one of Division III's strongest athletic programs. The Bombers have won a total of 15 national titles in seven team sports and five individual sports. Coached by Jim "Butts" Butterfield Ithaca College Quarterly, 2003/No. 1 - Farewell to a Legendary Coach for 27 years, the football team has won three NCAA Division III National Football Championships in 1979, 1988 and 1991 (a total surpassed only by Augustana and Mount Union). Bomber football teams made a record seven appearances in the Division III national championship game, the Amos Alonzo Stagg Bowl, which has since been surpassed by Mount Union in 2003. The Bombers play the SUNY Cortland Red Dragons for the Cortaca Jug, which was added in 1959 to an already competitive rivalry. The matchup is one of the most prominent in Division III college football. The Ithacan Online | Media gear up for Cortaca Jug - November 8th, 2007 Most recently, the women's crew won back-to-back NCAA Division III championships in 2004 and 2005. Women's soccer has won two national championships in Division III and is consistently ranked in the top 20 nationally. Ithaca is also home to more than 60 club sports, many of which compete regularly against other colleges in leagues and tournaments. Presidents Current president Ithaca's current president is Thomas Rochon. Dr. Thomas Rochon was named the eighth president of Ithaca College on April 11, 2008. Ithaca College Selects Thomas R. Rochon As Eighth President Rochon took over as president of the college following Peggy Williams. Williams had announced on July 12, 2007 that she would retire from the presidency post effective May 31, 2009 following a one-year sabbatical commencing May 31, 2008. Intercom - Important News to Share Former presidents President Life TenureW. Grant Egbert W. Grant Egbert - Office of the President - Ithaca College 1867-1928 1892-1924George C. Williams George C. Williams - Office of the President - Ithaca College 1874-1971 1924-1932Leonard B. Job Leonard B. Job - Office of the President - Ithaca College 1891-1981 1932-1957Howard I. Dillingham Howard I. Dillingham - Office of the President - Ithaca College 1904-1998 1957-1970Ellis L. Phillips Jr. Ellis L. Phillips Jr. - Office of the President - Ithaca College October 05, 2006 - College’s fifth president dies 1926-2006 1970-1975James J. Whalen James J. Whalen - Office of the President - Ithaca College Ithaca College Mourns Passing of President Emeritus James J. Whalen - News Release - Ithaca College Office of Media Relations 1927-2001 1975-1997Peggy R. Williams Peggy R. Williams - Office of the President - Ithaca College Ithaca College President Peggy R. Williams Announces Plans to Retire in 2008 - News Release - Ithaca College Office of Media Relations 1997-2008 Alumni Ithaca College has 49,570 alumni in the United States There are alumni clubs for Boston, Chicago, Connecticut, Los Angeles, Metro New York, National Capital, N. & S. Carolina, Philadelphia, Rochester (NY), San Diego, and Southern Florida Ithaca College:Alumni, Parents, & Friends - Alumni Association - Alumni Clubs . Alumni events are hosted in cooperation with the specific clubs and also through a program called 'IC on the Road' Ithaca College: Alumni, Parents, & Friends - IC on the Road . Following is a brief list of noteworthy Ithaca College alumni and faculty. For a more extensive list, see main entry List of Ithaca College alumni. Jessica Savitch (B.S. 1968), first female network news anchor Robert Iger (B.S. 1973), president & CEO, The Walt Disney Company Rod Serling (former faculty), Emmy Award-winning screenwriter, creator of The Twilight Zone Mark Mahoney (B.S. 1985), Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing, The Post-Star The Pulitzer Prizes - The 2009 Pulitzer Prize Winners Ithaca College Grad Wins Pulitzer - News Release - Ithaca College Office of Media Relations Barbara Gaines (B.A. 1979), Emmy Award-winning executive producer, Late Show with David Letterman Chris Regan (1989), Emmy Award-winning writer for The Daily Show from 1999-2006. David Muir (B.S. 1995), ABC news anchor for World News Saturday and co-anchor of Primetime Karl Ravech (B.S. 1987), ESPN sportscaster Ricki Lake, actress (only completed her freshman year before departing). David Boreanaz (B.S. 1991), actor, Bones, Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. Robert Marella aka Gorilla Monsoon (B.S. 1959), World Wrestling Entertainment Hall of Fame wrestler, former ringside commentator Bob Kur (B.S. 1970), Washington Post Radio, former NBC News National Reporter Richard Jadick (B.S. 1987), combat surgeon who was awarded the Bronze Star for service in Iraq Steven Van Slyke (B.S. 1978), chemist, 20 patents related to Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) Kate Aldrich (B.M. 1996), internationally-renowned mezzo-soprano David Guy Levy (B.S. 2001), film producer, August and Patriotville. Scott LaFaro, influential jazz bassist with the Bill Evans Trio (1959-61). Dimitri Milovich, inventor of the first Winterstick snowboard in 1970. Kerry Butler (B.F.A. 1992), Tony Award-nominated Broadway actress Michelle Federer (B.F.A. 1995), theatre and film actress; originated the character, Nessarose, in Broadway's Wicked 2003-2006 Matt Cavenaugh (B.F.A. 2001), film, tv, and Broadway actor Kristen Britain (B.S. 1987), author, Green Rider, First Rider's Call, and The High King's Tomb Jon Bloostein, CEO Heartland Brewery, NYC Music Groups Within the Ithaca College School of Music: Symphony Orchestra Chamber Orchestra Choir Madrigal Singers Vocal Jazz Ensemble Chorus Women's Chorale Five Cents Sharp Brass Quintet Concert Band Symphonic Band Wind Ensemble Cello Choir Trombone Troupe Brass Choir Contemporary Chamber Ensemble Guitar Ensemble Percussion Ensemble Early Music Ensemble Sinfonietta Jazz Workshop Opera Workshop Outside the Ithaca College School of Music Ithacappella - All-Male a cappella Premium Blend - Female a cappella Amani Gospel Singers VoiceStream - Co-ed a cappella Greek Life Historically, various independent and national fraternities and sororities had active chapters at Ithaca College. However, due to a series of highly publicized hazing incidents in the 1980s, including one that was responsible for the death of a student, the College administration removed all but four Greek letter organizations from campus, and adopted a non-expansion policy, prohibiting any new Greek houses from affiliating with the College. November 11, 2004 - Music fraternities break stereotype As of 2008, three recognized Greek organizations remain on campus, all of which are music oriented: Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia (Delta Chapter) Sigma Alpha Iota (Epsilon Chapter) Mu Phi Epsilon (Lambda Chapter) A fourth, performing arts oriented house, Kappa Gamma Psi, went inactive in 2008. However, there are various Greek Letter Organizations at Ithaca College that are unaffiliated with the school, and are underground. Gamma Delta Pi Phi Kappa Sigma Phi Mu Zeta External links Official website References | Ithaca_College |@lemmatized ithaca:67 college:84 private:2 locate:1 south:4 hill:4 new:6 york:4 school:16 found:4 william:2 egbert:4 conservatory:3 music:13 strong:2 liberal:2 art:4 core:1 also:12 offer:3 several:4 pre:1 professional:2 program:26 graduate:2 carnegie:1 classification:1 know:7 internationally:2 communication:4 center:3 sophisticated:1 cultural:1 community:4 backdrop:1 cayuga:1 lake:2 cornell:1 university:22 hundred:1 waterfall:1 gorge:1 perhaps:1 best:7 large:1 list:4 alumnus:11 play:3 substantial:1 role:1 world:6 broadcasting:1 rank:3 among:1 top:3 ten:2 master:2 north:2 u:3 news:12 report:2 every:4 year:8 since:2 america:2 release:4 office:12 medium:6 relation:4 ranking:2 ranked:1 category:2 usnews:1 com:1 history:1 beginning:1 local:3 violin:1 teacher:1 grant:4 rent:1 four:3 room:1 arrange:1 instruction:1 eight:2 student:19 nearly:1 seven:3 decade:1 institution:1 flourish:1 city:1 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7,394 | Ennio_Morricone | Ennio Morricone, OMRI Morricone Sig. EnnioPresidenza della Reppublica (born November 10, 1928) is an Italian Academy Award-winning composer. He has composed and arranged scores for more than 500 film and television productions. Morricone wrote the characteristic soundtracks of Sergio Leone's spaghetti westerns A Fistful of Dollars (1964), For a Few Dollars More (1965), The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966), Once Upon a Time in the West (1968) as well as The Great Silence (1968), and My Name Is Nobody (1973). His more recent compositions include the scores for The Thing (1982), Once Upon A Time In America (1984), The Mission (1986), The Untouchables (1987), Cinema Paradiso (1988), Lolita (1997),The Legend of 1900 (1998), Malèna (2000), Mission to Mars (2000) and Fateless (2005). Ennio Morricone has won five Anthony Asquith Awards for Film Music by BAFTA in 1979–1992. He has been nominated for five Academy Awards for Best Music, Original Score in 1979–2001, winning none of them. Morricone received the Honorary Academy Award in 2007 "for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music". Ennio Morricone to Receive Honorary Academy Award He was the second composer to receive this award after its introduction. Biography Classical music Morricone was born in Rome, the son of Libera and Mario Morricone, a jazz trumpeter. Ennio Morricone Biography (1928-) He was educated at the National Academy of Santa Cecilia in the trumpet, composition, choral music and choral direction under Goffredo Petrassi, who deeply influenced him and to whom Morricone has dedicated concert pieces. Impelled by his father to take up the trumpet, he had first gone to Santa Cecilia to take lessons on the instrument at the age of 9. Ennio formally entered the conservatory in 1940 at the age of 12, enrolling in a four-year harmony program. According to various reports, he completed it in two years or six months (date approximate). These were the difficult years of World War II in the heavily bombed "Open City": the composer remarked that what he mostly remembered of those years was the hunger. Many years were spent in study, giving him the extraordinary level of technical ability that his music exhibits. His wartime experiences influenced many of his scores for films set in that period. After he graduated, he continued to work in classical composition and arrangement. Initially influenced by John Cage — particularly the American's use of silence — he wrote more in the climate of the Italian avant-garde. Few have been made available on CD and some have yet to be premiered. Early pop arrangements In 1956, Morricone started to support his family by playing in a jazz band and arranging pop songs for the Italian broadcasting service RAI. He was hired by RAI in 1958, but quit his job on his first day at work when he was told that broadcasting of music composed by employees was forbidden by a company rule. Subsequently, Morricone became a top studio arranger at RCA, working with Renato Rascel, Rita Pavone and Mario Lanza. A particular success was one of his own songs, "Se telefonando". Performed by Mina, it was the standout track of Studio Uno 66, the 5th biggest selling album of the year 1966 in Italy. Morricone's sophisticated arrangement of "Se telefonando" was a combination of melodic trumpet lines, Hal Blaine-style drumming, a string set, a sixties Europop female choir and intensive subsonic-sounding trombones. The Italian Hitparade #7 song had eight transitions of tonality building tension throughout the chorus. During the following decades, the song was covered by several performers in Italy and abroad, most notably by Francoise Hardy and Iva Zanicchi (1966), Delta V (2005), Vanessa and the O's (2007), and Neil Hannon (2008). Se telefonando Françoise Hardy - Mon amie la rose site Leone film scores Well-versed in a variety of musical idioms from his RCA experience, Morricone began composing film scores in the early '60s. Though his first films were undistinguished, Morricone's arrangement of an American folk song intrigued director and former schoolmate Sergio Leone. Leone hired Morricone and together they created a distinctive score to accompany Leone's different version of the Western, A Fistful of Dollars (1964). As budget strictures limited Morricone's access to a full orchestra, he used gunshots, cracking whips, whistle, voices, Sicilian Jew's harp, trumpets, and the new Fender electric guitar, rather than orchestral arrangements of Western standards à la John Ford. Morricone used his special effects to punctuate and comically tweak the action, cluing in the audience to the taciturn man's ironic stance. Though sonically bizarre for a movie score, Morricone's music was viscerally true to Leone's vision. As memorable as Leone's close-ups, harsh violence, and black comedy, Morricone's work helped to expand the musical possibilities of film scoring. Morricone was initially billed on the film as Dan Savio. Ennio Morricone scored Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Westerns and later films from A Fistful of Dollars to Once Upon a Time in America, including For a Few Dollars More (1965), The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) and Once upon a Time in the West (1968). The collaboration is considered one of the examplary collaborations between a director and a composer. The team With the score of A Fistful of Dollars, Morricone started his ten-year collaboration with his childhood friend Alessandro Alessandroni and his Cantori Moderni. Alessandroni provided the whistling and the twanging guitar on the soundtracks, while his Cantori Moderni were a flexible troupe of modern singers. Morricone specifically exploited the solo soprano of the group, Edda Dell'Orso at the height of her powers – "an extraordinary voice at my disposal". Other film scores Most of Ennio Morricone's film scores of the 1960s were composed outside the Spaghetti Western genre, while still using Alessandro Alessandroni's team. Their music included the themes for Il Malamondo (1964), Slalom (1965), The Battle of Algiers (1965) and Listen, Let's Make Love (1967). In 1968, Morricone reduced his work outside the movie business and wrote scores for twenty films in the same year. International Movie Database The scores included psychedelic accompaniment for Mario Bava's superhero romp Danger: Diabolik (1968). The next year marked the start of a series of evocative scores for Dario Argento's stylized thrillers, including The Bird with the Crystal Plumage (1969), The Cat o' Nine Tails (1971), and Four Flies on Grey Velvet (1974). In 1970, Morricone wrote the score for Violent City. In the same year he received his first Nastro d'Argento for the music in Metti una Sera a Cena (Giuseppe Patroni Griffi, 1969) and his second only a year later for Sacco e Vanzetti (Guiliano Montaldo, 1971) where he had made a memorable collaboration with the legendary American folk singer and activist Joan Baez. He received his first nomination for an Academy Award in 1979 for the score to Days of Heaven (Terrence Malick, 1978) and another in 1986 for The Mission (Roland Joffé, 1986), 1987 for The Untouchables (Brian De Palma, 1987), 1991 for Bugsy (Barry Levinson, 1991) and 2001 for Malèna (Giuseppe Tornatore, 2000). Morricone composed the score for John Carpenter's science-fiction/horror movie The Thing (1982). Morricone has worked for television, from a single title piece through variety shows and documentaries to TV series, including Moses (1974) and Marco Polo (1982). He wrote the score for the Mafia television series La Piovra seasons 2 to 10 from 1985 to 2001, including the themes "Droga e Sangue" ("Drugs and Blood"), "La morale" and "L'immorale". International Movie Data Base Morricone worked as the conductor of the seasons 3 to 5 of the series. He also worked as the music supervisor for the television project La bibbia ("The Bible"). In the late 1990s he collaborated with his son, Andrea, on the Ultimo crime dramas. Their collaboration yielded the BAFTA-winning Nuovo Cinema Paradiso. In 2003 Ennio Morricone scored another epic, Musashi, for Japanese television, the Taiga drama about Miyamoto Musashi, Japan's legendary warrior. A part of his "applied music" is now applied to Italian television films. Tours Since 2001 Ennio Morricone has been on a world tour, the latter part sponsored by Giorgio Armani, with the Orchestra Roma Sinfonietta, touring London (Barbican 2001; 75th birthday Concerto, Royal Albert Hall 2003), Paris, Verona and Tokyo. Morricone performed his classic film scores at the Munich Philharmonie in 2005 and Hammersmith Apollo Theatre in London, UK on 2006-12-01 and 2006-12-02. He made his North American concert debut on 2007-01-29 at Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City and 4 days after 2007-02-03 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The evening before, Morricone had already presented at the United Nations a concert consisting of some of his film themes as well as the cantata Voci dal silenzio to welcome the new Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon. A Los Angeles Times review bemoaned the poor acoustics, and opined of Morricone "His stick technique is adequate, but his charisma as a conductor is zero." Morricone, though, has said: "Conducting has never been important to me. If the audience comes for my gestures then they better stay outside."On 2007-12-12 Morricone conducted the Roma Sinfonietta at the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna presenting a selection of his own works.Together with the Roma Sinfonietta and the Belfast Philharmonic Choir, Morricone performed at the Opening Concerts of the Belfast Festival at Queen's, in the Waterfront Hall on 17 and 18 of October 2008. Maestro Morricone and Roma Sinfonietta held a concert at the Belgrade Arena (Belgrade, Serbia) on 14 of February 2009. Academy Award Morricone received an honorary Academy Award on 2007-02-25 from Clint Eastwood "for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music." With the statuette went a standing ovation. Although nominated five times, he had not previously received an Oscar. In conjunction with this, Morricone released a tribute album, We All Love Ennio Morricone, featuring as its centerpiece Celine Dion's rendition of "I Knew I Loved You" (based on "Deborah's theme" from Once Upon a Time in America) which she performed at the ceremony. Behind-the-scenes studio production and recording footage of "I Knew I Loved You" can be viewed in the debut episode of the QuincyJones.com Podcast. Quincy Jones The lyric, as with Morricone's Love Affair, had been penned by Oscar-winning husband-and-wife duo Marilyn and Alan Bergman. Morricone's acceptance speech was in his native Italian tongue and was interpreted by Clint Eastwood, who stood to his left. Eastwood and Morricone had in fact met two days earlier — for the first time in 40 years — at a reception. Prizes and awards 1967 — Diapason d'Or 1969 — Premio Spoleto Cinema 1970 — Nastro d'argento for Metti una sera a cena 1971 — Nastro d'argento for Sacco e Vanzetti 1972 — Cork Film International for La califfa 1979 — Oscar Nomination for Days of Heaven 1979 — Premio Vittorio de Sica 1981 — Premio della critica discografica for Il prato 1984 — Premio Zurlini 1985 — Nastro d'argento and BAFTA for Once Upon A Time In America 1986 — Oscar Nomination, BAFTA and Golden Globe Award for The Mission 1986 — Premio Vittorio de Sica 1988 — Nastro d'argento, BAFTA, Grammy Award and Oscar Nomination for The Untouchables 1988 — David di Donatello for Gli occhiali d'oro 1989 — David di Donatello for Nuovo Cinema Paradiso 1989 — Ninth Annual Ace Winner for Il giorno prima 1989 — Pardo d'Oro alla carriera (Locarno Film Festival) 1990 — BAFTA, Prix Fondation Sacem del XLIII Cannes Film Festival and David di Donatello for Nuovo Cinema Paradiso 1991 — David di Donatello for Stanno tutti bene 1992 — Oscar Nomination for Bugsy 1992 — Pentagramma d'oro 1992 — Premio Michelangelo 1992 — Grolla d'oro alla carriera (Saint Vincent) 1993 — David di Donatello and Efebo d'Argento for Jonas che visse nella balena 1993 — Globo d'oro Stampa estera in Italia 1993 — Gran Premio SACEM audiovisivi 1994 — ASCAP Golden Soundtrack award (Los Angeles) 1995 — Premio Rota 1995 — Leone d'Oro Honorary award (Venice Film Festival) 1996 — Premio Cappelli 1996 — Premio Accademia di Santa Cecilia 1997 — Premio Flaiano 1998 — Columbus Prize 1999 — Erich Wolfgang Korngold Internationaler Preis für Film 1999 — Exsquibbidles Film Academy lifetime achievement award 2000 — Golden Globe Award for The Legend of 1900 (1998) 2000 — David di Donatello for Canone inverso 2000 — Oscar nomination for Malèna 2003 — Golden Eagle Award for 72 Meters 2003 — Honorary Senator of the Filmscoring Class of the Hochschule für Musik und Theater München 2006 — Grand Officer award from President of the Italian Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi2007 — Honorary Academy Award for career achievement 2007 — The Film & TV Music Award for Lifetime Achievement 2008 — Knight in the Order of the Legion of Honor Discography Ennio Morricone has sold over 40 million records Vivaticket, 26 june 2009, EM (singles, scores and compilations) worldwide, including 5,2 million albums and singles in France EM single sales in France and over 2,5 million albums in the United States. Tnt Village, Ennio Morricone Top worldwide film grosses Ennio Morricone has been involved with eight movies grossing over $25 million at the box office Box Office Morricone : Year Title Director Gross 1966 The Good, The Bad & The Ugly Sergio Leone $25,100,000 1977 Exorcist II: The Heretic John Boorman $30,749,142 1987 The Untouchables Brian De Palma $76,270,454 1991 Bugsy Barry Levinson $49,114,016 1993 In the Line of Fire Wolfgang Petersen $176,997,168 1994 Wolf Mike Nichols $131,002,597 1994 Disclosure Barry Levinson $214,015,089 2000 Mission to Mars Brian De Palma $110,983,407 Tributes Morricone's film music was also recorded by other artists. Hugo Montenegro had a hit with a version of the theme from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly in both the United Kingdom and the United States. This was followed by his album of Morricone's music in 1968. John Zorn recorded an album of Morricone's music, The Big Gundown, in the mid-1980s. Lyricists and poets have helped convert some of his melodies into a songbook. Morricone collaborated with world music artists, like Portuguese fado singer Dulce Pontes (in 2003 with Focus, an album praised by Paulo Coelho and where his songbook can be sampled) and virtuoso cellist Yo-Yo Ma (in 2004), who both recorded albums of Morricone classics with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra and Morricone himself conducting. Metallica uses Morricone's The Ecstasy of Gold as an intro at their concerts (shock jocks Opie and Anthony also use the song at the start of their XM Satellite Radio and CBS Radio shows.) The San Francisco Symphony Orchestra also played it on Metallica's Symphonic rock album S&M. Ramones used the theme from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly as a concert intro. The theme from A Fistful Of Dollars is also used as a concert intro by The Mars Volta. His influence extends from Michael Nyman to Muse. He even has his own tribute band, a large group which started in Australia, touring as "The Ennio Morricone Experience". In 2006 Morricone made a guest appearance on the Morrissey album Ringleader of the Tormentors, scoring the string part for "Dear God, Please Help Me", recorded in Rome's Forum Music Village Studios, Morricone's regular recording and mixing venue, previously known as the Orthophonic Recording Studio, which is located beneath a church. In 2007, the tribute album We All Love Ennio Morricone was released. It features performances by various artists, including Sarah Brightman, Andrea Bocelli, Celine Dion, Bruce Springsteen and Metallica. Ciarán Farrell was one of Ennio Morricone's students. In 1990 the American singer Amii Stewart, best known for the 1979 disco hit "Knock On Wood", recorded a tribute album entitled Pearls - Amii Stewart Sings Ennio Morricone for the RCA label, including a selection of the composer's best known songs. Since the mid 1980s Stewart resides in Italy, the Pearls album features Rome's Philharmonic Orchestra and was co-produced by Morricone himself. The asteroid 152188 Morricone was named in Morricone's honour on 2007-06-01. NBC Sports borrowed Morricone's theme from The Untouchables for use during the closing credits of their coverage of the 2000 American League Championship Series. This was accompanied by a video montage commemorating the network's final Major League Baseball telecast. Mr. Bungle have covered several Morricone songs live including Muscoli Di Velluto from Malamondo and Main themes from Citta Violenta, Una Lucertola Con La Pelle di Donna and Metti, Una Sera a Cena. Fantômas did a cover of the main theme to Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion (Indagine su un cittadino al di sopra di ogni sospetto) on their album The Director's Cut — an album of film soundtrack covers. Chico Buarque recorded an album with Morricone in 1970 called Per Un Pugno di Samba when the former was exiled from Brazil. Wall of Voodoo, of "Mexican Radio" fame, would perform medleys of famous pieces by Morricone at early live shows, as heard on their EP/Live Album The Index Masters Jackass Number Two uses his song "Ecstasy of Gold" at the beginning of the movie. Rapper Immortal Technique samples "Ecstasy of Gold" in his song "Land of the Gun" Italian thrash metal band Schizo recorded a cover of Morricone's "The Sicilian Clan" original soundtrack song for their 2007 album "Cicatriz Black". The Vandals, in their 1984 Album "Peace thru Vandalism," play their own version of the famous theme from The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly in the introduction to the "Urban Struggle" track. Hans Zimmer's Parlay in The Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End Soundtrack is a tribute to Ennio Morricone's Man with a Harmonica. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0449088/trivia British band Muse cites Morricone as an influence for the songs City of Delusion, Hoodoo, and Knights of Cydonia on their album, Black Holes and Revelations.. The band has recently started playing the song "Man With A Harmonica" live played by Chris Wolstenholme, as an intro to Knights of Cydonia. The 5th track off of Murder by Death's latest release, Red of Tooth and Claw, is titled Theme (for Ennio Morricone). The ambient electronic act The Orb sampled Morricone's "The Man With The Harmonica" (from the film Once Upon a Time in the West) in the opening to their 1990 single "Little Fluffy Clouds". The final installment of the massively popular video game series, Metal Gear Solid, uses in it's soundtrack Morricone's song "Here's to You", taken from the film Sacco e Vanzetti. The generic of Italiques 70's show produced by Marc Gilbert on french television used the soundtrack of Dio è con noi of Ennio Morricone, with a motion picture of Jean-Michel Folon that stayed the generic of the public channel for twenty years. On the 16th of August 2008 at the V Festival, Christopher Wolstenholme of Muse Played Ennio's "Man with the Harmonica" on harmonica before the band ended their Chelmsford set with Knights of Cydonia (A song with Morricone's classical influence). A remix of Ecstasy of Gold is used in Nike's "Leave Nothing" commercial with Ladainian Tomlinson and Troy Polamalu. Chi Mai is used in song Heartless by Black Attack from 1998. Independent pro wrestler Eddie Kingston uses The Ecstasy of Gold as his entrance music. Inglorious Basterds Quentin Tarantino originally wanted Morricone to do the soundtrack for his next film, Inglorious Basterds. However Morricone refused, because of the sped up production schedule of the film - he is set to score Giuseppe Tornatore's Baaria instead. AICN IMDB Personal life In 1956, Ennio Morricone married Maria Travia, who has written lyrics to complement her husband's pieces. Her works include the Latin texts for The Mission. They have three sons and a daughter, in order of birth: Marco, Alessandra, Andrea [Andrew], and Giovanni. References Sources Horace, B. Music from the Movies, film music journal double issue 45/46, 2005: ISSN 0967-8131 Miceli, Sergio. Morricone, la musica, il cinema. Mucchi/Ricordi, 1994: ISBN 88-7592-398-1 Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 3. Dal 1960 al 1969. Gremese, 1993: ISBN 88-7605-593-2 Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979* A/L. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-935-0 Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979** M/Z. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-969-5 Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989* A/L. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-423-0 Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989** M/Z''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-429-X External links Official website Ennio Morricone at Soundtrackguide.net Ennio Morricone (Unofficial) Fans Club The Ennio Morricone Fanpage Ennio Morricone myspace The Ennio Morricone Online Community Ennio Morricone Japanese website Morricone Made in France : everything about the 20 french movies scored by the Maestro (fr) Ennio Morricone Discography at SoundtrackCollector.com http://www.furious.com/perfect/morricone2.html | Ennio_Morricone |@lemmatized ennio:29 morricone:89 omri:1 sig:1 enniopresidenza:1 della:2 reppublica:1 born:1 november:1 italian:8 academy:10 award:20 win:4 composer:5 compose:5 arrange:2 score:25 film:37 television:7 production:3 write:6 characteristic:1 soundtrack:9 sergio:5 leone:10 spaghetti:3 westerns:1 fistful:5 dollar:7 good:6 bad:6 ugly:6 upon:7 time:10 west:3 well:3 great:1 silence:2 name:2 nobody:1 recent:1 composition:3 include:12 thing:2 america:4 mission:6 untouchable:3 cinema:11 paradiso:4 lolita:1 legend:2 malèna:3 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7,395 | Honolulu | Honolulu is the capital and most populous census-designated place (CDP) in the U.S. state of Hawaii. Although Honolulu refers to the urban area on the southeastern shore of the island of Oahu, the city and the county are consolidated, known as the City and County of Honolulu, and the city and county is designated as the entire island. The City and County of Honolulu is the only incorporated city in Hawaii, as all other local government entities are administered at the county level. The population of the CDP was 371,657 at the 2000 census, while the population of the City and County was 909,863. In the Hawaiian language, Honolulu means "sheltered bay" or "place of shelter." History Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 12th century. However, after Kamehameha I conquered Oahu in the Battle of Nuuanu at Nuuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaii to Waikīkī in 1804. His court later relocated, in 1809, to what is now downtown Honolulu. View of the DFS Galleria in Waikīkī In 1795, Captain William Brown of England was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor. More foreign ships would follow, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu. He and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrew's Cathedral, Iolani Palace, and Aliiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the Islands, with descendants of American missionaries establishing major businesses in downtown Honolulu. Despite the turbulent history of the late 19th century and early 20th century, which saw the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, Hawaii's subsequent annexation by the United States, and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Honolulu would remain the capital, largest city, and main airport and seaport of the Hawaiian Islands. An economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaii. Modern air travel would bring thousands and, as of 2007, 7.6 million visitors annually to the Islands . Of these, about 62.3% in 2007 entered the state at Honolulu International Airport. Today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaii, with thousands of hotel rooms. The UK consulting firm Mercer, in a 2009 assessment "conducted to help governments and major companies place employees on international assignments", ranked Honolulu 29th worldwide in quality of living; the survey factored in political stability, personal freedom, sanitation, crime, housing, the natural environment, recreation, banking facilities, availability of consumer goods, education, and public services including transportation. Geography and climate Honolulu is located at (21.308950, -157.826182). According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 105.1 mi² (272.1 km²). 85.7 mi² (222.0 km²) of it is land and 19.4 mi² (50.1 km²) of it (18.42%) is water. The closest location on the mainland to Honolulu is the Point Arena, California Lighthouse, at 2,045 nautical miles (2,353 statute miles) or 3,787 kilometers. Microsoft Streets and Trips 2007 Software, Copyright 2006 by Microsoft Corp. et al. Kilometers converted to nautical and statute miles by figures given in The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2007, Copyright World Alamnac Education Group, p.350-353 (Nautical vessels require some additional distance to circumnavigate Makapu'u Point.) However, part of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska are slightly closer than California. Honolulu has a warm semiarid (BSh) climate according to Köppen classification, and enjoys warm weather and plenty of sunshine throughout the year. Despite its location in the tropics, the climate (temperature, precipitation and humidity) is moderated by Hawaii's mid-ocean location. Temperatures vary little throughout the months, with average high temperatures of 80 - 89°F (27 - 32°C) and lows of 65 - 75°F (19 - 24°C) throughout the year. Temperatures rarely exceed 90's°F (32°C), and with lows in the upper-50's°F (~15°C) occurring once or twice a year. Waters off the coast of Honolulu averages 82°F (27°C) in the summer months and 77°F (25°C) in the winter months. www.weather.com Annual average precipitation is 18.3 inches (464 mm), which mainly occurs during the winter months of October through March, and very little rainfall during the summer. Honolulu has an average of 270 sunshine days and 98 wet days a year. http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weatherall.php3?s=28119&refer=&units=us Government |Completed in 1928, Honolulu Hale is the seat of the city and county. The municipal offices of the City and County of Honolulu, including Honolulu Hale, the seat of the city and county, are located in the census-designated place. The Honolulu District is located on the southeast coast of Oahu between Makapuu and Halawa. The District boundary follows the Koolau crestline, so Makapuu Beach is in the Koolaupoko District. On the west, the district boundary follows Halawa Stream, then crosses Red Hill and runs just west of Aliamanu Crater, so that Aloha Stadium, Pearl Harbor (with the USS Arizona Memorial), and Hickam Air Force Base are actually all located in the island's Ewa District. The Hawaii state government buildings are located in the CDP. The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Honolulu CDP. The main Honolulu Post Office is located by the international airport at 3600 Aolele Street. "Post Office™ Location - HONOLULU." United States Postal Service. Retrieved on May 21, 2009. Diplomatic missions Several countries have diplomatic facilities in Honolulu CDP in the City and County of Honolulu. The Consulate-General of Japan in Honolulu is located at 1742 Nuuanu Avenue. "Visa & Travel." Consulate-General of Japan in Honolulu. Accessed August 17, 2008. The Consulate-General of South Korea in Honolulu is located at 2756 Pali Highway. "Location." Consulate-General of South Korea in Honolulu. Retrieved on January 10, 2009. The Consulate-General of the Philippines in Honolulu is located at 2433 Pali Highway. "Other Philippine Missions in the U.S.." Consulate-General of the Philippines in Chicago. Retrieved on January 10, 2009. The Consulate-General of the Federated States of Micronesia in Honolulu is located in Suite 908 at 3049 Ualena Street. "Department of Foreign Affairs, Overseas Embassies, Consulates, and Missions." Department of Foreign Affairs (Federated States of Micronesia). Retrieved on January 10, 2009. The Consulate-General of Australia in Honolulu is located in the penthouse of 1000 Bishop Street. "Australian Consulate-General in Honolulu, United States of America." Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved on January 10, 2009. The Consulate-General of the Marshall Islands in Honolulu is located in Suite 301 at 1888 Lusitana Street. "Foreign Mission." Republic of the Marshall Islands. Retrieved on January 28, 2009. Cityscape Most of the city's commercial and industrial developments are located on a narrow but relatively flat coastal plain, while numerous ridges and valleys located inland of the coastal plain divide Honolulu's residential areas into distinct neighborhoods: some spread along valley floors (like Manoa in Manoa Valley) and others climb the interfluvial ridges. Within Honolulu proper can be found several volcanic cones: Punchbowl, Diamond Head, Koko Head (includes Hanauma Bay), Koko Crater, Salt Lake, and Aliamanu being the most conspicuous. Neighborhoods View of downtown from Punchbowl Crater Honolulu as seen from the International Space Station View of downtown Honolulu at Bishop and King streets with First Hawaiian Center building (left) and Bank of Hawaii (right) Downtown Honolulu is the financial, commercial, and governmental center of Hawaii. On the waterfront is Aloha Tower, which for many years was the tallest building in Hawaii. Currently the tallest building is the -tall First Hawaiian Center, located on King and Bishop Streets. The downtown campus of Hawaii Pacific University is also located there. The Arts District Honolulu in downtown/Chinatown is on the eastern edge of Chinatown. It is a 12-block area bounded by Bethel & Smith Streets and Nimitz Highway and Beretania Street - home to numerous arts and cultural institutions. It is located within the Chinatown Historic District. http://www.artsdistricthonolulu.com/ The Capitol District is the eastern part of Downtown Honolulu. It is the current and historic center of Hawaii's state government, incorporating the Hawaii State Capitol, Iolani Palace, Honolulu Hale (City Hall), State Library, and the statue of King Kamehameha I, along with numerous government buildings. Kakaako is a light-industrial district between Downtown and Waikīkī that has seen a large-scale redevelopment effort in the past decade. It is home to two major shopping areas, Ward Warehouse and Ward Centre. The John A. Burns School of Medicine, part of the University of Hawaii at Manoa is also located there. A Memorial to the Ehime Maru Incident victims is built at Kakaako Waterfront Park. Waikīkī is the world-famous tourist district of Honolulu, located between the Ala Wai Canal and the Pacific Ocean next to Diamond Head. Numerous hotels, shops, and nightlife opportunities are located along Kalakaua and Kuhio Avenues. Waikīkī Beach attracts millions of visitors a year. Just west of Waikīkī is Ala Moana Center, the world's largest open-air shopping center. A majority of the hotel rooms on Oahu are located in Waikīkī. Manoa and Makiki are residential neighborhoods located in adjacent valleys just inland of downtown and Waikīkī. Manoa Valley is home to the main campus of the University of Hawaii. President Barack Obama lived in Makiki with his maternal grandparents until graduating from Punahou School, apart from four years in Indonesia with his mother and stepfather. Nuuanu and Pauoa are upper-middle-class residential districts located inland of downtown Honolulu. The National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific is located in Punchbowl Crater fronting Pauoa Valley. Palolo and Kaimuki are neighborhoods east of Manoa and Makiki, inland from Diamond Head. Palolo Valley parallels Manoa and is a residential neighborhood. Kaimuki is primarily a residential neighborhood with a commercial strip centered on Waialae Avenue running behind Diamond Head. Chaminade University is located in Kaimuki. Waialae and Kahala are upper-class districts of Honolulu located directly east of Diamond Head, where there are many high-priced homes. Also found in these neighborhoods are the Waialae Country Club and The Kahala Hotel & Resort. East Honolulu includes the residential communities of Āina Haina, Niu Valley, and Hawaii Kai. These are considered upper-middle-class neighborhoods. The upscale gated communities of Waialae iki and Hawaii Loa Ridge are also located here. Kalihi and Palama are working-class neighborhoods with a number of government housing developments. Lower Kalihi, toward the ocean, is a light-industrial district. Salt Lake and Aliamanu are (mostly) residential areas built in extinct tuff cones along the western end of the Honolulu District, not far from the Honolulu International Airport. Moanalua is two neighborhoods and a valley at the western end of Honolulu, and home to Tripler Army Medical Center. Demographics State of Hawaii's Capitol building. As of the census of 2000, there were 371,657 people, 140,337 households, and 87,429 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 4,336.6 people per square mile (1,674.4/km²). There were 158,663 housing units at an average density of 1,851.3/sq mi (714.8/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 19.67% White, 1.62% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 55.85% Asian, 6.85% Pacific Islander, 0.89% from other races; and 14.93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.37% of the population. There were 140,337 households out of which 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.7% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size is 3.23. In the CDP the population was spread out with 19.2% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.5 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,112, and the median income for a family was $56,311. Males had a median income of $36,631 versus $29,930 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $24,191. About 7.9% of families and 11.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.6% of those under the age of 18 and 8.5% of those 65 and older. At the 2005-2007 American Community Survey Estimates, the city's population was 30.9% White (19.5% non-Hispanic White alone), 2.6% Black or African American, 1.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 67.4% Asian (56.0% non-Hispanic Asian alone), 14.8% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (6.1% non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone), 1.5% from some other race and 14.0% from two or more races. 3.6% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Economy Hawaiian Airlines, "Corporate Headquarters." Hawaiian Airlines. Retrieved on May 20, 2009. Island Air, "Contact Information." Island Air. Retrieved on May 20, 2009. and Aloha Air Cargo are headquartered in the CDP. "Locations." Aloha Air Cargo. Retrieved on May 21, 2009. "Honolulu CDP, HI." U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on May 21, 2009. Prior to its dissolution, Aloha Airlines was headquartered in the CDP. "Aloha Airlines, Inc." BusinessWeek. Retrieved on May 21, 2009. Transportation Honolulu International Airport Honolulu International Airport reef runway Interstate H-1 eastbound into Honolulu CDP Air Located on the western end of the CDP, Honolulu International Airport (HNL) is the principal aviation gateway to the state of Hawaii. Kalaeloa Airport is primarily a commuter facility used by unscheduled air taxis, general aviation and transient and locally-based military aircraft. Highways The following freeways serve Honolulu: Interstate H-1, which, coming into the city from the west, passes Hickam Air Force Base and Honolulu International Airport, runs just north of Downtown and continues eastward through Makiki and Kaimuki, ending at Waialae/Kahala. H-1 connects to Interstate H-2 from Wahiawa and Interstate H-3 from Kaneohe, west of the CDP. Interstate H-201—also known as the Moanalua Freeway and formerly numbered Hawaii State Rte. 78—connects two points along H-1: at Aloha Stadium and Fort Shafter. Close to H-1 and Aloha Stadium, H-201 has an exchange with the western terminus of Interstate H-3 to the windward side of Oahu (Kaneohe). This complex of connecting ramps, some directly between H-1 and H-3, is in Halawa. Other major highways that link Honolulu proper with other parts of the Island of Oahu are: Pali Highway, State Rte. 61, crosses north over the Koolau range via the Pali Tunnels to connect to Kailua and Kaneohe on the windward side of the Island. Likelike Highway, State Rte. 63, also crosses the Koolau to Kaneohe via the Wilson Tunnels. Kalanianaole Highway, State Rte. 72, runs eastward from Waialae/Kahala to Hawaii Kai and around the east end of the island to Waimanalo Beach. Kamehameha Highway, State Rte. 99, runs westward from near Hickam Air Force Base to Aiea and beyond, eventually running through the center of the island and ending in Kaneohe. Like most major American cities, the Honolulu metropolitan area experiences heavy traffic congestion during rush hours, especially to and from the western suburbs of Kapolei, Ewa, Aiea, Pearl City, Waipahu, and Mililani. Land for expanding road capacity is at a premium everywhere on Oahu. Public transportation Bus Established by former Mayor Frank F. Fasi, Honolulu's TheBus system has been twice honored by the American Public Transportation Association bestowing the title of "America's Best Transit System" for 1994–1995 and 2000–2001. TheBus operates 107 routes serving Honolulu and outlying areas on Oahu with a fleet of 531 buses, and is run by the non-profit corporation Oahu Transit Services in conjunction with the city Department of Transportation Services. Honolulu is ranked 4th for highest per-capita use of mass transit in the United States. National Transit Database, Top Transit Cities (2006) Rail Currently, there is no urban rail transit system in Honolulu, although electric street railways were once used during the early days of Honolulu's history. The first major attempt was called the Honolulu Area Rail Rapid Transit (HART) project. Originally proposed in 1968 by Mayor Neal S. Blaisdell and supported by his successor, Frank Fasi, HART was originally envisioned as a line from Pearl City to Hawaii Kai. By 1980, however, the project's length was cut to an segment between the University of Hawaii at Manoa and Honolulu International Airport. In the wake of proposed budget cuts by President Ronald Reagan, including the elimination of all funding for transit projects by 1985, newly elected Mayor Eileen Anderson cancelled the project in 1981 and returned grants and funding to their sources, arguing the project would break her vow of fiscal responsibility. . After defeating Anderson in 1984 to regain the mayorship, Fasi started plans to revive the HART project. Funding avenues that Fasi explored included a substantial (66 percent) increase in the gasoline tax and diversion of money earmarked for then-stalled Interstate H-3 to be used for the project. In 1990, Governor John Waihee proposed allowing counties to collect a 0.5% increase in the excise tax to be used for transportation projects, and the state legislature approved the plan in May 1990. The counties would have until October 1, 1992 to enact the increase. In October 1991, the Fasi administration chose Oahu Transit Group to develop the rail line, which was based on cars by AEG Westinghouse similar to those used in the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit system. The U.S. House amended a transit bill to include $618 million for Honolulu's project, about one-third of the cost, and the Council in November entered into a joint funding agreement with the state. On September 23, 1992, the City Council voted 5-4 against enacting the tax increase, which effectively destroyed the project. Fasi made unsuccessful attempts to have a rail referendum (which was struck down by the courts), and to have private investors fund part of the line. The House revoked funding for the project on May 11, 1993, citing lack of guaranteed local funding. In 2005, under the administration of Mufi Hannemann, the city, county and state approved development of an action plan for a unspecific rapid transit system, known as the "Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project", to be built in several phases. The initial line proposed linking Kapolei in West Oahu to the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Then on December 22, 2006 the city council approved a fixed-guideway system meant to accommodate a rapid transit system of rail or buses, running from Kapolei in West Oahu to Ala Moana, with spurs into Waikiki and Manoa. Opponents of the proposed rail system attempted to place a measure on the Honolulu ballot which would have prohibited any rail system from being used, but failed to gather the required signatures in time. In response, the Honolulu City Council voted to put a question on the Honolulu ballot which would direct the city transportation department to create a steel-wheel-on-steel-rail transit system. On November 4, 2008, the residents of Honolulu voted to allow the process of developing the rail project to continue. The trains will be approximately long, electric, steel wheel to steel rail technology and will capable of carrying more than 300 passengers each. http://www.khnl.com/Global/story.asp?S=9295785 Honolulu - Rail transit passes http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20081106/NEWS01/811060369/1001/NEWS05 Honolulu rail might be rerouted to airport The measure passed with 52% of the vote. Cultural institutions With symbolic native-styled architectural features, the First Hawaiian Center is the tallest building in Hawaii and home to a Contemporary Museum gallery. Performing arts Established in 1900, the Honolulu Symphony is the oldest US symphony orchestra west of the Rocky Mountains. Other classical music ensembles include the Hawaii Opera Theatre. Honolulu is also a center for Hawaiian music. The main music venues include the Neal Blaisdell Center Concert Hall, the Waikiki Shell, and the Hawaii Theatre. Honolulu also includes several venues for live theater, including the Diamond Head Theatre. Visual arts There are various institutions supported by the state and private entities for the advancement of the visual arts. The Honolulu Academy of Arts is endowed with the largest collection of Asian and Western art in Hawaii. It also has the largest collection of Islamic art, housed at the Shangri La estate. The academy hosts a film and video program dedicated to arthouse and world cinema in the museum's Doris Duke Theatre, named for the academy's historic patroness Doris Duke. The Contemporary Museum is the only contemporary art museum in the state. It has two locations: main campus in Makiki and a multi-level gallery in downtown Honolulu at the First Hawaiian Center. The Hawaii State Art Museum is also located in downtown Honolulu at No. 1 Capitol District Building and boasts a collection of art pieces created by local artists as well as traditional Hawaiian art. The museum is administered by the Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts. Natural museums The Bishop Museum is the largest of Honolulu's museums. It is endowed with the state's largest collection of natural history specimens and the world's largest collection of Hawaiiana and Pacific culture artifacts. The Honolulu Zoo is the main zoological institution in Hawaii while the Waikiki Aquarium is a working marine biology laboratory. The Waikiki Aquarium is partnered with the University of Hawaii and other universities worldwide. Established for appreciation and botany, Honolulu is home to several gardens: Foster Botanical Garden, Liliuokalani Botanical Garden, Walker Estate, among others. Sports Honolulu's climate lends itself to year-round fitness activities. In 2004, Men's Fitness magazine named Honolulu the fittest city in the U.S. Honolulu is also home to three large road races: The Great Aloha Run is held annually on Presidents' Day. The Honolulu Marathon, held annually on the second Sunday in December, draws more than 20,000 participants each year, about half to two thirds of them from Japan. The Honolulu Triathlon is an Olympic distance triathlon event governed by USA Triathlon. Held annually in May since 2004, there is an absence of a sprint course. Fans of spectator sports in Honolulu generally support the football, volleyball, basketball, and baseball programs of the University of Hawaii at Manoa. High school sporting events, especially football, are especially popular. Honolulu has no professional sports teams. It was the home of the Hawaii Islanders (Pacific Coast League, 1961-1987), The Hawaiians (World Football League, 1974-1975), Team Hawaii (North American Soccer League, 1977), and the Hawaiian Islanders (af2, 2002-2004). The NCAA football Hawaii Bowl is played in Honolulu. Honolulu has also hosted the NFL's annual Pro Bowl each February since 1980, though the 2010 Pro Bowl will be played in Miami. From 1993 to 2008, Honolulu hosted Hawaii Winter Baseball, featuring minor league players from Major League Baseball, Nippon Professional Baseball, Korea Baseball Organization, and independent leagues. Venues Venues for spectator sports in Honolulu include: Les Murakami Stadium at UH-Manoa (baseball) Stan Sheriff Center at UH-Manoa (basketball and volleyball) Neal Blaisdell Center Arena (basketball) Aloha Stadium, a venue for American football and soccer (football), is located in the Halawa CDP. "Halawa CDP, Hawaii." U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on May 21, 2009. Media Honolulu is served by two daily newspapers, Honolulu Magazine, several radio stations and television stations, among other media. Tourist attractions ''See also Oahu tourist attractions Ala Moana Aloha Tower Bishop Museum Diamond Head Hanauma Bay Honolulu Academy of Arts ʻIolani Palace Lyon Arboretum National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific USS Arizona Memorial Waikiki Aquarium Waikiki Beach Education Colleges and universities Colleges and universities in the Honolulu CDP include University of Hawaii at Manoa, Chaminade University, and Hawaii Pacific University. Primary and secondary schools Hawaii Department of Education operates public schools in Honolulu. Public high schools within the CDP include Wallace Rider Farrington, Kaimuki, Henry J. Kaiser, Kalani, Moanalua, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt. Private schools such as Punahou School, Iolani School, Kamehameha Schools, and Mid-Pacific Institute also exist. Public libraries Hawaii State Public Library System operates public libraries. The Hawaii State Library in the CDP serves as the main library of the system, "Hawaii State Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. while the Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, also in the CDP, serves handicapped and blind people. "Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. Branches in the CDP include Aina Haina, "Aina Haina public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. Hawaii Kai, "Hawaii Kai Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. Kaimuki, "Kaimuki Public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. Kalihi-Palama, "Kalihi-Palama Public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. Manoa, "Manoa Public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. McCully, "McCully Public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. Salt Lake-Moanalua, "Salt Lake-Moanalua Public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. and Waikiki. "Waikiki Public Library." Hawaii State Public Library System. Retrieved on May 22, 2009. References External links City & County of Honolulu official site Hawaii Vistors and Convention Bureau Listings of jazz performing arts in Honolulu | Honolulu |@lemmatized honolulu:108 capital:4 populous:1 census:7 designated:2 place:5 cdp:24 u:9 state:42 hawaii:58 although:2 refers:1 urban:2 area:10 southeastern:1 shore:1 island:14 oahu:13 city:28 county:14 consolidate:1 know:3 designate:1 entire:1 incorporated:1 local:3 government:7 entity:2 administer:2 level:2 population:8 hawaiian:16 language:1 mean:2 shelter:2 bay:4 history:5 evidence:1 first:7 settlement:2 original:1 polynesian:1 migrant:1 archipelago:1 come:2 oral:1 artifact:2 indicate:1 stand:1 century:3 however:3 kamehameha:5 conquer:1 battle:1 nuuanu:4 pali:5 move:2 royal:1 court:3 waikīkī:9 later:1 relocate:1 downtown:14 view:3 dfs:1 galleria:1 captain:1 william:2 brown:1 england:1 foreigner:1 sail:1 harbor:3 foreign:5 ship:2 would:7 follow:5 make:3 port:1 focal:1 point:4 merchant:1 travel:3 north:4 america:3 asia:1 iii:1 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beach:4 koolaupoko:1 west:8 stream:1 cross:3 red:1 hill:1 run:9 aliamanu:3 crater:4 aloha:11 stadium:5 uss:2 arizona:2 memorial:5 hickam:3 force:3 base:5 actually:1 ewa:2 postal:2 operate:4 post:3 aolele:1 retrieve:22 may:20 diplomatic:2 mission:4 several:6 country:2 consulate:11 general:11 japan:3 avenue:4 visa:1 access:1 august:1 south:2 korea:3 highway:8 january:5 philippine:3 chicago:1 federated:2 micronesia:2 suite:2 ualena:1 department:6 affair:3 overseas:1 embassy:1 australia:1 penthouse:1 bishop:5 australian:1 trade:1 marshall:2 islands:2 lusitana:1 republic:1 cityscape:1 commercial:3 industrial:3 development:3 narrow:1 relatively:1 flat:1 coastal:2 plain:2 ridge:3 valley:9 inland:4 divide:1 residential:7 distinct:1 neighborhood:10 spread:2 along:5 floor:1 like:2 manoa:16 others:2 climb:1 interfluvial:1 within:3 proper:2 find:2 volcanic:1 cone:2 punchbowl:3 diamond:7 head:8 koko:2 hanauma:2 salt:4 lake:4 conspicuous:1 see:3 space:1 station:3 leave:1 bank:1 right:1 financial:1 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7,396 | Nauru | Nauru , officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island nation in the Micronesian South Pacific. The nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in the Republic of Kiribati, 300 km due east. Nauru is the world's smallest island nation, covering just 21 km² (8.1 sq. mi), and the smallest independent republic. CIA World Fact Book URL accessed 2006-05-02. Initially inhabited by Micronesian and Polynesian peoples, Nauru was annexed and designated a colony by Germany in the late 19th century, and after World War I became a mandate territory administered by Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. During World War II it was occupied by Japan, and after the war entered into trusteeship again. It achieved independence in 1968. Nauru is a phosphate rock island, and its primary economic activity since 1907 has been the export of phosphate mined from the island.</small> For this reason, Nauru briefly, during the late 1960s and early 1970s, boasted the highest per-capita income enjoyed by any sovereign state in the world. But when the phosphate reserves were exhausted, and the environment had been severely degraded by mining, the trust established to manage the island's wealth significantly reduced in value. To obtain income, the government resorted to unusual measures. In the 1990s, Nauru briefly became a tax haven and money laundering centre. Since 2001, it has accepted aid from the Australian government, and in exchange housed, until early 2008, an offshore detention centre that held and processed asylum seekers trying to enter Australia. From December 2005 to September 2006, Nauru became isolated from the outside world when Air Nauru, the only airline which services the island, ceased to operate. The airline was able to recommence operations under the name Our Airline with monetary aid from Taiwan. History A Nauruan warrior in 1880 Nauru was first inhabited by Micronesian and Polynesian people at least 3,000 years ago. There were traditionally 12 clans or tribes on Nauru, which are represented in the 12-pointed star in the nation's flag. The Nauruan people called their island "Naoero"; the word "Nauru" was later derived so that English speakers could easily pronounce the name. Nauruans traced their descent on the female side. Naurans subsisted on coconut and pandanus fruit, and caught juvenile ibija fish, acclimatized them to fresh water conditions and raised them in Buada Lagoon, providing an additional reliable source of food. McDaniel, C. N. and Gowdy, J. M. 2000. Paradise for Sale. University of California Press ISBN 0-520-22229-6 pp 13–28 British Captain John Fearn, a whale hunter, became the first Westerner to visit the island in 1798, and named it Pleasant Island. From around the 1830s, Nauruans had contact with Europeans from whaling ships and traders who replenished their supplies at the island. Around this time, beachcombers and deserters began to live on the island. The islanders traded food for alcoholic toddy and firearms; the firearms were used during the 10-year war which began in 1878 and by 1888 had resulted in a reduction of the population from 1400 to 900 persons. Colonial period Nauru annexed in 1888 by Germany. The island was annexed by Germany in 1888 and incorporated into Germany's Marshall Islands Protectorate; they called the island Nawodo or Onawero. The arrival of the Germans ended the war; social changes brought about by the war established kings as rulers of the island, the most widely known being King Auweyida. Christian missionaries from the Gilbert Islands arrived in 1888. Ellis, A. F. 1935. Ocean Island and Nauru - their story. Angus and Robertson Limited. pp 29–39 The Germans ruled Nauru for almost 3 decades. Robert Rasch, a German Trader who married a local woman, was the first administrator, appointed in 1890. Phosphate was discovered on the island in 1900 by prospector Albert Ellis. The Pacific Phosphate Company started to exploit the reserves in 1906 by agreement with Germany; they exported their first shipment in 1907. Ellis, A. F. 1935. Ocean Island and Nauru - their story. Angus and Robertson Limited. pp 127–139 Following the outbreak of World War I, the island was captured by Australian forces in 1914. After the war, the League of Nations gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru; the UK and New Zealand were also co-trustees. Cain, Timothy M., comp. "Nauru." The Book of Rule. 1st ed. 1 vols. New York: DK Inc., 2004. Agreement between Australia, New Zealand and United Kingdom regarding Nauru] The three governments signed a Nauru Island Agreement in 1919, creating a board known as the British Phosphate Commission (BPC), which took over the rights to phosphate mining. World War II Nauru Island under attack by B-24 Liberator bombers of the US Seventh Air Force. Japanese forces occupied the island on 26 August 1942. Lundstrom, John B., The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign, Naval Institute Press, 1994, p. 175. The Japanese built an airfield on the island which was bombed in March 1943, preventing food supplies from reaching the island. The Japanese deported 1,200 Nauruans to work as labourers in the Chuuk islands, where 463 died. Haden, J. D. 2000. Nauru: a middle ground in World War II Pacific Magazine URL Accessed 2006-05-05 The island was liberated on 13 September 1945 when the Australian warship HMAS Diamantina approached the island and Japanese forces surrendered. Arrangements were made by the BPC to repatriate Nauruans from Chuuk, and they were returned to Nauru by the BPC ship Trienza in January 1946. Garrett, J. 1996. Island Exiles. ABC. ISBN 0-7333-0485-0. pp176–181 In 1947, a trusteeship was approved by the United Nations, and Australia, New Zealand and the UK again became trustees of the island. Independence Nauru became self-governing in January 1966, and following a two-year constitutional convention, became independent in 1968, led by founding president Hammer DeRoburt. In 1967, the people of Nauru purchased the assets of the British Phosphate Commissioners, and in June 1970, control passed to the locally owned Nauru Phosphate Corporation. Income from the exploitation of phosphate gave Nauruans one of the highest living standards in the Pacific and per capita, in the world. Nauru seeks to regain lost fortunes Nick Squires, 2008-03-15, BBC News Online. URL Accessed 2008-03-16 In 1989, the country took legal action against Australia in the International Court of Justice over Australia's actions during its administration of Nauru, in particular, Australia's failure to remedy the environmental damage caused by phosphate mining. Highet, K and Kahale, H. 1993. Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru. The American Journal of International Law 87:282–288 The action led to an out-of-court settlement to rehabilitate the mined-out areas of Nauru. Diminishing phosphate reserves has led to economic decline in Nauru, which has brought increasing political instability since the mid-1980s. Nauru had 17 changes of administration between 1989 and 2003. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Republic of Nauru Country Brief - November 2005 URL accessed on 2006-05-02. Between 1999 and 2003, a series of no-confidence votes and elections resulted in two people, René Harris and Bernard Dowiyogo, leading the country for alternating periods. Dowiyogo died in office in March 2003 and Ludwig Scotty was elected President. Scotty was re-elected to serve a full term in October 2004. Following a vote of no confidence by Parliament against President Scotty on 19 December 2007, Marcus Stephen became president. In recent times, a significant portion of the country's income has been in the form of aid from Australia. In 2001, the MV Tampa, a Norwegian ship which had rescued 433 The Bulletin publishes for the last time refugees (from various countries including Afghanistan) from a stranded 20-metre (65 ft) boat and was seeking to dock in Australia, was diverted to Nauru as part of the Pacific Solution. Nauru operated the detention centre in exchange for Australian aid. By November 2005, only two refugees, Mohammed Sagar and Muhammad Faisal, remained on Nauru from those first sent there in 2001, Gordon, M. 5 November 2005. Nauru's last two asylum seekers feel the pain. The Age URL Accessed 2006-05-08 with Sagar finally resettling in early 2007. The Australian government sent further groups of asylum seekers to Nauru in late 2006 and early 2007. ABC News. 12 February 2007. Nauru detention centre costs $2m per month. ABC News Online URL Accessed 2007-02-12 In late January 2008, following Australia's decision to close the processing centre, Nauru announced that they will request a new aid deal to ease the resulting blow to the economy. ABC News. 31 January 2008. Nauru wants aid deal after camp closure. ABC News Online URL Accessed 2008-01-31 Politics Ludwig Scotty, former president (2004–2007) Nauru is a republic with a parliamentary system of government. The president is both the head of state and of government. An 18-member unicameral parliament is elected every three years. The parliament elects a president from its members, who appoints a cabinet of five to six members. Nauru does not have a formal structure for political parties; candidates typically stand as independents. 15 of the 18 members of the current parliament are independents, and alliances within the government are often formed on the basis of extended family ties. Three parties that have been active in Nauruan politics are the Democratic Party, Nauru First and the Centre Party. The fact that Nauru is a democracy makes Nauru a rare and atypical counterexample of the traditional theory of the rentier state, as the sale of Nauru's natural resource has not led to authoritarianism. Kirkpatrick, Andrew. "Democracy and the Resource-Rich State: Towards a Sequential Theory of Rentierism" Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Midwest Political Science Association, Palmer House Hilton, Chicago, Illinois, 20 April 2006. Nauru parliament Since 1992, local government has been the responsibility of the Nauru Island Council (NIC). The NIC has limited powers and functions as an advisor to the national government on local matters. The role of the NIC is to concentrate its efforts on local activities relevant to Nauruans. An elected member of the Nauru Island Council cannot simultaneously be a member of parliament. Ogden, M.R. Republic of Nauru URL Accessed 2006-05-02. Land tenure in Nauru is unusual: all Nauruans have certain rights to all land on the island, which is owned by individuals and family groups; government and corporate entities do not own land and must enter into a lease arrangement with the landowners to use land. Non-Nauruans cannot own lands. Nauru Department of Economic Development and Environment. 2003 First National Report To the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) URL Accessed 2006-05-03 Nauru has a complex legal system. The Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, is paramount on constitutional issues. Other cases can be appealed to the two-judge Appellate Court. Parliament cannot overturn court decisions, but Appellate Court rulings can be appealed to the High Court of Australia; Nauru (High Court Appeals) Act (Australia) 1976. Australian Legal Information Institute URL Accessed 2006-08-07 in practice, this rarely happens. Lower courts consist of the District Court and the Family Court, both of which are headed by a Resident Magistrate, who also is the Registrar of the Supreme Court. Finally, there also are two quasi-courts: the Public Service Appeal Board and the Police Appeal Board, both of which are presided over by the Chief Justice. State Department Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs September 2005 URL Accessed 2006-05-11 </small> Nauru has no armed forces; under an informal agreement, defence is the responsibility of Australia. There is a small police force under civilian control.</small> Districts Map of Nauru Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts which are grouped into eight electoral constituencies. The districts are: Aiwo Anabar Anetan Anibare Baiti Boe Buada Denigomodu Ewa Ijuw Meneng Nibok Uaboe Yaren Foreign relations Following independence in 1968, Nauru joined the Commonwealth as a Special Member, and became a full member in 2000. Republic of Nauru Permanent Mission to the United Nations URL Accessed 2006-05-10 </small> Nauru was admitted to the Asian Development Bank in 1991 and to the UN in 1999. It is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program, the South Pacific Commission, and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission. The US Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program operates a climate-monitoring facility on the island. Nauru and Australia have close diplomatic ties. In addition to informal defense arrangements, the September 2005 Memorandum of Understanding between the two countries provides Nauru with financial aid and technical assistance, including a Secretary of Finance to prepare Nauru's budget, and advisers on health and education. This aid is in return for Nauru's housing of asylum seekers while their applications for entry into Australia are processed. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Republic of Nauru Country Brief - November 2005 URL accessed on 2006-05-02. Nauru uses the Australian dollar as its official currency. Nauru has used its position as a member of the UN to gain financial support from both the Republic of China (ROC) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) by changing its position on the political status of Taiwan. During 2002, Nauru signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the PRC on 21 July. This move followed Premier Zhu Rongji's promise to provide more than US$60 million in aid. In response, the ROC severed diplomatic relations with Nauru two days later. Nauru later re-established links with the ROC on 14 May 2005, AAP. 14 May 2005. Taiwan Re-establishes Diplomatic Ties with Nauru URL Accessed 2006-05-05 and diplomatic ties with the PRC were officially severed on 31 May 2005; however, the PRC continues to maintain a diplomatic presence in the island nation. Geography Aiwo Nauru is a small, oval-shaped island in the western Pacific Ocean, 42 km (26 mi.) south of the Equator. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, exposed at low tide and dotted with pinnacles. The reef is bound seaward by deep water, and inside by a sandy beach. The presence of the reef has prevented the establishment of a seaport, although 16 artificial canals have been made in the reef to allow small boats to access the island. A 150–300 m (about 500–1000 ft.) wide fertile coastal strip lies landward from the beach. Coral cliffs surround the central plateau, which is known as Topside. The highest point of the plateau called the Command Ridge is 71 m above sea level. Republic of Nauru National Assessment Report The only fertile areas are the narrow coastal belt, where coconut palms flourish. The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas, pineapples; vegetable, pandanus trees and indigenous hardwoods such as the tomano tree are cultivated. The population of the island is concentrated in the coastal belt and around Buada Lagoon. An aerial image of Nauru in 2002 from the U.S. Department of Energy's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program. Regenerated vegetation covers 63% of land that was mined. Republic of Nauru. 1999. Climate Change Response Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change URL Accessed 2006-05-03 Nauru was one of three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean (the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia); however, the phosphate reserves are nearly depleted. Phosphate mining in the central plateau has left a barren terrain of jagged limestone pinnacles up to 15 m (49 ft) high. A century of mining has stripped and devastated 80% of the land area. Mining has also impacted the surrounding Exclusive Economic Zone with 40% of marine life considered to have been killed by silt and phosphate runoff. Republic of Nauru. 1999. Climate Change Response Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change URL accessed 2006-05-03. There are limited natural fresh water resources on Nauru. Roof storage tanks collect rainwater, but islanders are mostly dependent on a single, aging desalination plant. Nauru's climate is hot and extremely humid year-round, because of the proximity of the land to the equator and the ocean. The island is affected by monsoonal rains between November and February. Annual rainfall is highly variable and influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, with several recorded droughts. The temperature ranges between 26 and 35 °C (79 and 95 °F) during the day and between 25 and 28 °C (77 and 82 °F) at night. As an island nation, Nauru may be vulnerable to climate change and sea level change, but to what degree is difficult to predict; at least 80% of the land area of Nauru is well elevated, but this area will be uninhabitable until the phosphate mining rehabilitation program is implemented. Republic of Nauru. 1999. Climate Change Response Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change URL Accessed 2006-05-03 There are only 60 recorded vascular plant species native to the island, none of which are endemic. Coconut farming, mining and introduced species have caused serious disturbance to the native vegetation. Nauru Department of Economic Development and Environment. 2003. First National Report To the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) URL Accessed 2006-05-03 There are no native land mammals; there are native birds, including the endemic Nauru Reed Warbler, insects and land crabs. The Polynesian Rat, cats, dogs, pigs and chickens have been introduced to the island. Economy Limestone pinnacles remain after phosphate mining. Nauru's economy depends almost entirely on the declining phosphate deposits that originate from the droppings of sea birds; there are few other resources, and most necessities are imported. Big tasks for a small island URL Accessed 2006-05-10 </small> Small-scale mining is still conducted by the RONPhos, formerly known as the Nauru Phosphate Corporation. The government places a percentage of RONPhos' earnings in the Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust. The Trust manages long-term investments, intended to support the citizens once the phosphate reserves have been exhausted. However, a history of bad investments, financial mismanagement, overspending and corruption has reduced the Trust's fixed and current assets, many of them were in Melbourne and many never fully recovered. Some of the failed investments included financing 1993's disastrous Leonardo the Musical, the purchase of the vacant Carlton and United Breweries site on Swanston Street in 1994 which was sold undeveloped in 1998, a loan to the Fitzroy Football Club which went into liquidation in 1996, the Queen Victoria Village site which was repossessed in 1999. The Mercure Hotel in Sydney http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/07/08/1089000294157.html and Nauru House in Melbourne were sold in 2004 to finance debts and Air Nauru's only Boeing 737-400 which was repossessed in December 2005. Normal air service resumed after the aircraft was replaced with a Boeing 737-300 aircraft in June 2006. Receivers take over Nauru House. The Age URL Accessed 2006-05-09 Air Nauru flight Schedule URL Accessed 2006-05-02. The value of the Trust is estimated to have shrunk from A$1,300 million in 1991 to A$138 million in 2002. The vacant Savoy Tavern site, sold in 2005 for AUD$7.5milliion was the last property asset in Melbourne that the corporation sold. http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=15983 Nauru currently lacks money to perform many of the basic functions of government (the national Bank of Nauru is insolvent). GDP per capita has fallen to only US$2,038, from its peak in the early 1980s of second in the world, only after the United Arab Emirates. There are no personal taxes in Nauru. Unemployment is estimated to be 90%, and the government employs 95% of those Nauruans who work. "Paradise well and truly lost", The Economist, 20 December 2001 URL Accessed 2006-05-02. CIA World Fact Book URL Accessed 2006-05-02 The Asian Development Bank notes that although the administration has a strong public mandate to implement economic reforms, in the absence of an alternative to phosphate mining, the medium-term outlook is for continued dependence on external assistance. Asian Development Bank. 2005. Asian Development Outlook 2005 - Nauru URL Accessed 2006-05-02 The sale of deep-sea fishing rights may generate some revenue. Tourism is not a major contributor to the economy, because there are few facilities for tourists; the Menen Hotel and OD-N-Aiwo Hotel are the only hotels on the island. In the 1990s, Nauru became a tax haven and offered passports to foreign nationals for a fee. The inter-governmental Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) then identified Nauru as one of 15 "non-cooperative" countries in its fight against money laundering. During the 1990s, it was possible to establish a licensed bank in Nauru for $25,000, no questions asked. Under pressure from FATF, Nauru introduced anti-avoidance legislation in 2003, after which foreign hot money flew out of the country. In October 2005, thanks to this legislation and its effective enforcement, FATF lifted the non-cooperative designation. FATF. 13 October 2005. Nauru de-listed URL Accessed 2006-05-11 From 2001 to 2007, the Nauru detention centre provided a source of income for the small country. The Nauruan authorities reacted with concern to its closure by Australia. "Nauru fears gap when camps close", Jewel Topsfield, The Age, 11 December 2007 In February 2008, foreign affairs minister Dr. Kieren Keke stated that it would result in 100 Nauruans losing their jobs, and would affect 10% of the island's population directly or indirectly: "We have got a huge number of families that are suddenly going to be without any income. We are looking at ways we can try and provide some welfare assistance but our capacity to do that is very limited. Literally we have got a major unemployment crisis in front of us." "Nauru 'hit' by detention centre closure", The Age, 7 February 2008 Demographics Nauruan districts of Denigomodu and Nibok. The island had 9,265 residents at end of 2006, and 96% speak Nauruan at home. The population was previously higher but in 2006 some 1500 people left the island during a repatriation of immigrant workers from Kiribati and Tuvalu. The repatriation was motivated by wide-scale redundancies in the phosphate industry. The official language of Nauru is Nauruan, a distinct Pacific island language. English is widely spoken and is the language of government and commerce. The top ethnic groups of Nauru are Nauruan (58%), other Pacific Islander (26%), European (8%), and Chinese (8%). All Europeans are British, and most of them stepped away since its independence. The main religion practiced on the island is Christianity (two-thirds Protestant, one-third Roman Catholic). There is also a sizable Bahá'í population (10%) and a Buddhist population (3%). The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the government restricts this right in some circumstances, and has restricted the practice of religion by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and members of Jehovah's Witnesses, most of whom are foreign workers employed by RONPhos. US Department of State. 2003. International Religious Freedom Report 2003 - Nauru URL accessed 2005-05-02. Nauruan people Nauruans are among the most obese people in the world; 90% of adults have a higher BMI than the world average. Obesity in the Pacific: too big to ignore. 2002. Secretariat of the Pacific Community ISBN 982-203-925-5 Nauru has the world's highest level of type 2 diabetes, with more than 40% of the population affected. King, H. and Rewers M. 1993. Diabetes in adults is now a Third World problem. World Health Organization Ad Hoc Diabetes Reporting Group. Ethnicity & Disease 3:S67–74. Other significant diet-related problems on Nauru include renal failure and heart disease. Life expectancy in 2006 was 58.0 years for males and 65.0 years for females. WHO The world health report 2005. Nauru URL Accessed 2006-05-02 Literacy on the island is 96%, education is compulsory for children from 6 to 15 years old (school years 1–10), and two non-compulsory years are taught (years 11 and 12). Waqa, B. 1999. UNESCO Education for all Assessment Country report 1999 Country: Nauru URL Accessed 2006-05-02. There is a campus of the University of the South Pacific on the island; before the campus was built, students traveled to Australia for their university education. Culture The 1999 Australian rules football grand final, played at Linkbelt Oval Nauruans descended from Polynesian and Micronesian seafarers who believed in a female deity, Eijebong, and a spirit land, an island called Buitani. Two of the 12 original tribal groups became extinct in the 20th century. Angam Day, held on 26 October, celebrates the recovery of the Nauruan population after the two world wars, which together reduced the indigenous population to fewer than 1500. The displacement of the indigenous culture by colonial and contemporary, western influences is palpable. Few of the old customs have been preserved, but some forms of traditional music, arts and crafts, and fishing are still practiced. There is no daily news publication, but there are several weekly or fortnightly publications, including the Bulletin, the Central Star News and The Nauru Chronicle. There is a state-owned television station, Nauru Television (NTV) which broadcasts programmes from New Zealand, and there is a state-owned non-commercial radio station, Radio Nauru, which carries items from Radio Australia and the BBC. BBC News. Country Profile: Nauru. URL Accessed 2006-05-02. Australian rules football is the most popular sport in Nauru; there is an elite national league with seven teams. All games are played at the island's only stadium, Linkbelt Oval. Other sports popular in Nauru include softball, cricket, golf, sailing, tennis, rugby (union & league) and soccer. Nauru participates in the Commonwealth and Summer Olympic Games, where it has been successful in weightlifting; Marcus Stephen has been a prominent medallist, who was elected to parliament in 2003, and was elected president of Nauru in 2007. A traditional activity is catching noddy terns when they return from foraging at sea. At sunset, men stand on the beach ready to throw their lasso at the incoming birds. The Nauruan lasso is supple rope with a weight at the end. When a bird approaches, the lasso is thrown up, hits or drapes itself over the bird, and then falls to the ground. The captured noddies are cooked and eaten. Banaba/Ocean Island News. URL Accessed 2006-05-11. See also References This article incorporates public domain text from the websites of the United States Department of State & CIA World Factbook. External links Government Government of Nauru Chief of State and Cabinet Members Nauru, Permanent Mission to the United Nations General information Nauru from UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Discover Nauru The Official Nauru Tourism Website Our Airline - the former Air Nauru Our Airline Flight Schedule Other High resolution aerial views of Nauru on Google Maps Six Fivers Nauru country information on globalEDGE CenPac - The ISP of the Republic of Nauru Radio program "This American Life" featured a 30-minute story on Nauru Asian Development Bank Country Economic Report, Nauru, November, 2007 be-x-old:Науру | Nauru |@lemmatized nauru:130 officially:2 republic:15 formerly:2 know:5 pleasant:2 island:59 nation:14 micronesian:4 south:6 pacific:17 near:1 neighbour:1 banaba:3 kiribati:3 km:2 due:1 east:2 world:20 small:13 cover:2 sq:1 mi:2 independent:4 cia:3 fact:3 book:3 url:30 access:29 initially:1 inhabit:2 polynesian:4 people:9 annex:3 designate:1 colony:1 germany:5 late:4 century:3 war:11 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7,397 | British_English | British English, or UK English (BrE, BE, en-GB en-GB is the language code for British English , as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag). ), is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere. Peters, p 79. There is confusion whether the term refers to English as spoken in the British Isles or to English as spoken in Great Britain, The Oxford English Dictionary defines British English as "the English language as spoken or written in the British Isles; esp[ecially] the forms of English usual in Great Britain, as contrasted with those characteristic of the U.S.A. or other English-speaking countries." though in the case of Ireland, there are further distinctions peculiar to Hiberno-English. There are slight regional variations in formal written English in the United Kingdom (for example, although the words wee and little are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see wee written by someone from northern Britain or from Northern Ireland than by someone from Southern England or Wales). Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described as "British English". The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and a uniform concept of "British English" is therefore more difficult to apply to the spoken language. According to Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English (p. 45), "[f]or many people...especially in England [the phrase British English] is tautologous," and it shares "all the ambiguities and tensions in the word British, and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity". History English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion; The first was by language speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family; they conquered and colonised parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary. Dialects Dialects and accents vary between the four countries of the United Kingdom, and also within the countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Welsh English, Scottish English and the closely related dialects of the Scots language. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic. Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1950–1961), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to a team led by Sally Johnson, Professor of Linguistics and Phonetics at Leeds University, to study British regional dialects. Professor Sally Johnson biography on the Leeds University website Mapping the English language – from cockney to Orkney, Leeds University website, 25 May 2007. Johnson's team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC, in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout the country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio." Work by the team on this project is not expected to end before 2010. When covering the award of the grant on 1 June 2007, The Independent stated: Accent Regional The form of English most commonly associated with educated speakers in the southern counties of England is called the "Received Standard", and its accent is called Received Pronunciation (RP). It derives from a mixture of the Midland and Southern dialects which were spoken in London during the Middle Ages and is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. Although educated speakers from elsewhere within the UK may not speak with an RP accent it is now a class-dialect more than a local dialect. The best speakers of Standard English are those whose pronunciation, and language generally, least betray their locality. It may also be referred to as "the Queen's (or King's) English", "Public School English", or "BBC English" as this was originally the form of English used on radio and television, although a wider variety of accents can be heard these days. Only approximately two percent of Britons speak RP, Learning: Language & Literature: Sounds Familiar?: Case studies: Received Pronunciation British Library and it has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years. Even in the South East there are significantly different accents; the London Cockney accent is strikingly different from RP and its rhyming slang can be difficult for outsiders to understand. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. In London itself, the broad local accent is still changing, partly influenced by Caribbean speech. Communities migrating to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 100 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's school children. As a result, Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Since the mass immigration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and its close accent borders, it has become a source of various accent developments. There, nowadays, one finds an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a mixture of many different local accents, including East Midlands, East Anglian, Scottish, and Cockney. In addition, in the town of Corby, five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite, which unlike the Kettering accent, is largely based on Scottish. This is due to the influx of Scottish steelworkers. Outside the southeast there are, in England alone, other families of accents easily distinguished by natives, including: West Country (South West England) East Anglian West Midlands (Black Country, Birmingham) East Midlands Liverpool (Scouse) Manchester (Mancunian) and other east Lancashire accents Yorkshire Newcastle (Geordie) and other northeast England accents Although some of the stronger regional accents may sometimes be difficult for some anglophones from outside Britain to understand, almost all "British English" accents are mutually intelligible amongst the British themselves, with only occasional difficulty between very diverse accents. However, modern communications and mass media have reduced these differences significantly. In addition, most British people can to some degree temporarily 'swing' their accent (and particularly their vocabulary) towards a more neutral form of "standard" English at will, to reduce difficulty where very different accents are involved, or when speaking to foreigners. This phenomenon is known in linguistics as code shifting. Ethnicity Standardisation As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no equivalent body to the Académie française or the Real Academia Española, and the authoritative dictionaries (for example, Oxford English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Chambers Dictionary, Collins Dictionary) record usage rather than prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education within Britain. Largely, modern British spelling was standardised in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), although previous writers had also played a significant role in this and much has changed since 1755. Scotland, which underwent parliamentary union with England only in 1707 (and devolved in 1998), still has a few independent aspects of standardisation, especially within its autonomous legal system. Since the early 20th century, numerous books by British authors intended as guides to English grammar and usage have been published, a few of which have achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers. Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press, and others. The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart and were, at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules and, most recently (in 2002), as part of The Oxford Manual of Style. Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English, the Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English, to which writers can turn in the absence of any specific document issued by the publishing house that will publish their work. See also American and British English differences Australian English British Isles (terminology) Hiberno-English Irish Language Languages in the United Kingdom Regional accents of English Scots language Scottish English Ulster English Ulster Scots language References McArthur, Tom (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866248-3 hardback, ISBN 0-19-860771-7 paperback. Bragg, Melvyn (2004). The Adventure of English, London: Sceptre. ISBN 0-340-82993-1 Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62181-X. Simpson, John (ed.) (1989). Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Notes a. In British English collective nouns may be treated as either singular or plural, according to context. A example provided by Partridge is: " 'The committee of public safety is to consider the matter', but 'the committee of public safety quarrel as to who its next chairman should be' ...Thus...singular when...a unit is intended; plural when the idea of plurality is predominant." BBC television news and The Guardian style guide follow Partridge but other sources, such as BBC Online and The Times style guides, recommend a strict noun-verb agreement with the collective noun always governing the verb conjugated in the singular. BBC radio news, however, insists on the plural verb. Partridge, Eric (1947) Usage and Abusage: "Collective Nouns". Allen, John (2003) BBC News style guide, page 31. External links Sounds Familiar? Examples of regional accents and dialects across the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website Accents and dialects from the British Library Sound Archive Accents of English from Around the World Hear and compare how the same 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world - instantaneous playback online The Septic's Companion: A British Slang Dictionary an online dictionary of British slang, viewable alphabetically or by category | British_English |@lemmatized british:27 english:79 uk:4 bre:1 en:2 gb:2 language:30 code:3 define:1 iso:3 standard:7 see:4 alpha:1 internet:1 ietf:1 tag:1 broad:2 term:2 use:8 distinguish:2 form:8 united:6 kingdom:7 elsewhere:2 peter:2 p:2 confusion:1 whether:1 refers:1 spoken:6 isle:3 great:3 britain:7 oxford:13 dictionary:10 defines:1 write:5 esp:1 ecially:1 usual:1 contrast:1 characteristic:1 u:1 speaking:1 country:7 though:2 case:2 ireland:3 distinction:1 peculiar:1 hiberno:2 slight:1 regional:7 variation:1 formal:2 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7,398 | Bosnia_and_Herzegovina | Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Latin: Bosna i Hercegovina; Serbian Cyrillic: Босна и Херцеговина) is a country in southeastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula with an area of 51,129 square kilometres (19,741 sq mi). Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the south, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for 26 kilometres of Adriatic Sea coastline, centered on the town of Neum. Field Listing - Coastline, The World Factbook, 2006-08-22 Bosnia and Herzegovina: I: Introduction, Encarta, 2006 The interior of the country is mountainous in the center and south, hilly in the northwest, and flat in the northeast. Bosnia is the largest geographic region of the modern state with a moderate continental climate, marked by hot summers and cold, snowy winters. Smaller Herzegovina is at the southern tip of the country, with a Mediterranean climate and topography. Bosnia and Herzegovina's natural resources are highly abundant. The country is home to three ethnic "constituent peoples": Bosniaks, the most numerous population group of Bosnia, with Serbs in second and Croats in third. Regardless of ethnicity, a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the distinction between a Bosnian and a Herzegovinian is maintained as a regional, rather than an ethnic distinction. The country is politically decentralized and comprises two governing entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with District Brčko as a de facto third entity. Formerly one of the six federal units constituting the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independence during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. Bosnia and Herzegovina can be described as a federal democratic republic that is transforming its economy into a market-oriented system, and it is a potential candidate for membership in the European Union and NATO. Additionally, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the Council of Europe since April 24, 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment on July 13, 2008. History Pre-Slavic Period (until 958) Walls of ancient Daorson, Ošanići near Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3rd century BC. Bosnia has been inhabited at least since the Neolithic age. In the early Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyres or Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the fourth century BC and third century BC displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BC, but Rome would not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from all over the Roman empire settled among the Illyrians and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. Malcolm, Noel (1994). Bosnia A Short History. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-5520-8. The land originally was part of the Illyria up until the Roman occupation. Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire. Some claim that the region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and Huns. By the sixth century, Emperor Justinian had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Slavs, a people from eastern Europe (now territory of Ukraine), were conquered by the Avars in the sixth century. Medieval Bosnia (958–1463) The Stećci (singular: Stećak), are monumental medieval tombstones that lie scattered across the landscape of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure, which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late ninth century. It was also around this time that the south Slavs were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. The principalities of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the ninth and tenth century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early twelfth century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans. The first notable Bosnian monarch, Ban Kulin, presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with Dubrovnik and Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Serbian Orthodox churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. The Charter of Kulin Ban - treaty with Dubrovnik. Now in Ermitrage in Saint Petersburg, Russia Bosnian history from then until the early fourteenth century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stjepan II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on October 26, 1377 as Stefan Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside. Historians considered that he was crowned in the Serbian Orthodox Mileševa monastery. Another possibility, advanced by P. Anđelić and based on archeological evidence, is that he was crowned in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in time of Stephen II Kotromanić's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II. Anđelić Pavao, Krunidbena i grobna crkva bosanskih vladara u Milima (Arnautovićima) kod Visokog. Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja XXXIV/1979., Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1980,183-247 Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the fifteenth century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in 1463. Herzegovina would follow in 1482, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in 1527. Ottoman Era (1463–1878) The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Although the kingdom had been crushed and its high nobility executed, the Ottomans nonetheless allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Riedlmayer, Andras (1993). A Brief History of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Bosnian Manuscript Ingathering Project. Within this sandžak (and eventual vilayet) of Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. The Ottoman province of Bosnia in the seventeenth century. Mostar|Old city in Mostar Citadel and mosque over the old city of Počitelj, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to Islam), Imamović, Mustafa (1996). Historija Bošnjaka. Sarajevo: BZK Preporod. ISBN 9958-815-00-1 while a significant number of Sephardi Jews arrived following their expulsion from Spain in the late fifteenth century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree. The Orthodox community in Bosnia, initially confined to Herzegovina and Podrinje, spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the nineteenth century. Meanwhile, the schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether. As the Ottoman Empire thrived and expanded into Central Europe, Bosnia was relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a prolonged period of general welfare and prosperity. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into major regional centers of trade and urban culture. Within these cities, various Sultans and governors financed the construction of many important works of Bosnian architecture (such as the Stari most and Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque). Furthermore, numerous Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian soldiers formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, two decisive military victories, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military bureaucracy to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals, generals, and grand viziers. Many Bosnians also made a lasting impression on Ottoman culture, emerging as mystics, scholars, and celebrated poets in the Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages. However, by the late seventeenth century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The following hundred years were marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with great hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms. This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east, culminated in a famous (albeit ultimately unsuccessful) revolt by Husein Gradaščević in 1831. Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the treaty of Berlin in 1878. Austro-Hungarian Rule (1878–1918) "Distribution of Races in Austria–Hungary" from the Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911. Though an Austro-Hungarian side quickly came to an agreement with Bosniaks although tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Slavic dissidents occurred. Some think that it was a planned Austro-Hungarian takeover of the land called Herzegovina because many Croats from Croatia were settled there. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernisation. The Austro-Hungarian Empire built the three Roman Catholic churches in Sarajevo and these three churches are among the only 20 Catholic churches in the state of Bosnia. Although successful economically, Austro-Hungarian policy - which focused on advocating the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation (largely favored by the Muslims) - failed to curb the rising tides of nationalism. The concept of Croat and Serb nationhood had already spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholics and Orthodox communities from neighboring Croatia and Serbia in the mid nineteenth century, and was too well-entrenched to allow for the widespread acceptance of a parallel idea of Bosnian nationhood. By the latter half of the 1910s, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections. The idea of a unified South Slavic state (typically expected to be spear-headed by independent Serbia) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian government's decision to formally annex Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 (see Bosnian Crisis) added to a sense of urgency among these nationalists. Russia opposed this annexation. Eventually Russia recognised Austro-Hungary's sovereignty over Bosnia in return for Austria-Hungary's promise that it would recognise Russia's right to the Dardanelles Straits in the Ottoman Empire. Unlike Russia, Austro-Hungary did not keep their side of the bargain and did nothing to encourage Russia's recognition of the straights. M.Lynch, Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894-1924 (London, 2005), p63, ISBN 0-340-88589-0 The political tensions caused by all this culminated on June 28, 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo; an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. The First Yugoslavia (1918–1941) Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina.| Railway bridge on the Neretva river, repaired and twice-destroyed during the battle in spring of 1943. Following the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution, and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. Even though there were over three million Bosnians in Yugoslavia, outnumbering Slovenes and Montenegrins combined, Bosnian nationhood was denied by the new Kingdom. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček Agreement agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the signing of the Tripartite Treaty, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on April 6, 1941. World War II (1941–1945) Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia. The Nazi rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution of Jewish, Serbian and Gypsy civilians. The Jewish population was nearly exterminated and roughly at least 200,000 Serbs died as a result of genocide perpetrated by the Germans and Croatian Ustasha. Many Serbs in the area took up arms and joined the Partisans and Chetniks; a nationalist and royalist resistance movement that conducted guerrilla warfare against both the fascist Ustashe and the communist Partisans. Though initially fighting against the Nazis, the Chetnik leadership was instructed by the exiled king to fight instead the Partisans. The Chetniks received initial support from the UK and USA. Most Chetniks were Serbs and Montenegrins, although the army also included some Slovenes, Croats, and Muslims by nationality. Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On November 25, 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders. Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans, but Josip Broz Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting. Eventually the end of the war resulted in the establishment of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state. Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1992) Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor in the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 50s and 60s, the 70s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite fueled in part by Tito's leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and Bosniacs serving in Yugoslavia's diplomatic corps. While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina Stojic, Mile (2005). Branko Mikulic - socialist emperor manqué. BH Dani Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic hardly escaped the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. With the fall of communism and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence. The Bosnian War (1992–1995) The distribution of the three main ethnic groups in 1991 prior to the Bosnian War. The 1990 parliamentary elections led to a national assembly dominated by three ethnically-based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenia's subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats). The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 24, 1991, which marked the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990. This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on January 9, 1992, which became Republika Srpska in August 1992. On November 18, 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole," on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Croat Defence Council (HVO) as its military part. The Bosnian government did not recognize it. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal, first on September 14, 1992 and again on January 20, 1994. A declaration of Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia in February and March 1992 boycotted by the great majority of the Serbs. The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.7% and 92.7% voted for independence. The Balkans: A Post-Communist History (2007, New York: Routledge) Robert Bideleux & Ian Jeffries, p. 343 Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence shortly afterwards. Following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo on April 6. The parliament building in the centre of Sarajevo burns after being hit by tank fire during the siege in 1992. |The open-air mosque at the Srebrenica Genocide memorial Secret discussions between Franjo Tuđman and Slobodan Milošević on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia were held as early as March 1991 known as Karađorđevo agreement. Following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs attacked different parts of the country. The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory. The Serbs wanted all lands where Serbs had a majority, eastern and western Bosnia. The Croats and their leader Franjo Tuđman also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The policies of the Republic of Croatia and its leader Franjo Tuđman towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were never totally transparent and always included Franjo Tuđman’s ultimate aim of expanding Croatia’s borders. Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian government, were an easy target, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war. International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did. However, in fact, the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control. Initially, the Serb forces attacked the non-Serb civilian population in Eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: Bosniak houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down, Bosniak civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. 2.2 million refugees were displaced by the end of the war (of all three nationalities). Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps. The women were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions, where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women, take them out and rape them. In June 1992 the focus switched to Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted. On June 18, 1992 the Bosnian Territorial Defence in Novi Travnik received an ultimatum from the HVO which included demands to abolish existing Bosnia and Herzegovina institutions, establish the authority of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and pledge allegiance to it, subordinate the Territorial Defense to the HVO and expel Muslim refugees, all within 24 hours. The attack was launched on June 19. The elementary school and the Post Office were attacked and damaged. ICTY - Kordic and Cerkez judgment - II. PERSECUTION: THE HVO TAKE-OVERS B. Novi Travnik - Gornji Vakuf was initially attacked by Croats on June 20, 1992, but the attack failed. The Graz agreement caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group, which led to the conflict with Bosniaks. One of the primary pro-union Croat leaders, Blaž Kraljević (leader of the HOS armed group) was killed by HVO soldiers in August 1992, which severely weakened the moderate group who hoped to keep the Bosnian Croat alliance alive. Sarajevo, i poslije, Erich Rathfelder, München 1998 The situation became more serious in October 1992 when Croat forces attacked Bosniak civilian population in Prozor burning their homes and killing civilians. According to Jadranko Prlić indictment, HVO forces cleansed most of the Muslims from the town of Prozor and several surrounding villages. By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the predominantly Bosniak government in Sarajevo and the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska. Ethnic cleansing and civil rights violations against non-Serbs were rampant in these areas. DNA teams are still digging through the mass graves which were left as a result of the campaign. One single most prominent example is the Srebrenica Massacre, ruled genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. In March 1994, the signing of the Washington Accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which absorbed the territory of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and that held by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation soon conquered the small Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia. A NATO bombing campaign began in August, 1995, against the Army of Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. In December 1995, the signing of the Dayton Agreement in Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (Franjo Tuđman), and Serbia (Slobodan Milošević) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. The number of identified victims is currently at 97,207, and the recent research estimates the total number to be less than 110,000 killed (civilians and military), and 1.8 million displaced. This is being addressed by the International Commission on Missing Persons. According to numerous ICTY judgments the conflict involved Bosnia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later Serbia and Montenegro) as well as Croatia. The Bosnian government charged Serbia of complicity in genocide in Bosnia during the war at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling of February 26, 2007 effectively determined the war's nature to be international, though exonerating Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by Serb forces of Republika Srpska. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces and failed to punish those who carried out the genocide, especially general Ratko Mladić, and bring them to justice. The judges ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica or Eastern Bosnia in 1995. The court concluded that the crimes committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide. The Court further decided that, following Montenegro's declaration of independence in May 2006, Serbia was the only respondent party in the case, but that "any responsibility for past events involved at the relevant time the composite State of Serbia and Montenegro". Geography A satellite image of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Neum Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia (932 km) to the north and south-west, Serbia (302 km) to the east, and Montenegro (225 km) to the southeast. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic. The country has only 20 kilometers (12 mi) of coastline, around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although surrounded by Croatian peninsulas it is possible to get to the middle of the Adriatic from Neum. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by United Nations law, Bosnia has a right of passage to the outer sea. Neum has many hotels and is an important tourism destination. The country's name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country. The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Bijeljina and Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica and Doboj in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina. The south part of Bosnia has Mediterranean climate and a great deal of agriculture. Central Bosnia is the most mountainous part of Bosnia featuring predominate mountains Vlašić, Čvrsnica, and Prenj. Eastern Bosnia also features mountains like Trebević, Jahorina, Igman, Bjelašnica and Treskavica. It was here that the 1984 Winter Olympics were held. Eastern Bosnia is heavily forested along the river Drina, and overall close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Northern Bosnia contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The river Sava and corresponding Posavina river basin hold the cities of Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, Bosanski Brod and Bosanska Gradiška. Scenery in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton. The northwest part of Bosnia is called Bosanska Krajina and holds the cities of Banja Luka, Prijedor, Sanski Most, Cazin, Velika Kladuša and Bihać. Kozara National Park is in this forested region. There are seven major rivers in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Una river in the northwest part of Bosnia flows along the northern and western border of Bosnia and Croatia and through the Bosnian city of Bihać. It is a very beautiful river and popular for rafting and adventure sports. The Sana flows through the city of Sanski Most and Prijedor and is a tributary of the river Sava in the north. The Vrbas flows through the cities of Gornji Vakuf - Uskoplje, Bugojno, Jajce, Banja Luka, Srbac and reaches the river Sava in the north. The Vrbas flows through the central part of Bosnia and flows outwards to the North. The river Bosna is the longest river in Bosnia and is fully contained within the country as it stretches from its source near Sarajevo to the river Sava in the north. It gave its name to the country. The Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, at many places in the border between Bosnia and Serbia. The Drina flows through the cities of Foča, Goražde and Višegrad. The Neretva river is a large river in Central and Southern Bosnia, flowing from Jablanica south to the Adriatic Sea. The river is famous as it flows through the famous city of Mostar. The Sava river is the largest river in Bosnia and Herzegovina but not the largest river that is flowing through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Sava river flows through Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Sava is making a natural border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia and towns like Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, Bosanska Gradiška lies on the river. Phytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests. Government and politics Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), Republika Srpska (RS), and Brčko District (BD). Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring under the federal government level. Most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers some 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers around 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time, were formally established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 due to the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. Since 1996 the power of the entities relative to the federal government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The Brcko district in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. The Brčko district has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average. OHR Bulletin 66 (February 3, 1998). - Final hearing of the Arbitration Tribunal in Vienna. OHR. The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision is manifested in cantons. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them. All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent peoples. The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the municipalities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided in 74 municipalities, and Republika Srpska in 63. Municipalities also have their own local government, and are typically based around the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the Inter-Entity Boundary Line. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities. Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four "official" cities. These are: Banja Luka, Mostar, Sarajevo, and East Sarajevo. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska). As a result of the Dayton Accords, the civilian peace implementation is supervised by the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina selected by the Peace Implementation Council. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials. More recently, several central institutions have been established (such as defense ministry, security ministry, state court, indirect taxation service etc.) in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state. The Bosnian Parliament building after reconstruction. The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country's three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power. The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected as the Chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb). The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate. The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation,two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the Presidency. However, the highest political authority in the country is the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief executive officer for the international civilian presence in the country. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials. The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic. International supervision is to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining. Foreign relations EU integration is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina, it initiated the Stabilisation and Association Process in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions, Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession. The implementation of the Dayton Accords of 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the former Yugoslavia. Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995. Demographics Estimated ethnic map of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2006. Bosnia is home to three ethnic "constituent peoples": Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high and often provoke political disagreements. A Y-chromosome haplogroups study published in 2005 found that "three main groups of Bosnia-Herzegovina, in spite of some quantitative differences, share a large fraction of the same ancient gene pool distinctive for the Balkan area". According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,033. Ethnically, 1,902,956 (43%) were Bosniak, 1,366,104 (31%) Serbs, and 760,852 (17%) Croats, with 242,682 (6%) Yugoslavs. The remaining 2% of the population - numbering 104,439 - consisted of various other ethnicities. According to 2000 data from the CIA World Factbook, Bosnia's largest ethnic groups are Bosniaks (48%), Serbs (37%) and Croats (14%). There is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Muslims constitute 45% of the population, Serb Orthodox 36%, Roman Catholics 15%, and other groups, including Jews and Protestants, 4%. Large population migrations during the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the country. No census has been taken since 1991, and political disagreements have made it impossible to organize one. Nevertheless, a census has been planed for the year 2011. Since censuses are the only statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze demographics, almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate. Most sources, however, estimate the population to be about four million, representing a decrease of 350,000 since 1991. Economy Bosnia faces the dual problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing market reforms to its formerly centrally-planned economy. One legacy of the previous era is a greatly overstaffed military industry; under former leader Josip Broz Tito, military industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants but fewer commercially viable firms. Momo and Uzeir towers in Sarajevo For the most of Bosnia's history, agriculture has been based on small and inefficient privately-owned farms; food has traditionally been a net import for the republic. The war in the 1990s caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy. Daclon, Corrado Maria (1997). Bosnia. Maggioli. Italy GDP fell 75% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy. While much of the production capacity has been restored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia's shrinking national debt being positive trends, but high unemployment and a large trade deficit remain cause for concern. The national currency is the Euro-pegged Convertible Mark (BAM), controlled by a currency board. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1.9% in 2004. The international debt was $3.1 billion (2005 est) - the smallest amount of debt owed of all the former Yugoslav republics. Real GDP growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the highest income equality rankings in the world, ranking eighth out of 193 nations. Overall value of foreign direct investment (1999-2008): 1999: €166 million 2000: €159 million 2001: €133 million 2002: €282 million 2003: €338 million 2004: €534 million 2005: €421 million 2006: €556 million 2007: €1.628 billion 2008: €1.083 billion From 1994 to 2008, €5.3 billion were invested in the country. The top investor countries (1994 - 2007): Austria (€1.294 billion) Serbia (€773 million) Croatia (€434 million) Slovenia (€427 million) Switzerland (€337 million) Germany (€270 million) Italy (€94.29 million) Netherlands (€63.52 million) United Arab Emirates (€56.70 million) Turkey (€54.81 million) All Other Countries (€892.54 million) Foreign investments by sector for (1994-2007): 37.7% Manufacturing 21% Banking 4.9% Services 9.6% Trade 0.30% Transport 1% Tourism Infrastructure The Bosnian communications market was completely liberalised in January 2006. Three fixed-line incumbent operators offer services although each offers services predominantly in a particular region of the country. After years of stagnant growth, Internet penetration is on the rise, with broadband services such as cable and ADSL experiencing a surge in popularity. Mobile services are offered by three network operators, which unlike their fixed-line counterparts, offer services on a national level. Mobile data services are available, including high-speed EDGE services. This report offers a concise overview of Bosnia’s telecom sector, covering the regulatory environment, major players and market developments, while offering a wealth of performance and financial statistics. Tourism The waterfall in Jajce According to an estimation of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020. Bosnia's newfound tourism, Reuters. Lonely Planet, in ranking the best cities in the world, ranked Sarajevo, the national capital and host of the 1984 Winter Olympic Games, as #43, ahead of Dubrovnik at #59, Ljubljana at #84, Bled at #90, Belgrade at #113, and Zagreb at #135. Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing and Ecotourism destination. Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the last undiscovered regions of the southern Alps. Vast tracks of wild and untouched nature make it an ideal holiday destination for adventurers and nature lovers alike. The central Dinaric Alps are a hikers and walkers paradise. Enchanted by both Mediterranean and Alpine climates, the range of diverse landscapes will stun and amaze you. Whitewater rafting has become practically a national pastime with three adrenaline pumping rivers: Una in the Northwest, Neretva in Herzegovina and the deepest river canyon in Europe – the unforgettable Tara River near Sutjeska National Park. Tourist Attractions Some of the tourist attractions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include: Sarajevo "Olympic City" a Science, Space City. Banja Luka, the "Green City". Bihać and the Una River. Doboj and its 13th century fortress. Jajce and its waterfall. Mostar, the site of Stari Most. Shrine of Međugorje, the site of a famous Marian apparition. Mount Bjelašnica and Jahorina, sites of the XIV Olympic Winter Games. Neum on the coast. Stolac, the Begovina neighborhood and Radimlja tombstones. Višegrad, the site of the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge. Visoko, site of the alleged Bosnian pyramids. Tešanj, one of the oldest cities in Bosnia with its old town. Tuzla, Salt city, the city of Love Education Primary education lasts for nine years. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools where studies last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element of vocational training. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the Matura and can enroll in any faculty or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain a Diploma. Culture Architecture The architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely influenced by 4 major periods where political and social changes influenced the creation of distinct cultural and architectural habits of the population. Each period made its influence felt and contributed to a greater diversity of cultures and architectural language in this region. Literature Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich literature, including poets such as Antun Branko Šimić, Aleksa Šantić, Jovan Dučić and Mak Dizdar and writers such as Ivo Andrić, Meša Selimović, Branko Ćopić, Miljenko Jergović, Isak Samokovlija, Abdulah Sidran, Petar Kočić and Nedžad Ibrišimović. The National Theater was founded 1919 in Sarajevo and its first director was famous drama-play writer Branislav Nušić. Magazines such as Novi Plamen, Most and Sarajevske biljeznice are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural and literary themes. Visual Arts The visual arts in Bosnia and Herzegovina were always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones (stecak) to paintings in Kotromanić court. However, only with the arrival of Austro-Hungarians did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from Europeean academies appeared with the beginning of 20th century. Among those are: Gabrijel Jurkić, Petar Tiješić, Karlo Mijić, Špiro Bocarić, Petar Šain, Đoko Mazalić, Roman Petrović i Lazar Drljača. Later such artists such as: Ismet Mujezinović, Vojo Dimitrijević, Ivo Šeremet, Mica Todorović and others came to rise. After World War II artists like: Virgilije Nevjestić, Bekir Misirlić, Ljubo Lah, Meha Sefić, Franjo Likar, Mersad Berber, Ibrahim Ljubović, Dževad Hozo, Affan Ramić, Safet Zec, Ismar Mujezinović, Mehmed Zaimović rose in popularity. Ars Aevi a museum of contemporary art that includes works by renowned world artists was founded in Sarajevo. Music Vedran Smailović, the cellist of Sarajevo. Traditional Bosnian and Herzogovinian songs are ganga, rera, and from Ottoman era the most popular is sevdalinka. Pop and Rock music has a tradition here as well, with the more famous musicians including Goran Bregović, Davorin Popović, Kemal Monteno, Zdravko Čolić, Johnny Štulić, Edo Maajka, Dino Merlin and Tomo Miličević. Also, it would be unfair not to mention some of the talented composers such as Đorđe Novković, Esad Arnautalić, Kornelije Kovač, and many pop and rock bands, e.g. Bijelo Dugme, Indexi, Zabranjeno Pušenje, who were among the leading ones in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia is home to the composer Dušan Šestić, the creator of the current national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina and father of singer Marija Šestić, and pianist Sasha Toperich. Due to it being one of the few countries to air the 2008 Eurovision Dance Contest, it is thought that Bosnia and Herzegovina will be one of the countries taking part in the first competition held outside of the UK in 2010. Cinema Notable Bosnian film-makers are Mirza Idrizović, Aleksandar Jevđević, Ivica Matić, Danis Tanović (known for the Academy Award- and Golden Globe-winning No Man's Land), Ademir Kenović, Benjamin Filipović, Jasmin Dizdar, Pjer Žalica, Jasmila Žbanić, Dino Mustafić, Srđan Vuletić, among many others. The Sarajevo Film Festival, founded in 1994, has become the biggest and most influential of its kind in Southeast Europe. Sports Vučko, the official mascot of the 1984 Winter Olympics held in Sarajevo. The most important international sporting event in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the hosting of the 14th Winter Olympics, held in Sarajevo from the 7th to February 19, 1984. Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many athletes. Many of them were famous in the Yugoslav national teams before Bosnia and Herzegovina's independence. Some notable local Olympians were: Rome, 1960: Tomislav Knez and Velimir Sombolac (football), Tokio, 1964: Mirsad Fazlagic (football), Munich, 1972: Abaz Arslanagić, Milorad Karalić, Nebojša Popović, Đorđe Lavrinić, Dobrivoje Seleć (handball) Moscow, 1980: Mirza Delibašić and Ratko Radovanović (basketball) Los Angeles, 1984: Zdravko Rađenović, Zlatan Arnautović (handball) and Anto Josipović (boxing). The Borac handball club has won seven Yugoslav National Championships, as well as the European Championship Cup in 1976 and the International Handball Federation Cup in 1991. The Bosna basketball club from Sarajevo were European Champions in 1979. The Yugoslav national basketball team, which medaled in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, included Bosnian players such as Dražen Dalipagić and Mirza Delibašić. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the European Championship in Basketball. Jedinstvo Women's basketball club, based in Tuzla, has won the 1979 European Championships in Florence. The Tuzla-Sinalco karate club from Tuzla has won the most Yugoslav championships, as well as four European Championships and one World Championship. The Bosnian chess team has been Champion of Yugoslavia seven times, in addition to winning four European championships: 1994 in Lyon, 1999 in Bugojno, 2000 in Neum, and 2001 in Kalitea. Borki Predojević (from Teslić) chess club has also won two European Championships: Litohoreu (Greece) in 1999, and Kalitei (Greece) in 2001. Middle-weight boxer Marjan Beneš has won several B&H Championships, Yugoslavian Championships and the European Championship. In 1978 he won the World Title against Elish Obeda from Bahamas. Another middle-weight boxer, Ante Josipović won the Olympic Gold in Los Angeles, 1984. He also won Yugoslavian Championship in 1982, the Championship of the Balkans in 1983, and the Beograd Trophy in 1985. Association football is the most popular sport in B&H. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after the World War II. At local level, Sarajevo (1967 and 1984), Željezničar (1972) have both won the Yugoslavian Championship. The former Yugoslav national football team has included a number of Bosnian players, such as Josip Katalinski, Dušan Bajević, Miroslav – Ćiro Blažević, Ivica Osim, Safet Sušić, and Mirsad Fazlagić. In football, the independent Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team has not qualified for a European or World Championship. Bosnian national teams have struggled to draft the best national players. Many players born in Bosnia and Herzegovina choose to play for other countries due to their ethnic identification and because of higher salaries offered by other teams. For example Mario Stanić and Mile Mitić were both born in Bosnia, but play for Croatia and Serbia respectively. Other internationally famous players from Bosnia and Herzegovina, who have made similar choices, are: Zoran Savić, Vladimir Radmanović, Zoran Planinić, Aleksandar Nikolić, Savo Milošević, Darijo Srna, Vedran Ćorluka. Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of volleyball at the 2004 Summer Paralympics. Many among those on the team lost their legs in the Bosnian War. Cuisine Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, but usually in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are cooked in lots of water; the sauces are fully natural, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, garlic, peppers, cucumbers, carrots, cabbage, mushrooms, spinach, zucchini, dried beans, fresh beans, plums, milk, paprika and cream called Pavlaka. Bosnian cuisine is balanced between Western and Eastern influences. As a result of the Ottoman administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to Turkish, Greek, and other former Ottoman and Mediterranean cuisines. In Bosnia another very popular dish is called "slakia barinesh". This dish is mostly served in popular ceremonies like weddings. "Slakia barinesh" is made from the buttocks of a lamb. The dish is made with many sweets like pilaf. Other versions of this dish are made with fruits like plums or grapes. However, due to years of Austrian rule, there are many influences from Central Europe. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef and lamb. Some local specialties are ćevapi, burek, dolma, sarma, pilaf, goulash, ajvar and a whole range of Eastern sweets. The best local wines come from Herzegovina where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinian loza (similar to Italian Grappa but less sweet) is very popular. Plum (sljiva/rakija) or apple (jabukovaca (jabuka = apple)) is produced in Bosnia. Herzegovinian distilleries used to produce vast quantities of brandy and supply all of ex Yugoslavian alcohol factories (brandy is the base of most alcoholic drinks). See also List of settlements in Bosnia and Herzegovina Oriental Institute in Sarajevo Gallery References Further reading Phillips, Douglas A. Bosnia and Herzegovina. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2004. ISBN 0-7910-7911-2 External links Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Chief of State and Cabinet Members Global Integrity Report: BiH has details of anti-corruption efforts Bosnia and Herzegovina from UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Босьнія і Герцагавіна | Bosnia_and_Herzegovina |@lemmatized bosnia:182 herzegovina:115 bosnian:51 croatian:12 serbian:7 latin:2 bosna:3 hercegovina:1 cyrillic:1 босна:1 и:1 херцеговина:1 country:43 southeastern:1 europe:8 balkan:8 peninsula:3 area:11 square:1 kilometre:2 sq:1 mi:2 border:9 croatia:22 north:8 west:4 south:12 serbia:21 east:5 montenegro:6 almost:3 landlocked:1 except:1 adriatic:5 sea:3 coastline:3 center:4 town:5 neum:7 field:2 list:2 world:17 factbook:2 introduction:1 encarta:1 interior:1 mountainous:3 hilly:1 northwest:5 flat:1 northeast:2 large:13 geographic:4 region:19 modern:2 state:21 moderate:3 continental:1 climate:6 mark:8 hot:1 summer:2 cold:1 snowy:1 winter:6 small:4 southern:3 tip:1 mediterranean:6 topography:1 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7,399 | AmeriKKKa's_Most_Wanted | AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted is rapper Ice Cube's influential Ice Cube biography. enotes. Accessed December 5, 2007. debut solo album, released after his acrimonious split from his former group N.W.A. It was originally released on May 16, 1990. Primarily produced by The Bomb Squad (Public Enemy's production team), the album was an unexpectedly large critical and commercial AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted certification. RIAA. Accessed November 28, 2007. success, and remains one of the defining hip hop albums of the 1990s. Background Conception After departing from Ruthless Records and the west coast-based group N.W.A., Ice Cube immediately moved to record his own album. Linking up with Sir Jinx, the cousin of N.W.A. producer Dr. Dre, Cube made use of pre-written notebooks comprised of songs meant for N.W.A. member/Ruthless co-founder Eazy-E . After relocating to New York they worked on the songs, which included "Once Upon a Time in the Projects," "Get Off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here" and "Gangsta's Fairytale," among others. After contacting Public Enemy's production team The Bomb Squad, they completed the album. The album received a fair share of production credited to various Bomb Squad members, with an appearance by Public Enemy frontman Chuck D, despite Jinx's claims that the only Bomb Squad member fully present was Eric Sadler. Hank Shocklee spoke on meeting and working with Ice Cube in a Cooleh Magazine interview: Content Ice Cube's social, and political commentary, delivered in an incisive manner, has influenced numerous rappers since Amerikka's Most Wanted, particularly in the gangsta rap and political rap subgenres. Focusing on the hardships of life in South Central, Los Angeles, as well as criticizing the American Justice System and race relations in the United States, Cube became an outspoken voice of U.S. social customs tipped against young Black Americans. Under fire from his former group with the diss song "100 Miles and Runnin'," from the EP of the same name, he also recorded the song "Jackin' For Beats," using beats allegedly meant for the next N.W.A. album , which he released on the Kill at Will EP. With socio-political conscious and gangsta rap content, its songs delve into the issues of ghetto life, drug addiction, racism and poverty. Throughout the album, Ice Cube incessantly attacks institutions for perceived or actual racist tendencies, as well as social norms which directly or indirectly allowed the oppression of those living in the ghettos of Los Angeles to continue. On "Endangered Species (Tales from the Darkside)," he predicts that his neighborhood would become a flash point for violence before 1992's scandal over the beating of Rodney King ." and takes police to task for the policies that would later lead to the L.A. riots that resulted. Throughout the album, Cube takes some controversial stands, referring to certain types of African-Americans as "oreo cookies", an epithet implying that they appear black on the outside, but have, internally, negative white tendencies. Arsenio Hall is specifically mentioned as being a "sell-out." Cube also heavily criticizes R&B and hip hop radio stations for watered-down broadcasting. The title song directly parodies the television show, America's Most Wanted, alleging bias and glee the program displays in arresting Afro-American men. A later song, "Get Off My Dick, and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here," returns to the same theme at the end, with newscaster Tom Brokaw reporting on rioting: "Outside the south central area, few cared about the violence because it didn't affect them." He also addressed gender relations on "It's a Man's World", a duet between Cube and female rapper Yo-Yo. Cube and Yo-Yo verbally spar and trade sexist barbs back and forth in an expose of sexism between men and women. Amidst critics' accusing Ice Cube of sexism, Peter Watrous of the The New York Times wrote, in review of a live show at New York's Apollo Theater: Nevertheless, critics focused on the song "You Can't Fade Me," in which Cube fantasizes about kicking a pregnant former one-night stand in the stomach in order to cause a miscarriage, and avoid having to pay child support. Album Title The title of the album is an allusion to a television show America's Most Wanted, wherein real-life crimes are reenacted and viewers are asked to call in with any information about the alleged perpetrators. The show has taken criticism for its reenactments. They are believed to perpetuate stereotypes regarding the criminality of African-American men and other minorities, such as Latinos. The intentional misspelling of "America" with three K's equates the show and status quo society with the Ku Klux Klan. Reception AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted initially charted without the support of a lead single or video, although the title song would later receive a pressing, and a rare video for "Who's the Mack?" did eventually surface. Regardless, the album shipped 500,000 copies in its first week out, and was certified Platinum two months later. AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted received The Source's 'five mics' award, out of five, a rating reserved for very few albums at the time. It was the second album to be given the award, and up until Outkast's Aquemini in 1998, one of only ten albums to be approved for five mics by The Source. In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Source's 100 Best Rap Albums. In 2005, comedian Chris Rock ranked it 17th on his list of the Top 25 Hip-Hop Albums ever. Chris Rock top hip hop albums. rateyourmusic. Accessed December 3, 2007. Single The title track was the first official single from the album. The song contains samples from "Humpin'" by the Bar-Kays, "There It Is" by James Brown, "Let the Music Take Your Mind" by Kool and the Gang and "Advice" by Sly and the Family Stone. The B-side for the song was "Once Upon a Time in the Projects". Impact Produced largely by the Bomb Squad during the height of Public Enemy's success, West Coast rap has largely taken a separate direction from the sound present on AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted, despite its initial success. The scene has instead adopted the glossy beats and smooth drawls popularized by Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. Although Ice Cube's popularity among mainstream listeners has lessened since the 2000s, and his sound may be considered distinctively old school to modern ears, many rappers themselves have been influenced by his innovative lyrical techniques. His style of rapping about real life sentiment and socio-political awareness influenced the music of West Coast rappers, including that of Tupac, Ras Kass, and Xzibit, as well as East Coast rappers Nas, The Notorious B.I.G., and more recently, Saigon and Southern rapper Young Jeezy. While Ice Cube's early albums often described true circumstances in outlandish fashion, for example using fairytale characters to tell a violent and tragic story in "A Gangsta's Fairytale", later rappers would take this to the extreme, often describing physically impossible acts of violence in an outrageously exaggerated manner. East Coast rapper Redman also covered "Once Upon a Time in the Projects" on his album Doc's Da Name 2000, with the song "Jersey Yo!." Track listing #SongWritersPerformersTimeSamples1"Better off Dead"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeBrian HoltIce Cube1:032"The Nigga Ya Love to Hate"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeIce Cube3:13"Weak at the Knees" by Steve Arrington "Atomic Dog" by George Clinton "A Bitch Iz A Bitch" by N.W.A "Gangsta Gangsta" by N.W.A3"AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeIce Cube4:08"Humpin'" by the Bar-Kays "There It Is" by James Brown "Let the Music Take Your Mind" by Kool and the Gang "Advice" by Sly and the Family Stone4"What They Hittin' Foe"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeIce Cube and Average White Band1:22"The Jugglers" by the Average White Band "Sister Sanctified" by Stanley Turrentine5"You Can't Fade Me/JD's Gaffilin"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeIce Cube5:12"Pneumonia" by Kool and the Gang "Rumpofsteelskin" by Parliament6"Once Upon a Time in the Projects"O. JacksonTony WheatonIce Cube3:41"Shoo-B-Doop and Cop Him" by Betty Davis7"Turn off the Radio"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeIce Cube2:37Piece of My Love" by Guy "Rated X" by Kool and the Gang Dialogue from Do the Right Thing "House of Beauty" by Isaac Hayes8"Endangered Species (Tales from the Darkside)"O. JacksonC. RidenhourE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeT. WheatonIce Cube and Chuck D3:21"Standing on the Verge of Getting It On" by Funkadelic "Funky Drummer" by James Brown "Get Off" by Prince "Fuck tha Police" by N.W.A.9"A Gangsta's Fairytale"O. JacksonE. SadlerT. WheatonIce Cube3:16"Parrty" by Maceo & the Macks "Nursery Rhymes" by Andrew Dice Clay10"I'm Only out for One Thang"Flavor FlavO. JacksonT. WheatonIce Cube and Flavor Flav2:1011"Get off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeT. WheatonIce Cube0:5612"The Drive-By"K. ShockleeT. Wheaton1:01"Bust a Move" by Young MC13"Rollin' wit' the Lench Mob"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeIce Cube3:43"Aquaboogie (A Psychoalphadiscobetabioaquadoloop)" by Parliament14"Who's the Mack?"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeT. WheatonV. HenryT. RollinsIce Cube4:35"I Wanna Get Down" by the J.B.'s "T Stands for Trouble" by Marvin Gaye "The Humpty Dance" by Digital Underground "Impeach the President" by the Honey Drippers "Sing a Simple Song" by Sly and the Family Stone15"It's a Man's World"O. JacksonE. SadlerH. ShockleeK. ShockleeY. WhittakerIce Cube and Yo-Yo5:26"It's a Man's, Man's, Man's World" by James Brown "Crumbs Off the Table" by Laura Lee "Brother Green (The Disco King)" by Roy Ayers "Lyin' Ass Bitch" by Fishbone16"The Bomb"O. JacksonT. WheatonIce Cube3:25"Assembly Line" by The Commodores "UFO" by E.S.G. "Funk to the Folks" by Soul Searchers "More Bounce to the Ounce" by Zapp "(You Gotta) Fight For Your Right (To Party)" by The Beastie Boys Note: In the 2003 re-release the album included all the songs from his EP also released in 1990, Kill at Will. Charts Album Charts (1990) allmusic ((( AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted > Charts & Awards > Billboard Albums ))). Allmusic. Accessed May 24 2008. PeakpositionU.S. Billboard 20019U.S. Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums6 Singles YearSinglePeak chart positionsU.S. Hot 100U.S. R&BU.S. Rap1990"AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted"——1 Personnel The Bomb Squad - Record producer Mario Castellanos - Photography Chris Champion - Assistant engineer Chuck D. - Performer Da Lench Mob - Vocals (bckgr), producer (Ex) Cat Heads - Vocals (bckgr) Flavor Flav - Vocals, performer Ricky Harris - Vocals (bckgr) Al Hayes - Bass Guitar, guitar Vincent Henry - Flute, saxophone Brian Holt - Vocals Kevin Hosmann - Art direction Ice Cube - Vocals, producer Jay Dee - Vocals (bckgr) Tim Rollins - Piano Eric Sadler - Producer Nick Sansano - Engineer Shannon - Vocals (bckgr) Christopher Shaw - Engineer Keith Shocklee - Scratching Sir Jinx- Vocals (bckgr), producer Howie Weinberg - Mastering Dan Wood - Vocals (bckgr), Engineer Yo-Yo - Vocals, performer References | AmeriKKKa's_Most_Wanted |@lemmatized amerikkka:8 wanted:7 rapper:9 ice:10 cube:21 influential:1 biography:1 enotes:1 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